Deuteronom 30
1 ,,Când se vor întâmpla toate aceste lucruri, binecuvântarea şi blestemul pe cari le pun înaintea ta, dacă le vei pune la inimă în mijlocul tuturor neamurilor între cari te va risipi Domnul, Dumnezeul tău,
2 dacă te vei întoarce la Domnul, Dumnezeul tău, şi dacă vei asculta de glasul Lui din toată inima ta şi din tot sufletul tău, tu şi copiii tăi, potrivit cu tot ce-ţi poruncesc azi,
3 atunci Domnul, Dumnezeul tău, va aduce înapoi robii tăi şi va avea milă de tine, te va strânge iarăş din mijlocul tuturor popoarelor la cari te va împrăştia Domnul, Dumnezeul tău.
4 Chiar dacă ai fi risipit până la cealaltă margine a cerului, chiar şi de acolo te va strânge Domnul, Dumnezeul tău, şi acolo Se va duce să te caute.
5 Domnul, Dumnezeul tău, te va aduce în ţara pe care o stăpâneau părinţii tăi, şi o vei stăpâni; îţi va face bine, şi te va înmulţi mai mult decât pe părinţii tăi.
6 Domnul, Dumnezeul tău, îţi va tăia împrejur inima ta şi inima seminţei tale, şi vei iubi pe Domnul Dumnezeul tău, din toată inima ta şi din tot sufletul tău, ca să trăieşti.
7 Domnul, Dumnezeul tău, va face ca toate aceste blestemuri să cadă peste vrăjmaşii tăi, peste cei ce te vor urî şi te vor prigoni.
8 Şi tu, te vei întoarce la Domnul, vei asculta de glasul Lui, şi vei împlini toate aceste porunci pe cari ţi le dau astăzi.
9 Domnul, Dumnezeul tău, te va umplea de bunătăţi, făcând să propăşească tot lucrul mânilor tale, rodul trupului tău, rodul turmelor tale şi rodul pământului tău; căci Domnul se va bucura din nou de fericirea ta, cum se bucura de fericirea părinţilor tăi,
10 dacă vei asculta de glasul Domnului, Dumnezeului tău, păzind poruncile şi rânduielile Lui scrise în cartea aceasta a legii, dacă te vei întoarce la Domnul, Dumnezeul tău, din toată inima ta şi din tot sufletul tău.
11 Porunca aceasta pe care ţi-o dau eu azi, nu este mai pesus de puterile tale, nici departe de tine.
12 Nu este în cer, ca să zici: ,,Cine se va sui pentru noi în cer şi să ne-o aducă, pentru ca s-o auzim şi s-o împlinim?``
13 Nu este nici dincolo de mare, ca să zici: ,,Cine va trece pentru noi dincolo de mare şi să ne-o aducă, pentru ca s-o auzim şi s-o împlinim?``
14 Dimpotrivă, este foarte aproape de tine, în gura ta şi în inima ta, ca s-o împlineşti.
15 Iată, îţi pun azi înainte viaţa şi binele, moartea şi răul.
16 Căci îţi poruncesc azi să iubeşti pe Domnul, Dumnezeul tău, să umbli pe căile Lui, şi să păzeşti poruncile Lui, legile Lui şi rânduielile Lui, ca să trăieşti şi să te înmulţeşti, şi ca Domnul, Dumnezeul tău să te binecuvinteze în ţara pe care o vei lua în stăpânire.
17 Dar dacă inima ta se va abate, dacă nu vei asculta, şi te vei lăsa amăgit să te închini înaintea altor dumnezei şi să le slujeşti,
18 vă spun astăzi că veţi peri, şi nu veţi avea zile multe în ţara pe care o veţi lua în stăpânire, după ce veţi trece Iordanul.
19 Iau azi cerul şi pământul martori împotriva voastră că ţi-am pus înainte viaţa şi moartea, binecuvântarea şi blestemul. Alege viaţa, ca să trăieşti, tu şi sămânţa ta,
20 iubind pe Domnul, Dumnezeul tău, ascultând de glasul Lui, şi lipindu-te de El: căci de aceasta atârnă viaţa ta şi lungimea zilelor tale, şi numai aşa vei putea locui în ţara pe care a jurat Domnul că o va da părinţilor tăi, lui Avraam, Isaac şi Iacov``.
{"verseMap":{"1":[{"id":3604,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Banishment Banish","title_en":"Banishment Banish","content_ro":"<h3>BANISH, BANISHMENT<\/h3>\n<p>Exclusion of a person from a country or group as a form of punishment.<\/p>\n<p>“Banishment” or a similar word is used in the Bible to describe God’s judgment on Adam and Eve (Gn 3:23-24) and on Cain (4:9-14), Absalom’s exile from his father David (2 Sm 13:37-39; 14:13-14), and Israel’s exile from the Promised Land (Dt 30:1; Is 11:12; Jer 16:15; Ez 4:13). During the exile, it was included in a list of punishments for those who disobeyed God or the Persian king Artaxerxes (Ezr 7:26).<\/p>\n<p>The Mosaic law specified that an Israelite should be “cut off” from the people of God for various offenses, such as failure to circumcise a male child (Gn 17:12, 14), eating leavened bread during Passover (Ex 12:15), making an unholy animal sacrifice (Lv 17:1-4), eating blood (v 10), sinning deliberately (Nm 15:30-31), or failing to undergo ceremonial cleansing after contact with a dead body (19:11-20). The term “cut off” probably meant exclusion from the social and religious life of the community (cf. Jn 9:18-23, 34). After the exile, when the whole nation of Israel had been “banished,” disinheritance and permanent excommunication from God’s people were made official punishments (Ezr 10:7-8). The Romans, like other conquerors before them, practiced deportation in various forms. Controversy among the Jews led to the banishment of Jews from Rome under Emperor Claudius (Acts 18:2). The author of Revelation was banished to the island of Patmos during Roman persecution (Rv 1:9). More severe forms of banishment included permanent exclusion from an area, loss of citizenship, and confiscation of all goods and property.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Diaspora of the Jews.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BANISH, BANISHMENT<\/h3>\n<p>Exclusion of a person from a country or group as a form of punishment.<\/p>\n<p>“Banishment” or a similar word is used in the Bible to describe God’s judgment on Adam and Eve (Gn 3:23-24) and on Cain (4:9-14), Absalom’s exile from his father David (2 Sm 13:37-39; 14:13-14), and Israel’s exile from the Promised Land (Dt 30:1; Is 11:12; Jer 16:15; Ez 4:13). During the exile, it was included in a list of punishments for those who disobeyed God or the Persian king Artaxerxes (Ezr 7:26).<\/p>\n<p>The Mosaic law specified that an Israelite should be “cut off” from the people of God for various offenses, such as failure to circumcise a male child (Gn 17:12, 14), eating leavened bread during Passover (Ex 12:15), making an unholy animal sacrifice (Lv 17:1-4), eating blood (v 10), sinning deliberately (Nm 15:30-31), or failing to undergo ceremonial cleansing after contact with a dead body (19:11-20). The term “cut off” probably meant exclusion from the social and religious life of the community (cf. Jn 9:18-23, 34). After the exile, when the whole nation of Israel had been “banished,” disinheritance and permanent excommunication from God’s people were made official punishments (Ezr 10:7-8). The Romans, like other conquerors before them, practiced deportation in various forms. Controversy among the Jews led to the banishment of Jews from Rome under Emperor Claudius (Acts 18:2). The author of Revelation was banished to the island of Patmos during Roman persecution (Rv 1:9). More severe forms of banishment included permanent exclusion from an area, loss of citizenship, and confiscation of all goods and property.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Diaspora of the Jews.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BANISH, BANISHMENT Exclusion of a person from a country or group as a form of punishment. “Banishment” or a similar word is used in the Bible to describe God’s judgment on Adam and Eve (Gn 3:23-24) and on Cain (4:9-14), Absalom’s exile from his father David (2 Sm 13:37-39; 14:13-14), and Israel’s exile from the Promised Land (Dt 30:1; Is 11:12; Jer 16:15; Ez 4:13). During the exile, it was included in a list of punishments for those who disobeyed God or the Persian king Artaxerxes (Ezr 7:26)....","summary_en":"BANISH, BANISHMENT Exclusion of a person from a country or group as a form of punishment. “Banishment” or a similar word is used in the Bible to describe God’s judgment on Adam and Eve (Gn 3:23-24) and on Cain (4:9-14), Absalom’s exile from his father David (2 Sm 13:37-39; 14:13-14), and Israel’s exile from the Promised Land (Dt 30:1; Is 11:12; Jer 16:15; Ez 4:13). During the exile, it was included in a list of punishments for those who disobeyed God or the Persian king Artaxerxes (Ezr 7:26)....","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":9490,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Deuteronomy","title_en":"Book of Deuteronomy","content_ro":"<h3>DEUTERONOMY, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Fifth book of the OT, and last of the Pentateuch (the five books of the Law). In it Moses restated to the people of Israel various laws and precepts of the covenant that God had revealed to them at Mt Sinai. Thus, the book has become known in Greek and Latin tradition as Deuteronomy (“second law”). That name has led some to misinterpret the significance of its contents as secondary. The book makes an important contribution to God’s unfolding revelation of his purpose for the nation of Israel. Moses’ reminders of the wilderness wanderings and the Ten Commandments, plus his instructions for life in the Promised Land, are a vital part of the OT covenant literature.<\/p>\n\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Date and Authorship<\/p>\n<p>• Historical Setting<\/p>\n<p>• Significance of Deuteronomy<\/p>\n<p>• Deuteronomy and the Law<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateandAuthorship\">Date and Authorship<\/p>\n<p>Two basic views (with variations) on the date and authorship of Deuteronomy are advocated by modern biblical scholars. Those who consider Moses the author date the book in the 14th or 13th century <span>BC<\/span>. Others believe that it was composed by an unknown author in the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>, when Josiah was king in the southern kingdom of Judah.<\/p>\n<h5>The Case for a Seventh-Century Date<\/h5>\n<p>As early as 1805, W. M. L. de Wette advocated that Deuteronomy was used by Josiah in his seventh-century reforms, and that it was written shortly before that. Biblical critic Julius Wellhausen adopted that view, which has been advocated by many scholars ever since S. R. Driver publicized it in his <em>Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament<\/em> (1891). According to that view, the book was written late but ascribed to Moses.<\/p>\n<p>Many modern scholars, such as Gerhard von Rad and G. E. Wright, regard Moses as the founder of Israel’s faith. They argue that whatever in Deuteronomy is from Moses was transmitted orally until about the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>. Denying that Moses actually wrote Deuteronomy, they attribute its present form to numerous writers and editors over an extended period of centuries.<\/p>\n<h5>The Case for Mosaic Authorship<\/h5>\n<p>In recent decades, studies of Hittite suzerainty treaties from the second millennium <span>BC<\/span> have yielded interesting comparisons between those treaty forms and the books of Exodus and Deuteronomy. In 1954 G. Mendenhall suggested that the form of the covenant at Mt Sinai was the same literary form used by Hittites in treaties with Syrian vassal states during the 14th and 13th centuries <span>BC<\/span>. In 1960 M. G. Kline applied that idea to the book of Deuteronomy, seeing it as a renewal of the Sinaitic covenant and outlining its structure as a literary unit reflecting the pattern of Hittite covenant forms.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Deuteronomy does contain certain parallels to Hittite vassal treaties. As a renewal treaty it appeals to the covenant of God with Israel at Mt Sinai, recorded in the book of Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>1. The “preamble” in ancient Hittite treaties usually identified the suzerain or ruler. In Deuteronomy 1:1-5 (Ex 20:1) Moses as the speaker represents God, the King of Israel. As his death approaches, Moses makes an appeal for the renewal of the covenant.<\/p>\n<li>2. In the “historical prologue” the suzerain usually cited the benefits he had bestowed on his vassal. In Deuteronomy 1:6–4:49 (Ex 20:2) Moses declares what God has done for Israel since his revelation at Mt Sinai. Moses reminds the people of Israel of God’s faithfulness even when they had been unfaithful.<\/li>\n<li>3. The “stipulations” were usually stated by the suzerain in the treaty’s third division. In Deuteronomy 5–26 Moses outlines the stipulations for Israel in their covenant relationship to God. The basic requirement in Deuteronomy 5–11 (Ex 20:3-17) is exclusive, wholehearted love for God. In the following chapters, Deuteronomy 12–26, the basic principle of exclusive love for God is applied to specific areas of culticceremonial consecration (Dt 12:1–16:17), judicial justice in government (16:18–21:23), the sanctity of God’s order (chs 22–25), and public acknowledgment of God as their Redeemer and King (ch 26).<\/li>\n<li>4. “Covenant ratification” usually contained a provision for treaty renewal and a formula for curses and blessings. In Deuteronomy 27 provision is made for Joshua to conclude the renewal of the covenant after the Israelites occupy the land. In addition, the divine threat and promise are expressed in blessings and curses as Israel swears its oath of allegiance on the plains of Moab.<\/li>\n<li>5. “Succession arrangements” were usually the concluding part of suzerainty-vassal treaties. In chapters 31–34 Joshua is designated as Moses’ successor. The written text is deposited in the sanctuary with the song of witness and a testamentary blessing by Moses. The book of Deuteronomy thus constitutes the documentary witness of God’s covenant as it concludes with the death of Moses.<\/li>\n<p>The fact that the literary structure of Deuteronomy parallels the legal forms characteristic of ancient Hittite treaties supports the traditional viewpoint that Moses is the author of Deuteronomy. When Moses is recognized as the mediator between God and Israel in the Sinaitic covenant, it is significant that the book of Deuteronomy represents Moses’ renewal of the covenant in the literary form current in the culture of his day.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoricalSetting\">Historical Setting<\/p>\n<p>Moses led the Israelites from Egypt through the wilderness to the plains of Moab east of the Dead Sea. Exodus 1–19 gives an account of the enslavement of the Israelites in Egypt, the birth and preparation of Moses, his contest with the pharaoh, the miraculous deliverance out of Egypt, and the journey to Mt Sinai (probably also known as Mt Horeb).<\/p>\n<p>In that desert area God’s great revelation came to Israel through Moses (Ex 20–40; Lv 1–27; Nm 1–9). At Mt Sinai, God identified himself as the one who had delivered the Israelites. There he established an agreement by which they would be exclusively devoted to him as his holy nation. There the tabernacle was built and the priesthood established. Instructions were given for making sacrifices and offerings, and for observing feasts and seasons, so that Israel’s pattern of living would show that they were God’s holy people. The tribes were also organized for encampment around the tabernacle and for the march to Canaan, the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<p>Numbers 10–21 is an account of the 38 years the Israelites spent in the wilderness. In 11 days they marched from Mt Horeb to Kadesh-barnea, about 40 miles (64 kilometers) south of Beersheba. From there 12 spies were sent into Canaan. Their report produced a crisis in the form of a revolt against God. Subsequently, Israel wandered in the wilderness for 38 years, during which those who had been at least 20 years old when they left Egypt died. The new generation moved to the plains of Moab, located east of the Dead Sea and north of the Arnon River. Numbers 20–36 tells of the conquest and occupation of the land east of the Jordan River.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Deuteronomy presents Moses’ address to the new generation of Israelites. In Exodus and Numbers God frequently speaks to Moses; in Deuteronomy, Moses is speaking at God’s command to the Israelites (Dt 1:1-4; 5:1; 29:1). In contrast to the preceding books, Deuteronomy has a style of exhortation in which Moses admonishes the new generation about their responsibility in view of the preceding generation’s failures. Whatever repetition occurs in Deuteronomy is carefully selected, with the specific purpose of warning the new generation so that they will not fail to conquer and occupy Canaan. Deuteronomy is not primarily retrospective; its outlook is optimistic about the future, offering hope for fulfilling the promises God made to the Israelites in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SignificanceofDeuteronomy\">Significance of Deuteronomy<\/p>\n<p>Deuteronomy (with Genesis, Psalms, and Isaiah) is among the most frequently quoted books in the early Christian centuries. More than 80 OT quotations in the NT come from Deuteronomy.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus focused attention on Deuteronomy when he summarized the essence of the entire OT Law and Prophets in the two great commandments of love for God and neighbor (Mt 22:37; see Dt 6:5; 10:19). Jesus also quoted Deuteronomy (6:13, 16; 8:3) in his temptation experience (Mt 4:4-10). Deuteronomy unfolds the essence of what God revealed to Moses at Mt Sinai. In Deuteronomy, Moses shares with the Israelites the core of God’s revelation without repeating details of sacrifices, observances, or rituals. He expounds the character of Israel’s faith and nationhood. Moses repeatedly emphasizes his concern that they faithfully maintain a good relationship with God. An exclusive devotion to God expressed in everyday life is the key to a lifetime of blessing.<\/p>\n<p>The primary need of love toward God and neighbor eventually became a basic requirement for the followers of Jesus Christ (Lk 10:25-28). The book of Deuteronomy is thus crucially important to the Christian concern to maintain a vital relationship with God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DeuteronomyandtheLaw\">Deuteronomy and the Law<\/p>\n<p>To designate the book of Deuteronomy as a “second law” or a repetition of the law is misleading. Moses’ emphasis is not legalistic. Details of worship and ritual are not repeated or delineated to any great extent. Although the Ten Commandments are repeated, emphasis is placed on the first commandment, explicitly requiring exclusive devotion to God. Moses is primarily concerned with Israel’s relationship with God and their determination to maintain it in their own and their children’s lives.<\/p>\n<p>The NT reveals that a legalistic interpretation of the Mosaic revelation was held by the Jews of the first century <span>AD<\/span>. Such legalism developed in Judaism especially during the intertestamental era. The Judaistic legalism of NT times has in modern times been ascribed wrongly to Moses. Moses did warn of the necessity of keeping all of God’s law (Dt 28:1, 58), but in Deuteronomy his message as a whole makes it clear that he was not exclusively concerned about legalistic observance. Rather, the central theme of Deuteronomy is the unique relationship that had been established by a unique God with a unique people, the Israelites.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Brief Historical Review (1:1–4:43)<\/h5>\n<p>Moses is identified as the speaker, addressing the Israelites on the plains of Moab during the last year of his life. The Israelites were on the verge of entering the Promised Land of Canaan.<\/p>\n<p>Moses began with a reference to Mt Sinai, scene of the greatest revelation in OT times. He focused attention on God’s explicit command for them to move up to Canaan and occupy the land promised to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Their rebellion brought divine judgment, so the conquest of Canaan had been delayed 38 years while an entire disobedient generation died in the wilderness.<\/p>\n<p>Instructed by God not to molest the Edomites or Moabites, Moses had led the Israelites to the Moab plains north of the Arnon River. The Israelites defeated Sihon, the Amorite king of Heshbon, and Og, king of Bashan. The tribes of Reuben and Gad and half the tribe of Manasseh appropriated the territory east of the Jordan River as their land (Nm 32). On the basis of that conquest, Moses encouraged Joshua to believe that God would aid him and the Israelites in the conquest of the land of Canaan west of the Jordan River.<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites should learn from the mistakes of the generation that died in the wilderness (Dt 4:1-40). They should consider the fact that the word of God had been spoken to them. The revelation that had come to them through Moses was unique, and the most important thing was for them to revere the God who had revealed himself. The uniqueness of Israel’s God among the nations that worship idols should never be forgotten.<\/p>\n<p>Moses reminded the Israelites that they had entered into a contractual agreement with their unique God. That covenant was mentioned 26 more times by Moses. No nation had ever experienced anything like it. If Israel obeyed, they would enjoy God’s blessing and favor.<\/p>\n<h5>Exhortations and Applications (4:44–26:19)<\/h5>\n<p>The circumstances in which Moses addressed the Israelites are reported in a short transitional passage (Dt 4:44-49). From the slopes of Mt Pisgah (or Nebo), with Israel encamped in the valley opposite Beth-peor, Moses made his appeal to the people before they crossed the Jordan River.<\/p>\n<p>Moses’ exposition of the “great commandment” is centered in the agreement made between God and Israel. He repeated the Ten Commandments as the essence of God’s revelation at Sinai. As Moses explained what God expected of Israel, he elaborated the first commandment: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span> your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage” (5:6, <span>rsv<\/span>). Their relationship with God was of basic importance, since God’s wrath will be against those who worship other gods (v 9).<\/p>\n<p>Love is the key word in the relationship between God and Israel. Moses boldly asserted, “Hear, O Israel! The <span>Lord<\/span> is our God, the <span>Lord<\/span> alone. And you must love the <span>Lord<\/span> your God with all your heart, all your soul, and all your strength” (Dt 6:4-5, <span>nlt<\/span>). All other commandments are significant because they bear on that relationship (as spelled out in chs 5–11).<\/p>\n<p>Exclusive love and devotion to God are essential. In a relationship of wholehearted love, no idols can be recognized or tolerated. Yet Moses wanted Israel to convey its consciousness of God to future generations by many external things: signs on their hands, frontlets (or “phylacteries”) on their foreheads, Scripture verses on their doorposts, and so on. By precept and example they should convey to their children that they love God (Dt 6).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites should never forget that God had chosen them to be his people (Dt 7). They were to execute God’s judgment on the Canaanites, who had been spared judgment since Abraham’s time (Gn 15:16). Although the Israelites themselves did not merit God’s love, in love and mercy he had redeemed them out of Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>Moses appealed to the people to remember what God had done for them (Dt 8). To God’s sustaining provisions they should respond with thankfulness, recognizing that the power to achieve anything they had done had been God’s gift.<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites had repeatedly failed in their faith and commitment to God (9:1–10:11). Through Moses’ intercession they had been spared. It was for no merit of their own that they would enter Canaan; that was God’s gracious provision for them. Moses’ appeal for a wholehearted commitment is summarized in Deuteronomy 10:12–11:32. It is necessary to display reverence, respect, love, and obedience to God (see also 6:5, 13, 24).<\/p>\n<p>The God whom the Israelites must love sincerely and without reservation is the Lord of the cosmos. He is the righteous judge who rules supreme over all nature and history. God loved their forefathers, the patriarchs. He redeemed the Israelites from Egyptian enslavement and gave them his covenant. He manifested himself in helping the orphans, widows, and strangers. He multiplied Israel to be as numerous as the stars of the heavens.<\/p>\n<p>Moses gave two basic instructions to apply in daily life to maintain their relationship with God as a reality: “circumcise therefore the foreskin of your heart” (Dt 10:16, <span>rsv<\/span>). He did not refer to physical circumcision, a sign of the covenant between God and Abraham (Gn 17). Circumcision, which was not observed during the years of wilderness wanderings, was reinstituted under Joshua after the Israelites crossed the Jordan River (Jos 5:2-9). Moses referred to “spiritual circumcision” (see Lv 26:40-41; Jer 4:4; 9:25; Rom 2:29). All things that might restrict, interfere with, or negate total devotion to God were to be cut away (circumcised) so that the Israelites would continue to love God with all their heart.<\/p>\n<p>“Love the foreigner” (Dt 10:19) ranks second in importance to wholehearted love for God. Love for the stranger or neighbor is basic to all other human obligations (see Lv 19:9-18). Social obligations issue out of a person’s relationship with God. Being recipients of God’s love, the Israelites were to love others. They were to remember God’s love for them when they were slaves and strangers in Egypt. God loves the stranger, the widow, and the orphan; therefore, if anyone loves God, he or she is under obligation to love other people. God is concerned about justice and righteousness; a person who professes to love God must be concerned about just treatment for other people.<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites were to be known for their concern for people whose social position exposed them to exploitation and oppression. The profound humanitarian spirit of the Mosaic law stands in unique contrast to the Babylonian Code of Hammurabi and the Assyrian and Hittite law codes of that day. In those codes human relationships reflected no vital consciousness of a love relationship with deity.<\/p>\n<p>In the first century <span>AD<\/span> Jesus Christ came into conflict with Jewish religious leaders who had lost the essence of God’s law in a maze of legalism. For Jesus, the greatest commandment was to love God; the second was to love one’s neighbor. Those two commandments (which constitute the essence of the entire OT revelation) would, if kept perfectly, provide the basis for eternal life (Mt 22:37-39; Mk 12:29-31; Lk 10:27-28). Christians believe that the climax of God’s revelation of love came in Jesus Christ. For them, responding to God’s love means to accept Jesus Christ in wholehearted devotion and to love one’s neighbor as Jesus exemplified in his life.<\/p>\n<p>In Deuteronomy 12:1–26:19, Moses gave instruction in practical living for a God-related people when they resided in the land God had promised to them. Having once survived on manna supplied directly by God, in Canaan they would enjoy the fruit and produce of the land. They would also encounter a culture permeated by Canaanite religion.<\/p>\n<p>In worshiping God in their new setting, they were cautioned to maintain due sanctity (Dt 12:1–14:21). They were not to worship at pagan shrines. They should bring their offerings to divinely appointed places for fellowship and rejoicing together in the Lord’s presence. Idolatry was not to be tolerated in any form. Any prophet who deviated from the law of Moses in advising the worship of other gods should be stoned. Exclusive devotion to God was to be daily practice.<\/p>\n<p>Canaan’s abundant blessings should be shared with neighbors (14:22–15:23). Tithes should be brought to the central sanctuary where Levites assisted the priests in religious ministration. Joy in sharing life’s blessings and opportunities was to characterize Israel’s pattern of living.<\/p>\n<p>Moses prescribed three annual pilgrimages (16:1-17). The people should remember their deliverance out of Egypt by observing the feasts of Passover and Unleavened Bread. Seven weeks later, when the barley harvest was completed, they should spend time rejoicing before the Lord in a one-day festival called the Feast of Weeks. When the vintage as well as the grain harvest was completed, they were to observe the Feast of Ingathering (or Booths), a time of thanksgiving and sharing with others. Every seven years the law was read at the Feast of Ingathering.<\/p>\n<p>In human relations justice was to prevail among the Israelites (16:18–21:23). The Book of the Law kept at the main sanctuary was their divine authority, providing God’s instructions for them. The king was to have a copy of this law and govern his life in accordance with it. Prophets and priests played an important role as religious leaders in the life of Israel. Judicial authority was vested in the priests. In contrast to the brutality of other nations, humanitarian principles were to prevail in Israel’s warfare. Fathers were responsible for their own family households.<\/p>\n<p>In domestic and social relationships, the law of love was to prevail (22:1–26:19). Many regulations governed family life. In matters of sustenance, wages, and business dealings, the Israelites were admonished to be compassionate and just. Promises and warnings raised their consciousness about using the resources of land and animals entrusted to them so that their stewardship would please God.<\/p>\n<p>In Deuteronomy 26, Moses instructed the Israelites in two liturgical confessions and a reaffirmation of the covenant. By acknowledging that God was the giver of all they had, and by confessing before God that they shared his gifts with others, they confirmed their covenant with God.<\/p>\n<h5>Alternatives: Blessings or Curses (27:1–30:20)<\/h5>\n<p>Moses set before the Israelites the alternatives of blessings or curses. Under Joshua they were to renew the covenant publicly. At Mt Ebal stones were to be erected for inscribing the law and an altar constructed for offering sacrifice. The curses were to be read from Mt Ebal and the blessings from Mt Gerizim. Conditional self-curses were read regarding offenses against God and other human beings (Dt 27:15-26). Thus they acknowledged their accountability to God. Though their sins might be hidden from people, it was God to whom they were primarily and ultimately accountable. Blessings as a way of life and curses as a way of death were clearly set before the Israelites (ch 28). Setting them in the perspective of history, Moses appealed to the new generation to take advantage of their present opportunity (ch 29). Warning that, should they fail to love God, they would ultimately be subjected to dispersion, Moses admonished them to choose the way of life and good rather than the way of death and evil (ch 30).<\/p>\n<h5>Transition: from Moses to Joshua (31:1–34:12)<\/h5>\n<p>When the life and ministry of Moses were nearing completion, and transfer of leadership was near (Dt 31:1–34:12), Joshua had already been designated by God as Israel’s new leader. Moses assured the Israelites that God would be the same with Joshua in charge. The revelation given through Moses had been put in writing and now was committed to the priests, the custodians of the Book of the Law. Joshua, who had already distinguished himself in responsible leadership, was publicly confirmed at the door of the tabernacle (31:1-29).<\/p>\n<p>The “Song of Moses” is the covenant’s document of witness (32:1-47). In it Moses spoke with prophetic understanding as he recounted Israel’s past experience. Reiterating the consequences of their attitude toward God, he assured the people of restoration if they failed again. He encouraged them to fix their hearts on what God had revealed to them and to impress it on their children. Keeping the covenant by maintaining a wholehearted love for God would be important for all future generations as well as for those then listening to Moses.<\/p>\n<p>After some final, brief instructions (32:48-52), Moses pronounced his blessings on the Israelites, whom he had led for 40 years (33:1-29). In his final blessing, also called the “Testament of Moses,” the greatness of God and his special relationship with Israel are delineated. Israel is unique among all the nations of the world.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Deuteronomy appropriately ends with an account of the death of Moses, the greatest prophet in OT times (34:1-12).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Moses.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DEUTERONOMY, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Fifth book of the OT, and last of the Pentateuch (the five books of the Law). In it Moses restated to the people of Israel various laws and precepts of the covenant that God had revealed to them at Mt Sinai. Thus, the book has become known in Greek and Latin tradition as Deuteronomy (“second law”). That name has led some to misinterpret the significance of its contents as secondary. The book makes an important contribution to God’s unfolding revelation of his purpose for the nation of Israel. Moses’ reminders of the wilderness wanderings and the Ten Commandments, plus his instructions for life in the Promised Land, are a vital part of the OT covenant literature.<\/p>\n\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Date and Authorship<\/p>\n<p>• Historical Setting<\/p>\n<p>• Significance of Deuteronomy<\/p>\n<p>• Deuteronomy and the Law<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateandAuthorship\">Date and Authorship<\/p>\n<p>Two basic views (with variations) on the date and authorship of Deuteronomy are advocated by modern biblical scholars. Those who consider Moses the author date the book in the 14th or 13th century <span>BC<\/span>. Others believe that it was composed by an unknown author in the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>, when Josiah was king in the southern kingdom of Judah.<\/p>\n<h5>The Case for a Seventh-Century Date<\/h5>\n<p>As early as 1805, W. M. L. de Wette advocated that Deuteronomy was used by Josiah in his seventh-century reforms, and that it was written shortly before that. Biblical critic Julius Wellhausen adopted that view, which has been advocated by many scholars ever since S. R. Driver publicized it in his <em>Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament<\/em> (1891). According to that view, the book was written late but ascribed to Moses.<\/p>\n<p>Many modern scholars, such as Gerhard von Rad and G. E. Wright, regard Moses as the founder of Israel’s faith. They argue that whatever in Deuteronomy is from Moses was transmitted orally until about the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>. Denying that Moses actually wrote Deuteronomy, they attribute its present form to numerous writers and editors over an extended period of centuries.<\/p>\n<h5>The Case for Mosaic Authorship<\/h5>\n<p>In recent decades, studies of Hittite suzerainty treaties from the second millennium <span>BC<\/span> have yielded interesting comparisons between those treaty forms and the books of Exodus and Deuteronomy. In 1954 G. Mendenhall suggested that the form of the covenant at Mt Sinai was the same literary form used by Hittites in treaties with Syrian vassal states during the 14th and 13th centuries <span>BC<\/span>. In 1960 M. G. Kline applied that idea to the book of Deuteronomy, seeing it as a renewal of the Sinaitic covenant and outlining its structure as a literary unit reflecting the pattern of Hittite covenant forms.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Deuteronomy does contain certain parallels to Hittite vassal treaties. As a renewal treaty it appeals to the covenant of God with Israel at Mt Sinai, recorded in the book of Exodus.<\/p>\n<p>1. The “preamble” in ancient Hittite treaties usually identified the suzerain or ruler. In Deuteronomy 1:1-5 (Ex 20:1) Moses as the speaker represents God, the King of Israel. As his death approaches, Moses makes an appeal for the renewal of the covenant.<\/p>\n<li>2. In the “historical prologue” the suzerain usually cited the benefits he had bestowed on his vassal. In Deuteronomy 1:6–4:49 (Ex 20:2) Moses declares what God has done for Israel since his revelation at Mt Sinai. Moses reminds the people of Israel of God’s faithfulness even when they had been unfaithful.<\/li>\n<li>3. The “stipulations” were usually stated by the suzerain in the treaty’s third division. In Deuteronomy 5–26 Moses outlines the stipulations for Israel in their covenant relationship to God. The basic requirement in Deuteronomy 5–11 (Ex 20:3-17) is exclusive, wholehearted love for God. In the following chapters, Deuteronomy 12–26, the basic principle of exclusive love for God is applied to specific areas of culticceremonial consecration (Dt 12:1–16:17), judicial justice in government (16:18–21:23), the sanctity of God’s order (chs 22–25), and public acknowledgment of God as their Redeemer and King (ch 26).<\/li>\n<li>4. “Covenant ratification” usually contained a provision for treaty renewal and a formula for curses and blessings. In Deuteronomy 27 provision is made for Joshua to conclude the renewal of the covenant after the Israelites occupy the land. In addition, the divine threat and promise are expressed in blessings and curses as Israel swears its oath of allegiance on the plains of Moab.<\/li>\n<li>5. “Succession arrangements” were usually the concluding part of suzerainty-vassal treaties. In chapters 31–34 Joshua is designated as Moses’ successor. The written text is deposited in the sanctuary with the song of witness and a testamentary blessing by Moses. The book of Deuteronomy thus constitutes the documentary witness of God’s covenant as it concludes with the death of Moses.<\/li>\n<p>The fact that the literary structure of Deuteronomy parallels the legal forms characteristic of ancient Hittite treaties supports the traditional viewpoint that Moses is the author of Deuteronomy. When Moses is recognized as the mediator between God and Israel in the Sinaitic covenant, it is significant that the book of Deuteronomy represents Moses’ renewal of the covenant in the literary form current in the culture of his day.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoricalSetting\">Historical Setting<\/p>\n<p>Moses led the Israelites from Egypt through the wilderness to the plains of Moab east of the Dead Sea. Exodus 1–19 gives an account of the enslavement of the Israelites in Egypt, the birth and preparation of Moses, his contest with the pharaoh, the miraculous deliverance out of Egypt, and the journey to Mt Sinai (probably also known as Mt Horeb).<\/p>\n<p>In that desert area God’s great revelation came to Israel through Moses (Ex 20–40; Lv 1–27; Nm 1–9). At Mt Sinai, God identified himself as the one who had delivered the Israelites. There he established an agreement by which they would be exclusively devoted to him as his holy nation. There the tabernacle was built and the priesthood established. Instructions were given for making sacrifices and offerings, and for observing feasts and seasons, so that Israel’s pattern of living would show that they were God’s holy people. The tribes were also organized for encampment around the tabernacle and for the march to Canaan, the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<p>Numbers 10–21 is an account of the 38 years the Israelites spent in the wilderness. In 11 days they marched from Mt Horeb to Kadesh-barnea, about 40 miles (64 kilometers) south of Beersheba. From there 12 spies were sent into Canaan. Their report produced a crisis in the form of a revolt against God. Subsequently, Israel wandered in the wilderness for 38 years, during which those who had been at least 20 years old when they left Egypt died. The new generation moved to the plains of Moab, located east of the Dead Sea and north of the Arnon River. Numbers 20–36 tells of the conquest and occupation of the land east of the Jordan River.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Deuteronomy presents Moses’ address to the new generation of Israelites. In Exodus and Numbers God frequently speaks to Moses; in Deuteronomy, Moses is speaking at God’s command to the Israelites (Dt 1:1-4; 5:1; 29:1). In contrast to the preceding books, Deuteronomy has a style of exhortation in which Moses admonishes the new generation about their responsibility in view of the preceding generation’s failures. Whatever repetition occurs in Deuteronomy is carefully selected, with the specific purpose of warning the new generation so that they will not fail to conquer and occupy Canaan. Deuteronomy is not primarily retrospective; its outlook is optimistic about the future, offering hope for fulfilling the promises God made to the Israelites in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SignificanceofDeuteronomy\">Significance of Deuteronomy<\/p>\n<p>Deuteronomy (with Genesis, Psalms, and Isaiah) is among the most frequently quoted books in the early Christian centuries. More than 80 OT quotations in the NT come from Deuteronomy.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus focused attention on Deuteronomy when he summarized the essence of the entire OT Law and Prophets in the two great commandments of love for God and neighbor (Mt 22:37; see Dt 6:5; 10:19). Jesus also quoted Deuteronomy (6:13, 16; 8:3) in his temptation experience (Mt 4:4-10). Deuteronomy unfolds the essence of what God revealed to Moses at Mt Sinai. In Deuteronomy, Moses shares with the Israelites the core of God’s revelation without repeating details of sacrifices, observances, or rituals. He expounds the character of Israel’s faith and nationhood. Moses repeatedly emphasizes his concern that they faithfully maintain a good relationship with God. An exclusive devotion to God expressed in everyday life is the key to a lifetime of blessing.<\/p>\n<p>The primary need of love toward God and neighbor eventually became a basic requirement for the followers of Jesus Christ (Lk 10:25-28). The book of Deuteronomy is thus crucially important to the Christian concern to maintain a vital relationship with God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DeuteronomyandtheLaw\">Deuteronomy and the Law<\/p>\n<p>To designate the book of Deuteronomy as a “second law” or a repetition of the law is misleading. Moses’ emphasis is not legalistic. Details of worship and ritual are not repeated or delineated to any great extent. Although the Ten Commandments are repeated, emphasis is placed on the first commandment, explicitly requiring exclusive devotion to God. Moses is primarily concerned with Israel’s relationship with God and their determination to maintain it in their own and their children’s lives.<\/p>\n<p>The NT reveals that a legalistic interpretation of the Mosaic revelation was held by the Jews of the first century <span>AD<\/span>. Such legalism developed in Judaism especially during the intertestamental era. The Judaistic legalism of NT times has in modern times been ascribed wrongly to Moses. Moses did warn of the necessity of keeping all of God’s law (Dt 28:1, 58), but in Deuteronomy his message as a whole makes it clear that he was not exclusively concerned about legalistic observance. Rather, the central theme of Deuteronomy is the unique relationship that had been established by a unique God with a unique people, the Israelites.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Brief Historical Review (1:1–4:43)<\/h5>\n<p>Moses is identified as the speaker, addressing the Israelites on the plains of Moab during the last year of his life. The Israelites were on the verge of entering the Promised Land of Canaan.<\/p>\n<p>Moses began with a reference to Mt Sinai, scene of the greatest revelation in OT times. He focused attention on God’s explicit command for them to move up to Canaan and occupy the land promised to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Their rebellion brought divine judgment, so the conquest of Canaan had been delayed 38 years while an entire disobedient generation died in the wilderness.<\/p>\n<p>Instructed by God not to molest the Edomites or Moabites, Moses had led the Israelites to the Moab plains north of the Arnon River. The Israelites defeated Sihon, the Amorite king of Heshbon, and Og, king of Bashan. The tribes of Reuben and Gad and half the tribe of Manasseh appropriated the territory east of the Jordan River as their land (Nm 32). On the basis of that conquest, Moses encouraged Joshua to believe that God would aid him and the Israelites in the conquest of the land of Canaan west of the Jordan River.<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites should learn from the mistakes of the generation that died in the wilderness (Dt 4:1-40). They should consider the fact that the word of God had been spoken to them. The revelation that had come to them through Moses was unique, and the most important thing was for them to revere the God who had revealed himself. The uniqueness of Israel’s God among the nations that worship idols should never be forgotten.<\/p>\n<p>Moses reminded the Israelites that they had entered into a contractual agreement with their unique God. That covenant was mentioned 26 more times by Moses. No nation had ever experienced anything like it. If Israel obeyed, they would enjoy God’s blessing and favor.<\/p>\n<h5>Exhortations and Applications (4:44–26:19)<\/h5>\n<p>The circumstances in which Moses addressed the Israelites are reported in a short transitional passage (Dt 4:44-49). From the slopes of Mt Pisgah (or Nebo), with Israel encamped in the valley opposite Beth-peor, Moses made his appeal to the people before they crossed the Jordan River.<\/p>\n<p>Moses’ exposition of the “great commandment” is centered in the agreement made between God and Israel. He repeated the Ten Commandments as the essence of God’s revelation at Sinai. As Moses explained what God expected of Israel, he elaborated the first commandment: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span> your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage” (5:6, <span>rsv<\/span>). Their relationship with God was of basic importance, since God’s wrath will be against those who worship other gods (v 9).<\/p>\n<p>Love is the key word in the relationship between God and Israel. Moses boldly asserted, “Hear, O Israel! The <span>Lord<\/span> is our God, the <span>Lord<\/span> alone. And you must love the <span>Lord<\/span> your God with all your heart, all your soul, and all your strength” (Dt 6:4-5, <span>nlt<\/span>). All other commandments are significant because they bear on that relationship (as spelled out in chs 5–11).<\/p>\n<p>Exclusive love and devotion to God are essential. In a relationship of wholehearted love, no idols can be recognized or tolerated. Yet Moses wanted Israel to convey its consciousness of God to future generations by many external things: signs on their hands, frontlets (or “phylacteries”) on their foreheads, Scripture verses on their doorposts, and so on. By precept and example they should convey to their children that they love God (Dt 6).<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites should never forget that God had chosen them to be his people (Dt 7). They were to execute God’s judgment on the Canaanites, who had been spared judgment since Abraham’s time (Gn 15:16). Although the Israelites themselves did not merit God’s love, in love and mercy he had redeemed them out of Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>Moses appealed to the people to remember what God had done for them (Dt 8). To God’s sustaining provisions they should respond with thankfulness, recognizing that the power to achieve anything they had done had been God’s gift.<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites had repeatedly failed in their faith and commitment to God (9:1–10:11). Through Moses’ intercession they had been spared. It was for no merit of their own that they would enter Canaan; that was God’s gracious provision for them. Moses’ appeal for a wholehearted commitment is summarized in Deuteronomy 10:12–11:32. It is necessary to display reverence, respect, love, and obedience to God (see also 6:5, 13, 24).<\/p>\n<p>The God whom the Israelites must love sincerely and without reservation is the Lord of the cosmos. He is the righteous judge who rules supreme over all nature and history. God loved their forefathers, the patriarchs. He redeemed the Israelites from Egyptian enslavement and gave them his covenant. He manifested himself in helping the orphans, widows, and strangers. He multiplied Israel to be as numerous as the stars of the heavens.<\/p>\n<p>Moses gave two basic instructions to apply in daily life to maintain their relationship with God as a reality: “circumcise therefore the foreskin of your heart” (Dt 10:16, <span>rsv<\/span>). He did not refer to physical circumcision, a sign of the covenant between God and Abraham (Gn 17). Circumcision, which was not observed during the years of wilderness wanderings, was reinstituted under Joshua after the Israelites crossed the Jordan River (Jos 5:2-9). Moses referred to “spiritual circumcision” (see Lv 26:40-41; Jer 4:4; 9:25; Rom 2:29). All things that might restrict, interfere with, or negate total devotion to God were to be cut away (circumcised) so that the Israelites would continue to love God with all their heart.<\/p>\n<p>“Love the foreigner” (Dt 10:19) ranks second in importance to wholehearted love for God. Love for the stranger or neighbor is basic to all other human obligations (see Lv 19:9-18). Social obligations issue out of a person’s relationship with God. Being recipients of God’s love, the Israelites were to love others. They were to remember God’s love for them when they were slaves and strangers in Egypt. God loves the stranger, the widow, and the orphan; therefore, if anyone loves God, he or she is under obligation to love other people. God is concerned about justice and righteousness; a person who professes to love God must be concerned about just treatment for other people.<\/p>\n<p>The Israelites were to be known for their concern for people whose social position exposed them to exploitation and oppression. The profound humanitarian spirit of the Mosaic law stands in unique contrast to the Babylonian Code of Hammurabi and the Assyrian and Hittite law codes of that day. In those codes human relationships reflected no vital consciousness of a love relationship with deity.<\/p>\n<p>In the first century <span>AD<\/span> Jesus Christ came into conflict with Jewish religious leaders who had lost the essence of God’s law in a maze of legalism. For Jesus, the greatest commandment was to love God; the second was to love one’s neighbor. Those two commandments (which constitute the essence of the entire OT revelation) would, if kept perfectly, provide the basis for eternal life (Mt 22:37-39; Mk 12:29-31; Lk 10:27-28). Christians believe that the climax of God’s revelation of love came in Jesus Christ. For them, responding to God’s love means to accept Jesus Christ in wholehearted devotion and to love one’s neighbor as Jesus exemplified in his life.<\/p>\n<p>In Deuteronomy 12:1–26:19, Moses gave instruction in practical living for a God-related people when they resided in the land God had promised to them. Having once survived on manna supplied directly by God, in Canaan they would enjoy the fruit and produce of the land. They would also encounter a culture permeated by Canaanite religion.<\/p>\n<p>In worshiping God in their new setting, they were cautioned to maintain due sanctity (Dt 12:1–14:21). They were not to worship at pagan shrines. They should bring their offerings to divinely appointed places for fellowship and rejoicing together in the Lord’s presence. Idolatry was not to be tolerated in any form. Any prophet who deviated from the law of Moses in advising the worship of other gods should be stoned. Exclusive devotion to God was to be daily practice.<\/p>\n<p>Canaan’s abundant blessings should be shared with neighbors (14:22–15:23). Tithes should be brought to the central sanctuary where Levites assisted the priests in religious ministration. Joy in sharing life’s blessings and opportunities was to characterize Israel’s pattern of living.<\/p>\n<p>Moses prescribed three annual pilgrimages (16:1-17). The people should remember their deliverance out of Egypt by observing the feasts of Passover and Unleavened Bread. Seven weeks later, when the barley harvest was completed, they should spend time rejoicing before the Lord in a one-day festival called the Feast of Weeks. When the vintage as well as the grain harvest was completed, they were to observe the Feast of Ingathering (or Booths), a time of thanksgiving and sharing with others. Every seven years the law was read at the Feast of Ingathering.<\/p>\n<p>In human relations justice was to prevail among the Israelites (16:18–21:23). The Book of the Law kept at the main sanctuary was their divine authority, providing God’s instructions for them. The king was to have a copy of this law and govern his life in accordance with it. Prophets and priests played an important role as religious leaders in the life of Israel. Judicial authority was vested in the priests. In contrast to the brutality of other nations, humanitarian principles were to prevail in Israel’s warfare. Fathers were responsible for their own family households.<\/p>\n<p>In domestic and social relationships, the law of love was to prevail (22:1–26:19). Many regulations governed family life. In matters of sustenance, wages, and business dealings, the Israelites were admonished to be compassionate and just. Promises and warnings raised their consciousness about using the resources of land and animals entrusted to them so that their stewardship would please God.<\/p>\n<p>In Deuteronomy 26, Moses instructed the Israelites in two liturgical confessions and a reaffirmation of the covenant. By acknowledging that God was the giver of all they had, and by confessing before God that they shared his gifts with others, they confirmed their covenant with God.<\/p>\n<h5>Alternatives: Blessings or Curses (27:1–30:20)<\/h5>\n<p>Moses set before the Israelites the alternatives of blessings or curses. Under Joshua they were to renew the covenant publicly. At Mt Ebal stones were to be erected for inscribing the law and an altar constructed for offering sacrifice. The curses were to be read from Mt Ebal and the blessings from Mt Gerizim. Conditional self-curses were read regarding offenses against God and other human beings (Dt 27:15-26). Thus they acknowledged their accountability to God. Though their sins might be hidden from people, it was God to whom they were primarily and ultimately accountable. Blessings as a way of life and curses as a way of death were clearly set before the Israelites (ch 28). Setting them in the perspective of history, Moses appealed to the new generation to take advantage of their present opportunity (ch 29). Warning that, should they fail to love God, they would ultimately be subjected to dispersion, Moses admonished them to choose the way of life and good rather than the way of death and evil (ch 30).<\/p>\n<h5>Transition: from Moses to Joshua (31:1–34:12)<\/h5>\n<p>When the life and ministry of Moses were nearing completion, and transfer of leadership was near (Dt 31:1–34:12), Joshua had already been designated by God as Israel’s new leader. Moses assured the Israelites that God would be the same with Joshua in charge. The revelation given through Moses had been put in writing and now was committed to the priests, the custodians of the Book of the Law. Joshua, who had already distinguished himself in responsible leadership, was publicly confirmed at the door of the tabernacle (31:1-29).<\/p>\n<p>The “Song of Moses” is the covenant’s document of witness (32:1-47). In it Moses spoke with prophetic understanding as he recounted Israel’s past experience. Reiterating the consequences of their attitude toward God, he assured the people of restoration if they failed again. He encouraged them to fix their hearts on what God had revealed to them and to impress it on their children. Keeping the covenant by maintaining a wholehearted love for God would be important for all future generations as well as for those then listening to Moses.<\/p>\n<p>After some final, brief instructions (32:48-52), Moses pronounced his blessings on the Israelites, whom he had led for 40 years (33:1-29). In his final blessing, also called the “Testament of Moses,” the greatness of God and his special relationship with Israel are delineated. Israel is unique among all the nations of the world.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Deuteronomy appropriately ends with an account of the death of Moses, the greatest prophet in OT times (34:1-12).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Moses.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DEUTERONOMY, Book of Fifth book of the OT, and last of the Pentateuch (the five books of the Law). In it Moses restated to the people of Israel various laws and precepts of the covenant that God had revealed to them at Mt Sinai. Thus, the book has become known in Greek and Latin tradition as Deuteronomy (“second law”). That name has led some to misinterpret the significance of its contents as secondary. The book makes an important contribution to God’s unfolding revelation of his purpose for ...","summary_en":"DEUTERONOMY, Book of Fifth book of the OT, and last of the Pentateuch (the five books of the Law). In it Moses restated to the people of Israel various laws and precepts of the covenant that God had revealed to them at Mt Sinai. Thus, the book has become known in Greek and Latin tradition as Deuteronomy (“second law”). That name has led some to misinterpret the significance of its contents as secondary. The book makes an important contribution to God’s unfolding revelation of his purpose for ...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22540,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Land","title_en":"Land","content_ro":"<h3>LAND<\/h3>\n<p>The relationship of humans to the land is a prominent theme in the OT. In Genesis the earth with its dry land was created as a place for humans to dwell in fellowship with God. Humans were given the task of subduing the earth and ruling over the animal creation to satisfy their own needs and to bring glory to the Creator. Subsequent to humanity’s fall into sin they suffered alienation not only from God and their fellow human beings but also from the land on which they lived. They were driven from the Garden of Eden, and the earth became cursed. They were forced to toil and sweat in order to subdue the earth and provide for their own subsistence because the harvest was choked by thorns and thistles.<\/p>\n<p>After murdering his brother, Cain receives an individual intensification of the land curse as punishment. He is told that the earth will not yield its produce for him even with hard labor, forcing him to wander from one place to another. With no permanent homeland, Cain is denied the enjoyment of rest and prosperity. Because of sin, the important human aspiration for a sense of place is refused to Cain (Gn 4:12).<\/p>\n<p>After the Flood, which was God’s judgment on an exceedingly wicked human race, humans again provoked God’s wrath; the construction of the Tower of Babel exalts human might apart from God. God intervenes to confuse the people’s language and “scatter them abroad upon the face of the earth” (11:9). Genesis 1–11 is thus characterized by a sequence of narratives describing land loss with its attendant deprivations as a consequence of sin and rebellion against God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LandandtheAbrahamicCovenant\">Land and the Abrahamic Covenant<\/p>\n<p>In the time of Abraham, God intervened in human affairs to provide a special homeland for a select group of people who are set apart unto himself. It is here that the Promised Land theme is introduced in Scripture. God said to Abraham, “Leave your country, your relatives, and your father’s house, and go to the land that I will show you. I will cause you to become the father of a great nation” (Gn 12:1-2, <span>nlt<\/span>). This promise to Abraham is enlarged upon in Genesis 12:7; 13:14-18; 15:7-21; 17:7-8. Abraham is told that the land of Canaan is to be the “everlasting possession” of his descendants (17:8).<\/p>\n<p>The OT narrative then traces Abraham’s line of descent through Isaac and Jacob, and tells of the migration of Jacob’s family to Egypt, where during approximately four centuries they became a great and numerous people. During this period, the promise of possession of the land of Canaan is reiterated (Gn 28:15; 35:11-12; 46:3-4; 50:24) and held before Abraham’s descendants as an integral feature of God’s covenantal promises.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LandandtheMosaicCovenant\">Land and the Mosaic Covenant<\/p>\n<p>When God called Moses to lead the Israelites out of Egypt, he associated Moses’ task with the fulfillment of the promises to the patriarchs: “I have remembered my covenant with them. . . . I will make you my own special people, and I will be your God. . . . I will bring you into the land I swore to give to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. It will be your very own property” (Ex 6:5-8, <span>nlt<\/span>). Israel is to be delivered from Egypt for two reasons: first, in order to be established as God’s covenant people at Mt Sinai, and second, in order to possess the land promised to their fathers. It is of utmost significance, however, that with the establishment of the Mosaic covenant the continued possession of the land is made dependent on obedience. Should Israel violate the covenantal obligations, it will bring upon itself the covenant curses, the most severe of which is banishment from the Promised Land (Lv 26:32-33). This does not mean that God will abandon his people and the land totally or forever, because God also promises that when the people repent, “then I will remember my covenant with Jacob . . . and I will remember the land” (Lv 26:42, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>During the reign of King David, the promise of land received at least a provisional fulfillment. Although it is true that initial fulfillment occurred when Joshua entered the land, at that time the territory did not extend to the borders promised Abraham (Gn 15:18) and much of the land that was occupied still contained pockets of resistance by the former inhabitants (Jos 13:1-6; Jgs 1). It was not until the time of David that the land was fully possessed as originally promised (2 Sm 8; 1 Kgs 4:21, 24).<\/p>\n<p>The responsibility of the king to observe the law, and the connection between covenantal obedience and possession of the land is again made clear when Solomon dedicates the temple (1 Kgs 9:4-9). Disobedience will bring not only expulsion from the land but also the destruction of the temple.<\/p>\n<p>The subsequent history of the divided-kingdom era is for the most part a history of covenant abrogation, by the people as well as the kings. The Lord sent repeated warnings through the prophets that such disobedience could only lead to expulsion from the land. But their message fell on deaf ears (Is 6:11-12; Am 5:27; 7:17; Hos 9:17). The kings repeatedly proved themselves to be unworthy of the office.<\/p>\n<p>As the people persisted in their evil way, Jeremiah announced that Nebuchadnezzar was to be the Lord’s agent to drive them from the land (Jer 21:2; 22:25; 25:8-9; 27:6; 28:14; 29:21). However, Jeremiah and other prophets also looked beyond the exile to a future restoration and return to the land (Jer 32:6-25). Historically, this was accomplished under the rule of Cyrus the Great of Persia (538 <span>BC<\/span>) and is described in the books of Ezra and Nehemiah.<\/p>\n<p>A difficulty of interpretation arises in finding an adequate fulfillment of certain prophecies of the return (cf. Ez 37; Am 9:14-15), which envision great prosperity and permanent possession of the land under the rule of a Davidic king. The intertestamental period does not seem to be a suitable fulfillment for these predictions.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LandandtheNewCovenant\">Land and the New Covenant<\/p>\n<p>In the NT the land theme is much less prominent and seems mostly to be given a spiritual symbolism. The writer of Hebrews suggests that Abraham understood the land promise as something that pointed beyond a merely geographical fulfillment to a higher and far more satisfying heavenly home. Realizing the imperfection and transitory nature of all that this world offers, Abraham looked beyond the temporal fulfillment of the land promise for a city whose builder and maker is God (Heb 11:10), and he sought a “better country, that is, a heavenly one” (v 16). In the NT it appears that Israel’s land promise and entrance into Canaan is to be understood as typifying something of the future heavenly rest awaiting God’s people (Heb 3–4). Perhaps this explains the OT stress on the connection between Israel’s living in obedience to God’s law and their possession of the land. When the Israelites do not typify a condition of holiness, they disqualify themselves from typifying a condition of blessedness, and thus are either denied access to or driven from the land. The NT indicates that it is God’s purpose to prepare an eternal homeland for his people where the rule of the divine King is direct and just, where all things are subject to his will, where death and sin are abolished, and where the needs of his people are completely satisfied (Heb 11:13-16; Rv 21).<\/p>\n<p>The OT land promises have been viewed by some as having only typical significance. In the light of Christ’s incarnation any statement of Scripture concerning a future for the land is to be interpreted as fulfilled in a spiritual sense in the church. The church is now the new Israel and heir of the OT promises. Because God’s kingdom is now a spiritual reality, it is considered a misunderstanding of the OT to expect yet future fulfillments of the OT prophecies of Israel’s return to the land and an establishment of a period of peace and prosperity under the rule of Christ, the Son of David (cf. Is 2:1-5; 11:6-11; Ez 37; Am 9:14-15). To abide in Christ is considered an adequate fulfillment of the physical and geographical promises of the OT economy.<\/p>\n<p>Others, while not denying typical significance for these OT realities, would suggest that the land promises are still operative in the physical and geographical categories in which they were given. It is pointed out that Paul argues in Romans 9–11 that there is yet a future for national Israel. In spite of Israel’s history of disobedience, climaxing in the rejection of the Messiah, the election and calling of God is irrevocable, and Israel is yet to be reingrafted in the olive tree from which it had previously been cut off. Luke says that Jerusalem will be trodden down by the Gentiles until the times of the Gentiles are fulfilled (Lk 21:24), indicating that there is to be a future time when Jerusalem will again be possessed by the Jewish nation. This does not necessarily mean that one must view the present state of Israel as the direct fulfillment of the OT promises of return to the land. The OT indicates that the return will be occasioned by belief (Dt 30:1-16). The present return is in unbelief. At the same time, the remarkable preservation of the Jewish people over the centuries and the recent reestablishment of the nation are perhaps to be understood as anticipations or signs of a future and more complete realization of the OT land promises.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LAND<\/h3>\n<p>The relationship of humans to the land is a prominent theme in the OT. In Genesis the earth with its dry land was created as a place for humans to dwell in fellowship with God. Humans were given the task of subduing the earth and ruling over the animal creation to satisfy their own needs and to bring glory to the Creator. Subsequent to humanity’s fall into sin they suffered alienation not only from God and their fellow human beings but also from the land on which they lived. They were driven from the Garden of Eden, and the earth became cursed. They were forced to toil and sweat in order to subdue the earth and provide for their own subsistence because the harvest was choked by thorns and thistles.<\/p>\n<p>After murdering his brother, Cain receives an individual intensification of the land curse as punishment. He is told that the earth will not yield its produce for him even with hard labor, forcing him to wander from one place to another. With no permanent homeland, Cain is denied the enjoyment of rest and prosperity. Because of sin, the important human aspiration for a sense of place is refused to Cain (Gn 4:12).<\/p>\n<p>After the Flood, which was God’s judgment on an exceedingly wicked human race, humans again provoked God’s wrath; the construction of the Tower of Babel exalts human might apart from God. God intervenes to confuse the people’s language and “scatter them abroad upon the face of the earth” (11:9). Genesis 1–11 is thus characterized by a sequence of narratives describing land loss with its attendant deprivations as a consequence of sin and rebellion against God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LandandtheAbrahamicCovenant\">Land and the Abrahamic Covenant<\/p>\n<p>In the time of Abraham, God intervened in human affairs to provide a special homeland for a select group of people who are set apart unto himself. It is here that the Promised Land theme is introduced in Scripture. God said to Abraham, “Leave your country, your relatives, and your father’s house, and go to the land that I will show you. I will cause you to become the father of a great nation” (Gn 12:1-2, <span>nlt<\/span>). This promise to Abraham is enlarged upon in Genesis 12:7; 13:14-18; 15:7-21; 17:7-8. Abraham is told that the land of Canaan is to be the “everlasting possession” of his descendants (17:8).<\/p>\n<p>The OT narrative then traces Abraham’s line of descent through Isaac and Jacob, and tells of the migration of Jacob’s family to Egypt, where during approximately four centuries they became a great and numerous people. During this period, the promise of possession of the land of Canaan is reiterated (Gn 28:15; 35:11-12; 46:3-4; 50:24) and held before Abraham’s descendants as an integral feature of God’s covenantal promises.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LandandtheMosaicCovenant\">Land and the Mosaic Covenant<\/p>\n<p>When God called Moses to lead the Israelites out of Egypt, he associated Moses’ task with the fulfillment of the promises to the patriarchs: “I have remembered my covenant with them. . . . I will make you my own special people, and I will be your God. . . . I will bring you into the land I swore to give to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. It will be your very own property” (Ex 6:5-8, <span>nlt<\/span>). Israel is to be delivered from Egypt for two reasons: first, in order to be established as God’s covenant people at Mt Sinai, and second, in order to possess the land promised to their fathers. It is of utmost significance, however, that with the establishment of the Mosaic covenant the continued possession of the land is made dependent on obedience. Should Israel violate the covenantal obligations, it will bring upon itself the covenant curses, the most severe of which is banishment from the Promised Land (Lv 26:32-33). This does not mean that God will abandon his people and the land totally or forever, because God also promises that when the people repent, “then I will remember my covenant with Jacob . . . and I will remember the land” (Lv 26:42, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>During the reign of King David, the promise of land received at least a provisional fulfillment. Although it is true that initial fulfillment occurred when Joshua entered the land, at that time the territory did not extend to the borders promised Abraham (Gn 15:18) and much of the land that was occupied still contained pockets of resistance by the former inhabitants (Jos 13:1-6; Jgs 1). It was not until the time of David that the land was fully possessed as originally promised (2 Sm 8; 1 Kgs 4:21, 24).<\/p>\n<p>The responsibility of the king to observe the law, and the connection between covenantal obedience and possession of the land is again made clear when Solomon dedicates the temple (1 Kgs 9:4-9). Disobedience will bring not only expulsion from the land but also the destruction of the temple.<\/p>\n<p>The subsequent history of the divided-kingdom era is for the most part a history of covenant abrogation, by the people as well as the kings. The Lord sent repeated warnings through the prophets that such disobedience could only lead to expulsion from the land. But their message fell on deaf ears (Is 6:11-12; Am 5:27; 7:17; Hos 9:17). The kings repeatedly proved themselves to be unworthy of the office.<\/p>\n<p>As the people persisted in their evil way, Jeremiah announced that Nebuchadnezzar was to be the Lord’s agent to drive them from the land (Jer 21:2; 22:25; 25:8-9; 27:6; 28:14; 29:21). However, Jeremiah and other prophets also looked beyond the exile to a future restoration and return to the land (Jer 32:6-25). Historically, this was accomplished under the rule of Cyrus the Great of Persia (538 <span>BC<\/span>) and is described in the books of Ezra and Nehemiah.<\/p>\n<p>A difficulty of interpretation arises in finding an adequate fulfillment of certain prophecies of the return (cf. Ez 37; Am 9:14-15), which envision great prosperity and permanent possession of the land under the rule of a Davidic king. The intertestamental period does not seem to be a suitable fulfillment for these predictions.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LandandtheNewCovenant\">Land and the New Covenant<\/p>\n<p>In the NT the land theme is much less prominent and seems mostly to be given a spiritual symbolism. The writer of Hebrews suggests that Abraham understood the land promise as something that pointed beyond a merely geographical fulfillment to a higher and far more satisfying heavenly home. Realizing the imperfection and transitory nature of all that this world offers, Abraham looked beyond the temporal fulfillment of the land promise for a city whose builder and maker is God (Heb 11:10), and he sought a “better country, that is, a heavenly one” (v 16). In the NT it appears that Israel’s land promise and entrance into Canaan is to be understood as typifying something of the future heavenly rest awaiting God’s people (Heb 3–4). Perhaps this explains the OT stress on the connection between Israel’s living in obedience to God’s law and their possession of the land. When the Israelites do not typify a condition of holiness, they disqualify themselves from typifying a condition of blessedness, and thus are either denied access to or driven from the land. The NT indicates that it is God’s purpose to prepare an eternal homeland for his people where the rule of the divine King is direct and just, where all things are subject to his will, where death and sin are abolished, and where the needs of his people are completely satisfied (Heb 11:13-16; Rv 21).<\/p>\n<p>The OT land promises have been viewed by some as having only typical significance. In the light of Christ’s incarnation any statement of Scripture concerning a future for the land is to be interpreted as fulfilled in a spiritual sense in the church. The church is now the new Israel and heir of the OT promises. Because God’s kingdom is now a spiritual reality, it is considered a misunderstanding of the OT to expect yet future fulfillments of the OT prophecies of Israel’s return to the land and an establishment of a period of peace and prosperity under the rule of Christ, the Son of David (cf. Is 2:1-5; 11:6-11; Ez 37; Am 9:14-15). To abide in Christ is considered an adequate fulfillment of the physical and geographical promises of the OT economy.<\/p>\n<p>Others, while not denying typical significance for these OT realities, would suggest that the land promises are still operative in the physical and geographical categories in which they were given. It is pointed out that Paul argues in Romans 9–11 that there is yet a future for national Israel. In spite of Israel’s history of disobedience, climaxing in the rejection of the Messiah, the election and calling of God is irrevocable, and Israel is yet to be reingrafted in the olive tree from which it had previously been cut off. Luke says that Jerusalem will be trodden down by the Gentiles until the times of the Gentiles are fulfilled (Lk 21:24), indicating that there is to be a future time when Jerusalem will again be possessed by the Jewish nation. This does not necessarily mean that one must view the present state of Israel as the direct fulfillment of the OT promises of return to the land. The OT indicates that the return will be occasioned by belief (Dt 30:1-16). The present return is in unbelief. At the same time, the remarkable preservation of the Jewish people over the centuries and the recent reestablishment of the nation are perhaps to be understood as anticipations or signs of a future and more complete realization of the OT land promises.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LAND The relationship of humans to the land is a prominent theme in the OT. In Genesis the earth with its dry land was created as a place for humans to dwell in fellowship with God. Humans were given the task of subduing the earth and ruling over the animal creation to satisfy their own needs and to bring glory to the Creator. Subsequent to humanity’s fall into sin they suffered alienation not only from God and their fellow human beings but also from the land on which they lived. They were dr...","summary_en":"LAND The relationship of humans to the land is a prominent theme in the OT. In Genesis the earth with its dry land was created as a place for humans to dwell in fellowship with God. Humans were given the task of subduing the earth and ruling over the animal creation to satisfy their own needs and to bring glory to the Creator. Subsequent to humanity’s fall into sin they suffered alienation not only from God and their fellow human beings but also from the land on which they lived. They were dr...","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":25171,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Mercy","title_en":"Mercy","content_ro":"<h3>MERCY<\/h3>\n<p>A divine quality by which God faithfully keeps his promises and maintains his covenant relationship with his chosen people despite their unworthiness and unfaithfulness (Dt 30:1-6; Is 14:1; Ez 39:25-29; Rom 9:15-16, 23; 11:32; Eph 2:4).<\/p>\n<p>The biblical meaning of mercy is exceedingly rich and complex, as evidenced by the fact that several Hebrew and Greek words were used to express the concept. Consequently, there are many synonyms employed in translation to express the dimensions of meaning involved, such as “kindness,” “lovingkindness,” “goodness,” “grace,” “favor,” “pity,” “compassion,” and “steadfast love.” Prominent in the concept of mercy is the compassionate disposition to forgive offenders or adversaries and to help or spare them in their sorry plight.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalSignificance\">Theological Significance<\/p>\n<p>At the heart of the concept of mercy is the love of God, which is freely manifested in his gracious saving acts on behalf of those to whom he has pledged himself in covenant relationship. In the OT it was his chosen people Israel whom he elected to be his own and to whom he showed mercy (Ex 33:19; Is 54:10; 63:9). God persistently puts up with his disobedient and wayward people and continuously seeks them out to draw them back to himself. The psalmist describes God as a father who pities his children who revere and trust him (Ps 103:13). Hosea pictures God as a loving father who looks down from heaven with a yearning heart of compassion upon his rebellious and wayward people (Hos 11; cf. Jer 31:20). He also regards Israel as an unfaithful and adulterous wife whom God loves as a faithful husband in spite of her apostate and sinful condition (Hos 1–3; cf. Is 54:4-8). Isaiah depicts God as a mother who has compassion on the son of her womb (Is 49:15). These pictures reveal God’s mercy in rich and different ways. Other dimensions include forgiveness and restoration to favor (2 Kgs 13:23; Is 54:8; Jl 2:18-32; Mi 7:18-20), and deliverance from distress and perils (Neh 9:19-21; Pss 40:11-17; 69:16-36; 79:8-9; Is 49:10).<\/p>\n<p>Because of what Israel as a covenant nation had learned about the steadfast love and faithfulness of God, devout Jews instinctively lifted their voices in petition for divine mercy and forgiveness in times of need, eloquently expressed in the penitential psalms (Pss 6; 32; 38; 51; 102; 130; 143), as well as other OT passages (Ex 34:6; Neh 9:17; Pss 57; 79; 86; 123; Is 33:1-6; Dn 9:3-19; Jl 2:13). It is the remembrance of God’s mercy that gives the repentant person the hope and assurance of divine favor and of reconciliation with the offended Lord.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT a very descriptive Greek word is used for Jesus’ mercy toward the needy (Mt 9:36; 14:14; 20:34). It expresses his pity and compassion by means of an intense verb literally translated “to be moved in one’s bowels.” The Hebrews regarded the bowels as the center of the affections, especially that of the most tender kindness. Jesus was described as being deeply moved in his inner feeling of benevolence toward the needy and spontaneously acting to relieve their suffering—to heal (Mt 20:34; Mk 1:41), to raise the dead (Lk 7:13), and to feed the hungry (Mt 15:32).<\/p>\n<p>The OT concept of God’s mercy expressed in his faithfulness to the covenant people is found also in the NT (Lk 1:50, 54, 72, 78; Eph 2:4; 1 Tm 1:2; 1 Pt 1:3; 2:10). The most characteristic use of mercy in the NT is that of God’s provision of salvation for mankind in Jesus Christ (Rom 11:30-32; Eph 2:4). God is “the Father of mercies” (2 Cor 1:3), which he bestows on those who believe in his Son. It is because he is “so rich in mercy” that he saved those who are spiritually dead and doomed by their sins (Eph 2:4-6). It is out of God’s mercy that one is forgiven and granted eternal life (1 Tm 1:13-16).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PeoplesResponsibilitytoShowMercytoOthers\">People’s Responsibility to Show Mercy to Others<\/p>\n<p>Because God has freely extended his mercy irrespective of worthiness or faithfulness, people are to respond by showing mercy to others, even though they do not deserve it or seek it. Indeed, people are commanded to be merciful, especially to the poor, the needy, widows, and orphans (Prv 14:31; 19:17; Mi 6:8; Zec 7:9-10; Col 3:12). God regards mercy more than the ritual sacrifice (Mt 9:13). God’s mercy in Christ actually puts people under obligation to act toward others as God himself has acted toward them. The Lord made mercy a foundation for his teaching (Mt 5:7; 9:13; 12:7; 23:23; Lk 6:36; 10:37; Jas 3:17). His coming was anticipated and announced in the context of the mercy that would characterize his mission (Lk 1:50, 54, 72, 78).<\/p>\n<p>Members of the Christian church are to show compassion and practical concern for each other. They are to give aid and relief, love and comfort to one another, as Christ freely gave to them in their need. The apostle James teaches the essential nature of such good works as being of the very essence of genuine faith (Jas 2:14-26). It was the mercy that the good Samaritan had toward the man who was beaten and robbed that was singled out by the Lord for special commendation (Lk 10:36-37). To be full of mercy is a distinguishing virtue of the citizens of the kingdom of heaven (Mt 5:7).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> God, Being and Attributes of; Grace; Love.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MERCY<\/h3>\n<p>A divine quality by which God faithfully keeps his promises and maintains his covenant relationship with his chosen people despite their unworthiness and unfaithfulness (Dt 30:1-6; Is 14:1; Ez 39:25-29; Rom 9:15-16, 23; 11:32; Eph 2:4).<\/p>\n<p>The biblical meaning of mercy is exceedingly rich and complex, as evidenced by the fact that several Hebrew and Greek words were used to express the concept. Consequently, there are many synonyms employed in translation to express the dimensions of meaning involved, such as “kindness,” “lovingkindness,” “goodness,” “grace,” “favor,” “pity,” “compassion,” and “steadfast love.” Prominent in the concept of mercy is the compassionate disposition to forgive offenders or adversaries and to help or spare them in their sorry plight.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalSignificance\">Theological Significance<\/p>\n<p>At the heart of the concept of mercy is the love of God, which is freely manifested in his gracious saving acts on behalf of those to whom he has pledged himself in covenant relationship. In the OT it was his chosen people Israel whom he elected to be his own and to whom he showed mercy (Ex 33:19; Is 54:10; 63:9). God persistently puts up with his disobedient and wayward people and continuously seeks them out to draw them back to himself. The psalmist describes God as a father who pities his children who revere and trust him (Ps 103:13). Hosea pictures God as a loving father who looks down from heaven with a yearning heart of compassion upon his rebellious and wayward people (Hos 11; cf. Jer 31:20). He also regards Israel as an unfaithful and adulterous wife whom God loves as a faithful husband in spite of her apostate and sinful condition (Hos 1–3; cf. Is 54:4-8). Isaiah depicts God as a mother who has compassion on the son of her womb (Is 49:15). These pictures reveal God’s mercy in rich and different ways. Other dimensions include forgiveness and restoration to favor (2 Kgs 13:23; Is 54:8; Jl 2:18-32; Mi 7:18-20), and deliverance from distress and perils (Neh 9:19-21; Pss 40:11-17; 69:16-36; 79:8-9; Is 49:10).<\/p>\n<p>Because of what Israel as a covenant nation had learned about the steadfast love and faithfulness of God, devout Jews instinctively lifted their voices in petition for divine mercy and forgiveness in times of need, eloquently expressed in the penitential psalms (Pss 6; 32; 38; 51; 102; 130; 143), as well as other OT passages (Ex 34:6; Neh 9:17; Pss 57; 79; 86; 123; Is 33:1-6; Dn 9:3-19; Jl 2:13). It is the remembrance of God’s mercy that gives the repentant person the hope and assurance of divine favor and of reconciliation with the offended Lord.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT a very descriptive Greek word is used for Jesus’ mercy toward the needy (Mt 9:36; 14:14; 20:34). It expresses his pity and compassion by means of an intense verb literally translated “to be moved in one’s bowels.” The Hebrews regarded the bowels as the center of the affections, especially that of the most tender kindness. Jesus was described as being deeply moved in his inner feeling of benevolence toward the needy and spontaneously acting to relieve their suffering—to heal (Mt 20:34; Mk 1:41), to raise the dead (Lk 7:13), and to feed the hungry (Mt 15:32).<\/p>\n<p>The OT concept of God’s mercy expressed in his faithfulness to the covenant people is found also in the NT (Lk 1:50, 54, 72, 78; Eph 2:4; 1 Tm 1:2; 1 Pt 1:3; 2:10). The most characteristic use of mercy in the NT is that of God’s provision of salvation for mankind in Jesus Christ (Rom 11:30-32; Eph 2:4). God is “the Father of mercies” (2 Cor 1:3), which he bestows on those who believe in his Son. It is because he is “so rich in mercy” that he saved those who are spiritually dead and doomed by their sins (Eph 2:4-6). It is out of God’s mercy that one is forgiven and granted eternal life (1 Tm 1:13-16).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PeoplesResponsibilitytoShowMercytoOthers\">People’s Responsibility to Show Mercy to Others<\/p>\n<p>Because God has freely extended his mercy irrespective of worthiness or faithfulness, people are to respond by showing mercy to others, even though they do not deserve it or seek it. Indeed, people are commanded to be merciful, especially to the poor, the needy, widows, and orphans (Prv 14:31; 19:17; Mi 6:8; Zec 7:9-10; Col 3:12). God regards mercy more than the ritual sacrifice (Mt 9:13). God’s mercy in Christ actually puts people under obligation to act toward others as God himself has acted toward them. The Lord made mercy a foundation for his teaching (Mt 5:7; 9:13; 12:7; 23:23; Lk 6:36; 10:37; Jas 3:17). His coming was anticipated and announced in the context of the mercy that would characterize his mission (Lk 1:50, 54, 72, 78).<\/p>\n<p>Members of the Christian church are to show compassion and practical concern for each other. They are to give aid and relief, love and comfort to one another, as Christ freely gave to them in their need. The apostle James teaches the essential nature of such good works as being of the very essence of genuine faith (Jas 2:14-26). It was the mercy that the good Samaritan had toward the man who was beaten and robbed that was singled out by the Lord for special commendation (Lk 10:36-37). To be full of mercy is a distinguishing virtue of the citizens of the kingdom of heaven (Mt 5:7).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> God, Being and Attributes of; Grace; Love.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MERCY A divine quality by which God faithfully keeps his promises and maintains his covenant relationship with his chosen people despite their unworthiness and unfaithfulness (Dt 30:1-6; Is 14:1; Ez 39:25-29; Rom 9:15-16, 23; 11:32; Eph 2:4). The biblical meaning of mercy is exceedingly rich and complex, as evidenced by the fact that several Hebrew and Greek words were used to express the concept. Consequently, there are many synonyms employed in translation to express the dimensions of meani...","summary_en":"MERCY A divine quality by which God faithfully keeps his promises and maintains his covenant relationship with his chosen people despite their unworthiness and unfaithfulness (Dt 30:1-6; Is 14:1; Ez 39:25-29; Rom 9:15-16, 23; 11:32; Eph 2:4). The biblical meaning of mercy is exceedingly rich and complex, as evidenced by the fact that several Hebrew and Greek words were used to express the concept. Consequently, there are many synonyms employed in translation to express the dimensions of meani...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":45222,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 30:1","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 30:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>30:1-10<\/strong> Repentance was the only solution to the threat of judgment. The possibility of blessing and the prevention of judgment both depended on a proper relationship with the Lord.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>30:1-10<\/strong> Repentance was the only solution to the threat of judgment. The possibility of blessing and the prevention of judgment both depended on a proper relationship with the Lord.<\/p>","summary_ro":"30:1-10 Repentance was the only solution to the threat of judgment. The possibility of blessing and the prevention of judgment both depended on a proper relationship with the Lord.","summary_en":"30:1-10 Repentance was the only solution to the threat of judgment. The possibility of blessing and the prevention of judgment both depended on a proper relationship with the Lord.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":45223,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 30:1","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 30:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>30:1<\/strong> <em>These blessings and curses:<\/em> See 27:1–28:68.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>30:1<\/strong> <em>These blessings and curses:<\/em> See 27:1–28:68.<\/p>","summary_ro":"30:1 These blessings and curses: See 27:1–28:68.","summary_en":"30:1 These blessings and curses: See 27:1–28:68.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":72848,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 30:1","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 30:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>30:1-10<\/strong> Repentance was the only solution to the threat of judgment. The possibility of blessing and the prevention of judgment both depended on a proper relationship with the Lord.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>30:1-10<\/strong> Repentance was the only solution to the threat of judgment. The possibility of blessing and the prevention of judgment both depended on a proper relationship with the Lord.<\/p>","summary_ro":"30:1-10 Repentance was the only solution to the threat of judgment. The possibility of blessing and the prevention of judgment both depended on a proper relationship with the Lord.","summary_en":"30:1-10 Repentance was the only solution to the threat of judgment. The possibility of blessing and the prevention of judgment both depended on a proper relationship with the Lord.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":72849,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 30:1","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 30:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>30:1<\/strong> <em>These blessings and curses:<\/em> See 27:1–28:68.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>30:1<\/strong> <em>These blessings and curses:<\/em> See 27:1–28:68.<\/p>","summary_ro":"30:1 These blessings and curses: See 27:1–28:68.","summary_en":"30:1 These blessings and curses: See 27:1–28:68.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100474,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 30:1","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 30:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>30:1-10<\/strong> Repentance was the only solution to the threat of judgment. The possibility of blessing and the prevention of judgment both depended on a proper relationship with the Lord.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>30:1-10<\/strong> Repentance was the only solution to the threat of judgment. The possibility of blessing and the prevention of judgment both depended on a proper relationship with the Lord.<\/p>","summary_ro":"30:1-10 Repentance was the only solution to the threat of judgment. The possibility of blessing and the prevention of judgment both depended on a proper relationship with the Lord.","summary_en":"30:1-10 Repentance was the only solution to the threat of judgment. The possibility of blessing and the prevention of judgment both depended on a proper relationship with the Lord.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100475,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 30:1","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 30:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>30:1<\/strong> <em>These blessings and curses:<\/em> See 27:1–28:68.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>30:1<\/strong> <em>These blessings and curses:<\/em> See 27:1–28:68.<\/p>","summary_ro":"30:1 These blessings and curses: See 27:1–28:68.","summary_en":"30:1 These blessings and curses: See 27:1–28:68.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128100,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 30:1","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 30:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>30:1-10<\/strong> Repentance was the only solution to the threat of judgment. The possibility of blessing and the prevention of judgment both depended on a proper relationship with the Lord.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>30:1-10<\/strong> Repentance was the only solution to the threat of judgment. The possibility of blessing and the prevention of judgment both depended on a proper relationship with the Lord.<\/p>","summary_ro":"30:1-10 Repentance was the only solution to the threat of judgment. The possibility of blessing and the prevention of judgment both depended on a proper relationship with the Lord.","summary_en":"30:1-10 Repentance was the only solution to the threat of judgment. The possibility of blessing and the prevention of judgment both depended on a proper relationship with the Lord.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128101,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 30:1","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 30:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>30:1<\/strong> <em>These blessings and curses:<\/em> See 27:1–28:68.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>30:1<\/strong> <em>These blessings and curses:<\/em> See 27:1–28:68.<\/p>","summary_ro":"30:1 These blessings and curses: See 27:1–28:68.","summary_en":"30:1 These blessings and curses: See 27:1–28:68.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":60766,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Biblical Law","title_en":"Biblical Law","content_ro":"<h3>Biblical Law<\/h3>\n<p>Biblical law is more than lists of dos and don’ts. It is a system of divine expectations regarding belief and behavior which, if faithfully carried out, will bring God’s richest blessing. Life itself depends on keeping the law (Deut 4:1; see also 5:32-33; 8:1; 16:20).<\/p>\n<p>The exodus from Egypt freed the nation of Israel to become God’s servant. When God delivered Israel from bondage by “a strong hand, a powerful arm, and terrifying acts” (4:34), it was not because Israel had earned this right through its own righteousness but because God is gracious and faithful to his promises to Abraham. The purpose of the rescue from Egypt was not just to relieve the Israelites of their onerous burdens (Exod 1:11-22; 5:4-23), but to make a covenant with them. The covenant relationship did not make the Israelites God’s people; they already were his people (see Exod 4:22-23). Obedience was not a precondition to the covenant but the proper response to it. It placed on them the responsibility of serving God as a priestly kingdom and a holy nation (Exod 19:4-6). The law was given to regulate Israel’s affairs as a nation so that God’s people would be a beacon of his unfailing love and faithfulness.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant guaranteed the people of Israel abundant and meaningful life if they kept the law. The covenant document consists of broad principles, patterns, and standards. God’s instructions are embodied most famously in the Ten Commandments (Deut 5:6-21) and most succinctly in the <em>Shema<\/em> (6:4-5). All other laws of God are interpretations and applications of these primary principles.<\/p>\n<p>The life that resulted from obedience to the law was not eternal life in the New Testament sense. It was God’s promise that if the Israelites were faithful to the covenant, the nation could expect long and prosperous days in the land (4:1; 5:16, 33). Jesus also exhorted his disciples to keep the Ten Commandments and the demands of the <em>Shema<\/em> (Matt 22:37-40)—not to have eternal life but as an expression of commitment to him (cp. Matt 5:17-19; John 14:15-21).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 19:4-6; Lev 18:5; Deut 4:1-2; 5:6-21, 32-33; 6:1-9; 8:1; 30:1-20; Matt 5:17-48; 22:36-40; John 14:15-21; Rom 3:19-24; 7:1-12; 1 Cor 9:20-21; Gal 3:1-22; 5:14; Heb 7:18-19; 10:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Biblical Law<\/h3>\n<p>Biblical law is more than lists of dos and don’ts. It is a system of divine expectations regarding belief and behavior which, if faithfully carried out, will bring God’s richest blessing. Life itself depends on keeping the law (Deut 4:1; see also 5:32-33; 8:1; 16:20).<\/p>\n<p>The exodus from Egypt freed the nation of Israel to become God’s servant. When God delivered Israel from bondage by “a strong hand, a powerful arm, and terrifying acts” (4:34), it was not because Israel had earned this right through its own righteousness but because God is gracious and faithful to his promises to Abraham. The purpose of the rescue from Egypt was not just to relieve the Israelites of their onerous burdens (Exod 1:11-22; 5:4-23), but to make a covenant with them. The covenant relationship did not make the Israelites God’s people; they already were his people (see Exod 4:22-23). Obedience was not a precondition to the covenant but the proper response to it. It placed on them the responsibility of serving God as a priestly kingdom and a holy nation (Exod 19:4-6). The law was given to regulate Israel’s affairs as a nation so that God’s people would be a beacon of his unfailing love and faithfulness.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant guaranteed the people of Israel abundant and meaningful life if they kept the law. The covenant document consists of broad principles, patterns, and standards. God’s instructions are embodied most famously in the Ten Commandments (Deut 5:6-21) and most succinctly in the <em>Shema<\/em> (6:4-5). All other laws of God are interpretations and applications of these primary principles.<\/p>\n<p>The life that resulted from obedience to the law was not eternal life in the New Testament sense. It was God’s promise that if the Israelites were faithful to the covenant, the nation could expect long and prosperous days in the land (4:1; 5:16, 33). Jesus also exhorted his disciples to keep the Ten Commandments and the demands of the <em>Shema<\/em> (Matt 22:37-40)—not to have eternal life but as an expression of commitment to him (cp. Matt 5:17-19; John 14:15-21).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 19:4-6; Lev 18:5; Deut 4:1-2; 5:6-21, 32-33; 6:1-9; 8:1; 30:1-20; Matt 5:17-48; 22:36-40; John 14:15-21; Rom 3:19-24; 7:1-12; 1 Cor 9:20-21; Gal 3:1-22; 5:14; Heb 7:18-19; 10:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Biblical Law Biblical law is more than lists of dos and don’ts. It is a system of divine expectations regarding belief and behavior which, if faithfully carried out, will bring God’s richest blessing. Life itself depends on keeping the law (Deut 4:1; see also 5:32-33; 8:1; 16:20). The exodus from Egypt freed the nation of Israel to become God’s servant. When God delivered Israel from bondage by “a strong hand, a powerful arm, and terrifying acts” (4:34), it was not because Israel had earned t...","summary_en":"Biblical Law Biblical law is more than lists of dos and don’ts. It is a system of divine expectations regarding belief and behavior which, if faithfully carried out, will bring God’s richest blessing. Life itself depends on keeping the law (Deut 4:1; see also 5:32-33; 8:1; 16:20). The exodus from Egypt freed the nation of Israel to become God’s servant. When God delivered Israel from bondage by “a strong hand, a powerful arm, and terrifying acts” (4:34), it was not because Israel had earned t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62142,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God Works through Prayer","title_en":"God Works through Prayer","content_ro":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","summary_en":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":63130,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Making Sense of the Exile","title_en":"Making Sense of the Exile","content_ro":"<h3>Making Sense of the Exile<\/h3>\n<p>Israel’s kings and the people of Israel repeatedly rebelled against God and broke their covenant with him. God therefore declared that he would bring the curses of the covenant upon them (see Deut 28:15-68; cp. Jer 4:13; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15). God sent the Assyrian and Babylonian armies to execute this sentence, and a large number of the Israelites were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs 24:1–25:21).<\/p>\n<p>The Exile shaped many of the psalms; we see its impact working behind the scenes in various images and themes. In Psalm 89 the grief, anguish, and confusion of the Exile are distilled into several questions that the psalmist raises: Has God abandoned David’s royal line (89:38-39)? How long will God’s anger last (Ps 89:46)? Does God understand human frailty (89:47-48)? Is God true to his nature (89:49)? Is God just in not avenging his people (89:50-51)?<\/p>\n<p>These questions were on the minds of God’s people during and after the Exile. Some of their doubts raise questions concerning God’s ability to rule. Rather than dismissing these questions, wise readers listen, reflect, and study the answers that Scripture gives.<\/p>\n<p>The definitive answer came in the Lord Jesus Christ (see Isa 52–54; Luke 1:46-55, 67-79; 4:18-19; Rom 6:6, 16-23; Heb 12:22-24). But those who experienced the Exile could only dimly foresee a hopeful future. They asked these hard questions and lived without clear answers.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Lev 26:27-45; Deut 28:36-37, 63-68; 30:1-5; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; 24:1–25:21; Ezra 5:12; Pss 89; 107; 126; Isa 5:13; 27:13; 52:1-12; 59:10; Jer 2:37; 3:18; 4:13; Ezek 6:9; 20:41; 37:1-14; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Making Sense of the Exile<\/h3>\n<p>Israel’s kings and the people of Israel repeatedly rebelled against God and broke their covenant with him. God therefore declared that he would bring the curses of the covenant upon them (see Deut 28:15-68; cp. Jer 4:13; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15). God sent the Assyrian and Babylonian armies to execute this sentence, and a large number of the Israelites were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs 24:1–25:21).<\/p>\n<p>The Exile shaped many of the psalms; we see its impact working behind the scenes in various images and themes. In Psalm 89 the grief, anguish, and confusion of the Exile are distilled into several questions that the psalmist raises: Has God abandoned David’s royal line (89:38-39)? How long will God’s anger last (Ps 89:46)? Does God understand human frailty (89:47-48)? Is God true to his nature (89:49)? Is God just in not avenging his people (89:50-51)?<\/p>\n<p>These questions were on the minds of God’s people during and after the Exile. Some of their doubts raise questions concerning God’s ability to rule. Rather than dismissing these questions, wise readers listen, reflect, and study the answers that Scripture gives.<\/p>\n<p>The definitive answer came in the Lord Jesus Christ (see Isa 52–54; Luke 1:46-55, 67-79; 4:18-19; Rom 6:6, 16-23; Heb 12:22-24). But those who experienced the Exile could only dimly foresee a hopeful future. They asked these hard questions and lived without clear answers.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Lev 26:27-45; Deut 28:36-37, 63-68; 30:1-5; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; 24:1–25:21; Ezra 5:12; Pss 89; 107; 126; Isa 5:13; 27:13; 52:1-12; 59:10; Jer 2:37; 3:18; 4:13; Ezek 6:9; 20:41; 37:1-14; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Making Sense of the Exile Israel’s kings and the people of Israel repeatedly rebelled against God and broke their covenant with him. God therefore declared that he would bring the curses of the covenant upon them (see Deut 28:15-68; cp. Jer 4:13; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15). God sent the Assyrian and Babylonian armies to execute this sentence, and a large number of the Israelites were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs 24:1–25:21). The Exile shaped many of the psalms; we see its impact working behind th...","summary_en":"Making Sense of the Exile Israel’s kings and the people of Israel repeatedly rebelled against God and broke their covenant with him. God therefore declared that he would bring the curses of the covenant upon them (see Deut 28:15-68; cp. Jer 4:13; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15). God sent the Assyrian and Babylonian armies to execute this sentence, and a large number of the Israelites were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs 24:1–25:21). The Exile shaped many of the psalms; we see its impact working behind th...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":88392,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Biblical Law","title_en":"Biblical Law","content_ro":"<h3>Biblical Law<\/h3>\n<p>Biblical law is more than lists of dos and don’ts. It is a system of divine expectations regarding belief and behavior which, if faithfully carried out, will bring God’s richest blessing. Life itself depends on keeping the law (Deut 4:1; see also 5:32-33; 8:1; 16:20).<\/p>\n<p>The exodus from Egypt freed the nation of Israel to become God’s servant. When God delivered Israel from bondage by “a strong hand, a powerful arm, and terrifying acts” (4:34), it was not because Israel had earned this right through its own righteousness but because God is gracious and faithful to his promises to Abraham. The purpose of the rescue from Egypt was not just to relieve the Israelites of their onerous burdens (Exod 1:11-22; 5:4-23), but to make a covenant with them. The covenant relationship did not make the Israelites God’s people; they already were his people (see Exod 4:22-23). Obedience was not a precondition to the covenant but the proper response to it. It placed on them the responsibility of serving God as a priestly kingdom and a holy nation (Exod 19:4-6). The law was given to regulate Israel’s affairs as a nation so that God’s people would be a beacon of his unfailing love and faithfulness.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant guaranteed the people of Israel abundant and meaningful life if they kept the law. The covenant document consists of broad principles, patterns, and standards. God’s instructions are embodied most famously in the Ten Commandments (Deut 5:6-21) and most succinctly in the <em>Shema<\/em> (6:4-5). All other laws of God are interpretations and applications of these primary principles.<\/p>\n<p>The life that resulted from obedience to the law was not eternal life in the New Testament sense. It was God’s promise that if the Israelites were faithful to the covenant, the nation could expect long and prosperous days in the land (4:1; 5:16, 33). Jesus also exhorted his disciples to keep the Ten Commandments and the demands of the <em>Shema<\/em> (Matt 22:37-40)—not to have eternal life but as an expression of commitment to him (cp. Matt 5:17-19; John 14:15-21).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 19:4-6; Lev 18:5; Deut 4:1-2; 5:6-21, 32-33; 6:1-9; 8:1; 30:1-20; Matt 5:17-48; 22:36-40; John 14:15-21; Rom 3:19-24; 7:1-12; 1 Cor 9:20-21; Gal 3:1-22; 5:14; Heb 7:18-19; 10:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Biblical Law<\/h3>\n<p>Biblical law is more than lists of dos and don’ts. It is a system of divine expectations regarding belief and behavior which, if faithfully carried out, will bring God’s richest blessing. Life itself depends on keeping the law (Deut 4:1; see also 5:32-33; 8:1; 16:20).<\/p>\n<p>The exodus from Egypt freed the nation of Israel to become God’s servant. When God delivered Israel from bondage by “a strong hand, a powerful arm, and terrifying acts” (4:34), it was not because Israel had earned this right through its own righteousness but because God is gracious and faithful to his promises to Abraham. The purpose of the rescue from Egypt was not just to relieve the Israelites of their onerous burdens (Exod 1:11-22; 5:4-23), but to make a covenant with them. The covenant relationship did not make the Israelites God’s people; they already were his people (see Exod 4:22-23). Obedience was not a precondition to the covenant but the proper response to it. It placed on them the responsibility of serving God as a priestly kingdom and a holy nation (Exod 19:4-6). The law was given to regulate Israel’s affairs as a nation so that God’s people would be a beacon of his unfailing love and faithfulness.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant guaranteed the people of Israel abundant and meaningful life if they kept the law. The covenant document consists of broad principles, patterns, and standards. God’s instructions are embodied most famously in the Ten Commandments (Deut 5:6-21) and most succinctly in the <em>Shema<\/em> (6:4-5). All other laws of God are interpretations and applications of these primary principles.<\/p>\n<p>The life that resulted from obedience to the law was not eternal life in the New Testament sense. It was God’s promise that if the Israelites were faithful to the covenant, the nation could expect long and prosperous days in the land (4:1; 5:16, 33). Jesus also exhorted his disciples to keep the Ten Commandments and the demands of the <em>Shema<\/em> (Matt 22:37-40)—not to have eternal life but as an expression of commitment to him (cp. Matt 5:17-19; John 14:15-21).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 19:4-6; Lev 18:5; Deut 4:1-2; 5:6-21, 32-33; 6:1-9; 8:1; 30:1-20; Matt 5:17-48; 22:36-40; John 14:15-21; Rom 3:19-24; 7:1-12; 1 Cor 9:20-21; Gal 3:1-22; 5:14; Heb 7:18-19; 10:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Biblical Law Biblical law is more than lists of dos and don’ts. It is a system of divine expectations regarding belief and behavior which, if faithfully carried out, will bring God’s richest blessing. Life itself depends on keeping the law (Deut 4:1; see also 5:32-33; 8:1; 16:20). The exodus from Egypt freed the nation of Israel to become God’s servant. When God delivered Israel from bondage by “a strong hand, a powerful arm, and terrifying acts” (4:34), it was not because Israel had earned t...","summary_en":"Biblical Law Biblical law is more than lists of dos and don’ts. It is a system of divine expectations regarding belief and behavior which, if faithfully carried out, will bring God’s richest blessing. Life itself depends on keeping the law (Deut 4:1; see also 5:32-33; 8:1; 16:20). The exodus from Egypt freed the nation of Israel to become God’s servant. When God delivered Israel from bondage by “a strong hand, a powerful arm, and terrifying acts” (4:34), it was not because Israel had earned t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89768,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God Works through Prayer","title_en":"God Works through Prayer","content_ro":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","summary_en":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":90756,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Making Sense of the Exile","title_en":"Making Sense of the Exile","content_ro":"<h3>Making Sense of the Exile<\/h3>\n<p>Israel’s kings and the people of Israel repeatedly rebelled against God and broke their covenant with him. God therefore declared that he would bring the curses of the covenant upon them (see Deut 28:15-68; cp. Jer 4:13; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15). God sent the Assyrian and Babylonian armies to execute this sentence, and a large number of the Israelites were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs 24:1–25:21).<\/p>\n<p>The Exile shaped many of the psalms; we see its impact working behind the scenes in various images and themes. In Psalm 89 the grief, anguish, and confusion of the Exile are distilled into several questions that the psalmist raises: Has God abandoned David’s royal line (89:38-39)? How long will God’s anger last (Ps 89:46)? Does God understand human frailty (89:47-48)? Is God true to his nature (89:49)? Is God just in not avenging his people (89:50-51)?<\/p>\n<p>These questions were on the minds of God’s people during and after the Exile. Some of their doubts raise questions concerning God’s ability to rule. Rather than dismissing these questions, wise readers listen, reflect, and study the answers that Scripture gives.<\/p>\n<p>The definitive answer came in the Lord Jesus Christ (see Isa 52–54; Luke 1:46-55, 67-79; 4:18-19; Rom 6:6, 16-23; Heb 12:22-24). But those who experienced the Exile could only dimly foresee a hopeful future. They asked these hard questions and lived without clear answers.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Lev 26:27-45; Deut 28:36-37, 63-68; 30:1-5; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; 24:1–25:21; Ezra 5:12; Pss 89; 107; 126; Isa 5:13; 27:13; 52:1-12; 59:10; Jer 2:37; 3:18; 4:13; Ezek 6:9; 20:41; 37:1-14; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Making Sense of the Exile<\/h3>\n<p>Israel’s kings and the people of Israel repeatedly rebelled against God and broke their covenant with him. God therefore declared that he would bring the curses of the covenant upon them (see Deut 28:15-68; cp. Jer 4:13; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15). God sent the Assyrian and Babylonian armies to execute this sentence, and a large number of the Israelites were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs 24:1–25:21).<\/p>\n<p>The Exile shaped many of the psalms; we see its impact working behind the scenes in various images and themes. In Psalm 89 the grief, anguish, and confusion of the Exile are distilled into several questions that the psalmist raises: Has God abandoned David’s royal line (89:38-39)? How long will God’s anger last (Ps 89:46)? Does God understand human frailty (89:47-48)? Is God true to his nature (89:49)? Is God just in not avenging his people (89:50-51)?<\/p>\n<p>These questions were on the minds of God’s people during and after the Exile. Some of their doubts raise questions concerning God’s ability to rule. Rather than dismissing these questions, wise readers listen, reflect, and study the answers that Scripture gives.<\/p>\n<p>The definitive answer came in the Lord Jesus Christ (see Isa 52–54; Luke 1:46-55, 67-79; 4:18-19; Rom 6:6, 16-23; Heb 12:22-24). But those who experienced the Exile could only dimly foresee a hopeful future. They asked these hard questions and lived without clear answers.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Lev 26:27-45; Deut 28:36-37, 63-68; 30:1-5; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; 24:1–25:21; Ezra 5:12; Pss 89; 107; 126; Isa 5:13; 27:13; 52:1-12; 59:10; Jer 2:37; 3:18; 4:13; Ezek 6:9; 20:41; 37:1-14; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Making Sense of the Exile Israel’s kings and the people of Israel repeatedly rebelled against God and broke their covenant with him. God therefore declared that he would bring the curses of the covenant upon them (see Deut 28:15-68; cp. Jer 4:13; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15). God sent the Assyrian and Babylonian armies to execute this sentence, and a large number of the Israelites were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs 24:1–25:21). The Exile shaped many of the psalms; we see its impact working behind th...","summary_en":"Making Sense of the Exile Israel’s kings and the people of Israel repeatedly rebelled against God and broke their covenant with him. God therefore declared that he would bring the curses of the covenant upon them (see Deut 28:15-68; cp. Jer 4:13; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15). God sent the Assyrian and Babylonian armies to execute this sentence, and a large number of the Israelites were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs 24:1–25:21). The Exile shaped many of the psalms; we see its impact working behind th...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":116018,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Biblical Law","title_en":"Biblical Law","content_ro":"<h3>Biblical Law<\/h3>\n<p>Biblical law is more than lists of dos and don’ts. It is a system of divine expectations regarding belief and behavior which, if faithfully carried out, will bring God’s richest blessing. Life itself depends on keeping the law (Deut 4:1; see also 5:32-33; 8:1; 16:20).<\/p>\n<p>The exodus from Egypt freed the nation of Israel to become God’s servant. When God delivered Israel from bondage by “a strong hand, a powerful arm, and terrifying acts” (4:34), it was not because Israel had earned this right through its own righteousness but because God is gracious and faithful to his promises to Abraham. The purpose of the rescue from Egypt was not just to relieve the Israelites of their onerous burdens (Exod 1:11-22; 5:4-23), but to make a covenant with them. The covenant relationship did not make the Israelites God’s people; they already were his people (see Exod 4:22-23). Obedience was not a precondition to the covenant but the proper response to it. It placed on them the responsibility of serving God as a priestly kingdom and a holy nation (Exod 19:4-6). The law was given to regulate Israel’s affairs as a nation so that God’s people would be a beacon of his unfailing love and faithfulness.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant guaranteed the people of Israel abundant and meaningful life if they kept the law. The covenant document consists of broad principles, patterns, and standards. God’s instructions are embodied most famously in the Ten Commandments (Deut 5:6-21) and most succinctly in the <em>Shema<\/em> (6:4-5). All other laws of God are interpretations and applications of these primary principles.<\/p>\n<p>The life that resulted from obedience to the law was not eternal life in the New Testament sense. It was God’s promise that if the Israelites were faithful to the covenant, the nation could expect long and prosperous days in the land (4:1; 5:16, 33). Jesus also exhorted his disciples to keep the Ten Commandments and the demands of the <em>Shema<\/em> (Matt 22:37-40)—not to have eternal life but as an expression of commitment to him (cp. Matt 5:17-19; John 14:15-21).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 19:4-6; Lev 18:5; Deut 4:1-2; 5:6-21, 32-33; 6:1-9; 8:1; 30:1-20; Matt 5:17-48; 22:36-40; John 14:15-21; Rom 3:19-24; 7:1-12; 1 Cor 9:20-21; Gal 3:1-22; 5:14; Heb 7:18-19; 10:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Biblical Law<\/h3>\n<p>Biblical law is more than lists of dos and don’ts. It is a system of divine expectations regarding belief and behavior which, if faithfully carried out, will bring God’s richest blessing. Life itself depends on keeping the law (Deut 4:1; see also 5:32-33; 8:1; 16:20).<\/p>\n<p>The exodus from Egypt freed the nation of Israel to become God’s servant. When God delivered Israel from bondage by “a strong hand, a powerful arm, and terrifying acts” (4:34), it was not because Israel had earned this right through its own righteousness but because God is gracious and faithful to his promises to Abraham. The purpose of the rescue from Egypt was not just to relieve the Israelites of their onerous burdens (Exod 1:11-22; 5:4-23), but to make a covenant with them. The covenant relationship did not make the Israelites God’s people; they already were his people (see Exod 4:22-23). Obedience was not a precondition to the covenant but the proper response to it. It placed on them the responsibility of serving God as a priestly kingdom and a holy nation (Exod 19:4-6). The law was given to regulate Israel’s affairs as a nation so that God’s people would be a beacon of his unfailing love and faithfulness.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant guaranteed the people of Israel abundant and meaningful life if they kept the law. The covenant document consists of broad principles, patterns, and standards. God’s instructions are embodied most famously in the Ten Commandments (Deut 5:6-21) and most succinctly in the <em>Shema<\/em> (6:4-5). All other laws of God are interpretations and applications of these primary principles.