Țefania 3
1 ,,Vai de cetatea îndărătnică şi spurcată, vai de cetatea plină de asuprire!
2 Ea n-ascultă de nici un glas, nu ţine seama de mustrare, nu se încrede în Domnul, nu se apropie de Dumnezeul său.
3 Căpeteniile ei în mijlocul ei sânt nişte lei cari răcnesc; judecătorii ei sânt nişte lupi de seară cari nu mai lasă nici un os până dimineaţa.
4 Proorocii ei sânt uşuratici şi înşelători; preoţii ei pângăresc lucrurile sfinte, calcă Legea.
5 Domnul este fără prihană în mijlocul ei. El nu face nici o nelegiuire; în fiecare dimineaţă El Îşi scoate la lumină judecăţile, fără să înceteze vreodată; dar cine este nelegiuit nu ştie de ruşine!
6 Am nimicit neamuri, le-am dărâmat turnurile, le-am pustiit uliţele şi nu mai trece nimeni pe ele! Cetăţile lor sânt pustiite, nu mai au nici un om în ele, şi nimeni nu mai locuieşte în ele!
7 Ziceam: ,Dacă ai voi măcar să te temi de Mine, şi să ţii seama de mustrare! Nu ţi-ar fi nimicită locuinţa, şi n-ar veni peste tine toate pedepsele cu cari te-am ameninţat.` Dar ei s-au grăbit să-şi strice toate faptele.
8 ,,De aceea aşteptaţi numai, zice Domnul, până în ziua când Mă voi scula la pradă: căci am hotărât să strâng neamurile, să adun împărăţiile, ca să-Mi vărs urgia peste ele, toată aprinderea mâniei Mele; căci toată ţara va fi mistuită de focul geloziei Mele.``
9 ,,Atunci voi da popoarelor buze curate, ca toţi să cheme Numele Domnului, ca să -I slujească într-un gând.
10 Dincolo de râurile Etiopiei, Îmi vor aduce daruri de mâncare închinătorii mei, obştea Mea cea risipită.
11 În ziua aceea, nu vei mai avea nevoie să roşeşti de toate faptele tale prin cari ai păcătuit împotriva Mea; căci atunci voi scoate din mijlocul tău pe cei trufaşi, şi nu te vei mai îngâmfa pe muntele Meu cel sfânt!
12 Voi lăsa în mijlocul tău un popor smerit şi mic, care se va încrede în Numele Domnului.
13 Rămăşiţele lui Israel nu vor mai săvârşi nelegiuire, nu vor mai spune minciuni, şi nici în gura lor nu se va mai găsi o limbă înşelătoare. Ci vor paşte, şi se vor odihni, şi nimeni nu-i va tulbura.
14 Strigă de bucurie, fiica Sionului! Strigă de veselie, Israele! Bucură-te şi saltă de veselie din toată inima ta, fiica Ierusalimului!
15 Domnul a abătut dela tine pedepsele tale, a îndepărtat pe vrăjmaşul tău; Domnul, Împăratul lui Israel, este în mijlocul tău; nu trebuie să te mai temi de nicio nenorocire!
16 În ziua aceea, se va zice Ierusalimului: ,,Nu te teme de nimic! Sioane, să nu-ţi slăbească mânile!
17 