<\/p>\n<p>The life that resulted from obedience to the law was not eternal life in the New Testament sense. It was God’s promise that if the Israelites were faithful to the covenant, the nation could expect long and prosperous days in the land (4:1; 5:16, 33). Jesus also exhorted his disciples to keep the Ten Commandments and the demands of the <em>Shema<\/em> (Matt 22:37-40)—not to have eternal life but as an expression of commitment to him (cp. Matt 5:17-19; John 14:15-21).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 19:4-6; Lev 18:5; Deut 4:1-2; 5:6-21, 32-33; 6:1-9; 8:1; 30:1-20; Matt 5:17-48; 22:36-40; John 14:15-21; Rom 3:19-24; 7:1-12; 1 Cor 9:20-21; Gal 3:1-22; 5:14; Heb 7:18-19; 10:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Biblical Law Biblical law is more than lists of dos and don’ts. It is a system of divine expectations regarding belief and behavior which, if faithfully carried out, will bring God’s richest blessing. Life itself depends on keeping the law (Deut 4:1; see also 5:32-33; 8:1; 16:20). The exodus from Egypt freed the nation of Israel to become God’s servant. When God delivered Israel from bondage by “a strong hand, a powerful arm, and terrifying acts” (4:34), it was not because Israel had earned t...","summary_en":"Biblical Law Biblical law is more than lists of dos and don’ts. It is a system of divine expectations regarding belief and behavior which, if faithfully carried out, will bring God’s richest blessing. Life itself depends on keeping the law (Deut 4:1; see also 5:32-33; 8:1; 16:20). The exodus from Egypt freed the nation of Israel to become God’s servant. When God delivered Israel from bondage by “a strong hand, a powerful arm, and terrifying acts” (4:34), it was not because Israel had earned t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117394,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God Works through Prayer","title_en":"God Works through Prayer","content_ro":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","summary_en":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":118382,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Making Sense of the Exile","title_en":"Making Sense of the Exile","content_ro":"<h3>Making Sense of the Exile<\/h3>\n<p>Israel’s kings and the people of Israel repeatedly rebelled against God and broke their covenant with him. God therefore declared that he would bring the curses of the covenant upon them (see Deut 28:15-68; cp. Jer 4:13; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15). God sent the Assyrian and Babylonian armies to execute this sentence, and a large number of the Israelites were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs 24:1–25:21).<\/p>\n<p>The Exile shaped many of the psalms; we see its impact working behind the scenes in various images and themes. In Psalm 89 the grief, anguish, and confusion of the Exile are distilled into several questions that the psalmist raises: Has God abandoned David’s royal line (89:38-39)? How long will God’s anger last (Ps 89:46)? Does God understand human frailty (89:47-48)? Is God true to his nature (89:49)? Is God just in not avenging his people (89:50-51)?<\/p>\n<p>These questions were on the minds of God’s people during and after the Exile. Some of their doubts raise questions concerning God’s ability to rule. Rather than dismissing these questions, wise readers listen, reflect, and study the answers that Scripture gives.<\/p>\n<p>The definitive answer came in the Lord Jesus Christ (see Isa 52–54; Luke 1:46-55, 67-79; 4:18-19; Rom 6:6, 16-23; Heb 12:22-24). But those who experienced the Exile could only dimly foresee a hopeful future. They asked these hard questions and lived without clear answers.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Lev 26:27-45; Deut 28:36-37, 63-68; 30:1-5; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; 24:1–25:21; Ezra 5:12; Pss 89; 107; 126; Isa 5:13; 27:13; 52:1-12; 59:10; Jer 2:37; 3:18; 4:13; Ezek 6:9; 20:41; 37:1-14; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Making Sense of the Exile<\/h3>\n<p>Israel’s kings and the people of Israel repeatedly rebelled against God and broke their covenant with him. God therefore declared that he would bring the curses of the covenant upon them (see Deut 28:15-68; cp. Jer 4:13; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15). God sent the Assyrian and Babylonian armies to execute this sentence, and a large number of the Israelites were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs 24:1–25:21).<\/p>\n<p>The Exile shaped many of the psalms; we see its impact working behind the scenes in various images and themes. In Psalm 89 the grief, anguish, and confusion of the Exile are distilled into several questions that the psalmist raises: Has God abandoned David’s royal line (89:38-39)? How long will God’s anger last (Ps 89:46)? Does God understand human frailty (89:47-48)? Is God true to his nature (89:49)? Is God just in not avenging his people (89:50-51)?<\/p>\n<p>These questions were on the minds of God’s people during and after the Exile. Some of their doubts raise questions concerning God’s ability to rule. Rather than dismissing these questions, wise readers listen, reflect, and study the answers that Scripture gives.<\/p>\n<p>The definitive answer came in the Lord Jesus Christ (see Isa 52–54; Luke 1:46-55, 67-79; 4:18-19; Rom 6:6, 16-23; Heb 12:22-24). But those who experienced the Exile could only dimly foresee a hopeful future. They asked these hard questions and lived without clear answers.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Lev 26:27-45; Deut 28:36-37, 63-68; 30:1-5; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; 24:1–25:21; Ezra 5:12; Pss 89; 107; 126; Isa 5:13; 27:13; 52:1-12; 59:10; Jer 2:37; 3:18; 4:13; Ezek 6:9; 20:41; 37:1-14; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Making Sense of the Exile Israel’s kings and the people of Israel repeatedly rebelled against God and broke their covenant with him. God therefore declared that he would bring the curses of the covenant upon them (see Deut 28:15-68; cp. Jer 4:13; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15). God sent the Assyrian and Babylonian armies to execute this sentence, and a large number of the Israelites were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs 24:1–25:21). The Exile shaped many of the psalms; we see its impact working behind th...","summary_en":"Making Sense of the Exile Israel’s kings and the people of Israel repeatedly rebelled against God and broke their covenant with him. God therefore declared that he would bring the curses of the covenant upon them (see Deut 28:15-68; cp. Jer 4:13; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15). God sent the Assyrian and Babylonian armies to execute this sentence, and a large number of the Israelites were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs 24:1–25:21). The Exile shaped many of the psalms; we see its impact working behind th...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143644,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Biblical Law","title_en":"Biblical Law","content_ro":"<h3>Biblical Law<\/h3>\n<p>Biblical law is more than lists of dos and don’ts. It is a system of divine expectations regarding belief and behavior which, if faithfully carried out, will bring God’s richest blessing. Life itself depends on keeping the law (Deut 4:1; see also 5:32-33; 8:1; 16:20).<\/p>\n<p>The exodus from Egypt freed the nation of Israel to become God’s servant. When God delivered Israel from bondage by “a strong hand, a powerful arm, and terrifying acts” (4:34), it was not because Israel had earned this right through its own righteousness but because God is gracious and faithful to his promises to Abraham. The purpose of the rescue from Egypt was not just to relieve the Israelites of their onerous burdens (Exod 1:11-22; 5:4-23), but to make a covenant with them. The covenant relationship did not make the Israelites God’s people; they already were his people (see Exod 4:22-23). Obedience was not a precondition to the covenant but the proper response to it. It placed on them the responsibility of serving God as a priestly kingdom and a holy nation (Exod 19:4-6). The law was given to regulate Israel’s affairs as a nation so that God’s people would be a beacon of his unfailing love and faithfulness.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant guaranteed the people of Israel abundant and meaningful life if they kept the law. The covenant document consists of broad principles, patterns, and standards. God’s instructions are embodied most famously in the Ten Commandments (Deut 5:6-21) and most succinctly in the <em>Shema<\/em> (6:4-5). All other laws of God are interpretations and applications of these primary principles.<\/p>\n<p>The life that resulted from obedience to the law was not eternal life in the New Testament sense. It was God’s promise that if the Israelites were faithful to the covenant, the nation could expect long and prosperous days in the land (4:1; 5:16, 33). Jesus also exhorted his disciples to keep the Ten Commandments and the demands of the <em>Shema<\/em> (Matt 22:37-40)—not to have eternal life but as an expression of commitment to him (cp. Matt 5:17-19; John 14:15-21).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 19:4-6; Lev 18:5; Deut 4:1-2; 5:6-21, 32-33; 6:1-9; 8:1; 30:1-20; Matt 5:17-48; 22:36-40; John 14:15-21; Rom 3:19-24; 7:1-12; 1 Cor 9:20-21; Gal 3:1-22; 5:14; Heb 7:18-19; 10:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Biblical Law<\/h3>\n<p>Biblical law is more than lists of dos and don’ts. It is a system of divine expectations regarding belief and behavior which, if faithfully carried out, will bring God’s richest blessing. Life itself depends on keeping the law (Deut 4:1; see also 5:32-33; 8:1; 16:20).<\/p>\n<p>The exodus from Egypt freed the nation of Israel to become God’s servant. When God delivered Israel from bondage by “a strong hand, a powerful arm, and terrifying acts” (4:34), it was not because Israel had earned this right through its own righteousness but because God is gracious and faithful to his promises to Abraham. The purpose of the rescue from Egypt was not just to relieve the Israelites of their onerous burdens (Exod 1:11-22; 5:4-23), but to make a covenant with them. The covenant relationship did not make the Israelites God’s people; they already were his people (see Exod 4:22-23). Obedience was not a precondition to the covenant but the proper response to it. It placed on them the responsibility of serving God as a priestly kingdom and a holy nation (Exod 19:4-6). The law was given to regulate Israel’s affairs as a nation so that God’s people would be a beacon of his unfailing love and faithfulness.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant guaranteed the people of Israel abundant and meaningful life if they kept the law. The covenant document consists of broad principles, patterns, and standards. God’s instructions are embodied most famously in the Ten Commandments (Deut 5:6-21) and most succinctly in the <em>Shema<\/em> (6:4-5). All other laws of God are interpretations and applications of these primary principles.<\/p>\n<p>The life that resulted from obedience to the law was not eternal life in the New Testament sense. It was God’s promise that if the Israelites were faithful to the covenant, the nation could expect long and prosperous days in the land (4:1; 5:16, 33). Jesus also exhorted his disciples to keep the Ten Commandments and the demands of the <em>Shema<\/em> (Matt 22:37-40)—not to have eternal life but as an expression of commitment to him (cp. Matt 5:17-19; John 14:15-21).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 19:4-6; Lev 18:5; Deut 4:1-2; 5:6-21, 32-33; 6:1-9; 8:1; 30:1-20; Matt 5:17-48; 22:36-40; John 14:15-21; Rom 3:19-24; 7:1-12; 1 Cor 9:20-21; Gal 3:1-22; 5:14; Heb 7:18-19; 10:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Biblical Law Biblical law is more than lists of dos and don’ts. It is a system of divine expectations regarding belief and behavior which, if faithfully carried out, will bring God’s richest blessing. Life itself depends on keeping the law (Deut 4:1; see also 5:32-33; 8:1; 16:20). The exodus from Egypt freed the nation of Israel to become God’s servant. When God delivered Israel from bondage by “a strong hand, a powerful arm, and terrifying acts” (4:34), it was not because Israel had earned t...","summary_en":"Biblical Law Biblical law is more than lists of dos and don’ts. It is a system of divine expectations regarding belief and behavior which, if faithfully carried out, will bring God’s richest blessing. Life itself depends on keeping the law (Deut 4:1; see also 5:32-33; 8:1; 16:20). The exodus from Egypt freed the nation of Israel to become God’s servant. When God delivered Israel from bondage by “a strong hand, a powerful arm, and terrifying acts” (4:34), it was not because Israel had earned t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145020,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God Works through Prayer","title_en":"God Works through Prayer","content_ro":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God Works through Prayer<\/h3>\n<p>Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his.<\/p>\n<p>The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in prayer. In response to Jerusalem’s disgraceful condition, Nehemiah spent four months in intensive intercessory prayer (cp. Neh 1:1; 2:1). His prayers included praising God for his power and covenant love, confessing the nation’s sins, and calling on God to act (1:4-11; cp. Ezra 9:6-15; Dan 9:4-19). Nehemiah based his prayer for Jerusalem on God’s “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). The Israelites had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7), resulting in the exile of the nation as God had warned. However, Nehemiah was firmly convinced that God would keep his promise to restore the nation if the people repented (1:8-9; see Deut 4:25-31; 30:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>When God presented an opening for Nehemiah to approach the Persian king about returning to Jerusalem, Nehemiah immediately prayed for God’s guidance (Neh 2:4). He knew that only God could change the king’s heart. Later, Nehemiah made a practical and balanced response to threats against those building the wall by posting guards and rallying the people, all while praying for God’s protection and strength (4:4-5, 9; 6:9, 14). He needed God’s help and blessing then and in the future as he confronted people who acted improperly.<\/p>\n<p>When Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem after a brief visit to Persia, he found that some Jews were not contributing their tithe (13:10-12), some were not keeping the Sabbath (13:15-16), and some had married unbelievers (13:23-24). When confronting these people about their sin, Nehemiah prayed for God to have compassion on him and remember what he had done (13:14, 22, 31). Nehemiah knew that he had to depend on God’s power to transform people.<\/p>\n<p>Even Jesus, who already had a keen awareness of the Father’s will, bathed his ministry in prayer (see, e.g., Luke 5:16; 6:12-16; 9:18). Following his example, the early Christians spent much time in prayer, operating with a firm belief in its effectiveness (see, e.g., 9:36-41; 12:3-11). God often responds powerfully to his people’s prayers, and believers are encouraged to pray with eager expectation (see Jas 5:16-18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 24:10-20; Judg 15:18-20; Ezra 9:6-15; Neh 1:4-11; 2:4-5; 4:4-5, 9; Pss 18:1-30; 22:4-5, 24; 30:2-3; 31:22; 34:4; 40:1-2; 81:7; 106:1-48; 107:6-7, 13-14; 116:1; 118:5; Dan 9:4-19; Jon 2:1-10; Acts 4:24-31; Jas 5:16-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","summary_en":"God Works through Prayer Although God is sovereign over all creation, he desires for his people to bring their concerns to him in prayer. Throughout the Bible, we see examples of God acting in response to the prayers of his people. Prayer is essential for anyone who desires to live a godly life and carry out an effective ministry, as it is the means by which God’s people align their will with his. The brief account relayed in the book of Nehemiah exhibits a man whose life was steeped in praye...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":146008,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Making Sense of the Exile","title_en":"Making Sense of the Exile","content_ro":"<h3>Making Sense of the Exile<\/h3>\n<p>Israel’s kings and the people of Israel repeatedly rebelled against God and broke their covenant with him. God therefore declared that he would bring the curses of the covenant upon them (see Deut 28:15-68; cp. Jer 4:13; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15). God sent the Assyrian and Babylonian armies to execute this sentence, and a large number of the Israelites were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs 24:1–25:21).<\/p>\n<p>The Exile shaped many of the psalms; we see its impact working behind the scenes in various images and themes. In Psalm 89 the grief, anguish, and confusion of the Exile are distilled into several questions that the psalmist raises: Has God abandoned David’s royal line (89:38-39)? How long will God’s anger last (Ps 89:46)? Does God understand human frailty (89:47-48)? Is God true to his nature (89:49)? Is God just in not avenging his people (89:50-51)?<\/p>\n<p>These questions were on the minds of God’s people during and after the Exile. Some of their doubts raise questions concerning God’s ability to rule. Rather than dismissing these questions, wise readers listen, reflect, and study the answers that Scripture gives.<\/p>\n<p>The definitive answer came in the Lord Jesus Christ (see Isa 52–54; Luke 1:46-55, 67-79; 4:18-19; Rom 6:6, 16-23; Heb 12:22-24). But those who experienced the Exile could only dimly foresee a hopeful future. They asked these hard questions and lived without clear answers.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Lev 26:27-45; Deut 28:36-37, 63-68; 30:1-5; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; 24:1–25:21; Ezra 5:12; Pss 89; 107; 126; Isa 5:13; 27:13; 52:1-12; 59:10; Jer 2:37; 3:18; 4:13; Ezek 6:9; 20:41; 37:1-14; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Making Sense of the Exile<\/h3>\n<p>Israel’s kings and the people of Israel repeatedly rebelled against God and broke their covenant with him. God therefore declared that he would bring the curses of the covenant upon them (see Deut 28:15-68; cp. Jer 4:13; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15). God sent the Assyrian and Babylonian armies to execute this sentence, and a large number of the Israelites were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs 24:1–25:21).<\/p>\n<p>The Exile shaped many of the psalms; we see its impact working behind the scenes in various images and themes. In Psalm 89 the grief, anguish, and confusion of the Exile are distilled into several questions that the psalmist raises: Has God abandoned David’s royal line (89:38-39)? How long will God’s anger last (Ps 89:46)? Does God understand human frailty (89:47-48)? Is God true to his nature (89:49)? Is God just in not avenging his people (89:50-51)?<\/p>\n<p>These questions were on the minds of God’s people during and after the Exile. Some of their doubts raise questions concerning God’s ability to rule. Rather than dismissing these questions, wise readers listen, reflect, and study the answers that Scripture gives.<\/p>\n<p>The definitive answer came in the Lord Jesus Christ (see Isa 52–54; Luke 1:46-55, 67-79; 4:18-19; Rom 6:6, 16-23; Heb 12:22-24). But those who experienced the Exile could only dimly foresee a hopeful future. They asked these hard questions and lived without clear answers.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Lev 26:27-45; Deut 28:36-37, 63-68; 30:1-5; 2 Kgs 17:5-23; 24:1–25:21; Ezra 5:12; Pss 89; 107; 126; Isa 5:13; 27:13; 52:1-12; 59:10; Jer 2:37; 3:18; 4:13; Ezek 6:9; 20:41; 37:1-14; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Making Sense of the Exile Israel’s kings and the people of Israel repeatedly rebelled against God and broke their covenant with him. God therefore declared that he would bring the curses of the covenant upon them (see Deut 28:15-68; cp. Jer 4:13; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15). God sent the Assyrian and Babylonian armies to execute this sentence, and a large number of the Israelites were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs 24:1–25:21). The Exile shaped many of the psalms; we see its impact working behind th...","summary_en":"Making Sense of the Exile Israel’s kings and the people of Israel repeatedly rebelled against God and broke their covenant with him. God therefore declared that he would bring the curses of the covenant upon them (see Deut 28:15-68; cp. Jer 4:13; Amos 5:11; Mic 6:14-15). God sent the Assyrian and Babylonian armies to execute this sentence, and a large number of the Israelites were taken into exile (see 2 Kgs 24:1–25:21). The Exile shaped many of the psalms; we see its impact working behind th...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"2":[{"id":16760,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Hosea","title_en":"Book of Hosea","content_ro":"<h3>HOSEA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First of the 12 minor prophets in the traditional arrangements of the OT books. It was written in the last part of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>. Hosea’s prophecies were proclaimed to the northern kingdom of Israel in the final years of its existence. Hosea was the only prophet to reside in the northern kingdom and also to preach there. God commissioned Hosea to reveal the widespread apostasy and corruption in the northern kingdom and to exhort his fellow countrymen to repent and return to God. Hosea had the unique privilege of illustrating—in his own life—the steadfast covenant love that God had for Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Origin and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Message<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Hosea’s ministry extended over a period of at least 38 years (c. 753–715 <span>BC<\/span>), and he appears as a knowledgeable individual, whether he was a peasant or a member of the wealthier class in Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Hosea’s marriage to the prostitute Gomer may have been controversial in his own day, and it has certainly caused a great deal of controversy among Bible students and commentators. It seems best to recognize that Gomer was a publicly known harlot whom Hosea was commanded to marry for the purpose of illustrating Israel’s apostasy and God’s steadfast covenant love.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Authenticity\">Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>The authenticity and unity of Hosea is not seriously questioned, even by higher criticism. But two areas of controversy are (1) passages that refer to Judah (e.g., 1:1, 7, 11; 4:15; 5:5, 10-14; 6:4, 11; 8:14; 11:12; 12:2), and (2) those sections that refer to future blessing or national deliverance (e.g., 11:8-11; 14:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>Hosea’s references to Judah, however, could be expected from a man of God chagrined by the separation of Israel from the legitimate Davidic line. The northern kingdom, with its ungodly kings, was on the verge of judgment from God. Hosea evidently had received divine revelation concerning his dealings with Judah as well as Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The references to the future blessings and deliverance of Israel do not neutralize the condemnation of the sins of Israel, any more than Hosea’s constant love for and reconciliation with adulterous Gomer neutralizes her sin. Restoration and forgiveness need not ignore guilt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Hosea lived during the prosperous days of the northern kingdom of Israel under Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>). He also saw its defeat and the deportation of its people after the invasion by the Assyrians (722 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In Hosea 1:1 the following kings are named: from the southern kingdom of Judah—Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah; and from the northern kingdom of Israel—Joash and Jeroboam. Uzziah was a contemporary of both Joash and Jeroboam. Ahaz was king of Judah when Israel was taken captive by Assyria. Hezekiah may have been a co-regent with Ahaz at the time of the Assyrian captivity.<\/p>\n<p>Jeroboam reigned over Israel for 41 years and followed the evil example of his father, Nebat (2 Kgs 14:23-24). Though Israel was prosperous and successful during Jeroboam’s reign, the corruption in the government and the degeneracy in the spiritual lives of the people set the stage for more tumultuous times in the days of subsequent kings and paved the way for the fall of Israel. The rich landowners (including the king) oppressed the peasants and caused the lower-class landowners to migrate from the farms to the cities. The social repercussions were soon to engulf Israel in a wave of corruption. Anarchy was a product of those times (Hos 4:1-2; 7:1-7; 8:3-4; 9:15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Hosea’s prophetic ministry commenced with the reign of Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>) and extended to that of Hezekiah of Judah (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Several factors indicate that Hosea continued prophesying under Hoshea of Israel (732–722 <span>BC<\/span>): (1) “Shalman” (Hos 10:14) may be Shalmaneser of Assyria, who invaded Israel early in the reign of Hoshea (2 Kgs 17:3). (2) “Jareb” (Hos 5:13; 10:6, both <span>kjv<\/span>) may be Sargon II (722–705 <span>BC<\/span>). (3) Predictions of the Assyrian invasion appear to refer to an imminent event (10:5-6; 13:15-16). (4) Mention of Egypt and Israel’s dependence on that nation seem to fit the reign of Hoshea (7:11; 11:11). These factors confirm that the compilation of Hosea’s messages may have taken place very near to the time of Israel’s fall (722 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OriginandDestination\">Origin and Destination<\/p>\n<p>Hosea prophesied while residing in Israel. He refers to the king in Samaria as “our king” (Hos 7:5). His descriptions of Israel show that he was familiar with the geography of the northern kingdom. Gilead is mentioned by Hosea as though he knew that area from personal observation (6:8; 12:11). Hosea was probably the only prophet to the northern kingdom who actually lived there throughout his ministry.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Hosea proclaimed to Israel the need to repent and return to God. He presented the God of Israel as a patient and loving God who remained faithful to his covenant promises. This emphasis is characteristic of Hosea (cf. 2:19).<\/p>\n<p>“Loving-kindness” is the word that best represents the covenant faithfulness and love of Yahweh, and Hosea’s family life was a living illustration of that loving-kindness.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>The major divisions and topics of the book of Hosea may be outlined as follows.<\/p>\n<p>The first three chapters of Hosea are concerned with the example of Hosea’s life, stressing Hosea’s faithfulness and love for his unfaithful wife.<\/p>\n<p>God commanded Hosea to marry the harlot Gomer and to have children by her (1:2–3:5). This command has caused difficulties for some commentators, since priests and prophets in Israel simply did not marry prostitutes. Medieval Jewish writers, therefore, regarded the material as symbolic but unhistorical. Some later scholars drew a distinction between chapters 1 and 3, regarding the latter as an intimate description by Hosea of his marriage; the first chapter was held to contain rather general recollections of his early days as a prophet. Other commentators regarded both chapters as literal fact, while certain scholars thought that chapter 1 was historical whereas chapter 3 represented an allegorical interpretation of the marriage by Hosea himself.<\/p>\n<p>Needless to say, the sexual activities of Gomer have also been discussed widely. Two views predominate. (1) Gomer was a faithful wife to Hosea in their early years of marriage. “A wife of harlotry” (1:2, <span>rsv<\/span>), which is not the common term for “prostitute,” has reference to her sinful and wayward nature, which God later caused to be exposed as an illustration of Israel’s idolatry. (2) Gomer was a publicly known harlot whom Hosea was commanded to marry in order to illustrate Israel’s idolatry and God’s faithful and steadfast love. This latter view seems to have the greatest appeal to evangelical scholars, and is the simplest interpretation within a literal, grammatical, and historical framework of Bible interpretation.<\/p>\n<p>Why it was necessary for her to be ransomed by Hosea is not evident, nor is it known why part of the price was paid in grain and the remainder in money. Perhaps the entire transaction was meant to symbolize God’s deliverance of Israel from future exile, although as far as it is known, the 10 northern tribes did not return from exile in Assyria. Such an interpretation could hardly apply to Judah, since Hosea’s message was not directed at the southern kingdom, although Judah did receive a warning (6:11).<\/p>\n<p>The children born to Hosea and Gomer were given symbolic names. The first child was a son named Jezreel (1:4a), signifying God’s judgment on the house of Jehu for Jehu’s slaughter of the house of Ahab in the valley of Jezreel (2 Kgs 10:1-11, 30).<\/p>\n<p>Lo-ruhamah was the second child (Hos 1:6a), whose name means “not compassioned or pitied.” The judgment of Israel was thus symbolized. The spiritual corruption of the northern kingdom had run its course, and it would be defeated and taken away into captivity (1:6b).<\/p>\n<p>Lo-ammi was the third child, a second son, whose name means “not my people” (1:8-9). This rejection of Israel as God’s covenanted people was to be temporary (1:10–2:1). God’s covenant promises to Abraham (cf. 1:10; Gn 22:17) and to Moses (Ex 19:1-7) would be fulfilled in spite of the disobedience of any particular generation.<\/p>\n<p>Not satisfied with her relationship to her husband, Gomer sought other lovers. Israel pursued the same elusive satisfaction in her flirtation and adultery with heathen deities. The good that their merciful God had bestowed upon them they attributed to pagan gods (Hos 2:8, 12). Repentant Israelites would return to their first love after discovering that there was no lasting satisfaction in their season of sin.<\/p>\n<p>Hosea’s declaration of divorce from Gomer for her adultery depicts Yahweh’s divorce from Israel for her adultery (Hos 2:2; cf. Jer 3:1–4:2). Their children represent the individual members of the nation of Israel in Hosea’s day (Hos 2:2-5).<\/p>\n<p>The illustration of restoration in chapter 3 highlights a concise summary of Israel’s history. Israel’s bondage to sin and Satan (cf. Heb 2:14-15) is symbolized by the price paid by Hosea for Gomer (Hos 3:2). The price was that of a female slave, since Gomer had become the slave of her adultery (cf. Ex 21:32). The days of Gomer’s isolation, like the days of Israel’s exile, were established for cleansing (Hos 3:3; cf. Dt 21:13; 30:2).<\/p>\n<p>After the exile period (“afterward”), and “in the latter days,” Israel will return to her husband to enjoy the blessings of the renewed relationship. In a messianic reference, David “their king” will be resurrected to lead Israel to the Lord (Hos 3:5).<\/p>\n<p>The last major section of Hosea deals in detail with what has already been illustrated and briefly explained in chapters 1–3. Israel’s apostasy (4:1–7:16), punishment (8:1–10:15), and restoration (11:1–14:9) are prophesied by Hosea.<\/p>\n<p>Israel was totally given over to ungodly activities and had separated itself from God (4:1-2; cf. Ex 20:1-17). The people had rejected the word of God through their own indifference and the deception of the priests (Hos 4:6-9; cf. Is 5:13; Am 8:11-12; Zep 1:6). Israel followed the example of corrupt spiritual leaders in the same way her kings followed the corrupt leadership of their predecessors (Hos 4:9). In place of God’s word, Israel turned to idolatry and divination for guidance (vv 12-13). Finally, Israel lost its priestly character (4:6; cf. Ex 19:6) because the priests were chiefly responsible for national apostasy (Hos 5:1).<\/p>\n<p>Upon revealing his case against the northern kingdom, God then issues a caution (5:8-14). The trumpet will be raised in the hills of Benjamin (v 8), the buffer zone between Israel and Judah. The alarm in that region will indicate that Israel is being overrun and Judah is endangered (vv 9-12). The northern kingdom had depended upon the commandment of man, not God (v 11). Israel had turned to Assyria for aid but received treachery and defeat at its hands (v 13). In this prophecy of the fall of Israel to the Assyrians (722 <span>BC<\/span>), Hosea depicts God as the ultimate chastiser (v 14).<\/p>\n<p>God’s call for repentance comes hard upon the heels of the revelation of chastisement (5:15–6:3). (The division of chapters at this point is unfortunate. Hosea 6:1-3 belongs with 5:15.) The exhortation to return to Yahweh could have been Hosea’s own heart response to the revelation he had received. However, it is best to take 6:1-3 as the words employed by the future returning remnant. Assyria did not offer healing, nor would any other nation, but God will heal Israel spiritually, politically, and physically (6:1; cf. Ex 15:26; Dt 32:39; Is 53:5; Ez 37:1-14; Mal 4:2).<\/p>\n<p>After the call to repentance, God returns to his concern for Israel (Hos 6:4-11; cf. 4:15). Israel has turned from its Creator and has disobeyed his message (6:7). Gilead is but one example of the murderous character of Israel (v 8). Even the priests are known for their violence (6:9; cf. 1 Sm 2:12-17; Jer 5:31). The sin of Israel is “horrible” (Hos 6:10).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 7 presents God’s conclusion concerning Israel. Every attempt of God to bring Israel to repentance only reveals more fully the extent of their sin (7:1). They believe they can sin without God taking account (Hos 7:2; cf. Ps 90:8; Mt 12:36-37). Their leaders rejoice that the people are as wicked as the king and the princes themselves (Hos 7:3). All Israel is characterized by habitual adultery (v 4). Israel has not separated itself from the heathen (Hos 7:8; cf. Ex 34:12-16; 2 Cor 6:14–7:1). Like “a cake not turned” (Hos 7:8), Israel is not well balanced spiritually or politically but has one side done to a turn and the other side raw.<\/p>\n<p>In the area of foreign affairs, Israel has flitted about from Egypt to Assyria and back again “like a silly dove” without understanding (Hos 7:11). They did not seek the Lord’s counsel in their time of need but depended upon worldly powers. The lack of faith in Yahweh and the lack of separation from sin will bring chastisement from God (Hos 7:12; cf. 1 Cor 11:32; Heb 12:5-15).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 8 deals with Israel’s reaping of judgment (cf. Hos 8:7). An alarm is sounded to warn the people of the approach of the Assyrians (Hos 8:1; cf. Ez 17:2-21). They would come against Israel (Hos 8:1) because of their transgression of the Sinai covenant (cf. Dt 27:9–29:29) and disobedience to the law of Moses. Crying falsely to God for deliverance from his rod of punishment (cf. Is 10:5), Israel will receive no answer and Assyria will continue to pursue the 10 tribes (Hos 8:2-3). Other reasons for God’s judgment include setting up kings without God’s direction (v 4a) and idolatry (vv 4b-6). Israel’s sacrifices were unacceptable because of the nation’s disobedience (cf. 1 Sm 15:22; Is 1:11-15). Thus they would go into exile just like the earlier exile in Egypt (Hos 8:13).<\/p>\n<p>The theme of exile is continued in chapter 9 of Hosea. There is no joy for Israel (v 1). The produce of the land will not sustain her because she will no longer dwell in the land (vv 2-3). Some Israelites will flee to Egypt in exile, while others will be taken captive to Assyria. All the sacrifices will cease and the sacrificial wines and meats will be drunk and eaten to satisfy their own needs (vv 4-5). Those Israelites who flee to Egypt will be slain by the Egyptians (v 6).<\/p>\n<p>The recompense of Israel’s evil is further described in chapter 10. Israel is like a luxuriant vine (10:1), but its bounty is misappropriated, being poured out as sacrifice on heathen altars. They are guilty before God, and he is about to destroy their altars and take away their king (vv 2-3). Gibeah is mentioned again (cf. 9:9), reminding Israel that apostasy is not only infectious, it is also indelible (10:9). The “two crimes” (<span>njb<\/span>) of verse 10 may refer to the two calf idols in Bethel and Dan that brought chastisement from God. The punishment will be a sentence of hard labor under a heavy yoke (v 11).<\/p>\n<p>Chapters 11 through 14 close the prophecies of Hosea with a message concerning the restoration of Israel at a future time. The steadfast love of the Father is first given as the ground of future restoration (11:1-12). Israel, as a nation, had been called out of Egypt as a son of Yahweh (Hos 11:1; cf. Ex 4:22-23). Yet Israel did not return the Father’s love, but sought pagan alliances (Hos 11:5) that would only bring judgment upon them (vv 5-7). The words of Yahweh reveal his irreversible judgment in his absolute holiness and righteousness (12:1–13:16). The sins of Israel can only be responded to with just recompense (12:1-2). The responsibility for the destruction of the northern kingdom rests upon Israel herself. In spite of Israel’s sin, God can yet be her help (13:9).<\/p>\n<p>Israel should have repented quickly, but she did not (13:13). Yet the mercy of Yahweh would ultimately bring about the death of death itself so that Israel might live—spiritually, politically, and perhaps physically (Hos 13:14; cf. Ez 37:1-14; Dn 12:1-2, 13).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 14 of Hosea sets forth the Father’s loving invitation for Israel to repent and return to him in confession, prayer, and praise (Hos 14:2). “Calves of our lips” (v 2, <span>kjv<\/span>) refers to the thank offering, which normally included young bulls (Ex 24:5; Lv 7:11-15; cf. Pss 51:17-19; 69:30-31; Heb 13:15-16). Part of Israel’s confession will involve recognizing that there is no salvation in either Assyria (political alliance) or idols (Hos 14:3).<\/p>\n<p>God repeatedly promises blessing to Israel in their restoration (note “I will,” 14:4-5). Yahweh will heal Israel spiritually, love them freely, prosper them completely, and protect them fully (vv 4-7). Israel will be as beautiful as the lily, durable as the cedar, and fruitful as the olive tree.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Message\">Message<\/p>\n<p>The primary emphasis of Hosea is summarized in the last verse (14:9). The wise will live godly lives, and the foolish will live ungodly lives. The godly will have restoration, victory over death (13:14), and blessing (14:4-7).<\/p>\n<p>Idolatry is essentially anything that usurps the sole place of God in the human heart. In place of Yahweh’s counsel, aid, blessing, and salvation, Israel had substituted heathen deities (4:12-19), national pride (5:5), religious ceremony (6:6), political expediency (7:3), political alliances (7:11), civil government (8:4), building projects (8:14), selfish affluence (10:1), and idolatry (13:2). Only in God could they find true blessing and security (13:4, 9; 14:4-7).<\/p>\n<p>Apostasy is presented by Hosea as infectious. The cycle of apostasy may begin with the spiritual leaders or with the people and spread from one to the other (4:9). Apostasy is punished according to the degree of responsibility (5:1; 13:9; 14:4).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Hosea (Person); Israel, History of; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HOSEA, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>First of the 12 minor prophets in the traditional arrangements of the OT books. It was written in the last part of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>. Hosea’s prophecies were proclaimed to the northern kingdom of Israel in the final years of its existence. Hosea was the only prophet to reside in the northern kingdom and also to preach there. God commissioned Hosea to reveal the widespread apostasy and corruption in the northern kingdom and to exhort his fellow countrymen to repent and return to God. Hosea had the unique privilege of illustrating—in his own life—the steadfast covenant love that God had for Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Origin and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p>• Message<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>Hosea’s ministry extended over a period of at least 38 years (c. 753–715 <span>BC<\/span>), and he appears as a knowledgeable individual, whether he was a peasant or a member of the wealthier class in Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Hosea’s marriage to the prostitute Gomer may have been controversial in his own day, and it has certainly caused a great deal of controversy among Bible students and commentators. It seems best to recognize that Gomer was a publicly known harlot whom Hosea was commanded to marry for the purpose of illustrating Israel’s apostasy and God’s steadfast covenant love.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Authenticity\">Authenticity<\/p>\n<p>The authenticity and unity of Hosea is not seriously questioned, even by higher criticism. But two areas of controversy are (1) passages that refer to Judah (e.g., 1:1, 7, 11; 4:15; 5:5, 10-14; 6:4, 11; 8:14; 11:12; 12:2), and (2) those sections that refer to future blessing or national deliverance (e.g., 11:8-11; 14:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>Hosea’s references to Judah, however, could be expected from a man of God chagrined by the separation of Israel from the legitimate Davidic line. The northern kingdom, with its ungodly kings, was on the verge of judgment from God. Hosea evidently had received divine revelation concerning his dealings with Judah as well as Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The references to the future blessings and deliverance of Israel do not neutralize the condemnation of the sins of Israel, any more than Hosea’s constant love for and reconciliation with adulterous Gomer neutralizes her sin. Restoration and forgiveness need not ignore guilt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Hosea lived during the prosperous days of the northern kingdom of Israel under Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>). He also saw its defeat and the deportation of its people after the invasion by the Assyrians (722 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In Hosea 1:1 the following kings are named: from the southern kingdom of Judah—Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah; and from the northern kingdom of Israel—Joash and Jeroboam. Uzziah was a contemporary of both Joash and Jeroboam. Ahaz was king of Judah when Israel was taken captive by Assyria. Hezekiah may have been a co-regent with Ahaz at the time of the Assyrian captivity.<\/p>\n<p>Jeroboam reigned over Israel for 41 years and followed the evil example of his father, Nebat (2 Kgs 14:23-24). Though Israel was prosperous and successful during Jeroboam’s reign, the corruption in the government and the degeneracy in the spiritual lives of the people set the stage for more tumultuous times in the days of subsequent kings and paved the way for the fall of Israel. The rich landowners (including the king) oppressed the peasants and caused the lower-class landowners to migrate from the farms to the cities. The social repercussions were soon to engulf Israel in a wave of corruption. Anarchy was a product of those times (Hos 4:1-2; 7:1-7; 8:3-4; 9:15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Hosea’s prophetic ministry commenced with the reign of Jeroboam II (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>) and extended to that of Hezekiah of Judah (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Several factors indicate that Hosea continued prophesying under Hoshea of Israel (732–722 <span>BC<\/span>): (1) “Shalman” (Hos 10:14) may be Shalmaneser of Assyria, who invaded Israel early in the reign of Hoshea (2 Kgs 17:3). (2) “Jareb” (Hos 5:13; 10:6, both <span>kjv<\/span>) may be Sargon II (722–705 <span>BC<\/span>). (3) Predictions of the Assyrian invasion appear to refer to an imminent event (10:5-6; 13:15-16). (4) Mention of Egypt and Israel’s dependence on that nation seem to fit the reign of Hoshea (7:11; 11:11). These factors confirm that the compilation of Hosea’s messages may have taken place very near to the time of Israel’s fall (722 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OriginandDestination\">Origin and Destination<\/p>\n<p>Hosea prophesied while residing in Israel. He refers to the king in Samaria as “our king” (Hos 7:5). His descriptions of Israel show that he was familiar with the geography of the northern kingdom. Gilead is mentioned by Hosea as though he knew that area from personal observation (6:8; 12:11). Hosea was probably the only prophet to the northern kingdom who actually lived there throughout his ministry.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Purpose\">Purpose<\/p>\n<p>Hosea proclaimed to Israel the need to repent and return to God. He presented the God of Israel as a patient and loving God who remained faithful to his covenant promises. This emphasis is characteristic of Hosea (cf. 2:19).<\/p>\n<p>“Loving-kindness” is the word that best represents the covenant faithfulness and love of Yahweh, and Hosea’s family life was a living illustration of that loving-kindness.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>The major divisions and topics of the book of Hosea may be outlined as follows.<\/p>\n<p>The first three chapters of Hosea are concerned with the example of Hosea’s life, stressing Hosea’s faithfulness and love for his unfaithful wife.<\/p>\n<p>God commanded Hosea to marry the harlot Gomer and to have children by her (1:2–3:5). This command has caused difficulties for some commentators, since priests and prophets in Israel simply did not marry prostitutes. Medieval Jewish writers, therefore, regarded the material as symbolic but unhistorical. Some later scholars drew a distinction between chapters 1 and 3, regarding the latter as an intimate description by Hosea of his marriage; the first chapter was held to contain rather general recollections of his early days as a prophet. Other commentators regarded both chapters as literal fact, while certain scholars thought that chapter 1 was historical whereas chapter 3 represented an allegorical interpretation of the marriage by Hosea himself.<\/p>\n<p>Needless to say, the sexual activities of Gomer have also been discussed widely. Two views predominate. (1) Gomer was a faithful wife to Hosea in their early years of marriage. “A wife of harlotry” (1:2, <span>rsv<\/span>), which is not the common term for “prostitute,” has reference to her sinful and wayward nature, which God later caused to be exposed as an illustration of Israel’s idolatry. (2) Gomer was a publicly known harlot whom Hosea was commanded to marry in order to illustrate Israel’s idolatry and God’s faithful and steadfast love. This latter view seems to have the greatest appeal to evangelical scholars, and is the simplest interpretation within a literal, grammatical, and historical framework of Bible interpretation.<\/p>\n<p>Why it was necessary for her to be ransomed by Hosea is not evident, nor is it known why part of the price was paid in grain and the remainder in money. Perhaps the entire transaction was meant to symbolize God’s deliverance of Israel from future exile, although as far as it is known, the 10 northern tribes did not return from exile in Assyria. Such an interpretation could hardly apply to Judah, since Hosea’s message was not directed at the southern kingdom, although Judah did receive a warning (6:11).<\/p>\n<p>The children born to Hosea and Gomer were given symbolic names. The first child was a son named Jezreel (1:4a), signifying God’s judgment on the house of Jehu for Jehu’s slaughter of the house of Ahab in the valley of Jezreel (2 Kgs 10:1-11, 30).<\/p>\n<p>Lo-ruhamah was the second child (Hos 1:6a), whose name means “not compassioned or pitied.” The judgment of Israel was thus symbolized. The spiritual corruption of the northern kingdom had run its course, and it would be defeated and taken away into captivity (1:6b).<\/p>\n<p>Lo-ammi was the third child, a second son, whose name means “not my people” (1:8-9). This rejection of Israel as God’s covenanted people was to be temporary (1:10–2:1). God’s covenant promises to Abraham (cf. 1:10; Gn 22:17) and to Moses (Ex 19:1-7) would be fulfilled in spite of the disobedience of any particular generation.<\/p>\n<p>Not satisfied with her relationship to her husband, Gomer sought other lovers. Israel pursued the same elusive satisfaction in her flirtation and adultery with heathen deities. The good that their merciful God had bestowed upon them they attributed to pagan gods (Hos 2:8, 12). Repentant Israelites would return to their first love after discovering that there was no lasting satisfaction in their season of sin.<\/p>\n<p>Hosea’s declaration of divorce from Gomer for her adultery depicts Yahweh’s divorce from Israel for her adultery (Hos 2:2; cf. Jer 3:1–4:2). Their children represent the individual members of the nation of Israel in Hosea’s day (Hos 2:2-5).<\/p>\n<p>The illustration of restoration in chapter 3 highlights a concise summary of Israel’s history. Israel’s bondage to sin and Satan (cf. Heb 2:14-15) is symbolized by the price paid by Hosea for Gomer (Hos 3:2). The price was that of a female slave, since Gomer had become the slave of her adultery (cf. Ex 21:32). The days of Gomer’s isolation, like the days of Israel’s exile, were established for cleansing (Hos 3:3; cf. Dt 21:13; 30:2).<\/p>\n<p>After the exile period (“afterward”), and “in the latter days,” Israel will return to her husband to enjoy the blessings of the renewed relationship. In a messianic reference, David “their king” will be resurrected to lead Israel to the Lord (Hos 3:5).<\/p>\n<p>The last major section of Hosea deals in detail with what has already been illustrated and briefly explained in chapters 1–3. Israel’s apostasy (4:1–7:16), punishment (8:1–10:15), and restoration (11:1–14:9) are prophesied by Hosea.<\/p>\n<p>Israel was totally given over to ungodly activities and had separated itself from God (4:1-2; cf. Ex 20:1-17). The people had rejected the word of God through their own indifference and the deception of the priests (Hos 4:6-9; cf. Is 5:13; Am 8:11-12; Zep 1:6). Israel followed the example of corrupt spiritual leaders in the same way her kings followed the corrupt leadership of their predecessors (Hos 4:9). In place of God’s word, Israel turned to idolatry and divination for guidance (vv 12-13). Finally, Israel lost its priestly character (4:6; cf. Ex 19:6) because the priests were chiefly responsible for national apostasy (Hos 5:1).<\/p>\n<p>Upon revealing his case against the northern kingdom, God then issues a caution (5:8-14). The trumpet will be raised in the hills of Benjamin (v 8), the buffer zone between Israel and Judah. The alarm in that region will indicate that Israel is being overrun and Judah is endangered (vv 9-12). The northern kingdom had depended upon the commandment of man, not God (v 11). Israel had turned to Assyria for aid but received treachery and defeat at its hands (v 13). In this prophecy of the fall of Israel to the Assyrians (722 <span>BC<\/span>), Hosea depicts God as the ultimate chastiser (v 14).<\/p>\n<p>God’s call for repentance comes hard upon the heels of the revelation of chastisement (5:15–6:3). (The division of chapters at this point is unfortunate. Hosea 6:1-3 belongs with 5:15.) The exhortation to return to Yahweh could have been Hosea’s own heart response to the revelation he had received. However, it is best to take 6:1-3 as the words employed by the future returning remnant. Assyria did not offer healing, nor would any other nation, but God will heal Israel spiritually, politically, and physically (6:1; cf. Ex 15:26; Dt 32:39; Is 53:5; Ez 37:1-14; Mal 4:2).<\/p>\n<p>After the call to repentance, God returns to his concern for Israel (Hos 6:4-11; cf. 4:15). Israel has turned from its Creator and has disobeyed his message (6:7). Gilead is but one example of the murderous character of Israel (v 8). Even the priests are known for their violence (6:9; cf. 1 Sm 2:12-17; Jer 5:31). The sin of Israel is “horrible” (Hos 6:10).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 7 presents God’s conclusion concerning Israel. Every attempt of God to bring Israel to repentance only reveals more fully the extent of their sin (7:1). They believe they can sin without God taking account (Hos 7:2; cf. Ps 90:8; Mt 12:36-37). Their leaders rejoice that the people are as wicked as the king and the princes themselves (Hos 7:3). All Israel is characterized by habitual adultery (v 4). Israel has not separated itself from the heathen (Hos 7:8; cf. Ex 34:12-16; 2 Cor 6:14–7:1). Like “a cake not turned” (Hos 7:8), Israel is not well balanced spiritually or politically but has one side done to a turn and the other side raw.<\/p>\n<p>In the area of foreign affairs, Israel has flitted about from Egypt to Assyria and back again “like a silly dove” without understanding (Hos 7:11). They did not seek the Lord’s counsel in their time of need but depended upon worldly powers. The lack of faith in Yahweh and the lack of separation from sin will bring chastisement from God (Hos 7:12; cf. 1 Cor 11:32; Heb 12:5-15).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 8 deals with Israel’s reaping of judgment (cf. Hos 8:7). An alarm is sounded to warn the people of the approach of the Assyrians (Hos 8:1; cf. Ez 17:2-21). They would come against Israel (Hos 8:1) because of their transgression of the Sinai covenant (cf. Dt 27:9–29:29) and disobedience to the law of Moses. Crying falsely to God for deliverance from his rod of punishment (cf. Is 10:5), Israel will receive no answer and Assyria will continue to pursue the 10 tribes (Hos 8:2-3). Other reasons for God’s judgment include setting up kings without God’s direction (v 4a) and idolatry (vv 4b-6). Israel’s sacrifices were unacceptable because of the nation’s disobedience (cf. 1 Sm 15:22; Is 1:11-15). Thus they would go into exile just like the earlier exile in Egypt (Hos 8:13).<\/p>\n<p>The theme of exile is continued in chapter 9 of Hosea. There is no joy for Israel (v 1). The produce of the land will not sustain her because she will no longer dwell in the land (vv 2-3). Some Israelites will flee to Egypt in exile, while others will be taken captive to Assyria. All the sacrifices will cease and the sacrificial wines and meats will be drunk and eaten to satisfy their own needs (vv 4-5). Those Israelites who flee to Egypt will be slain by the Egyptians (v 6).<\/p>\n<p>The recompense of Israel’s evil is further described in chapter 10. Israel is like a luxuriant vine (10:1), but its bounty is misappropriated, being poured out as sacrifice on heathen altars. They are guilty before God, and he is about to destroy their altars and take away their king (vv 2-3). Gibeah is mentioned again (cf. 9:9), reminding Israel that apostasy is not only infectious, it is also indelible (10:9). The “two crimes” (<span>njb<\/span>) of verse 10 may refer to the two calf idols in Bethel and Dan that brought chastisement from God. The punishment will be a sentence of hard labor under a heavy yoke (v 11).<\/p>\n<p>Chapters 11 through 14 close the prophecies of Hosea with a message concerning the restoration of Israel at a future time. The steadfast love of the Father is first given as the ground of future restoration (11:1-12). Israel, as a nation, had been called out of Egypt as a son of Yahweh (Hos 11:1; cf. Ex 4:22-23). Yet Israel did not return the Father’s love, but sought pagan alliances (Hos 11:5) that would only bring judgment upon them (vv 5-7). The words of Yahweh reveal his irreversible judgment in his absolute holiness and righteousness (12:1–13:16). The sins of Israel can only be responded to with just recompense (12:1-2). The responsibility for the destruction of the northern kingdom rests upon Israel herself. In spite of Israel’s sin, God can yet be her help (13:9).<\/p>\n<p>Israel should have repented quickly, but she did not (13:13). Yet the mercy of Yahweh would ultimately bring about the death of death itself so that Israel might live—spiritually, politically, and perhaps physically (Hos 13:14; cf. Ez 37:1-14; Dn 12:1-2, 13).<\/p>\n<p>Chapter 14 of Hosea sets forth the Father’s loving invitation for Israel to repent and return to him in confession, prayer, and praise (Hos 14:2). “Calves of our lips” (v 2, <span>kjv<\/span>) refers to the thank offering, which normally included young bulls (Ex 24:5; Lv 7:11-15; cf. Pss 51:17-19; 69:30-31; Heb 13:15-16). Part of Israel’s confession will involve recognizing that there is no salvation in either Assyria (political alliance) or idols (Hos 14:3).<\/p>\n<p>God repeatedly promises blessing to Israel in their restoration (note “I will,” 14:4-5). Yahweh will heal Israel spiritually, love them freely, prosper them completely, and protect them fully (vv 4-7). Israel will be as beautiful as the lily, durable as the cedar, and fruitful as the olive tree.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Message\">Message<\/p>\n<p>The primary emphasis of Hosea is summarized in the last verse (14:9). The wise will live godly lives, and the foolish will live ungodly lives. The godly will have restoration, victory over death (13:14), and blessing (14:4-7).<\/p>\n<p>Idolatry is essentially anything that usurps the sole place of God in the human heart. In place of Yahweh’s counsel, aid, blessing, and salvation, Israel had substituted heathen deities (4:12-19), national pride (5:5), religious ceremony (6:6), political expediency (7:3), political alliances (7:11), civil government (8:4), building projects (8:14), selfish affluence (10:1), and idolatry (13:2). Only in God could they find true blessing and security (13:4, 9; 14:4-7).<\/p>\n<p>Apostasy is presented by Hosea as infectious. The cycle of apostasy may begin with the spiritual leaders or with the people and spread from one to the other (4:9). Apostasy is punished according to the degree of responsibility (5:1; 13:9; 14:4).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Hosea (Person); Israel, History of; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HOSEA, Book of First of the 12 minor prophets in the traditional arrangements of the OT books. It was written in the last part of the eighth century BC. Hosea’s prophecies were proclaimed to the northern kingdom of Israel in the final years of its existence. Hosea was the only prophet to reside in the northern kingdom and also to preach there. God commissioned Hosea to reveal the widespread apostasy and corruption in the northern kingdom and to exhort his fellow countrymen to repent and retur...","summary_en":"HOSEA, Book of First of the 12 minor prophets in the traditional arrangements of the OT books. It was written in the last part of the eighth century BC. Hosea’s prophecies were proclaimed to the northern kingdom of Israel in the final years of its existence. Hosea was the only prophet to reside in the northern kingdom and also to preach there. God commissioned Hosea to reveal the widespread apostasy and corruption in the northern kingdom and to exhort his fellow countrymen to repent and retur...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":45224,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 30:2","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 30:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>30:2-3<\/strong> <em>with all your heart and all your soul:<\/em> The expectation of these verses was clearly articulated in the <em>Shema,<\/em> Israel’s great statement of covenant faith and commitment (cp. 6:4). Obedience to the covenant was a prerequisite necessary for Israel to receive God’s forgiveness and return to its land.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>30:2-3<\/strong> <em>with all your heart and all your soul:<\/em> The expectation of these verses was clearly articulated in the <em>Shema,<\/em> Israel’s great statement of covenant faith and commitment (cp. 6:4). Obedience to the covenant was a prerequisite necessary for Israel to receive God’s forgiveness and return to its land.<\/p>","summary_ro":"30:2-3 with all your heart and all your soul: The expectation of these verses was clearly articulated in the Shema, Israel’s great statement of covenant faith and commitment (cp. 6:4). Obedience to the covenant was a prerequisite necessary for Israel to receive God’s forgiveness and return to its land.","summary_en":"30:2-3 with all your heart and all your soul: The expectation of these verses was clearly articulated in the Shema, Israel’s great statement of covenant faith and commitment (cp. 6:4). Obedience to the covenant was a prerequisite necessary for Israel to receive God’s forgiveness and return to its land.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":72850,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 30:2","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 30:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>30:2-3<\/strong> <em>with all your heart and all your soul:<\/em> The expectation of these verses was clearly articulated in the <em>Shema,<\/em> Israel’s great statement of covenant faith and commitment (cp. 6:4). Obedience to the covenant was a prerequisite necessary for Israel to receive God’s forgiveness and return to its land.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>30:2-3<\/strong> <em>with all your heart and all your soul:<\/em> The expectation of these verses was clearly articulated in the <em>Shema,<\/em> Israel’s great statement of covenant faith and commitment (cp. 6:4). Obedience to the covenant was a prerequisite necessary for Israel to receive God’s forgiveness and return to its land.<\/p>","summary_ro":"30:2-3 with all your heart and all your soul: The expectation of these verses was clearly articulated in the Shema, Israel’s great statement of covenant faith and commitment (cp. 6:4). Obedience to the covenant was a prerequisite necessary for Israel to receive God’s forgiveness and return to its land.","summary_en":"30:2-3 with all your heart and all your soul: The expectation of these verses was clearly articulated in the Shema, Israel’s great statement of covenant faith and commitment (cp. 6:4). Obedience to the covenant was a prerequisite necessary for Israel to receive God’s forgiveness and return to its land.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100476,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 30:2","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 30:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>30:2-3<\/strong> <em>with all your heart and all your soul:<\/em> The expectation of these verses was clearly articulated in the <em>Shema,<\/em> Israel’s great statement of covenant faith and commitment (cp. 6:4). Obedience to the covenant was a prerequisite necessary for Israel to receive God’s forgiveness and return to its land.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>30:2-3<\/strong> <em>with all your heart and all your soul:<\/em> The expectation of these verses was clearly articulated in the <em>Shema,<\/em> Israel’s great statement of covenant faith and commitment (cp. 6:4). Obedience to the covenant was a prerequisite necessary for Israel to receive God’s forgiveness and return to its land.<\/p>","summary_ro":"30:2-3 with all your heart and all your soul: The expectation of these verses was clearly articulated in the Shema, Israel’s great statement of covenant faith and commitment (cp. 6:4). Obedience to the covenant was a prerequisite necessary for Israel to receive God’s forgiveness and return to its land.","summary_en":"30:2-3 with all your heart and all your soul: The expectation of these verses was clearly articulated in the Shema, Israel’s great statement of covenant faith and commitment (cp. 6:4). Obedience to the covenant was a prerequisite necessary for Israel to receive God’s forgiveness and return to its land.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128102,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 30:2","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 30:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>30:2-3<\/strong> <em>with all your heart and all your soul:<\/em> The expectation of these verses was clearly articulated in the <em>Shema,<\/em> Israel’s great statement of covenant faith and commitment (cp. 6:4). Obedience to the covenant was a prerequisite necessary for Israel to receive God’s forgiveness and return to its land.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>30:2-3<\/strong> <em>with all your heart and all your soul:<\/em> The expectation of these verses was clearly articulated in the <em>Shema,<\/em> Israel’s great statement of covenant faith and commitment (cp. 6:4). Obedience to the covenant was a prerequisite necessary for Israel to receive God’s forgiveness and return to its land.<\/p>","summary_ro":"30:2-3 with all your heart and all your soul: The expectation of these verses was clearly articulated in the Shema, Israel’s great statement of covenant faith and commitment (cp. 6:4). Obedience to the covenant was a prerequisite necessary for Israel to receive God’s forgiveness and return to its land.","summary_en":"30:2-3 with all your heart and all your soul: The expectation of these verses was clearly articulated in the Shema, Israel’s great statement of covenant faith and commitment (cp. 6:4). Obedience to the covenant was a prerequisite necessary for Israel to receive God’s forgiveness and return to its land.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":64782,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Spiritual Renewal in the Later Prophets","title_en":"Spiritual Renewal in the Later Prophets","content_ro":"<h3>Spiritual Renewal in the Later Prophets<\/h3>\n<p>Haggai repeatedly charged his audience to reflect on how their current situation resulted from neglecting their relationship with God (Hag 1:5-7; 2:15-18). God’s chastisement in a series of natural disasters called for repentance (2:17). Haggai recognized that spiritual renewal had to accompany the physical reconstruction of the Temple (1:12).<\/p>\n<p>The theme of spiritual renewal helps tie the postexilic prophets Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi together. God had indeed brought his people back to their land, as he had promised through the earlier prophets. But the people still needed to attend to their spiritual condition, or they would face additional difficulties. The continuing prospect of failure to obey God during the postexilic period highlights the need for the appearance of the Lord’s “servant” (see Hag 2:23, initially applied to Zerubbabel but later interpreted as pointing to the Messiah). A righteous shepherd-king was coming (Zech 9:9; see also Mal 3:1). God’s presence among his people would return in a definitive way, creation would be restored, and worship of the Lord would be universal.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 30:2-4; Ps 22:27; Isa 11:9–12:6; 44:22, 26-28; 61:6-7; Jer 24:4-7; Amos 4:6-12; Hag 1:7-15; Zech 9:9; 14:9; Mal 3:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Spiritual Renewal in the Later Prophets<\/h3>\n<p>Haggai repeatedly charged his audience to reflect on how their current situation resulted from neglecting their relationship with God (Hag 1:5-7; 2:15-18). God’s chastisement in a series of natural disasters called for repentance (2:17). Haggai recognized that spiritual renewal had to accompany the physical reconstruction of the Temple (1:12).<\/p>\n<p>The theme of spiritual renewal helps tie the postexilic prophets Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi together. God had indeed brought his people back to their land, as he had promised through the earlier prophets. But the people still needed to attend to their spiritual condition, or they would face additional difficulties. The continuing prospect of failure to obey God during the postexilic period highlights the need for the appearance of the Lord’s “servant” (see Hag 2:23, initially applied to Zerubbabel but later interpreted as pointing to the Messiah). A righteous shepherd-king was coming (Zech 9:9; see also Mal 3:1). God’s presence among his people would return in a definitive way, creation would be restored, and worship of the Lord would be universal.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 30:2-4; Ps 22:27; Isa 11:9–12:6; 44:22, 26-28; 61:6-7; Jer 24:4-7; Amos 4:6-12; Hag 1:7-15; Zech 9:9; 14:9; Mal 3:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Spiritual Renewal in the Later Prophets Haggai repeatedly charged his audience to reflect on how their current situation resulted from neglecting their relationship with God (Hag 1:5-7; 2:15-18). God’s chastisement in a series of natural disasters called for repentance (2:17). Haggai recognized that spiritual renewal had to accompany the physical reconstruction of the Temple (1:12). The theme of spiritual renewal helps tie the postexilic prophets Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi together. God h...","summary_en":"Spiritual Renewal in the Later Prophets Haggai repeatedly charged his audience to reflect on how their current situation resulted from neglecting their relationship with God (Hag 1:5-7; 2:15-18). God’s chastisement in a series of natural disasters called for repentance (2:17). Haggai recognized that spiritual renewal had to accompany the physical reconstruction of the Temple (1:12). The theme of spiritual renewal helps tie the postexilic prophets Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi together. God h...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":65029,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Compassionate Healer","title_en":"Compassionate Healer","content_ro":"<h3>Compassionate Healer<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus is frequently described as one who “had compassion.” This expression (sometimes translated “felt sorry” or “took pity”) is used of Jesus in complex situations where (1) distress is expressed (Matt 18:23-26; 20:29-33) and Jesus remedies the distress (Matt 18:27; 20:34), (2) Jesus shows deep emotion (Matt 14:14; 15:32; 18:27; 20:34), or (3) there is a contrast with those who are not compassionate (Matt 9:32-36; 18:27-30; 20:29-34). In the Gospels, the phrase “had compassion” refers only to Jesus directly, but is also used in parables where it can refer to God the Father or to Jesus (Matt 18:27; Luke 10:33; 15:20).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the term compassion is used for God’s covenant love for Israel. God withdrew this compassion to judge Israel’s obstinate unfaithfulness (Isa 27:11; 63:15; Jer 13:14). God restored his compassion when Israel repented (Deut 13:18; 30:2-3; Prov 28:13; Isa 55:7). The Old Testament often describes the messianic age as a time of God’s compassion (Isa 14:1; 49:10, 13; 54:8, 10; 60:10; Jer 12:15; 33:26; Ezek 39:25; Mic 7:19; Hab 3:2; Zech 10:6). The resurgence of this notion in the Gospels reflects this, as the messianic age has dawned and God’s covenant love is once again active in Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 13:18; 30:3; 1 Kgs 8:50-51; Prov 28:13; Isa 14:1; 49:10, 13; 54:7-10; 55:7; 60:10; Jer 12:14-15; 33:26; Ezek 39:25; Mic 7:18-20; Hab 3:2; Zech 1:16; 10:6; Matt 9:35-36; 14:14; 15:32; 18:23-30; 20:29-34; Luke 10:33-37; 15:20-32<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Compassionate Healer<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus is frequently described as one who “had compassion.” This expression (sometimes translated “felt sorry” or “took pity”) is used of Jesus in complex situations where (1) distress is expressed (Matt 18:23-26; 20:29-33) and Jesus remedies the distress (Matt 18:27; 20:34), (2) Jesus shows deep emotion (Matt 14:14; 15:32; 18:27; 20:34), or (3) there is a contrast with those who are not compassionate (Matt 9:32-36; 18:27-30; 20:29-34). In the Gospels, the phrase “had compassion” refers only to Jesus directly, but is also used in parables where it can refer to God the Father or to Jesus (Matt 18:27; Luke 10:33; 15:20).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the term compassion is used for God’s covenant love for Israel. God withdrew this compassion to judge Israel’s obstinate unfaithfulness (Isa 27:11; 63:15; Jer 13:14). God restored his compassion when Israel repented (Deut 13:18; 30:2-3; Prov 28:13; Isa 55:7). The Old Testament often describes the messianic age as a time of God’s compassion (Isa 14:1; 49:10, 13; 54:8, 10; 60:10; Jer 12:15; 33:26; Ezek 39:25; Mic 7:19; Hab 3:2; Zech 10:6). The resurgence of this notion in the Gospels reflects this, as the messianic age has dawned and God’s covenant love is once again active in Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 13:18; 30:3; 1 Kgs 8:50-51; Prov 28:13; Isa 14:1; 49:10, 13; 54:7-10; 55:7; 60:10; Jer 12:14-15; 33:26; Ezek 39:25; Mic 7:18-20; Hab 3:2; Zech 1:16; 10:6; Matt 9:35-36; 14:14; 15:32; 18:23-30; 20:29-34; Luke 10:33-37; 15:20-32<\/p>","summary_ro":"Compassionate Healer Jesus is frequently described as one who “had compassion.” This expression (sometimes translated “felt sorry” or “took pity”) is used of Jesus in complex situations where (1) distress is expressed (Matt 18:23-26; 20:29-33) and Jesus remedies the distress (Matt 18:27; 20:34), (2) Jesus shows deep emotion (Matt 14:14; 15:32; 18:27; 20:34), or (3) there is a contrast with those who are not compassionate (Matt 9:32-36; 18:27-30; 20:29-34). In the Gospels, the phrase “had comp...","summary_en":"Compassionate Healer Jesus is frequently described as one who “had compassion.” This expression (sometimes translated “felt sorry” or “took pity”) is used of Jesus in complex situations where (1) distress is expressed (Matt 18:23-26; 20:29-33) and Jesus remedies the distress (Matt 18:27; 20:34), (2) Jesus shows deep emotion (Matt 14:14; 15:32; 18:27; 20:34), or (3) there is a contrast with those who are not compassionate (Matt 9:32-36; 18:27-30; 20:29-34). In the Gospels, the phrase “had comp...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":92408,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Spiritual Renewal in the Later Prophets","title_en":"Spiritual Renewal in the Later Prophets","content_ro":"<h3>Spiritual Renewal in the Later Prophets<\/h3>\n<p>Haggai repeatedly charged his audience to reflect on how their current situation resulted from neglecting their relationship with God (Hag 1:5-7; 2:15-18). God’s chastisement in a series of natural disasters called for repentance (2:17). Haggai recognized that spiritual renewal had to accompany the physical reconstruction of the Temple (1:12).<\/p>\n<p>The theme of spiritual renewal helps tie the postexilic prophets Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi together. God had indeed brought his people back to their land, as he had promised through the earlier prophets. But the people still needed to attend to their spiritual condition, or they would face additional difficulties. The continuing prospect of failure to obey God during the postexilic period highlights the need for the appearance of the Lord’s “servant” (see Hag 2:23, initially applied to Zerubbabel but later interpreted as pointing to the Messiah). A righteous shepherd-king was coming (Zech 9:9; see also Mal 3:1). God’s presence among his people would return in a definitive way, creation would be restored, and worship of the Lord would be universal.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 30:2-4; Ps 22:27; Isa 11:9–12:6; 44:22, 26-28; 61:6-7; Jer 24:4-7; Amos 4:6-12; Hag 1:7-15; Zech 9:9; 14:9; Mal 3:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Spiritual Renewal in the Later Prophets<\/h3>\n<p>Haggai repeatedly charged his audience to reflect on how their current situation resulted from neglecting their relationship with God (Hag 1:5-7; 2:15-18). God’s chastisement in a series of natural disasters called for repentance (2:17). Haggai recognized that spiritual renewal had to accompany the physical reconstruction of the Temple (1:12).<\/p>\n<p>The theme of spiritual renewal helps tie the postexilic prophets Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi together. God had indeed brought his people back to their land, as he had promised through the earlier prophets. But the people still needed to attend to their spiritual condition, or they would face additional difficulties. The continuing prospect of failure to obey God during the postexilic period highlights the need for the appearance of the Lord’s “servant” (see Hag 2:23, initially applied to Zerubbabel but later interpreted as pointing to the Messiah). A righteous shepherd-king was coming (Zech 9:9; see also Mal 3:1). God’s presence among his people would return in a definitive way, creation would be restored, and worship of the Lord would be universal.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 30:2-4; Ps 22:27; Isa 11:9–12:6; 44:22, 26-28; 61:6-7; Jer 24:4-7; Amos 4:6-12; Hag 1:7-15; Zech 9:9; 14:9; Mal 3:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Spiritual Renewal in the Later Prophets Haggai repeatedly charged his audience to reflect on how their current situation resulted from neglecting their relationship with God (Hag 1:5-7; 2:15-18). God’s chastisement in a series of natural disasters called for repentance (2:17). Haggai recognized that spiritual renewal had to accompany the physical reconstruction of the Temple (1:12). The theme of spiritual renewal helps tie the postexilic prophets Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi together. God h...","summary_en":"Spiritual Renewal in the Later Prophets Haggai repeatedly charged his audience to reflect on how their current situation resulted from neglecting their relationship with God (Hag 1:5-7; 2:15-18). God’s chastisement in a series of natural disasters called for repentance (2:17). Haggai recognized that spiritual renewal had to accompany the physical reconstruction of the Temple (1:12). The theme of spiritual renewal helps tie the postexilic prophets Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi together. God h...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":92655,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Compassionate Healer","title_en":"Compassionate Healer","content_ro":"<h3>Compassionate Healer<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus is frequently described as one who “had compassion.” This expression (sometimes translated “felt sorry” or “took pity”) is used of Jesus in complex situations where (1) distress is expressed (Matt 18:23-26; 20:29-33) and Jesus remedies the distress (Matt 18:27; 20:34), (2) Jesus shows deep emotion (Matt 14:14; 15:32; 18:27; 20:34), or (3) there is a contrast with those who are not compassionate (Matt 9:32-36; 18:27-30; 20:29-34). In the Gospels, the phrase “had compassion” refers only to Jesus directly, but is also used in parables where it can refer to God the Father or to Jesus (Matt 18:27; Luke 10:33; 15:20).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the term compassion is used for God’s covenant love for Israel. God withdrew this compassion to judge Israel’s obstinate unfaithfulness (Isa 27:11; 63:15; Jer 13:14). God restored his compassion when Israel repented (Deut 13:18; 30:2-3; Prov 28:13; Isa 55:7). The Old Testament often describes the messianic age as a time of God’s compassion (Isa 14:1; 49:10, 13; 54:8, 10; 60:10; Jer 12:15; 33:26; Ezek 39:25; Mic 7:19; Hab 3:2; Zech 10:6). The resurgence of this notion in the Gospels reflects this, as the messianic age has dawned and God’s covenant love is once again active in Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 13:18; 30:3; 1 Kgs 8:50-51; Prov 28:13; Isa 14:1; 49:10, 13; 54:7-10; 55:7; 60:10; Jer 12:14-15; 33:26; Ezek 39:25; Mic 7:18-20; Hab 3:2; Zech 1:16; 10:6; Matt 9:35-36; 14:14; 15:32; 18:23-30; 20:29-34; Luke 10:33-37; 15:20-32<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Compassionate Healer<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus is frequently described as one who “had compassion.” This expression (sometimes translated “felt sorry” or “took pity”) is used of Jesus in complex situations where (1) distress is expressed (Matt 18:23-26; 20:29-33) and Jesus remedies the distress (Matt 18:27; 20:34), (2) Jesus shows deep emotion (Matt 14:14; 15:32; 18:27; 20:34), or (3) there is a contrast with those who are not compassionate (Matt 9:32-36; 18:27-30; 20:29-34). In the Gospels, the phrase “had compassion” refers only to Jesus directly, but is also used in parables where it can refer to God the Father or to Jesus (Matt 18:27; Luke 10:33; 15:20).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the term compassion is used for God’s covenant love for Israel. God withdrew this compassion to judge Israel’s obstinate unfaithfulness (Isa 27:11; 63:15; Jer 13:14). God restored his compassion when Israel repented (Deut 13:18; 30:2-3; Prov 28:13; Isa 55:7). The Old Testament often describes the messianic age as a time of God’s compassion (Isa 14:1; 49:10, 13; 54:8, 10; 60:10; Jer 12:15; 33:26; Ezek 39:25; Mic 7:19; Hab 3:2; Zech 10:6). The resurgence of this notion in the Gospels reflects this, as the messianic age has dawned and God’s covenant love is once again active in Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 13:18; 30:3; 1 Kgs 8:50-51; Prov 28:13; Isa 14:1; 49:10, 13; 54:7-10; 55:7; 60:10; Jer 12:14-15; 33:26; Ezek 39:25; Mic 7:18-20; Hab 3:2; Zech 1:16; 10:6; Matt 9:35-36; 14:14; 15:32; 18:23-30; 20:29-34; Luke 10:33-37; 15:20-32<\/p>","summary_ro":"Compassionate Healer Jesus is frequently described as one who “had compassion.” This expression (sometimes translated “felt sorry” or “took pity”) is used of Jesus in complex situations where (1) distress is expressed (Matt 18:23-26; 20:29-33) and Jesus remedies the distress (Matt 18:27; 20:34), (2) Jesus shows deep emotion (Matt 14:14; 15:32; 18:27; 20:34), or (3) there is a contrast with those who are not compassionate (Matt 9:32-36; 18:27-30; 20:29-34). In the Gospels, the phrase “had comp...","summary_en":"Compassionate Healer Jesus is frequently described as one who “had compassion.” This expression (sometimes translated “felt sorry” or “took pity”) is used of Jesus in complex situations where (1) distress is expressed (Matt 18:23-26; 20:29-33) and Jesus remedies the distress (Matt 18:27; 20:34), (2) Jesus shows deep emotion (Matt 14:14; 15:32; 18:27; 20:34), or (3) there is a contrast with those who are not compassionate (Matt 9:32-36; 18:27-30; 20:29-34). In the Gospels, the phrase “had comp...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":120034,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Spiritual Renewal in the Later Prophets","title_en":"Spiritual Renewal in the Later Prophets","content_ro":"<h3>Spiritual Renewal in the Later Prophets<\/h3>\n<p>Haggai repeatedly charged his audience to reflect on how their current situation resulted from neglecting their relationship with God (Hag 1:5-7; 2:15-18). God’s chastisement in a series of natural disasters called for repentance (2:17). Haggai recognized that spiritual renewal had to accompany the physical reconstruction of the Temple (1:12).<\/p>\n<p>The theme of spiritual renewal helps tie the postexilic prophets Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi together. God had indeed brought his people back to their land, as he had promised through the earlier prophets. But the people still needed to attend to their spiritual condition, or they would face additional difficulties. The continuing prospect of failure to obey God during the postexilic period highlights the need for the appearance of the Lord’s “servant” (see Hag 2:23, initially applied to Zerubbabel but later interpreted as pointing to the Messiah). A righteous shepherd-king was coming (Zech 9:9; see also Mal 3:1). God’s presence among his people would return in a definitive way, creation would be restored, and worship of the Lord would be universal.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 30:2-4; Ps 22:27; Isa 11:9–12:6; 44:22, 26-28; 61:6-7; Jer 24:4-7; Amos 4:6-12; Hag 1:7-15; Zech 9:9; 14:9; Mal 3:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Spiritual Renewal in the Later Prophets<\/h3>\n<p>Haggai repeatedly charged his audience to reflect on how their current situation resulted from neglecting their relationship with God (Hag 1:5-7; 2:15-18). God’s chastisement in a series of natural disasters called for repentance (2:17). Haggai recognized that spiritual renewal had to accompany the physical reconstruction of the Temple (1:12).<\/p>\n<p>The theme of spiritual renewal helps tie the postexilic prophets Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi together. God had indeed brought his people back to their land, as he had promised through the earlier prophets. But the people still needed to attend to their spiritual condition, or they would face additional difficulties. The continuing prospect of failure to obey God during the postexilic period highlights the need for the appearance of the Lord’s “servant” (see Hag 2:23, initially applied to Zerubbabel but later interpreted as pointing to the Messiah). A righteous shepherd-king was coming (Zech 9:9; see also Mal 3:1). God’s presence among his people would return in a definitive way, creation would be restored, and worship of the Lord would be universal.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 30:2-4; Ps 22:27; Isa 11:9–12:6; 44:22, 26-28; 61:6-7; Jer 24:4-7; Amos 4:6-12; Hag 1:7-15; Zech 9:9; 14:9; Mal 3:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Spiritual Renewal in the Later Prophets Haggai repeatedly charged his audience to reflect on how their current situation resulted from neglecting their relationship with God (Hag 1:5-7; 2:15-18). God’s chastisement in a series of natural disasters called for repentance (2:17). Haggai recognized that spiritual renewal had to accompany the physical reconstruction of the Temple (1:12). The theme of spiritual renewal helps tie the postexilic prophets Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi together. God h...","summary_en":"Spiritual Renewal in the Later Prophets Haggai repeatedly charged his audience to reflect on how their current situation resulted from neglecting their relationship with God (Hag 1:5-7; 2:15-18). God’s chastisement in a series of natural disasters called for repentance (2:17). Haggai recognized that spiritual renewal had to accompany the physical reconstruction of the Temple (1:12). The theme of spiritual renewal helps tie the postexilic prophets Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi together. God h...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":120281,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Compassionate Healer","title_en":"Compassionate Healer","content_ro":"<h3>Compassionate Healer<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus is frequently described as one who “had compassion.” This expression (sometimes translated “felt sorry” or “took pity”) is used of Jesus in complex situations where (1) distress is expressed (Matt 18:23-26; 20:29-33) and Jesus remedies the distress (Matt 18:27; 20:34), (2) Jesus shows deep emotion (Matt 14:14; 15:32; 18:27; 20:34), or (3) there is a contrast with those who are not compassionate (Matt 9:32-36; 18:27-30; 20:29-34). In the Gospels, the phrase “had compassion” refers only to Jesus directly, but is also used in parables where it can refer to God the Father or to Jesus (Matt 18:27; Luke 10:33; 15:20).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the term compassion is used for God’s covenant love for Israel. God withdrew this compassion to judge Israel’s obstinate unfaithfulness (Isa 27:11; 63:15; Jer 13:14). God restored his compassion when Israel repented (Deut 13:18; 30:2-3; Prov 28:13; Isa 55:7). The Old Testament often describes the messianic age as a time of God’s compassion (Isa 14:1; 49:10, 13; 54:8, 10; 60:10; Jer 12:15; 33:26; Ezek 39:25; Mic 7:19; Hab 3:2; Zech 10:6). The resurgence of this notion in the Gospels reflects this, as the messianic age has dawned and God’s covenant love is once again active in Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 13:18; 30:3; 1 Kgs 8:50-51; Prov 28:13; Isa 14:1; 49:10, 13; 54:7-10; 55:7; 60:10; Jer 12:14-15; 33:26; Ezek 39:25; Mic 7:18-20; Hab 3:2; Zech 1:16; 10:6; Matt 9:35-36; 14:14; 15:32; 18:23-30; 20:29-34; Luke 10:33-37; 15:20-32<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Compassionate Healer<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus is frequently described as one who “had compassion.” This expression (sometimes translated “felt sorry” or “took pity”) is used of Jesus in complex situations where (1) distress is expressed (Matt 18:23-26; 20:29-33) and Jesus remedies the distress (Matt 18:27; 20:34), (2) Jesus shows deep emotion (Matt 14:14; 15:32; 18:27; 20:34), or (3) there is a contrast with those who are not compassionate (Matt 9:32-36; 18:27-30; 20:29-34). In the Gospels, the phrase “had compassion” refers only to Jesus directly, but is also used in parables where it can refer to God the Father or to Jesus (Matt 18:27; Luke 10:33; 15:20).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the term compassion is used for God’s covenant love for Israel. God withdrew this compassion to judge Israel’s obstinate unfaithfulness (Isa 27:11; 63:15; Jer 13:14). God restored his compassion when Israel repented (Deut 13:18; 30:2-3; Prov 28:13; Isa 55:7). The Old Testament often describes the messianic age as a time of God’s compassion (Isa 14:1; 49:10, 13; 54:8, 10; 60:10; Jer 12:15; 33:26; Ezek 39:25; Mic 7:19; Hab 3:2; Zech 10:6). The resurgence of this notion in the Gospels reflects this, as the messianic age has dawned and God’s covenant love is once again active in Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 13:18; 30:3; 1 Kgs 8:50-51; Prov 28:13; Isa 14:1; 49:10, 13; 54:7-10; 55:7; 60:10; Jer 12:14-15; 33:26; Ezek 39:25; Mic 7:18-20; Hab 3:2; Zech 1:16; 10:6; Matt 9:35-36; 14:14; 15:32; 18:23-30; 20:29-34; Luke 10:33-37; 15:20-32<\/p>","summary_ro":"Compassionate Healer Jesus is frequently described as one who “had compassion.” This expression (sometimes translated “felt sorry” or “took pity”) is used of Jesus in complex situations where (1) distress is expressed (Matt 18:23-26; 20:29-33) and Jesus remedies the distress (Matt 18:27; 20:34), (2) Jesus shows deep emotion (Matt 14:14; 15:32; 18:27; 20:34), or (3) there is a contrast with those who are not compassionate (Matt 9:32-36; 18:27-30; 20:29-34). In the Gospels, the phrase “had comp...","summary_en":"Compassionate Healer Jesus is frequently described as one who “had compassion.” This expression (sometimes translated “felt sorry” or “took pity”) is used of Jesus in complex situations where (1) distress is expressed (Matt 18:23-26; 20:29-33) and Jesus remedies the distress (Matt 18:27; 20:34), (2) Jesus shows deep emotion (Matt 14:14; 15:32; 18:27; 20:34), or (3) there is a contrast with those who are not compassionate (Matt 9:32-36; 18:27-30; 20:29-34). In the Gospels, the phrase “had comp...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":147660,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Spiritual Renewal in the Later Prophets","title_en":"Spiritual Renewal in the Later Prophets","content_ro":"<h3>Spiritual Renewal in the Later Prophets<\/h3>\n<p>Haggai repeatedly charged his audience to reflect on how their current situation resulted from neglecting their relationship with God (Hag 1:5-7; 2:15-18). God’s chastisement in a series of natural disasters called for repentance (2:17). Haggai recognized that spiritual renewal had to accompany the physical reconstruction of the Temple (1:12).<\/p>\n<p>The theme of spiritual renewal helps tie the postexilic prophets Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi together. God had indeed brought his people back to their land, as he had promised through the earlier prophets. But the people still needed to attend to their spiritual condition, or they would face additional difficulties. The continuing prospect of failure to obey God during the postexilic period highlights the need for the appearance of the Lord’s “servant” (see Hag 2:23, initially applied to Zerubbabel but later interpreted as pointing to the Messiah). A righteous shepherd-king was coming (Zech 9:9; see also Mal 3:1). God’s presence among his people would return in a definitive way, creation would be restored, and worship of the Lord would be universal.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 30:2-4; Ps 22:27; Isa 11:9–12:6; 44:22, 26-28; 61:6-7; Jer 24:4-7; Amos 4:6-12; Hag 1:7-15; Zech 9:9; 14:9; Mal 3:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Spiritual Renewal in the Later Prophets<\/h3>\n<p>Haggai repeatedly charged his audience to reflect on how their current situation resulted from neglecting their relationship with God (Hag 1:5-7; 2:15-18). God’s chastisement in a series of natural disasters called for repentance (2:17). Haggai recognized that spiritual renewal had to accompany the physical reconstruction of the Temple (1:12).<\/p>\n<p>The theme of spiritual renewal helps tie the postexilic prophets Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi together. God had indeed brought his people back to their land, as he had promised through the earlier prophets. But the people still needed to attend to their spiritual condition, or they would face additional difficulties. The continuing prospect of failure to obey God during the postexilic period highlights the need for the appearance of the Lord’s “servant” (see Hag 2:23, initially applied to Zerubbabel but later interpreted as pointing to the Messiah). A righteous shepherd-king was coming (Zech 9:9; see also Mal 3:1). God’s presence among his people would return in a definitive way, creation would be restored, and worship of the Lord would be universal.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 30:2-4; Ps 22:27; Isa 11:9–12:6; 44:22, 26-28; 61:6-7; Jer 24:4-7; Amos 4:6-12; Hag 1:7-15; Zech 9:9; 14:9; Mal 3:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Spiritual Renewal in the Later Prophets Haggai repeatedly charged his audience to reflect on how their current situation resulted from neglecting their relationship with God (Hag 1:5-7; 2:15-18). God’s chastisement in a series of natural disasters called for repentance (2:17). Haggai recognized that spiritual renewal had to accompany the physical reconstruction of the Temple (1:12). The theme of spiritual renewal helps tie the postexilic prophets Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi together. God h...","summary_en":"Spiritual Renewal in the Later Prophets Haggai repeatedly charged his audience to reflect on how their current situation resulted from neglecting their relationship with God (Hag 1:5-7; 2:15-18). God’s chastisement in a series of natural disasters called for repentance (2:17). Haggai recognized that spiritual renewal had to accompany the physical reconstruction of the Temple (1:12). The theme of spiritual renewal helps tie the postexilic prophets Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi together. God h...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":147907,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Compassionate Healer","title_en":"Compassionate Healer","content_ro":"<h3>Compassionate Healer<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus is frequently described as one who “had compassion.” This expression (sometimes translated “felt sorry” or “took pity”) is used of Jesus in complex situations where (1) distress is expressed (Matt 18:23-26; 20:29-33) and Jesus remedies the distress (Matt 18:27; 20:34), (2) Jesus shows deep emotion (Matt 14:14; 15:32; 18:27; 20:34), or (3) there is a contrast with those who are not compassionate (Matt 9:32-36; 18:27-30; 20:29-34). In the Gospels, the phrase “had compassion” refers only to Jesus directly, but is also used in parables where it can refer to God the Father or to Jesus (Matt 18:27; Luke 10:33; 15:20).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the term compassion is used for God’s covenant love for Israel. God withdrew this compassion to judge Israel’s obstinate unfaithfulness (Isa 27:11; 63:15; Jer 13:14). God restored his compassion when Israel repented (Deut 13:18; 30:2-3; Prov 28:13; Isa 55:7). The Old Testament often describes the messianic age as a time of God’s compassion (Isa 14:1; 49:10, 13; 54:8, 10; 60:10; Jer 12:15; 33:26; Ezek 39:25; Mic 7:19; Hab 3:2; Zech 10:6). The resurgence of this notion in the Gospels reflects this, as the messianic age has dawned and God’s covenant love is once again active in Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 13:18; 30:3; 1 Kgs 8:50-51; Prov 28:13; Isa 14:1; 49:10, 13; 54:7-10; 55:7; 60:10; Jer 12:14-15; 33:26; Ezek 39:25; Mic 7:18-20; Hab 3:2; Zech 1:16; 10:6; Matt 9:35-36; 14:14; 15:32; 18:23-30; 20:29-34; Luke 10:33-37; 15:20-32<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Compassionate Healer<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus is frequently described as one who “had compassion.” This expression (sometimes translated “felt sorry” or “took pity”) is used of Jesus in complex situations where (1) distress is expressed (Matt 18:23-26; 20:29-33) and Jesus remedies the distress (Matt 18:27; 20:34), (2) Jesus shows deep emotion (Matt 14:14; 15:32; 18:27; 20:34), or (3) there is a contrast with those who are not compassionate (Matt 9:32-36; 18:27-30; 20:29-34). In the Gospels, the phrase “had compassion” refers only to Jesus directly, but is also used in parables where it can refer to God the Father or to Jesus (Matt 18:27; Luke 10:33; 15:20).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the term compassion is used for God’s covenant love for Israel. God withdrew this compassion to judge Israel’s obstinate unfaithfulness (Isa 27:11; 63:15; Jer 13:14). God restored his compassion when Israel repented (Deut 13:18; 30:2-3; Prov 28:13; Isa 55:7). The Old Testament often describes the messianic age as a time of God’s compassion (Isa 14:1; 49:10, 13; 54:8, 10; 60:10; Jer 12:15; 33:26; Ezek 39:25; Mic 7:19; Hab 3:2; Zech 10:6). The resurgence of this notion in the Gospels reflects this, as the messianic age has dawned and God’s covenant love is once again active in Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 13:18; 30:3; 1 Kgs 8:50-51; Prov 28:13; Isa 14:1; 49:10, 13; 54:7-10; 55:7; 60:10; Jer 12:14-15; 33:26; Ezek 39:25; Mic 7:18-20; Hab 3:2; Zech 1:16; 10:6; Matt 9:35-36; 14:14; 15:32; 18:23-30; 20:29-34; Luke 10:33-37; 15:20-32<\/p>","summary_ro":"Compassionate Healer Jesus is frequently described as one who “had compassion.” This expression (sometimes translated “felt sorry” or “took pity”) is used of Jesus in complex situations where (1) distress is expressed (Matt 18:23-26; 20:29-33) and Jesus remedies the distress (Matt 18:27; 20:34), (2) Jesus shows deep emotion (Matt 14:14; 15:32; 18:27; 20:34), or (3) there is a contrast with those who are not compassionate (Matt 9:32-36; 18:27-30; 20:29-34). In the Gospels, the phrase “had comp...","summary_en":"Compassionate Healer Jesus is frequently described as one who “had compassion.” This expression (sometimes translated “felt sorry” or “took pity”) is used of Jesus in complex situations where (1) distress is expressed (Matt 18:23-26; 20:29-33) and Jesus remedies the distress (Matt 18:27; 20:34), (2) Jesus shows deep emotion (Matt 14:14; 15:32; 18:27; 20:34), or (3) there is a contrast with those who are not compassionate (Matt 9:32-36; 18:27-30; 20:29-34). In the Gospels, the phrase “had comp...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"3":[{"id":7337,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Compassion","title_en":"Compassion","content_ro":"<h3>COMPASSION<\/h3>\n<p>Quality of showing kindness or favor, of being gracious, or of having pity or mercy. In the Bible, God is described as being like a compassionate father to those who revere him (Ps 103:13). Jesus Christ exemplified God’s compassion in his preaching and healing (Mt 9:36; 14:14), in his concern for the lostness of humanity (Lk 19:41), and finally in his sacrifice on the cross (Rom 5:8). The church is to demonstrate compassion as one facet of the love Jesus commanded (Mt 5:4-7; Jn 13:34; Jas 2:8-18; 1 Jn 3:18). In scriptural usage compassion is always both a feeling and the appropriate action based on that feeling.<\/p>\n<p>In the OT, compassion describes one aspect of God’s covenantal relationship with his people. One of the Hebrew words translated “compassion” is derived from a root word meaning “womb,” thus comparing God’s love with maternal love. God’s compassion, however, went beyond simply feeling the emotion; it was always demonstrated by definite acts that testified to his covenant with Israel. In spite of Israel’s rebellions, God still had compassion on his people (2 Kgs 13:23; 2 Chr 36:15; Ps 78:38), as well as on all his creation (Ps 145:9). When Israel was chastised, the nation often feared that God had permanently withdrawn his favor (Ps 77:9; Is 27:11; 63:15; Jer 13:14; 21:7; Hos 13:14). Yet God’s compassion would revive, and he would restore his people (Dt 30:3; Ps 135:14; Is 14:1; 49:13; 54:7-8; Jer 12:15; 30:18; Mi 7:19).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Jesus Christ, the Son of God, exactly reflected the Father’s compassion in his dealings with a fallen humanity. Jesus healed diseases and infirmities, cast out spirits, empowered others, and sent them out to do likewise. He fed hungry people and, in response to a mother’s grief, raised her only son from the dead. Following Jesus’ example, Christians are to show compassion in dealing with others. Jesus set forth the example in the parables of the Good Samaritan, who had compassion on a wounded traveler (Lk 10:33), and the Prodigal Son, whose father had compassion on him when he returned home (15:20).<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul listed a number of qualities that the Colossian church “as God’s chosen ones” was to incorporate; the first was compassion (Col 3:12). It was to be an integral part of the concept of Christian community. The Greek word means literally “to be moved in one’s bowels.” The term points to the very core of one’s inner feelings, much as the term “heart” does today. One’s intense inner feelings should always lead to outward compassionate acts of mercy and kindness.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>COMPASSION<\/h3>\n<p>Quality of showing kindness or favor, of being gracious, or of having pity or mercy. In the Bible, God is described as being like a compassionate father to those who revere him (Ps 103:13). Jesus Christ exemplified God’s compassion in his preaching and healing (Mt 9:36; 14:14), in his concern for the lostness of humanity (Lk 19:41), and finally in his sacrifice on the cross (Rom 5:8). The church is to demonstrate compassion as one facet of the love Jesus commanded (Mt 5:4-7; Jn 13:34; Jas 2:8-18; 1 Jn 3:18). In scriptural usage compassion is always both a feeling and the appropriate action based on that feeling.<\/p>\n<p>In the OT, compassion describes one aspect of God’s covenantal relationship with his people. One of the Hebrew words translated “compassion” is derived from a root word meaning “womb,” thus comparing God’s love with maternal love. God’s compassion, however, went beyond simply feeling the emotion; it was always demonstrated by definite acts that testified to his covenant with Israel. In spite of Israel’s rebellions, God still had compassion on his people (2 Kgs 13:23; 2 Chr 36:15; Ps 78:38), as well as on all his creation (Ps 145:9). When Israel was chastised, the nation often feared that God had permanently withdrawn his favor (Ps 77:9; Is 27:11; 63:15; Jer 13:14; 21:7; Hos 13:14). Yet God’s compassion would revive, and he would restore his people (Dt 30:3; Ps 135:14; Is 14:1; 49:13; 54:7-8; Jer 12:15; 30:18; Mi 7:19).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Jesus Christ, the Son of God, exactly reflected the Father’s compassion in his dealings with a fallen humanity. Jesus healed diseases and infirmities, cast out spirits, empowered others, and sent them out to do likewise. He fed hungry people and, in response to a mother’s grief, raised her only son from the dead. Following Jesus’ example, Christians are to show compassion in dealing with others. Jesus set forth the example in the parables of the Good Samaritan, who had compassion on a wounded traveler (Lk 10:33), and the Prodigal Son, whose father had compassion on him when he returned home (15:20).<\/p>\n<p>The apostle Paul listed a number of qualities that the Colossian church “as God’s chosen ones” was to incorporate; the first was compassion (Col 3:12). It was to be an integral part of the concept of Christian community. The Greek word means literally “to be moved in one’s bowels.” The term points to the very core of one’s inner feelings, much as the term “heart” does today. One’s intense inner feelings should always lead to outward compassionate acts of mercy and kindness.<\/p>","summary_ro":"COMPASSION Quality of showing kindness or favor, of being gracious, or of having pity or mercy. In the Bible, God is described as being like a compassionate father to those who revere him (Ps 103:13). Jesus Christ exemplified God’s compassion in his preaching and healing (Mt 9:36; 14:14), in his concern for the lostness of humanity (Lk 19:41), and finally in his sacrifice on the cross (Rom 5:8). The church is to demonstrate compassion as one facet of the love Jesus commanded (Mt 5:4-7; Jn 13:...","summary_en":"COMPASSION Quality of showing kindness or favor, of being gracious, or of having pity or mercy. In the Bible, God is described as being like a compassionate father to those who revere him (Ps 103:13). Jesus Christ exemplified God’s compassion in his preaching and healing (Mt 9:36; 14:14), in his concern for the lostness of humanity (Lk 19:41), and finally in his sacrifice on the cross (Rom 5:8). The church is to demonstrate compassion as one facet of the love Jesus commanded (Mt 5:4-7; Jn 13:...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":65044,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Compassionate Healer","title_en":"Compassionate Healer","content_ro":"<h3>Compassionate Healer<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus is frequently described as one who “had compassion.” This expression (sometimes translated “felt sorry” or “took pity”) is used of Jesus in complex situations where (1) distress is expressed (Matt 18:23-26; 20:29-33) and Jesus remedies the distress (Matt 18:27; 20:34), (2) Jesus shows deep emotion (Matt 14:14; 15:32; 18:27; 20:34), or (3) there is a contrast with those who are not compassionate (Matt 9:32-36; 18:27-30; 20:29-34). In the Gospels, the phrase “had compassion” refers only to Jesus directly, but is also used in parables where it can refer to God the Father or to Jesus (Matt 18:27; Luke 10:33; 15:20).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the term compassion is used for God’s covenant love for Israel. God withdrew this compassion to judge Israel’s obstinate unfaithfulness (Isa 27:11; 63:15; Jer 13:14). God restored his compassion when Israel repented (Deut 13:18; 30:2-3; Prov 28:13; Isa 55:7). The Old Testament often describes the messianic age as a time of God’s compassion (Isa 14:1; 49:10, 13; 54:8, 10; 60:10; Jer 12:15; 33:26; Ezek 39:25; Mic 7:19; Hab 3:2; Zech 10:6). The resurgence of this notion in the Gospels reflects this, as the messianic age has dawned and God’s covenant love is once again active in Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 13:18; 30:3; 1 Kgs 8:50-51; Prov 28:13; Isa 14:1; 49:10, 13; 54:7-10; 55:7; 60:10; Jer 12:14-15; 33:26; Ezek 39:25; Mic 7:18-20; Hab 3:2; Zech 1:16; 10:6; Matt 9:35-36; 14:14; 15:32; 18:23-30; 20:29-34; Luke 10:33-37; 15:20-32<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Compassionate Healer<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus is frequently described as one who “had compassion.” This expression (sometimes translated “felt sorry” or “took pity”) is used of Jesus in complex situations where (1) distress is expressed (Matt 18:23-26; 20:29-33) and Jesus remedies the distress (Matt 18:27; 20:34), (2) Jesus shows deep emotion (Matt 14:14; 15:32; 18:27; 20:34), or (3) there is a contrast with those who are not compassionate (Matt 9:32-36; 18:27-30; 20:29-34). In the Gospels, the phrase “had compassion” refers only to Jesus directly, but is also used in parables where it can refer to God the Father or to Jesus (Matt 18:27; Luke 10:33; 15:20).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the term compassion is used for God’s covenant love for Israel. God withdrew this compassion to judge Israel’s obstinate unfaithfulness (Isa 27:11; 63:15; Jer 13:14). God restored his compassion when Israel repented (Deut 13:18; 30:2-3; Prov 28:13; Isa 55:7). The Old Testament often describes the messianic age as a time of God’s compassion (Isa 14:1; 49:10, 13; 54:8, 10; 60:10; Jer 12:15; 33:26; Ezek 39:25; Mic 7:19; Hab 3:2; Zech 10:6). The resurgence of this notion in the Gospels reflects this, as the messianic age has dawned and God’s covenant love is once again active in Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 13:18; 30:3; 1 Kgs 8:50-51; Prov 28:13; Isa 14:1; 49:10, 13; 54:7-10; 55:7; 60:10; Jer 12:14-15; 33:26; Ezek 39:25; Mic 7:18-20; Hab 3:2; Zech 1:16; 10:6; Matt 9:35-36; 14:14; 15:32; 18:23-30; 20:29-34; Luke 10:33-37; 15:20-32<\/p>","summary_ro":"Compassionate Healer Jesus is frequently described as one who “had compassion.” This expression (sometimes translated “felt sorry” or “took pity”) is used of Jesus in complex situations where (1) distress is expressed (Matt 18:23-26; 20:29-33) and Jesus remedies the distress (Matt 18:27; 20:34), (2) Jesus shows deep emotion (Matt 14:14; 15:32; 18:27; 20:34), or (3) there is a contrast with those who are not compassionate (Matt 9:32-36; 18:27-30; 20:29-34). In the Gospels, the phrase “had comp...","summary_en":"Compassionate Healer Jesus is frequently described as one who “had compassion.” This expression (sometimes translated “felt sorry” or “took pity”) is used of Jesus in complex situations where (1) distress is expressed (Matt 18:23-26; 20:29-33) and Jesus remedies the distress (Matt 18:27; 20:34), (2) Jesus shows deep emotion (Matt 14:14; 15:32; 18:27; 20:34), or (3) there is a contrast with those who are not compassionate (Matt 9:32-36; 18:27-30; 20:29-34). In the Gospels, the phrase “had comp...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":92670,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Compassionate Healer","title_en":"Compassionate Healer","content_ro":"<h3>Compassionate Healer<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus is frequently described as one who “had compassion.” This expression (sometimes translated “felt sorry” or “took pity”) is used of Jesus in complex situations where (1) distress is expressed (Matt 18:23-26; 20:29-33) and Jesus remedies the distress (Matt 18:27; 20:34), (2) Jesus shows deep emotion (Matt 14:14; 15:32; 18:27; 20:34), or (3) there is a contrast with those who are not compassionate (Matt 9:32-36; 18:27-30; 20:29-34). In the Gospels, the phrase “had compassion” refers only to Jesus directly, but is also used in parables where it can refer to God the Father or to Jesus (Matt 18:27; Luke 10:33; 15:20).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the term compassion is used for God’s covenant love for Israel. God withdrew this compassion to judge Israel’s obstinate unfaithfulness (Isa 27:11; 63:15; Jer 13:14). God restored his compassion when Israel repented (Deut 13:18; 30:2-3; Prov 28:13; Isa 55:7). The Old Testament often describes the messianic age as a time of God’s compassion (Isa 14:1; 49:10, 13; 54:8, 10; 60:10; Jer 12:15; 33:26; Ezek 39:25; Mic 7:19; Hab 3:2; Zech 10:6). The resurgence of this notion in the Gospels reflects this, as the messianic age has dawned and God’s covenant love is once again active in Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 13:18; 30:3; 1 Kgs 8:50-51; Prov 28:13; Isa 14:1; 49:10, 13; 54:7-10; 55:7; 60:10; Jer 12:14-15; 33:26; Ezek 39:25; Mic 7:18-20; Hab 3:2; Zech 1:16; 10:6; Matt 9:35-36; 14:14; 15:32; 18:23-30; 20:29-34; Luke 10:33-37; 15:20-32<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Compassionate Healer<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus is frequently described as one who “had compassion.” This expression (sometimes translated “felt sorry” or “took pity”) is used of Jesus in complex situations where (1) distress is expressed (Matt 18:23-26; 20:29-33) and Jesus remedies the distress (Matt 18:27; 20:34), (2) Jesus shows deep emotion (Matt 14:14; 15:32; 18:27; 20:34), or (3) there is a contrast with those who are not compassionate (Matt 9:32-36; 18:27-30; 20:29-34). In the Gospels, the phrase “had compassion” refers only to Jesus directly, but is also used in parables where it can refer to God the Father or to Jesus (Matt 18:27; Luke 10:33; 15:20).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the term compassion is used for God’s covenant love for Israel. God withdrew this compassion to judge Israel’s obstinate unfaithfulness (Isa 27:11; 63:15; Jer 13:14). God restored his compassion when Israel repented (Deut 13:18; 30:2-3; Prov 28:13; Isa 55:7). The Old Testament often describes the messianic age as a time of God’s compassion (Isa 14:1; 49:10, 13; 54:8, 10; 60:10; Jer 12:15; 33:26; Ezek 39:25; Mic 7:19; Hab 3:2; Zech 10:6). The resurgence of this notion in the Gospels reflects this, as the messianic age has dawned and God’s covenant love is once again active in Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 13:18; 30:3; 1 Kgs 8:50-51; Prov 28:13; Isa 14:1; 49:10, 13; 54:7-10; 55:7; 60:10; Jer 12:14-15; 33:26; Ezek 39:25; Mic 7:18-20; Hab 3:2; Zech 1:16; 10:6; Matt 9:35-36; 14:14; 15:32; 18:23-30; 20:29-34; Luke 10:33-37; 15:20-32<\/p>","summary_ro":"Compassionate Healer Jesus is frequently described as one who “had compassion.” This expression (sometimes translated “felt sorry” or “took pity”) is used of Jesus in complex situations where (1) distress is expressed (Matt 18:23-26; 20:29-33) and Jesus remedies the distress (Matt 18:27; 20:34), (2) Jesus shows deep emotion (Matt 14:14; 15:32; 18:27; 20:34), or (3) there is a contrast with those who are not compassionate (Matt 9:32-36; 18:27-30; 20:29-34). In the Gospels, the phrase “had comp...","summary_en":"Compassionate Healer Jesus is frequently described as one who “had compassion.” This expression (sometimes translated “felt sorry” or “took pity”) is used of Jesus in complex situations where (1) distress is expressed (Matt 18:23-26; 20:29-33) and Jesus remedies the distress (Matt 18:27; 20:34), (2) Jesus shows deep emotion (Matt 14:14; 15:32; 18:27; 20:34), or (3) there is a contrast with those who are not compassionate (Matt 9:32-36; 18:27-30; 20:29-34). In the Gospels, the phrase “had comp...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":120296,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Compassionate Healer","title_en":"Compassionate Healer","content_ro":"<h3>Compassionate Healer<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus is frequently described as one who “had compassion.” This expression (sometimes translated “felt sorry” or “took pity”) is used of Jesus in complex situations where (1) distress is expressed (Matt 18:23-26; 20:29-33) and Jesus remedies the distress (Matt 18:27; 20:34), (2) Jesus shows deep emotion (Matt 14:14; 15:32; 18:27; 20:34), or (3) there is a contrast with those who are not compassionate (Matt 9:32-36; 18:27-30; 20:29-34). In the Gospels, the phrase “had compassion” refers only to Jesus directly, but is also used in parables where it can refer to God the Father or to Jesus (Matt 18:27; Luke 10:33; 15:20).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the term compassion is used for God’s covenant love for Israel. God withdrew this compassion to judge Israel’s obstinate unfaithfulness (Isa 27:11; 63:15; Jer 13:14). God restored his compassion when Israel repented (Deut 13:18; 30:2-3; Prov 28:13; Isa 55:7). The Old Testament often describes the messianic age as a time of God’s compassion (Isa 14:1; 49:10, 13; 54:8, 10; 60:10; Jer 12:15; 33:26; Ezek 39:25; Mic 7:19; Hab 3:2; Zech 10:6). The resurgence of this notion in the Gospels reflects this, as the messianic age has dawned and God’s covenant love is once again active in Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 13:18; 30:3; 1 Kgs 8:50-51; Prov 28:13; Isa 14:1; 49:10, 13; 54:7-10; 55:7; 60:10; Jer 12:14-15; 33:26; Ezek 39:25; Mic 7:18-20; Hab 3:2; Zech 1:16; 10:6; Matt 9:35-36; 14:14; 15:32; 18:23-30; 20:29-34; Luke 10:33-37; 15:20-32<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Compassionate Healer<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus is frequently described as one who “had compassion.” This expression (sometimes translated “felt sorry” or “took pity”) is used of Jesus in complex situations where (1) distress is expressed (Matt 18:23-26; 20:29-33) and Jesus remedies the distress (Matt 18:27; 20:34), (2) Jesus shows deep emotion (Matt 14:14; 15:32; 18:27; 20:34), or (3) there is a contrast with those who are not compassionate (Matt 9:32-36; 18:27-30; 20:29-34). In the Gospels, the phrase “had compassion” refers only to Jesus directly, but is also used in parables where it can refer to God the Father or to Jesus (Matt 18:27; Luke 10:33; 15:20).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the term compassion is used for God’s covenant love for Israel. God withdrew this compassion to judge Israel’s obstinate unfaithfulness (Isa 27:11; 63:15; Jer 13:14). God restored his compassion when Israel repented (Deut 13:18; 30:2-3; Prov 28:13; Isa 55:7). The Old Testament often describes the messianic age as a time of God’s compassion (Isa 14:1; 49:10, 13; 54:8, 10; 60:10; Jer 12:15; 33:26; Ezek 39:25; Mic 7:19; Hab 3:2; Zech 10:6). The resurgence of this notion in the Gospels reflects this, as the messianic age has dawned and God’s covenant love is once again active in Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 13:18; 30:3; 1 Kgs 8:50-51; Prov 28:13; Isa 14:1; 49:10, 13; 54:7-10; 55:7; 60:10; Jer 12:14-15; 33:26; Ezek 39:25; Mic 7:18-20; Hab 3:2; Zech 1:16; 10:6; Matt 9:35-36; 14:14; 15:32; 18:23-30; 20:29-34; Luke 10:33-37; 15:20-32<\/p>","summary_ro":"Compassionate Healer Jesus is frequently described as one who “had compassion.” This expression (sometimes translated “felt sorry” or “took pity”) is used of Jesus in complex situations where (1) distress is expressed (Matt 18:23-26; 20:29-33) and Jesus remedies the distress (Matt 18:27; 20:34), (2) Jesus shows deep emotion (Matt 14:14; 15:32; 18:27; 20:34), or (3) there is a contrast with those who are not compassionate (Matt 9:32-36; 18:27-30; 20:29-34). In the Gospels, the phrase “had comp...","summary_en":"Compassionate Healer Jesus is frequently described as one who “had compassion.” This expression (sometimes translated “felt sorry” or “took pity”) is used of Jesus in complex situations where (1) distress is expressed (Matt 18:23-26; 20:29-33) and Jesus remedies the distress (Matt 18:27; 20:34), (2) Jesus shows deep emotion (Matt 14:14; 15:32; 18:27; 20:34), or (3) there is a contrast with those who are not compassionate (Matt 9:32-36; 18:27-30; 20:29-34). In the Gospels, the phrase “had comp...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":147922,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Compassionate Healer","title_en":"Compassionate Healer","content_ro":"<h3>Compassionate Healer<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus is frequently described as one who “had compassion.” This expression (sometimes translated “felt sorry” or “took pity”) is used of Jesus in complex situations where (1) distress is expressed (Matt 18:23-26; 20:29-33) and Jesus remedies the distress (Matt 18:27; 20:34), (2) Jesus shows deep emotion (Matt 14:14; 15:32; 18:27; 20:34), or (3) there is a contrast with those who are not compassionate (Matt 9:32-36; 18:27-30; 20:29-34). In the Gospels, the phrase “had compassion” refers only to Jesus directly, but is also used in parables where it can refer to God the Father or to Jesus (Matt 18:27; Luke 10:33; 15:20).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the term compassion is used for God’s covenant love for Israel. God withdrew this compassion to judge Israel’s obstinate unfaithfulness (Isa 27:11; 63:15; Jer 13:14). God restored his compassion when Israel repented (Deut 13:18; 30:2-3; Prov 28:13; Isa 55:7). The Old Testament often describes the messianic age as a time of God’s compassion (Isa 14:1; 49:10, 13; 54:8, 10; 60:10; Jer 12:15; 33:26; Ezek 39:25; Mic 7:19; Hab 3:2; Zech 10:6). The resurgence of this notion in the Gospels reflects this, as the messianic age has dawned and God’s covenant love is once again active in Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 13:18; 30:3; 1 Kgs 8:50-51; Prov 28:13; Isa 14:1; 49:10, 13; 54:7-10; 55:7; 60:10; Jer 12:14-15; 33:26; Ezek 39:25; Mic 7:18-20; Hab 3:2; Zech 1:16; 10:6; Matt 9:35-36; 14:14; 15:32; 18:23-30; 20:29-34; Luke 10:33-37; 15:20-32<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Compassionate Healer<\/h3>\n<p>Jesus is frequently described as one who “had compassion.” This expression (sometimes translated “felt sorry” or “took pity”) is used of Jesus in complex situations where (1) distress is expressed (Matt 18:23-26; 20:29-33) and Jesus remedies the distress (Matt 18:27; 20:34), (2) Jesus shows deep emotion (Matt 14:14; 15:32; 18:27; 20:34), or (3) there is a contrast with those who are not compassionate (Matt 9:32-36; 18:27-30; 20:29-34). In the Gospels, the phrase “had compassion” refers only to Jesus directly, but is also used in parables where it can refer to God the Father or to Jesus (Matt 18:27; Luke 10:33; 15:20).<\/p>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the term compassion is used for God’s covenant love for Israel. God withdrew this compassion to judge Israel’s obstinate unfaithfulness (Isa 27:11; 63:15; Jer 13:14). God restored his compassion when Israel repented (Deut 13:18; 30:2-3; Prov 28:13; Isa 55:7). The Old Testament often describes the messianic age as a time of God’s compassion (Isa 14:1; 49:10, 13; 54:8, 10; 60:10; Jer 12:15; 33:26; Ezek 39:25; Mic 7:19; Hab 3:2; Zech 10:6). The resurgence of this notion in the Gospels reflects this, as the messianic age has dawned and God’s covenant love is once again active in Israel.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 13:18; 30:3; 1 Kgs 8:50-51; Prov 28:13; Isa 14:1; 49:10, 13; 54:7-10; 55:7; 60:10; Jer 12:14-15; 33:26; Ezek 39:25; Mic 7:18-20; Hab 3:2; Zech 1:16; 10:6; Matt 9:35-36; 14:14; 15:32; 18:23-30; 20:29-34; Luke 10:33-37; 15:20-32<\/p>","summary_ro":"Compassionate Healer Jesus is frequently described as one who “had compassion.” This expression (sometimes translated “felt sorry” or “took pity”) is used of Jesus in complex situations where (1) distress is expressed (Matt 18:23-26; 20:29-33) and Jesus remedies the distress (Matt 18:27; 20:34), (2) Jesus shows deep emotion (Matt 14:14; 15:32; 18:27; 20:34), or (3) there is a contrast with those who are not compassionate (Matt 9:32-36; 18:27-30; 20:29-34). In the Gospels, the phrase “had comp...","summary_en":"Compassionate Healer Jesus is frequently described as one who “had compassion.” This expression (sometimes translated “felt sorry” or “took pity”) is used of Jesus in complex situations where (1) distress is expressed (Matt 18:23-26; 20:29-33) and Jesus remedies the distress (Matt 18:27; 20:34), (2) Jesus shows deep emotion (Matt 14:14; 15:32; 18:27; 20:34), or (3) there is a contrast with those who are not compassionate (Matt 9:32-36; 18:27-30; 20:29-34). In the Gospels, the phrase “had comp...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"6":[{"id":3704,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Baptism","title_en":"Baptism","content_ro":"<h3>BAPTISM<\/h3>\n<p>Term generally meaning “to dip” or “immerse,” but representing a group of words employed to signify a religious rite for ritual cleansing. In the NT it became the rite of initiation into the Christian community, and it was interpreted theologically as a dying and rising with Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Baptism of John<\/p>\n<p>• The Baptism of Jesus<\/p>\n<p>• Jesus’ Resurrection Command to Baptize<\/p>\n<p>• Baptism in the Early Church<\/p>\n<p>• The Theology of Baptism in Paul’s and Peter’s Epistles<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheBaptismofJohn\">The Baptism of John<\/p>\n<p>John preached a “baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins” (Lk 3:3). The origins of his rite are difficult to trace. Some have claimed that his baptism modeled that practiced by those at Qumran; others have urged that his baptism modeled that practiced by Jews when initiating proselytes to Judaism. The members of the Qumran community viewed themselves as the covenant community of the last days and so dwelt in the desert, living an ascetic life and immersing themselves daily in acts of ceremonial cleansing. At the same time they taught that internal repentance must accompany the external act (1 QS 2:3). Its sacramental nature is seen in the fact that only a full member of the community could practice it, and then only after two probationary years (1 QS 5:6). Converts from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a ritual bath to wash away the impurities of the Gentile background.<\/p>\n<p>John’s baptism both parallels and differs with these forms of baptism. The genesis of his baptism may be found in the prophetic acted-out parable, which not only symbolized God’s message but also intended to bring it about. John’s practice had several theological ramifications: (1) It was intimately connected with radical repentance, not only of the Gentile but astoundingly (to his contemporaries) also of the Jew. (2) It was eschatological at the core, preparing for the Messiah, who would baptize with the Holy Spirit and with fire (Mt 3:11), and therefore looked to the final separation between God’s people and the wicked at the eschaton (i.e., “the End,” cf. Mt 3:12). (3) It symbolized moral purification and so prepared the people for the coming kingdom (Mt 3:2; Lk 3:7-14). In spite of the obvious connection between John’s ceremony and the early church, we cannot posit absolute dependence. In fact, it disappeared from Jesus’ ministry. At first, Jesus allowed his disciples to continue the rite (Jn 3:22), but later he seemingly discontinued the practice (Jn 4:1-3), probably for the following reasons: (1) John’s message was functional, while Jesus’ was personal\/ontological. (2) John’s was forward-looking, expecting the coming kingdom, while Jesus’ was backward-looking, celebrating that event. (3) John’s was an interim practice, while Jesus’ was sacramental. Jesus’ ministry fulfilled John’s, so he severed himself from the latter’s modus operandi.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheBaptismofJesus\">The Baptism of Jesus<\/p>\n<p>This event has its genesis in a complex interplay of motives, divine and human, within the messianic consciousness of Jesus (see Mk 1:9-11 and parallels). For John it was Jesus’ stamp of approval upon his message and ministry. Jesus was in continuity with John’s kingdom proclamation. For Jesus, it was also an anointing that signified the inauguration of his messianic ministry. As seen in God’s “heavenly voice” of Mark 1:11 and parallels, this has two aspects: (1) The voice alludes to Psalm 2:7, establishing Jesus’ unique sonship. (2) It alludes to Isaiah 42:1, establishing him as the messianic “servant of Yahweh.” (This is discussed at greater length in the article below.)<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JesusResurrectionCommandtoBaptize\">Jesus’ Resurrection Command to Baptize<\/p>\n<p>Here we find the true basis of the church’s practice (Mt 28:19). As already stated, the disciples stopped employing it, so it is here that we see the institution reconstituted as an ordinance based on the death and resurrection of Christ. It was no longer a forward-looking phenomenon but had now become a realized activity centering on the gospel message, certified by the risen Christ who is exalted to universal lordship. It also is an essential aspect of the discipling activity, as seen in the use of the participle “baptizing” after the main verb “make disciples.” Finally we might note that the act signifies the entrance of the believer “into” union with (literally “into the name of”) the triune Godhead.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BaptismintheEarlyChurch\">Baptism in the Early Church<\/p>\n<p>Acts 2:38 shows that baptism was a sacral institution from the very beginning. This takes it back to the earliest days of the church. In the primitive church it was an important part of the salvation process (Acts 2:38, “repent and be baptized”) and was accomplished via confession and prayer “in the name of Jesus Christ” (Acts 2:38; 8:16; 10:48; 19:5). Probably there was a question-and-answer period in which the believer confessed his faith and dedicated himself to Christ. The result was reception into and identification with the messianic community of the new covenant, signifying both forgiveness of sins (Acts 2:38; 5:31; 10:43; 13:38; 26:18) and the reception of the Holy Spirit (Lk 3:16; Acts 2:38, 41; 9:17; 10:47-48; 11:16-17; 19:5-7). <em>See<\/em> Baptism of Fire; Baptism of Jesus; Baptism of the Spirit.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheTheologyofBaptisminPaulsandPetersEpistles\">The Theology of Baptism in Paul’s and Peter’s Epistles<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s basic statement is found in Galatians 3:27, “baptized into Christ.” The rite of baptism is christological at the heart, signifying union with Christ. This is clarified further by Romans 6:3-8, which equates baptism with dying and rising (cf. Col 2:12-13). At the same time baptism is related to the Spirit; 1 Corinthians 12:13 connects “baptism by the one Spirit” with being “given that same Spirit.” Many see baptism as the outward confirmation of the inward “seal” by the Spirit (2 Cor 1:21-22; Eph 1:13; 4:30). This leads us to the eschatological dimension of baptism. In its relation to the present work of Christ and the Spirit, it externalizes the outpouring of salvation in the age of fulfillment, because it is the initiatory rite signifying the believer’s entrance into the blessings of the new age (Ti 3:5).<\/p>\n<p>There is also a definite link between baptism and the OT covenants. The major connection is with the Abrahamic, especially with the circumcision that characterized it. Paul in Colossians 2:11-12 combines Jewish circumcision with Christian baptism as pictures of the redemptive work of Christ. The debate today centers on the degree of continuity between them—does baptism perform the same function in the New Covenant, i.e., forensic and imputative? Whatever the theological ramifications, Paul at least cannot be made to say this. Rather, he borrows here the Judeo-Christian imagery of the “circumcision of the heart” (Dt 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29; Phil 3:3). Christians experience the fulfillment of that which circumcision merely prefigured, a spiritual, totally efficacious reality.<\/p>\n<p>Baptism is also related to the Noahic covenant in 1 Peter 3:19-21. There Noah’s deliverance through the waters is considered a picture of the effects of baptism. The debate centers on the meaning of “baptism now saves you.” The answer is connected with the thrust of the ensuing clarification, “an appeal to God for a clear conscience” (<span>rsv<\/span>, lit. “of a good conscience”). While the developed dialogue between the sacramental and baptist views is considered below, we will simply comment here that the interpretation “appeal <em>by<\/em> a good conscience” best fits the emphatic position of this phrase and the picture in this verse of a pledging convert. Baptism is the seal of the salvation covenant, which itself has been accomplished beforehand by the act of Christ and the faith decision of the individual.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BAPTISM<\/h3>\n<p>Term generally meaning “to dip” or “immerse,” but representing a group of words employed to signify a religious rite for ritual cleansing. In the NT it became the rite of initiation into the Christian community, and it was interpreted theologically as a dying and rising with Christ.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Baptism of John<\/p>\n<p>• The Baptism of Jesus<\/p>\n<p>• Jesus’ Resurrection Command to Baptize<\/p>\n<p>• Baptism in the Early Church<\/p>\n<p>• The Theology of Baptism in Paul’s and Peter’s Epistles<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheBaptismofJohn\">The Baptism of John<\/p>\n<p>John preached a “baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins” (Lk 3:3). The origins of his rite are difficult to trace. Some have claimed that his baptism modeled that practiced by those at Qumran; others have urged that his baptism modeled that practiced by Jews when initiating proselytes to Judaism. The members of the Qumran community viewed themselves as the covenant community of the last days and so dwelt in the desert, living an ascetic life and immersing themselves daily in acts of ceremonial cleansing. At the same time they taught that internal repentance must accompany the external act (1 QS 2:3). Its sacramental nature is seen in the fact that only a full member of the community could practice it, and then only after two probationary years (1 QS 5:6). Converts from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a ritual bath to wash away the impurities of the Gentile background.<\/p>\n<p>John’s baptism both parallels and differs with these forms of baptism. The genesis of his baptism may be found in the prophetic acted-out parable, which not only symbolized God’s message but also intended to bring it about. John’s practice had several theological ramifications: (1) It was intimately connected with radical repentance, not only of the Gentile but astoundingly (to his contemporaries) also of the Jew. (2) It was eschatological at the core, preparing for the Messiah, who would baptize with the Holy Spirit and with fire (Mt 3:11), and therefore looked to the final separation between God’s people and the wicked at the eschaton (i.e., “the End,” cf. Mt 3:12). (3) It symbolized moral purification and so prepared the people for the coming kingdom (Mt 3:2; Lk 3:7-14). In spite of the obvious connection between John’s ceremony and the early church, we cannot posit absolute dependence. In fact, it disappeared from Jesus’ ministry. At first, Jesus allowed his disciples to continue the rite (Jn 3:22), but later he seemingly discontinued the practice (Jn 4:1-3), probably for the following reasons: (1) John’s message was functional, while Jesus’ was personal\/ontological. (2) John’s was forward-looking, expecting the coming kingdom, while Jesus’ was backward-looking, celebrating that event. (3) John’s was an interim practice, while Jesus’ was sacramental. Jesus’ ministry fulfilled John’s, so he severed himself from the latter’s modus operandi.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheBaptismofJesus\">The Baptism of Jesus<\/p>\n<p>This event has its genesis in a complex interplay of motives, divine and human, within the messianic consciousness of Jesus (see Mk 1:9-11 and parallels). For John it was Jesus’ stamp of approval upon his message and ministry. Jesus was in continuity with John’s kingdom proclamation. For Jesus, it was also an anointing that signified the inauguration of his messianic ministry. As seen in God’s “heavenly voice” of Mark 1:11 and parallels, this has two aspects: (1) The voice alludes to Psalm 2:7, establishing Jesus’ unique sonship. (2) It alludes to Isaiah 42:1, establishing him as the messianic “servant of Yahweh.” (This is discussed at greater length in the article below.)<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JesusResurrectionCommandtoBaptize\">Jesus’ Resurrection Command to Baptize<\/p>\n<p>Here we find the true basis of the church’s practice (Mt 28:19). As already stated, the disciples stopped employing it, so it is here that we see the institution reconstituted as an ordinance based on the death and resurrection of Christ. It was no longer a forward-looking phenomenon but had now become a realized activity centering on the gospel message, certified by the risen Christ who is exalted to universal lordship. It also is an essential aspect of the discipling activity, as seen in the use of the participle “baptizing” after the main verb “make disciples.” Finally we might note that the act signifies the entrance of the believer “into” union with (literally “into the name of”) the triune Godhead.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BaptismintheEarlyChurch\">Baptism in the Early Church<\/p>\n<p>Acts 2:38 shows that baptism was a sacral institution from the very beginning. This takes it back to the earliest days of the church. In the primitive church it was an important part of the salvation process (Acts 2:38, “repent and be baptized”) and was accomplished via confession and prayer “in the name of Jesus Christ” (Acts 2:38; 8:16; 10:48; 19:5). Probably there was a question-and-answer period in which the believer confessed his faith and dedicated himself to Christ. The result was reception into and identification with the messianic community of the new covenant, signifying both forgiveness of sins (Acts 2:38; 5:31; 10:43; 13:38; 26:18) and the reception of the Holy Spirit (Lk 3:16; Acts 2:38, 41; 9:17; 10:47-48; 11:16-17; 19:5-7). <em>See<\/em> Baptism of Fire; Baptism of Jesus; Baptism of the Spirit.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheTheologyofBaptisminPaulsandPetersEpistles\">The Theology of Baptism in Paul’s and Peter’s Epistles<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s basic statement is found in Galatians 3:27, “baptized into Christ.” The rite of baptism is christological at the heart, signifying union with Christ. This is clarified further by Romans 6:3-8, which equates baptism with dying and rising (cf. Col 2:12-13). At the same time baptism is related to the Spirit; 1 Corinthians 12:13 connects “baptism by the one Spirit” with being “given that same Spirit.” Many see baptism as the outward confirmation of the inward “seal” by the Spirit (2 Cor 1:21-22; Eph 1:13; 4:30). This leads us to the eschatological dimension of baptism. In its relation to the present work of Christ and the Spirit, it externalizes the outpouring of salvation in the age of fulfillment, because it is the initiatory rite signifying the believer’s entrance into the blessings of the new age (Ti 3:5).<\/p>\n<p>There is also a definite link between baptism and the OT covenants. The major connection is with the Abrahamic, especially with the circumcision that characterized it. Paul in Colossians 2:11-12 combines Jewish circumcision with Christian baptism as pictures of the redemptive work of Christ. The debate today centers on the degree of continuity between them—does baptism perform the same function in the New Covenant, i.e., forensic and imputative? Whatever the theological ramifications, Paul at least cannot be made to say this. Rather, he borrows here the Judeo-Christian imagery of the “circumcision of the heart” (Dt 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29; Phil 3:3). Christians experience the fulfillment of that which circumcision merely prefigured, a spiritual, totally efficacious reality.<\/p>\n<p>Baptism is also related to the Noahic covenant in 1 Peter 3:19-21. There Noah’s deliverance through the waters is considered a picture of the effects of baptism. The debate centers on the meaning of “baptism now saves you.” The answer is connected with the thrust of the ensuing clarification, “an appeal to God for a clear conscience” (<span>rsv<\/span>, lit. “of a good conscience”). While the developed dialogue between the sacramental and baptist views is considered below, we will simply comment here that the interpretation “appeal <em>by<\/em> a good conscience” best fits the emphatic position of this phrase and the picture in this verse of a pledging convert. Baptism is the seal of the salvation covenant, which itself has been accomplished beforehand by the act of Christ and the faith decision of the individual.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BAPTISM Term generally meaning “to dip” or “immerse,” but representing a group of words employed to signify a religious rite for ritual cleansing. In the NT it became the rite of initiation into the Christian community, and it was interpreted theologically as a dying and rising with Christ. Preview • The Baptism of John • The Baptism of Jesus • Jesus’ Resurrection Command to Baptize • Baptism in the Early Church • The Theology of Baptism in Paul’s and Peter’s Epistles The Baptism of John John...","summary_en":"BAPTISM Term generally meaning “to dip” or “immerse,” but representing a group of words employed to signify a religious rite for ritual cleansing. In the NT it became the rite of initiation into the Christian community, and it was interpreted theologically as a dying and rising with Christ. Preview • The Baptism of John • The Baptism of Jesus • Jesus’ Resurrection Command to Baptize • Baptism in the Early Church • The Theology of Baptism in Paul’s and Peter’s Epistles The Baptism of John John...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":6694,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Circumcision","title_en":"Circumcision","content_ro":"<h3>CIRCUMCISION<\/h3>\n<p>Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after birth on nearly all newborn males in North America. Outside of Judaism the procedure no longer carries religious significance.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheAncientWorld\">Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>The rite of circumcision is far older than the Hebrew people. Cave paintings give evidence that it was practiced in prehistoric times. Egyptian temple drawings show that the operation was common in 4000 <span>BC<\/span> and probably earlier. Peoples practicing circumcision lived on almost every continent. The rite was observed among Central and South American Indians, Polynesians, the peoples of New Guinea, many Australian and African tribes, Egyptians, and pre-Islamic Arabs. The rite is not mentioned in the Koran, but because Muhammad was circumcised, tradition dictates that male Muslims follow the ancient custom. Arab ancestry is traced to Abraham through Ishmael (Gn 17:20), so a common age for Muslim circumcisions is 13, because Ishmael was circumcised at that age (v 25).<\/p>\n<p>Among the West Semitic people, the Ammonites, Edomites, Midianites, Moabites, and Phoenicians all practiced circumcision (Jer 9:25-26). The Philistines, however, did not (Jgs 14:3; 15:18; 1 Sm 14:6; 17:26, 36; 18:25, 27; 31:4; 2 Sm 1:20; 3:14; 1 Chr 10:4).<\/p>\n<p>Young men were usually circumcised at puberty, evidently in preparation for marriage and entrance into full tribal responsibilities. The Hebrews were the only ancient practitioners of circumcision to observe the rite in infancy, thus freeing it from association with fertility rituals.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheOldTestament\">Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible the practice of circumcision began in Genesis 17 as a sign of the covenant between God and Abraham. God promised Abraham a land and, through a son yet to be conceived, numerous descendants, from whom kings would come. Blessings would come upon Abraham and through him to all nations (Gn 12:1-3). After the covenant was formally inaugurated (ch 15), God sealed it, ordering Abraham to be circumcised along with all the males in his household (17:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be an expression of faith that God’s promises would be realized. Because Abraham’s faith had lapsed (Gn 16) even after he had seen the awesome display of God’s majesty (15:9-17), a permanent reminder of God’s covenant promises was placed on his body and the bodies of his male descendants (17:11). This sign was so closely related to God’s covenant promise that the rite itself could be termed the “covenant” (Gn 17:10; Acts 7:8).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be performed on the eighth day after birth (Gn 17:12; Lv 12:1-3; see Gn 21:4; Lk 1:59; 2:21; Acts 7:8; Phil 3:5), customarily by the boy’s father (Gn 17:23; 21:4; Acts 7:8), at which time a name would be given (Lk 1:59; 2:21). Flint knives were used in the early days (Ex 4:25; Jos 5:2-3). Later, the rite was carried out by a trained practitioner called a <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mohel<\/span><em>.<\/em> Medical research has determined that prothrombin, a substance in the blood that aids in clotting, is present in greater quantity on the eighth day than at any other time in life.<\/p>\n<h5>Theological Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>Circumcision had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning Abraham’s descendants (Gn 17:9-12). Because it was applied to the reproductive organ, the sign involved the propagation of the race. Its application to the eight-day-old infant demonstrates the gracious character of God’s promise to Abraham’s descendants and indicates that God’s people are in need of cleansing grace from birth (Lv 12:1-3). The promises of the covenant were reaffirmed to each generation before the recipients were able to respond in either faith or unbelief; nothing in the hearts of the chosen people could either bring about or thwart the ultimate fulfillment of the promises given to Abraham and his posterity.<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision also had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning the land (Gn 17:8). The land was God’s holy possession, and the Israelites had to be holy to possess it. When Joseph and his descendants were in Egypt, they continued to circumcise their sons. But following the great sin at Mt Sinai after the exodus, the unbelieving Israelites failed to place the covenant sign upon their children as they wandered in the wilderness. Because the new generation had not been circumcised, the people were unprepared to enter the Promised Land. Therefore, God ordered Joshua to circumcise the men of Israel. The people’s obedient response was an act of faith, since the armies of the enemy were camped nearby as the Israelite warriors lay incapacitated by the surgery (Jos 5:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>From the beginning, participation in the covenant promises was open to persons outside Abraham’s household (Gn 17:12-13). Exodus 12:43-49 gives non-Israelites the opportunity to participate in the Passover if they are willing to fulfill the same stipulation placed upon the Jews—that of circumcision.<\/p>\n<p>The provision for admission to God’s people by reception of the covenant sign was abused by Jacob’s sons when circumcision was made a precondition for intermarriage with the Shechemites. While the Shechemites were disabled by their wounds, Simeon and Levi killed them, plundering the city to exact retribution for the rape of their sister Dinah (Gn 34).<\/p>\n<p>The sign of the covenant was not to be treated lightly. The penalty of excommunication rested upon the uncircumcised (Gn 17:14). The strange incident recorded in Exodus 4:24-26 seems to have been God’s reminder to Moses of the stipulations of the covenant made with Abraham. Moses had proved an unfaithful servant of the Lord by neglecting to circumcise his son but was rescued from judgment when his wife Zipporah took a flint rock and circumcised the boy, throwing the bloody foreskin at her husband’s feet.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheNewTestament\">Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>John the Baptist was circumcised, as were Jesus and Paul (Lk 1:59; 2:21; Phil 3:5). Jesus recognized the cleansing significance of circumcision (Jn 7:22-23), contrasting the rite with his healing ministry that made a man completely well and therefore ceremonially “clean.” Just before he was stoned, Stephen referred to the covenant of circumcision, charging that his Jewish accusers, like their ancestors, were stiff-necked and uncircumcised in heart and ears, always resisting the Holy Spirit (Acts 7:8, 51).<\/p>\n<p>For a time the first Christians continued to participate in the Jewish rites and customs, even attending the services of the temple (Acts 3:1; 5:21, 42). As Gentiles came to Christ, controversy arose between those who said that participation in the covenant community required circumcision and those who believed the rite was unnecessary. It was argued that since the covenant promise of the Messiah was given to the Jews, Gentiles must first be circumcised and become Jews before they could receive salvation in Christ.<\/p>\n<p>In the time of Christ, many Jews misunderstood the significance of circumcision, believing that the physical act was necessary for and a guarantee of salvation. Thus for Jews the observance became not only a symbol of religious privilege but also a source of racial pride (Phil 3:4-6). These Jews associated the ceremony with the Mosaic law rather than the promise to Abraham (Jn 7:22; Acts 15:1). Because Greeks and Romans did not practice circumcision, Jews had come to be called “the circumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Acts 10:45; 11:2; Rom 15:8; Gal 2:7-9; Eph 2:11; Ti 1:10), and following OT practice (Ez 28:10; 31:18; 32:19-32), Gentiles were termed “the uncircumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Gal 2:7; Eph 2:11).<\/p>\n<p>While visiting Caesarea, Jewish believers were amazed to realize that uncircumcised Gentiles received the purifying gift of the Holy Spirit (Acts 10:44-48). Moses had promised that God would circumcise the hearts of his people to love the Lord with heart and soul (Dt 30:6), and Ezekiel had prophesied that the Lord would sprinkle clean water on his people, giving them a new heart and putting his Spirit within them (Ez 36:25-27). As these Jewish believers saw the prophecy that God would pour out his Spirit upon all flesh (Jl 2:28; Acts 2:17) being fulfilled, they realized that the inward reality symbolized by circumcision could be accomplished without the physical sign. Thus, the gentile believers were immediately baptized.<\/p>\n<p>Not all the Jewish believers were immediately willing to accept Gentiles into the church. When Peter returned to Jerusalem after his visit to Caesarea, “the circumcision party” criticized him. But after telling how the Spirit had fallen upon the Gentiles, Peter declared that he could not stand against God. At this the Jewish believers were silenced and glorified God that repentance unto life had been granted to Gentiles (Acts 11:1-3, 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Certain “Judaizers” of the Pharisaic party taught the Christians in Antioch that circumcision was necessary for salvation (Acts 15:1, 5). After debating these persons, Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem to consult with the other apostles and elders (v 2). Peter argued that God had given the Spirit to Gentiles and “cleansed their hearts by faith,” affirming that “we believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus, just as they will” (vv 8-9, 11, <span>rsv<\/span>). Therefore, James and the other Jerusalem leaders agreed that circumcision should not be imposed on the Gentiles (vv 13-21).<\/p>\n<p>It was decided that Peter, James, and John would be entrusted with the gospel to “the circumcised,” while Paul and Barnabas would preach to “the uncircumcised” (Gal 2:7-9). Because of his evangelistic policy to be “all things to all people” with respect to spiritually indifferent matters of custom (1 Cor 9:19-23), Paul had Timothy circumcised. Timothy was reckoned by Jews as one of their race because his mother was Jewish (Acts 16:1-2). But Paul resisted attempts to have Titus circumcised, since he was a Gentile (Gal 2:3). Paul apparently allowed Jewish believers to circumcise their sons (Acts 21:21).<\/p>\n<p>Yet Paul charged that those who argued that the Galatian Christians must be circumcised and keep the law did not keep it themselves but wanted to boast in the Galatians’ flesh and avoid persecution for the cross of Christ (Gal 6:12-13)—persecution Paul was willing to bear (5:11). Granting for the sake of argument the Pharisaic assumption that salvation could be merited by keeping the law, Paul declared that those who received circumcision must obey every other Jewish law (vv 2-3). Christ would be “of no advantage” to those who “would be justified by the law”; this attempt at works righteousness would evidence that the Galatians were “severed from Christ,” having “fallen from grace” (vv 2-4). These Christians were being tempted to turn to “a different gospel” (1:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Because of the serious threat the Judaizers posed to the gospel of free grace, Paul wished that those who unsettled the Galatians would “mutilate themselves” (Gal 5:12). He termed the Judaizers “dogs” and “evil workers” (<span>kjv<\/span> “concision”), asserting that Christians are “the true circumcision,” because they worship God in spirit and glory in Christ Jesus, putting no confidence in human works to merit salvation (Phil 3:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>Paul taught that circumcision was indeed of value to Jews, for it was the sign that to them had been committed the “oracles of God,” that is, God’s word concerning the promise of salvation (Rom 3:1-3). He reminded the prideful Ephesians that as Gentiles they had once been “strangers to the covenants of promise,” not bearing the covenant sign in their flesh (Eph 2:11-12; see Col 2:13). Likewise, Jews had no cause for pride, for disobedience could cause outward circumcision to be counted as uncircumcision (Rom 2:25).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and the other apostles followed Moses and the OT prophets in teaching that true circumcision was a matter of the heart. The teaching of the NT goes further to affirm that a faithful believer, though physically uncircumcised, is regarded by God as circumcised, “for he is not a real Jew who is one outwardly, nor is true circumcision something external and physical” (Rom 2:28, <span>rsv<\/span>). Both Jews and Gentiles are saved by grace (Acts 15:11), and circumcised and uncircumcised alike are justified on the ground of their faith, apart from works of the law (Rom 3:28-30).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham served as an example of a person whose faith was reckoned to him as righteousness (Rom 4:3; see Gn 15:6). Paul argued that both Gentiles and Jews are justified by faith, because Abraham was accounted righteous before he was circumcised. Abraham did not receive circumcision to obtain righteousness, but as a sign or seal of the righteousness that he had by faith while he was still uncircumcised. Thus, Abraham is the father of all who believe without being circumcised, as well as those who are circumcised but also follow the example of Abraham’s faith (Rom 4:9-12; see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Baptism; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Uncircumcision.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CIRCUMCISION<\/h3>\n<p>Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after birth on nearly all newborn males in North America. Outside of Judaism the procedure no longer carries religious significance.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheAncientWorld\">Circumcision in the Ancient World<\/p>\n<p>The rite of circumcision is far older than the Hebrew people. Cave paintings give evidence that it was practiced in prehistoric times. Egyptian temple drawings show that the operation was common in 4000 <span>BC<\/span> and probably earlier. Peoples practicing circumcision lived on almost every continent. The rite was observed among Central and South American Indians, Polynesians, the peoples of New Guinea, many Australian and African tribes, Egyptians, and pre-Islamic Arabs. The rite is not mentioned in the Koran, but because Muhammad was circumcised, tradition dictates that male Muslims follow the ancient custom. Arab ancestry is traced to Abraham through Ishmael (Gn 17:20), so a common age for Muslim circumcisions is 13, because Ishmael was circumcised at that age (v 25).<\/p>\n<p>Among the West Semitic people, the Ammonites, Edomites, Midianites, Moabites, and Phoenicians all practiced circumcision (Jer 9:25-26). The Philistines, however, did not (Jgs 14:3; 15:18; 1 Sm 14:6; 17:26, 36; 18:25, 27; 31:4; 2 Sm 1:20; 3:14; 1 Chr 10:4).<\/p>\n<p>Young men were usually circumcised at puberty, evidently in preparation for marriage and entrance into full tribal responsibilities. The Hebrews were the only ancient practitioners of circumcision to observe the rite in infancy, thus freeing it from association with fertility rituals.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheOldTestament\">Circumcision in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible the practice of circumcision began in Genesis 17 as a sign of the covenant between God and Abraham. God promised Abraham a land and, through a son yet to be conceived, numerous descendants, from whom kings would come. Blessings would come upon Abraham and through him to all nations (Gn 12:1-3). After the covenant was formally inaugurated (ch 15), God sealed it, ordering Abraham to be circumcised along with all the males in his household (17:9-13).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be an expression of faith that God’s promises would be realized. Because Abraham’s faith had lapsed (Gn 16) even after he had seen the awesome display of God’s majesty (15:9-17), a permanent reminder of God’s covenant promises was placed on his body and the bodies of his male descendants (17:11). This sign was so closely related to God’s covenant promise that the rite itself could be termed the “covenant” (Gn 17:10; Acts 7:8).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision was to be performed on the eighth day after birth (Gn 17:12; Lv 12:1-3; see Gn 21:4; Lk 1:59; 2:21; Acts 7:8; Phil 3:5), customarily by the boy’s father (Gn 17:23; 21:4; Acts 7:8), at which time a name would be given (Lk 1:59; 2:21). Flint knives were used in the early days (Ex 4:25; Jos 5:2-3). Later, the rite was carried out by a trained practitioner called a <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mohel<\/span><em>.<\/em> Medical research has determined that prothrombin, a substance in the blood that aids in clotting, is present in greater quantity on the eighth day than at any other time in life.<\/p>\n<h5>Theological Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>Circumcision had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning Abraham’s descendants (Gn 17:9-12). Because it was applied to the reproductive organ, the sign involved the propagation of the race. Its application to the eight-day-old infant demonstrates the gracious character of God’s promise to Abraham’s descendants and indicates that God’s people are in need of cleansing grace from birth (Lv 12:1-3). The promises of the covenant were reaffirmed to each generation before the recipients were able to respond in either faith or unbelief; nothing in the hearts of the chosen people could either bring about or thwart the ultimate fulfillment of the promises given to Abraham and his posterity.<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision also had to do with the fulfillment of God’s promise concerning the land (Gn 17:8). The land was God’s holy possession, and the Israelites had to be holy to possess it. When Joseph and his descendants were in Egypt, they continued to circumcise their sons. But following the great sin at Mt Sinai after the exodus, the unbelieving Israelites failed to place the covenant sign upon their children as they wandered in the wilderness. Because the new generation had not been circumcised, the people were unprepared to enter the Promised Land. Therefore, God ordered Joshua to circumcise the men of Israel. The people’s obedient response was an act of faith, since the armies of the enemy were camped nearby as the Israelite warriors lay incapacitated by the surgery (Jos 5:2-9).<\/p>\n<p>From the beginning, participation in the covenant promises was open to persons outside Abraham’s household (Gn 17:12-13). Exodus 12:43-49 gives non-Israelites the opportunity to participate in the Passover if they are willing to fulfill the same stipulation placed upon the Jews—that of circumcision.<\/p>\n<p>The provision for admission to God’s people by reception of the covenant sign was abused by Jacob’s sons when circumcision was made a precondition for intermarriage with the Shechemites. While the Shechemites were disabled by their wounds, Simeon and Levi killed them, plundering the city to exact retribution for the rape of their sister Dinah (Gn 34).<\/p>\n<p>The sign of the covenant was not to be treated lightly. The penalty of excommunication rested upon the uncircumcised (Gn 17:14). The strange incident recorded in Exodus 4:24-26 seems to have been God’s reminder to Moses of the stipulations of the covenant made with Abraham. Moses had proved an unfaithful servant of the Lord by neglecting to circumcise his son but was rescued from judgment when his wife Zipporah took a flint rock and circumcised the boy, throwing the bloody foreskin at her husband’s feet.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CircumcisionintheNewTestament\">Circumcision in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>John the Baptist was circumcised, as were Jesus and Paul (Lk 1:59; 2:21; Phil 3:5). Jesus recognized the cleansing significance of circumcision (Jn 7:22-23), contrasting the rite with his healing ministry that made a man completely well and therefore ceremonially “clean.” Just before he was stoned, Stephen referred to the covenant of circumcision, charging that his Jewish accusers, like their ancestors, were stiff-necked and uncircumcised in heart and ears, always resisting the Holy Spirit (Acts 7:8, 51).<\/p>\n<p>For a time the first Christians continued to participate in the Jewish rites and customs, even attending the services of the temple (Acts 3:1; 5:21, 42). As Gentiles came to Christ, controversy arose between those who said that participation in the covenant community required circumcision and those who believed the rite was unnecessary. It was argued that since the covenant promise of the Messiah was given to the Jews, Gentiles must first be circumcised and become Jews before they could receive salvation in Christ.<\/p>\n<p>In the time of Christ, many Jews misunderstood the significance of circumcision, believing that the physical act was necessary for and a guarantee of salvation. Thus for Jews the observance became not only a symbol of religious privilege but also a source of racial pride (Phil 3:4-6). These Jews associated the ceremony with the Mosaic law rather than the promise to Abraham (Jn 7:22; Acts 15:1). Because Greeks and Romans did not practice circumcision, Jews had come to be called “the circumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Acts 10:45; 11:2; Rom 15:8; Gal 2:7-9; Eph 2:11; Ti 1:10), and following OT practice (Ez 28:10; 31:18; 32:19-32), Gentiles were termed “the uncircumcision” (<span>kjv<\/span> Gal 2:7; Eph 2:11).<\/p>\n<p>While visiting Caesarea, Jewish believers were amazed to realize that uncircumcised Gentiles received the purifying gift of the Holy Spirit (Acts 10:44-48). Moses had promised that God would circumcise the hearts of his people to love the Lord with heart and soul (Dt 30:6), and Ezekiel had prophesied that the Lord would sprinkle clean water on his people, giving them a new heart and putting his Spirit within them (Ez 36:25-27). As these Jewish believers saw the prophecy that God would pour out his Spirit upon all flesh (Jl 2:28; Acts 2:17) being fulfilled, they realized that the inward reality symbolized by circumcision could be accomplished without the physical sign. Thus, the gentile believers were immediately baptized.<\/p>\n<p>Not all the Jewish believers were immediately willing to accept Gentiles into the church. When Peter returned to Jerusalem after his visit to Caesarea, “the circumcision party” criticized him. But after telling how the Spirit had fallen upon the Gentiles, Peter declared that he could not stand against God. At this the Jewish believers were silenced and glorified God that repentance unto life had been granted to Gentiles (Acts 11:1-3, 15:8).<\/p>\n<p>Certain “Judaizers” of the Pharisaic party taught the Christians in Antioch that circumcision was necessary for salvation (Acts 15:1, 5). After debating these persons, Paul and Barnabas went to Jerusalem to consult with the other apostles and elders (v 2). Peter argued that God had given the Spirit to Gentiles and “cleansed their hearts by faith,” affirming that “we believe that we shall be saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus, just as they will” (vv 8-9, 11, <span>rsv<\/span>). Therefore, James and the other Jerusalem leaders agreed that circumcision should not be imposed on the Gentiles (vv 13-21).<\/p>\n<p>It was decided that Peter, James, and John would be entrusted with the gospel to “the circumcised,” while Paul and Barnabas would preach to “the uncircumcised” (Gal 2:7-9). Because of his evangelistic policy to be “all things to all people” with respect to spiritually indifferent matters of custom (1 Cor 9:19-23), Paul had Timothy circumcised. Timothy was reckoned by Jews as one of their race because his mother was Jewish (Acts 16:1-2). But Paul resisted attempts to have Titus circumcised, since he was a Gentile (Gal 2:3). Paul apparently allowed Jewish believers to circumcise their sons (Acts 21:21).<\/p>\n<p>Yet Paul charged that those who argued that the Galatian Christians must be circumcised and keep the law did not keep it themselves but wanted to boast in the Galatians’ flesh and avoid persecution for the cross of Christ (Gal 6:12-13)—persecution Paul was willing to bear (5:11). Granting for the sake of argument the Pharisaic assumption that salvation could be merited by keeping the law, Paul declared that those who received circumcision must obey every other Jewish law (vv 2-3). Christ would be “of no advantage” to those who “would be justified by the law”; this attempt at works righteousness would evidence that the Galatians were “severed from Christ,” having “fallen from grace” (vv 2-4). These Christians were being tempted to turn to “a different gospel” (1:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Because of the serious threat the Judaizers posed to the gospel of free grace, Paul wished that those who unsettled the Galatians would “mutilate themselves” (Gal 5:12). He termed the Judaizers “dogs” and “evil workers” (<span>kjv<\/span> “concision”), asserting that Christians are “the true circumcision,” because they worship God in spirit and glory in Christ Jesus, putting no confidence in human works to merit salvation (Phil 3:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>Paul taught that circumcision was indeed of value to Jews, for it was the sign that to them had been committed the “oracles of God,” that is, God’s word concerning the promise of salvation (Rom 3:1-3). He reminded the prideful Ephesians that as Gentiles they had once been “strangers to the covenants of promise,” not bearing the covenant sign in their flesh (Eph 2:11-12; see Col 2:13). Likewise, Jews had no cause for pride, for disobedience could cause outward circumcision to be counted as uncircumcision (Rom 2:25).<\/p>\n<p>Paul and the other apostles followed Moses and the OT prophets in teaching that true circumcision was a matter of the heart. The teaching of the NT goes further to affirm that a faithful believer, though physically uncircumcised, is regarded by God as circumcised, “for he is not a real Jew who is one outwardly, nor is true circumcision something external and physical” (Rom 2:28, <span>rsv<\/span>). Both Jews and Gentiles are saved by grace (Acts 15:11), and circumcised and uncircumcised alike are justified on the ground of their faith, apart from works of the law (Rom 3:28-30).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham served as an example of a person whose faith was reckoned to him as righteousness (Rom 4:3; see Gn 15:6). Paul argued that both Gentiles and Jews are justified by faith, because Abraham was accounted righteous before he was circumcised. Abraham did not receive circumcision to obtain righteousness, but as a sign or seal of the righteousness that he had by faith while he was still uncircumcised. Thus, Abraham is the father of all who believe without being circumcised, as well as those who are circumcised but also follow the example of Abraham’s faith (Rom 4:9-12; see Gal 3:6-9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Baptism; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Uncircumcision.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CIRCUMCISION Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after bi...","summary_en":"CIRCUMCISION Surgical removal of the foreskin of the male reproductive organ. In Bible times circumcision was the seal of God’s covenant with Abraham (Gn 17:1-14). While circumcision originated as an ancient tribal or religious rite, since the early part of this century it has been practiced in Western nations for hygienic purposes. Many physicians believe that circumcision helps prevent genital cancers in both men and their wives, so that this minor operation is performed a few days after bi...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":40355,"type":"textbox","type_label":"Notă explicativă","type_icon":"💡","type_color":"#8b5cf6","title_ro":"The Spiritual Significance of Circumcision","title_en":"The Spiritual Significance of Circumcision","content_ro":"<h3>The Spiritual Significance of Circumcision<\/h3>\n<blockquote><p>The hygienic act of circumcision symbolized the need for cleansing if the holy God was to enter into relationship with an unholy people. At first it was God’s intention to let the ritual teach its own lesson. In Genesis 17:9-27 the observance merely serves as the covenant seal; Abraham is given little explanation of the significance of the rite itself. Later Moses used the expression “uncircumcised lips” to describe his unskilled speech (Ex 6:12, 30). When Israel entered the Promised Land, the yield of its fruit trees was to be considered “uncircumcised” for the first three years; after that it would be holy to the Lord (Lv 19:23-24).<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>By the time of the exodus, it became evident that circumcision had to do with ethical as well as physical considerations. In Deuteronomy 10:16 Moses exhorted the people to circumcise the foreskins of their hearts, and in Deuteronomy 30:6 this command assumes the form of a promise: “The <span>Lord<\/span> your God will circumcise your heart and theheart of your offspring, so that you will love the <span>Lord<\/span> your God with all your heart and with all your soul” (<span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Sin in the lives of the chosen people made their circumcision meaningless before God. Thus Moses told the Israelites to humble their uncircumcised hearts (Lv 26:41). The prophets further develop this teaching. Jeremiah urged the citizens of Judah to remove the foreskins of their hearts to avoid God’s wrath because of their evil ways (Jer 4:4), warning that the “uncircumcised ears” of Israel were not sensitive to the word of the Lord (Jer 6:10, <span>rsv<\/span> mg). Judgment will come upon Egypt, Edom, Ammon, Moab, and Judah, declares God, for “I am going to punish all who are circumcised only in flesh . . . for all these nations, and the whole House of Israel too, are uncircumcised at heart” (Jer 9:24-25, JB). Through Ezekiel the Lord complains that the temple has been profaned by the admission of aliens uncircumcised in heart and flesh (Ez 44:7, 9). Isaiah looks forward to the day when there will be a new Jerusalem into which the uncircumcised and unclean will no longer come.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Spiritual Significance of Circumcision<\/h3>\n<blockquote><p>The hygienic act of circumcision symbolized the need for cleansing if the holy God was to enter into relationship with an unholy people. At first it was God’s intention to let the ritual teach its own lesson. In Genesis 17:9-27 the observance merely serves as the covenant seal; Abraham is given little explanation of the significance of the rite itself. Later Moses used the expression “uncircumcised lips” to describe his unskilled speech (Ex 6:12, 30). When Israel entered the Promised Land, the yield of its fruit trees was to be considered “uncircumcised” for the first three years; after that it would be holy to the Lord (Lv 19:23-24).<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>By the time of the exodus, it became evident that circumcision had to do with ethical as well as physical considerations. In Deuteronomy 10:16 Moses exhorted the people to circumcise the foreskins of their hearts, and in Deuteronomy 30:6 this command assumes the form of a promise: “The <span>Lord<\/span> your God will circumcise your heart and theheart of your offspring, so that you will love the <span>Lord<\/span> your God with all your heart and with all your soul” (<span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Sin in the lives of the chosen people made their circumcision meaningless before God. Thus Moses told the Israelites to humble their uncircumcised hearts (Lv 26:41). The prophets further develop this teaching. Jeremiah urged the citizens of Judah to remove the foreskins of their hearts to avoid God’s wrath because of their evil ways (Jer 4:4), warning that the “uncircumcised ears” of Israel were not sensitive to the word of the Lord (Jer 6:10, <span>rsv<\/span> mg). Judgment will come upon Egypt, Edom, Ammon, Moab, and Judah, declares God, for “I am going to punish all who are circumcised only in flesh . . . for all these nations, and the whole House of Israel too, are uncircumcised at heart” (Jer 9:24-25, JB). Through Ezekiel the Lord complains that the temple has been profaned by the admission of aliens uncircumcised in heart and flesh (Ez 44:7, 9). Isaiah looks forward to the day when there will be a new Jerusalem into which the uncircumcised and unclean will no longer come.<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Spiritual Significance of Circumcision The hygienic act of circumcision symbolized the need for cleansing if the holy God was to enter into relationship with an unholy people. At first it was God’s intention to let the ritual teach its own lesson. In Genesis 17:9-27 the observance merely serves as the covenant seal; Abraham is given little explanation of the significance of the rite itself. Later Moses used the expression “uncircumcised lips” to describe his unskilled speech (Ex 6:12, 30)...","summary_en":"The Spiritual Significance of Circumcision The hygienic act of circumcision symbolized the need for cleansing if the holy God was to enter into relationship with an unholy people. At first it was God’s intention to let the ritual teach its own lesson. In Genesis 17:9-27 the observance merely serves as the covenant seal; Abraham is given little explanation of the significance of the rite itself. Later Moses used the expression “uncircumcised lips” to describe his unskilled speech (Ex 6:12, 30)...","source":"Textboxes\/Textboxes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":45225,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 30:6","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 30:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>30:6<\/strong> <em>change your heart:<\/em> This work of God, initiated by his grace, would result in Israel’s regeneration and identify the nation as the Lord’s true people (see 10:16; Jer 4:4; Rom 4:1-12).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>30:6<\/strong> <em>change your heart:<\/em> This work of God, initiated by his grace, would result in Israel’s regeneration and identify the nation as the Lord’s true people (see 10:16; Jer 4:4; Rom 4:1-12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"30:6 change your heart: This work of God, initiated by his grace, would result in Israel’s regeneration and identify the nation as the Lord’s true people (see 10:16; Jer 4:4; Rom 4:1-12).","summary_en":"30:6 change your heart: This work of God, initiated by his grace, would result in Israel’s regeneration and identify the nation as the Lord’s true people (see 10:16; Jer 4:4; Rom 4:1-12).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":72851,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 30:6","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 30:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>30:6<\/strong> <em>change your heart:<\/em> This work of God, initiated by his grace, would result in Israel’s regeneration and identify the nation as the Lord’s true people (see 10:16; Jer 4:4; Rom 4:1-12).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>30:6<\/strong> <em>change your heart:<\/em> This work of God, initiated by his grace, would result in Israel’s regeneration and identify the nation as the Lord’s true people (see 10:16; Jer 4:4; Rom 4:1-12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"30:6 change your heart: This work of God, initiated by his grace, would result in Israel’s regeneration and identify the nation as the Lord’s true people (see 10:16; Jer 4:4; Rom 4:1-12).","summary_en":"30:6 change your heart: This work of God, initiated by his grace, would result in Israel’s regeneration and identify the nation as the Lord’s true people (see 10:16; Jer 4:4; Rom 4:1-12).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100477,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 30:6","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 30:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>30:6<\/strong> <em>change your heart:<\/em> This work of God, initiated by his grace, would result in Israel’s regeneration and identify the nation as the Lord’s true people (see 10:16; Jer 4:4; Rom 4:1-12).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>30:6<\/strong> <em>change your heart:<\/em> This work of God, initiated by his grace, would result in Israel’s regeneration and identify the nation as the Lord’s true people (see 10:16; Jer 4:4; Rom 4:1-12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"30:6 change your heart: This work of God, initiated by his grace, would result in Israel’s regeneration and identify the nation as the Lord’s true people (see 10:16; Jer 4:4; Rom 4:1-12).","summary_en":"30:6 change your heart: This work of God, initiated by his grace, would result in Israel’s regeneration and identify the nation as the Lord’s true people (see 10:16; Jer 4:4; Rom 4:1-12).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128103,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 30:6","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 30:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>30:6<\/strong> <em>change your heart:<\/em> This work of God, initiated by his grace, would result in Israel’s regeneration and identify the nation as the Lord’s true people (see 10:16; Jer 4:4; Rom 4:1-12).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>30:6<\/strong> <em>change your heart:<\/em> This work of God, initiated by his grace, would result in Israel’s regeneration and identify the nation as the Lord’s true people (see 10:16; Jer 4:4; Rom 4:1-12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"30:6 change your heart: This work of God, initiated by his grace, would result in Israel’s regeneration and identify the nation as the Lord’s true people (see 10:16; Jer 4:4; Rom 4:1-12).","summary_en":"30:6 change your heart: This work of God, initiated by his grace, would result in Israel’s regeneration and identify the nation as the Lord’s true people (see 10:16; Jer 4:4; Rom 4:1-12).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":59919,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Circumcision","title_en":"Circumcision","content_ro":"<h3>Circumcision<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26).<\/p>\n<p>God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-14) and remind them to live in faithfulness to the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>Although circumcision was applied to adult males when they joined the covenant community (Gen 17:23-27; Exod 12:48; Josh 5:3-7), it was usually performed on infants (Gen 21:4; Lev 12:3), who received God’s promises and membership in the covenant community through their parents. Faith was required in order to receive God’s blessings, however, as can be seen in the differentiation between Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, and Joseph and his brothers. Non-Israelites could also obligate themselves to Israel’s covenant (Exod 12:48; cp. Gen 34:15-24), and circumcision marked their inclusion into the worshiping community (e.g., Exod 12:44).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision would help Israel recognize and remember that they must lay aside natural impurity. God’s people had to be loyal to the covenant, to the family, and to their own marriages. Intermarriage with uncircumcised people who were not of the covenant was a violation of the covenant. Any man who refused to be circumcised (physically <em>cut<\/em> in this symbolic way) would be <em>cut<\/em> off from the covenant people because of his disobedience to God’s command (Gen 17:14).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision is a symbol of separation from the world, of purity, and of loyalty to the covenant. It provides the powerful metaphor of “circumcision of the heart,” which designates a heart that is committed to God and is inwardly set apart to God, rather than being stubbornly resistant (Lev 26:41; Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4; 9:26; Eph 2:11). Circumcision of the heart evidences salvation and fellowship with God (see Ezek 18:31-32; 36:25-27; Rom 2:28-29; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus Christ established God’s new covenant, he fulfilled the requirements of the old covenant. It is not necessary for Gentile believers to be circumcised, since they are incorporated into the people of God through faith in Christ (Acts 15:1-29; Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 6:15; Col 2:11-12). One must turn in confidence to God and his promises, lay aside sinful behavior and the customs of the world, and live a new life by faith (see Jer 31:33-34; Rom 8:1-17; Gal 5:16–6:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14, 23-27; 21:4; 34:1-26; Exod 4:24-26; 12:48; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-8; Jer 9:25-26; Ezek 44:7-9; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 15:1-31; 16:1-5; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 5:1-6, 11-12; 6:12-16; Eph 2:11-18; Phil 3:2-7; Col 2:11; 3:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Circumcision<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26).<\/p>\n<p>God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-14) and remind them to live in faithfulness to the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>Although circumcision was applied to adult males when they joined the covenant community (Gen 17:23-27; Exod 12:48; Josh 5:3-7), it was usually performed on infants (Gen 21:4; Lev 12:3), who received God’s promises and membership in the covenant community through their parents. Faith was required in order to receive God’s blessings, however, as can be seen in the differentiation between Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, and Joseph and his brothers. Non-Israelites could also obligate themselves to Israel’s covenant (Exod 12:48; cp. Gen 34:15-24), and circumcision marked their inclusion into the worshiping community (e.g., Exod 12:44).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision would help Israel recognize and remember that they must lay aside natural impurity. God’s people had to be loyal to the covenant, to the family, and to their own marriages. Intermarriage with uncircumcised people who were not of the covenant was a violation of the covenant. Any man who refused to be circumcised (physically <em>cut<\/em> in this symbolic way) would be <em>cut<\/em> off from the covenant people because of his disobedience to God’s command (Gen 17:14).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision is a symbol of separation from the world, of purity, and of loyalty to the covenant. It provides the powerful metaphor of “circumcision of the heart,” which designates a heart that is committed to God and is inwardly set apart to God, rather than being stubbornly resistant (Lev 26:41; Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4; 9:26; Eph 2:11). Circumcision of the heart evidences salvation and fellowship with God (see Ezek 18:31-32; 36:25-27; Rom 2:28-29; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus Christ established God’s new covenant, he fulfilled the requirements of the old covenant. It is not necessary for Gentile believers to be circumcised, since they are incorporated into the people of God through faith in Christ (Acts 15:1-29; Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 6:15; Col 2:11-12). One must turn in confidence to God and his promises, lay aside sinful behavior and the customs of the world, and live a new life by faith (see Jer 31:33-34; Rom 8:1-17; Gal 5:16–6:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14, 23-27; 21:4; 34:1-26; Exod 4:24-26; 12:48; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-8; Jer 9:25-26; Ezek 44:7-9; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 15:1-31; 16:1-5; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 5:1-6, 11-12; 6:12-16; Eph 2:11-18; Phil 3:2-7; Col 2:11; 3:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Circumcision Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26). God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-...","summary_en":"Circumcision Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26). God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":66206,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Baptism","title_en":"Baptism","content_ro":"<h3>Baptism<\/h3>\n<p>Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a ritual bath to wash away the impurities of their Gentile background. This ritual cleansing was often done in special baths created for purification, called mikvahs. Mikvahs were located at many synagogues, and the Temple in Jerusalem had a large number of mikvahs, which suggests that those who approached for worship would ritually bathe.<\/p>\n<p>John preached “that people should be baptized to show that they had repented of their sins and turned to God to be forgiven” (Luke 3:3). John’s baptism was an aspect of his role in preparing people’s hearts to receive the Messiah (Luke 3:4-6), and those who had received his baptism and repented of their sins were those who were prepared for Jesus’ message (Luke 7:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>After his resurrection, Jesus commanded his disciples to baptize new converts (Matt 28:19). Christian baptism is understood as dying and rising with Christ, signifying the death of the old life and the beginning of the new (Rom 6:1-4; Col 2:12) and also signifying a Christian’s spiritual union with Christ (Gal 3:27) and with his church. Baptism thus became the rite of initiation in the Christian community. For this reason, many interpreters see baptism as the Christian equivalent of circumcision, the rite that initiated membership into the nation of Israel under the old covenant (see Col 2:11-12). Whatever the connection with OT circumcision, baptism signifies a changed heart and a clean conscience that come from God’s forgiveness (1 Pet 3:21; cp. Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29; Phil 3:3).<\/p>\n<p>As a ritual cleansing, Christian baptism signifies both forgiveness of sins (Acts 2:38; 10:43; 13:38; 26:17-18) and the reception of the Holy Spirit (2:38; 9:17-18; 10:47-48; 11:15-17; 19:5-7; Luke 3:16). Many interpreters see baptism as the outward confirmation of the inward “seal” of the Spirit, whose presence is a “guarantee” of the eternal inheritance that awaits God’s faithful people (2 Cor 1:21-22; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Titus 3:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 3:6-16; 21:25; 28:19; Mark 1:4-9; 10:38-39; 11:30; 16:16; Luke 3:3-22; 7:29-30; 12:50; 20:4; John 1:25-36; 3:22-23, 26; 4:1-2; 10:40; Acts 1:5, 22; 2:38, 41; 8:12-13, 16-17, 36-38; 9:18; 10:37, 47-48; 11:16; 13:24; 16:15, 33; 18:8, 25; 19:1-7; 22:16; Rom 6:3-4; 1 Cor 1:13-17; 10:2; 12:13; 15:29; Gal 3:27; Eph 4:5; Col 2:12; Heb 6:2; 1 Pet 3:21; 1 Jn 5:6<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Baptism<\/h3>\n<p>Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a ritual bath to wash away the impurities of their Gentile background. This ritual cleansing was often done in special baths created for purification, called mikvahs. Mikvahs were located at many synagogues, and the Temple in Jerusalem had a large number of mikvahs, which suggests that those who approached for worship would ritually bathe.<\/p>\n<p>John preached “that people should be baptized to show that they had repented of their sins and turned to God to be forgiven” (Luke 3:3). John’s baptism was an aspect of his role in preparing people’s hearts to receive the Messiah (Luke 3:4-6), and those who had received his baptism and repented of their sins were those who were prepared for Jesus’ message (Luke 7:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>After his resurrection, Jesus commanded his disciples to baptize new converts (Matt 28:19). Christian baptism is understood as dying and rising with Christ, signifying the death of the old life and the beginning of the new (Rom 6:1-4; Col 2:12) and also signifying a Christian’s spiritual union with Christ (Gal 3:27) and with his church. Baptism thus became the rite of initiation in the Christian community. For this reason, many interpreters see baptism as the Christian equivalent of circumcision, the rite that initiated membership into the nation of Israel under the old covenant (see Col 2:11-12). Whatever the connection with OT circumcision, baptism signifies a changed heart and a clean conscience that come from God’s forgiveness (1 Pet 3:21; cp. Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29; Phil 3:3).<\/p>\n<p>As a ritual cleansing, Christian baptism signifies both forgiveness of sins (Acts 2:38; 10:43; 13:38; 26:17-18) and the reception of the Holy Spirit (2:38; 9:17-18; 10:47-48; 11:15-17; 19:5-7; Luke 3:16). Many interpreters see baptism as the outward confirmation of the inward “seal” of the Spirit, whose presence is a “guarantee” of the eternal inheritance that awaits God’s faithful people (2 Cor 1:21-22; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Titus 3:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 3:6-16; 21:25; 28:19; Mark 1:4-9; 10:38-39; 11:30; 16:16; Luke 3:3-22; 7:29-30; 12:50; 20:4; John 1:25-36; 3:22-23, 26; 4:1-2; 10:40; Acts 1:5, 22; 2:38, 41; 8:12-13, 16-17, 36-38; 9:18; 10:37, 47-48; 11:16; 13:24; 16:15, 33; 18:8, 25; 19:1-7; 22:16; Rom 6:3-4; 1 Cor 1:13-17; 10:2; 12:13; 15:29; Gal 3:27; Eph 4:5; Col 2:12; Heb 6:2; 1 Pet 3:21; 1 Jn 5:6<\/p>","summary_ro":"Baptism Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a...","summary_en":"Baptism Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":66506,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Circumcision in the New Testament","title_en":"Circumcision in the New Testament","content_ro":"<h3>Circumcision in the New Testament<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; <em>Sirach<\/em> 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, Jesus, Paul, and Timothy (Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 16:2-3; Phil 3:5). Circumcision became a metaphor for the renewal of a person’s relationship with God (Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29). In the late 40s <span>AD<\/span>, some Jewish Christians tried to require Gentile Christians to undergo circumcision (Acts 15:1, 5; see 21:20-21; Gal 2:4, 11-13), to which Paul and Barnabas objected (Acts 15:2). The ensuing church council at Jerusalem settled the matter in favor of not requiring Gentiles to be circumcised (15:19-21, 28-29).<\/p>\n<p>Paul insisted that “it makes no difference whether or not a man has been circumcised” (1 Cor 7:19). “What is important is faith expressing itself in love” (Gal 5:6). In Galatians, Paul argued against vigorous Jewish opponents and insisted that everyone enters God’s family simply through faith in Jesus Christ (Gal 2:14-21). Circumcision is not required for acceptance by God (Gal 5:6). The cross of Christ is the way that sinners enter into covenant with God (Gal 2:14-21; Col 2:11-15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-9; Jer 9:25-26; Luke 1:59; 2:21; John 7:22-24; Acts 7:8; 15:1-5, 19-21, 28-31; 16:2-3; 21:18-24; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 2:3-5, 11-21; 5:6; 6:15; Phil 3:5-9; Col 2:11-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Circumcision in the New Testament<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; <em>Sirach<\/em> 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, Jesus, Paul, and Timothy (Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 16:2-3; Phil 3:5). Circumcision became a metaphor for the renewal of a person’s relationship with God (Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29). In the late 40s <span>AD<\/span>, some Jewish Christians tried to require Gentile Christians to undergo circumcision (Acts 15:1, 5; see 21:20-21; Gal 2:4, 11-13), to which Paul and Barnabas objected (Acts 15:2). The ensuing church council at Jerusalem settled the matter in favor of not requiring Gentiles to be circumcised (15:19-21, 28-29).<\/p>\n<p>Paul insisted that “it makes no difference whether or not a man has been circumcised” (1 Cor 7:19). “What is important is faith expressing itself in love” (Gal 5:6). In Galatians, Paul argued against vigorous Jewish opponents and insisted that everyone enters God’s family simply through faith in Jesus Christ (Gal 2:14-21). Circumcision is not required for acceptance by God (Gal 5:6). The cross of Christ is the way that sinners enter into covenant with God (Gal 2:14-21; Col 2:11-15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-9; Jer 9:25-26; Luke 1:59; 2:21; John 7:22-24; Acts 7:8; 15:1-5, 19-21, 28-31; 16:2-3; 21:18-24; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 2:3-5, 11-21; 5:6; 6:15; Phil 3:5-9; Col 2:11-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Circumcision in the New Testament Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; Sirach 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, ...","summary_en":"Circumcision in the New Testament Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; Sirach 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":87545,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Circumcision","title_en":"Circumcision","content_ro":"<h3>Circumcision<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26).<\/p>\n<p>God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-14) and remind them to live in faithfulness to the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>Although circumcision was applied to adult males when they joined the covenant community (Gen 17:23-27; Exod 12:48; Josh 5:3-7), it was usually performed on infants (Gen 21:4; Lev 12:3), who received God’s promises and membership in the covenant community through their parents. Faith was required in order to receive God’s blessings, however, as can be seen in the differentiation between Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, and Joseph and his brothers. Non-Israelites could also obligate themselves to Israel’s covenant (Exod 12:48; cp. Gen 34:15-24), and circumcision marked their inclusion into the worshiping community (e.g., Exod 12:44).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision would help Israel recognize and remember that they must lay aside natural impurity. God’s people had to be loyal to the covenant, to the family, and to their own marriages. Intermarriage with uncircumcised people who were not of the covenant was a violation of the covenant. Any man who refused to be circumcised (physically <em>cut<\/em> in this symbolic way) would be <em>cut<\/em> off from the covenant people because of his disobedience to God’s command (Gen 17:14).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision is a symbol of separation from the world, of purity, and of loyalty to the covenant. It provides the powerful metaphor of “circumcision of the heart,” which designates a heart that is committed to God and is inwardly set apart to God, rather than being stubbornly resistant (Lev 26:41; Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4; 9:26; Eph 2:11). Circumcision of the heart evidences salvation and fellowship with God (see Ezek 18:31-32; 36:25-27; Rom 2:28-29; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus Christ established God’s new covenant, he fulfilled the requirements of the old covenant. It is not necessary for Gentile believers to be circumcised, since they are incorporated into the people of God through faith in Christ (Acts 15:1-29; Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 6:15; Col 2:11-12). One must turn in confidence to God and his promises, lay aside sinful behavior and the customs of the world, and live a new life by faith (see Jer 31:33-34; Rom 8:1-17; Gal 5:16–6:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14, 23-27; 21:4; 34:1-26; Exod 4:24-26; 12:48; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-8; Jer 9:25-26; Ezek 44:7-9; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 15:1-31; 16:1-5; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 5:1-6, 11-12; 6:12-16; Eph 2:11-18; Phil 3:2-7; Col 2:11; 3:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Circumcision<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26).<\/p>\n<p>God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-14) and remind them to live in faithfulness to the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>Although circumcision was applied to adult males when they joined the covenant community (Gen 17:23-27; Exod 12:48; Josh 5:3-7), it was usually performed on infants (Gen 21:4; Lev 12:3), who received God’s promises and membership in the covenant community through their parents. Faith was required in order to receive God’s blessings, however, as can be seen in the differentiation between Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, and Joseph and his brothers. Non-Israelites could also obligate themselves to Israel’s covenant (Exod 12:48; cp. Gen 34:15-24), and circumcision marked their inclusion into the worshiping community (e.g., Exod 12:44).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision would help Israel recognize and remember that they must lay aside natural impurity. God’s people had to be loyal to the covenant, to the family, and to their own marriages. Intermarriage with uncircumcised people who were not of the covenant was a violation of the covenant. Any man who refused to be circumcised (physically <em>cut<\/em> in this symbolic way) would be <em>cut<\/em> off from the covenant people because of his disobedience to God’s command (Gen 17:14).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision is a symbol of separation from the world, of purity, and of loyalty to the covenant. It provides the powerful metaphor of “circumcision of the heart,” which designates a heart that is committed to God and is inwardly set apart to God, rather than being stubbornly resistant (Lev 26:41; Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4; 9:26; Eph 2:11). Circumcision of the heart evidences salvation and fellowship with God (see Ezek 18:31-32; 36:25-27; Rom 2:28-29; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus Christ established God’s new covenant, he fulfilled the requirements of the old covenant. It is not necessary for Gentile believers to be circumcised, since they are incorporated into the people of God through faith in Christ (Acts 15:1-29; Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 6:15; Col 2:11-12). One must turn in confidence to God and his promises, lay aside sinful behavior and the customs of the world, and live a new life by faith (see Jer 31:33-34; Rom 8:1-17; Gal 5:16–6:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14, 23-27; 21:4; 34:1-26; Exod 4:24-26; 12:48; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-8; Jer 9:25-26; Ezek 44:7-9; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 15:1-31; 16:1-5; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 5:1-6, 11-12; 6:12-16; Eph 2:11-18; Phil 3:2-7; Col 2:11; 3:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Circumcision Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26). God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-...","summary_en":"Circumcision Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26). God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":93832,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Baptism","title_en":"Baptism","content_ro":"<h3>Baptism<\/h3>\n<p>Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a ritual bath to wash away the impurities of their Gentile background. This ritual cleansing was often done in special baths created for purification, called mikvahs. Mikvahs were located at many synagogues, and the Temple in Jerusalem had a large number of mikvahs, which suggests that those who approached for worship would ritually bathe.<\/p>\n<p>John preached “that people should be baptized to show that they had repented of their sins and turned to God to be forgiven” (Luke 3:3). John’s baptism was an aspect of his role in preparing people’s hearts to receive the Messiah (Luke 3:4-6), and those who had received his baptism and repented of their sins were those who were prepared for Jesus’ message (Luke 7:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>After his resurrection, Jesus commanded his disciples to baptize new converts (Matt 28:19). Christian baptism is understood as dying and rising with Christ, signifying the death of the old life and the beginning of the new (Rom 6:1-4; Col 2:12) and also signifying a Christian’s spiritual union with Christ (Gal 3:27) and with his church. Baptism thus became the rite of initiation in the Christian community. For this reason, many interpreters see baptism as the Christian equivalent of circumcision, the rite that initiated membership into the nation of Israel under the old covenant (see Col 2:11-12). Whatever the connection with OT circumcision, baptism signifies a changed heart and a clean conscience that come from God’s forgiveness (1 Pet 3:21; cp. Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29; Phil 3:3).<\/p>\n<p>As a ritual cleansing, Christian baptism signifies both forgiveness of sins (Acts 2:38; 10:43; 13:38; 26:17-18) and the reception of the Holy Spirit (2:38; 9:17-18; 10:47-48; 11:15-17; 19:5-7; Luke 3:16). Many interpreters see baptism as the outward confirmation of the inward “seal” of the Spirit, whose presence is a “guarantee” of the eternal inheritance that awaits God’s faithful people (2 Cor 1:21-22; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Titus 3:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 3:6-16; 21:25; 28:19; Mark 1:4-9; 10:38-39; 11:30; 16:16; Luke 3:3-22; 7:29-30; 12:50; 20:4; John 1:25-36; 3:22-23, 26; 4:1-2; 10:40; Acts 1:5, 22; 2:38, 41; 8:12-13, 16-17, 36-38; 9:18; 10:37, 47-48; 11:16; 13:24; 16:15, 33; 18:8, 25; 19:1-7; 22:16; Rom 6:3-4; 1 Cor 1:13-17; 10:2; 12:13; 15:29; Gal 3:27; Eph 4:5; Col 2:12; Heb 6:2; 1 Pet 3:21; 1 Jn 5:6<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Baptism<\/h3>\n<p>Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a ritual bath to wash away the impurities of their Gentile background. This ritual cleansing was often done in special baths created for purification, called mikvahs. Mikvahs were located at many synagogues, and the Temple in Jerusalem had a large number of mikvahs, which suggests that those who approached for worship would ritually bathe.<\/p>\n<p>John preached “that people should be baptized to show that they had repented of their sins and turned to God to be forgiven” (Luke 3:3). John’s baptism was an aspect of his role in preparing people’s hearts to receive the Messiah (Luke 3:4-6), and those who had received his baptism and repented of their sins were those who were prepared for Jesus’ message (Luke 7:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>After his resurrection, Jesus commanded his disciples to baptize new converts (Matt 28:19). Christian baptism is understood as dying and rising with Christ, signifying the death of the old life and the beginning of the new (Rom 6:1-4; Col 2:12) and also signifying a Christian’s spiritual union with Christ (Gal 3:27) and with his church. Baptism thus became the rite of initiation in the Christian community. For this reason, many interpreters see baptism as the Christian equivalent of circumcision, the rite that initiated membership into the nation of Israel under the old covenant (see Col 2:11-12). Whatever the connection with OT circumcision, baptism signifies a changed heart and a clean conscience that come from God’s forgiveness (1 Pet 3:21; cp. Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29; Phil 3:3).<\/p>\n<p>As a ritual cleansing, Christian baptism signifies both forgiveness of sins (Acts 2:38; 10:43; 13:38; 26:17-18) and the reception of the Holy Spirit (2:38; 9:17-18; 10:47-48; 11:15-17; 19:5-7; Luke 3:16). Many interpreters see baptism as the outward confirmation of the inward “seal” of the Spirit, whose presence is a “guarantee” of the eternal inheritance that awaits God’s faithful people (2 Cor 1:21-22; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Titus 3:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 3:6-16; 21:25; 28:19; Mark 1:4-9; 10:38-39; 11:30; 16:16; Luke 3:3-22; 7:29-30; 12:50; 20:4; John 1:25-36; 3:22-23, 26; 4:1-2; 10:40; Acts 1:5, 22; 2:38, 41; 8:12-13, 16-17, 36-38; 9:18; 10:37, 47-48; 11:16; 13:24; 16:15, 33; 18:8, 25; 19:1-7; 22:16; Rom 6:3-4; 1 Cor 1:13-17; 10:2; 12:13; 15:29; Gal 3:27; Eph 4:5; Col 2:12; Heb 6:2; 1 Pet 3:21; 1 Jn 5:6<\/p>","summary_ro":"Baptism Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a...","summary_en":"Baptism Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":94132,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Circumcision in the New Testament","title_en":"Circumcision in the New Testament","content_ro":"<h3>Circumcision in the New Testament<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; <em>Sirach<\/em> 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, Jesus, Paul, and Timothy (Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 16:2-3; Phil 3:5). Circumcision became a metaphor for the renewal of a person’s relationship with God (Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29). In the late 40s <span>AD<\/span>, some Jewish Christians tried to require Gentile Christians to undergo circumcision (Acts 15:1, 5; see 21:20-21; Gal 2:4, 11-13), to which Paul and Barnabas objected (Acts 15:2). The ensuing church council at Jerusalem settled the matter in favor of not requiring Gentiles to be circumcised (15:19-21, 28-29).<\/p>\n<p>Paul insisted that “it makes no difference whether or not a man has been circumcised” (1 Cor 7:19). “What is important is faith expressing itself in love” (Gal 5:6). In Galatians, Paul argued against vigorous Jewish opponents and insisted that everyone enters God’s family simply through faith in Jesus Christ (Gal 2:14-21). Circumcision is not required for acceptance by God (Gal 5:6). The cross of Christ is the way that sinners enter into covenant with God (Gal 2:14-21; Col 2:11-15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-9; Jer 9:25-26; Luke 1:59; 2:21; John 7:22-24; Acts 7:8; 15:1-5, 19-21, 28-31; 16:2-3; 21:18-24; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 2:3-5, 11-21; 5:6; 6:15; Phil 3:5-9; Col 2:11-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Circumcision in the New Testament<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; <em>Sirach<\/em> 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, Jesus, Paul, and Timothy (Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 16:2-3; Phil 3:5). Circumcision became a metaphor for the renewal of a person’s relationship with God (Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29). In the late 40s <span>AD<\/span>, some Jewish Christians tried to require Gentile Christians to undergo circumcision (Acts 15:1, 5; see 21:20-21; Gal 2:4, 11-13), to which Paul and Barnabas objected (Acts 15:2). The ensuing church council at Jerusalem settled the matter in favor of not requiring Gentiles to be circumcised (15:19-21, 28-29).<\/p>\n<p>Paul insisted that “it makes no difference whether or not a man has been circumcised” (1 Cor 7:19). “What is important is faith expressing itself in love” (Gal 5:6). In Galatians, Paul argued against vigorous Jewish opponents and insisted that everyone enters God’s family simply through faith in Jesus Christ (Gal 2:14-21). Circumcision is not required for acceptance by God (Gal 5:6). The cross of Christ is the way that sinners enter into covenant with God (Gal 2:14-21; Col 2:11-15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-9; Jer 9:25-26; Luke 1:59; 2:21; John 7:22-24; Acts 7:8; 15:1-5, 19-21, 28-31; 16:2-3; 21:18-24; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 2:3-5, 11-21; 5:6; 6:15; Phil 3:5-9; Col 2:11-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Circumcision in the New Testament Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; Sirach 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, ...","summary_en":"Circumcision in the New Testament Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; Sirach 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115171,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Circumcision","title_en":"Circumcision","content_ro":"<h3>Circumcision<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26).<\/p>\n<p>God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-14) and remind them to live in faithfulness to the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>Although circumcision was applied to adult males when they joined the covenant community (Gen 17:23-27; Exod 12:48; Josh 5:3-7), it was usually performed on infants (Gen 21:4; Lev 12:3), who received God’s promises and membership in the covenant community through their parents. Faith was required in order to receive God’s blessings, however, as can be seen in the differentiation between Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, and Joseph and his brothers. Non-Israelites could also obligate themselves to Israel’s covenant (Exod 12:48; cp. Gen 34:15-24), and circumcision marked their inclusion into the worshiping community (e.g., Exod 12:44).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision would help Israel recognize and remember that they must lay aside natural impurity. God’s people had to be loyal to the covenant, to the family, and to their own marriages. Intermarriage with uncircumcised people who were not of the covenant was a violation of the covenant. Any man who refused to be circumcised (physically <em>cut<\/em> in this symbolic way) would be <em>cut<\/em> off from the covenant people because of his disobedience to God’s command (Gen 17:14).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision is a symbol of separation from the world, of purity, and of loyalty to the covenant. It provides the powerful metaphor of “circumcision of the heart,” which designates a heart that is committed to God and is inwardly set apart to God, rather than being stubbornly resistant (Lev 26:41; Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4; 9:26; Eph 2:11). Circumcision of the heart evidences salvation and fellowship with God (see Ezek 18:31-32; 36:25-27; Rom 2:28-29; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus Christ established God’s new covenant, he fulfilled the requirements of the old covenant. It is not necessary for Gentile believers to be circumcised, since they are incorporated into the people of God through faith in Christ (Acts 15:1-29; Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 6:15; Col 2:11-12). One must turn in confidence to God and his promises, lay aside sinful behavior and the customs of the world, and live a new life by faith (see Jer 31:33-34; Rom 8:1-17; Gal 5:16–6:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14, 23-27; 21:4; 34:1-26; Exod 4:24-26; 12:48; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-8; Jer 9:25-26; Ezek 44:7-9; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 15:1-31; 16:1-5; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 5:1-6, 11-12; 6:12-16; Eph 2:11-18; Phil 3:2-7; Col 2:11; 3:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Circumcision<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26).<\/p>\n<p>God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-14) and remind them to live in faithfulness to the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>Although circumcision was applied to adult males when they joined the covenant community (Gen 17:23-27; Exod 12:48; Josh 5:3-7), it was usually performed on infants (Gen 21:4; Lev 12:3), who received God’s promises and membership in the covenant community through their parents. Faith was required in order to receive God’s blessings, however, as can be seen in the differentiation between Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, and Joseph and his brothers. Non-Israelites could also obligate themselves to Israel’s covenant (Exod 12:48; cp. Gen 34:15-24), and circumcision marked their inclusion into the worshiping community (e.g., Exod 12:44).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision would help Israel recognize and remember that they must lay aside natural impurity. God’s people had to be loyal to the covenant, to the family, and to their own marriages. Intermarriage with uncircumcised people who were not of the covenant was a violation of the covenant. Any man who refused to be circumcised (physically <em>cut<\/em> in this symbolic way) would be <em>cut<\/em> off from the covenant people because of his disobedience to God’s command (Gen 17:14).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision is a symbol of separation from the world, of purity, and of loyalty to the covenant. It provides the powerful metaphor of “circumcision of the heart,” which designates a heart that is committed to God and is inwardly set apart to God, rather than being stubbornly resistant (Lev 26:41; Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4; 9:26; Eph 2:11). Circumcision of the heart evidences salvation and fellowship with God (see Ezek 18:31-32; 36:25-27; Rom 2:28-29; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus Christ established God’s new covenant, he fulfilled the requirements of the old covenant. It is not necessary for Gentile believers to be circumcised, since they are incorporated into the people of God through faith in Christ (Acts 15:1-29; Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 6:15; Col 2:11-12). One must turn in confidence to God and his promises, lay aside sinful behavior and the customs of the world, and live a new life by faith (see Jer 31:33-34; Rom 8:1-17; Gal 5:16–6:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14, 23-27; 21:4; 34:1-26; Exod 4:24-26; 12:48; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-8; Jer 9:25-26; Ezek 44:7-9; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 15:1-31; 16:1-5; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 5:1-6, 11-12; 6:12-16; Eph 2:11-18; Phil 3:2-7; Col 2:11; 3:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Circumcision Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26). God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-...","summary_en":"Circumcision Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26). God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":121458,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Baptism","title_en":"Baptism","content_ro":"<h3>Baptism<\/h3>\n<p>Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a ritual bath to wash away the impurities of their Gentile background. This ritual cleansing was often done in special baths created for purification, called mikvahs. Mikvahs were located at many synagogues, and the Temple in Jerusalem had a large number of mikvahs, which suggests that those who approached for worship would ritually bathe.<\/p>\n<p>John preached “that people should be baptized to show that they had repented of their sins and turned to God to be forgiven” (Luke 3:3). John’s baptism was an aspect of his role in preparing people’s hearts to receive the Messiah (Luke 3:4-6), and those who had received his baptism and repented of their sins were those who were prepared for Jesus’ message (Luke 7:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>After his resurrection, Jesus commanded his disciples to baptize new converts (Matt 28:19). Christian baptism is understood as dying and rising with Christ, signifying the death of the old life and the beginning of the new (Rom 6:1-4; Col 2:12) and also signifying a Christian’s spiritual union with Christ (Gal 3:27) and with his church. Baptism thus became the rite of initiation in the Christian community. For this reason, many interpreters see baptism as the Christian equivalent of circumcision, the rite that initiated membership into the nation of Israel under the old covenant (see Col 2:11-12). Whatever the connection with OT circumcision, baptism signifies a changed heart and a clean conscience that come from God’s forgiveness (1 Pet 3:21; cp. Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29; Phil 3:3).<\/p>\n<p>As a ritual cleansing, Christian baptism signifies both forgiveness of sins (Acts 2:38; 10:43; 13:38; 26:17-18) and the reception of the Holy Spirit (2:38; 9:17-18; 10:47-48; 11:15-17; 19:5-7; Luke 3:16). Many interpreters see baptism as the outward confirmation of the inward “seal” of the Spirit, whose presence is a “guarantee” of the eternal inheritance that awaits God’s faithful people (2 Cor 1:21-22; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Titus 3:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 3:6-16; 21:25; 28:19; Mark 1:4-9; 10:38-39; 11:30; 16:16; Luke 3:3-22; 7:29-30; 12:50; 20:4; John 1:25-36; 3:22-23, 26; 4:1-2; 10:40; Acts 1:5, 22; 2:38, 41; 8:12-13, 16-17, 36-38; 9:18; 10:37, 47-48; 11:16; 13:24; 16:15, 33; 18:8, 25; 19:1-7; 22:16; Rom 6:3-4; 1 Cor 1:13-17; 10:2; 12:13; 15:29; Gal 3:27; Eph 4:5; Col 2:12; Heb 6:2; 1 Pet 3:21; 1 Jn 5:6<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Baptism<\/h3>\n<p>Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a ritual bath to wash away the impurities of their Gentile background. This ritual cleansing was often done in special baths created for purification, called mikvahs. Mikvahs were located at many synagogues, and the Temple in Jerusalem had a large number of mikvahs, which suggests that those who approached for worship would ritually bathe.<\/p>\n<p>John preached “that people should be baptized to show that they had repented of their sins and turned to God to be forgiven” (Luke 3:3). John’s baptism was an aspect of his role in preparing people’s hearts to receive the Messiah (Luke 3:4-6), and those who had received his baptism and repented of their sins were those who were prepared for Jesus’ message (Luke 7:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>After his resurrection, Jesus commanded his disciples to baptize new converts (Matt 28:19). Christian baptism is understood as dying and rising with Christ, signifying the death of the old life and the beginning of the new (Rom 6:1-4; Col 2:12) and also signifying a Christian’s spiritual union with Christ (Gal 3:27) and with his church. Baptism thus became the rite of initiation in the Christian community. For this reason, many interpreters see baptism as the Christian equivalent of circumcision, the rite that initiated membership into the nation of Israel under the old covenant (see Col 2:11-12). Whatever the connection with OT circumcision, baptism signifies a changed heart and a clean conscience that come from God’s forgiveness (1 Pet 3:21; cp. Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29; Phil 3:3).<\/p>\n<p>As a ritual cleansing, Christian baptism signifies both forgiveness of sins (Acts 2:38; 10:43; 13:38; 26:17-18) and the reception of the Holy Spirit (2:38; 9:17-18; 10:47-48; 11:15-17; 19:5-7; Luke 3:16). Many interpreters see baptism as the outward confirmation of the inward “seal” of the Spirit, whose presence is a “guarantee” of the eternal inheritance that awaits God’s faithful people (2 Cor 1:21-22; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Titus 3:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 3:6-16; 21:25; 28:19; Mark 1:4-9; 10:38-39; 11:30; 16:16; Luke 3:3-22; 7:29-30; 12:50; 20:4; John 1:25-36; 3:22-23, 26; 4:1-2; 10:40; Acts 1:5, 22; 2:38, 41; 8:12-13, 16-17, 36-38; 9:18; 10:37, 47-48; 11:16; 13:24; 16:15, 33; 18:8, 25; 19:1-7; 22:16; Rom 6:3-4; 1 Cor 1:13-17; 10:2; 12:13; 15:29; Gal 3:27; Eph 4:5; Col 2:12; Heb 6:2; 1 Pet 3:21; 1 Jn 5:6<\/p>","summary_ro":"Baptism Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a...","summary_en":"Baptism Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":121758,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Circumcision in the New Testament","title_en":"Circumcision in the New Testament","content_ro":"<h3>Circumcision in the New Testament<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; <em>Sirach<\/em> 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, Jesus, Paul, and Timothy (Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 16:2-3; Phil 3:5). Circumcision became a metaphor for the renewal of a person’s relationship with God (Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29). In the late 40s <span>AD<\/span>, some Jewish Christians tried to require Gentile Christians to undergo circumcision (Acts 15:1, 5; see 21:20-21; Gal 2:4, 11-13), to which Paul and Barnabas objected (Acts 15:2). The ensuing church council at Jerusalem settled the matter in favor of not requiring Gentiles to be circumcised (15:19-21, 28-29).<\/p>\n<p>Paul insisted that “it makes no difference whether or not a man has been circumcised” (1 Cor 7:19). “What is important is faith expressing itself in love” (Gal 5:6). In Galatians, Paul argued against vigorous Jewish opponents and insisted that everyone enters God’s family simply through faith in Jesus Christ (Gal 2:14-21). Circumcision is not required for acceptance by God (Gal 5:6). The cross of Christ is the way that sinners enter into covenant with God (Gal 2:14-21; Col 2:11-15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-9; Jer 9:25-26; Luke 1:59; 2:21; John 7:22-24; Acts 7:8; 15:1-5, 19-21, 28-31; 16:2-3; 21:18-24; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 2:3-5, 11-21; 5:6; 6:15; Phil 3:5-9; Col 2:11-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Circumcision in the New Testament<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; <em>Sirach<\/em> 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, Jesus, Paul, and Timothy (Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 16:2-3; Phil 3:5). Circumcision became a metaphor for the renewal of a person’s relationship with God (Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29). In the late 40s <span>AD<\/span>, some Jewish Christians tried to require Gentile Christians to undergo circumcision (Acts 15:1, 5; see 21:20-21; Gal 2:4, 11-13), to which Paul and Barnabas objected (Acts 15:2). The ensuing church council at Jerusalem settled the matter in favor of not requiring Gentiles to be circumcised (15:19-21, 28-29).<\/p>\n<p>Paul insisted that “it makes no difference whether or not a man has been circumcised” (1 Cor 7:19). “What is important is faith expressing itself in love” (Gal 5:6). In Galatians, Paul argued against vigorous Jewish opponents and insisted that everyone enters God’s family simply through faith in Jesus Christ (Gal 2:14-21). Circumcision is not required for acceptance by God (Gal 5:6). The cross of Christ is the way that sinners enter into covenant with God (Gal 2:14-21; Col 2:11-15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-9; Jer 9:25-26; Luke 1:59; 2:21; John 7:22-24; Acts 7:8; 15:1-5, 19-21, 28-31; 16:2-3; 21:18-24; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 2:3-5, 11-21; 5:6; 6:15; Phil 3:5-9; Col 2:11-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Circumcision in the New Testament Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; Sirach 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, ...","summary_en":"Circumcision in the New Testament Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; Sirach 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":142797,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Circumcision","title_en":"Circumcision","content_ro":"<h3>Circumcision<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26).<\/p>\n<p>God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-14) and remind them to live in faithfulness to the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>Although circumcision was applied to adult males when they joined the covenant community (Gen 17:23-27; Exod 12:48; Josh 5:3-7), it was usually performed on infants (Gen 21:4; Lev 12:3), who received God’s promises and membership in the covenant community through their parents. Faith was required in order to receive God’s blessings, however, as can be seen in the differentiation between Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, and Joseph and his brothers. Non-Israelites could also obligate themselves to Israel’s covenant (Exod 12:48; cp. Gen 34:15-24), and circumcision marked their inclusion into the worshiping community (e.g., Exod 12:44).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision would help Israel recognize and remember that they must lay aside natural impurity. God’s people had to be loyal to the covenant, to the family, and to their own marriages. Intermarriage with uncircumcised people who were not of the covenant was a violation of the covenant. Any man who refused to be circumcised (physically <em>cut<\/em> in this symbolic way) would be <em>cut<\/em> off from the covenant people because of his disobedience to God’s command (Gen 17:14).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision is a symbol of separation from the world, of purity, and of loyalty to the covenant. It provides the powerful metaphor of “circumcision of the heart,” which designates a heart that is committed to God and is inwardly set apart to God, rather than being stubbornly resistant (Lev 26:41; Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4; 9:26; Eph 2:11). Circumcision of the heart evidences salvation and fellowship with God (see Ezek 18:31-32; 36:25-27; Rom 2:28-29; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus Christ established God’s new covenant, he fulfilled the requirements of the old covenant. It is not necessary for Gentile believers to be circumcised, since they are incorporated into the people of God through faith in Christ (Acts 15:1-29; Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 6:15; Col 2:11-12). One must turn in confidence to God and his promises, lay aside sinful behavior and the customs of the world, and live a new life by faith (see Jer 31:33-34; Rom 8:1-17; Gal 5:16–6:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14, 23-27; 21:4; 34:1-26; Exod 4:24-26; 12:48; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-8; Jer 9:25-26; Ezek 44:7-9; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 15:1-31; 16:1-5; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 5:1-6, 11-12; 6:12-16; Eph 2:11-18; Phil 3:2-7; Col 2:11; 3:11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Circumcision<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26).<\/p>\n<p>God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-14) and remind them to live in faithfulness to the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>Although circumcision was applied to adult males when they joined the covenant community (Gen 17:23-27; Exod 12:48; Josh 5:3-7), it was usually performed on infants (Gen 21:4; Lev 12:3), who received God’s promises and membership in the covenant community through their parents. Faith was required in order to receive God’s blessings, however, as can be seen in the differentiation between Ishmael and Isaac, Esau and Jacob, and Joseph and his brothers. Non-Israelites could also obligate themselves to Israel’s covenant (Exod 12:48; cp. Gen 34:15-24), and circumcision marked their inclusion into the worshiping community (e.g., Exod 12:44).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision would help Israel recognize and remember that they must lay aside natural impurity. God’s people had to be loyal to the covenant, to the family, and to their own marriages. Intermarriage with uncircumcised people who were not of the covenant was a violation of the covenant. Any man who refused to be circumcised (physically <em>cut<\/em> in this symbolic way) would be <em>cut<\/em> off from the covenant people because of his disobedience to God’s command (Gen 17:14).<\/p>\n<p>Circumcision is a symbol of separation from the world, of purity, and of loyalty to the covenant. It provides the powerful metaphor of “circumcision of the heart,” which designates a heart that is committed to God and is inwardly set apart to God, rather than being stubbornly resistant (Lev 26:41; Deut 30:6; Jer 4:4; 9:26; Eph 2:11). Circumcision of the heart evidences salvation and fellowship with God (see Ezek 18:31-32; 36:25-27; Rom 2:28-29; 4:11).<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus Christ established God’s new covenant, he fulfilled the requirements of the old covenant. It is not necessary for Gentile believers to be circumcised, since they are incorporated into the people of God through faith in Christ (Acts 15:1-29; Rom 2:25-29; Gal 2:1-10; 6:15; Col 2:11-12). One must turn in confidence to God and his promises, lay aside sinful behavior and the customs of the world, and live a new life by faith (see Jer 31:33-34; Rom 8:1-17; Gal 5:16–6:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14, 23-27; 21:4; 34:1-26; Exod 4:24-26; 12:48; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-8; Jer 9:25-26; Ezek 44:7-9; Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 15:1-31; 16:1-5; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 5:1-6, 11-12; 6:12-16; Eph 2:11-18; Phil 3:2-7; Col 2:11; 3:11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Circumcision Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26). God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-...","summary_en":"Circumcision Circumcision, the removal of the male foreskin, was practiced by a number of cultures in the ancient world (see Jer 9:25-26). God chose circumcision as the sign of a covenant that focuses on descendants. God had promised to make Abraham and his descendants into a great nation (Gen 12:2; 17:3-6) and to use them to redeem the Gentile nations (12:3; see Gal 3:8-9). Circumcision was God’s signature in flesh; it would identify Abraham and his descendants as God’s own people (Gen 17:9-...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":149084,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Baptism","title_en":"Baptism","content_ro":"<h3>Baptism<\/h3>\n<p>Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a ritual bath to wash away the impurities of their Gentile background. This ritual cleansing was often done in special baths created for purification, called mikvahs. Mikvahs were located at many synagogues, and the Temple in Jerusalem had a large number of mikvahs, which suggests that those who approached for worship would ritually bathe.<\/p>\n<p>John preached “that people should be baptized to show that they had repented of their sins and turned to God to be forgiven” (Luke 3:3). John’s baptism was an aspect of his role in preparing people’s hearts to receive the Messiah (Luke 3:4-6), and those who had received his baptism and repented of their sins were those who were prepared for Jesus’ message (Luke 7:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>After his resurrection, Jesus commanded his disciples to baptize new converts (Matt 28:19). Christian baptism is understood as dying and rising with Christ, signifying the death of the old life and the beginning of the new (Rom 6:1-4; Col 2:12) and also signifying a Christian’s spiritual union with Christ (Gal 3:27) and with his church. Baptism thus became the rite of initiation in the Christian community. For this reason, many interpreters see baptism as the Christian equivalent of circumcision, the rite that initiated membership into the nation of Israel under the old covenant (see Col 2:11-12). Whatever the connection with OT circumcision, baptism signifies a changed heart and a clean conscience that come from God’s forgiveness (1 Pet 3:21; cp. Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29; Phil 3:3).<\/p>\n<p>As a ritual cleansing, Christian baptism signifies both forgiveness of sins (Acts 2:38; 10:43; 13:38; 26:17-18) and the reception of the Holy Spirit (2:38; 9:17-18; 10:47-48; 11:15-17; 19:5-7; Luke 3:16). Many interpreters see baptism as the outward confirmation of the inward “seal” of the Spirit, whose presence is a “guarantee” of the eternal inheritance that awaits God’s faithful people (2 Cor 1:21-22; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Titus 3:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 3:6-16; 21:25; 28:19; Mark 1:4-9; 10:38-39; 11:30; 16:16; Luke 3:3-22; 7:29-30; 12:50; 20:4; John 1:25-36; 3:22-23, 26; 4:1-2; 10:40; Acts 1:5, 22; 2:38, 41; 8:12-13, 16-17, 36-38; 9:18; 10:37, 47-48; 11:16; 13:24; 16:15, 33; 18:8, 25; 19:1-7; 22:16; Rom 6:3-4; 1 Cor 1:13-17; 10:2; 12:13; 15:29; Gal 3:27; Eph 4:5; Col 2:12; Heb 6:2; 1 Pet 3:21; 1 Jn 5:6<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Baptism<\/h3>\n<p>Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a ritual bath to wash away the impurities of their Gentile background. This ritual cleansing was often done in special baths created for purification, called mikvahs. Mikvahs were located at many synagogues, and the Temple in Jerusalem had a large number of mikvahs, which suggests that those who approached for worship would ritually bathe.<\/p>\n<p>John preached “that people should be baptized to show that they had repented of their sins and turned to God to be forgiven” (Luke 3:3). John’s baptism was an aspect of his role in preparing people’s hearts to receive the Messiah (Luke 3:4-6), and those who had received his baptism and repented of their sins were those who were prepared for Jesus’ message (Luke 7:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>After his resurrection, Jesus commanded his disciples to baptize new converts (Matt 28:19). Christian baptism is understood as dying and rising with Christ, signifying the death of the old life and the beginning of the new (Rom 6:1-4; Col 2:12) and also signifying a Christian’s spiritual union with Christ (Gal 3:27) and with his church. Baptism thus became the rite of initiation in the Christian community. For this reason, many interpreters see baptism as the Christian equivalent of circumcision, the rite that initiated membership into the nation of Israel under the old covenant (see Col 2:11-12). Whatever the connection with OT circumcision, baptism signifies a changed heart and a clean conscience that come from God’s forgiveness (1 Pet 3:21; cp. Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29; Phil 3:3).<\/p>\n<p>As a ritual cleansing, Christian baptism signifies both forgiveness of sins (Acts 2:38; 10:43; 13:38; 26:17-18) and the reception of the Holy Spirit (2:38; 9:17-18; 10:47-48; 11:15-17; 19:5-7; Luke 3:16). Many interpreters see baptism as the outward confirmation of the inward “seal” of the Spirit, whose presence is a “guarantee” of the eternal inheritance that awaits God’s faithful people (2 Cor 1:21-22; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Titus 3:5).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Matt 3:6-16; 21:25; 28:19; Mark 1:4-9; 10:38-39; 11:30; 16:16; Luke 3:3-22; 7:29-30; 12:50; 20:4; John 1:25-36; 3:22-23, 26; 4:1-2; 10:40; Acts 1:5, 22; 2:38, 41; 8:12-13, 16-17, 36-38; 9:18; 10:37, 47-48; 11:16; 13:24; 16:15, 33; 18:8, 25; 19:1-7; 22:16; Rom 6:3-4; 1 Cor 1:13-17; 10:2; 12:13; 15:29; Gal 3:27; Eph 4:5; Col 2:12; Heb 6:2; 1 Pet 3:21; 1 Jn 5:6<\/p>","summary_ro":"Baptism Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a...","summary_en":"Baptism Baptism was an important element of the Christian faith from the very beginning (Acts 2:38). The words “baptism” and “baptize” were already used in Judaism to refer to a religious rite for cleansing. The law of Moses established the use of water to cleanse people from ceremonial defilement (Num 19:14-19). Later, Gentile converts to Judaism from pagan religions were admitted to Judaism only after fulfilling certain obligations, which included the study of the Torah, circumcision, and a...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":149384,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Circumcision in the New Testament","title_en":"Circumcision in the New Testament","content_ro":"<h3>Circumcision in the New Testament<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; <em>Sirach<\/em> 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, Jesus, Paul, and Timothy (Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 16:2-3; Phil 3:5). Circumcision became a metaphor for the renewal of a person’s relationship with God (Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29). In the late 40s <span>AD<\/span>, some Jewish Christians tried to require Gentile Christians to undergo circumcision (Acts 15:1, 5; see 21:20-21; Gal 2:4, 11-13), to which Paul and Barnabas objected (Acts 15:2). The ensuing church council at Jerusalem settled the matter in favor of not requiring Gentiles to be circumcised (15:19-21, 28-29).<\/p>\n<p>Paul insisted that “it makes no difference whether or not a man has been circumcised” (1 Cor 7:19). “What is important is faith expressing itself in love” (Gal 5:6). In Galatians, Paul argued against vigorous Jewish opponents and insisted that everyone enters God’s family simply through faith in Jesus Christ (Gal 2:14-21). Circumcision is not required for acceptance by God (Gal 5:6). The cross of Christ is the way that sinners enter into covenant with God (Gal 2:14-21; Col 2:11-15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-9; Jer 9:25-26; Luke 1:59; 2:21; John 7:22-24; Acts 7:8; 15:1-5, 19-21, 28-31; 16:2-3; 21:18-24; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 2:3-5, 11-21; 5:6; 6:15; Phil 3:5-9; Col 2:11-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Circumcision in the New Testament<\/h3>\n<p>Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; <em>Sirach<\/em> 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, Jesus, Paul, and Timothy (Luke 1:59; 2:21; Acts 16:2-3; Phil 3:5). Circumcision became a metaphor for the renewal of a person’s relationship with God (Deut 10:16; 30:6; Jer 4:4; Rom 2:28-29). In the late 40s <span>AD<\/span>, some Jewish Christians tried to require Gentile Christians to undergo circumcision (Acts 15:1, 5; see 21:20-21; Gal 2:4, 11-13), to which Paul and Barnabas objected (Acts 15:2). The ensuing church council at Jerusalem settled the matter in favor of not requiring Gentiles to be circumcised (15:19-21, 28-29).<\/p>\n<p>Paul insisted that “it makes no difference whether or not a man has been circumcised” (1 Cor 7:19). “What is important is faith expressing itself in love” (Gal 5:6). In Galatians, Paul argued against vigorous Jewish opponents and insisted that everyone enters God’s family simply through faith in Jesus Christ (Gal 2:14-21). Circumcision is not required for acceptance by God (Gal 5:6). The cross of Christ is the way that sinners enter into covenant with God (Gal 2:14-21; Col 2:11-15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 17:9-14; Lev 12:3; Josh 5:2-9; Jer 9:25-26; Luke 1:59; 2:21; John 7:22-24; Acts 7:8; 15:1-5, 19-21, 28-31; 16:2-3; 21:18-24; Rom 2:25-29; 1 Cor 7:17-19; Gal 2:3-5, 11-21; 5:6; 6:15; Phil 3:5-9; Col 2:11-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Circumcision in the New Testament Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; Sirach 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, ...","summary_en":"Circumcision in the New Testament Circumcision (cutting off the male foreskin) was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer 9:25-26). For Jews, it had religious significance as the sign of the covenant that God had established with the people of Israel (Gen 17:9-14; Josh 5:2; John 7:22; Acts 7:8; Sirach 44:20). It was normally performed on the eighth day of a male infant’s life (Gen 17:12; Lev 12:3; Luke 1:59; Acts 7:8). The New Testament notes the circumcision of John the Baptist, ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"7":[{"id":62304,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Ethnic Hatred","title_en":"Ethnic Hatred","content_ro":"<h3>Ethnic Hatred<\/h3>\n<p>Selfish pride, a desire to maintain power, and hatred for those who stand in the way have often been the basis for the persecution of racial or religious groups. Many people have died through the centuries because of such hatred.<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Esther, Haman hated Mordecai because Mordecai would not bow down as everyone else did when Haman passed by (Esth 3:1-5). Haman thus despised a man of integrity who would not obey laws that were against his convictions. This personal hatred of Mordecai the Jew developed into a murderous desire to destroy all Jews (3:6). His charge against the Jewish people was what he hated in Mordecai: They did not assimilate with other people, they had unique laws and customs, and they did not obey some of the laws of the king (3:8).<\/p>\n<p>The Spanish Inquisition (1400s) and the Holocaust in Nazi Germany (1930s–40s) were other terrible attempts to wipe the Jewish people off the face of the earth. Religious and ethnic hatred still leads to diabolical plans today.<\/p>\n<p>God disapproves of such hatred against any ethnic or religious group, and he will eventually hold accountable those who attempt to carry out such plots (see Deut 30:7; Pss 21:7-11; 34:19-21; 44:7). God has repeatedly saved the Jewish people and defeated their enemies, for God is faithful to all his promises (see Rom 9–11). He will similarly preserve his church through all persecution (see Matt 16:18; Rom 8:26-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 46:33-34; Deut 7:1-6; 23:3-8; Esth 3:1-9; Matt 15:22-28; Luke 4:27; Acts 10:34-35; Rom 9:1–11:36; Gal 3:26-29; Eph 2:14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ethnic Hatred<\/h3>\n<p>Selfish pride, a desire to maintain power, and hatred for those who stand in the way have often been the basis for the persecution of racial or religious groups. Many people have died through the centuries because of such hatred.<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Esther, Haman hated Mordecai because Mordecai would not bow down as everyone else did when Haman passed by (Esth 3:1-5). Haman thus despised a man of integrity who would not obey laws that were against his convictions. This personal hatred of Mordecai the Jew developed into a murderous desire to destroy all Jews (3:6). His charge against the Jewish people was what he hated in Mordecai: They did not assimilate with other people, they had unique laws and customs, and they did not obey some of the laws of the king (3:8).<\/p>\n<p>The Spanish Inquisition (1400s) and the Holocaust in Nazi Germany (1930s–40s) were other terrible attempts to wipe the Jewish people off the face of the earth. Religious and ethnic hatred still leads to diabolical plans today.<\/p>\n<p>God disapproves of such hatred against any ethnic or religious group, and he will eventually hold accountable those who attempt to carry out such plots (see Deut 30:7; Pss 21:7-11; 34:19-21; 44:7). God has repeatedly saved the Jewish people and defeated their enemies, for God is faithful to all his promises (see Rom 9–11). He will similarly preserve his church through all persecution (see Matt 16:18; Rom 8:26-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 46:33-34; Deut 7:1-6; 23:3-8; Esth 3:1-9; Matt 15:22-28; Luke 4:27; Acts 10:34-35; Rom 9:1–11:36; Gal 3:26-29; Eph 2:14<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ethnic Hatred Selfish pride, a desire to maintain power, and hatred for those who stand in the way have often been the basis for the persecution of racial or religious groups. Many people have died through the centuries because of such hatred. In the book of Esther, Haman hated Mordecai because Mordecai would not bow down as everyone else did when Haman passed by (Esth 3:1-5). Haman thus despised a man of integrity who would not obey laws that were against his convictions. This personal hatre...","summary_en":"Ethnic Hatred Selfish pride, a desire to maintain power, and hatred for those who stand in the way have often been the basis for the persecution of racial or religious groups. Many people have died through the centuries because of such hatred. In the book of Esther, Haman hated Mordecai because Mordecai would not bow down as everyone else did when Haman passed by (Esth 3:1-5). Haman thus despised a man of integrity who would not obey laws that were against his convictions. This personal hatre...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":66296,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Persecution","title_en":"Persecution","content_ro":"<h3>Persecution<\/h3>\n<p>Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-17; John 16:2). He prepared his followers for such occasions, telling them that the Holy Spirit would give them the needed courage (Luke 12:11-12; 21:14-15; Acts 1:8).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts documents the persecution of the earliest Christians, beginning with the hostility of the Jewish high council and the attacks of Saul of Tarsus on the early church prior to his encounter with Jesus near Damascus (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-13, 21; 22:4; 26:9-11; see 1 Cor 15:9; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). Peter, John, Stephen, James, Paul, and Barnabas all suffered persecution (Acts 4:15-18; 5:17-18; 7:54-60; 12:1-4; 14:5-6). Jesus, in his parable of the farmer and the seed, noted the withering effects of persecution on those with shallow faith (Matt 13:20-21; Mark 4:16-17). Persecution purifies God’s people and gives them the opportunity to conform more closely to the character of Jesus. The apostles’ experiences in Acts bear out Paul’s general statement: “Everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution” (2 Tim 3:12; see Mark 10:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus told his disciples to expect to defend their faith in hostile settings (Matt 10:18-20; Luke 21:12-15), and the apostles and other leaders did so with courage and boldness (e.g., Acts 4:8-12, 31; 5:29-32; 6:8-10; 8:4-40; 9:27). Christians are called to defend their faith courageously and graciously, explaining their convictions to those who ask questions (Col 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24-25; 1 Pet 3:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 18:2-15; 19:1-18; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:1–38:28; Matt 10:16-39; 13:20-21; 23:34-38; 24:9-14; Mark 10:29-31; 13:9-13; Luke 11:47-51; 12:11-12; 21:12-19; John 16:1-4; Acts 4:13-31; 5:17-42; 6:8–8:4; 9:1-31; 12:1-19; 14:1-7; 22:3-29; 23:12-31; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Thes 2:14-16; 2 Tim 3:11-14; 1 Pet 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Persecution<\/h3>\n<p>Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-17; John 16:2). He prepared his followers for such occasions, telling them that the Holy Spirit would give them the needed courage (Luke 12:11-12; 21:14-15; Acts 1:8).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts documents the persecution of the earliest Christians, beginning with the hostility of the Jewish high council and the attacks of Saul of Tarsus on the early church prior to his encounter with Jesus near Damascus (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-13, 21; 22:4; 26:9-11; see 1 Cor 15:9; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). Peter, John, Stephen, James, Paul, and Barnabas all suffered persecution (Acts 4:15-18; 5:17-18; 7:54-60; 12:1-4; 14:5-6). Jesus, in his parable of the farmer and the seed, noted the withering effects of persecution on those with shallow faith (Matt 13:20-21; Mark 4:16-17). Persecution purifies God’s people and gives them the opportunity to conform more closely to the character of Jesus. The apostles’ experiences in Acts bear out Paul’s general statement: “Everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution” (2 Tim 3:12; see Mark 10:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus told his disciples to expect to defend their faith in hostile settings (Matt 10:18-20; Luke 21:12-15), and the apostles and other leaders did so with courage and boldness (e.g., Acts 4:8-12, 31; 5:29-32; 6:8-10; 8:4-40; 9:27). Christians are called to defend their faith courageously and graciously, explaining their convictions to those who ask questions (Col 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24-25; 1 Pet 3:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 18:2-15; 19:1-18; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:1–38:28; Matt 10:16-39; 13:20-21; 23:34-38; 24:9-14; Mark 10:29-31; 13:9-13; Luke 11:47-51; 12:11-12; 21:12-19; John 16:1-4; Acts 4:13-31; 5:17-42; 6:8–8:4; 9:1-31; 12:1-19; 14:1-7; 22:3-29; 23:12-31; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Thes 2:14-16; 2 Tim 3:11-14; 1 Pet 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Persecution Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:1...","summary_en":"Persecution Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:1...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89930,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Ethnic Hatred","title_en":"Ethnic Hatred","content_ro":"<h3>Ethnic Hatred<\/h3>\n<p>Selfish pride, a desire to maintain power, and hatred for those who stand in the way have often been the basis for the persecution of racial or religious groups. Many people have died through the centuries because of such hatred.<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Esther, Haman hated Mordecai because Mordecai would not bow down as everyone else did when Haman passed by (Esth 3:1-5). Haman thus despised a man of integrity who would not obey laws that were against his convictions. This personal hatred of Mordecai the Jew developed into a murderous desire to destroy all Jews (3:6). His charge against the Jewish people was what he hated in Mordecai: They did not assimilate with other people, they had unique laws and customs, and they did not obey some of the laws of the king (3:8).<\/p>\n<p>The Spanish Inquisition (1400s) and the Holocaust in Nazi Germany (1930s–40s) were other terrible attempts to wipe the Jewish people off the face of the earth. Religious and ethnic hatred still leads to diabolical plans today.<\/p>\n<p>God disapproves of such hatred against any ethnic or religious group, and he will eventually hold accountable those who attempt to carry out such plots (see Deut 30:7; Pss 21:7-11; 34:19-21; 44:7). God has repeatedly saved the Jewish people and defeated their enemies, for God is faithful to all his promises (see Rom 9–11). He will similarly preserve his church through all persecution (see Matt 16:18; Rom 8:26-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 46:33-34; Deut 7:1-6; 23:3-8; Esth 3:1-9; Matt 15:22-28; Luke 4:27; Acts 10:34-35; Rom 9:1–11:36; Gal 3:26-29; Eph 2:14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ethnic Hatred<\/h3>\n<p>Selfish pride, a desire to maintain power, and hatred for those who stand in the way have often been the basis for the persecution of racial or religious groups. Many people have died through the centuries because of such hatred.<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Esther, Haman hated Mordecai because Mordecai would not bow down as everyone else did when Haman passed by (Esth 3:1-5). Haman thus despised a man of integrity who would not obey laws that were against his convictions. This personal hatred of Mordecai the Jew developed into a murderous desire to destroy all Jews (3:6). His charge against the Jewish people was what he hated in Mordecai: They did not assimilate with other people, they had unique laws and customs, and they did not obey some of the laws of the king (3:8).<\/p>\n<p>The Spanish Inquisition (1400s) and the Holocaust in Nazi Germany (1930s–40s) were other terrible attempts to wipe the Jewish people off the face of the earth. Religious and ethnic hatred still leads to diabolical plans today.<\/p>\n<p>God disapproves of such hatred against any ethnic or religious group, and he will eventually hold accountable those who attempt to carry out such plots (see Deut 30:7; Pss 21:7-11; 34:19-21; 44:7). God has repeatedly saved the Jewish people and defeated their enemies, for God is faithful to all his promises (see Rom 9–11). He will similarly preserve his church through all persecution (see Matt 16:18; Rom 8:26-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 46:33-34; Deut 7:1-6; 23:3-8; Esth 3:1-9; Matt 15:22-28; Luke 4:27; Acts 10:34-35; Rom 9:1–11:36; Gal 3:26-29; Eph 2:14<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ethnic Hatred Selfish pride, a desire to maintain power, and hatred for those who stand in the way have often been the basis for the persecution of racial or religious groups. Many people have died through the centuries because of such hatred. In the book of Esther, Haman hated Mordecai because Mordecai would not bow down as everyone else did when Haman passed by (Esth 3:1-5). Haman thus despised a man of integrity who would not obey laws that were against his convictions. This personal hatre...","summary_en":"Ethnic Hatred Selfish pride, a desire to maintain power, and hatred for those who stand in the way have often been the basis for the persecution of racial or religious groups. Many people have died through the centuries because of such hatred. In the book of Esther, Haman hated Mordecai because Mordecai would not bow down as everyone else did when Haman passed by (Esth 3:1-5). Haman thus despised a man of integrity who would not obey laws that were against his convictions. This personal hatre...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":93922,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Persecution","title_en":"Persecution","content_ro":"<h3>Persecution<\/h3>\n<p>Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-17; John 16:2). He prepared his followers for such occasions, telling them that the Holy Spirit would give them the needed courage (Luke 12:11-12; 21:14-15; Acts 1:8).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts documents the persecution of the earliest Christians, beginning with the hostility of the Jewish high council and the attacks of Saul of Tarsus on the early church prior to his encounter with Jesus near Damascus (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-13, 21; 22:4; 26:9-11; see 1 Cor 15:9; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). Peter, John, Stephen, James, Paul, and Barnabas all suffered persecution (Acts 4:15-18; 5:17-18; 7:54-60; 12:1-4; 14:5-6). Jesus, in his parable of the farmer and the seed, noted the withering effects of persecution on those with shallow faith (Matt 13:20-21; Mark 4:16-17). Persecution purifies God’s people and gives them the opportunity to conform more closely to the character of Jesus. The apostles’ experiences in Acts bear out Paul’s general statement: “Everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution” (2 Tim 3:12; see Mark 10:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus told his disciples to expect to defend their faith in hostile settings (Matt 10:18-20; Luke 21:12-15), and the apostles and other leaders did so with courage and boldness (e.g., Acts 4:8-12, 31; 5:29-32; 6:8-10; 8:4-40; 9:27). Christians are called to defend their faith courageously and graciously, explaining their convictions to those who ask questions (Col 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24-25; 1 Pet 3:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 18:2-15; 19:1-18; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:1–38:28; Matt 10:16-39; 13:20-21; 23:34-38; 24:9-14; Mark 10:29-31; 13:9-13; Luke 11:47-51; 12:11-12; 21:12-19; John 16:1-4; Acts 4:13-31; 5:17-42; 6:8–8:4; 9:1-31; 12:1-19; 14:1-7; 22:3-29; 23:12-31; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Thes 2:14-16; 2 Tim 3:11-14; 1 Pet 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Persecution<\/h3>\n<p>Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-17; John 16:2). He prepared his followers for such occasions, telling them that the Holy Spirit would give them the needed courage (Luke 12:11-12; 21:14-15; Acts 1:8).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts documents the persecution of the earliest Christians, beginning with the hostility of the Jewish high council and the attacks of Saul of Tarsus on the early church prior to his encounter with Jesus near Damascus (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-13, 21; 22:4; 26:9-11; see 1 Cor 15:9; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). Peter, John, Stephen, James, Paul, and Barnabas all suffered persecution (Acts 4:15-18; 5:17-18; 7:54-60; 12:1-4; 14:5-6). Jesus, in his parable of the farmer and the seed, noted the withering effects of persecution on those with shallow faith (Matt 13:20-21; Mark 4:16-17). Persecution purifies God’s people and gives them the opportunity to conform more closely to the character of Jesus. The apostles’ experiences in Acts bear out Paul’s general statement: “Everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution” (2 Tim 3:12; see Mark 10:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus told his disciples to expect to defend their faith in hostile settings (Matt 10:18-20; Luke 21:12-15), and the apostles and other leaders did so with courage and boldness (e.g., Acts 4:8-12, 31; 5:29-32; 6:8-10; 8:4-40; 9:27). Christians are called to defend their faith courageously and graciously, explaining their convictions to those who ask questions (Col 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24-25; 1 Pet 3:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 18:2-15; 19:1-18; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:1–38:28; Matt 10:16-39; 13:20-21; 23:34-38; 24:9-14; Mark 10:29-31; 13:9-13; Luke 11:47-51; 12:11-12; 21:12-19; John 16:1-4; Acts 4:13-31; 5:17-42; 6:8–8:4; 9:1-31; 12:1-19; 14:1-7; 22:3-29; 23:12-31; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Thes 2:14-16; 2 Tim 3:11-14; 1 Pet 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Persecution Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:1...","summary_en":"Persecution Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:1...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117556,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Ethnic Hatred","title_en":"Ethnic Hatred","content_ro":"<h3>Ethnic Hatred<\/h3>\n<p>Selfish pride, a desire to maintain power, and hatred for those who stand in the way have often been the basis for the persecution of racial or religious groups. Many people have died through the centuries because of such hatred.<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Esther, Haman hated Mordecai because Mordecai would not bow down as everyone else did when Haman passed by (Esth 3:1-5). Haman thus despised a man of integrity who would not obey laws that were against his convictions. This personal hatred of Mordecai the Jew developed into a murderous desire to destroy all Jews (3:6). His charge against the Jewish people was what he hated in Mordecai: They did not assimilate with other people, they had unique laws and customs, and they did not obey some of the laws of the king (3:8).<\/p>\n<p>The Spanish Inquisition (1400s) and the Holocaust in Nazi Germany (1930s–40s) were other terrible attempts to wipe the Jewish people off the face of the earth. Religious and ethnic hatred still leads to diabolical plans today.<\/p>\n<p>God disapproves of such hatred against any ethnic or religious group, and he will eventually hold accountable those who attempt to carry out such plots (see Deut 30:7; Pss 21:7-11; 34:19-21; 44:7). God has repeatedly saved the Jewish people and defeated their enemies, for God is faithful to all his promises (see Rom 9–11). He will similarly preserve his church through all persecution (see Matt 16:18; Rom 8:26-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 46:33-34; Deut 7:1-6; 23:3-8; Esth 3:1-9; Matt 15:22-28; Luke 4:27; Acts 10:34-35; Rom 9:1–11:36; Gal 3:26-29; Eph 2:14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ethnic Hatred<\/h3>\n<p>Selfish pride, a desire to maintain power, and hatred for those who stand in the way have often been the basis for the persecution of racial or religious groups. Many people have died through the centuries because of such hatred.<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Esther, Haman hated Mordecai because Mordecai would not bow down as everyone else did when Haman passed by (Esth 3:1-5). Haman thus despised a man of integrity who would not obey laws that were against his convictions. This personal hatred of Mordecai the Jew developed into a murderous desire to destroy all Jews (3:6). His charge against the Jewish people was what he hated in Mordecai: They did not assimilate with other people, they had unique laws and customs, and they did not obey some of the laws of the king (3:8).<\/p>\n<p>The Spanish Inquisition (1400s) and the Holocaust in Nazi Germany (1930s–40s) were other terrible attempts to wipe the Jewish people off the face of the earth. Religious and ethnic hatred still leads to diabolical plans today.<\/p>\n<p>God disapproves of such hatred against any ethnic or religious group, and he will eventually hold accountable those who attempt to carry out such plots (see Deut 30:7; Pss 21:7-11; 34:19-21; 44:7). God has repeatedly saved the Jewish people and defeated their enemies, for God is faithful to all his promises (see Rom 9–11). He will similarly preserve his church through all persecution (see Matt 16:18; Rom 8:26-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 46:33-34; Deut 7:1-6; 23:3-8; Esth 3:1-9; Matt 15:22-28; Luke 4:27; Acts 10:34-35; Rom 9:1–11:36; Gal 3:26-29; Eph 2:14<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ethnic Hatred Selfish pride, a desire to maintain power, and hatred for those who stand in the way have often been the basis for the persecution of racial or religious groups. Many people have died through the centuries because of such hatred. In the book of Esther, Haman hated Mordecai because Mordecai would not bow down as everyone else did when Haman passed by (Esth 3:1-5). Haman thus despised a man of integrity who would not obey laws that were against his convictions. This personal hatre...","summary_en":"Ethnic Hatred Selfish pride, a desire to maintain power, and hatred for those who stand in the way have often been the basis for the persecution of racial or religious groups. Many people have died through the centuries because of such hatred. In the book of Esther, Haman hated Mordecai because Mordecai would not bow down as everyone else did when Haman passed by (Esth 3:1-5). Haman thus despised a man of integrity who would not obey laws that were against his convictions. This personal hatre...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":121548,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Persecution","title_en":"Persecution","content_ro":"<h3>Persecution<\/h3>\n<p>Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-17; John 16:2). He prepared his followers for such occasions, telling them that the Holy Spirit would give them the needed courage (Luke 12:11-12; 21:14-15; Acts 1:8).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts documents the persecution of the earliest Christians, beginning with the hostility of the Jewish high council and the attacks of Saul of Tarsus on the early church prior to his encounter with Jesus near Damascus (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-13, 21; 22:4; 26:9-11; see 1 Cor 15:9; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). Peter, John, Stephen, James, Paul, and Barnabas all suffered persecution (Acts 4:15-18; 5:17-18; 7:54-60; 12:1-4; 14:5-6). Jesus, in his parable of the farmer and the seed, noted the withering effects of persecution on those with shallow faith (Matt 13:20-21; Mark 4:16-17). Persecution purifies God’s people and gives them the opportunity to conform more closely to the character of Jesus. The apostles’ experiences in Acts bear out Paul’s general statement: “Everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution” (2 Tim 3:12; see Mark 10:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus told his disciples to expect to defend their faith in hostile settings (Matt 10:18-20; Luke 21:12-15), and the apostles and other leaders did so with courage and boldness (e.g., Acts 4:8-12, 31; 5:29-32; 6:8-10; 8:4-40; 9:27). Christians are called to defend their faith courageously and graciously, explaining their convictions to those who ask questions (Col 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24-25; 1 Pet 3:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 18:2-15; 19:1-18; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:1–38:28; Matt 10:16-39; 13:20-21; 23:34-38; 24:9-14; Mark 10:29-31; 13:9-13; Luke 11:47-51; 12:11-12; 21:12-19; John 16:1-4; Acts 4:13-31; 5:17-42; 6:8–8:4; 9:1-31; 12:1-19; 14:1-7; 22:3-29; 23:12-31; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Thes 2:14-16; 2 Tim 3:11-14; 1 Pet 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Persecution<\/h3>\n<p>Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-17; John 16:2). He prepared his followers for such occasions, telling them that the Holy Spirit would give them the needed courage (Luke 12:11-12; 21:14-15; Acts 1:8).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts documents the persecution of the earliest Christians, beginning with the hostility of the Jewish high council and the attacks of Saul of Tarsus on the early church prior to his encounter with Jesus near Damascus (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-13, 21; 22:4; 26:9-11; see 1 Cor 15:9; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). Peter, John, Stephen, James, Paul, and Barnabas all suffered persecution (Acts 4:15-18; 5:17-18; 7:54-60; 12:1-4; 14:5-6). Jesus, in his parable of the farmer and the seed, noted the withering effects of persecution on those with shallow faith (Matt 13:20-21; Mark 4:16-17). Persecution purifies God’s people and gives them the opportunity to conform more closely to the character of Jesus. The apostles’ experiences in Acts bear out Paul’s general statement: “Everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution” (2 Tim 3:12; see Mark 10:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus told his disciples to expect to defend their faith in hostile settings (Matt 10:18-20; Luke 21:12-15), and the apostles and other leaders did so with courage and boldness (e.g., Acts 4:8-12, 31; 5:29-32; 6:8-10; 8:4-40; 9:27). Christians are called to defend their faith courageously and graciously, explaining their convictions to those who ask questions (Col 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24-25; 1 Pet 3:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 18:2-15; 19:1-18; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:1–38:28; Matt 10:16-39; 13:20-21; 23:34-38; 24:9-14; Mark 10:29-31; 13:9-13; Luke 11:47-51; 12:11-12; 21:12-19; John 16:1-4; Acts 4:13-31; 5:17-42; 6:8–8:4; 9:1-31; 12:1-19; 14:1-7; 22:3-29; 23:12-31; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Thes 2:14-16; 2 Tim 3:11-14; 1 Pet 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Persecution Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:1...","summary_en":"Persecution Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:1...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145182,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Ethnic Hatred","title_en":"Ethnic Hatred","content_ro":"<h3>Ethnic Hatred<\/h3>\n<p>Selfish pride, a desire to maintain power, and hatred for those who stand in the way have often been the basis for the persecution of racial or religious groups. Many people have died through the centuries because of such hatred.<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Esther, Haman hated Mordecai because Mordecai would not bow down as everyone else did when Haman passed by (Esth 3:1-5). Haman thus despised a man of integrity who would not obey laws that were against his convictions. This personal hatred of Mordecai the Jew developed into a murderous desire to destroy all Jews (3:6). His charge against the Jewish people was what he hated in Mordecai: They did not assimilate with other people, they had unique laws and customs, and they did not obey some of the laws of the king (3:8).<\/p>\n<p>The Spanish Inquisition (1400s) and the Holocaust in Nazi Germany (1930s–40s) were other terrible attempts to wipe the Jewish people off the face of the earth. Religious and ethnic hatred still leads to diabolical plans today.<\/p>\n<p>God disapproves of such hatred against any ethnic or religious group, and he will eventually hold accountable those who attempt to carry out such plots (see Deut 30:7; Pss 21:7-11; 34:19-21; 44:7). God has repeatedly saved the Jewish people and defeated their enemies, for God is faithful to all his promises (see Rom 9–11). He will similarly preserve his church through all persecution (see Matt 16:18; Rom 8:26-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 46:33-34; Deut 7:1-6; 23:3-8; Esth 3:1-9; Matt 15:22-28; Luke 4:27; Acts 10:34-35; Rom 9:1–11:36; Gal 3:26-29; Eph 2:14<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Ethnic Hatred<\/h3>\n<p>Selfish pride, a desire to maintain power, and hatred for those who stand in the way have often been the basis for the persecution of racial or religious groups. Many people have died through the centuries because of such hatred.<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Esther, Haman hated Mordecai because Mordecai would not bow down as everyone else did when Haman passed by (Esth 3:1-5). Haman thus despised a man of integrity who would not obey laws that were against his convictions. This personal hatred of Mordecai the Jew developed into a murderous desire to destroy all Jews (3:6). His charge against the Jewish people was what he hated in Mordecai: They did not assimilate with other people, they had unique laws and customs, and they did not obey some of the laws of the king (3:8).<\/p>\n<p>The Spanish Inquisition (1400s) and the Holocaust in Nazi Germany (1930s–40s) were other terrible attempts to wipe the Jewish people off the face of the earth. Religious and ethnic hatred still leads to diabolical plans today.<\/p>\n<p>God disapproves of such hatred against any ethnic or religious group, and he will eventually hold accountable those who attempt to carry out such plots (see Deut 30:7; Pss 21:7-11; 34:19-21; 44:7). God has repeatedly saved the Jewish people and defeated their enemies, for God is faithful to all his promises (see Rom 9–11). He will similarly preserve his church through all persecution (see Matt 16:18; Rom 8:26-39).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 46:33-34; Deut 7:1-6; 23:3-8; Esth 3:1-9; Matt 15:22-28; Luke 4:27; Acts 10:34-35; Rom 9:1–11:36; Gal 3:26-29; Eph 2:14<\/p>","summary_ro":"Ethnic Hatred Selfish pride, a desire to maintain power, and hatred for those who stand in the way have often been the basis for the persecution of racial or religious groups. Many people have died through the centuries because of such hatred. In the book of Esther, Haman hated Mordecai because Mordecai would not bow down as everyone else did when Haman passed by (Esth 3:1-5). Haman thus despised a man of integrity who would not obey laws that were against his convictions. This personal hatre...","summary_en":"Ethnic Hatred Selfish pride, a desire to maintain power, and hatred for those who stand in the way have often been the basis for the persecution of racial or religious groups. Many people have died through the centuries because of such hatred. In the book of Esther, Haman hated Mordecai because Mordecai would not bow down as everyone else did when Haman passed by (Esth 3:1-5). Haman thus despised a man of integrity who would not obey laws that were against his convictions. This personal hatre...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":149174,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Persecution","title_en":"Persecution","content_ro":"<h3>Persecution<\/h3>\n<p>Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-17; John 16:2). He prepared his followers for such occasions, telling them that the Holy Spirit would give them the needed courage (Luke 12:11-12; 21:14-15; Acts 1:8).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts documents the persecution of the earliest Christians, beginning with the hostility of the Jewish high council and the attacks of Saul of Tarsus on the early church prior to his encounter with Jesus near Damascus (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-13, 21; 22:4; 26:9-11; see 1 Cor 15:9; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). Peter, John, Stephen, James, Paul, and Barnabas all suffered persecution (Acts 4:15-18; 5:17-18; 7:54-60; 12:1-4; 14:5-6). Jesus, in his parable of the farmer and the seed, noted the withering effects of persecution on those with shallow faith (Matt 13:20-21; Mark 4:16-17). Persecution purifies God’s people and gives them the opportunity to conform more closely to the character of Jesus. The apostles’ experiences in Acts bear out Paul’s general statement: “Everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution” (2 Tim 3:12; see Mark 10:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus told his disciples to expect to defend their faith in hostile settings (Matt 10:18-20; Luke 21:12-15), and the apostles and other leaders did so with courage and boldness (e.g., Acts 4:8-12, 31; 5:29-32; 6:8-10; 8:4-40; 9:27). Christians are called to defend their faith courageously and graciously, explaining their convictions to those who ask questions (Col 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24-25; 1 Pet 3:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 18:2-15; 19:1-18; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:1–38:28; Matt 10:16-39; 13:20-21; 23:34-38; 24:9-14; Mark 10:29-31; 13:9-13; Luke 11:47-51; 12:11-12; 21:12-19; John 16:1-4; Acts 4:13-31; 5:17-42; 6:8–8:4; 9:1-31; 12:1-19; 14:1-7; 22:3-29; 23:12-31; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Thes 2:14-16; 2 Tim 3:11-14; 1 Pet 3:13-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Persecution<\/h3>\n<p>Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:12-17; John 16:2). He prepared his followers for such occasions, telling them that the Holy Spirit would give them the needed courage (Luke 12:11-12; 21:14-15; Acts 1:8).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Acts documents the persecution of the earliest Christians, beginning with the hostility of the Jewish high council and the attacks of Saul of Tarsus on the early church prior to his encounter with Jesus near Damascus (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-13, 21; 22:4; 26:9-11; see 1 Cor 15:9; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6). Peter, John, Stephen, James, Paul, and Barnabas all suffered persecution (Acts 4:15-18; 5:17-18; 7:54-60; 12:1-4; 14:5-6). Jesus, in his parable of the farmer and the seed, noted the withering effects of persecution on those with shallow faith (Matt 13:20-21; Mark 4:16-17). Persecution purifies God’s people and gives them the opportunity to conform more closely to the character of Jesus. The apostles’ experiences in Acts bear out Paul’s general statement: “Everyone who wants to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will suffer persecution” (2 Tim 3:12; see Mark 10:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus told his disciples to expect to defend their faith in hostile settings (Matt 10:18-20; Luke 21:12-15), and the apostles and other leaders did so with courage and boldness (e.g., Acts 4:8-12, 31; 5:29-32; 6:8-10; 8:4-40; 9:27). Christians are called to defend their faith courageously and graciously, explaining their convictions to those who ask questions (Col 4:6; 2 Tim 2:24-25; 1 Pet 3:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 18:2-15; 19:1-18; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:1–38:28; Matt 10:16-39; 13:20-21; 23:34-38; 24:9-14; Mark 10:29-31; 13:9-13; Luke 11:47-51; 12:11-12; 21:12-19; John 16:1-4; Acts 4:13-31; 5:17-42; 6:8–8:4; 9:1-31; 12:1-19; 14:1-7; 22:3-29; 23:12-31; 26:9-11; Gal 1:13; 1 Thes 2:14-16; 2 Tim 3:11-14; 1 Pet 3:13-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"Persecution Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:1...","summary_en":"Persecution Persecution is a common experience of God’s people. God’s servants have often faced hostility and opposition (e.g., Deut 30:7; 1 Kgs 18:13; Neh 4:1-3; Jer 37:11–38:28; Matt 23:34-37; Luke 11:49-51; 1 Thes 2:14-16). Jesus himself dealt with persecution (Luke 4:28-30; John 5:16). At the end of his earthly life, he endured mocking, beating, and a horrible death by crucifixion, and he told his disciples to expect the same kind of treatment (Matt 10:16-25; 24:9; Mark 13:9-13; Luke 21:1...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"11":[{"id":45226,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 30:11","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 30:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>30:11-20<\/strong> Adherence to the covenant terms that Moses had outlined would give life; disobedience would surely bring death. Life and death refer to physical, mortal life in the land—of individuals and of the community of Israel.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>30:11-20<\/strong> Adherence to the covenant terms that Moses had outlined would give life; disobedience would surely bring death. Life and death refer to physical, mortal life in the land—of individuals and of the community of Israel.<\/p>","summary_ro":"30:11-20 Adherence to the covenant terms that Moses had outlined would give life; disobedience would surely bring death. Life and death refer to physical, mortal life in the land—of individuals and of the community of Israel.","summary_en":"30:11-20 Adherence to the covenant terms that Moses had outlined would give life; disobedience would surely bring death. Life and death refer to physical, mortal life in the land—of individuals and of the community of Israel.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":45227,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 30:11","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 30:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>30:11<\/strong> <em>This command<\/em> refers to the whole covenant text, all of Deuteronomy (see 4:2; 5:29; 7:9).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>30:11<\/strong> <em>This command<\/em> refers to the whole covenant text, all of Deuteronomy (see 4:2; 5:29; 7:9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"30:11 This command refers to the whole covenant text, all of Deuteronomy (see 4:2; 5:29; 7:9).","summary_en":"30:11 This command refers to the whole covenant text, all of Deuteronomy (see 4:2; 5:29; 7:9).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":72852,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 30:11","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 30:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>30:11-20<\/strong> Adherence to the covenant terms that Moses had outlined would give life; disobedience would surely bring death. Life and death refer to physical, mortal life in the land—of individuals and of the community of Israel.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>30:11-20<\/strong> Adherence to the covenant terms that Moses had outlined would give life; disobedience would surely bring death. Life and death refer to physical, mortal life in the land—of individuals and of the community of Israel.<\/p>","summary_ro":"30:11-20 Adherence to the covenant terms that Moses had outlined would give life; disobedience would surely bring death. Life and death refer to physical, mortal life in the land—of individuals and of the community of Israel.","summary_en":"30:11-20 Adherence to the covenant terms that Moses had outlined would give life; disobedience would surely bring death. Life and death refer to physical, mortal life in the land—of individuals and of the community of Israel.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":72853,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 30:11","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 30:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>30:11<\/strong> <em>This command<\/em> refers to the whole covenant text, all of Deuteronomy (see 4:2; 5:29; 7:9).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>30:11<\/strong> <em>This command<\/em> refers to the whole covenant text, all of Deuteronomy (see 4:2; 5:29; 7:9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"30:11 This command refers to the whole covenant text, all of Deuteronomy (see 4:2; 5:29; 7:9).","summary_en":"30:11 This command refers to the whole covenant text, all of Deuteronomy (see 4:2; 5:29; 7:9).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100478,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 30:11","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 30:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>30:11-20<\/strong> Adherence to the covenant terms that Moses had outlined would give life; disobedience would surely bring death. Life and death refer to physical, mortal life in the land—of individuals and of the community of Israel.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>30:11-20<\/strong> Adherence to the covenant terms that Moses had outlined would give life; disobedience would surely bring death. Life and death refer to physical, mortal life in the land—of individuals and of the community of Israel.<\/p>","summary_ro":"30:11-20 Adherence to the covenant terms that Moses had outlined would give life; disobedience would surely bring death. Life and death refer to physical, mortal life in the land—of individuals and of the community of Israel.","summary_en":"30:11-20 Adherence to the covenant terms that Moses had outlined would give life; disobedience would surely bring death. Life and death refer to physical, mortal life in the land—of individuals and of the community of Israel.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100479,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 30:11","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 30:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>30:11<\/strong> <em>This command<\/em> refers to the whole covenant text, all of Deuteronomy (see 4:2; 5:29; 7:9).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>30:11<\/strong> <em>This command<\/em> refers to the whole covenant text, all of Deuteronomy (see 4:2; 5:29; 7:9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"30:11 This command refers to the whole covenant text, all of Deuteronomy (see 4:2; 5:29; 7:9).","summary_en":"30:11 This command refers to the whole covenant text, all of Deuteronomy (see 4:2; 5:29; 7:9).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128104,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 30:11","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 30:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>30:11-20<\/strong> Adherence to the covenant terms that Moses had outlined would give life; disobedience would surely bring death. Life and death refer to physical, mortal life in the land—of individuals and of the community of Israel.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>30:11-20<\/strong> Adherence to the covenant terms that Moses had outlined would give life; disobedience would surely bring death. Life and death refer to physical, mortal life in the land—of individuals and of the community of Israel.<\/p>","summary_ro":"30:11-20 Adherence to the covenant terms that Moses had outlined would give life; disobedience would surely bring death. Life and death refer to physical, mortal life in the land—of individuals and of the community of Israel.","summary_en":"30:11-20 Adherence to the covenant terms that Moses had outlined would give life; disobedience would surely bring death. Life and death refer to physical, mortal life in the land—of individuals and of the community of Israel.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128105,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 30:11","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 30:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>30:11<\/strong> <em>This command<\/em> refers to the whole covenant text, all of Deuteronomy (see 4:2; 5:29; 7:9).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>30:11<\/strong> <em>This command<\/em> refers to the whole covenant text, all of Deuteronomy (see 4:2; 5:29; 7:9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"30:11 This command refers to the whole covenant text, all of Deuteronomy (see 4:2; 5:29; 7:9).","summary_en":"30:11 This command refers to the whole covenant text, all of Deuteronomy (see 4:2; 5:29; 7:9).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"12":[{"id":5568,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bottomless Pit","title_en":"Bottomless Pit","content_ro":"<h3>BOTTOMLESS PIT<\/h3>\n<p>Phrase used in the Bible to denote the abode of the dead and of demonic forces. The Hebrew word (literally “the deep”) is translated “abyss” in many versions of the Bible. In the ancient world, the concept referred to anything so deep as to be unfathomable—for example, wells or fountains. It is used in that way in the OT to describe the primeval sea (Gn 1:2) or the ocean depths (Pss 33:7; 77:16). In Near Eastern cultures, the term was used to signify the inverse of the great vault of heaven; hence, it came to be used metaphorically for the grave, synonymous with Sheol (Ps 71:20). In intertestamental times, it came to be used for the abode of evil spirits (Jubilees 5:6; 1 Enoch 10:4, 11).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, the term is used in both of these metaphorical ways. The demons pleaded not to be flung into “the abyss” (Lk 8:31), which many connect with later references to a “prison” (2 Pt 2:4; Jude 1:6). The exact meaning of such a prison is difficult to define; recent studies of passages like the above and of 1 Peter 3:19 and 4:6 suggest that the abyss is probably not meant to be synonymous with hades. More likely, it refers to a place where evil spirits are confined. Romans 10:7, on the other hand, uses the term for the grave, contrasting descent into it with ascension into heaven. Paul there freely adapted Deuteronomy 30:12-13.<\/p>\n<p>The major use of the term comes in the book of Revelation. There the “bottomless pit” is the abode of scorpion-like locusts (Rv 9:1-11); of the prince of the underworld, named “Abaddon” or “Destruction” (9:11); and of the “Beast,” or Antichrist (11:7; 17:8). It is also the place where Satan is confined for 1,000 years (20:1, 3).<\/p>\n<p>Several characteristics should be noted in a study of the “bottomless pit” concept in Revelation. First, it is under the absolute control of God. The angel “was given the key of the shaft of the bottomless pit” to unlock it (9:1, <span>rsv<\/span>); the Beast “is to ascend from the bottomless pit and go to perdition” (17:8, <span>rsv<\/span>). Satan is seized, bound, thrown, and locked in it (20:2-3). Second, from the beginning it is meant for eternal destruction. After it was opened, “from the shaft rose smoke like the smoke of a great furnace” (9:2, <span>rsv<\/span>). Although the bottomless pit is not the place of torment (i.e., “the lake of fire” in 20:10-15), it will be replaced by eternal punishment after the End (cf. 17:8). Finally, it is the reverse image of heaven, and from it wickedness gushes forth. This is in keeping with the metaphor and the picture throughout Revelation in which the dragon (12:9) and the Beast attempt to duplicate the power and glory reserved for God alone. Just as heaven is the source of all that is worthwhile, the bottomless pit is the source of all that is evil. <em>See<\/em> Revelation, Book of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BOTTOMLESS PIT<\/h3>\n<p>Phrase used in the Bible to denote the abode of the dead and of demonic forces. The Hebrew word (literally “the deep”) is translated “abyss” in many versions of the Bible. In the ancient world, the concept referred to anything so deep as to be unfathomable—for example, wells or fountains. It is used in that way in the OT to describe the primeval sea (Gn 1:2) or the ocean depths (Pss 33:7; 77:16). In Near Eastern cultures, the term was used to signify the inverse of the great vault of heaven; hence, it came to be used metaphorically for the grave, synonymous with Sheol (Ps 71:20). In intertestamental times, it came to be used for the abode of evil spirits (Jubilees 5:6; 1 Enoch 10:4, 11).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, the term is used in both of these metaphorical ways. The demons pleaded not to be flung into “the abyss” (Lk 8:31), which many connect with later references to a “prison” (2 Pt 2:4; Jude 1:6). The exact meaning of such a prison is difficult to define; recent studies of passages like the above and of 1 Peter 3:19 and 4:6 suggest that the abyss is probably not meant to be synonymous with hades. More likely, it refers to a place where evil spirits are confined. Romans 10:7, on the other hand, uses the term for the grave, contrasting descent into it with ascension into heaven. Paul there freely adapted Deuteronomy 30:12-13.<\/p>\n<p>The major use of the term comes in the book of Revelation. There the “bottomless pit” is the abode of scorpion-like locusts (Rv 9:1-11); of the prince of the underworld, named “Abaddon” or “Destruction” (9:11); and of the “Beast,” or Antichrist (11:7; 17:8). It is also the place where Satan is confined for 1,000 years (20:1, 3).<\/p>\n<p>Several characteristics should be noted in a study of the “bottomless pit” concept in Revelation. First, it is under the absolute control of God. The angel “was given the key of the shaft of the bottomless pit” to unlock it (9:1, <span>rsv<\/span>); the Beast “is to ascend from the bottomless pit and go to perdition” (17:8, <span>rsv<\/span>). Satan is seized, bound, thrown, and locked in it (20:2-3). Second, from the beginning it is meant for eternal destruction. After it was opened, “from the shaft rose smoke like the smoke of a great furnace” (9:2, <span>rsv<\/span>). Although the bottomless pit is not the place of torment (i.e., “the lake of fire” in 20:10-15), it will be replaced by eternal punishment after the End (cf. 17:8). Finally, it is the reverse image of heaven, and from it wickedness gushes forth. This is in keeping with the metaphor and the picture throughout Revelation in which the dragon (12:9) and the Beast attempt to duplicate the power and glory reserved for God alone. Just as heaven is the source of all that is worthwhile, the bottomless pit is the source of all that is evil. <em>See<\/em> Revelation, Book of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BOTTOMLESS PIT Phrase used in the Bible to denote the abode of the dead and of demonic forces. The Hebrew word (literally “the deep”) is translated “abyss” in many versions of the Bible. In the ancient world, the concept referred to anything so deep as to be unfathomable—for example, wells or fountains. It is used in that way in the OT to describe the primeval sea (Gn 1:2) or the ocean depths (Pss 33:7; 77:16). In Near Eastern cultures, the term was used to signify the inverse of the great va...","summary_en":"BOTTOMLESS PIT Phrase used in the Bible to denote the abode of the dead and of demonic forces. The Hebrew word (literally “the deep”) is translated “abyss” in many versions of the Bible. In the ancient world, the concept referred to anything so deep as to be unfathomable—for example, wells or fountains. It is used in that way in the OT to describe the primeval sea (Gn 1:2) or the ocean depths (Pss 33:7; 77:16). In Near Eastern cultures, the term was used to signify the inverse of the great va...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":45228,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 30:12","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 30:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>30:12<\/strong> <em>not kept in heaven:<\/em> The revelation of God is not known only to him but is accessible to human beings (see Rom 10:6-8).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>30:12<\/strong> <em>not kept in heaven:<\/em> The revelation of God is not known only to him but is accessible to human beings (see Rom 10:6-8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"30:12 not kept in heaven: The revelation of God is not known only to him but is accessible to human beings (see Rom 10:6-8).","summary_en":"30:12 not kept in heaven: The revelation of God is not known only to him but is accessible to human beings (see Rom 10:6-8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":72854,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 30:12","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 30:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>30:12<\/strong> <em>not kept in heaven:<\/em> The revelation of God is not known only to him but is accessible to human beings (see Rom 10:6-8).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>30:12<\/strong> <em>not kept in heaven:<\/em> The revelation of God is not known only to him but is accessible to human beings (see Rom 10:6-8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"30:12 not kept in heaven: The revelation of God is not known only to him but is accessible to human beings (see Rom 10:6-8).","summary_en":"30:12 not kept in heaven: The revelation of God is not known only to him but is accessible to human beings (see Rom 10:6-8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100480,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 30:12","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 30:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>30:12<\/strong> <em>not kept in heaven:<\/em> The revelation of God is not known only to him but is accessible to human beings (see Rom 10:6-8).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>30:12<\/strong> <em>not kept in heaven:<\/em> The revelation of God is not known only to him but is accessible to human beings (see Rom 10:6-8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"30:12 not kept in heaven: The revelation of God is not known only to him but is accessible to human beings (see Rom 10:6-8).","summary_en":"30:12 not kept in heaven: The revelation of God is not known only to him but is accessible to human beings (see Rom 10:6-8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128106,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 30:12","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 30:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>30:12<\/strong> <em>not kept in heaven:<\/em> The revelation of God is not known only to him but is accessible to human beings (see Rom 10:6-8).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>30:12<\/strong> <em>not kept in heaven:<\/em> The revelation of God is not known only to him but is accessible to human beings (see Rom 10:6-8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"30:12 not kept in heaven: The revelation of God is not known only to him but is accessible to human beings (see Rom 10:6-8).","summary_en":"30:12 not kept in heaven: The revelation of God is not known only to him but is accessible to human beings (see Rom 10:6-8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"13":[{"id":45229,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 30:13","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 30:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>30:13<\/strong> <em>not kept beyond the sea:<\/em> God’s purposes are not in the custody of faraway nations but are available to his people (see Rom 10:6-8).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>30:13<\/strong> <em>not kept beyond the sea:<\/em> God’s purposes are not in the custody of faraway nations but are available to his people (see Rom 10:6-8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"30:13 not kept beyond the sea: God’s purposes are not in the custody of faraway nations but are available to his people (see Rom 10:6-8).","summary_en":"30:13 not kept beyond the sea: God’s purposes are not in the custody of faraway nations but are available to his people (see Rom 10:6-8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":72855,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 30:13","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 30:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>30:13<\/strong> <em>not kept beyond the sea:<\/em> God’s purposes are not in the custody of faraway nations but are available to his people (see Rom 10:6-8).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>30:13<\/strong> <em>not kept beyond the sea:<\/em> God’s purposes are not in the custody of faraway nations but are available to his people (see Rom 10:6-8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"30:13 not kept beyond the sea: God’s purposes are not in the custody of faraway nations but are available to his people (see Rom 10:6-8).","summary_en":"30:13 not kept beyond the sea: God’s purposes are not in the custody of faraway nations but are available to his people (see Rom 10:6-8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100481,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 30:13","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 30:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>30:13<\/strong> <em>not kept beyond the sea:<\/em> God’s purposes are not in the custody of faraway nations but are available to his people (see Rom 10:6-8).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>30:13<\/strong> <em>not kept beyond the sea:<\/em> God’s purposes are not in the custody of faraway nations but are available to his people (see Rom 10:6-8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"30:13 not kept beyond the sea: God’s purposes are not in the custody of faraway nations but are available to his people (see Rom 10:6-8).","summary_en":"30:13 not kept beyond the sea: God’s purposes are not in the custody of faraway nations but are available to his people (see Rom 10:6-8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128107,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 30:13","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 30:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>30:13<\/strong> <em>not kept beyond the sea:<\/em> God’s purposes are not in the custody of faraway nations but are available to his people (see Rom 10:6-8).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>30:13<\/strong> <em>not kept beyond the sea:<\/em> God’s purposes are not in the custody of faraway nations but are available to his people (see Rom 10:6-8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"30:13 not kept beyond the sea: God’s purposes are not in the custody of faraway nations but are available to his people (see Rom 10:6-8).","summary_en":"30:13 not kept beyond the sea: God’s purposes are not in the custody of faraway nations but are available to his people (see Rom 10:6-8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"14":[{"id":45230,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 30:14","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 30:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>30:14<\/strong> The message of salvation is objectively close (<em>on your lips<\/em>) and subjectively near (<em>in your heart<\/em>). It is capable of being taught and learned (see 6:6-7).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>30:14<\/strong> The message of salvation is objectively close (<em>on your lips<\/em>) and subjectively near (<em>in your heart<\/em>). It is capable of being taught and learned (see 6:6-7).<\/p>","summary_ro":"30:14 The message of salvation is objectively close (on your lips) and subjectively near (in your heart). It is capable of being taught and learned (see 6:6-7).","summary_en":"30:14 The message of salvation is objectively close (on your lips) and subjectively near (in your heart). It is capable of being taught and learned (see 6:6-7).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":72856,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 30:14","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 30:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>30:14<\/strong> The message of salvation is objectively close (<em>on your lips<\/em>) and subjectively near (<em>in your heart<\/em>). It is capable of being taught and learned (see 6:6-7).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>30:14<\/strong> The message of salvation is objectively close (<em>on your lips<\/em>) and subjectively near (<em>in your heart<\/em>). It is capable of being taught and learned (see 6:6-7).<\/p>","summary_ro":"30:14 The message of salvation is objectively close (on your lips) and subjectively near (in your heart). It is capable of being taught and learned (see 6:6-7).","summary_en":"30:14 The message of salvation is objectively close (on your lips) and subjectively near (in your heart). It is capable of being taught and learned (see 6:6-7).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100482,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 30:14","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 30:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>30:14<\/strong> The message of salvation is objectively close (<em>on your lips<\/em>) and subjectively near (<em>in your heart<\/em>). It is capable of being taught and learned (see 6:6-7).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>30:14<\/strong> The message of salvation is objectively close (<em>on your lips<\/em>) and subjectively near (<em>in your heart<\/em>). It is capable of being taught and learned (see 6:6-7).<\/p>","summary_ro":"30:14 The message of salvation is objectively close (on your lips) and subjectively near (in your heart). It is capable of being taught and learned (see 6:6-7).","summary_en":"30:14 The message of salvation is objectively close (on your lips) and subjectively near (in your heart). It is capable of being taught and learned (see 6:6-7).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128108,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 30:14","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 30:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>30:14<\/strong> The message of salvation is objectively close (<em>on your lips<\/em>) and subjectively near (<em>in your heart<\/em>). It is capable of being taught and learned (see 6:6-7).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>30:14<\/strong> The message of salvation is objectively close (<em>on your lips<\/em>) and subjectively near (<em>in your heart<\/em>). It is capable of being taught and learned (see 6:6-7).<\/p>","summary_ro":"30:14 The message of salvation is objectively close (on your lips) and subjectively near (in your heart). It is capable of being taught and learned (see 6:6-7).","summary_en":"30:14 The message of salvation is objectively close (on your lips) and subjectively near (in your heart). It is capable of being taught and learned (see 6:6-7).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"15":[{"id":2317,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Apocrypha*","title_en":"Apocrypha*","content_ro":"<h3>APOCRYPHA*<\/h3>\n<p>Books excluded from the canon of Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Introduction<\/p>\n<p>• Apocryphal Gospels<\/p>\n<p>• Apocryphal Acts<\/p>\n<p>• Apocryphal Epistles<\/p>\n<p>• Apocalyptic Apocrypha<\/p>\n<p>• Specific Titles of Apocryphal Writings<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Introduction\">Introduction<\/p>\n<p>The writings of the Old and New Testaments tended to attract certain additional compositions in the form of books, parts of books, letters, “gospels,” apocalypses, and so on. Most of the authors wrote anonymously, but some presented their writings to the public under the name of a familiar OT figure or member of the Christian church. Several of these compositions formed a small but important part of the great body of Jewish literature that emerged during the period between the Old and New Testaments. Much of it was the result of religious and political ferment, for the Jews felt their faith and their very existence threatened, first by the pagan influences of Hellenistic Greek culture, then by the oppression of invading Roman forces.<\/p>\n\n<p>Most of the apocryphal books are also pseudepigrapha—that is, they are books ascribed to a pseudonymous author. In other words, the main characteristic of these writings is the fictitious claim that the author of the book was a biblical person (Enoch, Abraham, Moses, Solomon, Bartholomew, Thomas, etc.) or that the revelation contained in the book was originally given to a biblical character (Adam and Eve, Isaiah). Generally, the pseudepigrapha show a strong interest in the apocalyptic: the creation of the world, the future of Israel and the nations, the glory of God and his angels, the messianic kingdom, and life after death. Many of the pseudepigrapha are Jewish writings that were never accepted by the Jewish or Christian communities. They were written about the time of the Apocrypha (c. 200 <span>BC<\/span>–<span>AD<\/span> 110), but by the nature of the contents of the pseudepigrapha, they were only recognized by certain groups. Since some of these books approximated counterparts in the canonical Scriptures, there is no doubt that in some circles their authority and inspiration were regarded as similar to that of the scriptural compositions venerated by the Jews and later by Christians.<\/p>\n<p>Other religious writings from that period made no claim to be scriptural. Such compositions preserved the familiar traditions of both Judaism and primitive Christianity, although on occasion they enriched or embellished them by means of legends and unhistorical narratives. Because very few books of any kind were in circulation at that time, the Palestinians tended to read whatever literary material came into their possession. Although the Torah, or law of Moses, had always been recognized as the standard of theological orthodoxy for the Jews, narratives of endurance under persecution or accounts of the way that the enemies of God’s people received their just reward had an obvious attraction for those under the pressures of a pagan society.<\/p>\n<p>In the same way, although the Gospels and Epistles—along with the OT—comprised the basic canon or approved list of Scriptures for Christians, many additional narratives claimed the attention of Christ’s early followers. Those compositions often dealt with the supposed activities of Jesus and his followers, as well as with martyrdoms, revelations, and spiritual teachings. Some works contained material that was not only unhistorical but downright bizarre, but others reflected the spirit of Christ and the apostolic teachings to a certain extent. For the early Christians, as also for the Jews, the establishment of a formal canon of scriptural writings must have been prompted in part by a necessity to separate the record of revealed truth from other written forms of religious tradition as well as from actual heresy.<\/p>\n<p>Writings that failed to gain acceptance into the OT and NT canons were described in the writings of some early Christian scholars by the term “apocrypha.” The Greek word means “hidden things,” and when applied to books it described those works that religious authorities wished to be concealed from the reading public. The reason was that such books were thought to contain mysterious or secret lore, meaningful only to the initiate and therefore unsuitable for the ordinary reader. But the word “apocrypha” was also applied in a less complimentary sense to works that deserved to be concealed. Such works contained harmful doctrines or false teachings calculated to unsettle or pervert rather than edify those who read them. The suppression of undesirable writings was comparatively easy at a time when only a few copies of any book were in circulation at a given time.<\/p>\n<p>By the end of the first century <span>AD<\/span>, a clear distinction was being made in Jewish circles between writings that were suitable for use by the general public and esoteric works that were to be restricted to the knowledgeable and the initiated. Thus in 2 Esdras 14:1-6, the writer tells how Ezra was supposedly instructed by God to publish openly certain writings (among them the Torah), and keep others secret (that is, apocalyptic traditions dealing with the coming end of the age). In 2 Esdras 14:42-46 reference is made to 70 books, evidently noncanonical material, written after the 24 books of the Hebrew Canon.<\/p>\n<p>Use of the term “apocrypha” to mean “noncanonical” goes back to the fifth century <span>AD<\/span>, when Jerome urged that the books found in the Septuagint and in the Latin Bibles that did not occur in the canon of the Hebrew OT writings should be treated as apocryphal. They were not to be disregarded entirely, since they were part of the great contemporary outpouring of Jewish national literature. At the same time, they should not be used as sources for Christian doctrine but at best for supplementary reading of an uplifting or inspirational nature.<\/p>\n<p>Protestant theologians generally have followed the tradition established by Jerome, regarding the OT apocrypha as the excess of the Septuagint canon over the Hebrew Scriptures. When the Hebrew Bible began to be translated into Greek in Egypt during the reign of Ptolemy II (285–246 <span>BC<\/span>), the scholars concerned included a number of books that, while remaining outside the generally accepted list of Hebrew canonical writings, still had a bearing upon Jewish history and society. That procedure reflected contemporary attitudes in Palestine, where many people did not attempt to separate canonical writings from other forms of religious literature. The decision made by Jewish authorities about what to regard as canonical Scripture naturally had a bearing on what would constitute OT apocrypha.<\/p>\n<p>Textual evidence represented by certain manuscripts and fragments from the Dead Sea caves makes it reasonably certain that the last of the canonical Hebrew writings had been completed several decades before the time Alexander the Great (356–323 <span>BC<\/span>) began his conquests in the Near East. The process by which those compositions came to be accepted as canonical was more protracted, however. Only when they had been circulated, read, and assessed favorably by comparison with the spirituality of the Torah were they accorded general canonicity. Hence the distinction between the canonical and apocryphal writings came as much through usage and general consent on the part of orthodox Judaism as through any other manner. Earlier scholars suggested that the so-called Council of Jamnia, held in Palestine about <span>AD<\/span> 100, was responsible for drawing up a list of OT books suitable for use by the faithful. However, subsequent studies have thrown considerable doubt upon the historicity of such a council, at the same time showing that the Jewish authorities of that period considered their noncanonical writings to be more of an obstacle than a help to devotion.<\/p>\n<p>The books the Jews regarded as being specifically outside the Canon, and therefore apocryphal, are as follows: 1 Esdras; 2 Esdras; Tobit; Judith; the additions to Esther; the Wisdom of Solomon; Ecclesiasticus; Baruch; the Letter of Jeremiah; the additions to the book of Daniel (the Prayer of Azariah and the Song of the Three Young Men, Susanna, Bel and the Dragon); the Prayer of Manasseh; 1 Maccabees; and 2 Maccabees. Several Septuagint manuscripts included some pseudohistorical material under the titles of 3 and 4 Maccabees. Therefore, even the Apocrypha varied somewhat in content, depending upon the manuscript tradition being followed. Among early Christian scholars there was also some difference of opinion about the precise limits of canonical Hebrew Scripture, and hence of apocryphal material. A serious break with Hebrew and rabbinic tradition came with the writings of Augustine, who advanced the view that the books of the Apocrypha were of equal authority with the other writings of the canonical Hebrew and Christian Scriptures. A few dissenting voices were raised in support of Jerome’s position, but the views of Augustine were embraced by the Council of Trent (1546) and became official Roman Catholic teaching.<\/p>\n<p>The Roman Catholic Church includes the following works as part of the Deuterocanonical Scriptures: Tobit; Judith; the additions to Esther; the Wisdom of Solomon; Ecclesiasticus, or the Wisdom of Jesus ben Sirach; Baruch; the additions to the book of Daniel (the Prayer of Azariah and the Song of the Three Young Men, Susanna, Bel and the Dragon); 1 Maccabees; and 2 Maccabees. (Articles on each of these are interspersed throughout this dictionary.)<\/p>\n<p>Christians of the NT period were already familiar with Jewish apocryphal works, including the apocalyptic speculations found in 2 Esdras. Therefore, it was hardly surprising that a similar body of literature should grow up around their own Scriptures when they began to be composed and circulated. NT apocrypha, however, like its OT counterpart, could be considered only in relationship to an established canon of scriptural writings. Since the earliest catalog of NT writings, the Muratorian Canon, was not compiled until about <span>AD<\/span> 200, a considerable period of time elapsed before an official church statement could appear on what was to be considered NT apocrypha. In the meantime, a large assortment of materials of a predominantly religious nature appeared, purporting to be orthodox in nature and dealing with various aspects of historic Christianity. As events turned out, this apocryphal literature defeated the purposes it was intended to serve.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ApocryphalGospels\">Apocryphal Gospels<\/p>\n<p>One major class of apocrypha are the apocryphal gospels. These writings preserved stories about Christ and some teachings, but being mostly fanciful in nature they never became canonical. There are three broad classes:<\/p>\n<p>1. A type similar to the synoptic Gospels, represented by the Gospel of Peter and the Gospel of the Egyptians, as well as papyrus fragments including Oxyrhynchus 840 and Papyrus Egerton 2. Other papyrus collections of sayings show affinities with the canonical Gospels.<\/p>\n<li>2. Gospels that disseminated Gnosticism, a second-century <span>AD<\/span> heresy stressing philosophical knowledge <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">gnosis<\/span><em>)<\/em> of the cosmos and man. They are often in the form of dialogues between Jesus and his disciples, such as the Coptic Gospel of Thomas, the Apocryphon of John, the Wisdom of Jesus Christ, and the Dialogue of the Redeemer. In this category also come those “gospels” attributed to the Twelve as a group, such as the Memoirs of the Apostles.<\/li>\n<li>3. Infancy gospels, purporting to supply otherwise unknown information of a legendary nature about Christ’s earliest years. Passion gospels also come into this category. These narratives were written to satisfy curiosity about Christ’s birth and childhood or to embellish the canonical accounts of his crucifixion and resurrection.<\/li>\n<p>Because of the scarcity of information about such matters as the childhood, adolescence, and early manhood of Jesus, the “infancy” gospels purport to supply the reader with what was meant to pass for historical fact. Much of the material, however, was entirely within the realm of fantasy and could never have been accepted as fact by any intelligent reader. For example, in the Gospel of Thomas the five-year-old Jesus is accused of breaking the Sabbath by making sparrows of clay beside a stream. When his father Joseph investigates the situation, Jesus claps his hands and the clay birds come to life and fly away chirping.<\/p>\n<p>“Passion” gospels were written to embellish the canonical accounts of Christ’s crucifixion and resurrection. As supplements to Christian teaching, many of the apocryphal writings seemed to be proclaiming ideas that were actually outside the scope of NT doctrine. Attempts to fill in the “hidden years” of Christ’s life had no foundation whatever in the traditions of the Gospels. Works dealing with the last state of unbelievers were embellished in a manner that went far beyond anything stated in the NT. In some notable instances, as in the writings of various Gnostic sects, the authors set out deliberately to propagate heretical teachings they had accepted under the authority of some apostolic figure. The Gospel of Thomas, recovered around 1945 from Nag Hammadi (Chenoboskion) near the Nile River, is an example of an attempt to perpetuate curious sayings and dogmas by attributing them to Jesus, so that they would receive wide currency and acceptance.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ApocryphalActs\">Apocryphal Acts<\/p>\n<p>There are also some apocryphal acts, which are purported to be accounts of apostolic achievements not recorded in Scripture. Such “acts” are the source of much tradition, such as Peter’s being crucified upside down and Thomas’s mission to India. The reliability of the traditions is questionable because the writings contain clearly unorthodox material. Yet small fragments of accurate information may be embedded in this mass of largely fictitious literature.<\/p>\n<p>Because of their often heretical character, the church consistently reacted against such books, sometimes even demanding that they be burned (for example, at the Nicene Council of 787). The Acts of John pictured Jesus talking to John on the Mt of Olives during the crucifixion, explaining that it was only a spectacle. In the Acts of Thomas, Jesus appeared in the form of Thomas, exhorting a newly married couple to dedicate themselves to virginity. Sexual abstinence was a dominant theme, reflecting Platonic ideas, which disparaged the physical body.<\/p>\n<p>Many scholars date the earliest work, the Acts of John, before <span>AD<\/span> 150. The major Acts (of John, Paul, Peter, Andrew, and Thomas) were probably written during the second and third centuries. These gave rise to other “acts” that were primarily miracle stories, written more to entertain than to teach.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ApocryphalEpistles\">Apocryphal Epistles<\/p>\n<p>A host of apocryphal works are classified as epistles. These generally pseudonymous works originated from many widely separated periods of time. Many other apocryphal works are apocalyptic in nature. These works are supplemented by material such as the Apostolic Constitutions and Canons. Added to these are the Gnostic compositions found at Nag Hammadi, which include works purporting to represent the teachings of Christ as well as “secret” instructions compiled by the Gnostic writers and a few apocryphal compositions.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ApocalypticApocrypha\">Apocalyptic Apocrypha<\/p>\n<p>Another group could be called apocalyptic apocrypha. The term “apocalypse” means “disclosure” or “revelation,” a term that was generally applied to Christian literature that resembled the Revelation of John, which designates itself an apocalypse in Revelation 1:1. The practice of writing under the name of an illustrious figure of the past, or pseudonymity, was a characteristic device used by most unknown authors of Jewish and Christian apocalypses (the Revelation of John is a striking exception). Jewish apocalypses were attributed to such ancient worthies as Adam, Enoch, Abraham, Moses, Ezra, and others. Similarly, Christian apocalypses written in the second century <span>AD<\/span> and later were ascribed to such important early Christian figures as Peter, Thomas, James and others.<\/p>\n<p>In NT times there emerged in Judaism certain circles that developed an apocalyptic view of history. They provided such writings as the five parts of 1 Enoch, the Assumption of Moses, 2 Esdras, and the Apocalypse of Baruch. These books are of importance to NT study, for they provide a bridge between the OT and the NT concepts of the kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p>The apocalypses were written to answer the problems of theodicy (the justice of God). After the days of Ezra, the law assumed a more important role in the life of the people than before. In prophetic times Israel again and again apostatized from the law and worshiped foreign gods. The primary message of the prophets was to challenge Israel to get right with God and to turn in repentance to keep the law. After Ezra and throughout NT times, Israel was obedient to the law as never before. The Jews abhorred idolatry and faithfully worshiped God. Still the kingdom did not come. Instead came the fearful persecution in the Maccabean times by Antiochus IV Epiphanes, the worldly rule of the Hasmoneans, Pompey and Roman hegemony, and in <span>AD<\/span> 66–70, the siege and destruction of Jerusalem. Where was God? Why did he not deliver his faithful people? Why did the kingdom not come? The apocalypses were written to answer questions like these.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most important elements in apocalyptic religion is an explicit dualism, expressed as “this age” and “the age to come.” The prophets contrasted the present time with the future when the kingdom of God would be established. The apocalyptists radicalized this contrast. Twice we find fragments of this idiom in 1 Enoch. We meet the fully developed idiom in 2 Esdras and the Apocalypse of Baruch (late first century <span>AD<\/span>). “The Most High has made not one age but two” (2 Esd 7:50); “the day of judgment shall be the end of this age and the beginning of the immortal age that is to come” (2 Esd 7:113); “this age the Most High has made for many but the age to come for few” (2 Esd 8:1; see also Apoc Bar 14:13; 15:7; <em>Pirke Aboth<\/em> 4:1, 21-22; 6:4-7). Furthermore, the transition from this age to the age to come can be accomplished only by a cosmic act of God. In the apocryphal Assumption of Moses there is no messianic personage; it is God alone who comes to redeem Israel. In the Similitudes of Enoch the transition is accomplished with the coming of a heavenly, preexistent Son of Man. In 2 Esdras we find a conflation of the concepts of Davidic Messiah and the Son of Man.<\/p>\n<p>Apocalyptic differs from OT prophetic religion in that it is pessimistic about the present age. It would be wrong to describe the apocalypses as ultimately pessimistic, for their basic message is that in due time God will intervene and save his people. But for the present, as long as this age lasts, he has removed himself from intervening in Israel’s affairs. The present age is under the power of evil angelic and demonic forces and is irretrievably evil. God has abandoned this age to evil; salvation can be expected only in the age to come.<\/p>\n<p>The apocalyptists lost completely the tension between history and eschatology. They no longer expected any deliverance in this age. God had, in fact, become the God of the future, not of the present.<\/p>\n<p>In the dream-visions of Enoch (1 Enoch 83–90), God faithfully guided Israel throughout its history. Then God withdrew his personal leadership, forsook the temple, and surrendered his people to be torn and devoured. God “remained unmoved, though he saw it, and rejoiced that they were devoured and swallowed and robbed, and left them to be devoured in the hand of all the beasts” (1 Enoch 89:58). After the Babylonian captivity God was conceived to be inactive in history. History was surrendered to evil. All salvation was thrust into the future.<\/p>\n<p>Comparative studies have shown that the NT apocryphal writings preserve at best a series of debased traditions about the founder and teachings of early Christianity. At worst, the narratives are entirely devoid of historical value and in some respects are totally alien to NT spirituality. Even where they seem to support a tradition current in some part of the early church, the evidence they present is inferior to what can often be had from other sources. Sometimes the compositions are so trivial and inconsequential that it is difficult to account for their survival. Certain apocryphal writings did in fact become lost and are now known only in the form of quotations in larger works.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, the NT apocryphal compositions are important in indicating what was attractive to the ordinary people of the day. For them an element of the romantic seemed necessary to supplement the body of received spiritual truth. Certain of the stories recounted were vivid and imaginative, and others, such as the apocalypses, provided a form of escapism from harsh temporal realities. No matter what their nature, the NT apocryphal writings exerted an influence out of all proportion to their fundamental worth.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SpecificTitlesofApocryphalWritings\">Specific Titles of Apocryphal Writings<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"AbdiasApostolicHistoryof\">Abdias, Apostolic History of<\/p>\n<p>Collection of material drawn from canonical and apocryphal writings concerning the lives of the apostles, including Paul. Abdias, an early bishop of Babylon, was supposedly the author of this history that more probably was collated from a variety of sources in the sixth century <span>AD<\/span> in France. This apocryphal “acts,” divided into 10 books, originally circulated in Greek as individual volumes that were collected into one when a Latin version was made. The content is generally regarded as folklore or legend but is of some value where no other source is available.<\/p>\n<p>Abdias, a contemporary of the apostles, may have seen Christ and supposedly traveled extensively with Simon and Jude. There is no historical basis for considering Abdias as the author of the Hebrew text, or for believing that his disciple Eutropius translated it into Greek or that Africanus translated the Greek into Latin—although the preface to the Latin version makes those claims.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"AbgarusLettersofChristand\">Abgarus, Letters of Christ and<\/p>\n<p>Apocryphal work comprising two short letters, one supposedly written by the Syrian king Abgar (Abgarus), the other supposedly a reply from Jesus. Eusebius claimed to have found the material in the archives of Abgar at Edessa and translated it from Syrian to Greek together with an account of the exploits of the disciple Thaddaeus.<\/p>\n<p>According to the legend, Abgar, suffering from a severe disease, hears of the miracles of Jesus and sends a messenger with a letter asking Jesus to come heal him. At the same time he offers Jesus sanctuary from the dangerous opposition of the Jews in Jerusalem. In a written reply (later altered to an oral one to comply with the tradition that no writings of Jesus existed), Jesus declines the offer of sanctuary but promises that after his ascension he will comply with Abgar’s request for healing by sending a disciple to him. Thaddaeus, one of the Twelve, is dispatched to Edessa, the king is healed, and the community converts to Christianity. In a slightly different version in the Doctrina Addaei (about <span>AD<\/span> 400), an oral reply is given, and the messenger returns with a portrait of Jesus that is displayed prominently in Abgar’s palace.<\/p>\n<p>The legend is essentially similar to that described in the Greek Acts of Thaddaeus (fifth or sixth century <span>AD<\/span>), except that in the latter Ananias returns with a handkerchief on which is a miraculous imprint of the face of Christ.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"AbrahamApocalypseof\">Abraham, Apocalypse of<\/p>\n<p>Jewish document existing in old Slavonic texts that go back through Greek to a Hebrew or Aramaic original.<\/p>\n<p>The Apocalypse of Abraham begins with Abraham turning from idolatry. Incorporating old rabbinical traditions of Abraham’s youth, it describes his awakening to the call of God and his awareness that God was one and was holy. An angel named Jahoel, whose functions and powers are lifted from rabbinical lore, takes Abraham to the seventh heaven where he is shown things past and things yet to be. He sees the temptation of Adam and Eve through sexual sin, and the murder of Cain. Azazel, an evil being, plays Satan’s role. These details probably reflect a tradition that Abraham was the author of the first documents of the Bible. The revelation then turns to the future and shows the destruction of the temple, plagues upon the heathen, and the coming of the Messiah. It is probable that the composite document took final form in the last generation of the first century <span>AD<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>True to his character as revealed in Genesis, Abraham raises the question of evil and why God tolerates the rebellious Azazel. He receives the answer that evil has its origin in the free will of man. This apocalypse shows how faithful Jews struggled to understand the problem of evil during a time of great suffering in Judaism. It also illustrates the curious “doctrine of angels” of that period. Both Gnostic and Christian editing of the text has been noted by some scholars.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"AbrahamTestamentof\">Abraham, Testament of<\/p>\n<p>Jewish apocryphal writing describing the death of Abraham. In the testament, when the angel Michael comes to take Abraham’s soul, Abraham refuses to die. Reluctant to insist on the old man’s death, Michael accedes to his request to see all creation before he dies. The angel transports Abraham by chariot into the heavens so that he can observe mankind. Abraham is so shocked at the perfidy of humanity that he curses the sinners, who die immediately. He then observes the judgment of a soul, and although angels take part in the trial he notes that the presiding judge is Abel. The merits and demerits of the soul seem equally balanced, but because of the intervention of Abraham, the judgment is favorable. Abraham then realizes the severity of his cursing of sinners, but the angel informs him that the premature death of those whom he had cursed was the means of atonement for their sins.<\/p>\n<p>After his return to earth, Abraham again refuses to die. Death appears in all his horror and kills 7,000 servants of Abraham (who are subsequently raised to life), but the aged saint still will not die. Finally, Death grasps Abraham’s hand and the angels lift his spirit to the heavens.<\/p>\n<p>The account is found in several Greek manuscripts, the oldest perhaps dating from the 13th century <span>AD<\/span>, as well as in Slavonic, Romanian, Arabic, Ethiopic, and Coptic. The original language was probably Hebrew, from the first century <span>AD<\/span>, with the work possibly translated into Greek by a Christian. The testament also exists in a shorter version in which God comes to lift up the soul of Abraham during a dream. There is no attempt in the work to make a theological statement, but the portrayal of the angel Michael and of Death are typical of Jewish thought of the first century.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"ActsApocryphal\">Acts, Apocryphal<\/p>\n<p>Writings purported to be accounts of apostolic achievements not recorded in Scripture.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"ActsofPilate\">Acts of Pilate<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Pilate, Acts of (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"AdamApocalypseof\">Adam, Apocalypse of<\/p>\n<p>One of the best examples of Gnostic apocalyptic literature. In 1946, a farm worker discovered a number of ancient texts in a cave about 6 miles (10 kilometers) north of the Egyptian city of Nag Hammadi. The discovery included 13 codexes (predecessors of bound books) of Christian and non-Christian origin. The discovery was not immediately disclosed, so it was not until 1958 that a French scholar, Jean Doresse, revealed the existence of the Apocalypse of Adam to the public. The apocalypse is written in Coptic and stands as the last of five works in Codex V.<\/p>\n<p>Although the author’s true identity is unknown, the subtitle spuriously attributes the book to Adam or Seth: “An Apocalypse that Adam revealed to his son Seth in the seven hundredth year.” Seth was often cast in the role of transmitter of truth by the writers of Gnostic literature (for example, the Gospel of the Egyptians, the Paraphrase of Shem).<\/p>\n<p>The earliest existing copy of the Apocalypse of Adam is dated around <span>AD<\/span> 300 to 350, although it may have been written long before. Its frequent Gnostic references, its dependence on Jewish history, and its allusions to baptism have led some scholars to postulate an origin in the Jewish baptist sects of the first and second centuries. Parallels also exist between this work and third-century Manichean (a brand of Gnosticism) literature.<\/p>\n<p>The Apocalypse of Adam is of great importance to students of Christian origins. For many years scholars have debated whether the Gnostic religion was a heretical outgrowth of Christianity or whether it was a movement of independent origins. Some scholars have argued that the Apocalypse of Adam is an example of an early, independent Gnosticism. If this proves to be the case the debate will certainly be simplified.<\/p>\n<p>In addition to its introduction and conclusion, the Apocalypse of Adam may be divided into three parts: Adam’s summary of significant past events, predictions of attempts to eliminate mankind by the evil creator-god, and predictions about the coming of the Enlightener who will show his people the way to the true God.<\/p>\n<p>The apocalypse opens with Adam, supposedly on his deathbed, revealing the future secrets of the Gnostic people to Seth. These have been mystically communicated to him by three angelic beings. Adam bemoans his condition of perpetual slavery to the evil creator-god, brought about by the fall and mankind’s subsequent loss of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">gnosis<\/span> (knowledge). Typical of Gnostic literature, a sharp distinction is drawn between the evil creator-god who rules the earth and the true God of the universe, knowledge of whom brings authentic life. Adam predicts that the creator-god will jealously attempt to destroy mankind by a flood (the story of Noah) and by fire (the story of Sodom and Gomorrah) and thus keep mankind from knowledge of the true God. These attempts, however, will be foiled by the intervention of angelic beings sent from the God of truth. Finally, the true God will send the Enlightener who will teach <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">gnosis<\/span> to mankind so that they might know him. The creator-god will try to defeat the Enlightener but will be able to harm only his physical body. With the message of the Enlightener prevailing, mankind will turn from the creator-god and seek the true God through <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">gnosis<\/span><em>.<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Gnosticism.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"AdamApocryphalBooksof\">Adam, Apocryphal Books of<\/p>\n<p>Account of the life and death of Adam and Eve recorded in Latin, and in a Greek version known as the Apocalypse of Moses. Other minor versions of early Christian origin also exist. Like other apocryphal writings, the work is fanciful and of unknown authorship.<\/p>\n<p>According to the Latin account, after their expulsion from Paradise Adam and Eve are hungry and unable to find food for seven days. In desperation a penitent Eve, assuming responsibility for tasting the forbidden fruit, suggests that Adam kill her. He refuses, and after a search they survive by eating animals’ food. Adam suggests that as a penance they should stand fasting in the river up to their necks for 40 days, he in the Tigris, she in the Jordan. After 18 days Satan comes to Eve in the guise of an angel, tells her that the Lord has accepted her penance, and persuades her to leave the river. Coming to the Tigris where Adam is, Eve realizes that it was Satan who had spoken to her. Satan then explains that the reason for his fall was his refusal to worship man, a lower being.<\/p>\n<p>The archangel Michael is then sent to Adam with seeds so that he can learn to till the land. In a dream Eve sees Cain kill Abel, and in an attempt to prevent the murder by separating the brothers, Cain is made a farmer and Abel a shepherd. Subsequently a third son, Seth, is born. Adam receives a message from God that he is to die because he has obeyed the word of his wife rather than the instructions of God. When Adam is later in pain and close to death, he explains to Seth that Satan had tempted Eve to eat the forbidden fruit and that she in turn had persuaded him to taste it. Seth and Eve journey to the gates of Paradise to plead with God for Adam’s life. On the way Seth is attacked and bitten by a snake. At Paradise, Michael explains to them that Adam must die. Seth observes the burial of Adam and Abel.<\/p>\n<p>Before Eve’s death the following week, she asks Seth to make a record of the lives of his parents on tablets of stone and clay, so that if the Lord shows his anger with the world by water, the clay will be dissolved and the stone remain; if by fire, the stone will be broken up and the clay baked hard. Eve also warns Seth to mourn for six days only and not on the Sabbath.<\/p>\n<p>The text of the Greek version is similar to that of the Latin, except that the Greek version includes a description of Adam’s resurrection (added later to the Latin) and a detailed account by Eve of her temptation and fall. The burial of Adam and the initial refusal of the earth to accept the body of the slain Abel are also elaborately described in the Greek account. Both versions are probably derived from Hebrew originals dating from the first century <span>AD<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"AhikarBookof\">Ahikar, Book of<\/p>\n<p>Near Eastern folktale from the sixth or seventh century <span>BC<\/span> showing the reward of ingratitude. According to the story, Ahikar, secretary of Sennacherib, king of Assyria, was renowned for his wisdom. Childless even though he had 60 wives, Ahikar adopted his sister’s son, Nadan, and reared him to be his successor in Sennacherib’s court. Ahikar diligently educated his adopted son, who nevertheless turned out to be bad and even forged documents to have his benefactor condemned to death. Ahikar was spared through his friendship with the executioner and was concealed until the wrath of the king cooled. Later, when Sennacherib had occasion to wish for his wisdom, Ahikar was brought on the scene, long-haired, disheveled, and with fingernails like eagles’ claws. Once again in the king’s favor, Ahikar sternly rebuked his unscrupulous nephew. In response to Ahikar’s rebuke, Nadan’s body swelled up and his stomach burst open.<\/p>\n<p>Ahikar’s story has interesting parallels with OT wisdom books and also with some of the parables of Jesus. References to Ahikar occur in the apocryphal book of Tobit, in the Greek philosopher Democritus, in the apocalyptic Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, as well as in the Koran. The story, originally in Aramaic, also survives in Syriac, Arabic, Armenian, Ethiopic, and Greek, though with considerable variations in the versions.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"AkhmimFragment\">Akhmim Fragment<\/p>\n<p>Document found in a tomb in Akhmim in Egypt and containing the apocryphal Gospel of Peter. <em>See<\/em> Peter, Preaching of (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"AllogenesSupreme\">Allogenes Supreme<\/p>\n<p>Gnostic work (“The Most High Stranger”), discovered in 1946 in an urn near Nag Hammadi (Egypt). The Neoplatonist historian Porphyry, as well as later Syriac Christian writings against heresy, mentioned the works of Allogenes (whose name means “foreigner” or “stranger”). Allogenes Supreme, a Gnostic “apocalypse” written in Coptic, contains an account of the creation of the higher world, exalting Barbelo, the celestial mother. The existing copy was made during the fourth century, but the original may date back to the second century.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"AndrewActsof\">Andrew, Acts of<\/p>\n<p>Apocryphal work describing purported miracles and the martyrdom in Greece of the apostle Andrew, Peter’s brother. Its theme is the virtue of turning away from materialism and the transitory values of the world to an asceticism associated with dedication of life to God. The earliest fragment available is in the Vatican. The original probably dated from the second century <span>AD<\/span> and was probably long, verbose, and tedious. Feeling that it had merit, Gregory of Tours in the sixth century wrote a concise account of the miracles of Andrew from an original, now lost. The account of the martyrdom of Andrew probably circulated separately.<\/p>\n<p>Among the many miracles Gregory recorded was one concerning Exoos, a noble youth from Thessalonica, who, having heard of Andrew’s preaching and miracles, comes to him at Philippi, is converted, and remains with him. Finding bribery useless and refusing to listen to Andrew, the youth’s parents set fire to the house where the Christians are staying. As the flames roar, Exoos prays that the Lord will extinguish the fire and sprinkles it with water. Thereupon the flames die out. The parents and the crowd, claiming that the youth is now a sorcerer, climb ladders to enter the house and kill the inhabitants, but God blinds the intruders. Although it is night, a light shines out from the house, sight is restored to those who have been blinded, and all except the youth’s parents are converted. The parents die soon afterward, and Exoos remains with Andrew, spending his inheritance on the poor. Returning to Thessalonica, Exoos heals a man who has been paralyzed for 23 years, and subsequently Exoos and Andrew perform further miracles and preach to the people.<\/p>\n<p>In Patrae the maidservant of Maximilla, wife of the proconsul Aegeates, comes to Andrew and implores him to heal her mistress, whose fever is so severe that her husband is standing at her bedside threatening to kill himself with a sword the moment she dies. Telling the proconsul to put up his sword, Andrew takes Maximilla’s hand and the fever leaves her. Ordering food for her, Andrew then refuses Aegeates’ offer of 100 pieces of silver. After performing many miracles in the city, Andrew receives a message from Maximilla to come and heal the slave of the proconsul’s brother, Stratocles. The apostle restores the boy to health, and his master believes.<\/p>\n<p>Maximilla, to the fury of her husband, spends considerable time listening to the preaching of Andrew and is also converted. She then refuses to sleep with her husband and one night even substitutes a servant for herself. Details of subsequent events are found in the account of the martyrdom. Aegeates, in anger, holds Andrew responsible for his wife’s alienation and has him arrested. After preaching from prison, Andrew is taken to be crucified by the seashore. When the Christian Stratocles sees Andrew being manhandled by the soldiers, he fights his way through, and he and Andrew walk together to the place of crucifixion. Aegeates, fearing his brother, orders the soldiers not to interfere. At the seashore the soldiers follow the proconsul’s command that Andrew be tied, not nailed, to the cross so that his death will be lingering and he will be eaten by dogs. After two days he is still speaking to people from the cross, and many come to Aegeates demanding Andrew’s release. Arriving at the scene, the proconsul sees that Andrew is indeed alive, and Aegeates approaches the apostle to release him. Andrew demands that he be allowed to die and meet his Lord. As they watch, Andrew dies and the onlookers weep as Maximilla and Stratocles take down his body from the cross. Maximilla remains apart from her husband and continues as a Christian.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"AndrewStoryof\">Andrew, Story of<\/p>\n<p>Legendary fragment existing only in the Coptic language. In the legend coming from the late second century <span>AD<\/span>, a woman kills her child in the desert and gives the remains to a dog. She flees when the apostle Andrew and Philemon approach, but the dog tells what happened. Andrew prays and the child, being vomited forth, is restored to life and laughs and cries.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"AndrewandMatthiasActsof\">Andrew and Matthias, Acts of<\/p>\n<p>Lengthy document of highly questionable authenticity, probably dating from the late second century <span>AD<\/span>. This book was one of many apocryphal “acts” intended to supplement the NT book of Acts by providing more information about the apostles. The fourth-century church historian Eusebius described this work and others like it as heretical, absurd, and spurious.<\/p>\n<p>In this story, the apostles cast lots to determine where each should go. Matthias (Matthew in some versions) is sent to the country of the man-eaters, where he soon requires rescue from a cannibal feast. The Lord then sends Andrew to save him. Andrew arrives in time to do so, and Matthias is then carried off by a cloud. Now alone, Andrew is arrested and tortured, being dragged through the city that he nearly destroys by calling forth water from a statue. Eventually, impressed by Andrew’s miracles, the people repent and release him. Andrew next draws a plan for a church, has it built, baptizes the people, and gives them the ordinances of the Lord.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"AndrewandPaulActsof\">Andrew and Paul, Acts of<\/p>\n<p>Fragmentary apocryphal story, existing only in Coptic fragments, about the arrival of the apostles Andrew and Paul by sea at a city. In the story, Paul, instructing Andrew to rescue him, visits the underworld. There he meets Judas, who explains that he worshiped Satan after Jesus had pardoned him for the betrayal. Andrew rescues Paul, who returns carrying a piece of wood. Although Andrew is asked to heal a child, some Jews are skeptical and the city gates remain closed to the apostles. Paul strikes the gates with his piece of wood, and the gates are swallowed up into the earth. Astonished at the miracle, 27,000 Jews are converted.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"ApostlesEpistleofthe\">Apostles, Epistle of the<\/p>\n<p>Letter purporting to come from the 11 apostles to the churches “of the east and the west, of the north and the south, declaring and imparting to you that which concerns our Lord Jesus Christ.” Some believe that the epistle was written in Asia Minor about <span>AD<\/span> 160; others think that it originated in Egypt. It is probably to be dated near the middle of the second century. In existence are a mutilated Coptic manuscript of the fourth or fifth century, a complete version in Ethiopic, and a fragment in Latin. The epistle was unknown until the discovery in 1895 of the Coptic manuscript.<\/p>\n<p>After an introduction there is a declaration that “our Lord and Redeemer Jesus Christ is God the Son of God who was sent of God the Lord of the whole world.” Then follows a summary of a number of incidents from the Gospels, including a negative statement of the Golden Rule: “Love your enemies, and what you would not that man do to you, that do to no man.” Chapter 24 introduces the subject of the resurrection followed by a series of questions by the disciples with answers by Jesus. A prophecy of the conversion of Paul appears in chapter 31. In chapter 43 the five wise virgins are identified as “Faith and Love and Grace and Peace and Hope”; the names of the foolish are “Knowledge, Understanding (Perception), Obedience, Patience, and Compassion.” The question-and-answer format of a substantial part of the work is reminiscent of the style of some of the texts found in the Gnostic library at Nag Hammadi, especially the Apocryphon of John. However, warnings that Cerinthus and Simon (ch 7) are “enemies of our Lord Jesus Christ” make it clear that this is not a Gnostic document. The epistle contains numerous evidences of orthodox influence, along with clear indications of a departure from apostolic Christianity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"ApostlesGospeloftheTwelve\">Apostles, Gospel of the Twelve<\/p>\n<p>One of a large number of heretical “gospels” circulating in the earliest centuries of the Christian church along with the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. The Gospel of the Twelve Apostles was first mentioned by name in comments on Luke 1:1 by the Christian theologian Origen (c. <span>AD<\/span> 185–254). Some scholars think it may have been the same as the Gospel of the Ebionites, quoted in a few early Christian writings. Nothing is known directly of the Gospel of the Twelve Apostles.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"ArabicGospeloftheInfancy\">Arabic Gospel of the Infancy<\/p>\n<p>One of several “gospels of the infancy” found in the apocryphal NT. This one from about the fifth century contains an account of the birth of Jesus, including the visits of the shepherds and the magi, the flight into Egypt, and miracles performed by Jesus as a boy. Details of the early period of Jesus’ life are given, about which the canonical Gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke, John) say nothing. An interesting facet of the miracle stories is the role in many of them of Mary, the mother of Jesus, in contrast to the record of the miracles in the canonical Gospels. The Arabic Gospel may have been written in Syriac and translated into Arabic. Some of its stories are also found in the Koran and other Islamic writings. Study of this apocryphal gospel reveals its sharp contrast with the canonical accounts, but it also indicates how much this and similar writings had to do with the growing veneration of the virgin Mary.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"ArabicHistoryofJosephtheCarpenter\">Arabic History of Joseph the Carpenter<\/p>\n<p>Fourth-century <span>AD<\/span> account of the life and death of Joseph—with information supposedly supplied by Jesus. According to this account, Joseph the carpenter becomes a widower after fathering four sons and two daughters (ch 2). He is entrusted with the care of Mary in his 90th year (ch 14). Thus, according to this account, the brothers and sisters of Jesus are Joseph’s children by a previous marriage. Joseph is said to have died at the age of 111 years. The document, which exists in both Arabic and Coptic versions, contains the statement that Mary “must look for the same end of life as other mortals” (ch 18). Hence, it has been dated as earlier than the fifth century, when the idea of the “assumption of Mary into heaven” was being promoted.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"AristeasLetterof\">Aristeas, Letter of<\/p>\n<p>Early account of the relationships between Judaism and Hellenism in Egypt during the period when the Hebrew OT was translated into Greek (the Septuagint). The author, Aristeas, who identifies himself as an Alexandrian court attendant under Ptolemy Philadelphus II (ruled 283–247 <span>BC<\/span>), purports to give information about the translation procedures. The most probable date for the Letter of Aristeas (estimates vary from 200 <span>BC<\/span> to <span>AD<\/span> 50) is the end of the second century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>As part of his massive library project, King Ptolemy shows interest in the Jewish law. Aristeas uses the occasion to request the emancipation with remuneration of all Jewish slaves in the kingdom and King Ptolemy accedes to the request. The king asks that the high priest in Jerusalem select translators for the project. There follows a lengthy description of gifts sent to Eleazar, the high priest, with special emphasis upon an exquisite table. And then Aristeas describes the temple, the priests, the vestments of the high priest, and the defense system for the temple, followed by a brief description of Palestine and its environs.<\/p>\n<p>In the next section, the high priest talks with Aristeas and the translators before their departure to Alexandria. A summary of his speech includes a careful defense of the law from a philosophical viewpoint. The king gives a lavish banquet for the 72 translators (6 from each tribe) when they arrive in Alexandria. Each translator gives a brilliant answer to the king’s specific questions at the seven successive nights of celebration. The name of each translator and his question and answer are recorded. Then the work is completed on the island of Pharos in 72 days and is praised by the Alexandrian Jews and the king. The translators are dismissed with lavish gifts.<\/p>\n<p>In the epilogue, the author claims to have been an eyewitness to the events and maintains that his report is accurate. This is not believed by modern scholars. Its embellished and legendary quality was recognized in the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>. Aristeas’s discussion of the translation procedure was obviously a convenient literary frame on which to hang a defense of Judaism to the heathen world. Religious liberalism and loyalty to basic Jewish beliefs were skillfully combined to plead for political toleration for the Jews. Many specifics of the Letter of Aristeas are questionable, but its basic picture of how the Septuagint translation came to be made is credible. <em>See<\/em> the discussion of the Septuagint in Bible, Versions of the (Ancient).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"ArmenianGospeloftheInfancy\">Armenian Gospel of the Infancy<\/p>\n<p>Legendary account of the infancy and boyhood of Jesus Christ, one of many apocryphal gospels intended to supplement the four NT Gospels by providing more details about Jesus’ early life. It was probably translated into Armenian from a Syriac original. Nestorian missionaries reportedly brought an “infancy gospel” into Armenia about <span>AD<\/span> 590, but evidently not the Armenian Gospel in its present form.<\/p>\n<p>Sources for the Armenian Gospel included two books containing legendary material about Christ’s infancy, the Protevangelium of James and the Infancy Gospel of Thomas. The Armenian Gospel amplifies the material of these two texts considerably, making many novel additions to the life of Jesus. For example, Joseph searches for a midwife and meets Eve, who has come to witness the fulfillment of the promised Redeemer-seed (Gn 3:15). Later the magi bring the testament Adam gave to Seth. Jesus, accused of causing a child’s death, is cleared when the child is raised from the dead.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"AscensionofIsaiah\">Ascension of Isaiah<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Isaiah, Ascension of (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"AscentsofJames\">Ascents of James<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> James, Ascents of (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"AsenathPrayerof\">Asenath, Prayer of<\/p>\n<p>Jewish story about the wife of Joseph when he was in Egypt (Gn 41:45) and known by several titles—The Life and Confession of Asenath, The Book of Joseph and Asenath, and variations of the above. It was apparently very popular in the early and medieval Christian church. Latin, Syriac, Slavonic, Rumanian, and Ethiopic versions, in addition to 40 Armenian copies, have been found.<\/p>\n<p>Modern scholars tend to see the source of the novel in the Hellenistic Judaism prevalent in Egypt from 100 <span>BC<\/span> to <span>AD<\/span> 100. Asenath seems to serve as a model for any proselyte to Judaism. If that understanding is correct, the story gives valuable insight into the less legalistic attitudes of a sector of pre-Christian Judaism. Repentant realization of the hopelessness of one’s sinful condition and casting oneself upon the mercies of God play a large part in the story.<\/p>\n<p>The original was probably written in Greek and is divided into two major parts. Part I deals with Asenath’s pampered life prior to meeting Joseph, his initial rejection of her because of her idolatry, and her consequent repentance in ashes. Asenath calls upon God in prayer, and he sends an angel to her to announce her forgiveness and to say that her name is now written in the Book of Life. Joseph returns and marvels at Asenath’s new beauty, rejoicing at her conversion. With Pharaoh’s blessing they are married the next day.<\/p>\n<p>Part II describes the period when Joseph’s father, Jacob, and his family have come to Egypt. Desiring Asenath, the elder son of Pharaoh tempts Joseph’s brothers Dan and Gad to help him kidnap her. The plan is foiled by Joseph’s other brothers, who then wish to kill Dan and Gad, but Asenath pleads successfully for their lives. Pharaoh leaves the crown to Joseph, who rules 40 years and then returns the reign to Pharaoh’s younger son.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"AsherTestamentof\">Asher, Testament of<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"AssumptionofMoses\">Assumption of Moses<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Moses, Assumption of (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"BarnabasActsof\">Barnabas, Acts of<\/p>\n<p>Document of one of several distinct cycles of tradition about Barnabas, the apostle Paul’s companion, this one linking him with Cyprus. This work, whose full title is The Journeyings and Martyrdom of Saint Barnabas the Apostle, was probably composed in Cyprus at the end of the fifth or the beginning of the sixth century <span>AD<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The book purports to be a first-person account written by John Mark. He claims to have left the apostles in Perga (cf. Acts 13:13) so he could sail to the West but was prevented. When he tried to rejoin them in Antioch, Paul prohibited him. Consequently, after some dispute, John Mark and Barnabas sailed for Cyprus. After preaching and healing many people, Barnabas encountered his old adversary, Bar-Jesus, who finally stirred up the Jews to capture him. Leading Barnabas out of the city of Salamis, they circled around him and burned him alive. John Mark and some other believers escaped with his ashes and buried them in a cave along with scriptures Barnabas had received from Matthew. John Mark then left for Alexandria to minister there.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"BarnabasEpistleof\">Barnabas, Epistle of<\/p>\n<p>This anonymous letter addresses a question commonly asked throughout the early church: What should Christianity’s relationship be to Judaism? Clement of Alexandria quoted from this document frequently and ascribed it to “Barnabas, who himself also preached with the apostle [Paul].” Jerome believed the same. But the writer does not claim to be Barnabas, and the earliest claims of authorship come only from Alexandrian church leaders. The literary and interpretive style is entirely Alexandrian, so it is assumed that the epistle was written in Alexandria.<\/p>\n<p>The author of this epistle unequivocally denies any connection between Judaism and the gospel of Jesus Christ. At the same time, he does not say that the OT opposes the NT; rather, he sees Christianity everywhere in the Law and the Prophets. He holds that all the Judaistic rites and ceremonies are mystical pointers to Christ and that an evil angel has blinded the Jews from understanding this.<\/p>\n<p>The epistle mentions the destruction of Jerusalem, so it was not written before <span>AD<\/span> 70. There was a second devastation of Jerusalem in <span>AD<\/span> 132 that ended the revolt of Bar-Kochba. This defeat would have served the author’s purposes so well that he would surely have referred to it if he were writing after the event. Many scholars suggest that the letter was composed around 130, since this was a period of strong Jewish nationalism. This nationalism would have pressured many Jewish Christians to return to Judaism, and so the author of the Epistle of Barnabas wrote to defend Christianity against Judaism.<\/p>\n<p>The Epistle of Barnabas is composed of two parts. The first section (chs 1–17) contains allegorical interpretations of the OT. These highly spiritual and mystical interpretations are intended to oppose Jewish legalism and explain how the OT prophesied of Jesus Christ. The author concedes that righteous people, such as Moses, David, and the prophets, understood the true meaning of Mosaic law, but he contends that the rest of the nation of Israel had misconstrued God’s covenant. Therefore, the Jews lost their claim to the covenant’s blessings, which were transferred to the Christians instead. This allegorical style of interpretation was very popular among Alexandrian church leaders. The NT epistle of Hebrews also makes use of this type of interpretation. The author of the Epistle of Barnabas often quotes from the Septuagint, though the quotes are somewhat loosely recited.<\/p>\n<p>A Latin version of the first section was all that was known of the Epistle of Barnabas until the discovery of Codex Sinaiticus in 1859. This codex contained the first known Greek version of the Epistle of Barnabas, which was appended to the books of the NT along with The Shepherd and the Didache. The Greek version contains a second section that begins, “Now let us pass on to quite a different sort of instruction.” This section contains moral precepts that contrast the way of darkness with the way of light, much of which seems to be transcribed from the “Two Ways” of the Didache. It has little connection with the first section. This has led many scholars to conclude that the second section was added by another writer at some later date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"BarnabasGospelof\">Barnabas, Gospel of<\/p>\n<p>Long Italian work actually written in the fourth century by a proselyte to Islam. He probably sought to capitalize on the mysterious mention of such a gospel in the Gelasian Decree, written not later than the sixth century <span>AD<\/span>. To date, no other evidence of an authentic gospel by Barnabas has been uncovered, a fact that has led many scholars to doubt whether it ever existed.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"BartholomewActsof\">Bartholomew, Acts of<\/p>\n<p>Early Christian novel purporting to describe the last days and death of the apostle Bartholomew. The work is also known as The Martyrdom of the Holy and Glorious Apostle Bartholomew. It may date back to the fifth or sixth century <span>AD<\/span> and was evidently well received, for copies exist in Latin, Greek, Armenian, and Ethiopic.<\/p>\n<p>In the Acts, Bartholomew goes to India, takes up residence in a pagan temple, and causes its false oracle to cease. Bartholomew then heals a demoniac, thus drawing the attention of King Polymius. Bartholomew also heals the king’s demon-possessed daughter. Next, he casts the false god out of the temple. After this display of power, many believe the gospel. The king’s brother, however, is enraged and has Bartholomew beaten and beheaded. His rash action is soon punished, for he is strangled to death by a demon. The good King Polymius becomes bishop and serves 20 years.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"BartholomewApocalypseof\">Bartholomew, Apocalypse of<\/p>\n<p>Fragmentary Coptic texts that have some similarities to the apocryphal Gospel of Bartholomew. A few scholars have felt that two works were represented in these fragments, a gospel and also an apocalypse. Though this hypothesis has been generally abandoned, references to the debatable Apocalypse of Bartholomew still appear.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bartholomew, Gospel of (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"BartholomewBookoftheResurrectionofChristby\">Bartholomew, Book of the Resurrection of Christ by<\/p>\n<p>Apocryphal work existing only in Coptic and probably dating from the fifth or sixth century <span>AD<\/span>. Like many similar writings of doubtful authenticity, it claims to supplement the accounts of Jesus found in the biblical Gospels. The book was supposedly addressed by Bartholomew to his son, Thaddaeus, who was warned in it not to let this book “come into the hand of any man who is an unbeliever and a heretic.” The book can hardly be regarded as a narrative; its aim is obviously the glorification of Bartholomew, who sees things that are hidden from others. The text contains many breaks; contradictions abound and a disregard of history is evident. Two different persons bury the body of Jesus: Joseph and Philogenes, father of a boy healed by Jesus. Mary, the mother of Jesus, is confused with Mary Magdalene. In the account of the Last Supper the author goes far beyond biblical statements about the bread and wine: “His Body was on the Table about which they were assembled; and they divided it. They saw the blood of Jesus pouring out as living blood down into the cup.” Imaginative details also embellish the account of the resurrection. Christ, for example, brings Adam back with him from hades. The story of doubting Thomas has been greatly amplified.<\/p>\n<p>The most complete text of the Book of the Resurrection is in the British Museum in London. Several other fragments exist, probably from an earlier version.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"BartholomewGospelOf\">Bartholomew, Gospel of<\/p>\n<p>One of many apocryphal gospels appearing after the second century under the name of some illustrious figure. The early church was aware not only of the existence of these writings but also of their fictitious character. In the fourth century the church historian Eusebius described them as heretical, spurious, absurd, and impious. Later a Gospel of Bartholomew was mentioned by name, along with several other Gnostic gospels, in the prologue of Jerome’s commentary on Matthew’s Gospel. However, there is no evidence that Jerome had seen such a book or that it actually existed.<\/p>\n<p>A work called Questions of Bartholomew does exist in Greek, Latin, and Slavonic texts—the Greek dating possibly from the fifth or sixth century. Its text has Bartholomew asking Jesus where he went after the Crucifixion and Jesus telling him that he went into hades. Later Bartholomew is pictured as asking Mary to tell how she conceived the incomprehensible or bore him that cannot be carried. Mary warns him that if she began to tell them, fire would come forth from her mouth and consume all the world, but the apostle persists. As she tells the story of the angelic visitation and the Annunciation, fire comes from her mouth. The world is about to come to an end, but Jesus intervenes and places his hand over Mary’s mouth. The apostles also ask to see the bottomless pit and “the things which are in the heavens.” Bartholomew is shown the adversary of men, Beliar, restrained by 660 angels and bound with fiery chains. When Bartholomew treads upon his neck, Beliar explains that he had first been called Satanael and later Satan, describes the creation of the angels, and tells how he fell and how he was able to deceive Eve. Finally, Bartholomew is said to have asked Jesus about the greatest sin. Jesus replies that to say anything evil against a faithful worshiper of God is to sin against the Holy Spirit.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"BaruchApocalypseof\">Baruch, Apocalypse of<\/p>\n<p>Two different pseudepigraphal works.<\/p>\n<p>1. Pseudepigraphal Jewish document of 87 chapters, written in Hebrew and translated into Greek and from Greek into Syriac. Only a few lines of the Hebrew original still exist, quoted in rabbinic writings. The Syriac manuscript dates from the sixth or seventh century AD and is the only complete text. It shows evidence of multiple authorship and dependence on the book of 2 Esdras in the Apocrypha. Similarity of many expressions to those in the NT suggests that the original may have been composed in the last half of the first century or the first half of the second century.<\/p>\n<p>The text is in seven sections of unequal length containing both prose and poetic material. The subjects dealt with are the Messiah and his future kingdom, Israel’s past woes, and the destruction of Jerusalem by the Babylonians. Theological questions such as sin and suffering, free will, the number of people to be saved by the Messiah, and the resurrection of the righteous are not always treated consistently within the text. Some passages paint an optimistic picture of Israel’s future; others are deeply pessimistic. In general the world is a scene of corruption for which no remedy exists. A new and spiritual world is at hand: “Whatever is now is nothing, but that which shall be is very great. For everything that is corruptible shall pass away, and everything that dies shall depart and all the present time, which is defiled with evils.” The alternating optimism and pessimism may reflect the changing fortunes of Judaism in the first and second centuries <span>AD<\/span> or simply the outlook of the different authors. The message of hope is directed to those who keep the law of Moses: “For the righteous justly hope for the end, and without fear depart from this habitation, because they have with Thee a store of works preserved in treasuries.”<\/p>\n<p>The final section of the book is identified as “the epistle which Baruch, the son of Neriah, sent to the nine and a half tribes.” It was sent by being “bound to the neck of the eagle,” probably meaning that it was intended for the Jews scattered outside Palestine (the Diaspora).<\/p>\n<p>Baruch was the prophet Jeremiah’s companion and secretary (Jer 36:4-8). His name was attached to a number of apocryphal and pseudepigraphal writings composed long after his death. The Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch is also called 2 Baruch to distinguish it clearly from the book of Baruch (1 Baruch) in the Apocrypha.<\/p>\n<li>2. Pseudepigraphal document of 17 chapters, also called the Greek Apocalypse of Baruch or 3 Baruch. It is preserved in Greek, Ethiopic, Armenian, and Slavonic manuscripts. It was first published in Venice in 1609 and then in 1868, although its existence was suggested by the early Christian theologian Origen. Like 2 Baruch, this apocalypse seems to be a composite document of the second century <span>AD<\/span> but in contrast is a Christian document intended to warn unconverted Jews and to encourage Christians to be patient in dealing with them.<\/li>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"BasilidesGospelof\">Basilides, Gospel of<\/p>\n<p>Polemic commentary on the Gospels by a second-century Gnostic. Basilides’s writings remain only as allusions and fragments in later works by several church fathers. Basilides taught in Alexandria during the reign of the Roman emperor Hadrian (<span>AD<\/span> 117–138). His teacher, Glaucias, claimed to be a firsthand interpreter of the apostle Peter. Basilides asserted that his Gnostic scheme emerged from Peter’s views on the relationship between God and Christ. He described God paradoxically as a nonexistent Being who “generated” three Sonships. Through successive ascents and enlightenments, the gospel of the supreme God (the Gospel of Light) eventually descended upon Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>Origen stated that “Basilides dared to write a gospel According to Basilides.” Clement of Alexandria and the writer of a fourth-century fragment, Acta Archelai, thought that Origen referred to an apocryphal gospel, the teaching of which was deduced from Irenaeus’s account. Today, more in line with Hippolytus’s understanding of Basilides, this work is regarded as merely a commentary on the Gospels. Basilides was probably not responsible for the magical rites and libertinism of the Basilidians, a Gnostic sect led by his son Isidore and continuing in Egypt to the end of the century.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"BenjaminTestamentof\">Benjamin, Testament of<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"BirthofMary\">Birth of Mary<\/p>\n<p>An early Gnostic writing. “The Gnostics have a book which they call the Birth (or Descent) of Mary, in which are horrible and deadly things.” So said the fourth-century bishop Ephiphanius in describing the Birth of Mary, a work that has not survived. The Birth of Mary claimed to reveal what Zechariah, father of John the Baptist, saw in the temple—namely, the Jewish god in the form of an ass. That Jews and Christians worshiped an ass-god was commonly held by their critics in those days. This blasphemous work should not be confused with the Gospel of the Birth of Mary, a fanciful but relatively harmless account of Mary’s birth, early life, and marriage to Joseph.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"BirthofMaryGospelofthe\">Birth of Mary, Gospel of the<\/p>\n<p>Collection of legends purporting to tell Mary’s story from birth to King Herod’s slaughter of the children in Bethlehem. The earliest such manuscript is called Book of the Nativity of Mary or Gospel of James because it claimed to be written by James, half brother of Jesus. It was written by <span>AD<\/span> 150, since Justin, an early Christian writer, named it in his <em>Dialogues<\/em> (165). It was rediscovered for the West by Postel, who translated it from Greek into Latin (<em>Protevangelium Jacobi,<\/em> 1552). Before it was lost, two major Latin revisions of it had been produced: Pseudo-Matthew and the Gospel of the Nativity of Mary, compiled around the sixth and ninth centuries respectively. These revisions amplified the Book of the Nativity of Mary with more fanciful legends and were the basis for the Golden Legends of James of Voragine (1230–1298), which in turn became instrumental in fostering veneration of Mary.<\/p>\n<p>According to the Book of the Nativity of Mary, Mary is born to rich, barren parents (Joachim and Anna) through angelic response to their prayers. They dedicate Mary to the Lord. At six months Mary walks seven steps, so Anna makes her bedroom a sanctuary, allowing nothing unclean to enter, and vows that Mary will walk again only in the temple. At age three Mary is placed in the temple and receives food from an angel. On Mary’s twelfth birthday the high priest asks God what to do and is told to marry her to a widower. Elderly Joseph is chosen when a dove springs from his rod. Months later, Mary “gives birth” to Jesus in Bethlehem’s cave, through a light so bright that none can see; the light gradually withdraws and the Child appears at Mary’s breast. The Book of the Nativity of Mary closes with the magi and Herod’s slaughter of infants. Mary saves Jesus by wrapping him in swaddling clothes and laying him in a manger.<\/p>\n<p>Recently another Greek fragment, this one from the Gospel of Mary, was found (see photo). The fragment is too little to tell us much about the content of this gospel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"BookoftheCock\">Book of the Cock<\/p>\n<p>Apocryphal story preserved by the church of Ethiopia and still read there on the Thursday before Easter. According to the Book of the Cock, on the night of the Last Supper, Akrosina, wife of Simon the Pharisee, presents Jesus with a nicely prepared cock for dinner. After Judas leaves the room, Jesus touches the cock and it comes to life. He instructs it to follow Judas and to report his dealings. The cock returns and tells about the forthcoming betrayal, mentioning Paul of Tarsus as one of those involved. The disciples weep. Jesus sends the cock to the sky for a thousand years.<\/p>\n<p>A similar story exists as a fragment in Sahidic Coptic. In the Coptic version the resurrection of the cock is a symbol of the resurrection of Christ.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"CopticLivesoftheVirgin\">Coptic Lives of the Virgin<\/p>\n<p>Apocryphal works concerning Mary, the mother of Jesus, in the Egyptian language of Coptic. <em>See<\/em> Virgin, Life of the (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"CorinthiansThird\">Corinthians, Third<\/p>\n<p>Apocryphal correspondence purporting to be between the apostle Paul and the Corinthian church. Written during the second century and known as 3 Corinthians, the work consists of three parts: an epistle allegedly from Stephanus of Corinth to Paul concerning two false apostles, Simon and Cleobius; a brief narrative telling of its delivery; and Paul’s reply and refutation of the false doctrine. The sequence of letters was originally part of the Acts of Paul, a longer apocryphal document, but circulated on its own as well—it even found its way into the text of the Armenian Bible. It pretends to explain the reference in 2 Corinthians 2:4 to a letter written in great distress.<\/p>\n<p>According to an early church father, Tertullian <em>(On Baptism),<\/em> the author of 3 Corinthians was a presbyter (church leader) of Asia who forged it out of love for Paul shortly after <span>AD<\/span> 160. That presbyter’s removal from office indicates the stern attitude of the early Christians toward the writing of documents falsely claiming apostolic origin.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"DanTestamentof\">Dan, Testament of<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"DialogueoftheRedeemer\">Dialogue of the Redeemer<\/p>\n<p>Christian Gnostic document, also called the Dialogue of the Savior. The document was found in the ancient Nag Hammadi Library at the modern city of Nag Hammadi (Upper Egypt) in 1946. The Dialogue is a fictitious account of a conversation between Jesus and some of his disciples in which they discuss questions about the universe, humanity, the end times, and salvation. The manuscript is in poor condition. Its authorship and origin are unknown, though it was possibly written in Egypt during the second or third centuries <span>AD<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"DiscourseofTheodosius\">Discourse of Theodosius<\/p>\n<p>Coptic Boharic version of the Assumption of the Virgin and a main source for the Coptic form of that legend. <em>See<\/em> Virgin, Assumption of the (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"DoctrinaAddaei\">Doctrina Addaei<\/p>\n<p>Expanded Syriac form of the Epistles of Christ and Abgarus, written about <span>AD<\/span> 400. The Doctrina Addaei tells a story about the contacts between Abgar (Abgarus), king of Edessa, and Jesus Christ. King Abgar, suffering from an unspecified ailment, is said to have sent a messenger to Jesus bearing the king’s written request for healing along with an offer of sanctuary for Jesus in his kingdom. Jesus responds orally, promising to send one of his followers to Abgar after his own ascension to heaven. Abgar’s envoy also takes back a self-portrait of Jesus that becomes the pride of Edessa. Later Addai visits the kingdom, heals Abgar, and establishes Christianity there. <em>See<\/em> Abgarus, Letters of Christ and (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"EbionitesGospelofthe\">Ebionites, Gospel of the<\/p>\n<p>Gospel quoted by one early Christian writer, Epiphanius (fourth century), in a work against heresies. The Gospel of the Ebionites is possibly the same as the apocryphal Gospel of the Hebrews, although some scholars associate it with the Gospel of the Nazarenes. The Ebionites were vegetarians; Epiphanius’s citations stress the vegetarian diets of John the Baptist and Jesus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"EgyptiansGospelofthe\">Egyptians, Gospel of the<\/p>\n<p>Two apocryphal works with the same name.<\/p>\n<p>1. Apocryphal second-century <span>AD<\/span> Greek writing, mentioned by the early church writers, Clement and Origen. Used in Egypt, the composition seems to have contained and propagated Gnostic teachings, especially those advocated in Syria by Simon and Menander. According to these Gnostics, marriage, eating meat, and procreation were evil. Clement may have quoted from this writing to refute the beliefs of the Encratites, who broadly agreed with the Syrian Gnostics on those matters. The Gnostics’ depreciation of women was reflected in the quotations Clement used.<\/p>\n<li>2. Composition discovered in 1946 at Chenoboskion (Egypt) in the Nag Hammadi collection of Gnostic writing. The principal title of the work, described in the colophon as “Gospel of the Egyptians” was “Sacred Book of the Great Invisible Spirit.” This work dealt with emanations from “the primal spirit of the cosmos” and perhaps was a product of the Barbelo Gnostic sect.<\/li>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"EldadandMedadBookof\">Eldad and Medad, Book of<\/p>\n<p>Pre-Christian pseudepigraphic composition containing the alleged prophecies of Eldad and Medad, two persons appointed as elders by Moses (Nm 11:26). Since the nature of their prophecy was not specified, it gave rise to a lost work that is quoted in the Shepherd of Hermas as follows: “The Lord is near to them who return to Him, as it is written in Eldad and Medad who prophesied to the people in the wilderness” (Vision II, ch 3). That is the only source of information concerning the lost book.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"EugnostosLetterof\">Eugnostos, Letter of<\/p>\n<p>Gnostic work. Found near the modern city of Nag Hammadi, the Letter of Eugnostos was written in Coptic by a teacher to his disciple. Both author and date of composition are unknown. An early example of non-Christian Gnostic writing, it perhaps served as the basis for a Christian Gnostic composition, “The Wisdom of Jesus Christ.”<\/p>\n<p>The Letter of Eugnostos attempts to prove the existence of an invisible spiritual realm. It also stresses God’s remoteness from humanity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"EveGospelof\">Eve, Gospel of<\/p>\n<p>Gnostic and apocalyptic writings, known solely through a citation by Epiphanius, a late fourth-century metropolitan of Cyprus. Epiphanius quoted the Gospel of Eve in a biting refutation of Gnostic and Origenistic teachings. Evidently a cult had formed around Eve as if her name implied revelation because the serpent had spoken to her in the Garden of Eden. Epiphanius’s quotation from the Gospel of Eve roughly translates: “I stood on a high mountain and saw a giant and a feeble man, and I heard a voice like thunder. ‘Come near me and listen,’ and he spoke to me saying, ‘I am you and you are me. Wherever you are, there I am. I am spread through all things, and any place you are able to retire into or take shelter in me; and, taking shelter in me, you take shelter in yourself.’ ”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"EzekielApocryphal\">Ezekiel, Apocryphal<\/p>\n<p>Noncanonical book of Ezekiel mentioned by Josephus, first-century Jewish historian. An apocryphal Ezekiel is cited in five early Christian writings and a recent archaeological discovery. Bishop Epiphanius (fourth century) cited an Ezekiel parable, in proof of the resurrection of the interdependent soul and body, about a blind man and a lame man collaborating to rob an orchard. Clement of Rome, writing to the Corinthians (AD 90?), and Clement of Alexandria in two of his writings (<span>AD<\/span> 200?) have noncanonical Ezekiel quotations. An Ezekiel apocryphon is mentioned in the pseudo-Athanasian canon (purporting to list canonical books of the Bible) and is named in the stichometry (prose written in rhythmic phrases) of Nicephorus, Patriarch of Constantinople (<span>AD<\/span> 806–815). In 1940 Campbell Bonner published Greek papyrus fragments that confirm the existence of an apocryphal Ezekiel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"EzraFourthBookof\">Ezra, Fourth Book of<\/p>\n<p>Alternate name for the apocryphal book 2 Esdras. <em>See<\/em> Esdras, Second Book of.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"GadTestamentof\">Gad, Testament of<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"GenesisApocryphon\">Genesis Apocryphon<\/p>\n<p>Name given to one of the seven large Dead Sea Scrolls recovered from the first Qumran cave in 1947. With three others it came into the possession of the Syrian archbishop of Jerusalem but could not be unrolled and photographed because it was badly preserved, having not been kept in an earthen jar like the others. Some small pieces were detached, however, and certain words on them indicated that it might be an apocryphal Aramaic work connected with the patriarch Enoch. Further scraps spoke of Lamech, however, thus the scroll was tentatively named for that ancient person.<\/p>\n<p>Eventually it was unrolled and found to be not only damaged but incomplete; the beginning and the end were missing. The inner portion had been best preserved, but considerable damage had been done to the text by the ink it had been written with. The scroll not only dealt with Enoch and Lamech but with other persons mentioned in the book of Genesis. It proved to be an Aramaic form of parts of Genesis dealing with the patriarchs, but it included legends and other materials presented in memoir style, not found in the Hebrew Bible. That style was popular among pious Jews at the beginning of the Christian era, thus its original has been dated to the first century <span>BC<\/span>. The Qumran copy was probably made between 50 <span>BC<\/span> and <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>The literary characteristics of the scroll have presented some classification problems. Free expansion and inclusion of nonbiblical material led certain scholars to call the scroll a “targum” or commentary-expansion of the Genesis text. Others have regarded it as a “midrash” or sermonic account of the Hebrew narrative. The scroll contains both elements and is best regarded as an independent recounting of certain Genesis stories, enriched by the inclusion of imaginative material such as a description of the beauty of the patriarch Abraham’s wife Sarah; dreams; and accounts of plagues and journeys.<\/p>\n<p>The Aramaic Apocryphon somewhat antedates the one used in Palestine in the time of Christ. It contains some Hebraisms but is mostly written in good Aramaic, much of which parallels biblical Aramaic. The language of the scroll, however, is later than the period of old Aramaic (tenth to eighth centuries <span>BC<\/span>) or official Aramaic (Assyrian and Persian periods), as the presence of certain grammatical forms indicate. Most scholars have described the language as middle Aramaic and have placed it between the Aramaic of Daniel and later western Aramaic. Those scholars generally assign a second-century <span>BC<\/span> date to Daniel, but that conclusion needs to be modified because the Qumran material shows that no canonical work was composed later than about 350 <span>BC<\/span>. On any evidence, the Aramaic of Daniel is earlier than that of the Apocryphon and seems to fit properly into the period when official Aramaic was the dominant form of the language. The Genesis Apocryphon presents no valid reasons for dating the Aramaic of Daniel or Ezra later than the sixth to fifth centuries <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"GospelofThomas\">Gospel of Thomas<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Thomas, Gospel of (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"IsaiahAscensionof\">Isaiah, Ascension of<\/p>\n<p>Pseudepigraphal apocalyptic work widely known to the early Christians; also known as the Martyrdom of Isaiah, the Testament of Hezekiah, and the Vision of Isaiah. It was rediscovered when an Ethiopic version of part of the text was published in 1819. The full Ethiopic version is the only complete version in existence. A partial Latin text published in 1832 had actually been published in Venice over three centuries before. Slavonic and Coptic versions also exist. All may be traced back to two Greek versions of the third, fifth, and sixth centuries.<\/p>\n<p>It is not clear whether the original was a single composition or even whether the authorship was Christian or Jewish with later Christian editing. The final form may date from the latter part of the second century. It was known to Ambrose, Jerome, Origen, Tertullian, and possibly to Justyn Martyr. The contents fall under three heads:<\/p>\n<p>1. The Martyrdom of Isaiah. This material consists of prophetic utterances, including the prophet’s prediction of his own death at the hands of King Manasseh of Judah. The document deals with the dark apostasy of the king, who, indwelt by Satan and following Beliar, leads his people into all manner of sin. Jerusalem, whose fall is prophesied, is called “Sodom” and its princes “Gomorrah.” In the form of a midrash (devotional sermon), this section dwells on Isaiah’s firm rejection of compromise or recantation. Isaiah’s martyrdom by being “sawn in two” is the portion with which the church fathers seem to have been familiar.<\/p>\n<li>2. The Testament of Hezekiah. This section is apocalyptic, a vision Isaiah passes on to his king. It speaks of the descent of “the Beloved,” a title used in this document for the Messiah. The vision covers the Messiah’s incarnation, life, death, resurrection, and ascension, then turns to the early history of the church and the apostasy that precedes the second coming of the Lord. The Antichrist is revealed as Beliar or Satan, who assumes human form and kills his mother (no doubt directed at the Roman emperor Nero, who murdered his mother, Agrippina). The whole section is based on Daniel and the biblical Apocalypse and was also influenced by Gnosticism. The conclusion of the vision (the Beloved’s victory, the two resurrections, and the final judgment) very closely parallels the consummation of all things in the NT book of Revelation.<\/li>\n<li>3. The Vision of Isaiah. This section resembles #2 even linguistically but shows more Gnostic influence: Isaiah is lifted to the dwelling place of the Trinity, the seventh heaven, and shown many mysteries of Christ. Because of this vision Manasseh kills the prophet. Gnostic doctrine, as propagated by Cerinthus at the end of the first century, is evident. Jesus, earthly born, becomes the host of the Christ, who leaves his earthly tenement at the Crucifixion.<\/li>\n<p>Historically, the value of the Ascension of Isaiah is to show the welter of conflicting opinion which, claiming authority and inspiration, besieged the minds of the early Christians.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"IsaiahMartyrdomof\">Isaiah, Martyrdom of<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Isaiah, Ascension of (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"IssacharTestamentof\">Issachar, Testament of<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"JamesApocalypseof\">James, Apocalypse of<\/p>\n<p>There were two Gnostic apocalypses of James (designated “first” and “second”). The first, covering over 20 pages of text, purports to be a revelation given by the Lord, some of it before the Crucifixion and some after it, to James, his brother, who was also know as James the righteous. The two documents referred to as the Apocalypse of James are in Codex V of the Nag Hammadi literature discovered in 1945 in Egypt just west of the Nile River opposite the city of Chenoboskion and are distinct from the Apocryphon of James, which is included in NT apocryphal writings. The second apocalypse composed of 20 pages of Coptic text is purportedly a speech delivered by James the Just on the fifth step of the temple and contains many references to or echoes of canonical Scriptures. The work ends with the multitude casting James down from the temple and stoning him in a manner reminiscent of the martyrdom of Stephen.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"JamesAscentsof\">James, Ascents of<\/p>\n<p>Lost book mentioned only by Epiphanius (bishop of the Greek island of Salamis) in his fourth-century work <em>Refutation of All the Heresies.<\/em> According to Epiphanius, the Ascents of James was used by the Ebionites, a rigidly ascetic sect of Jewish Christians. The book represented James, Jesus’ brother, as having spoken against the temple and sacrifices. It declared the apostle Paul to be a Greek who went to Jerusalem, sought to marry the high priest’s daughter, and to that end became a proselyte and was circumcised. When he did not win the young woman, he inveighed against the Sabbath, the Law, and circumcision.<\/p>\n<p>In a commentary on Galatians (1865), J. B. Lightfoot suggested that the book’s title referred to James’s ascents up the temple steps, from which he addressed the people. Lightfoot also suggested that James’s death was the grand climax of the ascents. According to a quote from the early Christian writer Hegesippus (as recorded in Eusebius’s <em>Ecclesiastical History<\/em>), James was cast down to his death from the pinnacle of the temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"JamesProtevangeliumof\">James, Protevangelium of<\/p>\n<p>This is an apocryphal “gospel” that tells of the token marriage and pregnancy of Mary and of Jesus’ birth, childhood, and adolescent years. This apocryphal writing was discovered in the 16th century by Guillaume Postel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"JobTestamentof\">Job, Testament of<\/p>\n<p>Apocalyptic literature bearing resemblance to the biblical book of Job. The book was probably written in Greek in the second century <span>AD<\/span>. Since it is devoid of Christian thought, it was likely written by a Jew.<\/p>\n<p>In chapters 1–45, Job is the speaker. He comes to understand that a nearby temple has been desecrated by there having been offered in it sacrifices to Satan. When Job destroys it, Satan threatens him. Job’s friends come to console him but their speeches are greatly abbreviated. Elihu is represented as Satan’s mouthpiece and earns God’s displeasure. But Job sacrifices for all three friends. He remarries and has seven sons and three daughters, who inherit his wealth. Chapters 46–51, in which Job’s brother is the speaker, conclude the narrative.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"JohntheBaptistLifeof\">John the Baptist, Life of<\/p>\n<p>A legendary account supposedly written by Serapion dealing with the early life of John the Baptist and especially with the death of his mother, Elizabeth. While Jesus was living with his parents in Egypt, Elizabeth dies on the same day as Herod the Great dies. John, who is but a small boy, does not know how to bury her. The clouds bring Jesus, Mary, and Salome who wash the body. The grave is dug by Michael and Gabriel, who also bring the souls of Zacharias and Simeon. John is then left to grow up in the desert under the care of the angels, while the clouds lift Jesus and Mary to Nazareth where they live.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"JohntheEvangelistBookof\">John the Evangelist, Book of<\/p>\n<p>This writing was used most extensively by the Albigenses and was commonly regarded as stemming from the Bogomiles before them. It was written in the form of questions and answers propounded to have come from the apostle John while he leaned upon the breast of Jesus at the Last Supper. This pattern of questions and answers is found in other early Gnostic writings, especially the Gospel of Bartholomew.<\/p>\n<p>The writing contains Gnostic theology. It portrays a world created by Satan and not by God. Christ was not born of Mary but was an angel sent forth to the earth. He “entered in by the ear and came forth by the ear” of Mary. John the Baptist was sent by Satan, and his disciples (the Roman Catholic Church) are not the disciples of Christ. Baptism and apparently the Lord’s Supper are valueless.<\/p>\n<p>The writing is preserved only in Latin and in its present form is not earlier than the 12th century. A convenient English translation may be found in M. R. James, <em>The Apocryphal NT<\/em> (1924).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"JosephPrayerof\">Joseph, Prayer of<\/p>\n<p>Jewish apocalyptic work. The Prayer of Joseph won the commendation of Origen, an early church scholar, as a document “not to be despised.” Origen’s quotations provide almost the only surviving information about the work, so that its total content and significance are unclear. An ancient list of OT apocryphal and canonical writings puts the Prayer of Joseph third and mentions its length as 1,100 verses. Origen’s quotations concern mainly Joseph’s father, Jacob. Jacob exists in the form of an angel, bearing Jacob’s given name Israel. He is the speaker in the quoted fragments and foretells the fate of humankind. He describes how he met Uriel on a journey to Mesopotamia and how Uriel wrestled with him, claiming to be the greatest of the angels. The apocalyptic poet had in mind the story of Jacob’s mysterious wrestling at Jabbok (Gn 32:22-29) and passages such as Daniel 10:13. Because Jacob claims to be “the first born of all living beings” and therefore the chief of all angels, Uriel challenges him.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"JosephTestamentof\">Joseph, Testament of<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"JosephtheCarpenterHistoryof\">Joseph the Carpenter, History of<\/p>\n<p>Document glorifying Jesus’ earthly father and promoting a cult of Joseph. Words in chapter 18 of the History of Joseph support a fourth-century date for it. There Jesus tells his mother, “You, too, must look for the same end of life as other mortals.” By the fifth century the doctrine of the “Assumption of the Virgin” was widely held.<\/p>\n<p>The document, derived from the Protevangelium of James, was contaminated by both Gnosticism and other religious beliefs of Egypt, the country in which it was written. It is extant in Coptic and Arabic and also in a fourth-century translation of the Coptic text.<\/p>\n<p>The History of Joseph the Carpenter claims to give an account of Joseph’s life and his model death at the age of 111. The story is allegedly told by Jesus to his disciples on the Mt of Olives. Joseph, a carpenter (Mt 13:55), is a widower well advanced in years when he marries Mary, who is only 12. (He had six children by an earlier marriage.) Joseph is buried according to the rites of the Egyptian Osiris cult after Jesus pronounces a eulogy.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"JubileesBookof\">Jubilees, Book of<\/p>\n<p>Jubilees is a pseudepigraphal work from the last half of the second century <span>BC<\/span> during the Maccabean period. It is an invaluable source for understanding the environment in the age prior to the launching of the Christian church. Jubilees stands with the Book of Enoch and the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs as the most important Hebrew or Aramaic literature of the time. Like these it was translated into Greek and used by the church fathers. Most probably, Jubilees was written in Hebrew since it purported a Mosaic authorship and since its nationalistic Maccabean environment would demand it. Fragments of 10 manuscripts in Hebrew found at Qumran support the thesis that it was originally in that language.<\/p>\n<p>The work is referred to by later Greek writers following Hebrew sources as “Jubilees” and “the little (lesser) Genesis.” It is also entitled “The Apocalypse of Moses” and the “Testament of Moses.” In revised forms it has been called “The Book of Adam’s Daughters” and “The Life of Adam.”<\/p>\n<p>Complete, fifty-chapter manuscripts exist in six Ethiopian texts of which the texts of the fifth and sixth centuries are best. The Latin text is valuable but partial and only a few fragments of the Greek version remain. The Hebrew fragments found at Qumran are of special importance since they are from the period of original writing. The Bibliotheque Nationale has “Ethiopien 51” and “Ethiopien 160.” The British Museum has <em>Kufale,<\/em> or <em>Liber Jubilaeorum,<\/em> and <em>Enoch<\/em><em>.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The author of Jubilees claims a direct revelational source for the teaching that he espouses. God had spoken to Moses in the Pentateuch in the “lesser law” in this “little book of Genesis.” At Sinai God communicated to Moses by the “Angel of the Presence” saying to the angel, “Write for Moses from the beginning of creation until my sanctuary has been built among them for all eternity” (1:27). This is supplementary to the “first law” (6:22).<\/p>\n<p>Following a brief introduction Jubilees follows the text of Genesis and Exodus to 14:31. This midrashic treatment of the Pentateuchal material attempts to show that the patriarchy adhered to the law even prior to Moses. The author’s aim is to strengthen classical Judaism in the face of the serious intrusions of Hellenistic culture among Jewish peoples. In doing this the author does not hesitate in adding and subtracting from Pentateuchal history. The patriarchs are adorned in every way. Anything that showed their weaknesses and sins was removed and legendary content inserted to glorify these fathers. The patriarchs are the fountainheads of culture. Enoch invented writing; Noah, medicine; Abraham, plowing.<\/p>\n<p>Appealing to Leviticus 25:8-12, the work emphasizes the importance of the number seven. History from Adam to Moses is arranged according to cycles of seven. This manner of compartmentalizing history into jubilee periods was revealed to Moses at Sinai and so has divine sanction and in fact is mandated. The philosophy of history that springs from this sees God acting sovereignly and uniquely in Israel in distinction to his relationship with the gentile world. The other nations are ruled by angels but not Israel, which is directly in God’s charge (Jubilees 15:31ff.).<\/p>\n<p>The polemic that Jubilees mounts against the lunar calendar (6:36-38) and its acceptance of the solar calendar is but another facet of the drive for a deep reform that will cleanse Israel. Israel is to be separated to God in every way with no intermingling in marriage or sitting at the table with Gentiles. There is a surprising stringency demanded in Sabbath keeping (50:1-13). The penalty of death is levied against those who travel, buy or sell, draw water, bear burdens, snare creatures, or have marital relations on the Sabbath. These go far beyond the biblical requirements and belong to that milieu that produced the Qumran community and the Essenes.<\/p>\n<p>The apocalyptic declaration of the Angel of Presence contains a clear but limited eschatological truth. Jubilees does contain the expectation of an immediate establishment of the messianic age. The entire emphasis, however, is such that ethical and cultural purposes are preeminent.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"JudahTestamentof\">Judah, Testament of<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"JudasIscariotGospelof\">Judas Iscariot, Gospel of<\/p>\n<p>Very old Gnostic writing probably produced by the Cainite sect. As it is not preserved for us today, we know it only through quotations in the writings of early Christians, especially Irenaeus. Thus, it must have been written before the middle of the second century <span>AD<\/span>. It probably contained a body of secret doctrine purportedly revealed by Judas Iscariot, summarizing the truth of superior and perfect knowledge supposedly revealed to this sect of the Gnostics. The gospel sets forth the “mystery of the betrayal,” explaining how Judas through his treachery made the salvation of all mankind possible. This was accomplished by his forestalling the destruction of the truth proclaimed by Christ or by his thwarting the designs of the evil powers, the Archons, who wished to prevent the crucifixion of Christ because they knew it would destroy their evil power.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"LentulusEpistleof\">Lentulus, Epistle of<\/p>\n<p>Lentulus, ostensibly a predecessor of Pontius Pilate, is said to have prepared a report to the Roman Senate known as the Letter (or Epistle) of Lentulus. In it he included a detailed description of Jesus: “tall and handsome, his countenance inspiring reverence along with love and fear, his hair dark, shining, curling, parted in the middle, his face with a delicate rudiness. . . .” The authenticity of the letter is extremely doubtful.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"LeviTestamentof\">Levi, Testament of<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"LivesofAdamandEve\">Lives of Adam and Eve<\/p>\n<p>A general title given to a noncanonical writing extant in Greek and Latin. The book is Jewish in nature, though there is a Christian flavor that causes most scholars to date the original work to the beginning of the Christian era. The content of the book is an expansion on the biblical story of Adam and Eve.<\/p>\n<p>The Greek version begins with the expulsion from Eden. In a dream, Eve sees the murder of Abel. After Adam had fallen ill Seth and Eve went to obtain oil from the tree of life. Michael the archangel met Seth and told him that Adam would die. Upon his death, he was ultimately taken to the third heaven. Seth witnessed how the angels interred his father and received instructions on how to bury his mother, who died a week after Adam.<\/p>\n<p>The Latin version gives additional information. After the expulsion from the Garden, Eve asked Adam to kill her but instead of that he suggested they both do an act of penitence. Adam went to stand in the Jordan for 40 days and Eve went to stand in the water of the Euphrates for 37 days. While there, she was again tempted by Satan, who was disguised as an angel of light but was eventually exposed by Adam. Satan now explained the reason for his hostility toward them: when the angels were commanded to worship the Lord, he refused to do obeisance to God and was consequently cast out of heaven.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"MatthewMartyrdomof\">Matthew, Martyrdom of<\/p>\n<p>Loosely organized tale of Matthew’s martyrdom that borrows heavily from the “Acts of Andrew and Matthias” and assumes that Matthias was in fact Matthew. The document represents the low literary and theological impulse of the later apocryphal texts.<\/p>\n<p>The story begins when Matthew is commissioned by Jesus to plant a staff in Myrna, the city of man-eaters. Matthew does so, after exorcising the demon Asmodeus from the king’s wife and family. The staff becomes a tree overnight, Matthew preaches to the people, and they “become humanized.” But Asmodeus seeks revenge by directing the king to burn Matthew. The fire consumes golden idols and many soldiers, then turns into a dragon and chases the king, who begs Matthew for help. But Matthew dies.<\/p>\n<p>A somewhat repentant but not yet converted king places the body of Matthew in an iron casket and sinks it secretly in the sea. The next day Matthew appears on the sea in the presence of two shining men and a “beautiful” child. The king is finally converted, baptized, and accepted into the church. Matthew appears to confer on the king his own name and to ordain him a priest and his family, deacons and deaconesses. Then Matthew ascends to heaven with two angels.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"MedadBookofEldadand\">Medad, Book of Eldad and<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Eldad and Medad, Book of (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"MosesAssumptionof\">Moses, Assumption of<\/p>\n<p>A Jewish legend that Moses was taken bodily into heaven without dying. Probably written between <span>AD<\/span> 7 and 30, it may be a combination of two earlier works, and appears to borrow heavily from the book of Deuteronomy. The work was likely produced to provide a miraculous ending to Moses’ outstanding earthly life, attributing to him an experience similar to Elijah’s. But this Jewish legend is contrary to the OT account of Moses’ death (Dt 32:48-50; 34:5-7).<\/p>\n<h6>The Lost Assumption of Moses<\/h6>\n<p>Three facts indicate that there once was an apocryphal book that contained the legend of the assumption of Moses: (1) early lists of apocryphal works mention a work by this title; (2) several church fathers refer to it; and (3) a few fragments in Greek have survived.<\/p>\n<p>The following items appeared in the work. God commissioned the archangel Michael to bury Moses’ body. Satan opposed Moses’ burial because he claimed authority over all matter and because Moses was a murderer. Michael countered Satan’s claims and charged him with tempting Eve in Eden. Joshua and Caleb then watched Moses’ assumption occur in a strange way. As they watched, they saw Moses’ dead body buried in the mountain, but they also saw Moses himself in the company of the angels. In effect Moses’ body died, but Moses himself did not.<\/p>\n<p>Though often stated that Jude (v 9) was quoted from the Assumption of Moses, this is impossible to prove, simply because the relevant portions of that work have not survived. The most one can say is that several church fathers, including Clement of Alexandria (d. <span>AD<\/span> 215) and Origen (c. 185–254), suggested that the Assumption of Moses was the source for the account in Jude 1:9. They had both works. We have only Jude, so we cannot check their conclusions. The matter is further complicated because there is another work (see next section) now called the Assumption of Moses. People often suppose that Jude 1:9 is a citation from that book. It is not.<\/p>\n<h6>The Extant Assumption of Moses<\/h6>\n<p>This work, perhaps written during Jesus’ lifetime, purports to be a description of Moses’ predictions to Joshua of the destiny of the nation of Israel. It is similar to other apocryphal, nonhistorical writings that were written under the names of great Jewish leaders.<\/p>\n<p>It was discovered quite by chance in 1861, in the Ambrosian Library in Milan, Italy. The manuscript, dated to the fifth century <span>AD<\/span>, is a very poor copy of a Latin translation, perhaps derived from a Greek translation of a Hebrew original. The beginning and the ending are lost. There are numerous spelling mistakes, and there is no space between words. Not surprisingly, scholars have long disputed the reading, interpretation, and translation even of whole verses.<\/p>\n<p>The opening three lines have not survived, so the original title has been lost. When discovered, the work was assumed to be the long-lost Assumption of Moses, but this identification is now widely doubted. Even though the book is still called by this title, it is far more likely to be either the Testament of Moses (which is also mentioned, along with the Assumption of Moses, in early lists of apocryphal works) or a composite work resulting from the combination of the Testament and the Assumption into one work.<\/p>\n<p>There is only one reference to Moses’ assumption in the book, and it comes in connection with a mention of his death (10:12). Because the ending of the book is also lost, it is impossible to know the contents of the conclusion or to tell whether this one remaining reference to Moses’ assumption is original or whether it has been added by a scribe by mistake or by an editor combining two different works. It is clear, however, that the author of the surviving section believed that Moses expected to die (1:15; 10:12-14) and that Joshua assumed that he would (11:4-8).<\/p>\n<p>The work begins midsentence (three lines are missing) and dates Moses’ following speech to 2,500 years after Creation (1:2-5). Expecting to die, Moses summons Joshua, encourages him, and tells him that God created the world for his people (the Israelites), who will repent before the consummation at the end of the days (1:6-18).<\/p>\n<p>Then Moses foretells Israel’s future. The people will inherit the land (Canaan) and be ruled by local magistrates, chiefs (judges?), and kings (2:1-3). The kingdom will divide, and the people will turn to idolatry (2:4-9). A king from the east (Nebuchadnezzar) will take two tribes into captivity for about 77 years, where they will recall Moses’ warnings (3:1-14; cf. Jer 25:11-12; Dt 28:15-68; 30:15-20). Someone (Daniel) will pray for deliverance (cf. Dn 9:4-19), and God will persuade a king (Cyrus) to send the exiles home (4:1-6; cf. Is 45:1-6; Ezr 1:1-4). Some exiles will return to their appointed place (Jerusalem) and rewall it but be unable to offer [proper] sacrifices (4:7-8; contrast Ezr 3:1-7). Others will remain in exile but will increase in population (4:9). This concludes the OT period and begins the intertestamental period (c. 400 to 1 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The widespread apostasy of the Seleucid period (c. 201–267 <span>BC<\/span>) is described, with special reference to priests and judges (4:1-6). The Maccabees, who gained and maintained political independence from Syria (in 164 <span>BC<\/span>) are not mentioned. Instead, the focus is on the kings (the Hasmoneans) who made themselves high priests (6:1). Next will come an insolent king (Herod the Great, 37–4 <span>BC<\/span>), who will rule ruthlessly (6:2-7). Then a powerful king of the West will conquer the people, take some captive, crucify others, and burn part of the temple (6:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>From this point on, the author, having reached his own period, had to guess at the future, so the predictions that he put in Moses’ mouth are general or obscure and often unfulfilled. The next rulers (Sadducees?) would be impious, treacherous, gluttons, deceitful, and worried about ritual uncleanness while living in luxury at the expense of the poor (7:1-10). An unprecedented time of wrath would follow, when a great king would persecute the Jews, torturing, imprisoning, and even crucifying them for practicing circumcision (8:1-5). During this persecution, one man, Taxo, a Levite with seven sons, would remain faithful to God and die rather than adopt Greek customs (8:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>The next section (10:1-10), an apocalyptic poem (ten stanzas, each with three lines), is the only apocalyptic section of the book. The Lord’s kingdom will appear, Satan will be no more, and the chief angel (Michael) will avenge Israel (10:1-2). “The Heavenly One will arise from His royal throne,” and there will be miraculous signs on the earth and in the sky; even the ocean will drain away (10:3-6). The Most High, the Eternal God, will appear and punish the Gentiles, destroying their idols (10:7). But Israel will be happy and exalted, rejoicing at seeing her enemies in Gehenna (hell) and thankfully praising her Creator (10:8-10). With Moses’ mention of his death and some consoling words for Joshua, the composition ends in an incomplete form.<\/p>\n<p>The book must have been written after Herod died and Varus had subdued a rebellion in Judea (4 <span>BC<\/span>) and before the temple was destroyed (<span>AD<\/span> 70). The book predicts that Herod’s sons will not rule as long as Herod himself did (34 years, 37–4 <span>BC<\/span>). This prediction may be based on the fact that one son, Archelaus, was deposed after a 10-year reign (4 <span>BC<\/span>–<span>AD<\/span> 6). If so, the book was written after <span>AD<\/span> 6. But two other sons (Philip and Antipas) actually ruled longer than their father. For the author not to know this requires that the book must have been written within 34 years of Herod’s death—in other words, before <span>AD<\/span> 30. Therefore, the book was probably written sometime between <span>AD<\/span> 6 and 30. This also means that the book reflects Jewish thinking during Jesus’ lifetime.<\/p>\n<p>The author was evidently a Palestinian Jew, but it is doubtful whether he was a member of any known major sect of the times. He hates Roman rule (8:1–10:10) without advocating revolt, as the Zealots and their predecessors did. His interest in the temple (2:8-9; 5:3; 6:9; 8:5) is not typical of an Essene. He condemns the Sadducean lifestyle (7:3-10). And his use of apocalyptic writing (10:1-10) is thought to have been unusual for a Pharisee.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"NaphtaliTestamentof\">Naphtali, Testament of<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"NicodemusGospelof\">Nicodemus, Gospel of<\/p>\n<p>Alternate title for the apocryphal work Acts of Pilate. <em>See<\/em> Pilate, Acts of (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"NoahBookof\">Noah, Book of<\/p>\n<p>Allusion to the writing of Noah is made in the book of Jubilees where it is said “Noah wrote down all things in a book as we instructed him concerning every kind of medicine. Thus the evil spirits were precluded from (hurting) the sons of Noah” (10:13; see also 21:10). The book of Noah borrows heavily from the book of Enoch (see chs 6–11, 54–55, 60, 65–69, 106–110). The other sections relate to the Noachic flood and subjects about which Noah could be presumed to have knowledge. Unfortunately no separate manuscript of the book of Noah is known to be extant.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"OdesofSolomon\">Odes of Solomon<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Solomon, Psalms of (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"PatriarchsTestamentsoftheTwelve\">Patriarchs, Testaments of the Twelve<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"PaulActsof\">Paul, Acts of<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Paul and Thecla, Acts of (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"PaulActsofAndrewand\">Paul, Acts of Andrew and<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Andrew and Paul, Acts of (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"PaulandTheclaActsof\">Paul and Thecla, Acts of<\/p>\n<p>The Acts of Paul and Thecla is one section of an apocryphal work known as the Acts of Paul. It was apparently written in the latter half of the second century <span>AD<\/span> by a church elder who lived in Asia. According to Tertullian (<em>On Baptism<\/em> 17.19-21), the motive for the writing was “love of Paul,” but the presbyter was removed from office for producing this document. It is not clear whether the reason for his deposition was that he made a false claim to apostolic authorship, or whether it was that the viewpoints expressed in the document were considered heretical.<\/p>\n<p>The story reads like a folktale. Paul arrives in Iconium after fleeing from Antioch. He is met by Onesiphorus, who welcomes Paul into his home. A group of people gather there to hear Paul’s message. Beside the window of a neighboring house, Thecla is seated. She cannot see Paul, but she listens intently to his message. Her mother, Thecleia, exclaims, “My daughter, like a spider, is bound by his words to the window, seized by a new craving and a terrible passion.” Paul is teaching that in order to “see God,” a person must live a life of abstinence from sexual activity.<\/p>\n<p>Thecla is engaged to be married, but she is so impressed with Paul’s teaching that she determines she will break her engagement to Thamyris. Thamyris, in distress, appeals to the governor of the city, who arrests and imprisons Paul. Thecla bribes the jailer with bracelets and a silver mirror and enters Paul’s cell. Again she is transfixed by his teaching. At the trial, Thecla is adamant in her refusal to marry Thamyris. Paul is banned from the city; Thecla is condemned to be burned to death. Miraculously her life is spared, and she is reunited with Paul and travels with him to Antioch.<\/p>\n<p>In Antioch, Thecla rebuffs the advances of a nobleman, Alexander, and for a second time is condemned to death. But the wild beasts who are to devour her in the public arena instead lick her feet and protect her. When she throws herself into a water cistern to effect her baptism, she is again spared death—a lightning flash kills the fish lurking in the water, and they float lifeless to the surface. Queen Tryphaena, who has befriended Thecla, faints with shock as repeated attempts are made to take Thecla’s life. Seeing this, Alexander finally begs the governor to set Thecla free.<\/p>\n<p>Free once more, Thecla seeks Paul. She disguises herself as a man by putting on male attire. Arriving in Myra, she finds Paul and announces to him that she is returning to Iconium. Paul commands her to “teach the word of God.” After teaching for a while in Iconium, Thecla travels on to Seleucia.<\/p>\n<p>The remainder of Thecla’s life is not well documented. Some manuscripts record that Thecla, being afraid of the people of Seleucia, withdrew to a mountain and resided in a cave. There she lived an ascetic life, taught certain women who came to her, and carried out a ministry of healing. Later she departed to Rome, seeking Paul. Paul, however, was already dead. When Thecla herself died, at 90 years of age, she was buried not far from the tomb of her beloved master.<\/p>\n<p>Although this work is considered apocryphal and is excluded from the NT canon, there are some early writers who held it in high regard. The Acts of Paul, of which this document forms a part, is mentioned by Origen and by Hippolytus with respect. Eusebius was of the opinion that the document was spurious, but he distinguished it from inferior heretical works. There are two instances where details of information have found their way from the Acts of Paul into early manuscripts of canonical books (2 Tm 3:11; 4:19). It is probable that the viewpoints indicated in this document reflected popular religious traditions widely held in the second century <span>AD<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Tertullian, however, argues that the document is quite out of harmony with Paul’s attitudes as expressed in the canonical material. In particular, he objects to the role assumed by a woman in the Acts of Paul and Thecla. Paul, Tertullian says, would never have permitted a woman to teach and to baptize (<em>On Baptism<\/em> 17.21-23). The Acts of Paul and Thecla does differ from the Pauline stance, but not in the way indicated by Tertullian. The document depicts Paul as a proponent of the encratite viewpoint, teaching that celibacy is necessary for salvation. The canonical Paul taught that salvation is attained through faith alone, and that celibacy is a matter of special calling and certainly not the norm for every Christian (1 Cor 7:1-7). The Acts of Paul and Thecla suggests that a woman must assume male attire and must abstain from marriage if she is to exercise a leadership role. The canonical Paul instructed that a woman in a leadership position should dress as a woman (1 Cor 11:4-6), and he affirmed the ministerial function of married women (Rom 16:3). The Acts of Paul and Thecla emulates a woman whose motivating power was personal devotion to the apostle. The canonical writings suggest that Paul strongly discouraged such a show of personal allegiance to himself (1 Cor 1:12-17). Christ alone was to be the motivating influence in Christian service.<\/p>\n<p>The Acts of Paul and Thecla provides us with a unique description of the physical appearance of Paul: “a man small of stature, with a bald head and crooked legs, in good state of body, with eyebrows meeting and nose somewhat hooked, full of friendliness; for now he appeared like a man, and now he had the face of an angel.” This description is probably not reliable in any historical sense; more likely it pictures a typical Jew of the period. But because there is no other description preserved in early documents, this one has formed the basis for the many portraits of Paul that have come down through the centuries.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"PaulApocalypseof\">Paul, Apocalypse of<\/p>\n<p>This document, which originated in the late fourth century <span>AD<\/span>, pretends to be a written account of some of the experiences that the apostle Paul had when he was caught up to the third heaven, or paradise, according to 2 Corinthians 12:2-4. The fact that Paul did not describe what he saw or heard during that revelatory vision excited the imagination of some unknown fourth-century Christian. Since the author describes with relish the tortures in hell experienced by a presbyter, bishop, and deacon (chs 34–36) and elsewhere approves of the devotion and piety of monks and nuns (chs 7–9) and of those who are virgins or chaste (ch 22), it is safe to conclude that he was a monk who disapproved of the insincere and hypocritical religiosity of his contemporaries, both laymen and clergy.<\/p>\n<p>This book, originally written in Greek, survives in relatively complete form in Latin. A partial indication of the great popularity of this piece of religious fiction is the fact that it was translated into Ethiopic, Coptic, and Syriac as well as Latin.<\/p>\n<p>The book is loosely structured in seven sections. The work begins with a short introductory section that attempts to explain why the book was unknown from the first to the fourth century (chs 1–2): during the consulate of (emperor) Theodosius Augustus the Younger and Cynegius (the document can thus be dated to <span>AD<\/span> 388), a respectable but nameless person received a revelation through an angel. The man happened to be living in Tarsus in a house once occupied by St Paul himself. The angel told the man to break up the foundations and publish whatever he found. After being pummeled by the angel for disobedience, he finally broke the foundations only to discover a marble box that he immediately delivered to the emperor. The emperor opened the box and found the original version of the Apocalypse of Paul (which he copies) and a pair of shoes used by Paul on his missionary journeys. The substance of the mysterious document then follows.<\/p>\n<p>In chapters 3–6, Paul is said to have received a message from God announcing how all creation is subject to God with the exception of man himself. Chapters 7–10 relate how the guardian angels of each man and woman report every morning and evening to God concerning the deeds of those in their charge. Some are very good, while others are exceedingly wicked. In chapters 11–18, Paul is taken up in the Holy Spirit to the third heaven and asks to see the souls of the righteous and sinners as they leave the world. The angel accompanying Paul shows him a righteous man leaving the world, an ungodly man, and the soul of one who thought himself righteous but in fact was not.<\/p>\n<p>Chapters 19–30 describe Paul being lifted up to the third heaven (cf. 2 Cor 12:2-4), where he saw a golden gate flanked by golden pillars upon which were mounted golden tablets containing the names of the righteous. Upon entering paradise he was greeted by Enoch and Elijah and shown things that he could not reveal to others (ch 21; cf. 2 Cor 12:4). From there he was taken to the second heaven and then to the firmament encircled by Ocean (ch 21). There he saw the milk white waters of Lake Acherusia where the city of Christ was located. He was brought to the city in a golden boat while 3,000 angels sang a hymn. At the river of honey he met Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and other prophets (ch 25); at the river of milk he saw the infants slain by Herod (ch 26); at the river of wine he met Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Lot, and Job (ch 27); at the river of oil he met those completely dedicated to God (ch 28). At the center of the city, by a great altar, David sang the hallelujah to God.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s tour of hell is described in chapters 31–44; it is a place of sorrow and distress in which flows a river boiling with fire. In the river, some of the damned were immersed to the knees, others to the navel or lips, depending on the severity of their sins (ch 31). Chapters 34–36 describe the tortures of a presbyter, bishop, and deacon. Throughout this section the most ghastly tortures imaginable are described in detail with great relish. Finally, in chapter 44, Christ decrees that for Paul’s sake there will be no torture on Sundays henceforth.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s angelic travel guide then escorts him to paradise (chs 45–51), where the righteous of all ages are anxious to meet him. He meets the Virgin Mary (ch 46), Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob as well as the 12 sons of Jacob (ch 47), Moses, who weeps for the unconverted Jews (ch 48), Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, each of whom describes his martyrdom, Lot and Job (ch 49), Noah (ch 50), Elijah, Elisha, Zechariah and his son, John the Baptist, and Adam (ch 51). The document either ended here or, in alternate versions, with Paul’s miraculous trip to the Mt of Olives where he and the other disciples received the divine commission.<\/p>\n<p>The document is filled with contradictions and inconsistencies and many of the translated versions do not agree with each other in all details. The chief importance of the document is in terms of its glimpses into the thinking of late fourth-century Christianity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"PaulPassionof\">Paul, Passion of<\/p>\n<p>A revised Latin version of the apocryphal Martyrdom of Paul, which was part of a larger body of texts called the Acts of Paul. The original Martyrdom is the story of Paul’s resuscitation of Patroclus, Nero’s cupbearer, who had fallen from a window and died during one of Paul’s sermons. Patroclus confesses his new loyalty to Christ before the stunned Nero, who moves quickly to round up all such “soldiers of the great king (Christ).” Paul is included in the purge. The Passion elaborates on the story to include a passage about Seneca’s admiration for Paul and his writings, portions of which Seneca allegedly read to Nero. Also, Paul on the way to his death borrows a kerchief from Plautilla, promising to return it. When the returning soldiers mock her, she shows them the bloodied kerchief.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"PaulPassionofPeterand\">Paul, Passion of Peter and<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Peter and Paul, Passion of (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"PearlHymnofthe\">Pearl, Hymn of the<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Thomas, Acts of (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"PeterandPaulPassionof\">Peter and Paul, Passion of<\/p>\n<p>This writing comes to us in two forms, both of which are considered to have been written by Marcellus and date from the fifth century. The first form is essentially like the Acts of Peter and Paul. It lays emphasis upon Paul’s journey to Rome. The second gives more attention to the men’s residence in Rome with emphasis upon their stay in the home of a relative of Pontius Pilate. Both emphasize the close relationship between Peter and Paul and their continued and successful opposition to Simon Magus, who claims to be the Christ. Their death sentences are included in the writings but with only a brief account of their martyrdoms.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"PeterGospelof\">Peter, Gospel of<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Akhmim Fragment (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"PeterPreachingof\">Peter, Preaching of<\/p>\n<p>This document, which has survived only in fragments, appears to have been written early in the second century <span>AD<\/span> in Egypt. While the title does not explicitly claim Petrine authorship, it was understood by Clement of Alexandria (late second century <span>AD<\/span>) to have been an authentic composition by the apostle Peter (<em>Stromata<\/em> 2.15.68). The majority of the fragments of the Preaching of Peter are preserved in the form of brief quotations in the writings of Clement of Alexandria.<\/p>\n<p>The fourth-century church historian Eusebius of Caesarea observed that the Preaching of Peter had not been accepted by any ancient authorities (<em>Historia Ecclesiastica<\/em> 3.3.1-4), though he was probably not aware of its acceptance by Clement. Even though only fragments of the document have survived, they are important in that they reveal a transitional stage in the history of early Christian literature. During the first century, Christian literature, including all of the NT, was written for the consumption of other Christians. During the second century, Christian writers began to feel the need to defend their faith against the criticisms of their pagan and Jewish opponents. A new kind of Christian literature, the apology (meaning “defense”), began to appear in the early second century with the writings of the earliest Christian apologists Quadratus and Aristides. The Preaching of Peter represents a transition from the kind of apologetic writing found in the Acts of the Apostles, the sermons that that book contains, and the writings of the early apologists.<\/p>\n<p>Since Clement quotes randomly from the Preaching of Peter, it is not possible to determine the order in which any of the quotations appeared in the original composition. Some of the major emphases of the document will appear from the following summaries of the quotations of Clement. Peter, according to Clement, called the Lord both “Law and Word” in the “Preaching” (<em>Stromata<\/em> 1.29.182; 2.15.68). Mankind must recognize that <em>one<\/em> God created the beginning of all things and has the power to bring all things to an end (<em>Stromata<\/em> 6.5.39-41). The pagans, whom the author of the Preaching of Peter opposed, held that the universe was uncreated and eternal. God, the author contends, is invisible, incomprehensible, needs nothing, is inconceivable, everlasting, imperishable, and uncreated. This God must not be worshiped in the manner of the Greeks, for they have foolishly fashioned images of ordinary materials and worship them as gods. Further, they take animals that should be used for food and sacrifice them to these idols. The worship of the Jews should not be emulated either, for they revere angels, archangels, months, and the moon. If any of the nation of Israel should repent, they will find forgiveness (<em>Stromata<\/em> 6.5.43). In one place the Preaching of Peter narrates how the Lord sent disciples to preach the gospel throughout the world after the resurrection (<em>Stromata<\/em> 6.6.48), though the precise connection between this narrative and the preceding apologetic statements is not clear. It may be that the document began with a special version of the great commission. Elsewhere the document states that the OT prophets speak of Christ, sometimes in parables and enigmas, yet at other times very clearly and directly (<em>Stromata<\/em> 6.15.128). In fact, the major events of the life of Christ, his coming, torture, crucifixion, death, resurrection, and ascension into heaven were predicted in detail by the prophets.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of the surviving fragments of the Preaching of Peter lies in the way in which they reveal how early second-century Christianity turned from a defensive to an offensive position in its proclamation of the gospel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"PeterSlavonicActsof\">Peter, Slavonic Acts of<\/p>\n<p>An account of the later travels of Peter and his subsequent death in Rome preserved for us only in the Slavonic language. According to this account, a child (Jesus) comes to Peter and bids him to go to Rome. The angel Michael is captain of the ship taking them to Rome. After their arrival in Rome, Peter tells the child to catch some fish, whereupon he catches 12,000 in one hour. Then the child is sold to a Roman noble, Aravistus, for 50 pieces of gold. The child silences his teachers. After a vision of angels, the entire household is baptized. Nero arrests Peter, whereupon the child rebukes him. Many dead are raised, but the child sends them back to their graves to await the resurrection by Michael. Peter is crucified head downward. When the child reveals he is Jesus, the nails fall from Peter’s body, he prays for the forgiveness of his executioners, and then he dies. Such apocryphal versions of the acts of early church leaders are characteristically filled with fanciful acts of the apostles and their contact with the Christ.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"PetersLettertoPhilip\">Peter’s Letter to Philip<\/p>\n<p>This letter is part of the Christian Gnostic material discovered in 1947 at Nag Hammadi. It probably dates from the late second or early third century. The letter takes its name from a segment at the beginning of the tractate in which Peter claims to have sent the material to Philip. The letter is written in a dialogue form common in Gnostic literature. The body of the writing consists of a series of questions that are asked by the apostles of the risen Lord and the answers given by him. The questions provide a basis for the exposition of Gnostic philosophy about the structure of the world revealed by the Divine Light. That Light is the Christ, who is the heavenly Redeemer.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"PilateActsof\">Pilate, Acts of<\/p>\n<p>This document is an apocryphal passion gospel that reached its present form by the middle of the fourth century <span>AD<\/span>. The first Christian writer to refer to the Acts of Pilate was Epiphanius, an ecclesiastical heresy hunter, who wrote a lengthy denunciation of various heresies in <span>AD<\/span> 375, in which he definitely mentioned the Acts of Pilate (<em>Heresies<\/em> 50.1). Much earlier, Justin Martyr had referred to Pilate’s report to Tiberius regarding the trial of Jesus (<em>I Apology<\/em> 35; 48), but he does not seem to be referring to the Acts of Pilate. Toward the end of the second century <span>AD<\/span>, a generation after Justin, Tertullian referred to an account sent from Pilate to the emperor Tiberius, yet this cannot be the Acts of Pilate, since Jesus supposedly performed many miracles before the procurator. Although it is not improbable that an earlier version of the Acts of Pilate antedated the fourth century, the present version must be dated to the middle of that century. The original language of the Acts of Pilate was Greek, and translations of it were made into Latin, Coptic, and Armenian. Eusebius, the fourth-century church historian and bishop of Caesarea, condemns what he regarded as a blasphemous account of Pilate, apparently a pagan document calculated to defame Christ (<em>Historia Ecclesiastica,<\/em> 1.9.3; 9.5.1). The Christian Acts of Pilate was probably composed to counter the pagan document.<\/p>\n<p>The Acts of Pilate is a composite document consisting of two main parts. The first part (chs 1–16) purports to be a translation from Hebrew to Greek of an account written by Nicodemus about the events surrounding the passion of Jesus. The second part (chs 17–27), also called “Christ’s Descent into Hell,” vividly describes Christ’s descent into hades to liberate the righteous dead (an imaginative expansion of 1 Pt 3:19 which was itself transformed in the Apostles’ Creed into the phrase “he descended into hell”). After the 14th century <span>AD<\/span>, the whole composition was commonly designated as the Gospel of Nicodemus because of the prominent place that character played in the document.<\/p>\n<p>In the prologue to the Acts of Pilate, a Roman soldier named Ananias claims to have found the Acts of Pilate in Hebrew and to have translated it into Greek in the 18th year of the reign of Emperor Flavius Theodosius (<span>AD<\/span> 425). A quotation of the entire document follows: In the 15th year of Tiberius Caesar (<span>AD<\/span> 29), Nicodemus wrote an account of the events that surrounded the passion, death, and resurrection of Jesus. The Jewish high priests accused Jesus of various religious crimes to Pilate and asked that he be tried. Though unwilling, Pilate sent for Jesus anyway, though in a most gracious manner. When Jesus arrived, the Roman standards bowed to him of their own accords (ch 1). In chapter 2 the Jewish charges against Jesus included: (1) that he was born of fornication, (2) that his birth meant the death of the children of Bethlehem, and (3) that Joseph and Mary fled to Egypt because they counted for nothing among the people of Israel. The charge of fornication was immediately refuted by 12 pious Jews who had witnessed the betrothal of Mary and Joseph. An interview between Pilate and Jesus (modeled after Jn 18:33-38) follows in chapter 3. The Jews charge Jesus with blaspheming God, and Pilate reluctantly turns Jesus over to them (ch 4). Nicodemus then stands up in the Jewish council and urges them to let Jesus go, for if he is not of God his movement will fail (cf. Acts 5:38-39), but the Jews oppose him (ch 5). Then three Jews healed by Jesus testify in his behalf (ch 6), followed by Bernice, the woman healed of the issue of blood (ch 7). The crowd proclaims Jesus a prophet (ch 8). When Pilate offers to release a prisoner, the Jews ask for Barabbas, and Pilate then washes his hands of the matter and has Jesus scourged and crucified with the two criminals, Dysmas and Gestas (ch 9). Jesus is mocked by the crowds, while one criminal (Gestas) is rebuked by the other (ch 10). Jesus’ death is accompanied by a darkening of the sun, which the Jews regard as a normal eclipse (ch 11). Joseph of Arimathea is then seized by the Jews and imprisoned; when they come to execute him he has vanished (ch 12). The guards report the appearance of the angel at the tomb, but are bribed by the Jews to keep silence (ch 12). Three Jews then come from Galilee: Phineas, a priest; Adas, a teacher; and Angaeus, a Levite. They report that they have witnessed the great commission and ascension of Jesus on Mt Malich (ch 14). Nicodemus suggests that the surrounding mountains be checked to see if some spirit has not taken Jesus up only to dash him on the rocks; the Jews find nothing except Joseph of Arimathea in his hometown (ch 15). Joseph is summoned to testify before the council and reveals how the risen Jesus had appeared to him when he was imprisoned and set him free (ch 15). The council decides, after hearing other witnesses, that if Jesus is still remembered after 50 years, the stories must be true (ch 16).<\/p>\n<p>The second document begins with an account of Joseph speaking to the council. Two brothers, he claims, had been raised at the same time as Jesus. The council summons them to give their stories (ch 17). While in hades, the brothers claimed, a great light appeared and Abraham and Isaiah became overjoyed (ch 18). Satan thought that Jesus could be restrained in hades (ch 20); but when the King of Glory arrived, the gates were broken down. Satan was handed over to the angels to be bound (ch 22) and was rebuked by hades for causing the ruin of his kingdom (ch 23). The King of Glory (Christ) then led Adam and the rest of the righteous dead out of hades (ch 24) and to paradise (ch 25), where even the repentant criminal was seen (ch 26). The two brothers claim that they have been sent by the angel Michael to preach the resurrection of Jesus to all mankind.<\/p>\n<p>The Acts of Pilate is a pastiche (collection) of quotations and allusions from the four canonical Gospels, mingled with imaginative and even fantastic additions. It is basically an apologetic document that attempts to defend the truth of the resurrection of Jesus against the counterclaims of pagan and Jewish adversaries. Unfortunately, it has an anti-Semitic tone that was to characterize Christian dramatizations of the events of Passion Week from the fourth century through the end of the Middle Ages.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"PistisSophia\">Pistis Sophia<\/p>\n<p>A fourth-century Coptic manuscript (Codex Askewanus) that represents one of the chief Gnostic works extant today. The work, containing four chapters, derives its name from the heroine, Sophia, though only the first half of the work refers to her. This portion relates how Jesus, during the first 11 years after his resurrection, returned to teach his disciples the highest mystery of all: the Treasury of the Light. Jesus returned to the Mt of Olives where he is caught up through the aeons and on his journey comes to the thirteenth aeon where he finds Sophia. She is in sorrow because she has caught a glimpse of the Treasury of the Light but is deceived by Authades (the self-willed), who flashes a false brightness before her, causing her to fall into the hands of the powers of matter. She maintains her hope and faith, however, and after 12 prayers is delivered from Authades and chaos by Jesus who reinstates her at the lower limit of the thirteenth aeon.<\/p>\n<p>The work is in dialogue form—with Jesus answering questions asked by his disciples. The theme is thoroughly Gnostic in its view of salvation that comes by a hidden doctrine that brings illumination.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"ProtevangeliumofJames\">Protevangelium of James<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> James, Protevangelium of (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"PsalmsofSolomon\">Psalms of Solomon<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Solomon, Psalms of (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"ResurrectionofChristbyBartholomewBookofthe\">Resurrection of Christ by Bartholomew, Book of the<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bartholomew, Book of the Resurrection of Christ by (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"ReubenTestamentof\">Reuben, Testament of<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"SibyllineOracles\">Sibylline Oracles<\/p>\n<p>A pseudepigraphal writing comprising originally 15 books, 12 of which are extant in late Greek manuscripts. The word <em>sibyl<\/em> is of Greek origin. It claimed to be an oracle of the gods and generally contained a message of a coming catastrophic event. Some Jews adopted and used this mode of writing for propagation purposes.<\/p>\n<p>The sibyls came from the beginning of the Maccabean period (165 <span>BC<\/span>) and cover a period up to shortly after the destruction of the second temple (<span>AD<\/span> 76). The authors, presumably writing in Alexandria, Egypt, stressed the unity and sovereignty of God. God controlled all events, whereas pagan deities were useless, unable to do anything. “But God is one, most exalted of all, who has made the heaven, the sun, the stars and the moon. . . . He has constituted man as the Divinely appointed ruler of all. You men . . . be ashamed of making gods” (book 2). God controls the history of the nations. The sibyls outline the history of 10 generations from the Assyrian kingdom to the destruction of the second temple and the great earthquake (book 4.47ff.). The third book also contains a section on the devastation and troubles to be experienced before the great judgment. It includes two messianic passages wherein the Messiah introduces an era of peace and prosperity for the faithful: “He will raise up his kingdom for all ages over men. . . . For nothing but peace shall come upon the land of the good” (lines 767, 780). The eternal state is to be reserved for the faithful who will be raised from the dead in a bodily form: “But all who are godly shall live again on earth, when God gives breath and life and grace to them the godly” (book 4.187-190), whereas the ungodly are to be thrown into hell, “And all who have sinned with deeds of impiety a heap of earth shall cover again, and murky Tartarus and the black recesses of hell” (lines 183-186).<\/p>\n<p>The express purpose of the authors of the sibyls was to demonstrate the reasonableness of the Jewish faith by casting their message in the form of the sibyl, introduced by the Greeks and appreciated by the Romans. In their emphasis on the God of Israel and their opposition to paganism, they nevertheless stand in the stream of the apocalyptic, the unveiling of God’s secrets of past and future. The sibyl as divine oracle was, thus, used as a literary form in order to convey a message to the non-Jewish world.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"SilvanusTeachingsof\">Silvanus, Teachings of<\/p>\n<p>Literary work of the Gnostics, attributed to Silvanus, the companion of Peter and Paul. It was discovered at Chenoboskion in Upper Egypt in 1946.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"SimeonTestamentof\">Simeon, Testament of<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"SlavonicActsofPeter\">Slavonic Acts of Peter<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Peter, Slavonic Acts of (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"SolomonPsalmsof\">Solomon, Psalms of<\/p>\n<p>The Psalms of Solomon are a collection of 18 songs attributed to Solomon. They are considered pseudepigrapha. The psalms were probably written by one author, who lived during the middle of the first century <span>BC<\/span> and wrote in Hebrew. The theological perspective of the author is Pharisaic in its views of the law, judgment, and the future of Israel. The Psalms of Solomon are derived from the canonical book of Psalms in their form and phraseology. One of the similarities in the form and phraseology is the emphasis on the antithesis between the righteous and the wicked. The wicked are the Gentiles who defile the holy things of the Lord (2:3) and apostate Jews who have fallen into sin (3:11, 13).<\/p>\n<p>The character of the sinner is that of the fool, as opposed to the wise man (cf. Wisdom Literature). The fool has no concern for the Lord (4:1); his speech and deeds betray his unrighteousness (4:2ff.). He is known by his lies, judgment of others, false oaths, his immorality, lawlessness, and selfish ambitions at the cost of others (cf. 12). The righteous are the wise, who fear the Lord (4:26). He is not dismayed by bad dreams or perilous times (6:4-5). He is provoked with zeal for the Lord’s righteousness, as he witnesses the desecration of the temple and the law (8:28). The Lord’s love of him is expressed in discipline, and he responds to the Lord’s rebuke with repentance for his sins. The author compares the righteous to the tree of life in Paradise. They are stable and will not be uprooted (14:2ff.). The wicked, on the other hand, will not be remembered in this life, and God will deal righteously with them by casting them into “Sheol and darkness and destruction” (14:6; 15:10).<\/p>\n<p>The author views God as the King who mightily rules over the nations (2:34ff.) with readiness to judge his enemies and the enemies of the righteous (2:38ff.; 4:9) and to vindicate the righteous (2:39). As the Lord’s care is demonstrated in his sustenance of nature (5:11-12), in his raising up kings, rulers, and nations (5:13), the author assures the reader that his care extends particularly to the poor and those who call upon him (5:2-3, 13). He is the hope of the righteous (8:37).<\/p>\n<p>In view of the foregoing belief in the righteous kingship of God and in his protection of the righteous, the psalms abound in the conviction that evil will be overcome by God’s intervention on behalf of the righteous. The particular context in which these psalms originated was Pompey’s entrance into Jerusalem and his desecration of the temple (63 <span>BC<\/span>), and it was hoped that at the death of Pompey (48 <span>BC<\/span>, cf. 2:30ff.) the messianic era might be introduced. Therefore, the author reminds God of the covenant made with David (17:5) and asks God’s forgiveness for Israel’s sins in the past. Israel has suffered gentile invasions and control as the result of God’s judgment (17:6). Since Pompey had died, the author prayed for the restoration of the theocracy under a Davidic king—“Behold, O Lord, and raise up unto them their king, the son of David. All the time in the which Thou seest, O God, that he may reign over Israel Thy servant” (17:23). By means of the Davidic Messiah the land will be purged of sinners, godless nations, and the righteous will be sanctified. The messianic rule extends only over the righteous remnant, who when restored to the land, will be divided into the 12 tribes; the Davidic Messiah will rule over the tribes and the other nations “in the wisdom of his righteousness” (17:29-31). The sojourner and the gentile nations will not share in the glory of the kingdom. Rather, their position will be that of servitude.<\/p>\n<p>The hope of the glorious future of Israel is the apocalyptic element in the psalms. They arose in a historical context, but they anticipate a radically new future. The psalmist pronounced a benediction on all those who would witness God’s judgment on the nations, the restoration of Israel, and the introduction of the messianic kingdom: “Blessed be they that shall be in those days, in that they shall see the good fortune of Israel which God shall bring to pass in the gathering together of the tribes. May the Lord hasten His mercy upon Israel! The Lord Himself is our king for ever and ever” (17:50-51).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"SolomonTestamentof\">Solomon, Testament of<\/p>\n<p>The Testament of Solomon is a second-century <span>BC<\/span> pseudepigraphal writing. The writing claims that Solomon was the writer of the testament. It is extant in Semitic manuscripts, and in some Greek texts.<\/p>\n<p>The material is basically Christian with emphasis on the cross and the virgin birth but also contains Jewish material as well. The testament recounts how Solomon, by means of a ring given to him by the archangel Michael, is able to subdue and use the skills of demons to build his temple. After completing the temple, however, Solomon is led into idolatry on account of his lust for a Shunammite girl. His fall was taken by the author of the testament as an occasion to warn the readers of the power and shapes of the demons and the angels having power over them. The work is written in the form of a testament in order to let Solomon reflect (on his deathbed) how he succeeded and failed as a legacy to Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"TestamentsoftheTwelvePatriarchs\">Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs<\/p>\n<p>Part of the Jewish pseudepigrapha. This particular composition is called a “testament” because it represents the deathbed speeches of each of the sons of Jacob. The testaments start with Reuben’s speech to his sons and ends with Benjamin’s testament to his heirs. Each patriarch is represented as gathering his sons around him and relating the important events of his life. During the speech the patriarch warns against particular vices and attitudes and recommends certain virtues. The advice and warnings of each patriarch often include insight and predictions concerning sin and salvation for his children. The account of the patriarch’s life serves as a guide for the future of his descendants. At the end of the speech, each patriarch dies and is buried at Hebron.<\/p>\n<p>It would appear that the concept of “testament” finds its orientation in Joshua 23–24, where Joshua summons the elders, heads, judges, and officers of Israel (Jos 23:2; 24:1) and gives them a charge before his death. First Kings 2:1-12 portrays David giving Solomon deathbed advice to walk in God’s ways. The speeches of the patriarchs find further scriptural reference in Genesis chapter 49, where Jacob calls his sons together to hear about their future. At the end of the speech Jacob dies (Gn 49:33).<\/p>\n<p>The present textual form (Slavonic, Armenian, and Greek versions) probably came about sometime during the second or third century <span>AD<\/span>. However, much of the material would appear to go back to the second or third century <span>BC<\/span>. The general scholarly consensus is that an original text in a Semitic language (either Hebrew or Aramaic) was composed by an author or authors sometime in the third or second century before the common era. At some later period, Christian sections were added to the original text. For examples of the Christian sections see Testament of Simeon 6:7; Testament of Levi 10:2; Testament of Dan 6:9; Testament of Naphtali 4:5; Testament of Asher 7:3-4; Testament of Joseph 19:11; Testament of Benjamin 3:8; 9:2-4. It would appear that the testaments may have been reworked by a Jewish writer(s) and by other Christian writers over the centuries. Thus we have a Jewish document from about the third century before the common era that has undergone both Jewish and Christian redactions over a long period of time. These testaments became quite popular in the tenth century, with special interest being displayed in the prophecies of the patriarchs and their secret knowledge.<\/p>\n<p>The following is a summary of each of the testaments of the patriarchs. The excerpts are based on R. H. Charles’s <em>Pseudepigrapha,<\/em> pp 282-367.<\/p>\n<h6>Reuben<\/h6>\n<p>The testament of Reuben is very much influenced by an overwhelming memory of defiling his father’s bed. This refers to Reuben taking his father’s concubine Bilhah while she was in a drunken stupor. Reuben has very strong opinions regarding what he considers to be negative attributes of women, and he warns his sons to be guarded in their relationship with women. His comments on women probably reflect the ill feelings that existed between himself and Jacob in regard to Bilhah. Reuben predicts that in the future his sons would be jealous of the sons of Levi but they would not be able to overthrow them. He admonishes his descendants to have respect and love for one another and to do truth to their neighbors. Reuben is buried at Hebron.<\/p>\n<h6>Simeon<\/h6>\n<p>The patriarch Simeon is presented as a strong warrior type. Reflecting the biblical account of Joseph being sold into slavery (Gn 37:25-28), Simeon testifies that he wanted to kill Joseph rather than sell him into slavery. As punishment for this attitude, God withered his right hand for seven days. Simeon warns his sons against envy, deceit, and fornication. He predicts that they will attempt to harm the sons of Levi but prophesies that the sons of Levi will remain superior. Simeon looked forward to a blissful era (6:4-7a), when the “Most High” would be blessed. Verse 7b is a Christian interpolation, “Because God has taken a body and eaten with men and saved men.” He admonishes his sons to obey the sons of Levi and Judah, for it would be from them that their salvation would be accomplished. He predicts that a high priest would come from Levi and a king would descend from the lines of Judah. Simeon concludes his testament by predicting that all Gentiles (an interpolation) and Israel would be saved.<\/p>\n<h6>Levi<\/h6>\n<p>Levi’s deathbed testament is in the form of dreams that he relates to his sons. He predicts that from his descendants and those of Judah the Lord would “appear among men” to save every race of men (2:11). The descendants of Levi would be “as the sun to all the seed of Israel” (4:3b) and in one dream it is shown that the blessings of the priesthood would come to his sons (8:2-3). Levi predicts that a king would arise in Judah; this king would establish a new priesthood that ministers to both Jews and Gentiles. The tenth chapter has a Christian interpolation that because of ungodliness and transgression, the sons of Levi would wrong “the Savior of the world, Christ” (10:2) and that for this they would be scattered throughout the world. Chapter 13 has a number of wisdom themes with emphasis on the need to follow and obey the law. Chapter 16 introduces an eschatological prediction that the sons of Levi would go astray for 70 weeks. The following chapter gives a detailed account of the 70 weeks in which there would be a priesthood for each jubilee. The first priesthood would be great, and the priest’s relationship to God would be such that God would be addressed as father. The second priesthood would “be conceived in the sorrow of beloved ones” (17:3), but this priesthood will be glorified by all. The following five priesthoods would be characterized by sorrow, pain, hatred, and darkness. However, a new priesthood would eventually arise and peace will be brought to all the earth (18:4); sin shall come to an end (18:9), for this new priesthood shall have a spirit of understanding and sanctification resting upon him. The testament closes with an admonition to choose either the law of the Lord or the work of Beliar (variant of Belial). The sons pledge themselves to the law, and following Levi’s death they bury him at Hebron.<\/p>\n<h6>Judah<\/h6>\n<p>At the beginning of the testament by Judah he tells his descendants that he had been promised by his father that he would be king. “And it came to pass, when I became a man, that my father blessed me, saying, You shall be a king, prospering in all things” (1:6). Judah reminisces about his early youth and his ability to conquer wild animals. He obeyed the commandments and did not give in to lust. He predicted that his descendants would fall into wickedness because of the love of money and the enticement of beautiful women (ch 17). In chapter 21 Judah predicts that the Lord would give the kingship to his descendants and the priesthood to the sons of Levi. Chapter 24 includes a Christian messianic redaction. It is predicted that from the star of Jacob one will arise that will be without sin and from it a rod of righteousness will grow to the Gentiles (24:6). The testament concludes with eschatological hope for the future when “they who are poor for the Lord’s sake shall be made rich and they who are put to death for the Lord’s sake shall awake to life” (25:4). Judah dies and is buried at Hebron.<\/p>\n<h6>Issachar<\/h6>\n<p>The last words of this patriarch are somewhat unique in that Issachar is depicted as being “upright” and without transgression (unlike many of his brothers). He predicts that the priesthood will come from Levi and the kingship will arise from the lineage of Judah. In chapter 6 Issachar predicts that his children will “cleave” after Beliar. If they recognize the mercy of God and follow Issachar’s exemplary life, “every spirit of Beliar will flee from them.” His final request is that he be buried at Hebron with his fathers.<\/p>\n<h6>Zebulun<\/h6>\n<p>The patriarch Zebulun begins his testament by characterizing himself as a “good gift” to his parents. He, like Issachar, indicates that he is not conscious of sinning “except in thought” (and if he has any iniquity it is only the sin of ignorance). Zebulun claims that he did not support the actions taken against Joseph, and he would have told his father about Joseph’s plight except that the other brothers agreed that if “anyone should declare the secret, he should be slain” (1:6). In 1:7 he declares that if it were not for him the other brothers would have killed Joseph. The brothers were so suspicious of Zebulun that they watched him until Joseph was sold. Verse 5:3 has a familiar theme that is found in the NT and in the rabbis: “Have compassion in your hearts, my children, because even as a man does to his neighbor, even so will the Lord do to him.” Zebulun believes that this lesson is demonstrated in practical terms. The sons of the other brothers were sickened and died on account of the action taken against Joseph (“because they showed no mercy in their hearts,” 5:5). The sons of Zebulun were preserved without sickness. He continues his wisdom teaching (8:3) by declaring that in the degree that a man has compassion upon his neighbor the Lord in the same degree will have mercy on him. Zebulun predicts the division between the northern and southern kingdoms and the eventual conquest of these kingdoms by the Gentiles. However, the people will repent and the Lord will bring them back to “the land” and Jerusalem (9:8). In chapter 10 Zebulun predicts that after his death he will “arise as a ruler in the midst of his sons” (10:2), and he promises reward for those who keep the laws and punishment for the ungodly. Zebulun dies at the end of his testament and is buried at Hebron.<\/p>\n<h6>Dan<\/h6>\n<p>The patriarch Dan laments his jealousy of Joseph and indicates that he was controlled by the spirit of Beliar. He reveals that he wanted to kill Joseph so that he could have the love of his father. Dan warns against the spirits of lying and anger, and he exhorts his descendants to love truth and long-suffering. He admonishes them to keep the commandments and “love the Lord through all your life and one another with a true heart” (5:3). Dan predicts that his sons will “in the last days” depart from the Lord and thus provoke the anger of the sons of Levi. They also will fight against the sons of Judah. His sons will not win against the sons of Levi and Judah because an angel of the Lord will guide them. Dan is represented as having read in the book of Enoch (a favorite reference for the patriarchs) that Satan and all the spirits of wickedness and pride will cause the sons of Levi, Judah, and Dan to sin. They will be taken into captivity where they will receive the plagues of Egypt and all the evils of the Gentiles. However, when they return to the Lord they will receive mercy and be given peace. The prediction is such that there would be one who would arise from the tribe of Judah and Levi who is called “the salvation of the Lord.” It would appear that the “one arising” would make war against Beliar and execute an “everlasting vengeance” against their enemies (5:10). Dan’s final warning is to beware of Satan and his spirits and to draw near to God and the angel “that intercedes for you” (6:2). The last section admonishes Dan’s sons to pass on to their children all that they have heard so that “the savior of the Gentiles may receive” them. There follows a Christian polemic about the savior being true, long-suffering, meek, and lowly (6:9). When Dan dies, he is buried near Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.<\/p>\n<h6>Naphtali<\/h6>\n<p>Naphtali is said to be 130 years old when he gives his last words. He is depicted as being in good health, but the morning after a feast realizes that he is going to die. Thus he gathers his sons about him. Naphtali has a very strong sense of order that contributes to the makeup and actions of man as well as the universe. He views the “Gentile problem” as their forsaking the Lord and changing their order so that they obeyed the “stocks and stones.” The change of order was the problem at Sodom and it also caused the Flood.<\/p>\n<p>Naphtali reads from the book of Enoch that his sons will depart from the Lord and walk “according to all lawlessness of the Gentiles” (4:1). He predicts that his descendants will be taken captive because of their sins and afterward a “few” will return to the Lord and he will bring them back to their land. After their return to the land, Naphtali predicts that his sons will forget the Lord and “become ungodly” with the result that they will be scattered all over the earth. They will remain in this state until the compassion of the Lord comes and a man working righteousness and mercy comes to them. Naphtali recounts two dreams that he had in his 40th year. In the first dream he saw the sun and moon stand still. Isaac told his grandsons to run and take hold of the sun and moon, each according to his strength. Levi took hold of the sun, and Judah seized the moon. Both of them were lifted up with the sun and moon. There appeared a bull in the dream with two great horns and eagle wings. The other sons attempted to seize this bull but could not. However, Joseph came and took hold of the bull and ascended “up with him on high” (5:7).<\/p>\n<p>There follows a prediction that the 12 tribes of Israel would be taken into captivity by the Assyrians, Medes, Persians, Chaldeans, and Syrians. The other dream saw a ship sailing on the sea of Jamnia without sailors or pilot. Written on the ship was the inscription “The ship of Jacob” (6:2). Jacob and his sons were on the ship, and when a storm arose Jacob departed from their presence. Eventually the ship breaks up from the pounding of the sea, and while Joseph sails off in a little boat the rest of the brothers are divided among nine planks with Levi and Judah sharing a plank. It would appear that by the prayers of Levi all the brothers eventually land safely on the shore. When Naphtali relates these dreams to his father, Jacob responds that all these things must be fulfilled.<\/p>\n<p>Naphtali admonished his sons to be united to Levi and Judah for through them “shall salvation arise to Israel” (8:2). Also through Levi and Judah the righteous of the Gentiles shall be gathered. Naphtali died and was buried at Hebron.<\/p>\n<h6>Gad<\/h6>\n<p>The patriarch Gad is represented as hating Joseph because Joseph had told his father that Gad and some of the other brothers were eating from the best of the flocks while tending them. During his testament Gad confesses his sin of hatred to his sons and warns them against harboring hatred because it only brings anguish: “For as love would quicken even the dead and would call back them that are condemned to die, so hatred would slay the living and those that had sinned venially it would not suffer to live” (4:6).<\/p>\n<p>Repentance is understood to give knowledge to the soul and leads the mind to salvation. Gad encourages his sons to honor the lineage of Levi and Judah, for therein is found the salvation of Israel. He predicts that his sons will walk in all wickedness and corruption and ends on a somewhat pessimistic note by asking to be buried near his fathers. Gad is buried at Hebron.<\/p>\n<h6>Asher<\/h6>\n<p>Asher is very conscious of good and evil spirits and the choice that man has to make between these two possibilities. Asher predicts that his descendants will act ungodly and not give heed to the law of God. Thus they will be delivered into the hands of their enemies and they will be scattered. They will exist in such a state until the “Most High” visits the earth “coming Himself [as man with men eating and drinking] . . . he shall save Israel and all the Gentiles” (7:3-4). This Christian interpolation is followed by a declaration that the Lord will gather them because of his mercy and for the sake of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. When Asher dies, he is buried at Hebron.<\/p>\n<h6>Joseph<\/h6>\n<p>Joseph calls himself the “beloved of Israel,” (1:2) and although he has seen envy and death, he did not go astray. During his testament he tells of his ordeal of being sold into slavery. The verses in chapter one are set in parallelism with the first half of the verse telling the plight of Joseph and the second half exalting the security of the Lord: “I was sold into slavery, and the Lord of all made me free: I was taken into captivity, and his strong hand succoured me. I was beset with hunger and the Lord himself nourished me” (1:5). Joseph details his experiences in Egypt with eight chapters being given to the temptations of the Egyptian woman. However, Joseph resisted her advances and the Lord rewarded him for his convictions. He admonishes his sons to have the fear of the Lord in all their works because whoever does the law of the Lord will be loved by him. This is the key to his success. Joseph encourages his children to do well to anyone who would do evil to them and pray for their enemies. He gives his attitude toward his brothers as an example of such a virtue.<\/p>\n<p>Joseph admonishes his sons to observe the commandments of the Lord and honor Levi and Judah for “the Lamb of God, who takes away the sin of the world, who saves all the Gentiles and Israel” (19:11) shall arise from them. He predicts the enslavement in Egypt but also the eventual deliverance. He directs his sons to take his bones with them when they leave Egypt, and the testament indicates that Joseph was buried at Hebron.<\/p>\n<h6>Benjamin<\/h6>\n<p>The last patriarch gives his testament when he is 125 years old. He encourages his children to love the Lord and keep his commandments. He urges them to follow the goodness of Joseph, for he did not want his brothers’ actions against him to be counted as sin. Benjamin predicts that in Joseph shall the prophecy be fulfilled “concerning the Lamb of God and Savior of the world, and that a blameless one shall be delivered up for lawless men, and a sinless one shall die for ungodly men in the blood of the covenant, for the salvation of the Gentiles and of Israel and shall destroy Beliar and his servants” (3:8). One can immediately see how the Christian interpolation would find easy access for a polemic in this testament. Joseph is depicted as suffering in innocence and without remorse. Likewise the Christian messiah would suffer and die for ungodly men.<\/p>\n<p>Benjamin believes that there are evildoers among his sons; from his reading of the book of Enoch he predicts that they will commit “fornication with the fornication of Sodom” and only a few will survive (9:1). There would appear to be a remnant from each tribe as the 12 tribes and the Gentiles will gather at the last temple. Their salvation will be a result of the “Most High” sending his only “begotten prophet” (9:2), and he will be lifted up upon a tree and the veil of the temple shall be rent and the Spirit of God shall be passed on to the Gentiles. Benjamin admonishes his sons that if they walk in holiness according to the commandments of the Lord, all of Israel will be gathered to the Lord. When Benjamin dies, he is buried at Hebron.<\/p>\n<p>From the brief account of each patriarch, it is apparent that the testaments were subject to both Jewish and Christian redaction and go beyond mere interpolation. The text reflects such characteristics as two messiahs, a double love commandment, ethical and theological teachings, as well as universal salvation. However, it is most difficult to place these features within a particular time period or even religion.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"ThaddeusActsof\">Thaddeus, Acts of<\/p>\n<p>A sixth-century version and extension of the fifth-century Syriac Doctrina Addaei, or Legend of Abgar. The Legend contains a purported exchange of letters between Abgar, king of Edessa (<span>AD<\/span> 9–46), and Jesus. This exchange results in the sending of Thaddeus, one of Jesus’ apostles, to Edessa. While there, he performs numerous miracles including the healing of Abgar. The Acts has Abgar healed when Ananias, his messenger, returns prior to the arrival of Thaddeus. The Acts focuses on the activity of Thaddeus in establishing the church in Edessa.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"TheclaActsofPauland\">Thecla, Acts of Paul and<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Paul and Thecla, Acts of (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"ThomasActsof\">Thomas, Acts of<\/p>\n<p>The Acts of Thomas is one of a cluster of acts of the apostles that have three common characteristics. They narrate the propagation of the gospel around the ancient world, promote the deeds and words of one of the apostles, and inevitably chronicle that apostle’s martyrdom. The oldest of these “acts narratives” are those of Paul, John, Andrew, Peter, and Thomas. Acts of Thomas, like the others, is a blend of Christian piety, the popular Hellenistic romances of the day, and Jewish haggadic-type moralistic teachings.<\/p>\n<p>Scholarly study of the Acts of Thomas suggests that it was probably written at the beginning of the third century. It was definitely written in Syriac first and probably by someone with strong tendencies toward the Gnostic heresy. It proved broadly popular among Gnostics, Manichees, and orthodox churches, so much so that it was quickly translated from the original Syriac into Arabic, Armenian, and several Greek translations. From these varied Greek versions, Coptic, Latin, and Ethiopic translations were made. Significant portions of the Coptic version were in turn retranslated back into Arabic, Ethiopic, and Greek, thus creating a most confusing textual tradition. Only one full early Syriac text survives, and it is considered less reliable than some of the extant Greek translations.<\/p>\n<p>In the critical English edition of the Acts of Thomas, that of A. F. J. Klijn published in 1962, the narrative is divided into the traditional acts (praxeis). There are 13 of these numbered in 170 sequential chapters that include the concluding martyrdom of the apostle. Various liturgical pieces, sermon fragments, and hymns are inserted, including two particularly famous hymns in the early church—that of the “Song of the Bride” in act 1 and that of the “Song of the Pearl” in act 9. The first six acts are not woven together by any particular theme, and they record that Thomas went on board ship to go to India (act 3), which would imply a south Indian ministry. Yet the text speaks of ministry to the north Indian king, Gundaphoro (act 4). However, acts 7 through 13 and the martyrdom are set in the south Indian kingdom of Mazdai and are obviously written by one hand. It is probable that the first six acts represent earlier materials placed into the whole by the writer of the last seven acts and the martyrdom. This document is the first-known mention of the traditions that Thomas ministered in India, was martyred there, and that his bones were returned to Edessa. Acts of Thomas is written, as are all the apocryphal acts of the apostles, on the assumption that the world was divided among the apostles for evangelization and that India fell to Thomas.<\/p>\n<p>Thomas is called Judas Thomas throughout these acts after the Syrian style of referring to that apostle. Thomas is spoken of as the twin of Jesus (the Didymus of the NT), as recipient of special divine revelations, and as being Jesus incarnate in the flesh again—in chapters 10, 11, 39, 47, and 48 of the Acts. Many historians think these are clear indications of Gnostic thought. Others think such ideas are expressions of Jesus’ adaptation to human perception and identification with his apostles—features often found in early Christian literature. There seems to be no question but that Gnostic or Manichee tendencies were gradually edited out of Greek and Latin texts by orthodox copyists.<\/p>\n<p>One quickly gets the feel for this narrative. The Acts of Thomas opens with Judas Thomas’s refusing to go to India. He is then sold as a slave—in parallel to Christ’s coming as a slave to redeem man. So Thomas reaches India as a carpenter (again the parallel with Jesus) and a builder of homes. He plays groomsman in a wedding at which miracles convince the flute player of Thomas’s role as apostle of God; so the king asks Thomas to pray for his daughter. Great stress is placed on purity in Thomas’s teaching, and this usually involves sexual abstinence as well. Finally, many are converted, including the king, and they form an assembly of believers in Sandaruk.<\/p>\n<p>In the second act the king, Gundophor, gives Thomas a large sum of money to build a palace. After surprising the king by tracing the palace on the ground in winter, Thomas builds him a palace in heaven by giving the money to the poor. The king imprisons and decides to kill Thomas for the supposed deception; but the king’s brother, Gad, dies and goes to heaven where he sees the palace and desires to buy it. Gad is then reunited with his body and tries to buy the palace from Gundophor, whereupon Gundophor learns that he cannot sell it, releases Thomas from prison, and advises Gad to arrange to have his own palace built in heaven. Thomas gives a great doxology (ch 25 of act 2), and the two brothers who have come to believe through all of this want to be baptized.<\/p>\n<p>In these miracle narratives and teachings, all the books of the NT seem to be echoed, though there are relatively few direct quotations. Favorite miracle passages such as Balaam’s talking donkey and Peter’s release from prison are reexperienced in Thomas’s life with vast embellishment. The talking ass enters a home and casts out a demon at Thomas’s command; Thomas causes great consternation by repeatedly passing in and out of the securely closed prison. Such miracles, sufferings, and conversions make up acts 3 through 13 and continue to the climax of Judas Thomas’s ministry. His martyrdom occurs (ch 168) at the hands of four soldiers with spears who have been ordered by the king of Mazdai to execute Thomas. He thereafter appears to his followers who have Thomas’s bones removed to Edessa. Meantime, the son of the king of Mazdai becomes sick unto death. Desperate, the king goes to Thomas’s tomb, thinking to get a relic to heal his son. Finding the body gone, he uses the very dust upon which Judas Thomas’s body rested, and his son is healed. Thereafter the king becomes a believer and joins the community of believers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"ThomasGospelof\">Thomas, Gospel of<\/p>\n<p>A noncanonical and heretical gospel of Gnostic origin that probably dates from the second or third century <span>AD<\/span>. It is one of a large number of similar writings that flourished among early religious sects such as the Marcosians (a second-century group that built an elaborate sacramental system around numbers) and the Manicheans (a third-century dualistic heresy based on the primeval conflict between light and darkness). In fact, Cyril of Jerusalem, who died in <span>AD<\/span> 386 says the Gospel of Thomas was written by “one of those wicked disciples of Mani” (the founder of Manichaeism). Along with the Protevangelium of James, it is one of the oldest and most widely known of the more than 50 apocryphal gospels that circulated within the churches during the period of their early growth and expansion.<\/p>\n<p>This Gospel of Thomas (sometimes referred to as an “infancy gospel”) should not be confused with the Coptic version that was unearthed in 1945 near Nag Hammadi in Upper Egypt. The latter is a collection of 114 “sayings of Jesus,” which shed a great deal of light on the influence of Gnosticism on Egyptian Christianity. They claim to be the “secret words” of Jesus transmitted by “Didymos Judas Thomas.” The Gospel of Thomas, with which this article deals, is composed of a series of childhood miracles of Jesus and is preserved for us in four versions—two in Greek (one quite a bit longer than the other), one in Latin, and one in Syriac.<\/p>\n<p>The Gospel of Thomas was apparently known as early as Hippolytus (<span>AD<\/span> 155–235), who quotes it as saying, “He who seeks me will find me in children from seven years old; for there will I, who am hidden in the fourteenth aeon, be found.” Hippolytus claimed that it was used by the Naasenes (a Gnostic sect that worshiped the serpent) in support of their doctrine of the nature of the inward man. The quotation above is not found in the extant versions, but this is understandable because there is evidence from the Stichometry of Nicephorus (possibly fourth century) that an earlier version was over twice the length. The Gospel of Thomas was known both to Origen (c. <span>AD<\/span> 185–254) and Eusebius (c. <span>AD<\/span> 260–340). The latter classed it with the heretical writings and said it should be “rejected as altogether absurd and impious” (<em>Historia Ecclesiastica<\/em> 3.25).<\/p>\n<p>The stories that make up the Gospel of Thomas emphasize the miraculous power and supernatural wisdom of the boy Jesus. Some scholars think they were originally fabricated by orthodox Christians in opposition to the Gnostic heresy that the “supernatural Christ” first came upon Jesus at the time of his baptism. It is much more likely, however, that they owe their origin to people’s curiosity about what the boy Jesus must have been like. Some of the tales may have come from pagan sources.<\/p>\n<p>Apart from three or four miracles, which could be classed as beneficial, the supernatural feats said to be performed by the boy Jesus were destructive. For example, when a certain child spoiled some pools made by Jesus, he was cursed by Jesus and totally withered up. Another boy who provoked Jesus by running into him “immediately . . . fell down and died.” A teacher who struck Jesus on the head was straightway cursed and fell to the ground. The French writer Renan referred to the Jesus of the Gospel of Thomas as “a vicious little guttersnipe.”<\/p>\n<p>Throughout the gospel Jesus is presented as infinitely wise. He ridicules his teacher Zacchaeus saying, “You hypocrite, first, if you know it, teach the Alpha, and then we will believe you concerning the Beta.” After Zacchaeus berates himself for being so inferior to the one he intended to take as a disciple, Jesus laughs and announces, “I am come from above that I may curse them.” The text continues, “And no man after that dared to provoke him, lest he should curse him, and he should be maimed.”<\/p>\n<p>Other miracles include making 12 live sparrows out of clay, smiting his accusers with blindness, raising a child from the dead, healing a foot cut in two by an ax, carrying water in a cloth garment, reaping an enormous harvest from one kernal of wheat, stretching a piece of wood to its proper length, and healing his brother James who had been bitten by a viper while gathering fagots (sticks to use as firewood). More miracles may be found in the longer Latin version.<\/p>\n<p>It comes as no surprise that the orthodox church has always rejected from its canon of sacred scripture the apocryphal Gospel of Thomas. It is, however, quoted in other later gospels of the same sort. For example, the Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew from chapter 18 on is based upon the Gospel of Thomas. Along with other apocryphal materials, it has exercised a significant influence on Christian art and literature, especially from the tenth century forward. For example, the account of Jesus making the 12 sparrows from clay shows up in the Koran.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"TruthGospelof\">Truth, Gospel of<\/p>\n<p>Around 1945 a group of Egyptian peasant farmers near modern Nag Hammadi inadvertently dug into a grave of the ancient village known as Shenesit-Chenoboskion and unearthed a jar containing 13 books (9 of which were largely complete) and 15 fragments of works. This find was the library of an ancient Gnostic sect and contained all or parts of 51 different Gnostic writings—all but two of which had never come into modern scholars’ hands before. Now called the Nag Hammadi or Chenoboskion texts, these works were the first modern find of original Gnostic literature. All are Coptic translations of earlier Greek originals.<\/p>\n<p>Codex I (titled the Jung Codex because it now is owned by the Jung Institute in Vienna) is unique among the 13 works because it is in Sub-Achimimic Coptic, while the rest of the works are in the more usual Sahidic Coptic. Codex I contains five works, two of which are the enormously controversial Gospel of Thomas and the Gospel of Truth.<\/p>\n<p>The Gospel of Truth has no heading but rather draws its title from the incipit (first line of the text); it has no author; it contains no addressee. In fact, it is not a gospel at all, but rather a treatise expressive of Valentinian Gnosticism at its very earliest stage. Because the Gnosticism expressed in the Gospel of Truth is lacking all later-Valentinian mythological development and because it is stated simply and in almost orthodox Christian thought forms, the majority of modern scholars credit it to Valentinus himself, though no final proof of this has been discovered as yet. If Valentinus himself did not write this document, then it had to be someone in the immediate circle of his initial disciples.<\/p>\n<p>Valentinus was born in Egypt around <span>AD<\/span> 100 to 110. He received a thorough education at Alexandria, became a Christian, and taught first in Egypt before moving to Rome around <span>AD<\/span> 136, where he stayed until 154 or 155. Tertullian, in his work against heresy, seems to imply that Valentinus was twice expelled from the Roman church; he states that Valentinus was a brilliant and eloquent man who had hopes of becoming a bishop in Rome at one time. Valentinus attracted able followers who later expanded his teachings almost beyond recognition. But when he left Rome sometime after 154 or 155, he had made a final break with orthodoxy and was teaching a form of Gnostic heresy the product of which was the Gospel of Truth, written by himself or someone of his immediate circle. There is a surviving statement that Valentinus taught subsequently in Cyprus, and then he vanishes into the mists of history.<\/p>\n<p>Irenaeus said the Gospel of Truth is no gospel, for it is unlike the four Gospels (<em>Against Heresies<\/em> 3.2.9). Irenaeus was certainly correct, for the work is not a narrative. Nor does the Gospel of Truth contain any story about Jesus, any place name of any type, any date, or any mention of any person other than Jesus, who is only mentioned five times.<\/p>\n<p>More than 60 times, this brief work uses the notions of knowledge or needing to know. This knowledge is born from within as the soul returns to itself, finding there what Deity deposited in it—or perhaps better, finding there the residue of Deity still entrapped within it. Thus whoever has Gnosis has simply taken what is his and can know where he or she comes from and for where he or she is bound. Christ’s role was to present the “Book of the Living” or the “Living Book.” “Book” is understood, not as the gospel proclamation of the life and teachings of Jesus, but rather as the primordial gospel or truth that existed before creation. It was error and ignorance that rebelled against the Savior and nailed him to the tree. Implied in this, though not explicitly stated, is the Gnostic understanding that it was also divine error and ignorance out of which matter emerged or was created. Salvation for living beings entrapped in this matter comes with return to unalloyed Deity. The path of this return is Gnosis (knowledge). The Pleroma, the fullness of the Deity, went out into the depths of matter in search of the elect among beings by way of Jesus and the cross.<\/p>\n<p>While these traits of Gnosticism are clear, this gospel is much closer to orthodoxy than most Gnostic Chenoboskion writings because it mentions only one Son of God, not several emanations; it does not split Jesus into a physical Jesus and a divine Christ; and most strikingly, Sophia, the usual central character in the Gnostic cosmic drama, does not appear at all. It is for these reasons among others that the Gospel of Truth is placed very close to Valentinus’s break with orthodoxy.<\/p>\n<p>The Gospel of Truth has assumed some degree of importance in NT studies beyond that warranted by its heretical content because it everywhere assumes our full NT canon. By some scholars’ counts, there are no less than 83 places where the Gospel of Truth echoes NT canonical books—in spite of the fact it does not cite a single saying of Jesus directly. Most particularly, it relies heavily on the book of Revelation and the Epistle to the Hebrews.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"VirginAssumptionofthe\">Virgin, Assumption of the<\/p>\n<p>A widely circulated legend dealing with the death and translation of the Virgin Mary. None of the many versions is earlier than the fourth century. Most go back to Egypt. In the Coptic versions, Jesus himself appears to Mary before the apostles depart on their missionary labors; Jesus announces her coming death and translation. In the other form an angel makes the announcement. Mary requests the presence of all the apostles, who are miraculously brought on the clouds. Mary is transfigured, and many healings result from contact with her dead body. She is transported to heaven by Jesus shortly after her death.<\/p>\n<p>This legend itself took on a new interest and importance when in 1950 “The Assumption of the Blessed Virgin” was made a part of official Roman Catholic dogma.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"VirginLifeofthe\">Virgin, Life of the<\/p>\n<p>There are a number of accounts of the early life and existence of the Virgin Mary. Most of them come to us through Coptic texts. They tell of the birth of Mary to Joachim (also called Cleopas) and Anna, who had been taunted by friends for having no children. Mary was born after a vision of a white dove. In some accounts Mary was dedicated to the Lord and then committed to the care of a man, Joseph. While she was in the house weaving on the veil of the temple, angels would come to minister to her. The annunciation by Gabriel is given at great length. The birth of Jesus is described in detail while Joseph is searching for a midwife, Salome. Other accounts go on to describe tender scenes between Mary and the child Jesus. In some of these versions, there is a reckless identification of the Virgin Mary with all of the other Marys of the Gospels.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"ZebulunTestamentof\">Zebulun, Testament of<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (above).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>APOCRYPHA*<\/h3>\n<p>Books excluded from the canon of Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Introduction<\/p>\n<p>• Apocryphal Gospels<\/p>\n<p>• Apocryphal Acts<\/p>\n<p>• Apocryphal Epistles<\/p>\n<p>• Apocalyptic Apocrypha<\/p>\n<p>• Specific Titles of Apocryphal Writings<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Introduction\">Introduction<\/p>\n<p>The writings of the Old and New Testaments tended to attract certain additional compositions in the form of books, parts of books, letters, “gospels,” apocalypses, and so on. Most of the authors wrote anonymously, but some presented their writings to the public under the name of a familiar OT figure or member of the Christian church. Several of these compositions formed a small but important part of the great body of Jewish literature that emerged during the period between the Old and New Testaments. Much of it was the result of religious and political ferment, for the Jews felt their faith and their very existence threatened, first by the pagan influences of Hellenistic Greek culture, then by the oppression of invading Roman forces.<\/p>\n\n<p>Most of the apocryphal books are also pseudepigrapha—that is, they are books ascribed to a pseudonymous author. In other words, the main characteristic of these writings is the fictitious claim that the author of the book was a biblical person (Enoch, Abraham, Moses, Solomon, Bartholomew, Thomas, etc.) or that the revelation contained in the book was originally given to a biblical character (Adam and Eve, Isaiah). Generally, the pseudepigrapha show a strong interest in the apocalyptic: the creation of the world, the future of Israel and the nations, the glory of God and his angels, the messianic kingdom, and life after death. Many of the pseudepigrapha are Jewish writings that were never accepted by the Jewish or Christian communities. They were written about the time of the Apocrypha (c. 200 <span>BC<\/span>–<span>AD<\/span> 110), but by the nature of the contents of the pseudepigrapha, they were only recognized by certain groups. Since some of these books approximated counterparts in the canonical Scriptures, there is no doubt that in some circles their authority and inspiration were regarded as similar to that of the scriptural compositions venerated by the Jews and later by Christians.<\/p>\n<p>Other religious writings from that period made no claim to be scriptural. Such compositions preserved the familiar traditions of both Judaism and primitive Christianity, although on occasion they enriched or embellished them by means of legends and unhistorical narratives. Because very few books of any kind were in circulation at that time, the Palestinians tended to read whatever literary material came into their possession. Although the Torah, or law of Moses, had always been recognized as the standard of theological orthodoxy for the Jews, narratives of endurance under persecution or accounts of the way that the enemies of God’s people received their just reward had an obvious attraction for those under the pressures of a pagan society.<\/p>\n<p>In the same way, although the Gospels and Epistles—along with the OT—comprised the basic canon or approved list of Scriptures for Christians, many additional narratives claimed the attention of Christ’s early followers. Those compositions often dealt with the supposed activities of Jesus and his followers, as well as with martyrdoms, revelations, and spiritual teachings. Some works contained material that was not only unhistorical but downright bizarre, but others reflected the spirit of Christ and the apostolic teachings to a certain extent. For the early Christians, as also for the Jews, the establishment of a formal canon of scriptural writings must have been prompted in part by a necessity to separate the record of revealed truth from other written forms of religious tradition as well as from actual heresy.<\/p>\n<p>Writings that failed to gain acceptance into the OT and NT canons were described in the writings of some early Christian scholars by the term “apocrypha.” The Greek word means “hidden things,” and when applied to books it described those works that religious authorities wished to be concealed from the reading public. The reason was that such books were thought to contain mysterious or secret lore, meaningful only to the initiate and therefore unsuitable for the ordinary reader. But the word “apocrypha” was also applied in a less complimentary sense to works that deserved to be concealed. Such works contained harmful doctrines or false teachings calculated to unsettle or pervert rather than edify those who read them. The suppression of undesirable writings was comparatively easy at a time when only a few copies of any book were in circulation at a given time.<\/p>\n<p>By the end of the first century <span>AD<\/span>, a clear distinction was being made in Jewish circles between writings that were suitable for use by the general public and esoteric works that were to be restricted to the knowledgeable and the initiated. Thus in 2 Esdras 14:1-6, the writer tells how Ezra was supposedly instructed by God to publish openly certain writings (among them the Torah), and keep others secret (that is, apocalyptic traditions dealing with the coming end of the age). In 2 Esdras 14:42-46 reference is made to 70 books, evidently noncanonical material, written after the 24 books of the Hebrew Canon.<\/p>\n<p>Use of the term “apocrypha” to mean “noncanonical” goes back to the fifth century <span>AD<\/span>, when Jerome urged that the books found in the Septuagint and in the Latin Bibles that did not occur in the canon of the Hebrew OT writings should be treated as apocryphal. They were not to be disregarded entirely, since they were part of the great contemporary outpouring of Jewish national literature. At the same time, they should not be used as sources for Christian doctrine but at best for supplementary reading of an uplifting or inspirational nature.<\/p>\n<p>Protestant theologians generally have followed the tradition established by Jerome, regarding the OT apocrypha as the excess of the Septuagint canon over the Hebrew Scriptures. When the Hebrew Bible began to be translated into Greek in Egypt during the reign of Ptolemy II (285–246 <span>BC<\/span>), the scholars concerned included a number of books that, while remaining outside the generally accepted list of Hebrew canonical writings, still had a bearing upon Jewish history and society. That procedure reflected contemporary attitudes in Palestine, where many people did not attempt to separate canonical writings from other forms of religious literature. The decision made by Jewish authorities about what to regard as canonical Scripture naturally had a bearing on what would constitute OT apocrypha.<\/p>\n<p>Textual evidence represented by certain manuscripts and fragments from the Dead Sea caves makes it reasonably certain that the last of the canonical Hebrew writings had been completed several decades before the time Alexander the Great (356–323 <span>BC<\/span>) began his conquests in the Near East. The process by which those compositions came to be accepted as canonical was more protracted, however. Only when they had been circulated, read, and assessed favorably by comparison with the spirituality of the Torah were they accorded general canonicity. Hence the distinction between the canonical and apocryphal writings came as much through usage and general consent on the part of orthodox Judaism as through any other manner. Earlier scholars suggested that the so-called Council of Jamnia, held in Palestine about <span>AD<\/span> 100, was responsible for drawing up a list of OT books suitable for use by the faithful. However, subsequent studies have thrown considerable doubt upon the historicity of such a council, at the same time showing that the Jewish authorities of that period considered their noncanonical writings to be more of an obstacle than a help to devotion.<\/p>\n<p>The books the Jews regarded as being specifically outside the Canon, and therefore apocryphal, are as follows: 1 Esdras; 2 Esdras; Tobit; Judith; the additions to Esther; the Wisdom of Solomon; Ecclesiasticus; Baruch; the Letter of Jeremiah; the additions to the book of Daniel (the Prayer of Azariah and the Song of the Three Young Men, Susanna, Bel and the Dragon); the Prayer of Manasseh; 1 Maccabees; and 2 Maccabees. Several Septuagint manuscripts included some pseudohistorical material under the titles of 3 and 4 Maccabees. Therefore, even the Apocrypha varied somewhat in content, depending upon the manuscript tradition being followed. Among early Christian scholars there was also some difference of opinion about the precise limits of canonical Hebrew Scripture, and hence of apocryphal material. A serious break with Hebrew and rabbinic tradition came with the writings of Augustine, who advanced the view that the books of the Apocrypha were of equal authority with the other writings of the canonical Hebrew and Christian Scriptures. A few dissenting voices were raised in support of Jerome’s position, but the views of Augustine were embraced by the Council of Trent (1546) and became official Roman Catholic teaching.<\/p>\n<p>The Roman Catholic Church includes the following works as part of the Deuterocanonical Scriptures: Tobit; Judith; the additions to Esther; the Wisdom of Solomon; Ecclesiasticus, or the Wisdom of Jesus ben Sirach; Baruch; the additions to the book of Daniel (the Prayer of Azariah and the Song of the Three Young Men, Susanna, Bel and the Dragon); 1 Maccabees; and 2 Maccabees. (Articles on each of these are interspersed throughout this dictionary.)<\/p>\n<p>Christians of the NT period were already familiar with Jewish apocryphal works, including the apocalyptic speculations found in 2 Esdras. Therefore, it was hardly surprising that a similar body of literature should grow up around their own Scriptures when they began to be composed and circulated. NT apocrypha, however, like its OT counterpart, could be considered only in relationship to an established canon of scriptural writings. Since the earliest catalog of NT writings, the Muratorian Canon, was not compiled until about <span>AD<\/span> 200, a considerable period of time elapsed before an official church statement could appear on what was to be considered NT apocrypha. In the meantime, a large assortment of materials of a predominantly religious nature appeared, purporting to be orthodox in nature and dealing with various aspects of historic Christianity. As events turned out, this apocryphal literature defeated the purposes it was intended to serve.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ApocryphalGospels\">Apocryphal Gospels<\/p>\n<p>One major class of apocrypha are the apocryphal gospels. These writings preserved stories about Christ and some teachings, but being mostly fanciful in nature they never became canonical. There are three broad classes:<\/p>\n<p>1. A type similar to the synoptic Gospels, represented by the Gospel of Peter and the Gospel of the Egyptians, as well as papyrus fragments including Oxyrhynchus 840 and Papyrus Egerton 2. Other papyrus collections of sayings show affinities with the canonical Gospels.<\/p>\n<li>2. Gospels that disseminated Gnosticism, a second-century <span>AD<\/span> heresy stressing philosophical knowledge <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">gnosis<\/span><em>)<\/em> of the cosmos and man. They are often in the form of dialogues between Jesus and his disciples, such as the Coptic Gospel of Thomas, the Apocryphon of John, the Wisdom of Jesus Christ, and the Dialogue of the Redeemer. In this category also come those “gospels” attributed to the Twelve as a group, such as the Memoirs of the Apostles.<\/li>\n<li>3. Infancy gospels, purporting to supply otherwise unknown information of a legendary nature about Christ’s earliest years. Passion gospels also come into this category. These narratives were written to satisfy curiosity about Christ’s birth and childhood or to embellish the canonical accounts of his crucifixion and resurrection.<\/li>\n<p>Because of the scarcity of information about such matters as the childhood, adolescence, and early manhood of Jesus, the “infancy” gospels purport to supply the reader with what was meant to pass for historical fact. Much of the material, however, was entirely within the realm of fantasy and could never have been accepted as fact by any intelligent reader. For example, in the Gospel of Thomas the five-year-old Jesus is accused of breaking the Sabbath by making sparrows of clay beside a stream. When his father Joseph investigates the situation, Jesus claps his hands and the clay birds come to life and fly away chirping.<\/p>\n<p>“Passion” gospels were written to embellish the canonical accounts of Christ’s crucifixion and resurrection. As supplements to Christian teaching, many of the apocryphal writings seemed to be proclaiming ideas that were actually outside the scope of NT doctrine. Attempts to fill in the “hidden years” of Christ’s life had no foundation whatever in the traditions of the Gospels. Works dealing with the last state of unbelievers were embellished in a manner that went far beyond anything stated in the NT. In some notable instances, as in the writings of various Gnostic sects, the authors set out deliberately to propagate heretical teachings they had accepted under the authority of some apostolic figure. The Gospel of Thomas, recovered around 1945 from Nag Hammadi (Chenoboskion) near the Nile River, is an example of an attempt to perpetuate curious sayings and dogmas by attributing them to Jesus, so that they would receive wide currency and acceptance.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ApocryphalActs\">Apocryphal Acts<\/p>\n<p>There are also some apocryphal acts, which are purported to be accounts of apostolic achievements not recorded in Scripture. Such “acts” are the source of much tradition, such as Peter’s being crucified upside down and Thomas’s mission to India. The reliability of the traditions is questionable because the writings contain clearly unorthodox material. Yet small fragments of accurate information may be embedded in this mass of largely fictitious literature.<\/p>\n<p>Because of their often heretical character, the church consistently reacted against such books, sometimes even demanding that they be burned (for example, at the Nicene Council of 787). The Acts of John pictured Jesus talking to John on the Mt of Olives during the crucifixion, explaining that it was only a spectacle. In the Acts of Thomas, Jesus appeared in the form of Thomas, exhorting a newly married couple to dedicate themselves to virginity. Sexual abstinence was a dominant theme, reflecting Platonic ideas, which disparaged the physical body.<\/p>\n<p>Many scholars date the earliest work, the Acts of John, before <span>AD<\/span> 150. The major Acts (of John, Paul, Peter, Andrew, and Thomas) were probably written during the second and third centuries. These gave rise to other “acts” that were primarily miracle stories, written more to entertain than to teach.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ApocryphalEpistles\">Apocryphal Epistles<\/p>\n<p>A host of apocryphal works are classified as epistles. These generally pseudonymous works originated from many widely separated periods of time. Many other apocryphal works are apocalyptic in nature. These works are supplemented by material such as the Apostolic Constitutions and Canons. Added to these are the Gnostic compositions found at Nag Hammadi, which include works purporting to represent the teachings of Christ as well as “secret” instructions compiled by the Gnostic writers and a few apocryphal compositions.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ApocalypticApocrypha\">Apocalyptic Apocrypha<\/p>\n<p>Another group could be called apocalyptic apocrypha. The term “apocalypse” means “disclosure” or “revelation,” a term that was generally applied to Christian literature that resembled the Revelation of John, which designates itself an apocalypse in Revelation 1:1. The practice of writing under the name of an illustrious figure of the past, or pseudonymity, was a characteristic device used by most unknown authors of Jewish and Christian apocalypses (the Revelation of John is a striking exception). Jewish apocalypses were attributed to such ancient worthies as Adam, Enoch, Abraham, Moses, Ezra, and others. Similarly, Christian apocalypses written in the second century <span>AD<\/span> and later were ascribed to such important early Christian figures as Peter, Thomas, James and others.<\/p>\n<p>In NT times there emerged in Judaism certain circles that developed an apocalyptic view of history. They provided such writings as the five parts of 1 Enoch, the Assumption of Moses, 2 Esdras, and the Apocalypse of Baruch. These books are of importance to NT study, for they provide a bridge between the OT and the NT concepts of the kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p>The apocalypses were written to answer the problems of theodicy (the justice of God). After the days of Ezra, the law assumed a more important role in the life of the people than before. In prophetic times Israel again and again apostatized from the law and worshiped foreign gods. The primary message of the prophets was to challenge Israel to get right with God and to turn in repentance to keep the law. After Ezra and throughout NT times, Israel was obedient to the law as never before. The Jews abhorred idolatry and faithfully worshiped God. Still the kingdom did not come. Instead came the fearful persecution in the Maccabean times by Antiochus IV Epiphanes, the worldly rule of the Hasmoneans, Pompey and Roman hegemony, and in <span>AD<\/span> 66–70, the siege and destruction of Jerusalem. Where was God? Why did he not deliver his faithful people? Why did the kingdom not come? The apocalypses were written to answer questions like these.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most important elements in apocalyptic religion is an explicit dualism, expressed as “this age” and “the age to come.” The prophets contrasted the present time with the future when the kingdom of God would be established. The apocalyptists radicalized this contrast. Twice we find fragments of this idiom in 1 Enoch. We meet the fully developed idiom in 2 Esdras and the Apocalypse of Baruch (late first century <span>AD<\/span>). “The Most High has made not one age but two” (2 Esd 7:50); “the day of judgment shall be the end of this age and the beginning of the immortal age that is to come” (2 Esd 7:113); “this age the Most High has made for many but the age to come for few” (2 Esd 8:1; see also Apoc Bar 14:13; 15:7; <em>Pirke Aboth<\/em> 4:1, 21-22; 6:4-7). Furthermore, the transition from this age to the age to come can be accomplished only by a cosmic act of God. In the apocryphal Assumption of Moses there is no messianic personage; it is God alone who comes to redeem Israel. In the Similitudes of Enoch the transition is accomplished with the coming of a heavenly, preexistent Son of Man. In 2 Esdras we find a conflation of the concepts of Davidic Messiah and the Son of Man.<\/p>\n<p>Apocalyptic differs from OT prophetic religion in that it is pessimistic about the present age. It would be wrong to describe the apocalypses as ultimately pessimistic, for their basic message is that in due time God will intervene and save his people. But for the present, as long as this age lasts, he has removed himself from intervening in Israel’s affairs. The present age is under the power of evil angelic and demonic forces and is irretrievably evil. God has abandoned this age to evil; salvation can be expected only in the age to come.<\/p>\n<p>The apocalyptists lost completely the tension between history and eschatology. They no longer expected any deliverance in this age. God had, in fact, become the God of the future, not of the present.<\/p>\n<p>In the dream-visions of Enoch (1 Enoch 83–90), God faithfully guided Israel throughout its history. Then God withdrew his personal leadership, forsook the temple, and surrendered his people to be torn and devoured. God “remained unmoved, though he saw it, and rejoiced that they were devoured and swallowed and robbed, and left them to be devoured in the hand of all the beasts” (1 Enoch 89:58). After the Babylonian captivity God was conceived to be inactive in history. History was surrendered to evil. All salvation was thrust into the future.<\/p>\n<p>Comparative studies have shown that the NT apocryphal writings preserve at best a series of debased traditions about the founder and teachings of early Christianity. At worst, the narratives are entirely devoid of historical value and in some respects are totally alien to NT spirituality. Even where they seem to support a tradition current in some part of the early church, the evidence they present is inferior to what can often be had from other sources. Sometimes the compositions are so trivial and inconsequential that it is difficult to account for their survival. Certain apocryphal writings did in fact become lost and are now known only in the form of quotations in larger works.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, the NT apocryphal compositions are important in indicating what was attractive to the ordinary people of the day. For them an element of the romantic seemed necessary to supplement the body of received spiritual truth. Certain of the stories recounted were vivid and imaginative, and others, such as the apocalypses, provided a form of escapism from harsh temporal realities. No matter what their nature, the NT apocryphal writings exerted an influence out of all proportion to their fundamental worth.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SpecificTitlesofApocryphalWritings\">Specific Titles of Apocryphal Writings<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"AbdiasApostolicHistoryof\">Abdias, Apostolic History of<\/p>\n<p>Collection of material drawn from canonical and apocryphal writings concerning the lives of the apostles, including Paul. Abdias, an early bishop of Babylon, was supposedly the author of this history that more probably was collated from a variety of sources in the sixth century <span>AD<\/span> in France. This apocryphal “acts,” divided into 10 books, originally circulated in Greek as individual volumes that were collected into one when a Latin version was made. The content is generally regarded as folklore or legend but is of some value where no other source is available.<\/p>\n<p>Abdias, a contemporary of the apostles, may have seen Christ and supposedly traveled extensively with Simon and Jude. There is no historical basis for considering Abdias as the author of the Hebrew text, or for believing that his disciple Eutropius translated it into Greek or that Africanus translated the Greek into Latin—although the preface to the Latin version makes those claims.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"AbgarusLettersofChristand\">Abgarus, Letters of Christ and<\/p>\n<p>Apocryphal work comprising two short letters, one supposedly written by the Syrian king Abgar (Abgarus), the other supposedly a reply from Jesus. Eusebius claimed to have found the material in the archives of Abgar at Edessa and translated it from Syrian to Greek together with an account of the exploits of the disciple Thaddaeus.<\/p>\n<p>According to the legend, Abgar, suffering from a severe disease, hears of the miracles of Jesus and sends a messenger with a letter asking Jesus to come heal him. At the same time he offers Jesus sanctuary from the dangerous opposition of the Jews in Jerusalem. In a written reply (later altered to an oral one to comply with the tradition that no writings of Jesus existed), Jesus declines the offer of sanctuary but promises that after his ascension he will comply with Abgar’s request for healing by sending a disciple to him. Thaddaeus, one of the Twelve, is dispatched to Edessa, the king is healed, and the community converts to Christianity. In a slightly different version in the Doctrina Addaei (about <span>AD<\/span> 400), an oral reply is given, and the messenger returns with a portrait of Jesus that is displayed prominently in Abgar’s palace.<\/p>\n<p>The legend is essentially similar to that described in the Greek Acts of Thaddaeus (fifth or sixth century <span>AD<\/span>), except that in the latter Ananias returns with a handkerchief on which is a miraculous imprint of the face of Christ.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"AbrahamApocalypseof\">Abraham, Apocalypse of<\/p>\n<p>Jewish document existing in old Slavonic texts that go back through Greek to a Hebrew or Aramaic original.<\/p>\n<p>The Apocalypse of Abraham begins with Abraham turning from idolatry. Incorporating old rabbinical traditions of Abraham’s youth, it describes his awakening to the call of God and his awareness that God was one and was holy. An angel named Jahoel, whose functions and powers are lifted from rabbinical lore, takes Abraham to the seventh heaven where he is shown things past and things yet to be. He sees the temptation of Adam and Eve through sexual sin, and the murder of Cain. Azazel, an evil being, plays Satan’s role. These details probably reflect a tradition that Abraham was the author of the first documents of the Bible. The revelation then turns to the future and shows the destruction of the temple, plagues upon the heathen, and the coming of the Messiah. It is probable that the composite document took final form in the last generation of the first century <span>AD<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>True to his character as revealed in Genesis, Abraham raises the question of evil and why God tolerates the rebellious Azazel. He receives the answer that evil has its origin in the free will of man. This apocalypse shows how faithful Jews struggled to understand the problem of evil during a time of great suffering in Judaism. It also illustrates the curious “doctrine of angels” of that period. Both Gnostic and Christian editing of the text has been noted by some scholars.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"AbrahamTestamentof\">Abraham, Testament of<\/p>\n<p>Jewish apocryphal writing describing the death of Abraham. In the testament, when the angel Michael comes to take Abraham’s soul, Abraham refuses to die. Reluctant to insist on the old man’s death, Michael accedes to his request to see all creation before he dies. The angel transports Abraham by chariot into the heavens so that he can observe mankind. Abraham is so shocked at the perfidy of humanity that he curses the sinners, who die immediately. He then observes the judgment of a soul, and although angels take part in the trial he notes that the presiding judge is Abel. The merits and demerits of the soul seem equally balanced, but because of the intervention of Abraham, the judgment is favorable. Abraham then realizes the severity of his cursing of sinners, but the angel informs him that the premature death of those whom he had cursed was the means of atonement for their sins.<\/p>\n<p>After his return to earth, Abraham again refuses to die. Death appears in all his horror and kills 7,000 servants of Abraham (who are subsequently raised to life), but the aged saint still will not die. Finally, Death grasps Abraham’s hand and the angels lift his spirit to the heavens.<\/p>\n<p>The account is found in several Greek manuscripts, the oldest perhaps dating from the 13th century <span>AD<\/span>, as well as in Slavonic, Romanian, Arabic, Ethiopic, and Coptic. The original language was probably Hebrew, from the first century <span>AD<\/span>, with the work possibly translated into Greek by a Christian. The testament also exists in a shorter version in which God comes to lift up the soul of Abraham during a dream. There is no attempt in the work to make a theological statement, but the portrayal of the angel Michael and of Death are typical of Jewish thought of the first century.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"ActsApocryphal\">Acts, Apocryphal<\/p>\n<p>Writings purported to be accounts of apostolic achievements not recorded in Scripture.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"ActsofPilate\">Acts of Pilate<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Pilate, Acts of (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"AdamApocalypseof\">Adam, Apocalypse of<\/p>\n<p>One of the best examples of Gnostic apocalyptic literature. In 1946, a farm worker discovered a number of ancient texts in a cave about 6 miles (10 kilometers) north of the Egyptian city of Nag Hammadi. The discovery included 13 codexes (predecessors of bound books) of Christian and non-Christian origin. The discovery was not immediately disclosed, so it was not until 1958 that a French scholar, Jean Doresse, revealed the existence of the Apocalypse of Adam to the public. The apocalypse is written in Coptic and stands as the last of five works in Codex V.<\/p>\n<p>Although the author’s true identity is unknown, the subtitle spuriously attributes the book to Adam or Seth: “An Apocalypse that Adam revealed to his son Seth in the seven hundredth year.” Seth was often cast in the role of transmitter of truth by the writers of Gnostic literature (for example, the Gospel of the Egyptians, the Paraphrase of Shem).<\/p>\n<p>The earliest existing copy of the Apocalypse of Adam is dated around <span>AD<\/span> 300 to 350, although it may have been written long before. Its frequent Gnostic references, its dependence on Jewish history, and its allusions to baptism have led some scholars to postulate an origin in the Jewish baptist sects of the first and second centuries. Parallels also exist between this work and third-century Manichean (a brand of Gnosticism) literature.<\/p>\n<p>The Apocalypse of Adam is of great importance to students of Christian origins. For many years scholars have debated whether the Gnostic religion was a heretical outgrowth of Christianity or whether it was a movement of independent origins. Some scholars have argued that the Apocalypse of Adam is an example of an early, independent Gnosticism. If this proves to be the case the debate will certainly be simplified.<\/p>\n<p>In addition to its introduction and conclusion, the Apocalypse of Adam may be divided into three parts: Adam’s summary of significant past events, predictions of attempts to eliminate mankind by the evil creator-god, and predictions about the coming of the Enlightener who will show his people the way to the true God.<\/p>\n<p>The apocalypse opens with Adam, supposedly on his deathbed, revealing the future secrets of the Gnostic people to Seth. These have been mystically communicated to him by three angelic beings. Adam bemoans his condition of perpetual slavery to the evil creator-god, brought about by the fall and mankind’s subsequent loss of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">gnosis<\/span> (knowledge). Typical of Gnostic literature, a sharp distinction is drawn between the evil creator-god who rules the earth and the true God of the universe, knowledge of whom brings authentic life. Adam predicts that the creator-god will jealously attempt to destroy mankind by a flood (the story of Noah) and by fire (the story of Sodom and Gomorrah) and thus keep mankind from knowledge of the true God. These attempts, however, will be foiled by the intervention of angelic beings sent from the God of truth. Finally, the true God will send the Enlightener who will teach <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">gnosis<\/span> to mankind so that they might know him. The creator-god will try to defeat the Enlightener but will be able to harm only his physical body. With the message of the Enlightener prevailing, mankind will turn from the creator-god and seek the true God through <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">gnosis<\/span><em>.<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Gnosticism.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"AdamApocryphalBooksof\">Adam, Apocryphal Books of<\/p>\n<p>Account of the life and death of Adam and Eve recorded in Latin, and in a Greek version known as the Apocalypse of Moses. Other minor versions of early Christian origin also exist. Like other apocryphal writings, the work is fanciful and of unknown authorship.<\/p>\n<p>According to the Latin account, after their expulsion from Paradise Adam and Eve are hungry and unable to find food for seven days. In desperation a penitent Eve, assuming responsibility for tasting the forbidden fruit, suggests that Adam kill her. He refuses, and after a search they survive by eating animals’ food. Adam suggests that as a penance they should stand fasting in the river up to their necks for 40 days, he in the Tigris, she in the Jordan. After 18 days Satan comes to Eve in the guise of an angel, tells her that the Lord has accepted her penance, and persuades her to leave the river. Coming to the Tigris where Adam is, Eve realizes that it was Satan who had spoken to her. Satan then explains that the reason for his fall was his refusal to worship man, a lower being.<\/p>\n<p>The archangel Michael is then sent to Adam with seeds so that he can learn to till the land. In a dream Eve sees Cain kill Abel, and in an attempt to prevent the murder by separating the brothers, Cain is made a farmer and Abel a shepherd. Subsequently a third son, Seth, is born. Adam receives a message from God that he is to die because he has obeyed the word of his wife rather than the instructions of God. When Adam is later in pain and close to death, he explains to Seth that Satan had tempted Eve to eat the forbidden fruit and that she in turn had persuaded him to taste it. Seth and Eve journey to the gates of Paradise to plead with God for Adam’s life. On the way Seth is attacked and bitten by a snake. At Paradise, Michael explains to them that Adam must die. Seth observes the burial of Adam and Abel.<\/p>\n<p>Before Eve’s death the following week, she asks Seth to make a record of the lives of his parents on tablets of stone and clay, so that if the Lord shows his anger with the world by water, the clay will be dissolved and the stone remain; if by fire, the stone will be broken up and the clay baked hard. Eve also warns Seth to mourn for six days only and not on the Sabbath.<\/p>\n<p>The text of the Greek version is similar to that of the Latin, except that the Greek version includes a description of Adam’s resurrection (added later to the Latin) and a detailed account by Eve of her temptation and fall. The burial of Adam and the initial refusal of the earth to accept the body of the slain Abel are also elaborately described in the Greek account. Both versions are probably derived from Hebrew originals dating from the first century <span>AD<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"AhikarBookof\">Ahikar, Book of<\/p>\n<p>Near Eastern folktale from the sixth or seventh century <span>BC<\/span> showing the reward of ingratitude. According to the story, Ahikar, secretary of Sennacherib, king of Assyria, was renowned for his wisdom. Childless even though he had 60 wives, Ahikar adopted his sister’s son, Nadan, and reared him to be his successor in Sennacherib’s court. Ahikar diligently educated his adopted son, who nevertheless turned out to be bad and even forged documents to have his benefactor condemned to death. Ahikar was spared through his friendship with the executioner and was concealed until the wrath of the king cooled. Later, when Sennacherib had occasion to wish for his wisdom, Ahikar was brought on the scene, long-haired, disheveled, and with fingernails like eagles’ claws. Once again in the king’s favor, Ahikar sternly rebuked his unscrupulous nephew. In response to Ahikar’s rebuke, Nadan’s body swelled up and his stomach burst open.<\/p>\n<p>Ahikar’s story has interesting parallels with OT wisdom books and also with some of the parables of Jesus. References to Ahikar occur in the apocryphal book of Tobit, in the Greek philosopher Democritus, in the apocalyptic Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, as well as in the Koran. The story, originally in Aramaic, also survives in Syriac, Arabic, Armenian, Ethiopic, and Greek, though with considerable variations in the versions.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"AkhmimFragment\">Akhmim Fragment<\/p>\n<p>Document found in a tomb in Akhmim in Egypt and containing the apocryphal Gospel of Peter. <em>See<\/em> Peter, Preaching of (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"AllogenesSupreme\">Allogenes Supreme<\/p>\n<p>Gnostic work (“The Most High Stranger”), discovered in 1946 in an urn near Nag Hammadi (Egypt). The Neoplatonist historian Porphyry, as well as later Syriac Christian writings against heresy, mentioned the works of Allogenes (whose name means “foreigner” or “stranger”). Allogenes Supreme, a Gnostic “apocalypse” written in Coptic, contains an account of the creation of the higher world, exalting Barbelo, the celestial mother. The existing copy was made during the fourth century, but the original may date back to the second century.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"AndrewActsof\">Andrew, Acts of<\/p>\n<p>Apocryphal work describing purported miracles and the martyrdom in Greece of the apostle Andrew, Peter’s brother. Its theme is the virtue of turning away from materialism and the transitory values of the world to an asceticism associated with dedication of life to God. The earliest fragment available is in the Vatican. The original probably dated from the second century <span>AD<\/span> and was probably long, verbose, and tedious. Feeling that it had merit, Gregory of Tours in the sixth century wrote a concise account of the miracles of Andrew from an original, now lost. The account of the martyrdom of Andrew probably circulated separately.<\/p>\n<p>Among the many miracles Gregory recorded was one concerning Exoos, a noble youth from Thessalonica, who, having heard of Andrew’s preaching and miracles, comes to him at Philippi, is converted, and remains with him. Finding bribery useless and refusing to listen to Andrew, the youth’s parents set fire to the house where the Christians are staying. As the flames roar, Exoos prays that the Lord will extinguish the fire and sprinkles it with water. Thereupon the flames die out. The parents and the crowd, claiming that the youth is now a sorcerer, climb ladders to enter the house and kill the inhabitants, but God blinds the intruders. Although it is night, a light shines out from the house, sight is restored to those who have been blinded, and all except the youth’s parents are converted. The parents die soon afterward, and Exoos remains with Andrew, spending his inheritance on the poor. Returning to Thessalonica, Exoos heals a man who has been paralyzed for 23 years, and subsequently Exoos and Andrew perform further miracles and preach to the people.<\/p>\n<p>In Patrae the maidservant of Maximilla, wife of the proconsul Aegeates, comes to Andrew and implores him to heal her mistress, whose fever is so severe that her husband is standing at her bedside threatening to kill himself with a sword the moment she dies. Telling the proconsul to put up his sword, Andrew takes Maximilla’s hand and the fever leaves her. Ordering food for her, Andrew then refuses Aegeates’ offer of 100 pieces of silver. After performing many miracles in the city, Andrew receives a message from Maximilla to come and heal the slave of the proconsul’s brother, Stratocles. The apostle restores the boy to health, and his master believes.<\/p>\n<p>Maximilla, to the fury of her husband, spends considerable time listening to the preaching of Andrew and is also converted. She then refuses to sleep with her husband and one night even substitutes a servant for herself. Details of subsequent events are found in the account of the martyrdom. Aegeates, in anger, holds Andrew responsible for his wife’s alienation and has him arrested. After preaching from prison, Andrew is taken to be crucified by the seashore. When the Christian Stratocles sees Andrew being manhandled by the soldiers, he fights his way through, and he and Andrew walk together to the place of crucifixion. Aegeates, fearing his brother, orders the soldiers not to interfere. At the seashore the soldiers follow the proconsul’s command that Andrew be tied, not nailed, to the cross so that his death will be lingering and he will be eaten by dogs. After two days he is still speaking to people from the cross, and many come to Aegeates demanding Andrew’s release. Arriving at the scene, the proconsul sees that Andrew is indeed alive, and Aegeates approaches the apostle to release him. Andrew demands that he be allowed to die and meet his Lord. As they watch, Andrew dies and the onlookers weep as Maximilla and Stratocles take down his body from the cross. Maximilla remains apart from her husband and continues as a Christian.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"AndrewStoryof\">Andrew, Story of<\/p>\n<p>Legendary fragment existing only in the Coptic language. In the legend coming from the late second century <span>AD<\/span>, a woman kills her child in the desert and gives the remains to a dog. She flees when the apostle Andrew and Philemon approach, but the dog tells what happened. Andrew prays and the child, being vomited forth, is restored to life and laughs and cries.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"AndrewandMatthiasActsof\">Andrew and Matthias, Acts of<\/p>\n<p>Lengthy document of highly questionable authenticity, probably dating from the late second century <span>AD<\/span>. This book was one of many apocryphal “acts” intended to supplement the NT book of Acts by providing more information about the apostles. The fourth-century church historian Eusebius described this work and others like it as heretical, absurd, and spurious.<\/p>\n<p>In this story, the apostles cast lots to determine where each should go. Matthias (Matthew in some versions) is sent to the country of the man-eaters, where he soon requires rescue from a cannibal feast. The Lord then sends Andrew to save him. Andrew arrives in time to do so, and Matthias is then carried off by a cloud. Now alone, Andrew is arrested and tortured, being dragged through the city that he nearly destroys by calling forth water from a statue. Eventually, impressed by Andrew’s miracles, the people repent and release him. Andrew next draws a plan for a church, has it built, baptizes the people, and gives them the ordinances of the Lord.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"AndrewandPaulActsof\">Andrew and Paul, Acts of<\/p>\n<p>Fragmentary apocryphal story, existing only in Coptic fragments, about the arrival of the apostles Andrew and Paul by sea at a city. In the story, Paul, instructing Andrew to rescue him, visits the underworld. There he meets Judas, who explains that he worshiped Satan after Jesus had pardoned him for the betrayal. Andrew rescues Paul, who returns carrying a piece of wood. Although Andrew is asked to heal a child, some Jews are skeptical and the city gates remain closed to the apostles. Paul strikes the gates with his piece of wood, and the gates are swallowed up into the earth. Astonished at the miracle, 27,000 Jews are converted.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"ApostlesEpistleofthe\">Apostles, Epistle of the<\/p>\n<p>Letter purporting to come from the 11 apostles to the churches “of the east and the west, of the north and the south, declaring and imparting to you that which concerns our Lord Jesus Christ.” Some believe that the epistle was written in Asia Minor about <span>AD<\/span> 160; others think that it originated in Egypt. It is probably to be dated near the middle of the second century. In existence are a mutilated Coptic manuscript of the fourth or fifth century, a complete version in Ethiopic, and a fragment in Latin. The epistle was unknown until the discovery in 1895 of the Coptic manuscript.<\/p>\n<p>After an introduction there is a declaration that “our Lord and Redeemer Jesus Christ is God the Son of God who was sent of God the Lord of the whole world.” Then follows a summary of a number of incidents from the Gospels, including a negative statement of the Golden Rule: “Love your enemies, and what you would not that man do to you, that do to no man.” Chapter 24 introduces the subject of the resurrection followed by a series of questions by the disciples with answers by Jesus. A prophecy of the conversion of Paul appears in chapter 31. In chapter 43 the five wise virgins are identified as “Faith and Love and Grace and Peace and Hope”; the names of the foolish are “Knowledge, Understanding (Perception), Obedience, Patience, and Compassion.” The question-and-answer format of a substantial part of the work is reminiscent of the style of some of the texts found in the Gnostic library at Nag Hammadi, especially the Apocryphon of John. However, warnings that Cerinthus and Simon (ch 7) are “enemies of our Lord Jesus Christ” make it clear that this is not a Gnostic document. The epistle contains numerous evidences of orthodox influence, along with clear indications of a departure from apostolic Christianity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"ApostlesGospeloftheTwelve\">Apostles, Gospel of the Twelve<\/p>\n<p>One of a large number of heretical “gospels” circulating in the earliest centuries of the Christian church along with the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. The Gospel of the Twelve Apostles was first mentioned by name in comments on Luke 1:1 by the Christian theologian Origen (c. <span>AD<\/span> 185–254). Some scholars think it may have been the same as the Gospel of the Ebionites, quoted in a few early Christian writings. Nothing is known directly of the Gospel of the Twelve Apostles.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"ArabicGospeloftheInfancy\">Arabic Gospel of the Infancy<\/p>\n<p>One of several “gospels of the infancy” found in the apocryphal NT. This one from about the fifth century contains an account of the birth of Jesus, including the visits of the shepherds and the magi, the flight into Egypt, and miracles performed by Jesus as a boy. Details of the early period of Jesus’ life are given, about which the canonical Gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke, John) say nothing. An interesting facet of the miracle stories is the role in many of them of Mary, the mother of Jesus, in contrast to the record of the miracles in the canonical Gospels. The Arabic Gospel may have been written in Syriac and translated into Arabic. Some of its stories are also found in the Koran and other Islamic writings. Study of this apocryphal gospel reveals its sharp contrast with the canonical accounts, but it also indicates how much this and similar writings had to do with the growing veneration of the virgin Mary.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"ArabicHistoryofJosephtheCarpenter\">Arabic History of Joseph the Carpenter<\/p>\n<p>Fourth-century <span>AD<\/span> account of the life and death of Joseph—with information supposedly supplied by Jesus. According to this account, Joseph the carpenter becomes a widower after fathering four sons and two daughters (ch 2). He is entrusted with the care of Mary in his 90th year (ch 14). Thus, according to this account, the brothers and sisters of Jesus are Joseph’s children by a previous marriage. Joseph is said to have died at the age of 111 years. The document, which exists in both Arabic and Coptic versions, contains the statement that Mary “must look for the same end of life as other mortals” (ch 18). Hence, it has been dated as earlier than the fifth century, when the idea of the “assumption of Mary into heaven” was being promoted.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"AristeasLetterof\">Aristeas, Letter of<\/p>\n<p>Early account of the relationships between Judaism and Hellenism in Egypt during the period when the Hebrew OT was translated into Greek (the Septuagint). The author, Aristeas, who identifies himself as an Alexandrian court attendant under Ptolemy Philadelphus II (ruled 283–247 <span>BC<\/span>), purports to give information about the translation procedures. The most probable date for the Letter of Aristeas (estimates vary from 200 <span>BC<\/span> to <span>AD<\/span> 50) is the end of the second century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>As part of his massive library project, King Ptolemy shows interest in the Jewish law. Aristeas uses the occasion to request the emancipation with remuneration of all Jewish slaves in the kingdom and King Ptolemy accedes to the request. The king asks that the high priest in Jerusalem select translators for the project. There follows a lengthy description of gifts sent to Eleazar, the high priest, with special emphasis upon an exquisite table. And then Aristeas describes the temple, the priests, the vestments of the high priest, and the defense system for the temple, followed by a brief description of Palestine and its environs.<\/p>\n<p>In the next section, the high priest talks with Aristeas and the translators before their departure to Alexandria. A summary of his speech includes a careful defense of the law from a philosophical viewpoint. The king gives a lavish banquet for the 72 translators (6 from each tribe) when they arrive in Alexandria. Each translator gives a brilliant answer to the king’s specific questions at the seven successive nights of celebration. The name of each translator and his question and answer are recorded. Then the work is completed on the island of Pharos in 72 days and is praised by the Alexandrian Jews and the king. The translators are dismissed with lavish gifts.<\/p>\n<p>In the epilogue, the author claims to have been an eyewitness to the events and maintains that his report is accurate. This is not believed by modern scholars. Its embellished and legendary quality was recognized in the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>. Aristeas’s discussion of the translation procedure was obviously a convenient literary frame on which to hang a defense of Judaism to the heathen world. Religious liberalism and loyalty to basic Jewish beliefs were skillfully combined to plead for political toleration for the Jews. Many specifics of the Letter of Aristeas are questionable, but its basic picture of how the Septuagint translation came to be made is credible. <em>See<\/em> the discussion of the Septuagint in Bible, Versions of the (Ancient).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"ArmenianGospeloftheInfancy\">Armenian Gospel of the Infancy<\/p>\n<p>Legendary account of the infancy and boyhood of Jesus Christ, one of many apocryphal gospels intended to supplement the four NT Gospels by providing more details about Jesus’ early life. It was probably translated into Armenian from a Syriac original. Nestorian missionaries reportedly brought an “infancy gospel” into Armenia about <span>AD<\/span> 590, but evidently not the Armenian Gospel in its present form.<\/p>\n<p>Sources for the Armenian Gospel included two books containing legendary material about Christ’s infancy, the Protevangelium of James and the Infancy Gospel of Thomas. The Armenian Gospel amplifies the material of these two texts considerably, making many novel additions to the life of Jesus. For example, Joseph searches for a midwife and meets Eve, who has come to witness the fulfillment of the promised Redeemer-seed (Gn 3:15). Later the magi bring the testament Adam gave to Seth. Jesus, accused of causing a child’s death, is cleared when the child is raised from the dead.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"AscensionofIsaiah\">Ascension of Isaiah<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Isaiah, Ascension of (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"AscentsofJames\">Ascents of James<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> James, Ascents of (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"AsenathPrayerof\">Asenath, Prayer of<\/p>\n<p>Jewish story about the wife of Joseph when he was in Egypt (Gn 41:45) and known by several titles—The Life and Confession of Asenath, The Book of Joseph and Asenath, and variations of the above. It was apparently very popular in the early and medieval Christian church. Latin, Syriac, Slavonic, Rumanian, and Ethiopic versions, in addition to 40 Armenian copies, have been found.<\/p>\n<p>Modern scholars tend to see the source of the novel in the Hellenistic Judaism prevalent in Egypt from 100 <span>BC<\/span> to <span>AD<\/span> 100. Asenath seems to serve as a model for any proselyte to Judaism. If that understanding is correct, the story gives valuable insight into the less legalistic attitudes of a sector of pre-Christian Judaism. Repentant realization of the hopelessness of one’s sinful condition and casting oneself upon the mercies of God play a large part in the story.<\/p>\n<p>The original was probably written in Greek and is divided into two major parts. Part I deals with Asenath’s pampered life prior to meeting Joseph, his initial rejection of her because of her idolatry, and her consequent repentance in ashes. Asenath calls upon God in prayer, and he sends an angel to her to announce her forgiveness and to say that her name is now written in the Book of Life. Joseph returns and marvels at Asenath’s new beauty, rejoicing at her conversion. With Pharaoh’s blessing they are married the next day.<\/p>\n<p>Part II describes the period when Joseph’s father, Jacob, and his family have come to Egypt. Desiring Asenath, the elder son of Pharaoh tempts Joseph’s brothers Dan and Gad to help him kidnap her. The plan is foiled by Joseph’s other brothers, who then wish to kill Dan and Gad, but Asenath pleads successfully for their lives. Pharaoh leaves the crown to Joseph, who rules 40 years and then returns the reign to Pharaoh’s younger son.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"AsherTestamentof\">Asher, Testament of<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"AssumptionofMoses\">Assumption of Moses<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Moses, Assumption of (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"BarnabasActsof\">Barnabas, Acts of<\/p>\n<p>Document of one of several distinct cycles of tradition about Barnabas, the apostle Paul’s companion, this one linking him with Cyprus. This work, whose full title is The Journeyings and Martyrdom of Saint Barnabas the Apostle, was probably composed in Cyprus at the end of the fifth or the beginning of the sixth century <span>AD<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The book purports to be a first-person account written by John Mark. He claims to have left the apostles in Perga (cf. Acts 13:13) so he could sail to the West but was prevented. When he tried to rejoin them in Antioch, Paul prohibited him. Consequently, after some dispute, John Mark and Barnabas sailed for Cyprus. After preaching and healing many people, Barnabas encountered his old adversary, Bar-Jesus, who finally stirred up the Jews to capture him. Leading Barnabas out of the city of Salamis, they circled around him and burned him alive. John Mark and some other believers escaped with his ashes and buried them in a cave along with scriptures Barnabas had received from Matthew. John Mark then left for Alexandria to minister there.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"BarnabasEpistleof\">Barnabas, Epistle of<\/p>\n<p>This anonymous letter addresses a question commonly asked throughout the early church: What should Christianity’s relationship be to Judaism? Clement of Alexandria quoted from this document frequently and ascribed it to “Barnabas, who himself also preached with the apostle [Paul].” Jerome believed the same. But the writer does not claim to be Barnabas, and the earliest claims of authorship come only from Alexandrian church leaders. The literary and interpretive style is entirely Alexandrian, so it is assumed that the epistle was written in Alexandria.<\/p>\n<p>The author of this epistle unequivocally denies any connection between Judaism and the gospel of Jesus Christ. At the same time, he does not say that the OT opposes the NT; rather, he sees Christianity everywhere in the Law and the Prophets. He holds that all the Judaistic rites and ceremonies are mystical pointers to Christ and that an evil angel has blinded the Jews from understanding this.<\/p>\n<p>The epistle mentions the destruction of Jerusalem, so it was not written before <span>AD<\/span> 70. There was a second devastation of Jerusalem in <span>AD<\/span> 132 that ended the revolt of Bar-Kochba. This defeat would have served the author’s purposes so well that he would surely have referred to it if he were writing after the event. Many scholars suggest that the letter was composed around 130, since this was a period of strong Jewish nationalism. This nationalism would have pressured many Jewish Christians to return to Judaism, and so the author of the Epistle of Barnabas wrote to defend Christianity against Judaism.<\/p>\n<p>The Epistle of Barnabas is composed of two parts. The first section (chs 1–17) contains allegorical interpretations of the OT. These highly spiritual and mystical interpretations are intended to oppose Jewish legalism and explain how the OT prophesied of Jesus Christ. The author concedes that righteous people, such as Moses, David, and the prophets, understood the true meaning of Mosaic law, but he contends that the rest of the nation of Israel had misconstrued God’s covenant. Therefore, the Jews lost their claim to the covenant’s blessings, which were transferred to the Christians instead. This allegorical style of interpretation was very popular among Alexandrian church leaders. The NT epistle of Hebrews also makes use of this type of interpretation. The author of the Epistle of Barnabas often quotes from the Septuagint, though the quotes are somewhat loosely recited.<\/p>\n<p>A Latin version of the first section was all that was known of the Epistle of Barnabas until the discovery of Codex Sinaiticus in 1859. This codex contained the first known Greek version of the Epistle of Barnabas, which was appended to the books of the NT along with The Shepherd and the Didache. The Greek version contains a second section that begins, “Now let us pass on to quite a different sort of instruction.” This section contains moral precepts that contrast the way of darkness with the way of light, much of which seems to be transcribed from the “Two Ways” of the Didache. It has little connection with the first section. This has led many scholars to conclude that the second section was added by another writer at some later date.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"BarnabasGospelof\">Barnabas, Gospel of<\/p>\n<p>Long Italian work actually written in the fourth century by a proselyte to Islam. He probably sought to capitalize on the mysterious mention of such a gospel in the Gelasian Decree, written not later than the sixth century <span>AD<\/span>. To date, no other evidence of an authentic gospel by Barnabas has been uncovered, a fact that has led many scholars to doubt whether it ever existed.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"BartholomewActsof\">Bartholomew, Acts of<\/p>\n<p>Early Christian novel purporting to describe the last days and death of the apostle Bartholomew. The work is also known as The Martyrdom of the Holy and Glorious Apostle Bartholomew. It may date back to the fifth or sixth century <span>AD<\/span> and was evidently well received, for copies exist in Latin, Greek, Armenian, and Ethiopic.<\/p>\n<p>In the Acts, Bartholomew goes to India, takes up residence in a pagan temple, and causes its false oracle to cease. Bartholomew then heals a demoniac, thus drawing the attention of King Polymius. Bartholomew also heals the king’s demon-possessed daughter. Next, he casts the false god out of the temple. After this display of power, many believe the gospel. The king’s brother, however, is enraged and has Bartholomew beaten and beheaded. His rash action is soon punished, for he is strangled to death by a demon. The good King Polymius becomes bishop and serves 20 years.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"BartholomewApocalypseof\">Bartholomew, Apocalypse of<\/p>\n<p>Fragmentary Coptic texts that have some similarities to the apocryphal Gospel of Bartholomew. A few scholars have felt that two works were represented in these fragments, a gospel and also an apocalypse. Though this hypothesis has been generally abandoned, references to the debatable Apocalypse of Bartholomew still appear.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bartholomew, Gospel of (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"BartholomewBookoftheResurrectionofChristby\">Bartholomew, Book of the Resurrection of Christ by<\/p>\n<p>Apocryphal work existing only in Coptic and probably dating from the fifth or sixth century <span>AD<\/span>. Like many similar writings of doubtful authenticity, it claims to supplement the accounts of Jesus found in the biblical Gospels. The book was supposedly addressed by Bartholomew to his son, Thaddaeus, who was warned in it not to let this book “come into the hand of any man who is an unbeliever and a heretic.” The book can hardly be regarded as a narrative; its aim is obviously the glorification of Bartholomew, who sees things that are hidden from others. The text contains many breaks; contradictions abound and a disregard of history is evident. Two different persons bury the body of Jesus: Joseph and Philogenes, father of a boy healed by Jesus. Mary, the mother of Jesus, is confused with Mary Magdalene. In the account of the Last Supper the author goes far beyond biblical statements about the bread and wine: “His Body was on the Table about which they were assembled; and they divided it. They saw the blood of Jesus pouring out as living blood down into the cup.” Imaginative details also embellish the account of the resurrection. Christ, for example, brings Adam back with him from hades. The story of doubting Thomas has been greatly amplified.<\/p>\n<p>The most complete text of the Book of the Resurrection is in the British Museum in London. Several other fragments exist, probably from an earlier version.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"BartholomewGospelOf\">Bartholomew, Gospel of<\/p>\n<p>One of many apocryphal gospels appearing after the second century under the name of some illustrious figure. The early church was aware not only of the existence of these writings but also of their fictitious character. In the fourth century the church historian Eusebius described them as heretical, spurious, absurd, and impious. Later a Gospel of Bartholomew was mentioned by name, along with several other Gnostic gospels, in the prologue of Jerome’s commentary on Matthew’s Gospel. However, there is no evidence that Jerome had seen such a book or that it actually existed.<\/p>\n<p>A work called Questions of Bartholomew does exist in Greek, Latin, and Slavonic texts—the Greek dating possibly from the fifth or sixth century. Its text has Bartholomew asking Jesus where he went after the Crucifixion and Jesus telling him that he went into hades. Later Bartholomew is pictured as asking Mary to tell how she conceived the incomprehensible or bore him that cannot be carried. Mary warns him that if she began to tell them, fire would come forth from her mouth and consume all the world, but the apostle persists. As she tells the story of the angelic visitation and the Annunciation, fire comes from her mouth. The world is about to come to an end, but Jesus intervenes and places his hand over Mary’s mouth. The apostles also ask to see the bottomless pit and “the things which are in the heavens.” Bartholomew is shown the adversary of men, Beliar, restrained by 660 angels and bound with fiery chains. When Bartholomew treads upon his neck, Beliar explains that he had first been called Satanael and later Satan, describes the creation of the angels, and tells how he fell and how he was able to deceive Eve. Finally, Bartholomew is said to have asked Jesus about the greatest sin. Jesus replies that to say anything evil against a faithful worshiper of God is to sin against the Holy Spirit.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"BaruchApocalypseof\">Baruch, Apocalypse of<\/p>\n<p>Two different pseudepigraphal works.<\/p>\n<p>1. Pseudepigraphal Jewish document of 87 chapters, written in Hebrew and translated into Greek and from Greek into Syriac. Only a few lines of the Hebrew original still exist, quoted in rabbinic writings. The Syriac manuscript dates from the sixth or seventh century AD and is the only complete text. It shows evidence of multiple authorship and dependence on the book of 2 Esdras in the Apocrypha. Similarity of many expressions to those in the NT suggests that the original may have been composed in the last half of the first century or the first half of the second century.<\/p>\n<p>The text is in seven sections of unequal length containing both prose and poetic material. The subjects dealt with are the Messiah and his future kingdom, Israel’s past woes, and the destruction of Jerusalem by the Babylonians. Theological questions such as sin and suffering, free will, the number of people to be saved by the Messiah, and the resurrection of the righteous are not always treated consistently within the text. Some passages paint an optimistic picture of Israel’s future; others are deeply pessimistic. In general the world is a scene of corruption for which no remedy exists. A new and spiritual world is at hand: “Whatever is now is nothing, but that which shall be is very great. For everything that is corruptible shall pass away, and everything that dies shall depart and all the present time, which is defiled with evils.” The alternating optimism and pessimism may reflect the changing fortunes of Judaism in the first and second centuries <span>AD<\/span> or simply the outlook of the different authors. The message of hope is directed to those who keep the law of Moses: “For the righteous justly hope for the end, and without fear depart from this habitation, because they have with Thee a store of works preserved in treasuries.”<\/p>\n<p>The final section of the book is identified as “the epistle which Baruch, the son of Neriah, sent to the nine and a half tribes.” It was sent by being “bound to the neck of the eagle,” probably meaning that it was intended for the Jews scattered outside Palestine (the Diaspora).<\/p>\n<p>Baruch was the prophet Jeremiah’s companion and secretary (Jer 36:4-8). His name was attached to a number of apocryphal and pseudepigraphal writings composed long after his death. The Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch is also called 2 Baruch to distinguish it clearly from the book of Baruch (1 Baruch) in the Apocrypha.<\/p>\n<li>2. Pseudepigraphal document of 17 chapters, also called the Greek Apocalypse of Baruch or 3 Baruch. It is preserved in Greek, Ethiopic, Armenian, and Slavonic manuscripts. It was first published in Venice in 1609 and then in 1868, although its existence was suggested by the early Christian theologian Origen. Like 2 Baruch, this apocalypse seems to be a composite document of the second century <span>AD<\/span> but in contrast is a Christian document intended to warn unconverted Jews and to encourage Christians to be patient in dealing with them.<\/li>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"BasilidesGospelof\">Basilides, Gospel of<\/p>\n<p>Polemic commentary on the Gospels by a second-century Gnostic. Basilides’s writings remain only as allusions and fragments in later works by several church fathers. Basilides taught in Alexandria during the reign of the Roman emperor Hadrian (<span>AD<\/span> 117–138). His teacher, Glaucias, claimed to be a firsthand interpreter of the apostle Peter. Basilides asserted that his Gnostic scheme emerged from Peter’s views on the relationship between God and Christ. He described God paradoxically as a nonexistent Being who “generated” three Sonships. Through successive ascents and enlightenments, the gospel of the supreme God (the Gospel of Light) eventually descended upon Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>Origen stated that “Basilides dared to write a gospel According to Basilides.” Clement of Alexandria and the writer of a fourth-century fragment, Acta Archelai, thought that Origen referred to an apocryphal gospel, the teaching of which was deduced from Irenaeus’s account. Today, more in line with Hippolytus’s understanding of Basilides, this work is regarded as merely a commentary on the Gospels. Basilides was probably not responsible for the magical rites and libertinism of the Basilidians, a Gnostic sect led by his son Isidore and continuing in Egypt to the end of the century.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"BenjaminTestamentof\">Benjamin, Testament of<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"BirthofMary\">Birth of Mary<\/p>\n<p>An early Gnostic writing. “The Gnostics have a book which they call the Birth (or Descent) of Mary, in which are horrible and deadly things.” So said the fourth-century bishop Ephiphanius in describing the Birth of Mary, a work that has not survived. The Birth of Mary claimed to reveal what Zechariah, father of John the Baptist, saw in the temple—namely, the Jewish god in the form of an ass. That Jews and Christians worshiped an ass-god was commonly held by their critics in those days. This blasphemous work should not be confused with the Gospel of the Birth of Mary, a fanciful but relatively harmless account of Mary’s birth, early life, and marriage to Joseph.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"BirthofMaryGospelofthe\">Birth of Mary, Gospel of the<\/p>\n<p>Collection of legends purporting to tell Mary’s story from birth to King Herod’s slaughter of the children in Bethlehem. The earliest such manuscript is called Book of the Nativity of Mary or Gospel of James because it claimed to be written by James, half brother of Jesus. It was written by <span>AD<\/span> 150, since Justin, an early Christian writer, named it in his <em>Dialogues<\/em> (165). It was rediscovered for the West by Postel, who translated it from Greek into Latin (<em>Protevangelium Jacobi,<\/em> 1552). Before it was lost, two major Latin revisions of it had been produced: Pseudo-Matthew and the Gospel of the Nativity of Mary, compiled around the sixth and ninth centuries respectively. These revisions amplified the Book of the Nativity of Mary with more fanciful legends and were the basis for the Golden Legends of James of Voragine (1230–1298), which in turn became instrumental in fostering veneration of Mary.<\/p>\n<p>According to the Book of the Nativity of Mary, Mary is born to rich, barren parents (Joachim and Anna) through angelic response to their prayers. They dedicate Mary to the Lord. At six months Mary walks seven steps, so Anna makes her bedroom a sanctuary, allowing nothing unclean to enter, and vows that Mary will walk again only in the temple. At age three Mary is placed in the temple and receives food from an angel. On Mary’s twelfth birthday the high priest asks God what to do and is told to marry her to a widower. Elderly Joseph is chosen when a dove springs from his rod. Months later, Mary “gives birth” to Jesus in Bethlehem’s cave, through a light so bright that none can see; the light gradually withdraws and the Child appears at Mary’s breast. The Book of the Nativity of Mary closes with the magi and Herod’s slaughter of infants. Mary saves Jesus by wrapping him in swaddling clothes and laying him in a manger.<\/p>\n<p>Recently another Greek fragment, this one from the Gospel of Mary, was found (see photo). The fragment is too little to tell us much about the content of this gospel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"BookoftheCock\">Book of the Cock<\/p>\n<p>Apocryphal story preserved by the church of Ethiopia and still read there on the Thursday before Easter. According to the Book of the Cock, on the night of the Last Supper, Akrosina, wife of Simon the Pharisee, presents Jesus with a nicely prepared cock for dinner. After Judas leaves the room, Jesus touches the cock and it comes to life. He instructs it to follow Judas and to report his dealings. The cock returns and tells about the forthcoming betrayal, mentioning Paul of Tarsus as one of those involved. The disciples weep. Jesus sends the cock to the sky for a thousand years.<\/p>\n<p>A similar story exists as a fragment in Sahidic Coptic. In the Coptic version the resurrection of the cock is a symbol of the resurrection of Christ.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"CopticLivesoftheVirgin\">Coptic Lives of the Virgin<\/p>\n<p>Apocryphal works concerning Mary, the mother of Jesus, in the Egyptian language of Coptic. <em>See<\/em> Virgin, Life of the (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"CorinthiansThird\">Corinthians, Third<\/p>\n<p>Apocryphal correspondence purporting to be between the apostle Paul and the Corinthian church. Written during the second century and known as 3 Corinthians, the work consists of three parts: an epistle allegedly from Stephanus of Corinth to Paul concerning two false apostles, Simon and Cleobius; a brief narrative telling of its delivery; and Paul’s reply and refutation of the false doctrine. The sequence of letters was originally part of the Acts of Paul, a longer apocryphal document, but circulated on its own as well—it even found its way into the text of the Armenian Bible. It pretends to explain the reference in 2 Corinthians 2:4 to a letter written in great distress.<\/p>\n<p>According to an early church father, Tertullian <em>(On Baptism),<\/em> the author of 3 Corinthians was a presbyter (church leader) of Asia who forged it out of love for Paul shortly after <span>AD<\/span> 160. That presbyter’s removal from office indicates the stern attitude of the early Christians toward the writing of documents falsely claiming apostolic origin.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"DanTestamentof\">Dan, Testament of<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"DialogueoftheRedeemer\">Dialogue of the Redeemer<\/p>\n<p>Christian Gnostic document, also called the Dialogue of the Savior. The document was found in the ancient Nag Hammadi Library at the modern city of Nag Hammadi (Upper Egypt) in 1946. The Dialogue is a fictitious account of a conversation between Jesus and some of his disciples in which they discuss questions about the universe, humanity, the end times, and salvation. The manuscript is in poor condition. Its authorship and origin are unknown, though it was possibly written in Egypt during the second or third centuries <span>AD<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"DiscourseofTheodosius\">Discourse of Theodosius<\/p>\n<p>Coptic Boharic version of the Assumption of the Virgin and a main source for the Coptic form of that legend. <em>See<\/em> Virgin, Assumption of the (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"DoctrinaAddaei\">Doctrina Addaei<\/p>\n<p>Expanded Syriac form of the Epistles of Christ and Abgarus, written about <span>AD<\/span> 400. The Doctrina Addaei tells a story about the contacts between Abgar (Abgarus), king of Edessa, and Jesus Christ. King Abgar, suffering from an unspecified ailment, is said to have sent a messenger to Jesus bearing the king’s written request for healing along with an offer of sanctuary for Jesus in his kingdom. Jesus responds orally, promising to send one of his followers to Abgar after his own ascension to heaven. Abgar’s envoy also takes back a self-portrait of Jesus that becomes the pride of Edessa. Later Addai visits the kingdom, heals Abgar, and establishes Christianity there. <em>See<\/em> Abgarus, Letters of Christ and (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"EbionitesGospelofthe\">Ebionites, Gospel of the<\/p>\n<p>Gospel quoted by one early Christian writer, Epiphanius (fourth century), in a work against heresies. The Gospel of the Ebionites is possibly the same as the apocryphal Gospel of the Hebrews, although some scholars associate it with the Gospel of the Nazarenes. The Ebionites were vegetarians; Epiphanius’s citations stress the vegetarian diets of John the Baptist and Jesus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"EgyptiansGospelofthe\">Egyptians, Gospel of the<\/p>\n<p>Two apocryphal works with the same name.<\/p>\n<p>1. Apocryphal second-century <span>AD<\/span> Greek writing, mentioned by the early church writers, Clement and Origen. Used in Egypt, the composition seems to have contained and propagated Gnostic teachings, especially those advocated in Syria by Simon and Menander. According to these Gnostics, marriage, eating meat, and procreation were evil. Clement may have quoted from this writing to refute the beliefs of the Encratites, who broadly agreed with the Syrian Gnostics on those matters. The Gnostics’ depreciation of women was reflected in the quotations Clement used.<\/p>\n<li>2. Composition discovered in 1946 at Chenoboskion (Egypt) in the Nag Hammadi collection of Gnostic writing. The principal title of the work, described in the colophon as “Gospel of the Egyptians” was “Sacred Book of the Great Invisible Spirit.” This work dealt with emanations from “the primal spirit of the cosmos” and perhaps was a product of the Barbelo Gnostic sect.<\/li>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"EldadandMedadBookof\">Eldad and Medad, Book of<\/p>\n<p>Pre-Christian pseudepigraphic composition containing the alleged prophecies of Eldad and Medad, two persons appointed as elders by Moses (Nm 11:26). Since the nature of their prophecy was not specified, it gave rise to a lost work that is quoted in the Shepherd of Hermas as follows: “The Lord is near to them who return to Him, as it is written in Eldad and Medad who prophesied to the people in the wilderness” (Vision II, ch 3). That is the only source of information concerning the lost book.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"EugnostosLetterof\">Eugnostos, Letter of<\/p>\n<p>Gnostic work. Found near the modern city of Nag Hammadi, the Letter of Eugnostos was written in Coptic by a teacher to his disciple. Both author and date of composition are unknown. An early example of non-Christian Gnostic writing, it perhaps served as the basis for a Christian Gnostic composition, “The Wisdom of Jesus Christ.”<\/p>\n<p>The Letter of Eugnostos attempts to prove the existence of an invisible spiritual realm. It also stresses God’s remoteness from humanity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"EveGospelof\">Eve, Gospel of<\/p>\n<p>Gnostic and apocalyptic writings, known solely through a citation by Epiphanius, a late fourth-century metropolitan of Cyprus. Epiphanius quoted the Gospel of Eve in a biting refutation of Gnostic and Origenistic teachings. Evidently a cult had formed around Eve as if her name implied revelation because the serpent had spoken to her in the Garden of Eden. Epiphanius’s quotation from the Gospel of Eve roughly translates: “I stood on a high mountain and saw a giant and a feeble man, and I heard a voice like thunder. ‘Come near me and listen,’ and he spoke to me saying, ‘I am you and you are me. Wherever you are, there I am. I am spread through all things, and any place you are able to retire into or take shelter in me; and, taking shelter in me, you take shelter in yourself.’ ”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"EzekielApocryphal\">Ezekiel, Apocryphal<\/p>\n<p>Noncanonical book of Ezekiel mentioned by Josephus, first-century Jewish historian. An apocryphal Ezekiel is cited in five early Christian writings and a recent archaeological discovery. Bishop Epiphanius (fourth century) cited an Ezekiel parable, in proof of the resurrection of the interdependent soul and body, about a blind man and a lame man collaborating to rob an orchard. Clement of Rome, writing to the Corinthians (AD 90?), and Clement of Alexandria in two of his writings (<span>AD<\/span> 200?) have noncanonical Ezekiel quotations. An Ezekiel apocryphon is mentioned in the pseudo-Athanasian canon (purporting to list canonical books of the Bible) and is named in the stichometry (prose written in rhythmic phrases) of Nicephorus, Patriarch of Constantinople (<span>AD<\/span> 806–815). In 1940 Campbell Bonner published Greek papyrus fragments that confirm the existence of an apocryphal Ezekiel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"EzraFourthBookof\">Ezra, Fourth Book of<\/p>\n<p>Alternate name for the apocryphal book 2 Esdras. <em>See<\/em> Esdras, Second Book of.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"GadTestamentof\">Gad, Testament of<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"GenesisApocryphon\">Genesis Apocryphon<\/p>\n<p>Name given to one of the seven large Dead Sea Scrolls recovered from the first Qumran cave in 1947. With three others it came into the possession of the Syrian archbishop of Jerusalem but could not be unrolled and photographed because it was badly preserved, having not been kept in an earthen jar like the others. Some small pieces were detached, however, and certain words on them indicated that it might be an apocryphal Aramaic work connected with the patriarch Enoch. Further scraps spoke of Lamech, however, thus the scroll was tentatively named for that ancient person.<\/p>\n<p>Eventually it was unrolled and found to be not only damaged but incomplete; the beginning and the end were missing. The inner portion had been best preserved, but considerable damage had been done to the text by the ink it had been written with. The scroll not only dealt with Enoch and Lamech but with other persons mentioned in the book of Genesis. It proved to be an Aramaic form of parts of Genesis dealing with the patriarchs, but it included legends and other materials presented in memoir style, not found in the Hebrew Bible. That style was popular among pious Jews at the beginning of the Christian era, thus its original has been dated to the first century <span>BC<\/span>. The Qumran copy was probably made between 50 <span>BC<\/span> and <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>The literary characteristics of the scroll have presented some classification problems. Free expansion and inclusion of nonbiblical material led certain scholars to call the scroll a “targum” or commentary-expansion of the Genesis text. Others have regarded it as a “midrash” or sermonic account of the Hebrew narrative. The scroll contains both elements and is best regarded as an independent recounting of certain Genesis stories, enriched by the inclusion of imaginative material such as a description of the beauty of the patriarch Abraham’s wife Sarah; dreams; and accounts of plagues and journeys.<\/p>\n<p>The Aramaic Apocryphon somewhat antedates the one used in Palestine in the time of Christ. It contains some Hebraisms but is mostly written in good Aramaic, much of which parallels biblical Aramaic. The language of the scroll, however, is later than the period of old Aramaic (tenth to eighth centuries <span>BC<\/span>) or official Aramaic (Assyrian and Persian periods), as the presence of certain grammatical forms indicate. Most scholars have described the language as middle Aramaic and have placed it between the Aramaic of Daniel and later western Aramaic. Those scholars generally assign a second-century <span>BC<\/span> date to Daniel, but that conclusion needs to be modified because the Qumran material shows that no canonical work was composed later than about 350 <span>BC<\/span>. On any evidence, the Aramaic of Daniel is earlier than that of the Apocryphon and seems to fit properly into the period when official Aramaic was the dominant form of the language. The Genesis Apocryphon presents no valid reasons for dating the Aramaic of Daniel or Ezra later than the sixth to fifth centuries <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"GospelofThomas\">Gospel of Thomas<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Thomas, Gospel of (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"IsaiahAscensionof\">Isaiah, Ascension of<\/p>\n<p>Pseudepigraphal apocalyptic work widely known to the early Christians; also known as the Martyrdom of Isaiah, the Testament of Hezekiah, and the Vision of Isaiah. It was rediscovered when an Ethiopic version of part of the text was published in 1819. The full Ethiopic version is the only complete version in existence. A partial Latin text published in 1832 had actually been published in Venice over three centuries before. Slavonic and Coptic versions also exist. All may be traced back to two Greek versions of the third, fifth, and sixth centuries.<\/p>\n<p>It is not clear whether the original was a single composition or even whether the authorship was Christian or Jewish with later Christian editing. The final form may date from the latter part of the second century. It was known to Ambrose, Jerome, Origen, Tertullian, and possibly to Justyn Martyr. The contents fall under three heads:<\/p>\n<p>1. The Martyrdom of Isaiah. This material consists of prophetic utterances, including the prophet’s prediction of his own death at the hands of King Manasseh of Judah. The document deals with the dark apostasy of the king, who, indwelt by Satan and following Beliar, leads his people into all manner of sin. Jerusalem, whose fall is prophesied, is called “Sodom” and its princes “Gomorrah.” In the form of a midrash (devotional sermon), this section dwells on Isaiah’s firm rejection of compromise or recantation. Isaiah’s martyrdom by being “sawn in two” is the portion with which the church fathers seem to have been familiar.<\/p>\n<li>2. The Testament of Hezekiah. This section is apocalyptic, a vision Isaiah passes on to his king. It speaks of the descent of “the Beloved,” a title used in this document for the Messiah. The vision covers the Messiah’s incarnation, life, death, resurrection, and ascension, then turns to the early history of the church and the apostasy that precedes the second coming of the Lord. The Antichrist is revealed as Beliar or Satan, who assumes human form and kills his mother (no doubt directed at the Roman emperor Nero, who murdered his mother, Agrippina). The whole section is based on Daniel and the biblical Apocalypse and was also influenced by Gnosticism. The conclusion of the vision (the Beloved’s victory, the two resurrections, and the final judgment) very closely parallels the consummation of all things in the NT book of Revelation.<\/li>\n<li>3. The Vision of Isaiah. This section resembles #2 even linguistically but shows more Gnostic influence: Isaiah is lifted to the dwelling place of the Trinity, the seventh heaven, and shown many mysteries of Christ. Because of this vision Manasseh kills the prophet. Gnostic doctrine, as propagated by Cerinthus at the end of the first century, is evident. Jesus, earthly born, becomes the host of the Christ, who leaves his earthly tenement at the Crucifixion.<\/li>\n<p>Historically, the value of the Ascension of Isaiah is to show the welter of conflicting opinion which, claiming authority and inspiration, besieged the minds of the early Christians.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"IsaiahMartyrdomof\">Isaiah, Martyrdom of<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Isaiah, Ascension of (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"IssacharTestamentof\">Issachar, Testament of<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"JamesApocalypseof\">James, Apocalypse of<\/p>\n<p>There were two Gnostic apocalypses of James (designated “first” and “second”). The first, covering over 20 pages of text, purports to be a revelation given by the Lord, some of it before the Crucifixion and some after it, to James, his brother, who was also know as James the righteous. The two documents referred to as the Apocalypse of James are in Codex V of the Nag Hammadi literature discovered in 1945 in Egypt just west of the Nile River opposite the city of Chenoboskion and are distinct from the Apocryphon of James, which is included in NT apocryphal writings. The second apocalypse composed of 20 pages of Coptic text is purportedly a speech delivered by James the Just on the fifth step of the temple and contains many references to or echoes of canonical Scriptures. The work ends with the multitude casting James down from the temple and stoning him in a manner reminiscent of the martyrdom of Stephen.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"JamesAscentsof\">James, Ascents of<\/p>\n<p>Lost book mentioned only by Epiphanius (bishop of the Greek island of Salamis) in his fourth-century work <em>Refutation of All the Heresies.<\/em> According to Epiphanius, the Ascents of James was used by the Ebionites, a rigidly ascetic sect of Jewish Christians. The book represented James, Jesus’ brother, as having spoken against the temple and sacrifices. It declared the apostle Paul to be a Greek who went to Jerusalem, sought to marry the high priest’s daughter, and to that end became a proselyte and was circumcised. When he did not win the young woman, he inveighed against the Sabbath, the Law, and circumcision.<\/p>\n<p>In a commentary on Galatians (1865), J. B. Lightfoot suggested that the book’s title referred to James’s ascents up the temple steps, from which he addressed the people. Lightfoot also suggested that James’s death was the grand climax of the ascents. According to a quote from the early Christian writer Hegesippus (as recorded in Eusebius’s <em>Ecclesiastical History<\/em>), James was cast down to his death from the pinnacle of the temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"JamesProtevangeliumof\">James, Protevangelium of<\/p>\n<p>This is an apocryphal “gospel” that tells of the token marriage and pregnancy of Mary and of Jesus’ birth, childhood, and adolescent years. This apocryphal writing was discovered in the 16th century by Guillaume Postel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"JobTestamentof\">Job, Testament of<\/p>\n<p>Apocalyptic literature bearing resemblance to the biblical book of Job. The book was probably written in Greek in the second century <span>AD<\/span>. Since it is devoid of Christian thought, it was likely written by a Jew.<\/p>\n<p>In chapters 1–45, Job is the speaker. He comes to understand that a nearby temple has been desecrated by there having been offered in it sacrifices to Satan. When Job destroys it, Satan threatens him. Job’s friends come to console him but their speeches are greatly abbreviated. Elihu is represented as Satan’s mouthpiece and earns God’s displeasure. But Job sacrifices for all three friends. He remarries and has seven sons and three daughters, who inherit his wealth. Chapters 46–51, in which Job’s brother is the speaker, conclude the narrative.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"JohntheBaptistLifeof\">John the Baptist, Life of<\/p>\n<p>A legendary account supposedly written by Serapion dealing with the early life of John the Baptist and especially with the death of his mother, Elizabeth. While Jesus was living with his parents in Egypt, Elizabeth dies on the same day as Herod the Great dies. John, who is but a small boy, does not know how to bury her. The clouds bring Jesus, Mary, and Salome who wash the body. The grave is dug by Michael and Gabriel, who also bring the souls of Zacharias and Simeon. John is then left to grow up in the desert under the care of the angels, while the clouds lift Jesus and Mary to Nazareth where they live.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"JohntheEvangelistBookof\">John the Evangelist, Book of<\/p>\n<p>This writing was used most extensively by the Albigenses and was commonly regarded as stemming from the Bogomiles before them. It was written in the form of questions and answers propounded to have come from the apostle John while he leaned upon the breast of Jesus at the Last Supper. This pattern of questions and answers is found in other early Gnostic writings, especially the Gospel of Bartholomew.<\/p>\n<p>The writing contains Gnostic theology. It portrays a world created by Satan and not by God. Christ was not born of Mary but was an angel sent forth to the earth. He “entered in by the ear and came forth by the ear” of Mary. John the Baptist was sent by Satan, and his disciples (the Roman Catholic Church) are not the disciples of Christ. Baptism and apparently the Lord’s Supper are valueless.<\/p>\n<p>The writing is preserved only in Latin and in its present form is not earlier than the 12th century. A convenient English translation may be found in M. R. James, <em>The Apocryphal NT<\/em> (1924).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"JosephPrayerof\">Joseph, Prayer of<\/p>\n<p>Jewish apocalyptic work. The Prayer of Joseph won the commendation of Origen, an early church scholar, as a document “not to be despised.” Origen’s quotations provide almost the only surviving information about the work, so that its total content and significance are unclear. An ancient list of OT apocryphal and canonical writings puts the Prayer of Joseph third and mentions its length as 1,100 verses. Origen’s quotations concern mainly Joseph’s father, Jacob. Jacob exists in the form of an angel, bearing Jacob’s given name Israel. He is the speaker in the quoted fragments and foretells the fate of humankind. He describes how he met Uriel on a journey to Mesopotamia and how Uriel wrestled with him, claiming to be the greatest of the angels. The apocalyptic poet had in mind the story of Jacob’s mysterious wrestling at Jabbok (Gn 32:22-29) and passages such as Daniel 10:13. Because Jacob claims to be “the first born of all living beings” and therefore the chief of all angels, Uriel challenges him.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"JosephTestamentof\">Joseph, Testament of<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"JosephtheCarpenterHistoryof\">Joseph the Carpenter, History of<\/p>\n<p>Document glorifying Jesus’ earthly father and promoting a cult of Joseph. Words in chapter 18 of the History of Joseph support a fourth-century date for it. There Jesus tells his mother, “You, too, must look for the same end of life as other mortals.” By the fifth century the doctrine of the “Assumption of the Virgin” was widely held.<\/p>\n<p>The document, derived from the Protevangelium of James, was contaminated by both Gnosticism and other religious beliefs of Egypt, the country in which it was written. It is extant in Coptic and Arabic and also in a fourth-century translation of the Coptic text.<\/p>\n<p>The History of Joseph the Carpenter claims to give an account of Joseph’s life and his model death at the age of 111. The story is allegedly told by Jesus to his disciples on the Mt of Olives. Joseph, a carpenter (Mt 13:55), is a widower well advanced in years when he marries Mary, who is only 12. (He had six children by an earlier marriage.) Joseph is buried according to the rites of the Egyptian Osiris cult after Jesus pronounces a eulogy.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"JubileesBookof\">Jubilees, Book of<\/p>\n<p>Jubilees is a pseudepigraphal work from the last half of the second century <span>BC<\/span> during the Maccabean period. It is an invaluable source for understanding the environment in the age prior to the launching of the Christian church. Jubilees stands with the Book of Enoch and the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs as the most important Hebrew or Aramaic literature of the time. Like these it was translated into Greek and used by the church fathers. Most probably, Jubilees was written in Hebrew since it purported a Mosaic authorship and since its nationalistic Maccabean environment would demand it. Fragments of 10 manuscripts in Hebrew found at Qumran support the thesis that it was originally in that language.<\/p>\n<p>The work is referred to by later Greek writers following Hebrew sources as “Jubilees” and “the little (lesser) Genesis.” It is also entitled “The Apocalypse of Moses” and the “Testament of Moses.” In revised forms it has been called “The Book of Adam’s Daughters” and “The Life of Adam.”<\/p>\n<p>Complete, fifty-chapter manuscripts exist in six Ethiopian texts of which the texts of the fifth and sixth centuries are best. The Latin text is valuable but partial and only a few fragments of the Greek version remain. The Hebrew fragments found at Qumran are of special importance since they are from the period of original writing. The Bibliotheque Nationale has “Ethiopien 51” and “Ethiopien 160.” The British Museum has <em>Kufale,<\/em> or <em>Liber Jubilaeorum,<\/em> and <em>Enoch<\/em><em>.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The author of Jubilees claims a direct revelational source for the teaching that he espouses. God had spoken to Moses in the Pentateuch in the “lesser law” in this “little book of Genesis.” At Sinai God communicated to Moses by the “Angel of the Presence” saying to the angel, “Write for Moses from the beginning of creation until my sanctuary has been built among them for all eternity” (1:27). This is supplementary to the “first law” (6:22).<\/p>\n<p>Following a brief introduction Jubilees follows the text of Genesis and Exodus to 14:31. This midrashic treatment of the Pentateuchal material attempts to show that the patriarchy adhered to the law even prior to Moses. The author’s aim is to strengthen classical Judaism in the face of the serious intrusions of Hellenistic culture among Jewish peoples. In doing this the author does not hesitate in adding and subtracting from Pentateuchal history. The patriarchs are adorned in every way. Anything that showed their weaknesses and sins was removed and legendary content inserted to glorify these fathers. The patriarchs are the fountainheads of culture. Enoch invented writing; Noah, medicine; Abraham, plowing.<\/p>\n<p>Appealing to Leviticus 25:8-12, the work emphasizes the importance of the number seven. History from Adam to Moses is arranged according to cycles of seven. This manner of compartmentalizing history into jubilee periods was revealed to Moses at Sinai and so has divine sanction and in fact is mandated. The philosophy of history that springs from this sees God acting sovereignly and uniquely in Israel in distinction to his relationship with the gentile world. The other nations are ruled by angels but not Israel, which is directly in God’s charge (Jubilees 15:31ff.).<\/p>\n<p>The polemic that Jubilees mounts against the lunar calendar (6:36-38) and its acceptance of the solar calendar is but another facet of the drive for a deep reform that will cleanse Israel. Israel is to be separated to God in every way with no intermingling in marriage or sitting at the table with Gentiles. There is a surprising stringency demanded in Sabbath keeping (50:1-13). The penalty of death is levied against those who travel, buy or sell, draw water, bear burdens, snare creatures, or have marital relations on the Sabbath. These go far beyond the biblical requirements and belong to that milieu that produced the Qumran community and the Essenes.<\/p>\n<p>The apocalyptic declaration of the Angel of Presence contains a clear but limited eschatological truth. Jubilees does contain the expectation of an immediate establishment of the messianic age. The entire emphasis, however, is such that ethical and cultural purposes are preeminent.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"JudahTestamentof\">Judah, Testament of<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"JudasIscariotGospelof\">Judas Iscariot, Gospel of<\/p>\n<p>Very old Gnostic writing probably produced by the Cainite sect. As it is not preserved for us today, we know it only through quotations in the writings of early Christians, especially Irenaeus. Thus, it must have been written before the middle of the second century <span>AD<\/span>. It probably contained a body of secret doctrine purportedly revealed by Judas Iscariot, summarizing the truth of superior and perfect knowledge supposedly revealed to this sect of the Gnostics. The gospel sets forth the “mystery of the betrayal,” explaining how Judas through his treachery made the salvation of all mankind possible. This was accomplished by his forestalling the destruction of the truth proclaimed by Christ or by his thwarting the designs of the evil powers, the Archons, who wished to prevent the crucifixion of Christ because they knew it would destroy their evil power.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"LentulusEpistleof\">Lentulus, Epistle of<\/p>\n<p>Lentulus, ostensibly a predecessor of Pontius Pilate, is said to have prepared a report to the Roman Senate known as the Letter (or Epistle) of Lentulus. In it he included a detailed description of Jesus: “tall and handsome, his countenance inspiring reverence along with love and fear, his hair dark, shining, curling, parted in the middle, his face with a delicate rudiness. . . .” The authenticity of the letter is extremely doubtful.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"LeviTestamentof\">Levi, Testament of<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"LivesofAdamandEve\">Lives of Adam and Eve<\/p>\n<p>A general title given to a noncanonical writing extant in Greek and Latin. The book is Jewish in nature, though there is a Christian flavor that causes most scholars to date the original work to the beginning of the Christian era. The content of the book is an expansion on the biblical story of Adam and Eve.<\/p>\n<p>The Greek version begins with the expulsion from Eden. In a dream, Eve sees the murder of Abel. After Adam had fallen ill Seth and Eve went to obtain oil from the tree of life. Michael the archangel met Seth and told him that Adam would die. Upon his death, he was ultimately taken to the third heaven. Seth witnessed how the angels interred his father and received instructions on how to bury his mother, who died a week after Adam.<\/p>\n<p>The Latin version gives additional information. After the expulsion from the Garden, Eve asked Adam to kill her but instead of that he suggested they both do an act of penitence. Adam went to stand in the Jordan for 40 days and Eve went to stand in the water of the Euphrates for 37 days. While there, she was again tempted by Satan, who was disguised as an angel of light but was eventually exposed by Adam. Satan now explained the reason for his hostility toward them: when the angels were commanded to worship the Lord, he refused to do obeisance to God and was consequently cast out of heaven.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"MatthewMartyrdomof\">Matthew, Martyrdom of<\/p>\n<p>Loosely organized tale of Matthew’s martyrdom that borrows heavily from the “Acts of Andrew and Matthias” and assumes that Matthias was in fact Matthew. The document represents the low literary and theological impulse of the later apocryphal texts.<\/p>\n<p>The story begins when Matthew is commissioned by Jesus to plant a staff in Myrna, the city of man-eaters. Matthew does so, after exorcising the demon Asmodeus from the king’s wife and family. The staff becomes a tree overnight, Matthew preaches to the people, and they “become humanized.” But Asmodeus seeks revenge by directing the king to burn Matthew. The fire consumes golden idols and many soldiers, then turns into a dragon and chases the king, who begs Matthew for help. But Matthew dies.<\/p>\n<p>A somewhat repentant but not yet converted king places the body of Matthew in an iron casket and sinks it secretly in the sea. The next day Matthew appears on the sea in the presence of two shining men and a “beautiful” child. The king is finally converted, baptized, and accepted into the church. Matthew appears to confer on the king his own name and to ordain him a priest and his family, deacons and deaconesses. Then Matthew ascends to heaven with two angels.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"MedadBookofEldadand\">Medad, Book of Eldad and<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Eldad and Medad, Book of (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"MosesAssumptionof\">Moses, Assumption of<\/p>\n<p>A Jewish legend that Moses was taken bodily into heaven without dying. Probably written between <span>AD<\/span> 7 and 30, it may be a combination of two earlier works, and appears to borrow heavily from the book of Deuteronomy. The work was likely produced to provide a miraculous ending to Moses’ outstanding earthly life, attributing to him an experience similar to Elijah’s. But this Jewish legend is contrary to the OT account of Moses’ death (Dt 32:48-50; 34:5-7).<\/p>\n<h6>The Lost Assumption of Moses<\/h6>\n<p>Three facts indicate that there once was an apocryphal book that contained the legend of the assumption of Moses: (1) early lists of apocryphal works mention a work by this title; (2) several church fathers refer to it; and (3) a few fragments in Greek have survived.<\/p>\n<p>The following items appeared in the work. God commissioned the archangel Michael to bury Moses’ body. Satan opposed Moses’ burial because he claimed authority over all matter and because Moses was a murderer. Michael countered Satan’s claims and charged him with tempting Eve in Eden. Joshua and Caleb then watched Moses’ assumption occur in a strange way. As they watched, they saw Moses’ dead body buried in the mountain, but they also saw Moses himself in the company of the angels. In effect Moses’ body died, but Moses himself did not.<\/p>\n<p>Though often stated that Jude (v 9) was quoted from the Assumption of Moses, this is impossible to prove, simply because the relevant portions of that work have not survived. The most one can say is that several church fathers, including Clement of Alexandria (d. <span>AD<\/span> 215) and Origen (c. 185–254), suggested that the Assumption of Moses was the source for the account in Jude 1:9. They had both works. We have only Jude, so we cannot check their conclusions. The matter is further complicated because there is another work (see next section) now called the Assumption of Moses. People often suppose that Jude 1:9 is a citation from that book. It is not.<\/p>\n<h6>The Extant Assumption of Moses<\/h6>\n<p>This work, perhaps written during Jesus’ lifetime, purports to be a description of Moses’ predictions to Joshua of the destiny of the nation of Israel. It is similar to other apocryphal, nonhistorical writings that were written under the names of great Jewish leaders.<\/p>\n<p>It was discovered quite by chance in 1861, in the Ambrosian Library in Milan, Italy. The manuscript, dated to the fifth century <span>AD<\/span>, is a very poor copy of a Latin translation, perhaps derived from a Greek translation of a Hebrew original. The beginning and the ending are lost. There are numerous spelling mistakes, and there is no space between words. Not surprisingly, scholars have long disputed the reading, interpretation, and translation even of whole verses.<\/p>\n<p>The opening three lines have not survived, so the original title has been lost. When discovered, the work was assumed to be the long-lost Assumption of Moses, but this identification is now widely doubted. Even though the book is still called by this title, it is far more likely to be either the Testament of Moses (which is also mentioned, along with the Assumption of Moses, in early lists of apocryphal works) or a composite work resulting from the combination of the Testament and the Assumption into one work.<\/p>\n<p>There is only one reference to Moses’ assumption in the book, and it comes in connection with a mention of his death (10:12). Because the ending of the book is also lost, it is impossible to know the contents of the conclusion or to tell whether this one remaining reference to Moses’ assumption is original or whether it has been added by a scribe by mistake or by an editor combining two different works. It is clear, however, that the author of the surviving section believed that Moses expected to die (1:15; 10:12-14) and that Joshua assumed that he would (11:4-8).<\/p>\n<p>The work begins midsentence (three lines are missing) and dates Moses’ following speech to 2,500 years after Creation (1:2-5). Expecting to die, Moses summons Joshua, encourages him, and tells him that God created the world for his people (the Israelites), who will repent before the consummation at the end of the days (1:6-18).<\/p>\n<p>Then Moses foretells Israel’s future. The people will inherit the land (Canaan) and be ruled by local magistrates, chiefs (judges?), and kings (2:1-3). The kingdom will divide, and the people will turn to idolatry (2:4-9). A king from the east (Nebuchadnezzar) will take two tribes into captivity for about 77 years, where they will recall Moses’ warnings (3:1-14; cf. Jer 25:11-12; Dt 28:15-68; 30:15-20). Someone (Daniel) will pray for deliverance (cf. Dn 9:4-19), and God will persuade a king (Cyrus) to send the exiles home (4:1-6; cf. Is 45:1-6; Ezr 1:1-4). Some exiles will return to their appointed place (Jerusalem) and rewall it but be unable to offer [proper] sacrifices (4:7-8; contrast Ezr 3:1-7). Others will remain in exile but will increase in population (4:9). This concludes the OT period and begins the intertestamental period (c. 400 to 1 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The widespread apostasy of the Seleucid period (c. 201–267 <span>BC<\/span>) is described, with special reference to priests and judges (4:1-6). The Maccabees, who gained and maintained political independence from Syria (in 164 <span>BC<\/span>) are not mentioned. Instead, the focus is on the kings (the Hasmoneans) who made themselves high priests (6:1). Next will come an insolent king (Herod the Great, 37–4 <span>BC<\/span>), who will rule ruthlessly (6:2-7). Then a powerful king of the West will conquer the people, take some captive, crucify others, and burn part of the temple (6:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>From this point on, the author, having reached his own period, had to guess at the future, so the predictions that he put in Moses’ mouth are general or obscure and often unfulfilled. The next rulers (Sadducees?) would be impious, treacherous, gluttons, deceitful, and worried about ritual uncleanness while living in luxury at the expense of the poor (7:1-10). An unprecedented time of wrath would follow, when a great king would persecute the Jews, torturing, imprisoning, and even crucifying them for practicing circumcision (8:1-5). During this persecution, one man, Taxo, a Levite with seven sons, would remain faithful to God and die rather than adopt Greek customs (8:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>The next section (10:1-10), an apocalyptic poem (ten stanzas, each with three lines), is the only apocalyptic section of the book. The Lord’s kingdom will appear, Satan will be no more, and the chief angel (Michael) will avenge Israel (10:1-2). “The Heavenly One will arise from His royal throne,” and there will be miraculous signs on the earth and in the sky; even the ocean will drain away (10:3-6). The Most High, the Eternal God, will appear and punish the Gentiles, destroying their idols (10:7). But Israel will be happy and exalted, rejoicing at seeing her enemies in Gehenna (hell) and thankfully praising her Creator (10:8-10). With Moses’ mention of his death and some consoling words for Joshua, the composition ends in an incomplete form.<\/p>\n<p>The book must have been written after Herod died and Varus had subdued a rebellion in Judea (4 <span>BC<\/span>) and before the temple was destroyed (<span>AD<\/span> 70). The book predicts that Herod’s sons will not rule as long as Herod himself did (34 years, 37–4 <span>BC<\/span>). This prediction may be based on the fact that one son, Archelaus, was deposed after a 10-year reign (4 <span>BC<\/span>–<span>AD<\/span> 6). If so, the book was written after <span>AD<\/span> 6. But two other sons (Philip and Antipas) actually ruled longer than their father. For the author not to know this requires that the book must have been written within 34 years of Herod’s death—in other words, before <span>AD<\/span> 30. Therefore, the book was probably written sometime between <span>AD<\/span> 6 and 30. This also means that the book reflects Jewish thinking during Jesus’ lifetime.<\/p>\n<p>The author was evidently a Palestinian Jew, but it is doubtful whether he was a member of any known major sect of the times. He hates Roman rule (8:1–10:10) without advocating revolt, as the Zealots and their predecessors did. His interest in the temple (2:8-9; 5:3; 6:9; 8:5) is not typical of an Essene. He condemns the Sadducean lifestyle (7:3-10). And his use of apocalyptic writing (10:1-10) is thought to have been unusual for a Pharisee.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"NaphtaliTestamentof\">Naphtali, Testament of<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"NicodemusGospelof\">Nicodemus, Gospel of<\/p>\n<p>Alternate title for the apocryphal work Acts of Pilate. <em>See<\/em> Pilate, Acts of (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"NoahBookof\">Noah, Book of<\/p>\n<p>Allusion to the writing of Noah is made in the book of Jubilees where it is said “Noah wrote down all things in a book as we instructed him concerning every kind of medicine. Thus the evil spirits were precluded from (hurting) the sons of Noah” (10:13; see also 21:10). The book of Noah borrows heavily from the book of Enoch (see chs 6–11, 54–55, 60, 65–69, 106–110). The other sections relate to the Noachic flood and subjects about which Noah could be presumed to have knowledge. Unfortunately no separate manuscript of the book of Noah is known to be extant.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"OdesofSolomon\">Odes of Solomon<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Solomon, Psalms of (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"PatriarchsTestamentsoftheTwelve\">Patriarchs, Testaments of the Twelve<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"PaulActsof\">Paul, Acts of<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Paul and Thecla, Acts of (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"PaulActsofAndrewand\">Paul, Acts of Andrew and<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Andrew and Paul, Acts of (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"PaulandTheclaActsof\">Paul and Thecla, Acts of<\/p>\n<p>The Acts of Paul and Thecla is one section of an apocryphal work known as the Acts of Paul. It was apparently written in the latter half of the second century <span>AD<\/span> by a church elder who lived in Asia. According to Tertullian (<em>On Baptism<\/em> 17.19-21), the motive for the writing was “love of Paul,” but the presbyter was removed from office for producing this document. It is not clear whether the reason for his deposition was that he made a false claim to apostolic authorship, or whether it was that the viewpoints expressed in the document were considered heretical.<\/p>\n<p>The story reads like a folktale. Paul arrives in Iconium after fleeing from Antioch. He is met by Onesiphorus, who welcomes Paul into his home. A group of people gather there to hear Paul’s message. Beside the window of a neighboring house, Thecla is seated. She cannot see Paul, but she listens intently to his message. Her mother, Thecleia, exclaims, “My daughter, like a spider, is bound by his words to the window, seized by a new craving and a terrible passion.” Paul is teaching that in order to “see God,” a person must live a life of abstinence from sexual activity.<\/p>\n<p>Thecla is engaged to be married, but she is so impressed with Paul’s teaching that she determines she will break her engagement to Thamyris. Thamyris, in distress, appeals to the governor of the city, who arrests and imprisons Paul. Thecla bribes the jailer with bracelets and a silver mirror and enters Paul’s cell. Again she is transfixed by his teaching. At the trial, Thecla is adamant in her refusal to marry Thamyris. Paul is banned from the city; Thecla is condemned to be burned to death. Miraculously her life is spared, and she is reunited with Paul and travels with him to Antioch.<\/p>\n<p>In Antioch, Thecla rebuffs the advances of a nobleman, Alexander, and for a second time is condemned to death. But the wild beasts who are to devour her in the public arena instead lick her feet and protect her. When she throws herself into a water cistern to effect her baptism, she is again spared death—a lightning flash kills the fish lurking in the water, and they float lifeless to the surface. Queen Tryphaena, who has befriended Thecla, faints with shock as repeated attempts are made to take Thecla’s life. Seeing this, Alexander finally begs the governor to set Thecla free.<\/p>\n<p>Free once more, Thecla seeks Paul. She disguises herself as a man by putting on male attire. Arriving in Myra, she finds Paul and announces to him that she is returning to Iconium. Paul commands her to “teach the word of God.” After teaching for a while in Iconium, Thecla travels on to Seleucia.<\/p>\n<p>The remainder of Thecla’s life is not well documented. Some manuscripts record that Thecla, being afraid of the people of Seleucia, withdrew to a mountain and resided in a cave. There she lived an ascetic life, taught certain women who came to her, and carried out a ministry of healing. Later she departed to Rome, seeking Paul. Paul, however, was already dead. When Thecla herself died, at 90 years of age, she was buried not far from the tomb of her beloved master.<\/p>\n<p>Although this work is considered apocryphal and is excluded from the NT canon, there are some early writers who held it in high regard. The Acts of Paul, of which this document forms a part, is mentioned by Origen and by Hippolytus with respect. Eusebius was of the opinion that the document was spurious, but he distinguished it from inferior heretical works. There are two instances where details of information have found their way from the Acts of Paul into early manuscripts of canonical books (2 Tm 3:11; 4:19). It is probable that the viewpoints indicated in this document reflected popular religious traditions widely held in the second century <span>AD<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Tertullian, however, argues that the document is quite out of harmony with Paul’s attitudes as expressed in the canonical material. In particular, he objects to the role assumed by a woman in the Acts of Paul and Thecla. Paul, Tertullian says, would never have permitted a woman to teach and to baptize (<em>On Baptism<\/em> 17.21-23). The Acts of Paul and Thecla does differ from the Pauline stance, but not in the way indicated by Tertullian. The document depicts Paul as a proponent of the encratite viewpoint, teaching that celibacy is necessary for salvation. The canonical Paul taught that salvation is attained through faith alone, and that celibacy is a matter of special calling and certainly not the norm for every Christian (1 Cor 7:1-7). The Acts of Paul and Thecla suggests that a woman must assume male attire and must abstain from marriage if she is to exercise a leadership role. The canonical Paul instructed that a woman in a leadership position should dress as a woman (1 Cor 11:4-6), and he affirmed the ministerial function of married women (Rom 16:3). The Acts of Paul and Thecla emulates a woman whose motivating power was personal devotion to the apostle. The canonical writings suggest that Paul strongly discouraged such a show of personal allegiance to himself (1 Cor 1:12-17). Christ alone was to be the motivating influence in Christian service.<\/p>\n<p>The Acts of Paul and Thecla provides us with a unique description of the physical appearance of Paul: “a man small of stature, with a bald head and crooked legs, in good state of body, with eyebrows meeting and nose somewhat hooked, full of friendliness; for now he appeared like a man, and now he had the face of an angel.” This description is probably not reliable in any historical sense; more likely it pictures a typical Jew of the period. But because there is no other description preserved in early documents, this one has formed the basis for the many portraits of Paul that have come down through the centuries.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"PaulApocalypseof\">Paul, Apocalypse of<\/p>\n<p>This document, which originated in the late fourth century <span>AD<\/span>, pretends to be a written account of some of the experiences that the apostle Paul had when he was caught up to the third heaven, or paradise, according to 2 Corinthians 12:2-4. The fact that Paul did not describe what he saw or heard during that revelatory vision excited the imagination of some unknown fourth-century Christian. Since the author describes with relish the tortures in hell experienced by a presbyter, bishop, and deacon (chs 34–36) and elsewhere approves of the devotion and piety of monks and nuns (chs 7–9) and of those who are virgins or chaste (ch 22), it is safe to conclude that he was a monk who disapproved of the insincere and hypocritical religiosity of his contemporaries, both laymen and clergy.<\/p>\n<p>This book, originally written in Greek, survives in relatively complete form in Latin. A partial indication of the great popularity of this piece of religious fiction is the fact that it was translated into Ethiopic, Coptic, and Syriac as well as Latin.<\/p>\n<p>The book is loosely structured in seven sections. The work begins with a short introductory section that attempts to explain why the book was unknown from the first to the fourth century (chs 1–2): during the consulate of (emperor) Theodosius Augustus the Younger and Cynegius (the document can thus be dated to <span>AD<\/span> 388), a respectable but nameless person received a revelation through an angel. The man happened to be living in Tarsus in a house once occupied by St Paul himself. The angel told the man to break up the foundations and publish whatever he found. After being pummeled by the angel for disobedience, he finally broke the foundations only to discover a marble box that he immediately delivered to the emperor. The emperor opened the box and found the original version of the Apocalypse of Paul (which he copies) and a pair of shoes used by Paul on his missionary journeys. The substance of the mysterious document then follows.<\/p>\n<p>In chapters 3–6, Paul is said to have received a message from God announcing how all creation is subject to God with the exception of man himself. Chapters 7–10 relate how the guardian angels of each man and woman report every morning and evening to God concerning the deeds of those in their charge. Some are very good, while others are exceedingly wicked. In chapters 11–18, Paul is taken up in the Holy Spirit to the third heaven and asks to see the souls of the righteous and sinners as they leave the world. The angel accompanying Paul shows him a righteous man leaving the world, an ungodly man, and the soul of one who thought himself righteous but in fact was not.<\/p>\n<p>Chapters 19–30 describe Paul being lifted up to the third heaven (cf. 2 Cor 12:2-4), where he saw a golden gate flanked by golden pillars upon which were mounted golden tablets containing the names of the righteous. Upon entering paradise he was greeted by Enoch and Elijah and shown things that he could not reveal to others (ch 21; cf. 2 Cor 12:4). From there he was taken to the second heaven and then to the firmament encircled by Ocean (ch 21). There he saw the milk white waters of Lake Acherusia where the city of Christ was located. He was brought to the city in a golden boat while 3,000 angels sang a hymn. At the river of honey he met Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and other prophets (ch 25); at the river of milk he saw the infants slain by Herod (ch 26); at the river of wine he met Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Lot, and Job (ch 27); at the river of oil he met those completely dedicated to God (ch 28). At the center of the city, by a great altar, David sang the hallelujah to God.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s tour of hell is described in chapters 31–44; it is a place of sorrow and distress in which flows a river boiling with fire. In the river, some of the damned were immersed to the knees, others to the navel or lips, depending on the severity of their sins (ch 31). Chapters 34–36 describe the tortures of a presbyter, bishop, and deacon. Throughout this section the most ghastly tortures imaginable are described in detail with great relish. Finally, in chapter 44, Christ decrees that for Paul’s sake there will be no torture on Sundays henceforth.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s angelic travel guide then escorts him to paradise (chs 45–51), where the righteous of all ages are anxious to meet him. He meets the Virgin Mary (ch 46), Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob as well as the 12 sons of Jacob (ch 47), Moses, who weeps for the unconverted Jews (ch 48), Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, each of whom describes his martyrdom, Lot and Job (ch 49), Noah (ch 50), Elijah, Elisha, Zechariah and his son, John the Baptist, and Adam (ch 51). The document either ended here or, in alternate versions, with Paul’s miraculous trip to the Mt of Olives where he and the other disciples received the divine commission.<\/p>\n<p>The document is filled with contradictions and inconsistencies and many of the translated versions do not agree with each other in all details. The chief importance of the document is in terms of its glimpses into the thinking of late fourth-century Christianity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"PaulPassionof\">Paul, Passion of<\/p>\n<p>A revised Latin version of the apocryphal Martyrdom of Paul, which was part of a larger body of texts called the Acts of Paul. The original Martyrdom is the story of Paul’s resuscitation of Patroclus, Nero’s cupbearer, who had fallen from a window and died during one of Paul’s sermons. Patroclus confesses his new loyalty to Christ before the stunned Nero, who moves quickly to round up all such “soldiers of the great king (Christ).” Paul is included in the purge. The Passion elaborates on the story to include a passage about Seneca’s admiration for Paul and his writings, portions of which Seneca allegedly read to Nero. Also, Paul on the way to his death borrows a kerchief from Plautilla, promising to return it. When the returning soldiers mock her, she shows them the bloodied kerchief.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"PaulPassionofPeterand\">Paul, Passion of Peter and<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Peter and Paul, Passion of (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"PearlHymnofthe\">Pearl, Hymn of the<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Thomas, Acts of (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"PeterandPaulPassionof\">Peter and Paul, Passion of<\/p>\n<p>This writing comes to us in two forms, both of which are considered to have been written by Marcellus and date from the fifth century. The first form is essentially like the Acts of Peter and Paul. It lays emphasis upon Paul’s journey to Rome. The second gives more attention to the men’s residence in Rome with emphasis upon their stay in the home of a relative of Pontius Pilate. Both emphasize the close relationship between Peter and Paul and their continued and successful opposition to Simon Magus, who claims to be the Christ. Their death sentences are included in the writings but with only a brief account of their martyrdoms.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"PeterGospelof\">Peter, Gospel of<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Akhmim Fragment (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"PeterPreachingof\">Peter, Preaching of<\/p>\n<p>This document, which has survived only in fragments, appears to have been written early in the second century <span>AD<\/span> in Egypt. While the title does not explicitly claim Petrine authorship, it was understood by Clement of Alexandria (late second century <span>AD<\/span>) to have been an authentic composition by the apostle Peter (<em>Stromata<\/em> 2.15.68). The majority of the fragments of the Preaching of Peter are preserved in the form of brief quotations in the writings of Clement of Alexandria.<\/p>\n<p>The fourth-century church historian Eusebius of Caesarea observed that the Preaching of Peter had not been accepted by any ancient authorities (<em>Historia Ecclesiastica<\/em> 3.3.1-4), though he was probably not aware of its acceptance by Clement. Even though only fragments of the document have survived, they are important in that they reveal a transitional stage in the history of early Christian literature. During the first century, Christian literature, including all of the NT, was written for the consumption of other Christians. During the second century, Christian writers began to feel the need to defend their faith against the criticisms of their pagan and Jewish opponents. A new kind of Christian literature, the apology (meaning “defense”), began to appear in the early second century with the writings of the earliest Christian apologists Quadratus and Aristides. The Preaching of Peter represents a transition from the kind of apologetic writing found in the Acts of the Apostles, the sermons that that book contains, and the writings of the early apologists.<\/p>\n<p>Since Clement quotes randomly from the Preaching of Peter, it is not possible to determine the order in which any of the quotations appeared in the original composition. Some of the major emphases of the document will appear from the following summaries of the quotations of Clement. Peter, according to Clement, called the Lord both “Law and Word” in the “Preaching” (<em>Stromata<\/em> 1.29.182; 2.15.68). Mankind must recognize that <em>one<\/em> God created the beginning of all things and has the power to bring all things to an end (<em>Stromata<\/em> 6.5.39-41). The pagans, whom the author of the Preaching of Peter opposed, held that the universe was uncreated and eternal. God, the author contends, is invisible, incomprehensible, needs nothing, is inconceivable, everlasting, imperishable, and uncreated. This God must not be worshiped in the manner of the Greeks, for they have foolishly fashioned images of ordinary materials and worship them as gods. Further, they take animals that should be used for food and sacrifice them to these idols. The worship of the Jews should not be emulated either, for they revere angels, archangels, months, and the moon. If any of the nation of Israel should repent, they will find forgiveness (<em>Stromata<\/em> 6.5.43). In one place the Preaching of Peter narrates how the Lord sent disciples to preach the gospel throughout the world after the resurrection (<em>Stromata<\/em> 6.6.48), though the precise connection between this narrative and the preceding apologetic statements is not clear. It may be that the document began with a special version of the great commission. Elsewhere the document states that the OT prophets speak of Christ, sometimes in parables and enigmas, yet at other times very clearly and directly (<em>Stromata<\/em> 6.15.128). In fact, the major events of the life of Christ, his coming, torture, crucifixion, death, resurrection, and ascension into heaven were predicted in detail by the prophets.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of the surviving fragments of the Preaching of Peter lies in the way in which they reveal how early second-century Christianity turned from a defensive to an offensive position in its proclamation of the gospel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"PeterSlavonicActsof\">Peter, Slavonic Acts of<\/p>\n<p>An account of the later travels of Peter and his subsequent death in Rome preserved for us only in the Slavonic language. According to this account, a child (Jesus) comes to Peter and bids him to go to Rome. The angel Michael is captain of the ship taking them to Rome. After their arrival in Rome, Peter tells the child to catch some fish, whereupon he catches 12,000 in one hour. Then the child is sold to a Roman noble, Aravistus, for 50 pieces of gold. The child silences his teachers. After a vision of angels, the entire household is baptized. Nero arrests Peter, whereupon the child rebukes him. Many dead are raised, but the child sends them back to their graves to await the resurrection by Michael. Peter is crucified head downward. When the child reveals he is Jesus, the nails fall from Peter’s body, he prays for the forgiveness of his executioners, and then he dies. Such apocryphal versions of the acts of early church leaders are characteristically filled with fanciful acts of the apostles and their contact with the Christ.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"PetersLettertoPhilip\">Peter’s Letter to Philip<\/p>\n<p>This letter is part of the Christian Gnostic material discovered in 1947 at Nag Hammadi. It probably dates from the late second or early third century. The letter takes its name from a segment at the beginning of the tractate in which Peter claims to have sent the material to Philip. The letter is written in a dialogue form common in Gnostic literature. The body of the writing consists of a series of questions that are asked by the apostles of the risen Lord and the answers given by him. The questions provide a basis for the exposition of Gnostic philosophy about the structure of the world revealed by the Divine Light. That Light is the Christ, who is the heavenly Redeemer.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"PilateActsof\">Pilate, Acts of<\/p>\n<p>This document is an apocryphal passion gospel that reached its present form by the middle of the fourth century <span>AD<\/span>. The first Christian writer to refer to the Acts of Pilate was Epiphanius, an ecclesiastical heresy hunter, who wrote a lengthy denunciation of various heresies in <span>AD<\/span> 375, in which he definitely mentioned the Acts of Pilate (<em>Heresies<\/em> 50.1). Much earlier, Justin Martyr had referred to Pilate’s report to Tiberius regarding the trial of Jesus (<em>I Apology<\/em> 35; 48), but he does not seem to be referring to the Acts of Pilate. Toward the end of the second century <span>AD<\/span>, a generation after Justin, Tertullian referred to an account sent from Pilate to the emperor Tiberius, yet this cannot be the Acts of Pilate, since Jesus supposedly performed many miracles before the procurator. Although it is not improbable that an earlier version of the Acts of Pilate antedated the fourth century, the present version must be dated to the middle of that century. The original language of the Acts of Pilate was Greek, and translations of it were made into Latin, Coptic, and Armenian. Eusebius, the fourth-century church historian and bishop of Caesarea, condemns what he regarded as a blasphemous account of Pilate, apparently a pagan document calculated to defame Christ (<em>Historia Ecclesiastica,<\/em> 1.9.3; 9.5.1). The Christian Acts of Pilate was probably composed to counter the pagan document.<\/p>\n<p>The Acts of Pilate is a composite document consisting of two main parts. The first part (chs 1–16) purports to be a translation from Hebrew to Greek of an account written by Nicodemus about the events surrounding the passion of Jesus. The second part (chs 17–27), also called “Christ’s Descent into Hell,” vividly describes Christ’s descent into hades to liberate the righteous dead (an imaginative expansion of 1 Pt 3:19 which was itself transformed in the Apostles’ Creed into the phrase “he descended into hell”). After the 14th century <span>AD<\/span>, the whole composition was commonly designated as the Gospel of Nicodemus because of the prominent place that character played in the document.<\/p>\n<p>In the prologue to the Acts of Pilate, a Roman soldier named Ananias claims to have found the Acts of Pilate in Hebrew and to have translated it into Greek in the 18th year of the reign of Emperor Flavius Theodosius (<span>AD<\/span> 425). A quotation of the entire document follows: In the 15th year of Tiberius Caesar (<span>AD<\/span> 29), Nicodemus wrote an account of the events that surrounded the passion, death, and resurrection of Jesus. The Jewish high priests accused Jesus of various religious crimes to Pilate and asked that he be tried. Though unwilling, Pilate sent for Jesus anyway, though in a most gracious manner. When Jesus arrived, the Roman standards bowed to him of their own accords (ch 1). In chapter 2 the Jewish charges against Jesus included: (1) that he was born of fornication, (2) that his birth meant the death of the children of Bethlehem, and (3) that Joseph and Mary fled to Egypt because they counted for nothing among the people of Israel. The charge of fornication was immediately refuted by 12 pious Jews who had witnessed the betrothal of Mary and Joseph. An interview between Pilate and Jesus (modeled after Jn 18:33-38) follows in chapter 3. The Jews charge Jesus with blaspheming God, and Pilate reluctantly turns Jesus over to them (ch 4). Nicodemus then stands up in the Jewish council and urges them to let Jesus go, for if he is not of God his movement will fail (cf. Acts 5:38-39), but the Jews oppose him (ch 5). Then three Jews healed by Jesus testify in his behalf (ch 6), followed by Bernice, the woman healed of the issue of blood (ch 7). The crowd proclaims Jesus a prophet (ch 8). When Pilate offers to release a prisoner, the Jews ask for Barabbas, and Pilate then washes his hands of the matter and has Jesus scourged and crucified with the two criminals, Dysmas and Gestas (ch 9). Jesus is mocked by the crowds, while one criminal (Gestas) is rebuked by the other (ch 10). Jesus’ death is accompanied by a darkening of the sun, which the Jews regard as a normal eclipse (ch 11). Joseph of Arimathea is then seized by the Jews and imprisoned; when they come to execute him he has vanished (ch 12). The guards report the appearance of the angel at the tomb, but are bribed by the Jews to keep silence (ch 12). Three Jews then come from Galilee: Phineas, a priest; Adas, a teacher; and Angaeus, a Levite. They report that they have witnessed the great commission and ascension of Jesus on Mt Malich (ch 14). Nicodemus suggests that the surrounding mountains be checked to see if some spirit has not taken Jesus up only to dash him on the rocks; the Jews find nothing except Joseph of Arimathea in his hometown (ch 15). Joseph is summoned to testify before the council and reveals how the risen Jesus had appeared to him when he was imprisoned and set him free (ch 15). The council decides, after hearing other witnesses, that if Jesus is still remembered after 50 years, the stories must be true (ch 16).<\/p>\n<p>The second document begins with an account of Joseph speaking to the council. Two brothers, he claims, had been raised at the same time as Jesus. The council summons them to give their stories (ch 17). While in hades, the brothers claimed, a great light appeared and Abraham and Isaiah became overjoyed (ch 18). Satan thought that Jesus could be restrained in hades (ch 20); but when the King of Glory arrived, the gates were broken down. Satan was handed over to the angels to be bound (ch 22) and was rebuked by hades for causing the ruin of his kingdom (ch 23). The King of Glory (Christ) then led Adam and the rest of the righteous dead out of hades (ch 24) and to paradise (ch 25), where even the repentant criminal was seen (ch 26). The two brothers claim that they have been sent by the angel Michael to preach the resurrection of Jesus to all mankind.<\/p>\n<p>The Acts of Pilate is a pastiche (collection) of quotations and allusions from the four canonical Gospels, mingled with imaginative and even fantastic additions. It is basically an apologetic document that attempts to defend the truth of the resurrection of Jesus against the counterclaims of pagan and Jewish adversaries. Unfortunately, it has an anti-Semitic tone that was to characterize Christian dramatizations of the events of Passion Week from the fourth century through the end of the Middle Ages.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"PistisSophia\">Pistis Sophia<\/p>\n<p>A fourth-century Coptic manuscript (Codex Askewanus) that represents one of the chief Gnostic works extant today. The work, containing four chapters, derives its name from the heroine, Sophia, though only the first half of the work refers to her. This portion relates how Jesus, during the first 11 years after his resurrection, returned to teach his disciples the highest mystery of all: the Treasury of the Light. Jesus returned to the Mt of Olives where he is caught up through the aeons and on his journey comes to the thirteenth aeon where he finds Sophia. She is in sorrow because she has caught a glimpse of the Treasury of the Light but is deceived by Authades (the self-willed), who flashes a false brightness before her, causing her to fall into the hands of the powers of matter. She maintains her hope and faith, however, and after 12 prayers is delivered from Authades and chaos by Jesus who reinstates her at the lower limit of the thirteenth aeon.<\/p>\n<p>The work is in dialogue form—with Jesus answering questions asked by his disciples. The theme is thoroughly Gnostic in its view of salvation that comes by a hidden doctrine that brings illumination.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"ProtevangeliumofJames\">Protevangelium of James<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> James, Protevangelium of (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"PsalmsofSolomon\">Psalms of Solomon<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Solomon, Psalms of (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"ResurrectionofChristbyBartholomewBookofthe\">Resurrection of Christ by Bartholomew, Book of the<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bartholomew, Book of the Resurrection of Christ by (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"ReubenTestamentof\">Reuben, Testament of<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"SibyllineOracles\">Sibylline Oracles<\/p>\n<p>A pseudepigraphal writing comprising originally 15 books, 12 of which are extant in late Greek manuscripts. The word <em>sibyl<\/em> is of Greek origin. It claimed to be an oracle of the gods and generally contained a message of a coming catastrophic event. Some Jews adopted and used this mode of writing for propagation purposes.<\/p>\n<p>The sibyls came from the beginning of the Maccabean period (165 <span>BC<\/span>) and cover a period up to shortly after the destruction of the second temple (<span>AD<\/span> 76). The authors, presumably writing in Alexandria, Egypt, stressed the unity and sovereignty of God. God controlled all events, whereas pagan deities were useless, unable to do anything. “But God is one, most exalted of all, who has made the heaven, the sun, the stars and the moon. . . . He has constituted man as the Divinely appointed ruler of all. You men . . . be ashamed of making gods” (book 2). God controls the history of the nations. The sibyls outline the history of 10 generations from the Assyrian kingdom to the destruction of the second temple and the great earthquake (book 4.47ff.). The third book also contains a section on the devastation and troubles to be experienced before the great judgment. It includes two messianic passages wherein the Messiah introduces an era of peace and prosperity for the faithful: “He will raise up his kingdom for all ages over men. . . . For nothing but peace shall come upon the land of the good” (lines 767, 780). The eternal state is to be reserved for the faithful who will be raised from the dead in a bodily form: “But all who are godly shall live again on earth, when God gives breath and life and grace to them the godly” (book 4.187-190), whereas the ungodly are to be thrown into hell, “And all who have sinned with deeds of impiety a heap of earth shall cover again, and murky Tartarus and the black recesses of hell” (lines 183-186).<\/p>\n<p>The express purpose of the authors of the sibyls was to demonstrate the reasonableness of the Jewish faith by casting their message in the form of the sibyl, introduced by the Greeks and appreciated by the Romans. In their emphasis on the God of Israel and their opposition to paganism, they nevertheless stand in the stream of the apocalyptic, the unveiling of God’s secrets of past and future. The sibyl as divine oracle was, thus, used as a literary form in order to convey a message to the non-Jewish world.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"SilvanusTeachingsof\">Silvanus, Teachings of<\/p>\n<p>Literary work of the Gnostics, attributed to Silvanus, the companion of Peter and Paul. It was discovered at Chenoboskion in Upper Egypt in 1946.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"SimeonTestamentof\">Simeon, Testament of<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"SlavonicActsofPeter\">Slavonic Acts of Peter<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Peter, Slavonic Acts of (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"SolomonPsalmsof\">Solomon, Psalms of<\/p>\n<p>The Psalms of Solomon are a collection of 18 songs attributed to Solomon. They are considered pseudepigrapha. The psalms were probably written by one author, who lived during the middle of the first century <span>BC<\/span> and wrote in Hebrew. The theological perspective of the author is Pharisaic in its views of the law, judgment, and the future of Israel. The Psalms of Solomon are derived from the canonical book of Psalms in their form and phraseology. One of the similarities in the form and phraseology is the emphasis on the antithesis between the righteous and the wicked. The wicked are the Gentiles who defile the holy things of the Lord (2:3) and apostate Jews who have fallen into sin (3:11, 13).<\/p>\n<p>The character of the sinner is that of the fool, as opposed to the wise man (cf. Wisdom Literature). The fool has no concern for the Lord (4:1); his speech and deeds betray his unrighteousness (4:2ff.). He is known by his lies, judgment of others, false oaths, his immorality, lawlessness, and selfish ambitions at the cost of others (cf. 12). The righteous are the wise, who fear the Lord (4:26). He is not dismayed by bad dreams or perilous times (6:4-5). He is provoked with zeal for the Lord’s righteousness, as he witnesses the desecration of the temple and the law (8:28). The Lord’s love of him is expressed in discipline, and he responds to the Lord’s rebuke with repentance for his sins. The author compares the righteous to the tree of life in Paradise. They are stable and will not be uprooted (14:2ff.). The wicked, on the other hand, will not be remembered in this life, and God will deal righteously with them by casting them into “Sheol and darkness and destruction” (14:6; 15:10).<\/p>\n<p>The author views God as the King who mightily rules over the nations (2:34ff.) with readiness to judge his enemies and the enemies of the righteous (2:38ff.; 4:9) and to vindicate the righteous (2:39). As the Lord’s care is demonstrated in his sustenance of nature (5:11-12), in his raising up kings, rulers, and nations (5:13), the author assures the reader that his care extends particularly to the poor and those who call upon him (5:2-3, 13). He is the hope of the righteous (8:37).<\/p>\n<p>In view of the foregoing belief in the righteous kingship of God and in his protection of the righteous, the psalms abound in the conviction that evil will be overcome by God’s intervention on behalf of the righteous. The particular context in which these psalms originated was Pompey’s entrance into Jerusalem and his desecration of the temple (63 <span>BC<\/span>), and it was hoped that at the death of Pompey (48 <span>BC<\/span>, cf. 2:30ff.) the messianic era might be introduced. Therefore, the author reminds God of the covenant made with David (17:5) and asks God’s forgiveness for Israel’s sins in the past. Israel has suffered gentile invasions and control as the result of God’s judgment (17:6). Since Pompey had died, the author prayed for the restoration of the theocracy under a Davidic king—“Behold, O Lord, and raise up unto them their king, the son of David. All the time in the which Thou seest, O God, that he may reign over Israel Thy servant” (17:23). By means of the Davidic Messiah the land will be purged of sinners, godless nations, and the righteous will be sanctified. The messianic rule extends only over the righteous remnant, who when restored to the land, will be divided into the 12 tribes; the Davidic Messiah will rule over the tribes and the other nations “in the wisdom of his righteousness” (17:29-31). The sojourner and the gentile nations will not share in the glory of the kingdom. Rather, their position will be that of servitude.<\/p>\n<p>The hope of the glorious future of Israel is the apocalyptic element in the psalms. They arose in a historical context, but they anticipate a radically new future. The psalmist pronounced a benediction on all those who would witness God’s judgment on the nations, the restoration of Israel, and the introduction of the messianic kingdom: “Blessed be they that shall be in those days, in that they shall see the good fortune of Israel which God shall bring to pass in the gathering together of the tribes. May the Lord hasten His mercy upon Israel! The Lord Himself is our king for ever and ever” (17:50-51).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"SolomonTestamentof\">Solomon, Testament of<\/p>\n<p>The Testament of Solomon is a second-century <span>BC<\/span> pseudepigraphal writing. The writing claims that Solomon was the writer of the testament. It is extant in Semitic manuscripts, and in some Greek texts.<\/p>\n<p>The material is basically Christian with emphasis on the cross and the virgin birth but also contains Jewish material as well. The testament recounts how Solomon, by means of a ring given to him by the archangel Michael, is able to subdue and use the skills of demons to build his temple. After completing the temple, however, Solomon is led into idolatry on account of his lust for a Shunammite girl. His fall was taken by the author of the testament as an occasion to warn the readers of the power and shapes of the demons and the angels having power over them. The work is written in the form of a testament in order to let Solomon reflect (on his deathbed) how he succeeded and failed as a legacy to Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"TestamentsoftheTwelvePatriarchs\">Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs<\/p>\n<p>Part of the Jewish pseudepigrapha. This particular composition is called a “testament” because it represents the deathbed speeches of each of the sons of Jacob. The testaments start with Reuben’s speech to his sons and ends with Benjamin’s testament to his heirs. Each patriarch is represented as gathering his sons around him and relating the important events of his life. During the speech the patriarch warns against particular vices and attitudes and recommends certain virtues. The advice and warnings of each patriarch often include insight and predictions concerning sin and salvation for his children. The account of the patriarch’s life serves as a guide for the future of his descendants. At the end of the speech, each patriarch dies and is buried at Hebron.<\/p>\n<p>It would appear that the concept of “testament” finds its orientation in Joshua 23–24, where Joshua summons the elders, heads, judges, and officers of Israel (Jos 23:2; 24:1) and gives them a charge before his death. First Kings 2:1-12 portrays David giving Solomon deathbed advice to walk in God’s ways. The speeches of the patriarchs find further scriptural reference in Genesis chapter 49, where Jacob calls his sons together to hear about their future. At the end of the speech Jacob dies (Gn 49:33).<\/p>\n<p>The present textual form (Slavonic, Armenian, and Greek versions) probably came about sometime during the second or third century <span>AD<\/span>. However, much of the material would appear to go back to the second or third century <span>BC<\/span>. The general scholarly consensus is that an original text in a Semitic language (either Hebrew or Aramaic) was composed by an author or authors sometime in the third or second century before the common era. At some later period, Christian sections were added to the original text. For examples of the Christian sections see Testament of Simeon 6:7; Testament of Levi 10:2; Testament of Dan 6:9; Testament of Naphtali 4:5; Testament of Asher 7:3-4; Testament of Joseph 19:11; Testament of Benjamin 3:8; 9:2-4. It would appear that the testaments may have been reworked by a Jewish writer(s) and by other Christian writers over the centuries. Thus we have a Jewish document from about the third century before the common era that has undergone both Jewish and Christian redactions over a long period of time. These testaments became quite popular in the tenth century, with special interest being displayed in the prophecies of the patriarchs and their secret knowledge.<\/p>\n<p>The following is a summary of each of the testaments of the patriarchs. The excerpts are based on R. H. Charles’s <em>Pseudepigrapha,<\/em> pp 282-367.<\/p>\n<h6>Reuben<\/h6>\n<p>The testament of Reuben is very much influenced by an overwhelming memory of defiling his father’s bed. This refers to Reuben taking his father’s concubine Bilhah while she was in a drunken stupor. Reuben has very strong opinions regarding what he considers to be negative attributes of women, and he warns his sons to be guarded in their relationship with women. His comments on women probably reflect the ill feelings that existed between himself and Jacob in regard to Bilhah. Reuben predicts that in the future his sons would be jealous of the sons of Levi but they would not be able to overthrow them. He admonishes his descendants to have respect and love for one another and to do truth to their neighbors. Reuben is buried at Hebron.<\/p>\n<h6>Simeon<\/h6>\n<p>The patriarch Simeon is presented as a strong warrior type. Reflecting the biblical account of Joseph being sold into slavery (Gn 37:25-28), Simeon testifies that he wanted to kill Joseph rather than sell him into slavery. As punishment for this attitude, God withered his right hand for seven days. Simeon warns his sons against envy, deceit, and fornication. He predicts that they will attempt to harm the sons of Levi but prophesies that the sons of Levi will remain superior. Simeon looked forward to a blissful era (6:4-7a), when the “Most High” would be blessed. Verse 7b is a Christian interpolation, “Because God has taken a body and eaten with men and saved men.” He admonishes his sons to obey the sons of Levi and Judah, for it would be from them that their salvation would be accomplished. He predicts that a high priest would come from Levi and a king would descend from the lines of Judah. Simeon concludes his testament by predicting that all Gentiles (an interpolation) and Israel would be saved.<\/p>\n<h6>Levi<\/h6>\n<p>Levi’s deathbed testament is in the form of dreams that he relates to his sons. He predicts that from his descendants and those of Judah the Lord would “appear among men” to save every race of men (2:11). The descendants of Levi would be “as the sun to all the seed of Israel” (4:3b) and in one dream it is shown that the blessings of the priesthood would come to his sons (8:2-3). Levi predicts that a king would arise in Judah; this king would establish a new priesthood that ministers to both Jews and Gentiles. The tenth chapter has a Christian interpolation that because of ungodliness and transgression, the sons of Levi would wrong “the Savior of the world, Christ” (10:2) and that for this they would be scattered throughout the world. Chapter 13 has a number of wisdom themes with emphasis on the need to follow and obey the law. Chapter 16 introduces an eschatological prediction that the sons of Levi would go astray for 70 weeks. The following chapter gives a detailed account of the 70 weeks in which there would be a priesthood for each jubilee. The first priesthood would be great, and the priest’s relationship to God would be such that God would be addressed as father. The second priesthood would “be conceived in the sorrow of beloved ones” (17:3), but this priesthood will be glorified by all. The following five priesthoods would be characterized by sorrow, pain, hatred, and darkness. However, a new priesthood would eventually arise and peace will be brought to all the earth (18:4); sin shall come to an end (18:9), for this new priesthood shall have a spirit of understanding and sanctification resting upon him. The testament closes with an admonition to choose either the law of the Lord or the work of Beliar (variant of Belial). The sons pledge themselves to the law, and following Levi’s death they bury him at Hebron.<\/p>\n<h6>Judah<\/h6>\n<p>At the beginning of the testament by Judah he tells his descendants that he had been promised by his father that he would be king. “And it came to pass, when I became a man, that my father blessed me, saying, You shall be a king, prospering in all things” (1:6). Judah reminisces about his early youth and his ability to conquer wild animals. He obeyed the commandments and did not give in to lust. He predicted that his descendants would fall into wickedness because of the love of money and the enticement of beautiful women (ch 17). In chapter 21 Judah predicts that the Lord would give the kingship to his descendants and the priesthood to the sons of Levi. Chapter 24 includes a Christian messianic redaction. It is predicted that from the star of Jacob one will arise that will be without sin and from it a rod of righteousness will grow to the Gentiles (24:6). The testament concludes with eschatological hope for the future when “they who are poor for the Lord’s sake shall be made rich and they who are put to death for the Lord’s sake shall awake to life” (25:4). Judah dies and is buried at Hebron.<\/p>\n<h6>Issachar<\/h6>\n<p>The last words of this patriarch are somewhat unique in that Issachar is depicted as being “upright” and without transgression (unlike many of his brothers). He predicts that the priesthood will come from Levi and the kingship will arise from the lineage of Judah. In chapter 6 Issachar predicts that his children will “cleave” after Beliar. If they recognize the mercy of God and follow Issachar’s exemplary life, “every spirit of Beliar will flee from them.” His final request is that he be buried at Hebron with his fathers.<\/p>\n<h6>Zebulun<\/h6>\n<p>The patriarch Zebulun begins his testament by characterizing himself as a “good gift” to his parents. He, like Issachar, indicates that he is not conscious of sinning “except in thought” (and if he has any iniquity it is only the sin of ignorance). Zebulun claims that he did not support the actions taken against Joseph, and he would have told his father about Joseph’s plight except that the other brothers agreed that if “anyone should declare the secret, he should be slain” (1:6). In 1:7 he declares that if it were not for him the other brothers would have killed Joseph. The brothers were so suspicious of Zebulun that they watched him until Joseph was sold. Verse 5:3 has a familiar theme that is found in the NT and in the rabbis: “Have compassion in your hearts, my children, because even as a man does to his neighbor, even so will the Lord do to him.” Zebulun believes that this lesson is demonstrated in practical terms. The sons of the other brothers were sickened and died on account of the action taken against Joseph (“because they showed no mercy in their hearts,” 5:5). The sons of Zebulun were preserved without sickness. He continues his wisdom teaching (8:3) by declaring that in the degree that a man has compassion upon his neighbor the Lord in the same degree will have mercy on him. Zebulun predicts the division between the northern and southern kingdoms and the eventual conquest of these kingdoms by the Gentiles. However, the people will repent and the Lord will bring them back to “the land” and Jerusalem (9:8). In chapter 10 Zebulun predicts that after his death he will “arise as a ruler in the midst of his sons” (10:2), and he promises reward for those who keep the laws and punishment for the ungodly. Zebulun dies at the end of his testament and is buried at Hebron.<\/p>\n<h6>Dan<\/h6>\n<p>The patriarch Dan laments his jealousy of Joseph and indicates that he was controlled by the spirit of Beliar. He reveals that he wanted to kill Joseph so that he could have the love of his father. Dan warns against the spirits of lying and anger, and he exhorts his descendants to love truth and long-suffering. He admonishes them to keep the commandments and “love the Lord through all your life and one another with a true heart” (5:3). Dan predicts that his sons will “in the last days” depart from the Lord and thus provoke the anger of the sons of Levi. They also will fight against the sons of Judah. His sons will not win against the sons of Levi and Judah because an angel of the Lord will guide them. Dan is represented as having read in the book of Enoch (a favorite reference for the patriarchs) that Satan and all the spirits of wickedness and pride will cause the sons of Levi, Judah, and Dan to sin. They will be taken into captivity where they will receive the plagues of Egypt and all the evils of the Gentiles. However, when they return to the Lord they will receive mercy and be given peace. The prediction is such that there would be one who would arise from the tribe of Judah and Levi who is called “the salvation of the Lord.” It would appear that the “one arising” would make war against Beliar and execute an “everlasting vengeance” against their enemies (5:10). Dan’s final warning is to beware of Satan and his spirits and to draw near to God and the angel “that intercedes for you” (6:2). The last section admonishes Dan’s sons to pass on to their children all that they have heard so that “the savior of the Gentiles may receive” them. There follows a Christian polemic about the savior being true, long-suffering, meek, and lowly (6:9). When Dan dies, he is buried near Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.<\/p>\n<h6>Naphtali<\/h6>\n<p>Naphtali is said to be 130 years old when he gives his last words. He is depicted as being in good health, but the morning after a feast realizes that he is going to die. Thus he gathers his sons about him. Naphtali has a very strong sense of order that contributes to the makeup and actions of man as well as the universe. He views the “Gentile problem” as their forsaking the Lord and changing their order so that they obeyed the “stocks and stones.” The change of order was the problem at Sodom and it also caused the Flood.<\/p>\n<p>Naphtali reads from the book of Enoch that his sons will depart from the Lord and walk “according to all lawlessness of the Gentiles” (4:1). He predicts that his descendants will be taken captive because of their sins and afterward a “few” will return to the Lord and he will bring them back to their land. After their return to the land, Naphtali predicts that his sons will forget the Lord and “become ungodly” with the result that they will be scattered all over the earth. They will remain in this state until the compassion of the Lord comes and a man working righteousness and mercy comes to them. Naphtali recounts two dreams that he had in his 40th year. In the first dream he saw the sun and moon stand still. Isaac told his grandsons to run and take hold of the sun and moon, each according to his strength. Levi took hold of the sun, and Judah seized the moon. Both of them were lifted up with the sun and moon. There appeared a bull in the dream with two great horns and eagle wings. The other sons attempted to seize this bull but could not. However, Joseph came and took hold of the bull and ascended “up with him on high” (5:7).<\/p>\n<p>There follows a prediction that the 12 tribes of Israel would be taken into captivity by the Assyrians, Medes, Persians, Chaldeans, and Syrians. The other dream saw a ship sailing on the sea of Jamnia without sailors or pilot. Written on the ship was the inscription “The ship of Jacob” (6:2). Jacob and his sons were on the ship, and when a storm arose Jacob departed from their presence. Eventually the ship breaks up from the pounding of the sea, and while Joseph sails off in a little boat the rest of the brothers are divided among nine planks with Levi and Judah sharing a plank. It would appear that by the prayers of Levi all the brothers eventually land safely on the shore. When Naphtali relates these dreams to his father, Jacob responds that all these things must be fulfilled.<\/p>\n<p>Naphtali admonished his sons to be united to Levi and Judah for through them “shall salvation arise to Israel” (8:2). Also through Levi and Judah the righteous of the Gentiles shall be gathered. Naphtali died and was buried at Hebron.<\/p>\n<h6>Gad<\/h6>\n<p>The patriarch Gad is represented as hating Joseph because Joseph had told his father that Gad and some of the other brothers were eating from the best of the flocks while tending them. During his testament Gad confesses his sin of hatred to his sons and warns them against harboring hatred because it only brings anguish: “For as love would quicken even the dead and would call back them that are condemned to die, so hatred would slay the living and those that had sinned venially it would not suffer to live” (4:6).<\/p>\n<p>Repentance is understood to give knowledge to the soul and leads the mind to salvation. Gad encourages his sons to honor the lineage of Levi and Judah, for therein is found the salvation of Israel. He predicts that his sons will walk in all wickedness and corruption and ends on a somewhat pessimistic note by asking to be buried near his fathers. Gad is buried at Hebron.<\/p>\n<h6>Asher<\/h6>\n<p>Asher is very conscious of good and evil spirits and the choice that man has to make between these two possibilities. Asher predicts that his descendants will act ungodly and not give heed to the law of God. Thus they will be delivered into the hands of their enemies and they will be scattered. They will exist in such a state until the “Most High” visits the earth “coming Himself [as man with men eating and drinking] . . . he shall save Israel and all the Gentiles” (7:3-4). This Christian interpolation is followed by a declaration that the Lord will gather them because of his mercy and for the sake of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. When Asher dies, he is buried at Hebron.<\/p>\n<h6>Joseph<\/h6>\n<p>Joseph calls himself the “beloved of Israel,” (1:2) and although he has seen envy and death, he did not go astray. During his testament he tells of his ordeal of being sold into slavery. The verses in chapter one are set in parallelism with the first half of the verse telling the plight of Joseph and the second half exalting the security of the Lord: “I was sold into slavery, and the Lord of all made me free: I was taken into captivity, and his strong hand succoured me. I was beset with hunger and the Lord himself nourished me” (1:5). Joseph details his experiences in Egypt with eight chapters being given to the temptations of the Egyptian woman. However, Joseph resisted her advances and the Lord rewarded him for his convictions. He admonishes his sons to have the fear of the Lord in all their works because whoever does the law of the Lord will be loved by him. This is the key to his success. Joseph encourages his children to do well to anyone who would do evil to them and pray for their enemies. He gives his attitude toward his brothers as an example of such a virtue.<\/p>\n<p>Joseph admonishes his sons to observe the commandments of the Lord and honor Levi and Judah for “the Lamb of God, who takes away the sin of the world, who saves all the Gentiles and Israel” (19:11) shall arise from them. He predicts the enslavement in Egypt but also the eventual deliverance. He directs his sons to take his bones with them when they leave Egypt, and the testament indicates that Joseph was buried at Hebron.<\/p>\n<h6>Benjamin<\/h6>\n<p>The last patriarch gives his testament when he is 125 years old. He encourages his children to love the Lord and keep his commandments. He urges them to follow the goodness of Joseph, for he did not want his brothers’ actions against him to be counted as sin. Benjamin predicts that in Joseph shall the prophecy be fulfilled “concerning the Lamb of God and Savior of the world, and that a blameless one shall be delivered up for lawless men, and a sinless one shall die for ungodly men in the blood of the covenant, for the salvation of the Gentiles and of Israel and shall destroy Beliar and his servants” (3:8). One can immediately see how the Christian interpolation would find easy access for a polemic in this testament. Joseph is depicted as suffering in innocence and without remorse. Likewise the Christian messiah would suffer and die for ungodly men.<\/p>\n<p>Benjamin believes that there are evildoers among his sons; from his reading of the book of Enoch he predicts that they will commit “fornication with the fornication of Sodom” and only a few will survive (9:1). There would appear to be a remnant from each tribe as the 12 tribes and the Gentiles will gather at the last temple. Their salvation will be a result of the “Most High” sending his only “begotten prophet” (9:2), and he will be lifted up upon a tree and the veil of the temple shall be rent and the Spirit of God shall be passed on to the Gentiles. Benjamin admonishes his sons that if they walk in holiness according to the commandments of the Lord, all of Israel will be gathered to the Lord. When Benjamin dies, he is buried at Hebron.<\/p>\n<p>From the brief account of each patriarch, it is apparent that the testaments were subject to both Jewish and Christian redaction and go beyond mere interpolation. The text reflects such characteristics as two messiahs, a double love commandment, ethical and theological teachings, as well as universal salvation. However, it is most difficult to place these features within a particular time period or even religion.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"ThaddeusActsof\">Thaddeus, Acts of<\/p>\n<p>A sixth-century version and extension of the fifth-century Syriac Doctrina Addaei, or Legend of Abgar. The Legend contains a purported exchange of letters between Abgar, king of Edessa (<span>AD<\/span> 9–46), and Jesus. This exchange results in the sending of Thaddeus, one of Jesus’ apostles, to Edessa. While there, he performs numerous miracles including the healing of Abgar. The Acts has Abgar healed when Ananias, his messenger, returns prior to the arrival of Thaddeus. The Acts focuses on the activity of Thaddeus in establishing the church in Edessa.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"TheclaActsofPauland\">Thecla, Acts of Paul and<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Paul and Thecla, Acts of (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"ThomasActsof\">Thomas, Acts of<\/p>\n<p>The Acts of Thomas is one of a cluster of acts of the apostles that have three common characteristics. They narrate the propagation of the gospel around the ancient world, promote the deeds and words of one of the apostles, and inevitably chronicle that apostle’s martyrdom. The oldest of these “acts narratives” are those of Paul, John, Andrew, Peter, and Thomas. Acts of Thomas, like the others, is a blend of Christian piety, the popular Hellenistic romances of the day, and Jewish haggadic-type moralistic teachings.<\/p>\n<p>Scholarly study of the Acts of Thomas suggests that it was probably written at the beginning of the third century. It was definitely written in Syriac first and probably by someone with strong tendencies toward the Gnostic heresy. It proved broadly popular among Gnostics, Manichees, and orthodox churches, so much so that it was quickly translated from the original Syriac into Arabic, Armenian, and several Greek translations. From these varied Greek versions, Coptic, Latin, and Ethiopic translations were made. Significant portions of the Coptic version were in turn retranslated back into Arabic, Ethiopic, and Greek, thus creating a most confusing textual tradition. Only one full early Syriac text survives, and it is considered less reliable than some of the extant Greek translations.<\/p>\n<p>In the critical English edition of the Acts of Thomas, that of A. F. J. Klijn published in 1962, the narrative is divided into the traditional acts (praxeis). There are 13 of these numbered in 170 sequential chapters that include the concluding martyrdom of the apostle. Various liturgical pieces, sermon fragments, and hymns are inserted, including two particularly famous hymns in the early church—that of the “Song of the Bride” in act 1 and that of the “Song of the Pearl” in act 9. The first six acts are not woven together by any particular theme, and they record that Thomas went on board ship to go to India (act 3), which would imply a south Indian ministry. Yet the text speaks of ministry to the north Indian king, Gundaphoro (act 4). However, acts 7 through 13 and the martyrdom are set in the south Indian kingdom of Mazdai and are obviously written by one hand. It is probable that the first six acts represent earlier materials placed into the whole by the writer of the last seven acts and the martyrdom. This document is the first-known mention of the traditions that Thomas ministered in India, was martyred there, and that his bones were returned to Edessa. Acts of Thomas is written, as are all the apocryphal acts of the apostles, on the assumption that the world was divided among the apostles for evangelization and that India fell to Thomas.<\/p>\n<p>Thomas is called Judas Thomas throughout these acts after the Syrian style of referring to that apostle. Thomas is spoken of as the twin of Jesus (the Didymus of the NT), as recipient of special divine revelations, and as being Jesus incarnate in the flesh again—in chapters 10, 11, 39, 47, and 48 of the Acts. Many historians think these are clear indications of Gnostic thought. Others think such ideas are expressions of Jesus’ adaptation to human perception and identification with his apostles—features often found in early Christian literature. There seems to be no question but that Gnostic or Manichee tendencies were gradually edited out of Greek and Latin texts by orthodox copyists.<\/p>\n<p>One quickly gets the feel for this narrative. The Acts of Thomas opens with Judas Thomas’s refusing to go to India. He is then sold as a slave—in parallel to Christ’s coming as a slave to redeem man. So Thomas reaches India as a carpenter (again the parallel with Jesus) and a builder of homes. He plays groomsman in a wedding at which miracles convince the flute player of Thomas’s role as apostle of God; so the king asks Thomas to pray for his daughter. Great stress is placed on purity in Thomas’s teaching, and this usually involves sexual abstinence as well. Finally, many are converted, including the king, and they form an assembly of believers in Sandaruk.<\/p>\n<p>In the second act the king, Gundophor, gives Thomas a large sum of money to build a palace. After surprising the king by tracing the palace on the ground in winter, Thomas builds him a palace in heaven by giving the money to the poor. The king imprisons and decides to kill Thomas for the supposed deception; but the king’s brother, Gad, dies and goes to heaven where he sees the palace and desires to buy it. Gad is then reunited with his body and tries to buy the palace from Gundophor, whereupon Gundophor learns that he cannot sell it, releases Thomas from prison, and advises Gad to arrange to have his own palace built in heaven. Thomas gives a great doxology (ch 25 of act 2), and the two brothers who have come to believe through all of this want to be baptized.<\/p>\n<p>In these miracle narratives and teachings, all the books of the NT seem to be echoed, though there are relatively few direct quotations. Favorite miracle passages such as Balaam’s talking donkey and Peter’s release from prison are reexperienced in Thomas’s life with vast embellishment. The talking ass enters a home and casts out a demon at Thomas’s command; Thomas causes great consternation by repeatedly passing in and out of the securely closed prison. Such miracles, sufferings, and conversions make up acts 3 through 13 and continue to the climax of Judas Thomas’s ministry. His martyrdom occurs (ch 168) at the hands of four soldiers with spears who have been ordered by the king of Mazdai to execute Thomas. He thereafter appears to his followers who have Thomas’s bones removed to Edessa. Meantime, the son of the king of Mazdai becomes sick unto death. Desperate, the king goes to Thomas’s tomb, thinking to get a relic to heal his son. Finding the body gone, he uses the very dust upon which Judas Thomas’s body rested, and his son is healed. Thereafter the king becomes a believer and joins the community of believers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"ThomasGospelof\">Thomas, Gospel of<\/p>\n<p>A noncanonical and heretical gospel of Gnostic origin that probably dates from the second or third century <span>AD<\/span>. It is one of a large number of similar writings that flourished among early religious sects such as the Marcosians (a second-century group that built an elaborate sacramental system around numbers) and the Manicheans (a third-century dualistic heresy based on the primeval conflict between light and darkness). In fact, Cyril of Jerusalem, who died in <span>AD<\/span> 386 says the Gospel of Thomas was written by “one of those wicked disciples of Mani” (the founder of Manichaeism). Along with the Protevangelium of James, it is one of the oldest and most widely known of the more than 50 apocryphal gospels that circulated within the churches during the period of their early growth and expansion.<\/p>\n<p>This Gospel of Thomas (sometimes referred to as an “infancy gospel”) should not be confused with the Coptic version that was unearthed in 1945 near Nag Hammadi in Upper Egypt. The latter is a collection of 114 “sayings of Jesus,” which shed a great deal of light on the influence of Gnosticism on Egyptian Christianity. They claim to be the “secret words” of Jesus transmitted by “Didymos Judas Thomas.” The Gospel of Thomas, with which this article deals, is composed of a series of childhood miracles of Jesus and is preserved for us in four versions—two in Greek (one quite a bit longer than the other), one in Latin, and one in Syriac.<\/p>\n<p>The Gospel of Thomas was apparently known as early as Hippolytus (<span>AD<\/span> 155–235), who quotes it as saying, “He who seeks me will find me in children from seven years old; for there will I, who am hidden in the fourteenth aeon, be found.” Hippolytus claimed that it was used by the Naasenes (a Gnostic sect that worshiped the serpent) in support of their doctrine of the nature of the inward man. The quotation above is not found in the extant versions, but this is understandable because there is evidence from the Stichometry of Nicephorus (possibly fourth century) that an earlier version was over twice the length. The Gospel of Thomas was known both to Origen (c. <span>AD<\/span> 185–254) and Eusebius (c. <span>AD<\/span> 260–340). The latter classed it with the heretical writings and said it should be “rejected as altogether absurd and impious” (<em>Historia Ecclesiastica<\/em> 3.25).<\/p>\n<p>The stories that make up the Gospel of Thomas emphasize the miraculous power and supernatural wisdom of the boy Jesus. Some scholars think they were originally fabricated by orthodox Christians in opposition to the Gnostic heresy that the “supernatural Christ” first came upon Jesus at the time of his baptism. It is much more likely, however, that they owe their origin to people’s curiosity about what the boy Jesus must have been like. Some of the tales may have come from pagan sources.<\/p>\n<p>Apart from three or four miracles, which could be classed as beneficial, the supernatural feats said to be performed by the boy Jesus were destructive. For example, when a certain child spoiled some pools made by Jesus, he was cursed by Jesus and totally withered up. Another boy who provoked Jesus by running into him “immediately . . . fell down and died.” A teacher who struck Jesus on the head was straightway cursed and fell to the ground. The French writer Renan referred to the Jesus of the Gospel of Thomas as “a vicious little guttersnipe.”<\/p>\n<p>Throughout the gospel Jesus is presented as infinitely wise. He ridicules his teacher Zacchaeus saying, “You hypocrite, first, if you know it, teach the Alpha, and then we will believe you concerning the Beta.” After Zacchaeus berates himself for being so inferior to the one he intended to take as a disciple, Jesus laughs and announces, “I am come from above that I may curse them.” The text continues, “And no man after that dared to provoke him, lest he should curse him, and he should be maimed.”<\/p>\n<p>Other miracles include making 12 live sparrows out of clay, smiting his accusers with blindness, raising a child from the dead, healing a foot cut in two by an ax, carrying water in a cloth garment, reaping an enormous harvest from one kernal of wheat, stretching a piece of wood to its proper length, and healing his brother James who had been bitten by a viper while gathering fagots (sticks to use as firewood). More miracles may be found in the longer Latin version.<\/p>\n<p>It comes as no surprise that the orthodox church has always rejected from its canon of sacred scripture the apocryphal Gospel of Thomas. It is, however, quoted in other later gospels of the same sort. For example, the Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew from chapter 18 on is based upon the Gospel of Thomas. Along with other apocryphal materials, it has exercised a significant influence on Christian art and literature, especially from the tenth century forward. For example, the account of Jesus making the 12 sparrows from clay shows up in the Koran.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"TruthGospelof\">Truth, Gospel of<\/p>\n<p>Around 1945 a group of Egyptian peasant farmers near modern Nag Hammadi inadvertently dug into a grave of the ancient village known as Shenesit-Chenoboskion and unearthed a jar containing 13 books (9 of which were largely complete) and 15 fragments of works. This find was the library of an ancient Gnostic sect and contained all or parts of 51 different Gnostic writings—all but two of which had never come into modern scholars’ hands before. Now called the Nag Hammadi or Chenoboskion texts, these works were the first modern find of original Gnostic literature. All are Coptic translations of earlier Greek originals.<\/p>\n<p>Codex I (titled the Jung Codex because it now is owned by the Jung Institute in Vienna) is unique among the 13 works because it is in Sub-Achimimic Coptic, while the rest of the works are in the more usual Sahidic Coptic. Codex I contains five works, two of which are the enormously controversial Gospel of Thomas and the Gospel of Truth.<\/p>\n<p>The Gospel of Truth has no heading but rather draws its title from the incipit (first line of the text); it has no author; it contains no addressee. In fact, it is not a gospel at all, but rather a treatise expressive of Valentinian Gnosticism at its very earliest stage. Because the Gnosticism expressed in the Gospel of Truth is lacking all later-Valentinian mythological development and because it is stated simply and in almost orthodox Christian thought forms, the majority of modern scholars credit it to Valentinus himself, though no final proof of this has been discovered as yet. If Valentinus himself did not write this document, then it had to be someone in the immediate circle of his initial disciples.<\/p>\n<p>Valentinus was born in Egypt around <span>AD<\/span> 100 to 110. He received a thorough education at Alexandria, became a Christian, and taught first in Egypt before moving to Rome around <span>AD<\/span> 136, where he stayed until 154 or 155. Tertullian, in his work against heresy, seems to imply that Valentinus was twice expelled from the Roman church; he states that Valentinus was a brilliant and eloquent man who had hopes of becoming a bishop in Rome at one time. Valentinus attracted able followers who later expanded his teachings almost beyond recognition. But when he left Rome sometime after 154 or 155, he had made a final break with orthodoxy and was teaching a form of Gnostic heresy the product of which was the Gospel of Truth, written by himself or someone of his immediate circle. There is a surviving statement that Valentinus taught subsequently in Cyprus, and then he vanishes into the mists of history.<\/p>\n<p>Irenaeus said the Gospel of Truth is no gospel, for it is unlike the four Gospels (<em>Against Heresies<\/em> 3.2.9). Irenaeus was certainly correct, for the work is not a narrative. Nor does the Gospel of Truth contain any story about Jesus, any place name of any type, any date, or any mention of any person other than Jesus, who is only mentioned five times.<\/p>\n<p>More than 60 times, this brief work uses the notions of knowledge or needing to know. This knowledge is born from within as the soul returns to itself, finding there what Deity deposited in it—or perhaps better, finding there the residue of Deity still entrapped within it. Thus whoever has Gnosis has simply taken what is his and can know where he or she comes from and for where he or she is bound. Christ’s role was to present the “Book of the Living” or the “Living Book.” “Book” is understood, not as the gospel proclamation of the life and teachings of Jesus, but rather as the primordial gospel or truth that existed before creation. It was error and ignorance that rebelled against the Savior and nailed him to the tree. Implied in this, though not explicitly stated, is the Gnostic understanding that it was also divine error and ignorance out of which matter emerged or was created. Salvation for living beings entrapped in this matter comes with return to unalloyed Deity. The path of this return is Gnosis (knowledge). The Pleroma, the fullness of the Deity, went out into the depths of matter in search of the elect among beings by way of Jesus and the cross.<\/p>\n<p>While these traits of Gnosticism are clear, this gospel is much closer to orthodoxy than most Gnostic Chenoboskion writings because it mentions only one Son of God, not several emanations; it does not split Jesus into a physical Jesus and a divine Christ; and most strikingly, Sophia, the usual central character in the Gnostic cosmic drama, does not appear at all. It is for these reasons among others that the Gospel of Truth is placed very close to Valentinus’s break with orthodoxy.<\/p>\n<p>The Gospel of Truth has assumed some degree of importance in NT studies beyond that warranted by its heretical content because it everywhere assumes our full NT canon. By some scholars’ counts, there are no less than 83 places where the Gospel of Truth echoes NT canonical books—in spite of the fact it does not cite a single saying of Jesus directly. Most particularly, it relies heavily on the book of Revelation and the Epistle to the Hebrews.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"VirginAssumptionofthe\">Virgin, Assumption of the<\/p>\n<p>A widely circulated legend dealing with the death and translation of the Virgin Mary. None of the many versions is earlier than the fourth century. Most go back to Egypt. In the Coptic versions, Jesus himself appears to Mary before the apostles depart on their missionary labors; Jesus announces her coming death and translation. In the other form an angel makes the announcement. Mary requests the presence of all the apostles, who are miraculously brought on the clouds. Mary is transfigured, and many healings result from contact with her dead body. She is transported to heaven by Jesus shortly after her death.<\/p>\n<p>This legend itself took on a new interest and importance when in 1950 “The Assumption of the Blessed Virgin” was made a part of official Roman Catholic dogma.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"VirginLifeofthe\">Virgin, Life of the<\/p>\n<p>There are a number of accounts of the early life and existence of the Virgin Mary. Most of them come to us through Coptic texts. They tell of the birth of Mary to Joachim (also called Cleopas) and Anna, who had been taunted by friends for having no children. Mary was born after a vision of a white dove. In some accounts Mary was dedicated to the Lord and then committed to the care of a man, Joseph. While she was in the house weaving on the veil of the temple, angels would come to minister to her. The annunciation by Gabriel is given at great length. The birth of Jesus is described in detail while Joseph is searching for a midwife, Salome. Other accounts go on to describe tender scenes between Mary and the child Jesus. In some of these versions, there is a reckless identification of the Virgin Mary with all of the other Marys of the Gospels.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"ZebulunTestamentof\">Zebulun, Testament of<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (above).<\/p>","summary_ro":"APOCRYPHA* Books excluded from the canon of Scripture. Preview • Introduction • Apocryphal Gospels • Apocryphal Acts • Apocryphal Epistles • Apocalyptic Apocrypha • Specific Titles of Apocryphal Writings Introduction The writings of the Old and New Testaments tended to attract certain additional compositions in the form of books, parts of books, letters, “gospels,” apocalypses, and so on. Most of the authors wrote anonymously, but some presented their writings to the public under the name of ...","summary_en":"APOCRYPHA* Books excluded from the canon of Scripture. Preview • Introduction • Apocryphal Gospels • Apocryphal Acts • Apocryphal Epistles • Apocalyptic Apocrypha • Specific Titles of Apocryphal Writings Introduction The writings of the Old and New Testaments tended to attract certain additional compositions in the form of books, parts of books, letters, “gospels,” apocalypses, and so on. Most of the authors wrote anonymously, but some presented their writings to the public under the name of ...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":9040,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Death","title_en":"Death","content_ro":"<h3>DEATH<\/h3>\n<p>Cessation of life (physical death) or separation from God (spiritual death).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentView\">Old Testament View<\/p>\n<p>In the OT death was accepted as the natural end of life. The goal of an Israelite was to live a long and full life, produce many descendants, and die in peace with the children and grandchildren gathered about. The OT contains many protests against an early death (e.g., Hezekiah’s, 2 Kgs 20:1-11). An early death might appear to be the result of God’s judgment; hence, Job saw the need to vindicate his character prior to death (Jb 19:25-26). Only in Ecclesiastes 3:19-20 is outright pessimism expressed in the face of death—and that book probably shows considerable non-Hebraic influence.<\/p>\n<p>Death, although a natural ending to life, was never viewed as pleasant. Death cut one off from human community as well as from the presence and service of God. God may offer comfort in the face of death (Ps 73:23-28), but he is rarely portrayed as present with the dead, and that only in later biblical literature (Ps 139:8). For that reason, death was never viewed as the threshold to a better life.<\/p>\n<p>The relationship of sin to death is seen in the death penalty in the law of Moses. A serious offender was put to death. The punitive phrase “he shall be cut off” implied that although the nation went on living, the criminal was separated from it by death. The Israelites were warned that to disobey God’s commandments could bring premature death as a consequence of breaking fellowship with God (Dt 30:15-20; Jer 21:8; Ez 18:21-32).<\/p>\n<p>In the intertestamental period, as Jewish ideas of afterlife and resurrection developed more explicitly, so too did Jewish thinking about death. Death itself, not just a premature death, came to be seen as an evil result of sin (2 Esd 3:7; Ecclus 25:24). Sometimes all death is depicted as the result of the “first sin” (Adam and Eve’s disobedience). In other references, everyone dies as a result of his or her own sin. The first clear indication in Scripture of a resurrection of the dead and a final judgment or punishment occurs in the book of Daniel (Dn 12:2), one of the last OT books to be written. That teaching is echoed throughout the intertestamental period (2 Esd 7:31-44). During that time, it was believed that the soul survived death either in some immortal form (Wisd of Sol 3:4; 4:1; 4 Macc 16:13; 17:12) or awaiting the resurrection (1 Enoch 102). Some of those extrabiblical writings incorporated Greek ideas that the body was a burden to be gotten rid of—a notion foreign to Hebrew thought.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of resurrection and a life redeemed from death, however, set the stage for the NT revelation focusing on Christ’s resurrection and his conquest of death.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NewTestamentView\">New Testament View<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, death is seen more as a theological problem than as a personal event. Death goes beyond the simple ending of physical life, which the authors accept almost without difficulty. Death is seen as affecting every part of a person’s life. God alone is immortal, the source of all life in the world (Rom 4:17; 1 Tm 6:16). Only as human beings are properly related to God’s life can they live. But it has been unnatural for people to be in personal communion with the divine source of life since sin was introduced into the world (Rom 5:12, 17-18; 1 Cor 15:22). When Adam separated himself from God, that separation brought death. Each human being has followed in Adam’s footsteps (Rom 3:23; 5:12), bringing death for everyone as the absolutely necessary result (Rom 6:23; Heb 9:27). Death, then, is not merely something that happens to people at the end of their lives; it is also the living out of their lives apart from fellowship with God.<\/p>\n<p>The extent of death’s domination is vast. It affects every aspect of culture. All of human life is lived under the shadow of the fear of death (Rom 8:15; Heb 2:15). Death reigns over all that is “of the flesh” (Rom 8:6). Anyone not living in relationship to Christ lives in a state of death (Jn 3:16-18; 1 Jn 5:12). The devil, who rules the world, is the lord of death (Heb 2:14). Death is sometimes personified as a demonic power at large in the world but finally brought to bay by Christ himself, the only one who could master it (1 Cor 15:26-27; Rv 6:8; 20:13-14).<\/p>\n<p>Christ died, was buried, and rose again on the third day (Rom 4:25; 1 Cor 15:3-4; 1 Thes 4:14). Through that historic event, the power of death was broken. The NT in various ways expresses Christ’s subjection to death in payment for sin. He became obedient to death (Phil 2:8); he died as a sacrifice for the sins of all (1 Cor 5:7; 2 Cor 5:15); and he descended into hades, the place of the dead (1 Pt 3:18-19). The major point of all such passages is that he did not remain dead but defeated the devil, took the power (keys) of death, and ascended in victory (Heb 2:14-15; Rv 1:17-18). Jesus Christ worked not for his own benefit but for those who commit themselves to him (Mk 10:45; Rom 5:6-8; 1 Thes 5:9-10). By accepting a death he did not deserve, Christ has broken the power of death for his followers.<\/p>\n<p>The Christian is thus delivered from “this body of death” (Rom 7:24) by the power of Christ. Salvation comes through being baptized into Christ’s death (6:3-4), and “dying with Christ” to the world and the law (Rom 7:6; Gal 6:14; Col 2:20). That is, the death of Christ is counted by God as the believer’s death. The rebellious world’s sin (Rom 6:6) and self-idolatry (living for oneself, 2 Cor 5:14-15) become things of the past. The death of Jesus for his people is the means by which his life is given to them (4:10). The result is that believers are separated from the world just as they were once separated from God. From the world’s point of view, they are dead; Christ is their only life (Col 3:3).<\/p>\n<p>The apostle John expressed it somewhat differently. Jesus came into the world to give life to the dead (Jn 5:24). That life-giving will not happen at the resurrection; it is already happening. All who commit themselves to Jesus pass immediately from death to life. Or, to put it another way, those who keep (obey) his words will never see death (8:51-52). The point is that all who are outside Christ are already dead, and those trusting in Christ are already enjoying life. The radical difference between the Christian and the non-Christian is a difference between life and death.<\/p>\n<p>Naturally, the NT writers knew that Christians die; their problem was to find words to explain the difference from non-Christian death. Believers who die physically are said to be “dead in Christ” (1 Thes 4:16). Or they are not dead at all, but merely “asleep” (1 Cor 15:6, 18, 20, 51; 1 Thes 4:13-15; cf. Jesus’ words, Jn 11:11-14). Although their bodies are dead, deceased believers are not separated from Christ; that is, they are not really dead. All the powers of death and hell cannot separate believers from Christ (Rom 8:38-39). For them, death is not a loss but a gain; it brings them closer to Christ (2 Cor 5:1-10; Phil 1:20-21). What is more, believers will share in Christ’s victory over physical death as well. Because he is the “firstfruits” of those rising from the dead (1 Cor 15:20; Col 1:18), those “in Christ” will rise “on the last day” to be with him, whole and complete.<\/p>\n<p>On the other hand, for those who do not belong to Christ, there is a final, total separation from God. At the last judgment, all whose names are not “written in the Book of Life” are consigned to a lake of fire, in the company of death itself and hades. That final separation from God is the “second death” (Rv 20:14). Christians, however, have been saved from death (Jas 5:20; 1 Jn 3:14). The second death has no power over those who are faithful to Christ (Rv 2:11; 20:6). Instead, they will live with God, in whose presence there can be no death, for he is life itself (21:4).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dead, Place of the; Intermediate State; Wrath of God.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DEATH<\/h3>\n<p>Cessation of life (physical death) or separation from God (spiritual death).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentView\">Old Testament View<\/p>\n<p>In the OT death was accepted as the natural end of life. The goal of an Israelite was to live a long and full life, produce many descendants, and die in peace with the children and grandchildren gathered about. The OT contains many protests against an early death (e.g., Hezekiah’s, 2 Kgs 20:1-11). An early death might appear to be the result of God’s judgment; hence, Job saw the need to vindicate his character prior to death (Jb 19:25-26). Only in Ecclesiastes 3:19-20 is outright pessimism expressed in the face of death—and that book probably shows considerable non-Hebraic influence.<\/p>\n<p>Death, although a natural ending to life, was never viewed as pleasant. Death cut one off from human community as well as from the presence and service of God. God may offer comfort in the face of death (Ps 73:23-28), but he is rarely portrayed as present with the dead, and that only in later biblical literature (Ps 139:8). For that reason, death was never viewed as the threshold to a better life.<\/p>\n<p>The relationship of sin to death is seen in the death penalty in the law of Moses. A serious offender was put to death. The punitive phrase “he shall be cut off” implied that although the nation went on living, the criminal was separated from it by death. The Israelites were warned that to disobey God’s commandments could bring premature death as a consequence of breaking fellowship with God (Dt 30:15-20; Jer 21:8; Ez 18:21-32).<\/p>\n<p>In the intertestamental period, as Jewish ideas of afterlife and resurrection developed more explicitly, so too did Jewish thinking about death. Death itself, not just a premature death, came to be seen as an evil result of sin (2 Esd 3:7; Ecclus 25:24). Sometimes all death is depicted as the result of the “first sin” (Adam and Eve’s disobedience). In other references, everyone dies as a result of his or her own sin. The first clear indication in Scripture of a resurrection of the dead and a final judgment or punishment occurs in the book of Daniel (Dn 12:2), one of the last OT books to be written. That teaching is echoed throughout the intertestamental period (2 Esd 7:31-44). During that time, it was believed that the soul survived death either in some immortal form (Wisd of Sol 3:4; 4:1; 4 Macc 16:13; 17:12) or awaiting the resurrection (1 Enoch 102). Some of those extrabiblical writings incorporated Greek ideas that the body was a burden to be gotten rid of—a notion foreign to Hebrew thought.<\/p>\n<p>The concept of resurrection and a life redeemed from death, however, set the stage for the NT revelation focusing on Christ’s resurrection and his conquest of death.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NewTestamentView\">New Testament View<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, death is seen more as a theological problem than as a personal event. Death goes beyond the simple ending of physical life, which the authors accept almost without difficulty. Death is seen as affecting every part of a person’s life. God alone is immortal, the source of all life in the world (Rom 4:17; 1 Tm 6:16). Only as human beings are properly related to God’s life can they live. But it has been unnatural for people to be in personal communion with the divine source of life since sin was introduced into the world (Rom 5:12, 17-18; 1 Cor 15:22). When Adam separated himself from God, that separation brought death. Each human being has followed in Adam’s footsteps (Rom 3:23; 5:12), bringing death for everyone as the absolutely necessary result (Rom 6:23; Heb 9:27). Death, then, is not merely something that happens to people at the end of their lives; it is also the living out of their lives apart from fellowship with God.<\/p>\n<p>The extent of death’s domination is vast. It affects every aspect of culture. All of human life is lived under the shadow of the fear of death (Rom 8:15; Heb 2:15). Death reigns over all that is “of the flesh” (Rom 8:6). Anyone not living in relationship to Christ lives in a state of death (Jn 3:16-18; 1 Jn 5:12). The devil, who rules the world, is the lord of death (Heb 2:14). Death is sometimes personified as a demonic power at large in the world but finally brought to bay by Christ himself, the only one who could master it (1 Cor 15:26-27; Rv 6:8; 20:13-14).<\/p>\n<p>Christ died, was buried, and rose again on the third day (Rom 4:25; 1 Cor 15:3-4; 1 Thes 4:14). Through that historic event, the power of death was broken. The NT in various ways expresses Christ’s subjection to death in payment for sin. He became obedient to death (Phil 2:8); he died as a sacrifice for the sins of all (1 Cor 5:7; 2 Cor 5:15); and he descended into hades, the place of the dead (1 Pt 3:18-19). The major point of all such passages is that he did not remain dead but defeated the devil, took the power (keys) of death, and ascended in victory (Heb 2:14-15; Rv 1:17-18). Jesus Christ worked not for his own benefit but for those who commit themselves to him (Mk 10:45; Rom 5:6-8; 1 Thes 5:9-10). By accepting a death he did not deserve, Christ has broken the power of death for his followers.<\/p>\n<p>The Christian is thus delivered from “this body of death” (Rom 7:24) by the power of Christ. Salvation comes through being baptized into Christ’s death (6:3-4), and “dying with Christ” to the world and the law (Rom 7:6; Gal 6:14; Col 2:20). That is, the death of Christ is counted by God as the believer’s death. The rebellious world’s sin (Rom 6:6) and self-idolatry (living for oneself, 2 Cor 5:14-15) become things of the past. The death of Jesus for his people is the means by which his life is given to them (4:10). The result is that believers are separated from the world just as they were once separated from God. From the world’s point of view, they are dead; Christ is their only life (Col 3:3).<\/p>\n<p>The apostle John expressed it somewhat differently. Jesus came into the world to give life to the dead (Jn 5:24). That life-giving will not happen at the resurrection; it is already happening. All who commit themselves to Jesus pass immediately from death to life. Or, to put it another way, those who keep (obey) his words will never see death (8:51-52). The point is that all who are outside Christ are already dead, and those trusting in Christ are already enjoying life. The radical difference between the Christian and the non-Christian is a difference between life and death.<\/p>\n<p>Naturally, the NT writers knew that Christians die; their problem was to find words to explain the difference from non-Christian death. Believers who die physically are said to be “dead in Christ” (1 Thes 4:16). Or they are not dead at all, but merely “asleep” (1 Cor 15:6, 18, 20, 51; 1 Thes 4:13-15; cf. Jesus’ words, Jn 11:11-14). Although their bodies are dead, deceased believers are not separated from Christ; that is, they are not really dead. All the powers of death and hell cannot separate believers from Christ (Rom 8:38-39). For them, death is not a loss but a gain; it brings them closer to Christ (2 Cor 5:1-10; Phil 1:20-21). What is more, believers will share in Christ’s victory over physical death as well. Because he is the “firstfruits” of those rising from the dead (1 Cor 15:20; Col 1:18), those “in Christ” will rise “on the last day” to be with him, whole and complete.<\/p>\n<p>On the other hand, for those who do not belong to Christ, there is a final, total separation from God. At the last judgment, all whose names are not “written in the Book of Life” are consigned to a lake of fire, in the company of death itself and hades. That final separation from God is the “second death” (Rv 20:14). Christians, however, have been saved from death (Jas 5:20; 1 Jn 3:14). The second death has no power over those who are faithful to Christ (Rv 2:11; 20:6). Instead, they will live with God, in whose presence there can be no death, for he is life itself (21:4).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dead, Place of the; Intermediate State; Wrath of God.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DEATH Cessation of life (physical death) or separation from God (spiritual death). Old Testament View In the OT death was accepted as the natural end of life. The goal of an Israelite was to live a long and full life, produce many descendants, and die in peace with the children and grandchildren gathered about. The OT contains many protests against an early death (e.g., Hezekiah’s, 2 Kgs 20:1-11). An early death might appear to be the result of God’s judgment; hence, Job saw the need to vindi...","summary_en":"DEATH Cessation of life (physical death) or separation from God (spiritual death). Old Testament View In the OT death was accepted as the natural end of life. The goal of an Israelite was to live a long and full life, produce many descendants, and die in peace with the children and grandchildren gathered about. The OT contains many protests against an early death (e.g., Hezekiah’s, 2 Kgs 20:1-11). An early death might appear to be the result of God’s judgment; hence, Job saw the need to vindi...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":9562,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Didache* (Teaching)","title_en":"Didache* (Teaching)","content_ro":"<h3>DIDACHE* (Teaching)<\/h3>\n<p>A manual of church discipline, otherwise known as “The Teaching of the Lord to the Gentiles through the Twelve Apostles.” Its origin and date are difficult to determine precisely, but scholars generally agree that it was written in Syria or Palestine during the late first century or early second century. The practices described in the manual were established much earlier, however. The Didache (which means “teaching”) was compiled from various sources that detail the traditions of well-established church communities.<\/p>\n<p>This handbook contains a number of texts that were intended to instruct new converts in the Christian faith. Chapters 1–6 present the “Two Ways” of life and death, based on Deuteronomy 30:15. This section resembles many Jewish teachings and may find its source in the apocalyptic writings of the Qumran community (where the Dead Sea Scrolls were compiled). The manual also contains several parallels with the Epistle of Barnabas and the Shepherd of Hermas. These first chapters include a distinctly Christian collection of sayings that resemble Jesus’ teachings about loving one’s neighbor (as recorded by Matthew and Luke).<\/p>\n<p>Chapters 7–10 contain instructions for baptism, fasting, prayer, and the Eucharist. Baptism is to be performed “in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit”; fasting is to be practiced on Wednesdays and Fridays, in contrast with the Jews who fasted on Mondays and Thursdays; and the Lord’s Prayer (with the doxology) is to be recited daily. The prayers in chapters 9 and 10 are based on Jewish table prayers, so it is not clear whether they are meant for the Eucharist or for a common church meal (sometimes called a “love feast”). The prayers contain no references to the words of Jesus at the Last Supper, and they place the blessing of the cup before the blessing of the bread (cf. 1 Cor 10:16). The Didache does note that believers are not required to use these model prayers.<\/p>\n<p>Chapters 11–15 give instructions for church leadership. They discuss the marks of true apostles and prophets, who are referred to as “high priests,” and the church’s responsibilities toward them. The Didache ends with a prediction of the imminent return of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The Jewishness of the Didache may reflect the influence of the Jerusalem church’s teachings. The description of church leadership, however, seems to be drawn from Paul, who details the roles of apostles, prophets, and teachers in 1 Corinthians. The Didache also stresses the function of the prophets. The teachings of the Didache reflect those of a church in the developmental stages of its institutions and practices. The church still appears to be developing characteristics that clearly distinguish it from Judaism. The Didache was highly regarded by the early church. Eusebius listed it with the orthodox writings that were eventually excluded from the NT canon.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DIDACHE* (Teaching)<\/h3>\n<p>A manual of church discipline, otherwise known as “The Teaching of the Lord to the Gentiles through the Twelve Apostles.” Its origin and date are difficult to determine precisely, but scholars generally agree that it was written in Syria or Palestine during the late first century or early second century. The practices described in the manual were established much earlier, however. The Didache (which means “teaching”) was compiled from various sources that detail the traditions of well-established church communities.<\/p>\n<p>This handbook contains a number of texts that were intended to instruct new converts in the Christian faith. Chapters 1–6 present the “Two Ways” of life and death, based on Deuteronomy 30:15. This section resembles many Jewish teachings and may find its source in the apocalyptic writings of the Qumran community (where the Dead Sea Scrolls were compiled). The manual also contains several parallels with the Epistle of Barnabas and the Shepherd of Hermas. These first chapters include a distinctly Christian collection of sayings that resemble Jesus’ teachings about loving one’s neighbor (as recorded by Matthew and Luke).<\/p>\n<p>Chapters 7–10 contain instructions for baptism, fasting, prayer, and the Eucharist. Baptism is to be performed “in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit”; fasting is to be practiced on Wednesdays and Fridays, in contrast with the Jews who fasted on Mondays and Thursdays; and the Lord’s Prayer (with the doxology) is to be recited daily. The prayers in chapters 9 and 10 are based on Jewish table prayers, so it is not clear whether they are meant for the Eucharist or for a common church meal (sometimes called a “love feast”). The prayers contain no references to the words of Jesus at the Last Supper, and they place the blessing of the cup before the blessing of the bread (cf. 1 Cor 10:16). The Didache does note that believers are not required to use these model prayers.<\/p>\n<p>Chapters 11–15 give instructions for church leadership. They discuss the marks of true apostles and prophets, who are referred to as “high priests,” and the church’s responsibilities toward them. The Didache ends with a prediction of the imminent return of Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The Jewishness of the Didache may reflect the influence of the Jerusalem church’s teachings. The description of church leadership, however, seems to be drawn from Paul, who details the roles of apostles, prophets, and teachers in 1 Corinthians. The Didache also stresses the function of the prophets. The teachings of the Didache reflect those of a church in the developmental stages of its institutions and practices. The church still appears to be developing characteristics that clearly distinguish it from Judaism. The Didache was highly regarded by the early church. Eusebius listed it with the orthodox writings that were eventually excluded from the NT canon.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DIDACHE* (Teaching) A manual of church discipline, otherwise known as “The Teaching of the Lord to the Gentiles through the Twelve Apostles.” Its origin and date are difficult to determine precisely, but scholars generally agree that it was written in Syria or Palestine during the late first century or early second century. The practices described in the manual were established much earlier, however. The Didache (which means “teaching”) was compiled from various sources that detail the tradit...","summary_en":"DIDACHE* (Teaching) A manual of church discipline, otherwise known as “The Teaching of the Lord to the Gentiles through the Twelve Apostles.” Its origin and date are difficult to determine precisely, but scholars generally agree that it was written in Syria or Palestine during the late first century or early second century. The practices described in the manual were established much earlier, however. The Didache (which means “teaching”) was compiled from various sources that detail the tradit...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":23201,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Life","title_en":"Life","content_ro":"<h3>LIFE<\/h3>\n<p>In biblical perspective, life flows from the living Father through the Son (his agent in creation and redemption) into a world thirsting for “real” life (see Jn 6:57).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheLivingFather\">The Living Father<\/p>\n<p>God the Father is above all else “the living God” (Jer 10:10; Jn 5:26). God, the source of all life (1 Tm 6:13), “inbreathed” humans at creation and sustains them continually (Jb 34:14-15). God alone gives life (Gn 17:16) and takes it away (Gn 3:22-24; 6:3; Ps 104:29; Lk 12:20).<\/p>\n<p>The sign of life is movement; man is a “lively,” animated body (Mt 27:50; Lk 8:55). Animals also have this animating “breath-soul” (Hebrew of Gn 1:24; 6:17). Thus, all nature is instilled with life deriving from God (Acts 17:24-28). Life is therefore sacred, but unfortunately it is as transient as grass, clouds, dew, shadow (1 Chr 29:15; Jb 7:6, 9; Jas 4:13-16; 1 Pt 1:24). Long life is desired (Gn 35:29); any life is preferable to death and of infinite value (Eccl 9:4-6; Mt 6:25; 16:26), for Sheol houses a ghostly “nonliving life,” bereft of feeling, hope, or divine help (Ps 88:3-12). One’s life can be enhanced by loving and serving God (Dt 30:15-20; 1 Pt 3:8-12), by experiencing God’s deliverance (Is 38:16), and by receiving divine blessings (Mt 5:3-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ChristasLife\">Christ as Life<\/p>\n<p>The Greek word for “life” is <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">zoe<\/span><em>.<\/em> In classical Greek this word was used for life in general. There are a few examples of this meaning in the New Testament (see Acts 17:25; Jas 4:14: Rv 16:3), but in all other instances the word was used to designate the divine, eternal life—the life of God (Eph 4:18). This life resided in Christ, and he made it available to all who believe in him. Human beings are born with the natural life—called <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">psuche<\/span> in Greek (translated “soul,” “personality,” or “life”); they do not possess the eternal life. This life can be received only by believing in the one who possesses the <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">zoe<\/span><em>-life,<\/em> namely, Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The overflowing, vibrant quality of life made available in Christ was evident in the authority of his speech and the power of his touch (Mt 9:18; Mk 1:27, 41-42; 5:27-29). He is “the author of life” (Acts 3:15), who provides the way into life (Mt 7:14; 25:46; Mk 8:35-37; 9:42-47). And he raised the dead with his life-giving power. His own resurrection made him “a life-giving spirit,” with the power of “an indestructible life” (Rom 8:2; 1 Cor 15:45; Heb 7:16). Thus, Jesus Christ is “our life” (Col 3:4)—in union with whom we find “newness of life” (Rom 6:4) and are newly created, living henceforth not for ourselves but for him (2 Cor 5:15-17).<\/p>\n<p>John, especially, dwells on the theme that Christ is the source of this new life (Jn 3:14-16; 5:21) for the children of God (1:12; 3:3, 5). This life is enjoyed already by those who know God and Christ (5:24; 17:3; 1 Jn 5:11-12), for they have already passed from death into eternal life (Jn 10:28; 11:26). Such life is abundant (10:10), enlightened (8:12), free and satisfied (10:9), victorious (Rom 6:6-14), full of peace and joy (Rom 5:1-11), inexhaustibly refreshed (Jn 4:13-14; 7:37-38) and immortal (Jn 5:24; 1 Cor 15:51-57).<\/p>\n<p>All this is possible because from the beginning “all that came to be was alive with his life” (Jn 1:4, <span>neb<\/span>). Thus, the life within the Father flows into the world through the Son, who also “has life in himself” and gives it to whom he will (5:26). He is “the resurrection and the life” (11:25; 14:6) and demonstrates it by restoring life to paralyzed limbs, raising the dead, and conquering death (5:5-9; 11:43; ch 20). People remain in death only because they will not “come” and “have life” (5:40; cf. 1 Jn 3:14).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Eternal Life.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LIFE<\/h3>\n<p>In biblical perspective, life flows from the living Father through the Son (his agent in creation and redemption) into a world thirsting for “real” life (see Jn 6:57).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheLivingFather\">The Living Father<\/p>\n<p>God the Father is above all else “the living God” (Jer 10:10; Jn 5:26). God, the source of all life (1 Tm 6:13), “inbreathed” humans at creation and sustains them continually (Jb 34:14-15). God alone gives life (Gn 17:16) and takes it away (Gn 3:22-24; 6:3; Ps 104:29; Lk 12:20).<\/p>\n<p>The sign of life is movement; man is a “lively,” animated body (Mt 27:50; Lk 8:55). Animals also have this animating “breath-soul” (Hebrew of Gn 1:24; 6:17). Thus, all nature is instilled with life deriving from God (Acts 17:24-28). Life is therefore sacred, but unfortunately it is as transient as grass, clouds, dew, shadow (1 Chr 29:15; Jb 7:6, 9; Jas 4:13-16; 1 Pt 1:24). Long life is desired (Gn 35:29); any life is preferable to death and of infinite value (Eccl 9:4-6; Mt 6:25; 16:26), for Sheol houses a ghostly “nonliving life,” bereft of feeling, hope, or divine help (Ps 88:3-12). One’s life can be enhanced by loving and serving God (Dt 30:15-20; 1 Pt 3:8-12), by experiencing God’s deliverance (Is 38:16), and by receiving divine blessings (Mt 5:3-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ChristasLife\">Christ as Life<\/p>\n<p>The Greek word for “life” is <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">zoe<\/span><em>.<\/em> In classical Greek this word was used for life in general. There are a few examples of this meaning in the New Testament (see Acts 17:25; Jas 4:14: Rv 16:3), but in all other instances the word was used to designate the divine, eternal life—the life of God (Eph 4:18). This life resided in Christ, and he made it available to all who believe in him. Human beings are born with the natural life—called <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">psuche<\/span> in Greek (translated “soul,” “personality,” or “life”); they do not possess the eternal life. This life can be received only by believing in the one who possesses the <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">zoe<\/span><em>-life,<\/em> namely, Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The overflowing, vibrant quality of life made available in Christ was evident in the authority of his speech and the power of his touch (Mt 9:18; Mk 1:27, 41-42; 5:27-29). He is “the author of life” (Acts 3:15), who provides the way into life (Mt 7:14; 25:46; Mk 8:35-37; 9:42-47). And he raised the dead with his life-giving power. His own resurrection made him “a life-giving spirit,” with the power of “an indestructible life” (Rom 8:2; 1 Cor 15:45; Heb 7:16). Thus, Jesus Christ is “our life” (Col 3:4)—in union with whom we find “newness of life” (Rom 6:4) and are newly created, living henceforth not for ourselves but for him (2 Cor 5:15-17).<\/p>\n<p>John, especially, dwells on the theme that Christ is the source of this new life (Jn 3:14-16; 5:21) for the children of God (1:12; 3:3, 5). This life is enjoyed already by those who know God and Christ (5:24; 17:3; 1 Jn 5:11-12), for they have already passed from death into eternal life (Jn 10:28; 11:26). Such life is abundant (10:10), enlightened (8:12), free and satisfied (10:9), victorious (Rom 6:6-14), full of peace and joy (Rom 5:1-11), inexhaustibly refreshed (Jn 4:13-14; 7:37-38) and immortal (Jn 5:24; 1 Cor 15:51-57).<\/p>\n<p>All this is possible because from the beginning “all that came to be was alive with his life” (Jn 1:4, <span>neb<\/span>). Thus, the life within the Father flows into the world through the Son, who also “has life in himself” and gives it to whom he will (5:26). He is “the resurrection and the life” (11:25; 14:6) and demonstrates it by restoring life to paralyzed limbs, raising the dead, and conquering death (5:5-9; 11:43; ch 20). People remain in death only because they will not “come” and “have life” (5:40; cf. 1 Jn 3:14).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Eternal Life.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LIFE In biblical perspective, life flows from the living Father through the Son (his agent in creation and redemption) into a world thirsting for “real” life (see Jn 6:57). The Living Father God the Father is above all else “the living God” (Jer 10:10; Jn 5:26). God, the source of all life (1 Tm 6:13), “inbreathed” humans at creation and sustains them continually (Jb 34:14-15). God alone gives life (Gn 17:16) and takes it away (Gn 3:22-24; 6:3; Ps 104:29; Lk 12:20). The sign of life is moveme...","summary_en":"LIFE In biblical perspective, life flows from the living Father through the Son (his agent in creation and redemption) into a world thirsting for “real” life (see Jn 6:57). The Living Father God the Father is above all else “the living God” (Jer 10:10; Jn 5:26). God, the source of all life (1 Tm 6:13), “inbreathed” humans at creation and sustains them continually (Jb 34:14-15). God alone gives life (Gn 17:16) and takes it away (Gn 3:22-24; 6:3; Ps 104:29; Lk 12:20). The sign of life is moveme...","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":59769,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Retribution","title_en":"Retribution","content_ro":"<h3>Retribution<\/h3>\n<p>God gave humans the commission of procreating and caring for the world (Gen 1:28). But as humanity multiplied, spiritual wickedness, violence, and murder also multiplied (4:8, 23; 6:5, 11-13), resulting in a corrupt world that required cleansing.<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the Flood was to enact God’s global cleansing and retribution against evildoers. <em>Retribution<\/em> means “giving what is due” and usually refers to recompense for wrongdoing. Retribution is motivated by the conviction that moral order is woven into the fabric of the world and must be maintained or restored (see Ps 7:14-16; Prov 11:17-21; 26:27).<\/p>\n<p>God maintains moral order by meting out justice, punishing wickedness, and rewarding right behavior (Gal 6:7-8). Since God oversees the world, it is never entirely overwhelmed by moral chaos; God holds people accountable for what they do. The judgment and exile of Adam and Eve (Gen 3:8-24), Cain’s sentence (4:10-15), and the worldwide flood and annihilation (chs 6–7) are examples of God’s retribution. These events reveal a sovereign God who exacts just punishment in the context of his good intentions for the world (see also Num 16; Deut 30:15-20; Josh 7; Mic 2:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Retribution is an application of God’s righteousness; it purifies the world for his kingdom of peace. Through retribution, the divine King proclaims his universal rule and exercises his justice on all who reject his rule or defy his commands (Deut 7:10; Ps 149; Prov 15:25; Mic 5:15; 1 Cor 16:22; Gal 1:8-9; 2 Thes 1:5-10).<\/p>\n<p>For God’s people, retribution serves as his discipline. It is intended to restore covenant fellowship with him (see Isa 44:22; Jer 3:12-14; Lam 3:19-33; Hos 14:1-2; Joel 2:12-13; see also Heb 12:5-11). When God’s people experience his chastening, they can respond in hope because God’s truth and righteousness will triumph (Ps 58:10-11), and God will redeem and restore his people who trust in him (Lev 26:40-45; Hos 2:2-23).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 6:1–7:24; Lev 26:14-39; Ps 7:6-17; 57:6; 95:8-11; Prov 6:27-35; 26:27; Mic 2:1-3; Rom 2:5-16; Gal 6:7-8; Heb 10:26-31; 12:5-11, 25-29<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Retribution<\/h3>\n<p>God gave humans the commission of procreating and caring for the world (Gen 1:28). But as humanity multiplied, spiritual wickedness, violence, and murder also multiplied (4:8, 23; 6:5, 11-13), resulting in a corrupt world that required cleansing.<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the Flood was to enact God’s global cleansing and retribution against evildoers. <em>Retribution<\/em> means “giving what is due” and usually refers to recompense for wrongdoing. Retribution is motivated by the conviction that moral order is woven into the fabric of the world and must be maintained or restored (see Ps 7:14-16; Prov 11:17-21; 26:27).<\/p>\n<p>God maintains moral order by meting out justice, punishing wickedness, and rewarding right behavior (Gal 6:7-8). Since God oversees the world, it is never entirely overwhelmed by moral chaos; God holds people accountable for what they do. The judgment and exile of Adam and Eve (Gen 3:8-24), Cain’s sentence (4:10-15), and the worldwide flood and annihilation (chs 6–7) are examples of God’s retribution. These events reveal a sovereign God who exacts just punishment in the context of his good intentions for the world (see also Num 16; Deut 30:15-20; Josh 7; Mic 2:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Retribution is an application of God’s righteousness; it purifies the world for his kingdom of peace. Through retribution, the divine King proclaims his universal rule and exercises his justice on all who reject his rule or defy his commands (Deut 7:10; Ps 149; Prov 15:25; Mic 5:15; 1 Cor 16:22; Gal 1:8-9; 2 Thes 1:5-10).<\/p>\n<p>For God’s people, retribution serves as his discipline. It is intended to restore covenant fellowship with him (see Isa 44:22; Jer 3:12-14; Lam 3:19-33; Hos 14:1-2; Joel 2:12-13; see also Heb 12:5-11). When God’s people experience his chastening, they can respond in hope because God’s truth and righteousness will triumph (Ps 58:10-11), and God will redeem and restore his people who trust in him (Lev 26:40-45; Hos 2:2-23).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 6:1–7:24; Lev 26:14-39; Ps 7:6-17; 57:6; 95:8-11; Prov 6:27-35; 26:27; Mic 2:1-3; Rom 2:5-16; Gal 6:7-8; Heb 10:26-31; 12:5-11, 25-29<\/p>","summary_ro":"Retribution God gave humans the commission of procreating and caring for the world (Gen 1:28). But as humanity multiplied, spiritual wickedness, violence, and murder also multiplied (4:8, 23; 6:5, 11-13), resulting in a corrupt world that required cleansing. The purpose of the Flood was to enact God’s global cleansing and retribution against evildoers. Retribution means “giving what is due” and usually refers to recompense for wrongdoing. Retribution is motivated by the conviction that moral ...","summary_en":"Retribution God gave humans the commission of procreating and caring for the world (Gen 1:28). But as humanity multiplied, spiritual wickedness, violence, and murder also multiplied (4:8, 23; 6:5, 11-13), resulting in a corrupt world that required cleansing. The purpose of the Flood was to enact God’s global cleansing and retribution against evildoers. Retribution means “giving what is due” and usually refers to recompense for wrongdoing. Retribution is motivated by the conviction that moral ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":59839,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Covenants","title_en":"God’s Covenants","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Covenants<\/h3>\n<p><em>Covenant<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">berith<\/span>) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order and gave the rainbow as the sign of this commitment (Gen 9:1-17).<\/p>\n<p>God later established a covenant relationship with Abraham and his family; the sign of this covenant was circumcision (12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14). God’s covenant with Abraham promised descendants, land, rulers, and the blessing of all nations; these promises formed the basis for the covenants God later made with his people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai was a national covenant (Exod 19–24) whose sign was the Sabbath; it addressed how Israel would be the chosen people of God. This covenant took the form of a suzerain-vassal treaty, an ancient relationship established between a great king and loyal subjects (see study note on Exod 20:1–23:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Sinai covenant was renewed in Deuteronomy and in Joshua 24:1-28. The renewal focused on God’s promise of land and how Israel would conduct itself while inhabiting the land. Through his covenant with Israel, God affirmed that he was their God and they were his people, a relationship that required their complete loyalty (Jer 11:4; 24:7; Ezek 11:20; 14:11). God, the great king, would bless and protect the nation Israel. Israel’s obligation was to keep God’s commands, decrees, and regulations (Exod 19:5, 8; 24:3, 7; Deut 30:15-20).<\/p>\n<p>God later formed a covenant with King David (2 Sam 7:5-16), which pertained to the line of kings promised to Abraham and Jacob (Gen 17:6, 16; 35:11).<\/p>\n<p>Years later, at a low point in Israel’s history, the prophet Jeremiah foretold a “new covenant” in Israel’s future (Jer 31:31-33), in which the ideals of the covenants with Abraham and Israel would finally be realized. Jeremiah’s prophecy found fulfillment in the person and work of Jesus Christ (see Luke 22:20; Heb 8:6-13; 12:24). This new covenant provides the ultimate fulfillment of the previous promises that were made to God’s people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenants were motivated by God’s faithful love (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">khesed<\/span>), which enabled a relationship to continue between God and his people. God initiated this relationship, announced its conditions, and rewarded his people accordingly. These covenants were not rewards but divine gifts. God may exclude people from the covenant relationship (see Hos 1:9), but he will not break, revoke, or withdraw his covenants. If broken or annulled by the human parties, the covenant could be renewed only through a reapplication of God’s faithful love (Exod 34:6-9; Jer 31:31-33). But while God’s love preserves the relationship, his grace must not be mocked (Isa 54:7-10; 55:3; 61:8; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Gal 6:7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 9:1-17; 12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14; Exod 6:2-5; 19:1–24:18; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 7:7-15; 29:2-29; Josh 8:30-35; 24:1-8; 2 Sam 7:5-16; Ezra 10:1-17; Isa 59:20-21; Jer 31:31-34; 33:19-26; 34:12-20; Ezek 16:1-63; Luke 22:20; Gal 4:21-31; Eph 2:11-13; Heb 8:6-13; 10:11-18; 12:24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Covenants<\/h3>\n<p><em>Covenant<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">berith<\/span>) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order and gave the rainbow as the sign of this commitment (Gen 9:1-17).<\/p>\n<p>God later established a covenant relationship with Abraham and his family; the sign of this covenant was circumcision (12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14). God’s covenant with Abraham promised descendants, land, rulers, and the blessing of all nations; these promises formed the basis for the covenants God later made with his people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai was a national covenant (Exod 19–24) whose sign was the Sabbath; it addressed how Israel would be the chosen people of God. This covenant took the form of a suzerain-vassal treaty, an ancient relationship established between a great king and loyal subjects (see study note on Exod 20:1–23:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Sinai covenant was renewed in Deuteronomy and in Joshua 24:1-28. The renewal focused on God’s promise of land and how Israel would conduct itself while inhabiting the land. Through his covenant with Israel, God affirmed that he was their God and they were his people, a relationship that required their complete loyalty (Jer 11:4; 24:7; Ezek 11:20; 14:11). God, the great king, would bless and protect the nation Israel. Israel’s obligation was to keep God’s commands, decrees, and regulations (Exod 19:5, 8; 24:3, 7; Deut 30:15-20).<\/p>\n<p>God later formed a covenant with King David (2 Sam 7:5-16), which pertained to the line of kings promised to Abraham and Jacob (Gen 17:6, 16; 35:11).<\/p>\n<p>Years later, at a low point in Israel’s history, the prophet Jeremiah foretold a “new covenant” in Israel’s future (Jer 31:31-33), in which the ideals of the covenants with Abraham and Israel would finally be realized. Jeremiah’s prophecy found fulfillment in the person and work of Jesus Christ (see Luke 22:20; Heb 8:6-13; 12:24). This new covenant provides the ultimate fulfillment of the previous promises that were made to God’s people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenants were motivated by God’s faithful love (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">khesed<\/span>), which enabled a relationship to continue between God and his people. God initiated this relationship, announced its conditions, and rewarded his people accordingly. These covenants were not rewards but divine gifts. God may exclude people from the covenant relationship (see Hos 1:9), but he will not break, revoke, or withdraw his covenants. If broken or annulled by the human parties, the covenant could be renewed only through a reapplication of God’s faithful love (Exod 34:6-9; Jer 31:31-33). But while God’s love preserves the relationship, his grace must not be mocked (Isa 54:7-10; 55:3; 61:8; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Gal 6:7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 9:1-17; 12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14; Exod 6:2-5; 19:1–24:18; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 7:7-15; 29:2-29; Josh 8:30-35; 24:1-8; 2 Sam 7:5-16; Ezra 10:1-17; Isa 59:20-21; Jer 31:31-34; 33:19-26; 34:12-20; Ezek 16:1-63; Luke 22:20; Gal 4:21-31; Eph 2:11-13; Heb 8:6-13; 10:11-18; 12:24<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Covenants Covenant (Hebrew berith) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible. The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order...","summary_en":"God’s Covenants Covenant (Hebrew berith) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible. The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":64225,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Choice of Life or Death","title_en":"The Choice of Life or Death","content_ro":"<h3>The Choice of Life or Death<\/h3>\n<p>In Moses’ instructions to the Israelites when they were on the cusp of entering the Promised Land, the people were presented with a choice: Obey the covenant—life as God designed it—and live, or refuse to obey the Creator’s design and die (Deut 30:19). This choice—and its ramifications—resounded throughout God’s covenant dealings with his people.<\/p>\n<p>The specific terminology of Deuteronomy 30 resurfaces in Jeremiah, in the context of the Babylonian invasion: “Take your choice of life or death” (Jer 21:8). The prophet warned King Zedekiah and his people to submit to the Lord’s instruction. If they did, they would live; if not, they would die. Earlier in Jeremiah’s ministry, the Lord confronted the people of Judah with an opportunity to change and come home to him (3:12–4:4). If they rejected idol worship, admitted their guilt, and confessed that they were rebels, God would cleanse their minds and hearts, and they could live peacefully in the land. However, the people scornfully rejected this offer again and again (7:5-7; 18:8-11; 23:22; 26:13; 27:12-13; 29:32; 35:15; 36:3-7; 44:5). So the Lord repeatedly warned them that if they rejected the path of life, they would experience judgment.<\/p>\n<p>In Jeremiah’s day, only a few chose life; the majority rebelled and experienced death. In the end, the people led by Zedekiah ignored the Lord, defied the Babylonian army, and indeed suffered judgment. They intentionally rejected the gift of life.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 11:26-29; 30:15-20; Prov 9:1-18; 11:19; 18:21; Isa 1:19-20; Jer 3:12-15; 4:3-4; 7:5-7; 18:7-11; 21:8-9; 23:22; 26:13; 27:12-18; 35:15; 36:3-7; 44:5; Ezek 18:23-24; Rom 6:23; 8:6; Rev 2:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Choice of Life or Death<\/h3>\n<p>In Moses’ instructions to the Israelites when they were on the cusp of entering the Promised Land, the people were presented with a choice: Obey the covenant—life as God designed it—and live, or refuse to obey the Creator’s design and die (Deut 30:19). This choice—and its ramifications—resounded throughout God’s covenant dealings with his people.<\/p>\n<p>The specific terminology of Deuteronomy 30 resurfaces in Jeremiah, in the context of the Babylonian invasion: “Take your choice of life or death” (Jer 21:8). The prophet warned King Zedekiah and his people to submit to the Lord’s instruction. If they did, they would live; if not, they would die. Earlier in Jeremiah’s ministry, the Lord confronted the people of Judah with an opportunity to change and come home to him (3:12–4:4). If they rejected idol worship, admitted their guilt, and confessed that they were rebels, God would cleanse their minds and hearts, and they could live peacefully in the land. However, the people scornfully rejected this offer again and again (7:5-7; 18:8-11; 23:22; 26:13; 27:12-13; 29:32; 35:15; 36:3-7; 44:5). So the Lord repeatedly warned them that if they rejected the path of life, they would experience judgment.<\/p>\n<p>In Jeremiah’s day, only a few chose life; the majority rebelled and experienced death. In the end, the people led by Zedekiah ignored the Lord, defied the Babylonian army, and indeed suffered judgment. They intentionally rejected the gift of life.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 11:26-29; 30:15-20; Prov 9:1-18; 11:19; 18:21; Isa 1:19-20; Jer 3:12-15; 4:3-4; 7:5-7; 18:7-11; 21:8-9; 23:22; 26:13; 27:12-18; 35:15; 36:3-7; 44:5; Ezek 18:23-24; Rom 6:23; 8:6; Rev 2:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Choice of Life or Death In Moses’ instructions to the Israelites when they were on the cusp of entering the Promised Land, the people were presented with a choice: Obey the covenant—life as God designed it—and live, or refuse to obey the Creator’s design and die (Deut 30:19). This choice—and its ramifications—resounded throughout God’s covenant dealings with his people. The specific terminology of Deuteronomy 30 resurfaces in Jeremiah, in the context of the Babylonian invasion: “Take your...","summary_en":"The Choice of Life or Death In Moses’ instructions to the Israelites when they were on the cusp of entering the Promised Land, the people were presented with a choice: Obey the covenant—life as God designed it—and live, or refuse to obey the Creator’s design and die (Deut 30:19). This choice—and its ramifications—resounded throughout God’s covenant dealings with his people. The specific terminology of Deuteronomy 30 resurfaces in Jeremiah, in the context of the Babylonian invasion: “Take your...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":64417,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Divine Sovereignty and Human Responsibility","title_en":"Divine Sovereignty and Human Responsibility","content_ro":"<h3>Divine Sovereignty and Human Responsibility<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible ultimately traces all things back to God’s sovereignty. For example, the fact that the rain falls on the just and unjust alike is part of God’s sovereign plan (Matt 5:45).<\/p>\n<p>At the same time, God is in no way responsible for our sin; it is our responsibility because it comes from our own sinful desires. Scripture repeatedly demonstrates that people have the ability to choose to follow God or to reject him (see, e.g., Deut 30:15-20; Josh 24:15; John 1:12; Rom 10:9-13). God does not coerce people to have faith in him.<\/p>\n<p>Ezekiel 14:9-11 describes an intriguing situation in which God deceives a prophet but then also holds that same prophet accountable for his actions. This leads to a difficult question: How can we reconcile God’s sovereign control over all things with the personal choices and decisions for which we will be called to account?<\/p>\n<p>In giving misleading messages to false prophets, God was simply giving them and their hearers exactly what they wanted (cp. 2 Thes 2:11). Even a false prophet could give a prophecy that led people astray only with the Lord’s permission or direction. Unless God restrained them from their sin, they would choose lies instead of the truth and worship creation in place of the Creator (Rom 1:18-25). God simply gave them permission to enact their hearts’ sinful desires.<\/p>\n<p>The remarkable fact is not that God allows some sinners to persist in their chosen delusions, but that he saves sinners, changes our natures, and gives us the desire to do good for his glory (see Ezek 36:25-26; Rom 8:1-11; Eph 2:10). While we may not be able to completely reconcile this complex tension, we can be assured of the freely offered grace of God and the new life that he gives through his Spirit to all who trust in him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:6-7; 1 Kgs 22:19-22; 2 Chr 20:6; Job 1:8-12; 2:2-6; Pss 115:3; 135:6-14; Isa 45:6-7; Lam 3:37-40; Ezek 14:9-11; 17:24; 36:25-26; Dan 2:20-22; Amos 3:6; 4:6-11; Rom 1:18-25; 9:8-33; 12:2; Eph 4:20-24; 2 Thes 2:11-12; Heb 13:20-21; Jas 1:13-14; 4:12-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Divine Sovereignty and Human Responsibility<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible ultimately traces all things back to God’s sovereignty. For example, the fact that the rain falls on the just and unjust alike is part of God’s sovereign plan (Matt 5:45).<\/p>\n<p>At the same time, God is in no way responsible for our sin; it is our responsibility because it comes from our own sinful desires. Scripture repeatedly demonstrates that people have the ability to choose to follow God or to reject him (see, e.g., Deut 30:15-20; Josh 24:15; John 1:12; Rom 10:9-13). God does not coerce people to have faith in him.<\/p>\n<p>Ezekiel 14:9-11 describes an intriguing situation in which God deceives a prophet but then also holds that same prophet accountable for his actions. This leads to a difficult question: How can we reconcile God’s sovereign control over all things with the personal choices and decisions for which we will be called to account?<\/p>\n<p>In giving misleading messages to false prophets, God was simply giving them and their hearers exactly what they wanted (cp. 2 Thes 2:11). Even a false prophet could give a prophecy that led people astray only with the Lord’s permission or direction. Unless God restrained them from their sin, they would choose lies instead of the truth and worship creation in place of the Creator (Rom 1:18-25). God simply gave them permission to enact their hearts’ sinful desires.<\/p>\n<p>The remarkable fact is not that God allows some sinners to persist in their chosen delusions, but that he saves sinners, changes our natures, and gives us the desire to do good for his glory (see Ezek 36:25-26; Rom 8:1-11; Eph 2:10). While we may not be able to completely reconcile this complex tension, we can be assured of the freely offered grace of God and the new life that he gives through his Spirit to all who trust in him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:6-7; 1 Kgs 22:19-22; 2 Chr 20:6; Job 1:8-12; 2:2-6; Pss 115:3; 135:6-14; Isa 45:6-7; Lam 3:37-40; Ezek 14:9-11; 17:24; 36:25-26; Dan 2:20-22; Amos 3:6; 4:6-11; Rom 1:18-25; 9:8-33; 12:2; Eph 4:20-24; 2 Thes 2:11-12; Heb 13:20-21; Jas 1:13-14; 4:12-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Divine Sovereignty and Human Responsibility The Bible ultimately traces all things back to God’s sovereignty. For example, the fact that the rain falls on the just and unjust alike is part of God’s sovereign plan (Matt 5:45). At the same time, God is in no way responsible for our sin; it is our responsibility because it comes from our own sinful desires. Scripture repeatedly demonstrates that people have the ability to choose to follow God or to reject him (see, e.g., Deut 30:15-20; Josh 24:1...","summary_en":"Divine Sovereignty and Human Responsibility The Bible ultimately traces all things back to God’s sovereignty. For example, the fact that the rain falls on the just and unjust alike is part of God’s sovereign plan (Matt 5:45). At the same time, God is in no way responsible for our sin; it is our responsibility because it comes from our own sinful desires. Scripture repeatedly demonstrates that people have the ability to choose to follow God or to reject him (see, e.g., Deut 30:15-20; Josh 24:1...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":87395,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Retribution","title_en":"Retribution","content_ro":"<h3>Retribution<\/h3>\n<p>God gave humans the commission of procreating and caring for the world (Gen 1:28). But as humanity multiplied, spiritual wickedness, violence, and murder also multiplied (4:8, 23; 6:5, 11-13), resulting in a corrupt world that required cleansing.<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the Flood was to enact God’s global cleansing and retribution against evildoers. <em>Retribution<\/em> means “giving what is due” and usually refers to recompense for wrongdoing. Retribution is motivated by the conviction that moral order is woven into the fabric of the world and must be maintained or restored (see Ps 7:14-16; Prov 11:17-21; 26:27).<\/p>\n<p>God maintains moral order by meting out justice, punishing wickedness, and rewarding right behavior (Gal 6:7-8). Since God oversees the world, it is never entirely overwhelmed by moral chaos; God holds people accountable for what they do. The judgment and exile of Adam and Eve (Gen 3:8-24), Cain’s sentence (4:10-15), and the worldwide flood and annihilation (chs 6–7) are examples of God’s retribution. These events reveal a sovereign God who exacts just punishment in the context of his good intentions for the world (see also Num 16; Deut 30:15-20; Josh 7; Mic 2:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Retribution is an application of God’s righteousness; it purifies the world for his kingdom of peace. Through retribution, the divine King proclaims his universal rule and exercises his justice on all who reject his rule or defy his commands (Deut 7:10; Ps 149; Prov 15:25; Mic 5:15; 1 Cor 16:22; Gal 1:8-9; 2 Thes 1:5-10).<\/p>\n<p>For God’s people, retribution serves as his discipline. It is intended to restore covenant fellowship with him (see Isa 44:22; Jer 3:12-14; Lam 3:19-33; Hos 14:1-2; Joel 2:12-13; see also Heb 12:5-11). When God’s people experience his chastening, they can respond in hope because God’s truth and righteousness will triumph (Ps 58:10-11), and God will redeem and restore his people who trust in him (Lev 26:40-45; Hos 2:2-23).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 6:1–7:24; Lev 26:14-39; Ps 7:6-17; 57:6; 95:8-11; Prov 6:27-35; 26:27; Mic 2:1-3; Rom 2:5-16; Gal 6:7-8; Heb 10:26-31; 12:5-11, 25-29<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Retribution<\/h3>\n<p>God gave humans the commission of procreating and caring for the world (Gen 1:28). But as humanity multiplied, spiritual wickedness, violence, and murder also multiplied (4:8, 23; 6:5, 11-13), resulting in a corrupt world that required cleansing.<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the Flood was to enact God’s global cleansing and retribution against evildoers. <em>Retribution<\/em> means “giving what is due” and usually refers to recompense for wrongdoing. Retribution is motivated by the conviction that moral order is woven into the fabric of the world and must be maintained or restored (see Ps 7:14-16; Prov 11:17-21; 26:27).<\/p>\n<p>God maintains moral order by meting out justice, punishing wickedness, and rewarding right behavior (Gal 6:7-8). Since God oversees the world, it is never entirely overwhelmed by moral chaos; God holds people accountable for what they do. The judgment and exile of Adam and Eve (Gen 3:8-24), Cain’s sentence (4:10-15), and the worldwide flood and annihilation (chs 6–7) are examples of God’s retribution. These events reveal a sovereign God who exacts just punishment in the context of his good intentions for the world (see also Num 16; Deut 30:15-20; Josh 7; Mic 2:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Retribution is an application of God’s righteousness; it purifies the world for his kingdom of peace. Through retribution, the divine King proclaims his universal rule and exercises his justice on all who reject his rule or defy his commands (Deut 7:10; Ps 149; Prov 15:25; Mic 5:15; 1 Cor 16:22; Gal 1:8-9; 2 Thes 1:5-10).<\/p>\n<p>For God’s people, retribution serves as his discipline. It is intended to restore covenant fellowship with him (see Isa 44:22; Jer 3:12-14; Lam 3:19-33; Hos 14:1-2; Joel 2:12-13; see also Heb 12:5-11). When God’s people experience his chastening, they can respond in hope because God’s truth and righteousness will triumph (Ps 58:10-11), and God will redeem and restore his people who trust in him (Lev 26:40-45; Hos 2:2-23).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 6:1–7:24; Lev 26:14-39; Ps 7:6-17; 57:6; 95:8-11; Prov 6:27-35; 26:27; Mic 2:1-3; Rom 2:5-16; Gal 6:7-8; Heb 10:26-31; 12:5-11, 25-29<\/p>","summary_ro":"Retribution God gave humans the commission of procreating and caring for the world (Gen 1:28). But as humanity multiplied, spiritual wickedness, violence, and murder also multiplied (4:8, 23; 6:5, 11-13), resulting in a corrupt world that required cleansing. The purpose of the Flood was to enact God’s global cleansing and retribution against evildoers. Retribution means “giving what is due” and usually refers to recompense for wrongdoing. Retribution is motivated by the conviction that moral ...","summary_en":"Retribution God gave humans the commission of procreating and caring for the world (Gen 1:28). But as humanity multiplied, spiritual wickedness, violence, and murder also multiplied (4:8, 23; 6:5, 11-13), resulting in a corrupt world that required cleansing. The purpose of the Flood was to enact God’s global cleansing and retribution against evildoers. Retribution means “giving what is due” and usually refers to recompense for wrongdoing. Retribution is motivated by the conviction that moral ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":87465,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Covenants","title_en":"God’s Covenants","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Covenants<\/h3>\n<p><em>Covenant<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">berith<\/span>) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order and gave the rainbow as the sign of this commitment (Gen 9:1-17).<\/p>\n<p>God later established a covenant relationship with Abraham and his family; the sign of this covenant was circumcision (12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14). God’s covenant with Abraham promised descendants, land, rulers, and the blessing of all nations; these promises formed the basis for the covenants God later made with his people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai was a national covenant (Exod 19–24) whose sign was the Sabbath; it addressed how Israel would be the chosen people of God. This covenant took the form of a suzerain-vassal treaty, an ancient relationship established between a great king and loyal subjects (see study note on Exod 20:1–23:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Sinai covenant was renewed in Deuteronomy and in Joshua 24:1-28. The renewal focused on God’s promise of land and how Israel would conduct itself while inhabiting the land. Through his covenant with Israel, God affirmed that he was their God and they were his people, a relationship that required their complete loyalty (Jer 11:4; 24:7; Ezek 11:20; 14:11). God, the great king, would bless and protect the nation Israel. Israel’s obligation was to keep God’s commands, decrees, and regulations (Exod 19:5, 8; 24:3, 7; Deut 30:15-20).<\/p>\n<p>God later formed a covenant with King David (2 Sam 7:5-16), which pertained to the line of kings promised to Abraham and Jacob (Gen 17:6, 16; 35:11).<\/p>\n<p>Years later, at a low point in Israel’s history, the prophet Jeremiah foretold a “new covenant” in Israel’s future (Jer 31:31-33), in which the ideals of the covenants with Abraham and Israel would finally be realized. Jeremiah’s prophecy found fulfillment in the person and work of Jesus Christ (see Luke 22:20; Heb 8:6-13; 12:24). This new covenant provides the ultimate fulfillment of the previous promises that were made to God’s people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenants were motivated by God’s faithful love (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">khesed<\/span>), which enabled a relationship to continue between God and his people. God initiated this relationship, announced its conditions, and rewarded his people accordingly. These covenants were not rewards but divine gifts. God may exclude people from the covenant relationship (see Hos 1:9), but he will not break, revoke, or withdraw his covenants. If broken or annulled by the human parties, the covenant could be renewed only through a reapplication of God’s faithful love (Exod 34:6-9; Jer 31:31-33). But while God’s love preserves the relationship, his grace must not be mocked (Isa 54:7-10; 55:3; 61:8; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Gal 6:7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 9:1-17; 12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14; Exod 6:2-5; 19:1–24:18; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 7:7-15; 29:2-29; Josh 8:30-35; 24:1-8; 2 Sam 7:5-16; Ezra 10:1-17; Isa 59:20-21; Jer 31:31-34; 33:19-26; 34:12-20; Ezek 16:1-63; Luke 22:20; Gal 4:21-31; Eph 2:11-13; Heb 8:6-13; 10:11-18; 12:24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Covenants<\/h3>\n<p><em>Covenant<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">berith<\/span>) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order and gave the rainbow as the sign of this commitment (Gen 9:1-17).<\/p>\n<p>God later established a covenant relationship with Abraham and his family; the sign of this covenant was circumcision (12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14). God’s covenant with Abraham promised descendants, land, rulers, and the blessing of all nations; these promises formed the basis for the covenants God later made with his people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai was a national covenant (Exod 19–24) whose sign was the Sabbath; it addressed how Israel would be the chosen people of God. This covenant took the form of a suzerain-vassal treaty, an ancient relationship established between a great king and loyal subjects (see study note on Exod 20:1–23:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Sinai covenant was renewed in Deuteronomy and in Joshua 24:1-28. The renewal focused on God’s promise of land and how Israel would conduct itself while inhabiting the land. Through his covenant with Israel, God affirmed that he was their God and they were his people, a relationship that required their complete loyalty (Jer 11:4; 24:7; Ezek 11:20; 14:11). God, the great king, would bless and protect the nation Israel. Israel’s obligation was to keep God’s commands, decrees, and regulations (Exod 19:5, 8; 24:3, 7; Deut 30:15-20).<\/p>\n<p>God later formed a covenant with King David (2 Sam 7:5-16), which pertained to the line of kings promised to Abraham and Jacob (Gen 17:6, 16; 35:11).<\/p>\n<p>Years later, at a low point in Israel’s history, the prophet Jeremiah foretold a “new covenant” in Israel’s future (Jer 31:31-33), in which the ideals of the covenants with Abraham and Israel would finally be realized. Jeremiah’s prophecy found fulfillment in the person and work of Jesus Christ (see Luke 22:20; Heb 8:6-13; 12:24). This new covenant provides the ultimate fulfillment of the previous promises that were made to God’s people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenants were motivated by God’s faithful love (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">khesed<\/span>), which enabled a relationship to continue between God and his people. God initiated this relationship, announced its conditions, and rewarded his people accordingly. These covenants were not rewards but divine gifts. God may exclude people from the covenant relationship (see Hos 1:9), but he will not break, revoke, or withdraw his covenants. If broken or annulled by the human parties, the covenant could be renewed only through a reapplication of God’s faithful love (Exod 34:6-9; Jer 31:31-33). But while God’s love preserves the relationship, his grace must not be mocked (Isa 54:7-10; 55:3; 61:8; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Gal 6:7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 9:1-17; 12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14; Exod 6:2-5; 19:1–24:18; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 7:7-15; 29:2-29; Josh 8:30-35; 24:1-8; 2 Sam 7:5-16; Ezra 10:1-17; Isa 59:20-21; Jer 31:31-34; 33:19-26; 34:12-20; Ezek 16:1-63; Luke 22:20; Gal 4:21-31; Eph 2:11-13; Heb 8:6-13; 10:11-18; 12:24<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Covenants Covenant (Hebrew berith) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible. The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order...","summary_en":"God’s Covenants Covenant (Hebrew berith) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible. The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":91851,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Choice of Life or Death","title_en":"The Choice of Life or Death","content_ro":"<h3>The Choice of Life or Death<\/h3>\n<p>In Moses’ instructions to the Israelites when they were on the cusp of entering the Promised Land, the people were presented with a choice: Obey the covenant—life as God designed it—and live, or refuse to obey the Creator’s design and die (Deut 30:19). This choice—and its ramifications—resounded throughout God’s covenant dealings with his people.<\/p>\n<p>The specific terminology of Deuteronomy 30 resurfaces in Jeremiah, in the context of the Babylonian invasion: “Take your choice of life or death” (Jer 21:8). The prophet warned King Zedekiah and his people to submit to the Lord’s instruction. If they did, they would live; if not, they would die. Earlier in Jeremiah’s ministry, the Lord confronted the people of Judah with an opportunity to change and come home to him (3:12–4:4). If they rejected idol worship, admitted their guilt, and confessed that they were rebels, God would cleanse their minds and hearts, and they could live peacefully in the land. However, the people scornfully rejected this offer again and again (7:5-7; 18:8-11; 23:22; 26:13; 27:12-13; 29:32; 35:15; 36:3-7; 44:5). So the Lord repeatedly warned them that if they rejected the path of life, they would experience judgment.<\/p>\n<p>In Jeremiah’s day, only a few chose life; the majority rebelled and experienced death. In the end, the people led by Zedekiah ignored the Lord, defied the Babylonian army, and indeed suffered judgment. They intentionally rejected the gift of life.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 11:26-29; 30:15-20; Prov 9:1-18; 11:19; 18:21; Isa 1:19-20; Jer 3:12-15; 4:3-4; 7:5-7; 18:7-11; 21:8-9; 23:22; 26:13; 27:12-18; 35:15; 36:3-7; 44:5; Ezek 18:23-24; Rom 6:23; 8:6; Rev 2:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Choice of Life or Death<\/h3>\n<p>In Moses’ instructions to the Israelites when they were on the cusp of entering the Promised Land, the people were presented with a choice: Obey the covenant—life as God designed it—and live, or refuse to obey the Creator’s design and die (Deut 30:19). This choice—and its ramifications—resounded throughout God’s covenant dealings with his people.<\/p>\n<p>The specific terminology of Deuteronomy 30 resurfaces in Jeremiah, in the context of the Babylonian invasion: “Take your choice of life or death” (Jer 21:8). The prophet warned King Zedekiah and his people to submit to the Lord’s instruction. If they did, they would live; if not, they would die. Earlier in Jeremiah’s ministry, the Lord confronted the people of Judah with an opportunity to change and come home to him (3:12–4:4). If they rejected idol worship, admitted their guilt, and confessed that they were rebels, God would cleanse their minds and hearts, and they could live peacefully in the land. However, the people scornfully rejected this offer again and again (7:5-7; 18:8-11; 23:22; 26:13; 27:12-13; 29:32; 35:15; 36:3-7; 44:5). So the Lord repeatedly warned them that if they rejected the path of life, they would experience judgment.<\/p>\n<p>In Jeremiah’s day, only a few chose life; the majority rebelled and experienced death. In the end, the people led by Zedekiah ignored the Lord, defied the Babylonian army, and indeed suffered judgment. They intentionally rejected the gift of life.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 11:26-29; 30:15-20; Prov 9:1-18; 11:19; 18:21; Isa 1:19-20; Jer 3:12-15; 4:3-4; 7:5-7; 18:7-11; 21:8-9; 23:22; 26:13; 27:12-18; 35:15; 36:3-7; 44:5; Ezek 18:23-24; Rom 6:23; 8:6; Rev 2:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Choice of Life or Death In Moses’ instructions to the Israelites when they were on the cusp of entering the Promised Land, the people were presented with a choice: Obey the covenant—life as God designed it—and live, or refuse to obey the Creator’s design and die (Deut 30:19). This choice—and its ramifications—resounded throughout God’s covenant dealings with his people. The specific terminology of Deuteronomy 30 resurfaces in Jeremiah, in the context of the Babylonian invasion: “Take your...","summary_en":"The Choice of Life or Death In Moses’ instructions to the Israelites when they were on the cusp of entering the Promised Land, the people were presented with a choice: Obey the covenant—life as God designed it—and live, or refuse to obey the Creator’s design and die (Deut 30:19). This choice—and its ramifications—resounded throughout God’s covenant dealings with his people. The specific terminology of Deuteronomy 30 resurfaces in Jeremiah, in the context of the Babylonian invasion: “Take your...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":92043,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Divine Sovereignty and Human Responsibility","title_en":"Divine Sovereignty and Human Responsibility","content_ro":"<h3>Divine Sovereignty and Human Responsibility<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible ultimately traces all things back to God’s sovereignty. For example, the fact that the rain falls on the just and unjust alike is part of God’s sovereign plan (Matt 5:45).<\/p>\n<p>At the same time, God is in no way responsible for our sin; it is our responsibility because it comes from our own sinful desires. Scripture repeatedly demonstrates that people have the ability to choose to follow God or to reject him (see, e.g., Deut 30:15-20; Josh 24:15; John 1:12; Rom 10:9-13). God does not coerce people to have faith in him.<\/p>\n<p>Ezekiel 14:9-11 describes an intriguing situation in which God deceives a prophet but then also holds that same prophet accountable for his actions. This leads to a difficult question: How can we reconcile God’s sovereign control over all things with the personal choices and decisions for which we will be called to account?<\/p>\n<p>In giving misleading messages to false prophets, God was simply giving them and their hearers exactly what they wanted (cp. 2 Thes 2:11). Even a false prophet could give a prophecy that led people astray only with the Lord’s permission or direction. Unless God restrained them from their sin, they would choose lies instead of the truth and worship creation in place of the Creator (Rom 1:18-25). God simply gave them permission to enact their hearts’ sinful desires.<\/p>\n<p>The remarkable fact is not that God allows some sinners to persist in their chosen delusions, but that he saves sinners, changes our natures, and gives us the desire to do good for his glory (see Ezek 36:25-26; Rom 8:1-11; Eph 2:10). While we may not be able to completely reconcile this complex tension, we can be assured of the freely offered grace of God and the new life that he gives through his Spirit to all who trust in him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:6-7; 1 Kgs 22:19-22; 2 Chr 20:6; Job 1:8-12; 2:2-6; Pss 115:3; 135:6-14; Isa 45:6-7; Lam 3:37-40; Ezek 14:9-11; 17:24; 36:25-26; Dan 2:20-22; Amos 3:6; 4:6-11; Rom 1:18-25; 9:8-33; 12:2; Eph 4:20-24; 2 Thes 2:11-12; Heb 13:20-21; Jas 1:13-14; 4:12-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Divine Sovereignty and Human Responsibility<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible ultimately traces all things back to God’s sovereignty. For example, the fact that the rain falls on the just and unjust alike is part of God’s sovereign plan (Matt 5:45).<\/p>\n<p>At the same time, God is in no way responsible for our sin; it is our responsibility because it comes from our own sinful desires. Scripture repeatedly demonstrates that people have the ability to choose to follow God or to reject him (see, e.g., Deut 30:15-20; Josh 24:15; John 1:12; Rom 10:9-13). God does not coerce people to have faith in him.<\/p>\n<p>Ezekiel 14:9-11 describes an intriguing situation in which God deceives a prophet but then also holds that same prophet accountable for his actions. This leads to a difficult question: How can we reconcile God’s sovereign control over all things with the personal choices and decisions for which we will be called to account?<\/p>\n<p>In giving misleading messages to false prophets, God was simply giving them and their hearers exactly what they wanted (cp. 2 Thes 2:11). Even a false prophet could give a prophecy that led people astray only with the Lord’s permission or direction. Unless God restrained them from their sin, they would choose lies instead of the truth and worship creation in place of the Creator (Rom 1:18-25). God simply gave them permission to enact their hearts’ sinful desires.<\/p>\n<p>The remarkable fact is not that God allows some sinners to persist in their chosen delusions, but that he saves sinners, changes our natures, and gives us the desire to do good for his glory (see Ezek 36:25-26; Rom 8:1-11; Eph 2:10). While we may not be able to completely reconcile this complex tension, we can be assured of the freely offered grace of God and the new life that he gives through his Spirit to all who trust in him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:6-7; 1 Kgs 22:19-22; 2 Chr 20:6; Job 1:8-12; 2:2-6; Pss 115:3; 135:6-14; Isa 45:6-7; Lam 3:37-40; Ezek 14:9-11; 17:24; 36:25-26; Dan 2:20-22; Amos 3:6; 4:6-11; Rom 1:18-25; 9:8-33; 12:2; Eph 4:20-24; 2 Thes 2:11-12; Heb 13:20-21; Jas 1:13-14; 4:12-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Divine Sovereignty and Human Responsibility The Bible ultimately traces all things back to God’s sovereignty. For example, the fact that the rain falls on the just and unjust alike is part of God’s sovereign plan (Matt 5:45). At the same time, God is in no way responsible for our sin; it is our responsibility because it comes from our own sinful desires. Scripture repeatedly demonstrates that people have the ability to choose to follow God or to reject him (see, e.g., Deut 30:15-20; Josh 24:1...","summary_en":"Divine Sovereignty and Human Responsibility The Bible ultimately traces all things back to God’s sovereignty. For example, the fact that the rain falls on the just and unjust alike is part of God’s sovereign plan (Matt 5:45). At the same time, God is in no way responsible for our sin; it is our responsibility because it comes from our own sinful desires. Scripture repeatedly demonstrates that people have the ability to choose to follow God or to reject him (see, e.g., Deut 30:15-20; Josh 24:1...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115021,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Retribution","title_en":"Retribution","content_ro":"<h3>Retribution<\/h3>\n<p>God gave humans the commission of procreating and caring for the world (Gen 1:28). But as humanity multiplied, spiritual wickedness, violence, and murder also multiplied (4:8, 23; 6:5, 11-13), resulting in a corrupt world that required cleansing.<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the Flood was to enact God’s global cleansing and retribution against evildoers. <em>Retribution<\/em> means “giving what is due” and usually refers to recompense for wrongdoing. Retribution is motivated by the conviction that moral order is woven into the fabric of the world and must be maintained or restored (see Ps 7:14-16; Prov 11:17-21; 26:27).<\/p>\n<p>God maintains moral order by meting out justice, punishing wickedness, and rewarding right behavior (Gal 6:7-8). Since God oversees the world, it is never entirely overwhelmed by moral chaos; God holds people accountable for what they do. The judgment and exile of Adam and Eve (Gen 3:8-24), Cain’s sentence (4:10-15), and the worldwide flood and annihilation (chs 6–7) are examples of God’s retribution. These events reveal a sovereign God who exacts just punishment in the context of his good intentions for the world (see also Num 16; Deut 30:15-20; Josh 7; Mic 2:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Retribution is an application of God’s righteousness; it purifies the world for his kingdom of peace. Through retribution, the divine King proclaims his universal rule and exercises his justice on all who reject his rule or defy his commands (Deut 7:10; Ps 149; Prov 15:25; Mic 5:15; 1 Cor 16:22; Gal 1:8-9; 2 Thes 1:5-10).<\/p>\n<p>For God’s people, retribution serves as his discipline. It is intended to restore covenant fellowship with him (see Isa 44:22; Jer 3:12-14; Lam 3:19-33; Hos 14:1-2; Joel 2:12-13; see also Heb 12:5-11). When God’s people experience his chastening, they can respond in hope because God’s truth and righteousness will triumph (Ps 58:10-11), and God will redeem and restore his people who trust in him (Lev 26:40-45; Hos 2:2-23).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 6:1–7:24; Lev 26:14-39; Ps 7:6-17; 57:6; 95:8-11; Prov 6:27-35; 26:27; Mic 2:1-3; Rom 2:5-16; Gal 6:7-8; Heb 10:26-31; 12:5-11, 25-29<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Retribution<\/h3>\n<p>God gave humans the commission of procreating and caring for the world (Gen 1:28). But as humanity multiplied, spiritual wickedness, violence, and murder also multiplied (4:8, 23; 6:5, 11-13), resulting in a corrupt world that required cleansing.<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the Flood was to enact God’s global cleansing and retribution against evildoers. <em>Retribution<\/em> means “giving what is due” and usually refers to recompense for wrongdoing. Retribution is motivated by the conviction that moral order is woven into the fabric of the world and must be maintained or restored (see Ps 7:14-16; Prov 11:17-21; 26:27).<\/p>\n<p>God maintains moral order by meting out justice, punishing wickedness, and rewarding right behavior (Gal 6:7-8). Since God oversees the world, it is never entirely overwhelmed by moral chaos; God holds people accountable for what they do. The judgment and exile of Adam and Eve (Gen 3:8-24), Cain’s sentence (4:10-15), and the worldwide flood and annihilation (chs 6–7) are examples of God’s retribution. These events reveal a sovereign God who exacts just punishment in the context of his good intentions for the world (see also Num 16; Deut 30:15-20; Josh 7; Mic 2:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Retribution is an application of God’s righteousness; it purifies the world for his kingdom of peace. Through retribution, the divine King proclaims his universal rule and exercises his justice on all who reject his rule or defy his commands (Deut 7:10; Ps 149; Prov 15:25; Mic 5:15; 1 Cor 16:22; Gal 1:8-9; 2 Thes 1:5-10).<\/p>\n<p>For God’s people, retribution serves as his discipline. It is intended to restore covenant fellowship with him (see Isa 44:22; Jer 3:12-14; Lam 3:19-33; Hos 14:1-2; Joel 2:12-13; see also Heb 12:5-11). When God’s people experience his chastening, they can respond in hope because God’s truth and righteousness will triumph (Ps 58:10-11), and God will redeem and restore his people who trust in him (Lev 26:40-45; Hos 2:2-23).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 6:1–7:24; Lev 26:14-39; Ps 7:6-17; 57:6; 95:8-11; Prov 6:27-35; 26:27; Mic 2:1-3; Rom 2:5-16; Gal 6:7-8; Heb 10:26-31; 12:5-11, 25-29<\/p>","summary_ro":"Retribution God gave humans the commission of procreating and caring for the world (Gen 1:28). But as humanity multiplied, spiritual wickedness, violence, and murder also multiplied (4:8, 23; 6:5, 11-13), resulting in a corrupt world that required cleansing. The purpose of the Flood was to enact God’s global cleansing and retribution against evildoers. Retribution means “giving what is due” and usually refers to recompense for wrongdoing. Retribution is motivated by the conviction that moral ...","summary_en":"Retribution God gave humans the commission of procreating and caring for the world (Gen 1:28). But as humanity multiplied, spiritual wickedness, violence, and murder also multiplied (4:8, 23; 6:5, 11-13), resulting in a corrupt world that required cleansing. The purpose of the Flood was to enact God’s global cleansing and retribution against evildoers. Retribution means “giving what is due” and usually refers to recompense for wrongdoing. Retribution is motivated by the conviction that moral ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115091,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Covenants","title_en":"God’s Covenants","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Covenants<\/h3>\n<p><em>Covenant<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">berith<\/span>) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order and gave the rainbow as the sign of this commitment (Gen 9:1-17).<\/p>\n<p>God later established a covenant relationship with Abraham and his family; the sign of this covenant was circumcision (12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14). God’s covenant with Abraham promised descendants, land, rulers, and the blessing of all nations; these promises formed the basis for the covenants God later made with his people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai was a national covenant (Exod 19–24) whose sign was the Sabbath; it addressed how Israel would be the chosen people of God. This covenant took the form of a suzerain-vassal treaty, an ancient relationship established between a great king and loyal subjects (see study note on Exod 20:1–23:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Sinai covenant was renewed in Deuteronomy and in Joshua 24:1-28. The renewal focused on God’s promise of land and how Israel would conduct itself while inhabiting the land. Through his covenant with Israel, God affirmed that he was their God and they were his people, a relationship that required their complete loyalty (Jer 11:4; 24:7; Ezek 11:20; 14:11). God, the great king, would bless and protect the nation Israel. Israel’s obligation was to keep God’s commands, decrees, and regulations (Exod 19:5, 8; 24:3, 7; Deut 30:15-20).<\/p>\n<p>God later formed a covenant with King David (2 Sam 7:5-16), which pertained to the line of kings promised to Abraham and Jacob (Gen 17:6, 16; 35:11).<\/p>\n<p>Years later, at a low point in Israel’s history, the prophet Jeremiah foretold a “new covenant” in Israel’s future (Jer 31:31-33), in which the ideals of the covenants with Abraham and Israel would finally be realized. Jeremiah’s prophecy found fulfillment in the person and work of Jesus Christ (see Luke 22:20; Heb 8:6-13; 12:24). This new covenant provides the ultimate fulfillment of the previous promises that were made to God’s people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenants were motivated by God’s faithful love (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">khesed<\/span>), which enabled a relationship to continue between God and his people. God initiated this relationship, announced its conditions, and rewarded his people accordingly. These covenants were not rewards but divine gifts. God may exclude people from the covenant relationship (see Hos 1:9), but he will not break, revoke, or withdraw his covenants. If broken or annulled by the human parties, the covenant could be renewed only through a reapplication of God’s faithful love (Exod 34:6-9; Jer 31:31-33). But while God’s love preserves the relationship, his grace must not be mocked (Isa 54:7-10; 55:3; 61:8; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Gal 6:7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 9:1-17; 12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14; Exod 6:2-5; 19:1–24:18; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 7:7-15; 29:2-29; Josh 8:30-35; 24:1-8; 2 Sam 7:5-16; Ezra 10:1-17; Isa 59:20-21; Jer 31:31-34; 33:19-26; 34:12-20; Ezek 16:1-63; Luke 22:20; Gal 4:21-31; Eph 2:11-13; Heb 8:6-13; 10:11-18; 12:24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Covenants<\/h3>\n<p><em>Covenant<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">berith<\/span>) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order and gave the rainbow as the sign of this commitment (Gen 9:1-17).<\/p>\n<p>God later established a covenant relationship with Abraham and his family; the sign of this covenant was circumcision (12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14). God’s covenant with Abraham promised descendants, land, rulers, and the blessing of all nations; these promises formed the basis for the covenants God later made with his people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai was a national covenant (Exod 19–24) whose sign was the Sabbath; it addressed how Israel would be the chosen people of God. This covenant took the form of a suzerain-vassal treaty, an ancient relationship established between a great king and loyal subjects (see study note on Exod 20:1–23:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Sinai covenant was renewed in Deuteronomy and in Joshua 24:1-28. The renewal focused on God’s promise of land and how Israel would conduct itself while inhabiting the land. Through his covenant with Israel, God affirmed that he was their God and they were his people, a relationship that required their complete loyalty (Jer 11:4; 24:7; Ezek 11:20; 14:11). God, the great king, would bless and protect the nation Israel. Israel’s obligation was to keep God’s commands, decrees, and regulations (Exod 19:5, 8; 24:3, 7; Deut 30:15-20).<\/p>\n<p>God later formed a covenant with King David (2 Sam 7:5-16), which pertained to the line of kings promised to Abraham and Jacob (Gen 17:6, 16; 35:11).<\/p>\n<p>Years later, at a low point in Israel’s history, the prophet Jeremiah foretold a “new covenant” in Israel’s future (Jer 31:31-33), in which the ideals of the covenants with Abraham and Israel would finally be realized. Jeremiah’s prophecy found fulfillment in the person and work of Jesus Christ (see Luke 22:20; Heb 8:6-13; 12:24). This new covenant provides the ultimate fulfillment of the previous promises that were made to God’s people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenants were motivated by God’s faithful love (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">khesed<\/span>), which enabled a relationship to continue between God and his people. God initiated this relationship, announced its conditions, and rewarded his people accordingly. These covenants were not rewards but divine gifts. God may exclude people from the covenant relationship (see Hos 1:9), but he will not break, revoke, or withdraw his covenants. If broken or annulled by the human parties, the covenant could be renewed only through a reapplication of God’s faithful love (Exod 34:6-9; Jer 31:31-33). But while God’s love preserves the relationship, his grace must not be mocked (Isa 54:7-10; 55:3; 61:8; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Gal 6:7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 9:1-17; 12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14; Exod 6:2-5; 19:1–24:18; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 7:7-15; 29:2-29; Josh 8:30-35; 24:1-8; 2 Sam 7:5-16; Ezra 10:1-17; Isa 59:20-21; Jer 31:31-34; 33:19-26; 34:12-20; Ezek 16:1-63; Luke 22:20; Gal 4:21-31; Eph 2:11-13; Heb 8:6-13; 10:11-18; 12:24<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Covenants Covenant (Hebrew berith) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible. The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order...","summary_en":"God’s Covenants Covenant (Hebrew berith) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible. The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":119477,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Choice of Life or Death","title_en":"The Choice of Life or Death","content_ro":"<h3>The Choice of Life or Death<\/h3>\n<p>In Moses’ instructions to the Israelites when they were on the cusp of entering the Promised Land, the people were presented with a choice: Obey the covenant—life as God designed it—and live, or refuse to obey the Creator’s design and die (Deut 30:19). This choice—and its ramifications—resounded throughout God’s covenant dealings with his people.<\/p>\n<p>The specific terminology of Deuteronomy 30 resurfaces in Jeremiah, in the context of the Babylonian invasion: “Take your choice of life or death” (Jer 21:8). The prophet warned King Zedekiah and his people to submit to the Lord’s instruction. If they did, they would live; if not, they would die. Earlier in Jeremiah’s ministry, the Lord confronted the people of Judah with an opportunity to change and come home to him (3:12–4:4). If they rejected idol worship, admitted their guilt, and confessed that they were rebels, God would cleanse their minds and hearts, and they could live peacefully in the land. However, the people scornfully rejected this offer again and again (7:5-7; 18:8-11; 23:22; 26:13; 27:12-13; 29:32; 35:15; 36:3-7; 44:5). So the Lord repeatedly warned them that if they rejected the path of life, they would experience judgment.<\/p>\n<p>In Jeremiah’s day, only a few chose life; the majority rebelled and experienced death. In the end, the people led by Zedekiah ignored the Lord, defied the Babylonian army, and indeed suffered judgment. They intentionally rejected the gift of life.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 11:26-29; 30:15-20; Prov 9:1-18; 11:19; 18:21; Isa 1:19-20; Jer 3:12-15; 4:3-4; 7:5-7; 18:7-11; 21:8-9; 23:22; 26:13; 27:12-18; 35:15; 36:3-7; 44:5; Ezek 18:23-24; Rom 6:23; 8:6; Rev 2:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Choice of Life or Death<\/h3>\n<p>In Moses’ instructions to the Israelites when they were on the cusp of entering the Promised Land, the people were presented with a choice: Obey the covenant—life as God designed it—and live, or refuse to obey the Creator’s design and die (Deut 30:19). This choice—and its ramifications—resounded throughout God’s covenant dealings with his people.<\/p>\n<p>The specific terminology of Deuteronomy 30 resurfaces in Jeremiah, in the context of the Babylonian invasion: “Take your choice of life or death” (Jer 21:8). The prophet warned King Zedekiah and his people to submit to the Lord’s instruction. If they did, they would live; if not, they would die. Earlier in Jeremiah’s ministry, the Lord confronted the people of Judah with an opportunity to change and come home to him (3:12–4:4). If they rejected idol worship, admitted their guilt, and confessed that they were rebels, God would cleanse their minds and hearts, and they could live peacefully in the land. However, the people scornfully rejected this offer again and again (7:5-7; 18:8-11; 23:22; 26:13; 27:12-13; 29:32; 35:15; 36:3-7; 44:5). So the Lord repeatedly warned them that if they rejected the path of life, they would experience judgment.<\/p>\n<p>In Jeremiah’s day, only a few chose life; the majority rebelled and experienced death. In the end, the people led by Zedekiah ignored the Lord, defied the Babylonian army, and indeed suffered judgment. They intentionally rejected the gift of life.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 11:26-29; 30:15-20; Prov 9:1-18; 11:19; 18:21; Isa 1:19-20; Jer 3:12-15; 4:3-4; 7:5-7; 18:7-11; 21:8-9; 23:22; 26:13; 27:12-18; 35:15; 36:3-7; 44:5; Ezek 18:23-24; Rom 6:23; 8:6; Rev 2:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Choice of Life or Death In Moses’ instructions to the Israelites when they were on the cusp of entering the Promised Land, the people were presented with a choice: Obey the covenant—life as God designed it—and live, or refuse to obey the Creator’s design and die (Deut 30:19). This choice—and its ramifications—resounded throughout God’s covenant dealings with his people. The specific terminology of Deuteronomy 30 resurfaces in Jeremiah, in the context of the Babylonian invasion: “Take your...","summary_en":"The Choice of Life or Death In Moses’ instructions to the Israelites when they were on the cusp of entering the Promised Land, the people were presented with a choice: Obey the covenant—life as God designed it—and live, or refuse to obey the Creator’s design and die (Deut 30:19). This choice—and its ramifications—resounded throughout God’s covenant dealings with his people. The specific terminology of Deuteronomy 30 resurfaces in Jeremiah, in the context of the Babylonian invasion: “Take your...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":119669,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Divine Sovereignty and Human Responsibility","title_en":"Divine Sovereignty and Human Responsibility","content_ro":"<h3>Divine Sovereignty and Human Responsibility<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible ultimately traces all things back to God’s sovereignty. For example, the fact that the rain falls on the just and unjust alike is part of God’s sovereign plan (Matt 5:45).<\/p>\n<p>At the same time, God is in no way responsible for our sin; it is our responsibility because it comes from our own sinful desires. Scripture repeatedly demonstrates that people have the ability to choose to follow God or to reject him (see, e.g., Deut 30:15-20; Josh 24:15; John 1:12; Rom 10:9-13). God does not coerce people to have faith in him.<\/p>\n<p>Ezekiel 14:9-11 describes an intriguing situation in which God deceives a prophet but then also holds that same prophet accountable for his actions. This leads to a difficult question: How can we reconcile God’s sovereign control over all things with the personal choices and decisions for which we will be called to account?<\/p>\n<p>In giving misleading messages to false prophets, God was simply giving them and their hearers exactly what they wanted (cp. 2 Thes 2:11). Even a false prophet could give a prophecy that led people astray only with the Lord’s permission or direction. Unless God restrained them from their sin, they would choose lies instead of the truth and worship creation in place of the Creator (Rom 1:18-25). God simply gave them permission to enact their hearts’ sinful desires.<\/p>\n<p>The remarkable fact is not that God allows some sinners to persist in their chosen delusions, but that he saves sinners, changes our natures, and gives us the desire to do good for his glory (see Ezek 36:25-26; Rom 8:1-11; Eph 2:10). While we may not be able to completely reconcile this complex tension, we can be assured of the freely offered grace of God and the new life that he gives through his Spirit to all who trust in him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:6-7; 1 Kgs 22:19-22; 2 Chr 20:6; Job 1:8-12; 2:2-6; Pss 115:3; 135:6-14; Isa 45:6-7; Lam 3:37-40; Ezek 14:9-11; 17:24; 36:25-26; Dan 2:20-22; Amos 3:6; 4:6-11; Rom 1:18-25; 9:8-33; 12:2; Eph 4:20-24; 2 Thes 2:11-12; Heb 13:20-21; Jas 1:13-14; 4:12-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Divine Sovereignty and Human Responsibility<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible ultimately traces all things back to God’s sovereignty. For example, the fact that the rain falls on the just and unjust alike is part of God’s sovereign plan (Matt 5:45).<\/p>\n<p>At the same time, God is in no way responsible for our sin; it is our responsibility because it comes from our own sinful desires. Scripture repeatedly demonstrates that people have the ability to choose to follow God or to reject him (see, e.g., Deut 30:15-20; Josh 24:15; John 1:12; Rom 10:9-13). God does not coerce people to have faith in him.<\/p>\n<p>Ezekiel 14:9-11 describes an intriguing situation in which God deceives a prophet but then also holds that same prophet accountable for his actions. This leads to a difficult question: How can we reconcile God’s sovereign control over all things with the personal choices and decisions for which we will be called to account?<\/p>\n<p>In giving misleading messages to false prophets, God was simply giving them and their hearers exactly what they wanted (cp. 2 Thes 2:11). Even a false prophet could give a prophecy that led people astray only with the Lord’s permission or direction. Unless God restrained them from their sin, they would choose lies instead of the truth and worship creation in place of the Creator (Rom 1:18-25). God simply gave them permission to enact their hearts’ sinful desires.<\/p>\n<p>The remarkable fact is not that God allows some sinners to persist in their chosen delusions, but that he saves sinners, changes our natures, and gives us the desire to do good for his glory (see Ezek 36:25-26; Rom 8:1-11; Eph 2:10). While we may not be able to completely reconcile this complex tension, we can be assured of the freely offered grace of God and the new life that he gives through his Spirit to all who trust in him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:6-7; 1 Kgs 22:19-22; 2 Chr 20:6; Job 1:8-12; 2:2-6; Pss 115:3; 135:6-14; Isa 45:6-7; Lam 3:37-40; Ezek 14:9-11; 17:24; 36:25-26; Dan 2:20-22; Amos 3:6; 4:6-11; Rom 1:18-25; 9:8-33; 12:2; Eph 4:20-24; 2 Thes 2:11-12; Heb 13:20-21; Jas 1:13-14; 4:12-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Divine Sovereignty and Human Responsibility The Bible ultimately traces all things back to God’s sovereignty. For example, the fact that the rain falls on the just and unjust alike is part of God’s sovereign plan (Matt 5:45). At the same time, God is in no way responsible for our sin; it is our responsibility because it comes from our own sinful desires. Scripture repeatedly demonstrates that people have the ability to choose to follow God or to reject him (see, e.g., Deut 30:15-20; Josh 24:1...","summary_en":"Divine Sovereignty and Human Responsibility The Bible ultimately traces all things back to God’s sovereignty. For example, the fact that the rain falls on the just and unjust alike is part of God’s sovereign plan (Matt 5:45). At the same time, God is in no way responsible for our sin; it is our responsibility because it comes from our own sinful desires. Scripture repeatedly demonstrates that people have the ability to choose to follow God or to reject him (see, e.g., Deut 30:15-20; Josh 24:1...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":142647,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Retribution","title_en":"Retribution","content_ro":"<h3>Retribution<\/h3>\n<p>God gave humans the commission of procreating and caring for the world (Gen 1:28). But as humanity multiplied, spiritual wickedness, violence, and murder also multiplied (4:8, 23; 6:5, 11-13), resulting in a corrupt world that required cleansing.<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the Flood was to enact God’s global cleansing and retribution against evildoers. <em>Retribution<\/em> means “giving what is due” and usually refers to recompense for wrongdoing. Retribution is motivated by the conviction that moral order is woven into the fabric of the world and must be maintained or restored (see Ps 7:14-16; Prov 11:17-21; 26:27).<\/p>\n<p>God maintains moral order by meting out justice, punishing wickedness, and rewarding right behavior (Gal 6:7-8). Since God oversees the world, it is never entirely overwhelmed by moral chaos; God holds people accountable for what they do. The judgment and exile of Adam and Eve (Gen 3:8-24), Cain’s sentence (4:10-15), and the worldwide flood and annihilation (chs 6–7) are examples of God’s retribution. These events reveal a sovereign God who exacts just punishment in the context of his good intentions for the world (see also Num 16; Deut 30:15-20; Josh 7; Mic 2:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Retribution is an application of God’s righteousness; it purifies the world for his kingdom of peace. Through retribution, the divine King proclaims his universal rule and exercises his justice on all who reject his rule or defy his commands (Deut 7:10; Ps 149; Prov 15:25; Mic 5:15; 1 Cor 16:22; Gal 1:8-9; 2 Thes 1:5-10).<\/p>\n<p>For God’s people, retribution serves as his discipline. It is intended to restore covenant fellowship with him (see Isa 44:22; Jer 3:12-14; Lam 3:19-33; Hos 14:1-2; Joel 2:12-13; see also Heb 12:5-11). When God’s people experience his chastening, they can respond in hope because God’s truth and righteousness will triumph (Ps 58:10-11), and God will redeem and restore his people who trust in him (Lev 26:40-45; Hos 2:2-23).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 6:1–7:24; Lev 26:14-39; Ps 7:6-17; 57:6; 95:8-11; Prov 6:27-35; 26:27; Mic 2:1-3; Rom 2:5-16; Gal 6:7-8; Heb 10:26-31; 12:5-11, 25-29<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Retribution<\/h3>\n<p>God gave humans the commission of procreating and caring for the world (Gen 1:28). But as humanity multiplied, spiritual wickedness, violence, and murder also multiplied (4:8, 23; 6:5, 11-13), resulting in a corrupt world that required cleansing.<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the Flood was to enact God’s global cleansing and retribution against evildoers. <em>Retribution<\/em> means “giving what is due” and usually refers to recompense for wrongdoing. Retribution is motivated by the conviction that moral order is woven into the fabric of the world and must be maintained or restored (see Ps 7:14-16; Prov 11:17-21; 26:27).<\/p>\n<p>God maintains moral order by meting out justice, punishing wickedness, and rewarding right behavior (Gal 6:7-8). Since God oversees the world, it is never entirely overwhelmed by moral chaos; God holds people accountable for what they do. The judgment and exile of Adam and Eve (Gen 3:8-24), Cain’s sentence (4:10-15), and the worldwide flood and annihilation (chs 6–7) are examples of God’s retribution. These events reveal a sovereign God who exacts just punishment in the context of his good intentions for the world (see also Num 16; Deut 30:15-20; Josh 7; Mic 2:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Retribution is an application of God’s righteousness; it purifies the world for his kingdom of peace. Through retribution, the divine King proclaims his universal rule and exercises his justice on all who reject his rule or defy his commands (Deut 7:10; Ps 149; Prov 15:25; Mic 5:15; 1 Cor 16:22; Gal 1:8-9; 2 Thes 1:5-10).<\/p>\n<p>For God’s people, retribution serves as his discipline. It is intended to restore covenant fellowship with him (see Isa 44:22; Jer 3:12-14; Lam 3:19-33; Hos 14:1-2; Joel 2:12-13; see also Heb 12:5-11). When God’s people experience his chastening, they can respond in hope because God’s truth and righteousness will triumph (Ps 58:10-11), and God will redeem and restore his people who trust in him (Lev 26:40-45; Hos 2:2-23).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 6:1–7:24; Lev 26:14-39; Ps 7:6-17; 57:6; 95:8-11; Prov 6:27-35; 26:27; Mic 2:1-3; Rom 2:5-16; Gal 6:7-8; Heb 10:26-31; 12:5-11, 25-29<\/p>","summary_ro":"Retribution God gave humans the commission of procreating and caring for the world (Gen 1:28). But as humanity multiplied, spiritual wickedness, violence, and murder also multiplied (4:8, 23; 6:5, 11-13), resulting in a corrupt world that required cleansing. The purpose of the Flood was to enact God’s global cleansing and retribution against evildoers. Retribution means “giving what is due” and usually refers to recompense for wrongdoing. Retribution is motivated by the conviction that moral ...","summary_en":"Retribution God gave humans the commission of procreating and caring for the world (Gen 1:28). But as humanity multiplied, spiritual wickedness, violence, and murder also multiplied (4:8, 23; 6:5, 11-13), resulting in a corrupt world that required cleansing. The purpose of the Flood was to enact God’s global cleansing and retribution against evildoers. Retribution means “giving what is due” and usually refers to recompense for wrongdoing. Retribution is motivated by the conviction that moral ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":142717,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Covenants","title_en":"God’s Covenants","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Covenants<\/h3>\n<p><em>Covenant<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">berith<\/span>) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order and gave the rainbow as the sign of this commitment (Gen 9:1-17).<\/p>\n<p>God later established a covenant relationship with Abraham and his family; the sign of this covenant was circumcision (12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14). God’s covenant with Abraham promised descendants, land, rulers, and the blessing of all nations; these promises formed the basis for the covenants God later made with his people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai was a national covenant (Exod 19–24) whose sign was the Sabbath; it addressed how Israel would be the chosen people of God. This covenant took the form of a suzerain-vassal treaty, an ancient relationship established between a great king and loyal subjects (see study note on Exod 20:1–23:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Sinai covenant was renewed in Deuteronomy and in Joshua 24:1-28. The renewal focused on God’s promise of land and how Israel would conduct itself while inhabiting the land. Through his covenant with Israel, God affirmed that he was their God and they were his people, a relationship that required their complete loyalty (Jer 11:4; 24:7; Ezek 11:20; 14:11). God, the great king, would bless and protect the nation Israel. Israel’s obligation was to keep God’s commands, decrees, and regulations (Exod 19:5, 8; 24:3, 7; Deut 30:15-20).<\/p>\n<p>God later formed a covenant with King David (2 Sam 7:5-16), which pertained to the line of kings promised to Abraham and Jacob (Gen 17:6, 16; 35:11).<\/p>\n<p>Years later, at a low point in Israel’s history, the prophet Jeremiah foretold a “new covenant” in Israel’s future (Jer 31:31-33), in which the ideals of the covenants with Abraham and Israel would finally be realized. Jeremiah’s prophecy found fulfillment in the person and work of Jesus Christ (see Luke 22:20; Heb 8:6-13; 12:24). This new covenant provides the ultimate fulfillment of the previous promises that were made to God’s people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenants were motivated by God’s faithful love (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">khesed<\/span>), which enabled a relationship to continue between God and his people. God initiated this relationship, announced its conditions, and rewarded his people accordingly. These covenants were not rewards but divine gifts. God may exclude people from the covenant relationship (see Hos 1:9), but he will not break, revoke, or withdraw his covenants. If broken or annulled by the human parties, the covenant could be renewed only through a reapplication of God’s faithful love (Exod 34:6-9; Jer 31:31-33). But while God’s love preserves the relationship, his grace must not be mocked (Isa 54:7-10; 55:3; 61:8; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Gal 6:7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 9:1-17; 12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14; Exod 6:2-5; 19:1–24:18; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 7:7-15; 29:2-29; Josh 8:30-35; 24:1-8; 2 Sam 7:5-16; Ezra 10:1-17; Isa 59:20-21; Jer 31:31-34; 33:19-26; 34:12-20; Ezek 16:1-63; Luke 22:20; Gal 4:21-31; Eph 2:11-13; Heb 8:6-13; 10:11-18; 12:24<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Covenants<\/h3>\n<p><em>Covenant<\/em> (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">berith<\/span>) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible.<\/p>\n<p>The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order and gave the rainbow as the sign of this commitment (Gen 9:1-17).<\/p>\n<p>God later established a covenant relationship with Abraham and his family; the sign of this covenant was circumcision (12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14). God’s covenant with Abraham promised descendants, land, rulers, and the blessing of all nations; these promises formed the basis for the covenants God later made with his people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai was a national covenant (Exod 19–24) whose sign was the Sabbath; it addressed how Israel would be the chosen people of God. This covenant took the form of a suzerain-vassal treaty, an ancient relationship established between a great king and loyal subjects (see study note on Exod 20:1–23:33).<\/p>\n<p>The Sinai covenant was renewed in Deuteronomy and in Joshua 24:1-28. The renewal focused on God’s promise of land and how Israel would conduct itself while inhabiting the land. Through his covenant with Israel, God affirmed that he was their God and they were his people, a relationship that required their complete loyalty (Jer 11:4; 24:7; Ezek 11:20; 14:11). God, the great king, would bless and protect the nation Israel. Israel’s obligation was to keep God’s commands, decrees, and regulations (Exod 19:5, 8; 24:3, 7; Deut 30:15-20).<\/p>\n<p>God later formed a covenant with King David (2 Sam 7:5-16), which pertained to the line of kings promised to Abraham and Jacob (Gen 17:6, 16; 35:11).<\/p>\n<p>Years later, at a low point in Israel’s history, the prophet Jeremiah foretold a “new covenant” in Israel’s future (Jer 31:31-33), in which the ideals of the covenants with Abraham and Israel would finally be realized. Jeremiah’s prophecy found fulfillment in the person and work of Jesus Christ (see Luke 22:20; Heb 8:6-13; 12:24). This new covenant provides the ultimate fulfillment of the previous promises that were made to God’s people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s covenants were motivated by God’s faithful love (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">khesed<\/span>), which enabled a relationship to continue between God and his people. God initiated this relationship, announced its conditions, and rewarded his people accordingly. These covenants were not rewards but divine gifts. God may exclude people from the covenant relationship (see Hos 1:9), but he will not break, revoke, or withdraw his covenants. If broken or annulled by the human parties, the covenant could be renewed only through a reapplication of God’s faithful love (Exod 34:6-9; Jer 31:31-33). But while God’s love preserves the relationship, his grace must not be mocked (Isa 54:7-10; 55:3; 61:8; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Gal 6:7).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 9:1-17; 12:1-9; 15:1-21; 17:9-14; Exod 6:2-5; 19:1–24:18; Lev 26:1-46; Deut 7:7-15; 29:2-29; Josh 8:30-35; 24:1-8; 2 Sam 7:5-16; Ezra 10:1-17; Isa 59:20-21; Jer 31:31-34; 33:19-26; 34:12-20; Ezek 16:1-63; Luke 22:20; Gal 4:21-31; Eph 2:11-13; Heb 8:6-13; 10:11-18; 12:24<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Covenants Covenant (Hebrew berith) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible. The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order...","summary_en":"God’s Covenants Covenant (Hebrew berith) means “bond”: A covenant is a binding relationship rooted in a commitment that includes promises and obligations. Whether between individuals (e.g., Gen 21:27), whole nations (e.g., Josh 9:15-18), or God and humans, the covenant relationship calls for faithfulness and makes peace and harmony possible. The covenant theme in the Old Testament begins with Noah, through whom God made a covenant with all of creation. God promised to uphold the created order...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":147103,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Choice of Life or Death","title_en":"The Choice of Life or Death","content_ro":"<h3>The Choice of Life or Death<\/h3>\n<p>In Moses’ instructions to the Israelites when they were on the cusp of entering the Promised Land, the people were presented with a choice: Obey the covenant—life as God designed it—and live, or refuse to obey the Creator’s design and die (Deut 30:19). This choice—and its ramifications—resounded throughout God’s covenant dealings with his people.<\/p>\n<p>The specific terminology of Deuteronomy 30 resurfaces in Jeremiah, in the context of the Babylonian invasion: “Take your choice of life or death” (Jer 21:8). The prophet warned King Zedekiah and his people to submit to the Lord’s instruction. If they did, they would live; if not, they would die. Earlier in Jeremiah’s ministry, the Lord confronted the people of Judah with an opportunity to change and come home to him (3:12–4:4). If they rejected idol worship, admitted their guilt, and confessed that they were rebels, God would cleanse their minds and hearts, and they could live peacefully in the land. However, the people scornfully rejected this offer again and again (7:5-7; 18:8-11; 23:22; 26:13; 27:12-13; 29:32; 35:15; 36:3-7; 44:5). So the Lord repeatedly warned them that if they rejected the path of life, they would experience judgment.<\/p>\n<p>In Jeremiah’s day, only a few chose life; the majority rebelled and experienced death. In the end, the people led by Zedekiah ignored the Lord, defied the Babylonian army, and indeed suffered judgment. They intentionally rejected the gift of life.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 11:26-29; 30:15-20; Prov 9:1-18; 11:19; 18:21; Isa 1:19-20; Jer 3:12-15; 4:3-4; 7:5-7; 18:7-11; 21:8-9; 23:22; 26:13; 27:12-18; 35:15; 36:3-7; 44:5; Ezek 18:23-24; Rom 6:23; 8:6; Rev 2:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Choice of Life or Death<\/h3>\n<p>In Moses’ instructions to the Israelites when they were on the cusp of entering the Promised Land, the people were presented with a choice: Obey the covenant—life as God designed it—and live, or refuse to obey the Creator’s design and die (Deut 30:19). This choice—and its ramifications—resounded throughout God’s covenant dealings with his people.<\/p>\n<p>The specific terminology of Deuteronomy 30 resurfaces in Jeremiah, in the context of the Babylonian invasion: “Take your choice of life or death” (Jer 21:8). The prophet warned King Zedekiah and his people to submit to the Lord’s instruction. If they did, they would live; if not, they would die. Earlier in Jeremiah’s ministry, the Lord confronted the people of Judah with an opportunity to change and come home to him (3:12–4:4). If they rejected idol worship, admitted their guilt, and confessed that they were rebels, God would cleanse their minds and hearts, and they could live peacefully in the land. However, the people scornfully rejected this offer again and again (7:5-7; 18:8-11; 23:22; 26:13; 27:12-13; 29:32; 35:15; 36:3-7; 44:5). So the Lord repeatedly warned them that if they rejected the path of life, they would experience judgment.<\/p>\n<p>In Jeremiah’s day, only a few chose life; the majority rebelled and experienced death. In the end, the people led by Zedekiah ignored the Lord, defied the Babylonian army, and indeed suffered judgment. They intentionally rejected the gift of life.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 11:26-29; 30:15-20; Prov 9:1-18; 11:19; 18:21; Isa 1:19-20; Jer 3:12-15; 4:3-4; 7:5-7; 18:7-11; 21:8-9; 23:22; 26:13; 27:12-18; 35:15; 36:3-7; 44:5; Ezek 18:23-24; Rom 6:23; 8:6; Rev 2:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Choice of Life or Death In Moses’ instructions to the Israelites when they were on the cusp of entering the Promised Land, the people were presented with a choice: Obey the covenant—life as God designed it—and live, or refuse to obey the Creator’s design and die (Deut 30:19). This choice—and its ramifications—resounded throughout God’s covenant dealings with his people. The specific terminology of Deuteronomy 30 resurfaces in Jeremiah, in the context of the Babylonian invasion: “Take your...","summary_en":"The Choice of Life or Death In Moses’ instructions to the Israelites when they were on the cusp of entering the Promised Land, the people were presented with a choice: Obey the covenant—life as God designed it—and live, or refuse to obey the Creator’s design and die (Deut 30:19). This choice—and its ramifications—resounded throughout God’s covenant dealings with his people. The specific terminology of Deuteronomy 30 resurfaces in Jeremiah, in the context of the Babylonian invasion: “Take your...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":147295,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Divine Sovereignty and Human Responsibility","title_en":"Divine Sovereignty and Human Responsibility","content_ro":"<h3>Divine Sovereignty and Human Responsibility<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible ultimately traces all things back to God’s sovereignty. For example, the fact that the rain falls on the just and unjust alike is part of God’s sovereign plan (Matt 5:45).<\/p>\n<p>At the same time, God is in no way responsible for our sin; it is our responsibility because it comes from our own sinful desires. Scripture repeatedly demonstrates that people have the ability to choose to follow God or to reject him (see, e.g., Deut 30:15-20; Josh 24:15; John 1:12; Rom 10:9-13). God does not coerce people to have faith in him.<\/p>\n<p>Ezekiel 14:9-11 describes an intriguing situation in which God deceives a prophet but then also holds that same prophet accountable for his actions. This leads to a difficult question: How can we reconcile God’s sovereign control over all things with the personal choices and decisions for which we will be called to account?<\/p>\n<p>In giving misleading messages to false prophets, God was simply giving them and their hearers exactly what they wanted (cp. 2 Thes 2:11). Even a false prophet could give a prophecy that led people astray only with the Lord’s permission or direction. Unless God restrained them from their sin, they would choose lies instead of the truth and worship creation in place of the Creator (Rom 1:18-25). God simply gave them permission to enact their hearts’ sinful desires.<\/p>\n<p>The remarkable fact is not that God allows some sinners to persist in their chosen delusions, but that he saves sinners, changes our natures, and gives us the desire to do good for his glory (see Ezek 36:25-26; Rom 8:1-11; Eph 2:10). While we may not be able to completely reconcile this complex tension, we can be assured of the freely offered grace of God and the new life that he gives through his Spirit to all who trust in him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:6-7; 1 Kgs 22:19-22; 2 Chr 20:6; Job 1:8-12; 2:2-6; Pss 115:3; 135:6-14; Isa 45:6-7; Lam 3:37-40; Ezek 14:9-11; 17:24; 36:25-26; Dan 2:20-22; Amos 3:6; 4:6-11; Rom 1:18-25; 9:8-33; 12:2; Eph 4:20-24; 2 Thes 2:11-12; Heb 13:20-21; Jas 1:13-14; 4:12-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Divine Sovereignty and Human Responsibility<\/h3>\n<p>The Bible ultimately traces all things back to God’s sovereignty. For example, the fact that the rain falls on the just and unjust alike is part of God’s sovereign plan (Matt 5:45).<\/p>\n<p>At the same time, God is in no way responsible for our sin; it is our responsibility because it comes from our own sinful desires. Scripture repeatedly demonstrates that people have the ability to choose to follow God or to reject him (see, e.g., Deut 30:15-20; Josh 24:15; John 1:12; Rom 10:9-13). God does not coerce people to have faith in him.<\/p>\n<p>Ezekiel 14:9-11 describes an intriguing situation in which God deceives a prophet but then also holds that same prophet accountable for his actions. This leads to a difficult question: How can we reconcile God’s sovereign control over all things with the personal choices and decisions for which we will be called to account?<\/p>\n<p>In giving misleading messages to false prophets, God was simply giving them and their hearers exactly what they wanted (cp. 2 Thes 2:11). Even a false prophet could give a prophecy that led people astray only with the Lord’s permission or direction. Unless God restrained them from their sin, they would choose lies instead of the truth and worship creation in place of the Creator (Rom 1:18-25). God simply gave them permission to enact their hearts’ sinful desires.<\/p>\n<p>The remarkable fact is not that God allows some sinners to persist in their chosen delusions, but that he saves sinners, changes our natures, and gives us the desire to do good for his glory (see Ezek 36:25-26; Rom 8:1-11; Eph 2:10). While we may not be able to completely reconcile this complex tension, we can be assured of the freely offered grace of God and the new life that he gives through his Spirit to all who trust in him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 2:6-7; 1 Kgs 22:19-22; 2 Chr 20:6; Job 1:8-12; 2:2-6; Pss 115:3; 135:6-14; Isa 45:6-7; Lam 3:37-40; Ezek 14:9-11; 17:24; 36:25-26; Dan 2:20-22; Amos 3:6; 4:6-11; Rom 1:18-25; 9:8-33; 12:2; Eph 4:20-24; 2 Thes 2:11-12; Heb 13:20-21; Jas 1:13-14; 4:12-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"Divine Sovereignty and Human Responsibility The Bible ultimately traces all things back to God’s sovereignty. For example, the fact that the rain falls on the just and unjust alike is part of God’s sovereign plan (Matt 5:45). At the same time, God is in no way responsible for our sin; it is our responsibility because it comes from our own sinful desires. Scripture repeatedly demonstrates that people have the ability to choose to follow God or to reject him (see, e.g., Deut 30:15-20; Josh 24:1...","summary_en":"Divine Sovereignty and Human Responsibility The Bible ultimately traces all things back to God’s sovereignty. For example, the fact that the rain falls on the just and unjust alike is part of God’s sovereign plan (Matt 5:45). At the same time, God is in no way responsible for our sin; it is our responsibility because it comes from our own sinful desires. Scripture repeatedly demonstrates that people have the ability to choose to follow God or to reject him (see, e.g., Deut 30:15-20; Josh 24:1...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"16":[{"id":45231,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 30:16","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 30:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>30:16<\/strong> <em>love the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> your God:<\/em> This paraphrases the <em>Shema,<\/em> Israel’s central covenant affirmation (see 6:5). To love God means to obey him in every respect, which results in divine blessing.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>30:16<\/strong> <em>love the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> your God:<\/em> This paraphrases the <em>Shema,<\/em> Israel’s central covenant affirmation (see 6:5). To love God means to obey him in every respect, which results in divine blessing.<\/p>","summary_ro":"30:16 love the Lord your God: This paraphrases the Shema, Israel’s central covenant affirmation (see 6:5). To love God means to obey him in every respect, which results in divine blessing.","summary_en":"30:16 love the Lord your God: This paraphrases the Shema, Israel’s central covenant affirmation (see 6:5). To love God means to obey him in every respect, which results in divine blessing.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":72857,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 30:16","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 30:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>30:16<\/strong> <em>love the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> your God:<\/em> This paraphrases the <em>Shema,<\/em> Israel’s central covenant affirmation (see 6:5). To love God means to obey him in every respect, which results in divine blessing.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>30:16<\/strong> <em>love the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> your God:<\/em> This paraphrases the <em>Shema,<\/em> Israel’s central covenant affirmation (see 6:5). To love God means to obey him in every respect, which results in divine blessing.<\/p>","summary_ro":"30:16 love the Lord your God: This paraphrases the Shema, Israel’s central covenant affirmation (see 6:5). To love God means to obey him in every respect, which results in divine blessing.","summary_en":"30:16 love the Lord your God: This paraphrases the Shema, Israel’s central covenant affirmation (see 6:5). To love God means to obey him in every respect, which results in divine blessing.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100483,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 30:16","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 30:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>30:16<\/strong> <em>love the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> your God:<\/em> This paraphrases the <em>Shema,<\/em> Israel’s central covenant affirmation (see 6:5). To love God means to obey him in every respect, which results in divine blessing.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>30:16<\/strong> <em>love the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> your God:<\/em> This paraphrases the <em>Shema,<\/em> Israel’s central covenant affirmation (see 6:5). To love God means to obey him in every respect, which results in divine blessing.<\/p>","summary_ro":"30:16 love the Lord your God: This paraphrases the Shema, Israel’s central covenant affirmation (see 6:5). To love God means to obey him in every respect, which results in divine blessing.","summary_en":"30:16 love the Lord your God: This paraphrases the Shema, Israel’s central covenant affirmation (see 6:5). To love God means to obey him in every respect, which results in divine blessing.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128109,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 30:16","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 30:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>30:16<\/strong> <em>love the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> your God:<\/em> This paraphrases the <em>Shema,<\/em> Israel’s central covenant affirmation (see 6:5). To love God means to obey him in every respect, which results in divine blessing.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>30:16<\/strong> <em>love the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> your God:<\/em> This paraphrases the <em>Shema,<\/em> Israel’s central covenant affirmation (see 6:5). To love God means to obey him in every respect, which results in divine blessing.<\/p>","summary_ro":"30:16 love the Lord your God: This paraphrases the Shema, Israel’s central covenant affirmation (see 6:5). To love God means to obey him in every respect, which results in divine blessing.","summary_en":"30:16 love the Lord your God: This paraphrases the Shema, Israel’s central covenant affirmation (see 6:5). To love God means to obey him in every respect, which results in divine blessing.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"19":[{"id":8365,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Cursed Curse","title_en":"Cursed Curse","content_ro":"<h3>CURSE, CURSED<\/h3>\n<p>Invocation of evil or injury against one’s enemies. As practiced in Bible times, cursing was the opposite of blessing and should not be confused with profanity in the modern sense.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PaganBeliefs\">Pagan Beliefs<\/p>\n<p>Curses and blessings were linked to the ancient pagan belief that spirits of “the gods” could be invoked to act on behalf of a person who repeated certain incantations or performed certain deeds (such as sacrifices). It was thought that a spoken curse possessed an occult power to work calamity on one’s enemies. In some pagan cultures, curses were written on clay jars that were then smashed, symbolically initiating or effecting the intended curse.<\/p>\n<p>Tombs were protected against would-be desecrators by means of curses. Royal inscriptions were protected by maledictions aimed at anyone who might alter, destroy, or defy the written decree (Ezr 6:11-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CursesinOldTestamentTimes\">Curses in Old Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>Among the Hebrews a curse, valid only within a covenant framework overseen by God, was spoken for the sake of justice. In the OT the curse was an integral part of a covenant relationship—between God and the community, between God and an individual, or among members of the community. To break the terms of a covenant was to merit the covenant curse or curses. A curse invoked under other conditions was powerless. “Like a sparrow in its flitting, like a swallow in its flying, a curse that is causeless does not alight” (Prv 26:2, <span>rsv<\/span>). A curse could be retracted by pronouncing a blessing (Ex 12:32; Jgs 17:1-2; 2 Sm 21:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>The Mosaic law forbade the cursing of parents (Ex 21:17; cf. Prv 20:20; Mt 15:4), the ruler (Ex 22:28), and the deaf (Lv 19:14). A man who suspected his wife of unfaithfulness could require that she submit to a test administered by the priest that would result in a curse upon her if she was guilty (Nm 5:11-31). Individuals might pronounce a curse upon themselves to show the truthfulness of their assertions or promises (Nm 5:19-22; Jb 31:7-10, 16-22; Ps 137:5-6). In the NT the apostle Peter followed the OT practice when he used a curse to deny that he knew Jesus (Mk 14:71). Certain men who wished to kill the apostle Paul proved their sincerity by such a solemn curse (Acts 23:12, 14, 21). Cursing God was punishable by death (Lv 24:10-16; cf. Ex 22:28; Is 8:21-22).<\/p>\n<p>Curses in Bible history include God’s curse on the serpent, Adam, and Eve (Gn 3:14-19); on Cain (4:11-12); on those who might curse the patriarch Abraham and his descendants (12:3); and on those who put their trust in human strength instead of in the Lord (Jer 17:5). When the people of Israel passed through Moab on their way to the Promised Land, Moab’s king, Balak, hired Balaam to curse the Israelites; he and Balaam learned, however, that they could not curse those whom God had blessed (Nm 22–24). Joshua cursed anyone who might try to rebuild Jericho (Jos 6:26; fulfilled in 1 Kgs 16:34). King Saul made a curse that almost cost his son Jonathan’s life (1 Sm 14:24, 43-45). Many other curses are mentioned in the OT (see, e.g., Gn 9:25; 49:5-7; Jos 9:22-23; Jgs 9:7-21, 57; 2 Sm 16:5-13; 1 Kgs 21:17-24; 2 Kgs 2:24; Mal 2:2; 4:6). The pronouncement of “woe” (<span>nlt<\/span> “destruction”) is also the language of curse (Is 5:8-23; cf. Mt 23:13-33, where “alas” and “woe” can be used synonymously and may be either an exclamation of sorrow or of impending doom and calamity).<\/p>\n<p>Psalm 109 contains a lengthy imprecation against the psalmist’s enemies, evidently because they had spoken some words against him falsely (see also Pss 58:6-11; 69:19-28; 143:12). The prophet Jeremiah was not averse to calling on God to punish his tormentors (Jer 11:20; 12:3; 15:15; 17:18; 18:21-22; 20:11-12) or asking God not to forgive them (18:23). Such imprecations against one’s enemies are difficult for Christians today to understand because they contrast sharply with the NT commands to “bless those who curse you” (Lk 6:28; cf. Rom 12:14). Jesus’ injunction to “love your enemies” (Mt 5:44) may be intended to point beyond the cursing practiced in the OT to a fuller understanding of God’s command to love one’s neighbor as oneself.<\/p>\n<h5>Covenant Curses<\/h5>\n<p>Protection of a contract or treaty by invoking a curse on the violator was common in OT times. Sometimes a covenant was sealed by cutting up an animal and having the covenanting individuals walk between the severed pieces; the slain animal symbolized the curse to befall the violator. God agreed to submit to such a curse on himself if he broke the covenant he made with the patriarch Abraham (Gn 15:7-21). Later, God accused the leaders and people of Israel of breaking their covenant with him and warned them of the consequences to follow (Jer 34:18-19). An essential part of the covenant God made with Israel at Mt Sinai was the promise of blessings for keeping the covenant and curses for breaking it (Dt 11:26-28; 27:15-26; 28:15-68; 30:19; cf. Lv 26:3-39). Israel suffered those curses in the time of the prophets Jeremiah and Ezekiel; the covenant breakers, including the king, were threatened with a curse (Jer 11:3; Ez 17:11-21).<\/p>\n<h5>The Ban on “Devoted Things”<\/h5>\n<p>A special kind of curse was the ban or anathema. Strictly speaking, it was a vow to devote persons, animals, or objects under such a curse to God. In some cases the priests could use objects that had fallen under the ban (Nm 18:14; Ez 44:29), but that provision did not apply to living beings. All persons or animals under the ban were sacrificed or destroyed (Lv 27:28-29). The ban was commonly used in Israel’s wars against its pagan neighbors. Sometimes everything was declared anathema (Jos 6:17-19), but normally only persons and heathen images were destroyed (Dt 2:34; 3:6; 7:2, 25-26—not even the melted gold of images was to be kept). To violate the ban by preserving any part of the cursed things was to come under the ban oneself. Because Achan did not respect the ban placed upon Jericho, the terms of that curse came upon all Israel until Achan confessed and was executed (Jos 7).<\/p>\n<p>After the exile, the Jews did not practice the anathema (or ban) by putting people to death; people who violated a curse were excommunicated and put out of the congregation of Israel (Ezr 10:8). That meant that the person was no longer part of God’s people and was considered “dead.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CursesinNewTestamentTimes\">Curses in New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>Jewish synagogues practiced excommunication, or anathema, in the NT period (Lk 6:22; Jn 9:22; 12:42; 16:2). Later, Christians excommunicated persons by declaring them outside of the redeemed community (Mt 18:17) or “delivered to Satan” (1 Cor 5:5; 1 Tm 1:20). Both practices stemmed from the OT ban. Unlike that curse, however, the excommunication could be removed as soon as the person repented.<\/p>\n<p>Since the anathema branded a person as “rejected” or “cursed by God,” Saul of Tarsus, before his conversion, tried to compel Christians to renounce Christ by calling him accursed (cf. Acts 26:11). Later, as an apostle, Paul (Saul) warned that no one speaking by the Spirit of God could call Jesus accursed (1 Cor 12:3). Paul pronounced anathema (destined for judgment and perdition) upon anyone who preached another gospel than the one he and the other apostles preached (Gal 1:8-9). Paul said he wished he could be accursed, cut off from salvation and the people of God, if that could lead to the salvation of his fellow Israelites (Rom 9:3). His desire reflected the love of Christ, who accepted the “curse of the law” upon himself in submitting to suffering and death on the cross in order to redeem human beings from that curse (Gal 3:8-14; cf. Dt 21:22-23). The NT promises that a time will come when “there shall no longer be any curse” (Rv 22:3, <span>nasb<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> War, Holy.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CURSE, CURSED<\/h3>\n<p>Invocation of evil or injury against one’s enemies. As practiced in Bible times, cursing was the opposite of blessing and should not be confused with profanity in the modern sense.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PaganBeliefs\">Pagan Beliefs<\/p>\n<p>Curses and blessings were linked to the ancient pagan belief that spirits of “the gods” could be invoked to act on behalf of a person who repeated certain incantations or performed certain deeds (such as sacrifices). It was thought that a spoken curse possessed an occult power to work calamity on one’s enemies. In some pagan cultures, curses were written on clay jars that were then smashed, symbolically initiating or effecting the intended curse.<\/p>\n<p>Tombs were protected against would-be desecrators by means of curses. Royal inscriptions were protected by maledictions aimed at anyone who might alter, destroy, or defy the written decree (Ezr 6:11-12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CursesinOldTestamentTimes\">Curses in Old Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>Among the Hebrews a curse, valid only within a covenant framework overseen by God, was spoken for the sake of justice. In the OT the curse was an integral part of a covenant relationship—between God and the community, between God and an individual, or among members of the community. To break the terms of a covenant was to merit the covenant curse or curses. A curse invoked under other conditions was powerless. “Like a sparrow in its flitting, like a swallow in its flying, a curse that is causeless does not alight” (Prv 26:2, <span>rsv<\/span>). A curse could be retracted by pronouncing a blessing (Ex 12:32; Jgs 17:1-2; 2 Sm 21:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>The Mosaic law forbade the cursing of parents (Ex 21:17; cf. Prv 20:20; Mt 15:4), the ruler (Ex 22:28), and the deaf (Lv 19:14). A man who suspected his wife of unfaithfulness could require that she submit to a test administered by the priest that would result in a curse upon her if she was guilty (Nm 5:11-31). Individuals might pronounce a curse upon themselves to show the truthfulness of their assertions or promises (Nm 5:19-22; Jb 31:7-10, 16-22; Ps 137:5-6). In the NT the apostle Peter followed the OT practice when he used a curse to deny that he knew Jesus (Mk 14:71). Certain men who wished to kill the apostle Paul proved their sincerity by such a solemn curse (Acts 23:12, 14, 21). Cursing God was punishable by death (Lv 24:10-16; cf. Ex 22:28; Is 8:21-22).<\/p>\n<p>Curses in Bible history include God’s curse on the serpent, Adam, and Eve (Gn 3:14-19); on Cain (4:11-12); on those who might curse the patriarch Abraham and his descendants (12:3); and on those who put their trust in human strength instead of in the Lord (Jer 17:5). When the people of Israel passed through Moab on their way to the Promised Land, Moab’s king, Balak, hired Balaam to curse the Israelites; he and Balaam learned, however, that they could not curse those whom God had blessed (Nm 22–24). Joshua cursed anyone who might try to rebuild Jericho (Jos 6:26; fulfilled in 1 Kgs 16:34). King Saul made a curse that almost cost his son Jonathan’s life (1 Sm 14:24, 43-45). Many other curses are mentioned in the OT (see, e.g., Gn 9:25; 49:5-7; Jos 9:22-23; Jgs 9:7-21, 57; 2 Sm 16:5-13; 1 Kgs 21:17-24; 2 Kgs 2:24; Mal 2:2; 4:6). The pronouncement of “woe” (<span>nlt<\/span> “destruction”) is also the language of curse (Is 5:8-23; cf. Mt 23:13-33, where “alas” and “woe” can be used synonymously and may be either an exclamation of sorrow or of impending doom and calamity).<\/p>\n<p>Psalm 109 contains a lengthy imprecation against the psalmist’s enemies, evidently because they had spoken some words against him falsely (see also Pss 58:6-11; 69:19-28; 143:12). The prophet Jeremiah was not averse to calling on God to punish his tormentors (Jer 11:20; 12:3; 15:15; 17:18; 18:21-22; 20:11-12) or asking God not to forgive them (18:23). Such imprecations against one’s enemies are difficult for Christians today to understand because they contrast sharply with the NT commands to “bless those who curse you” (Lk 6:28; cf. Rom 12:14). Jesus’ injunction to “love your enemies” (Mt 5:44) may be intended to point beyond the cursing practiced in the OT to a fuller understanding of God’s command to love one’s neighbor as oneself.<\/p>\n<h5>Covenant Curses<\/h5>\n<p>Protection of a contract or treaty by invoking a curse on the violator was common in OT times. Sometimes a covenant was sealed by cutting up an animal and having the covenanting individuals walk between the severed pieces; the slain animal symbolized the curse to befall the violator. God agreed to submit to such a curse on himself if he broke the covenant he made with the patriarch Abraham (Gn 15:7-21). Later, God accused the leaders and people of Israel of breaking their covenant with him and warned them of the consequences to follow (Jer 34:18-19). An essential part of the covenant God made with Israel at Mt Sinai was the promise of blessings for keeping the covenant and curses for breaking it (Dt 11:26-28; 27:15-26; 28:15-68; 30:19; cf. Lv 26:3-39). Israel suffered those curses in the time of the prophets Jeremiah and Ezekiel; the covenant breakers, including the king, were threatened with a curse (Jer 11:3; Ez 17:11-21).<\/p>\n<h5>The Ban on “Devoted Things”<\/h5>\n<p>A special kind of curse was the ban or anathema. Strictly speaking, it was a vow to devote persons, animals, or objects under such a curse to God. In some cases the priests could use objects that had fallen under the ban (Nm 18:14; Ez 44:29), but that provision did not apply to living beings. All persons or animals under the ban were sacrificed or destroyed (Lv 27:28-29). The ban was commonly used in Israel’s wars against its pagan neighbors. Sometimes everything was declared anathema (Jos 6:17-19), but normally only persons and heathen images were destroyed (Dt 2:34; 3:6; 7:2, 25-26—not even the melted gold of images was to be kept). To violate the ban by preserving any part of the cursed things was to come under the ban oneself. Because Achan did not respect the ban placed upon Jericho, the terms of that curse came upon all Israel until Achan confessed and was executed (Jos 7).<\/p>\n<p>After the exile, the Jews did not practice the anathema (or ban) by putting people to death; people who violated a curse were excommunicated and put out of the congregation of Israel (Ezr 10:8). That meant that the person was no longer part of God’s people and was considered “dead.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CursesinNewTestamentTimes\">Curses in New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>Jewish synagogues practiced excommunication, or anathema, in the NT period (Lk 6:22; Jn 9:22; 12:42; 16:2). Later, Christians excommunicated persons by declaring them outside of the redeemed community (Mt 18:17) or “delivered to Satan” (1 Cor 5:5; 1 Tm 1:20). Both practices stemmed from the OT ban. Unlike that curse, however, the excommunication could be removed as soon as the person repented.<\/p>\n<p>Since the anathema branded a person as “rejected” or “cursed by God,” Saul of Tarsus, before his conversion, tried to compel Christians to renounce Christ by calling him accursed (cf. Acts 26:11). Later, as an apostle, Paul (Saul) warned that no one speaking by the Spirit of God could call Jesus accursed (1 Cor 12:3). Paul pronounced anathema (destined for judgment and perdition) upon anyone who preached another gospel than the one he and the other apostles preached (Gal 1:8-9). Paul said he wished he could be accursed, cut off from salvation and the people of God, if that could lead to the salvation of his fellow Israelites (Rom 9:3). His desire reflected the love of Christ, who accepted the “curse of the law” upon himself in submitting to suffering and death on the cross in order to redeem human beings from that curse (Gal 3:8-14; cf. Dt 21:22-23). The NT promises that a time will come when “there shall no longer be any curse” (Rv 22:3, <span>nasb<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> War, Holy.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CURSE, CURSED Invocation of evil or injury against one’s enemies. As practiced in Bible times, cursing was the opposite of blessing and should not be confused with profanity in the modern sense. Pagan Beliefs Curses and blessings were linked to the ancient pagan belief that spirits of “the gods” could be invoked to act on behalf of a person who repeated certain incantations or performed certain deeds (such as sacrifices). It was thought that a spoken curse possessed an occult power to work ca...","summary_en":"CURSE, CURSED Invocation of evil or injury against one’s enemies. As practiced in Bible times, cursing was the opposite of blessing and should not be confused with profanity in the modern sense. Pagan Beliefs Curses and blessings were linked to the ancient pagan belief that spirits of “the gods” could be invoked to act on behalf of a person who repeated certain incantations or performed certain deeds (such as sacrifices). It was thought that a spoken curse possessed an occult power to work ca...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":45232,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 30:19","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 30:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>30:19<\/strong> <em>life and death . . . blessings and curses:<\/em> This grammatical structure suggests an equivalence between <em>life<\/em> and <em>blessing<\/em> and between <em>death<\/em> and <em>curses.<\/em> The essence of a blessing is life, and the essence of a curse is death.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>30:19<\/strong> <em>life and death . . . blessings and curses:<\/em> This grammatical structure suggests an equivalence between <em>life<\/em> and <em>blessing<\/em> and between <em>death<\/em> and <em>curses.<\/em> The essence of a blessing is life, and the essence of a curse is death.<\/p>","summary_ro":"30:19 life and death . . . blessings and curses: This grammatical structure suggests an equivalence between life and blessing and between death and curses. The essence of a blessing is life, and the essence of a curse is death.","summary_en":"30:19 life and death . . . blessings and curses: This grammatical structure suggests an equivalence between life and blessing and between death and curses. The essence of a blessing is life, and the essence of a curse is death.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":72858,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 30:19","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 30:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>30:19<\/strong> <em>life and death . . . blessings and curses:<\/em> This grammatical structure suggests an equivalence between <em>life<\/em> and <em>blessing<\/em> and between <em>death<\/em> and <em>curses.<\/em> The essence of a blessing is life, and the essence of a curse is death.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>30:19<\/strong> <em>life and death . . . blessings and curses:<\/em> This grammatical structure suggests an equivalence between <em>life<\/em> and <em>blessing<\/em> and between <em>death<\/em> and <em>curses.<\/em> The essence of a blessing is life, and the essence of a curse is death.<\/p>","summary_ro":"30:19 life and death . . . blessings and curses: This grammatical structure suggests an equivalence between life and blessing and between death and curses. The essence of a blessing is life, and the essence of a curse is death.","summary_en":"30:19 life and death . . . blessings and curses: This grammatical structure suggests an equivalence between life and blessing and between death and curses. The essence of a blessing is life, and the essence of a curse is death.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100484,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 30:19","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 30:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>30:19<\/strong> <em>life and death . . . blessings and curses:<\/em> This grammatical structure suggests an equivalence between <em>life<\/em> and <em>blessing<\/em> and between <em>death<\/em> and <em>curses.<\/em> The essence of a blessing is life, and the essence of a curse is death.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>30:19<\/strong> <em>life and death . . . blessings and curses:<\/em> This grammatical structure suggests an equivalence between <em>life<\/em> and <em>blessing<\/em> and between <em>death<\/em> and <em>curses.<\/em> The essence of a blessing is life, and the essence of a curse is death.<\/p>","summary_ro":"30:19 life and death . . . blessings and curses: This grammatical structure suggests an equivalence between life and blessing and between death and curses. The essence of a blessing is life, and the essence of a curse is death.","summary_en":"30:19 life and death . . . blessings and curses: This grammatical structure suggests an equivalence between life and blessing and between death and curses. The essence of a blessing is life, and the essence of a curse is death.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128110,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 30:19","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 30:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>30:19<\/strong> <em>life and death . . . blessings and curses:<\/em> This grammatical structure suggests an equivalence between <em>life<\/em> and <em>blessing<\/em> and between <em>death<\/em> and <em>curses.<\/em> The essence of a blessing is life, and the essence of a curse is death.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>30:19<\/strong> <em>life and death . . . blessings and curses:<\/em> This grammatical structure suggests an equivalence between <em>life<\/em> and <em>blessing<\/em> and between <em>death<\/em> and <em>curses.<\/em> The essence of a blessing is life, and the essence of a curse is death.<\/p>","summary_ro":"30:19 life and death . . . blessings and curses: This grammatical structure suggests an equivalence between life and blessing and between death and curses. The essence of a blessing is life, and the essence of a curse is death.","summary_en":"30:19 life and death . . . blessings and curses: This grammatical structure suggests an equivalence between life and blessing and between death and curses. The essence of a blessing is life, and the essence of a curse is death.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":64212,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Choice of Life or Death","title_en":"The Choice of Life or Death","content_ro":"<h3>The Choice of Life or Death<\/h3>\n<p>In Moses’ instructions to the Israelites when they were on the cusp of entering the Promised Land, the people were presented with a choice: Obey the covenant—life as God designed it—and live, or refuse to obey the Creator’s design and die (Deut 30:19). This choice—and its ramifications—resounded throughout God’s covenant dealings with his people.<\/p>\n<p>The specific terminology of Deuteronomy 30 resurfaces in Jeremiah, in the context of the Babylonian invasion: “Take your choice of life or death” (Jer 21:8). The prophet warned King Zedekiah and his people to submit to the Lord’s instruction. If they did, they would live; if not, they would die. Earlier in Jeremiah’s ministry, the Lord confronted the people of Judah with an opportunity to change and come home to him (3:12–4:4). If they rejected idol worship, admitted their guilt, and confessed that they were rebels, God would cleanse their minds and hearts, and they could live peacefully in the land. However, the people scornfully rejected this offer again and again (7:5-7; 18:8-11; 23:22; 26:13; 27:12-13; 29:32; 35:15; 36:3-7; 44:5). So the Lord repeatedly warned them that if they rejected the path of life, they would experience judgment.<\/p>\n<p>In Jeremiah’s day, only a few chose life; the majority rebelled and experienced death. In the end, the people led by Zedekiah ignored the Lord, defied the Babylonian army, and indeed suffered judgment. They intentionally rejected the gift of life.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 11:26-29; 30:15-20; Prov 9:1-18; 11:19; 18:21; Isa 1:19-20; Jer 3:12-15; 4:3-4; 7:5-7; 18:7-11; 21:8-9; 23:22; 26:13; 27:12-18; 35:15; 36:3-7; 44:5; Ezek 18:23-24; Rom 6:23; 8:6; Rev 2:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Choice of Life or Death<\/h3>\n<p>In Moses’ instructions to the Israelites when they were on the cusp of entering the Promised Land, the people were presented with a choice: Obey the covenant—life as God designed it—and live, or refuse to obey the Creator’s design and die (Deut 30:19). This choice—and its ramifications—resounded throughout God’s covenant dealings with his people.<\/p>\n<p>The specific terminology of Deuteronomy 30 resurfaces in Jeremiah, in the context of the Babylonian invasion: “Take your choice of life or death” (Jer 21:8). The prophet warned King Zedekiah and his people to submit to the Lord’s instruction. If they did, they would live; if not, they would die. Earlier in Jeremiah’s ministry, the Lord confronted the people of Judah with an opportunity to change and come home to him (3:12–4:4). If they rejected idol worship, admitted their guilt, and confessed that they were rebels, God would cleanse their minds and hearts, and they could live peacefully in the land. However, the people scornfully rejected this offer again and again (7:5-7; 18:8-11; 23:22; 26:13; 27:12-13; 29:32; 35:15; 36:3-7; 44:5). So the Lord repeatedly warned them that if they rejected the path of life, they would experience judgment.<\/p>\n<p>In Jeremiah’s day, only a few chose life; the majority rebelled and experienced death. In the end, the people led by Zedekiah ignored the Lord, defied the Babylonian army, and indeed suffered judgment. They intentionally rejected the gift of life.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 11:26-29; 30:15-20; Prov 9:1-18; 11:19; 18:21; Isa 1:19-20; Jer 3:12-15; 4:3-4; 7:5-7; 18:7-11; 21:8-9; 23:22; 26:13; 27:12-18; 35:15; 36:3-7; 44:5; Ezek 18:23-24; Rom 6:23; 8:6; Rev 2:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Choice of Life or Death In Moses’ instructions to the Israelites when they were on the cusp of entering the Promised Land, the people were presented with a choice: Obey the covenant—life as God designed it—and live, or refuse to obey the Creator’s design and die (Deut 30:19). This choice—and its ramifications—resounded throughout God’s covenant dealings with his people. The specific terminology of Deuteronomy 30 resurfaces in Jeremiah, in the context of the Babylonian invasion: “Take your...","summary_en":"The Choice of Life or Death In Moses’ instructions to the Israelites when they were on the cusp of entering the Promised Land, the people were presented with a choice: Obey the covenant—life as God designed it—and live, or refuse to obey the Creator’s design and die (Deut 30:19). This choice—and its ramifications—resounded throughout God’s covenant dealings with his people. The specific terminology of Deuteronomy 30 resurfaces in Jeremiah, in the context of the Babylonian invasion: “Take your...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":91838,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Choice of Life or Death","title_en":"The Choice of Life or Death","content_ro":"<h3>The Choice of Life or Death<\/h3>\n<p>In Moses’ instructions to the Israelites when they were on the cusp of entering the Promised Land, the people were presented with a choice: Obey the covenant—life as God designed it—and live, or refuse to obey the Creator’s design and die (Deut 30:19). This choice—and its ramifications—resounded throughout God’s covenant dealings with his people.<\/p>\n<p>The specific terminology of Deuteronomy 30 resurfaces in Jeremiah, in the context of the Babylonian invasion: “Take your choice of life or death” (Jer 21:8). The prophet warned King Zedekiah and his people to submit to the Lord’s instruction. If they did, they would live; if not, they would die. Earlier in Jeremiah’s ministry, the Lord confronted the people of Judah with an opportunity to change and come home to him (3:12–4:4). If they rejected idol worship, admitted their guilt, and confessed that they were rebels, God would cleanse their minds and hearts, and they could live peacefully in the land. However, the people scornfully rejected this offer again and again (7:5-7; 18:8-11; 23:22; 26:13; 27:12-13; 29:32; 35:15; 36:3-7; 44:5). So the Lord repeatedly warned them that if they rejected the path of life, they would experience judgment.<\/p>\n<p>In Jeremiah’s day, only a few chose life; the majority rebelled and experienced death. In the end, the people led by Zedekiah ignored the Lord, defied the Babylonian army, and indeed suffered judgment. They intentionally rejected the gift of life.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 11:26-29; 30:15-20; Prov 9:1-18; 11:19; 18:21; Isa 1:19-20; Jer 3:12-15; 4:3-4; 7:5-7; 18:7-11; 21:8-9; 23:22; 26:13; 27:12-18; 35:15; 36:3-7; 44:5; Ezek 18:23-24; Rom 6:23; 8:6; Rev 2:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Choice of Life or Death<\/h3>\n<p>In Moses’ instructions to the Israelites when they were on the cusp of entering the Promised Land, the people were presented with a choice: Obey the covenant—life as God designed it—and live, or refuse to obey the Creator’s design and die (Deut 30:19). This choice—and its ramifications—resounded throughout God’s covenant dealings with his people.<\/p>\n<p>The specific terminology of Deuteronomy 30 resurfaces in Jeremiah, in the context of the Babylonian invasion: “Take your choice of life or death” (Jer 21:8). The prophet warned King Zedekiah and his people to submit to the Lord’s instruction. If they did, they would live; if not, they would die. Earlier in Jeremiah’s ministry, the Lord confronted the people of Judah with an opportunity to change and come home to him (3:12–4:4). If they rejected idol worship, admitted their guilt, and confessed that they were rebels, God would cleanse their minds and hearts, and they could live peacefully in the land. However, the people scornfully rejected this offer again and again (7:5-7; 18:8-11; 23:22; 26:13; 27:12-13; 29:32; 35:15; 36:3-7; 44:5). So the Lord repeatedly warned them that if they rejected the path of life, they would experience judgment.<\/p>\n<p>In Jeremiah’s day, only a few chose life; the majority rebelled and experienced death. In the end, the people led by Zedekiah ignored the Lord, defied the Babylonian army, and indeed suffered judgment. They intentionally rejected the gift of life.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 11:26-29; 30:15-20; Prov 9:1-18; 11:19; 18:21; Isa 1:19-20; Jer 3:12-15; 4:3-4; 7:5-7; 18:7-11; 21:8-9; 23:22; 26:13; 27:12-18; 35:15; 36:3-7; 44:5; Ezek 18:23-24; Rom 6:23; 8:6; Rev 2:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Choice of Life or Death In Moses’ instructions to the Israelites when they were on the cusp of entering the Promised Land, the people were presented with a choice: Obey the covenant—life as God designed it—and live, or refuse to obey the Creator’s design and die (Deut 30:19). This choice—and its ramifications—resounded throughout God’s covenant dealings with his people. The specific terminology of Deuteronomy 30 resurfaces in Jeremiah, in the context of the Babylonian invasion: “Take your...","summary_en":"The Choice of Life or Death In Moses’ instructions to the Israelites when they were on the cusp of entering the Promised Land, the people were presented with a choice: Obey the covenant—life as God designed it—and live, or refuse to obey the Creator’s design and die (Deut 30:19). This choice—and its ramifications—resounded throughout God’s covenant dealings with his people. The specific terminology of Deuteronomy 30 resurfaces in Jeremiah, in the context of the Babylonian invasion: “Take your...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":119464,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Choice of Life or Death","title_en":"The Choice of Life or Death","content_ro":"<h3>The Choice of Life or Death<\/h3>\n<p>In Moses’ instructions to the Israelites when they were on the cusp of entering the Promised Land, the people were presented with a choice: Obey the covenant—life as God designed it—and live, or refuse to obey the Creator’s design and die (Deut 30:19). This choice—and its ramifications—resounded throughout God’s covenant dealings with his people.<\/p>\n<p>The specific terminology of Deuteronomy 30 resurfaces in Jeremiah, in the context of the Babylonian invasion: “Take your choice of life or death” (Jer 21:8). The prophet warned King Zedekiah and his people to submit to the Lord’s instruction. If they did, they would live; if not, they would die. Earlier in Jeremiah’s ministry, the Lord confronted the people of Judah with an opportunity to change and come home to him (3:12–4:4). If they rejected idol worship, admitted their guilt, and confessed that they were rebels, God would cleanse their minds and hearts, and they could live peacefully in the land. However, the people scornfully rejected this offer again and again (7:5-7; 18:8-11; 23:22; 26:13; 27:12-13; 29:32; 35:15; 36:3-7; 44:5). So the Lord repeatedly warned them that if they rejected the path of life, they would experience judgment.<\/p>\n<p>In Jeremiah’s day, only a few chose life; the majority rebelled and experienced death. In the end, the people led by Zedekiah ignored the Lord, defied the Babylonian army, and indeed suffered judgment. They intentionally rejected the gift of life.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 11:26-29; 30:15-20; Prov 9:1-18; 11:19; 18:21; Isa 1:19-20; Jer 3:12-15; 4:3-4; 7:5-7; 18:7-11; 21:8-9; 23:22; 26:13; 27:12-18; 35:15; 36:3-7; 44:5; Ezek 18:23-24; Rom 6:23; 8:6; Rev 2:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Choice of Life or Death<\/h3>\n<p>In Moses’ instructions to the Israelites when they were on the cusp of entering the Promised Land, the people were presented with a choice: Obey the covenant—life as God designed it—and live, or refuse to obey the Creator’s design and die (Deut 30:19). This choice—and its ramifications—resounded throughout God’s covenant dealings with his people.<\/p>\n<p>The specific terminology of Deuteronomy 30 resurfaces in Jeremiah, in the context of the Babylonian invasion: “Take your choice of life or death” (Jer 21:8). The prophet warned King Zedekiah and his people to submit to the Lord’s instruction. If they did, they would live; if not, they would die. Earlier in Jeremiah’s ministry, the Lord confronted the people of Judah with an opportunity to change and come home to him (3:12–4:4). If they rejected idol worship, admitted their guilt, and confessed that they were rebels, God would cleanse their minds and hearts, and they could live peacefully in the land. However, the people scornfully rejected this offer again and again (7:5-7; 18:8-11; 23:22; 26:13; 27:12-13; 29:32; 35:15; 36:3-7; 44:5). So the Lord repeatedly warned them that if they rejected the path of life, they would experience judgment.<\/p>\n<p>In Jeremiah’s day, only a few chose life; the majority rebelled and experienced death. In the end, the people led by Zedekiah ignored the Lord, defied the Babylonian army, and indeed suffered judgment. They intentionally rejected the gift of life.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 11:26-29; 30:15-20; Prov 9:1-18; 11:19; 18:21; Isa 1:19-20; Jer 3:12-15; 4:3-4; 7:5-7; 18:7-11; 21:8-9; 23:22; 26:13; 27:12-18; 35:15; 36:3-7; 44:5; Ezek 18:23-24; Rom 6:23; 8:6; Rev 2:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Choice of Life or Death In Moses’ instructions to the Israelites when they were on the cusp of entering the Promised Land, the people were presented with a choice: Obey the covenant—life as God designed it—and live, or refuse to obey the Creator’s design and die (Deut 30:19). This choice—and its ramifications—resounded throughout God’s covenant dealings with his people. The specific terminology of Deuteronomy 30 resurfaces in Jeremiah, in the context of the Babylonian invasion: “Take your...","summary_en":"The Choice of Life or Death In Moses’ instructions to the Israelites when they were on the cusp of entering the Promised Land, the people were presented with a choice: Obey the covenant—life as God designed it—and live, or refuse to obey the Creator’s design and die (Deut 30:19). This choice—and its ramifications—resounded throughout God’s covenant dealings with his people. The specific terminology of Deuteronomy 30 resurfaces in Jeremiah, in the context of the Babylonian invasion: “Take your...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":147090,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Choice of Life or Death","title_en":"The Choice of Life or Death","content_ro":"<h3>The Choice of Life or Death<\/h3>\n<p>In Moses’ instructions to the Israelites when they were on the cusp of entering the Promised Land, the people were presented with a choice: Obey the covenant—life as God designed it—and live, or refuse to obey the Creator’s design and die (Deut 30:19). This choice—and its ramifications—resounded throughout God’s covenant dealings with his people.<\/p>\n<p>The specific terminology of Deuteronomy 30 resurfaces in Jeremiah, in the context of the Babylonian invasion: “Take your choice of life or death” (Jer 21:8). The prophet warned King Zedekiah and his people to submit to the Lord’s instruction. If they did, they would live; if not, they would die. Earlier in Jeremiah’s ministry, the Lord confronted the people of Judah with an opportunity to change and come home to him (3:12–4:4). If they rejected idol worship, admitted their guilt, and confessed that they were rebels, God would cleanse their minds and hearts, and they could live peacefully in the land. However, the people scornfully rejected this offer again and again (7:5-7; 18:8-11; 23:22; 26:13; 27:12-13; 29:32; 35:15; 36:3-7; 44:5). So the Lord repeatedly warned them that if they rejected the path of life, they would experience judgment.<\/p>\n<p>In Jeremiah’s day, only a few chose life; the majority rebelled and experienced death. In the end, the people led by Zedekiah ignored the Lord, defied the Babylonian army, and indeed suffered judgment. They intentionally rejected the gift of life.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 11:26-29; 30:15-20; Prov 9:1-18; 11:19; 18:21; Isa 1:19-20; Jer 3:12-15; 4:3-4; 7:5-7; 18:7-11; 21:8-9; 23:22; 26:13; 27:12-18; 35:15; 36:3-7; 44:5; Ezek 18:23-24; Rom 6:23; 8:6; Rev 2:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Choice of Life or Death<\/h3>\n<p>In Moses’ instructions to the Israelites when they were on the cusp of entering the Promised Land, the people were presented with a choice: Obey the covenant—life as God designed it—and live, or refuse to obey the Creator’s design and die (Deut 30:19). This choice—and its ramifications—resounded throughout God’s covenant dealings with his people.<\/p>\n<p>The specific terminology of Deuteronomy 30 resurfaces in Jeremiah, in the context of the Babylonian invasion: “Take your choice of life or death” (Jer 21:8). The prophet warned King Zedekiah and his people to submit to the Lord’s instruction. If they did, they would live; if not, they would die. Earlier in Jeremiah’s ministry, the Lord confronted the people of Judah with an opportunity to change and come home to him (3:12–4:4). If they rejected idol worship, admitted their guilt, and confessed that they were rebels, God would cleanse their minds and hearts, and they could live peacefully in the land. However, the people scornfully rejected this offer again and again (7:5-7; 18:8-11; 23:22; 26:13; 27:12-13; 29:32; 35:15; 36:3-7; 44:5). So the Lord repeatedly warned them that if they rejected the path of life, they would experience judgment.<\/p>\n<p>In Jeremiah’s day, only a few chose life; the majority rebelled and experienced death. In the end, the people led by Zedekiah ignored the Lord, defied the Babylonian army, and indeed suffered judgment. They intentionally rejected the gift of life.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 11:26-29; 30:15-20; Prov 9:1-18; 11:19; 18:21; Isa 1:19-20; Jer 3:12-15; 4:3-4; 7:5-7; 18:7-11; 21:8-9; 23:22; 26:13; 27:12-18; 35:15; 36:3-7; 44:5; Ezek 18:23-24; Rom 6:23; 8:6; Rev 2:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Choice of Life or Death In Moses’ instructions to the Israelites when they were on the cusp of entering the Promised Land, the people were presented with a choice: Obey the covenant—life as God designed it—and live, or refuse to obey the Creator’s design and die (Deut 30:19). This choice—and its ramifications—resounded throughout God’s covenant dealings with his people. The specific terminology of Deuteronomy 30 resurfaces in Jeremiah, in the context of the Babylonian invasion: “Take your...","summary_en":"The Choice of Life or Death In Moses’ instructions to the Israelites when they were on the cusp of entering the Promised Land, the people were presented with a choice: Obey the covenant—life as God designed it—and live, or refuse to obey the Creator’s design and die (Deut 30:19). This choice—and its ramifications—resounded throughout God’s covenant dealings with his people. The specific terminology of Deuteronomy 30 resurfaces in Jeremiah, in the context of the Babylonian invasion: “Take your...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"20":[{"id":45233,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 30:20","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 30:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>30:20<\/strong> <em>the key to your life:<\/em> In its most meaningful sense, life consists of absolute commitment to the Lord.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>30:20<\/strong> <em>the key to your life:<\/em> In its most meaningful sense, life consists of absolute commitment to the Lord.<\/p>","summary_ro":"30:20 the key to your life: In its most meaningful sense, life consists of absolute commitment to the Lord.","summary_en":"30:20 the key to your life: In its most meaningful sense, life consists of absolute commitment to the Lord.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":72859,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 30:20","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 30:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>30:20<\/strong> <em>the key to your life:<\/em> In its most meaningful sense, life consists of absolute commitment to the Lord.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>30:20<\/strong> <em>the key to your life:<\/em> In its most meaningful sense, life consists of absolute commitment to the Lord.<\/p>","summary_ro":"30:20 the key to your life: In its most meaningful sense, life consists of absolute commitment to the Lord.","summary_en":"30:20 the key to your life: In its most meaningful sense, life consists of absolute commitment to the Lord.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":100485,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 30:20","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 30:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>30:20<\/strong> <em>the key to your life:<\/em> In its most meaningful sense, life consists of absolute commitment to the Lord.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>30:20<\/strong> <em>the key to your life:<\/em> In its most meaningful sense, life consists of absolute commitment to the Lord.<\/p>","summary_ro":"30:20 the key to your life: In its most meaningful sense, life consists of absolute commitment to the Lord.","summary_en":"30:20 the key to your life: In its most meaningful sense, life consists of absolute commitment to the Lord.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":128111,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Deuteronomul 30:20","title_en":"Study Note: Deuteronomul 30:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>30:20<\/strong> <em>the key to your life:<\/em> In its most meaningful sense, life consists of absolute commitment to the Lord.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>30:20<\/strong> <em>the key to your life:<\/em> In its most meaningful sense, life consists of absolute commitment to the Lord.<\/p>","summary_ro":"30:20 the key to your life: In its most meaningful sense, life consists of absolute commitment to the Lord.","summary_en":"30:20 the key to your life: In its most meaningful sense, life consists of absolute commitment to the Lord.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}
🔍
Niciun rezultat
Nu am găsit versete care să conțină textul căutat.
Deuteronom 30
— 20 versete
Deuteronom 30
📘 Info carte
Se încarcă...
📖 Resurse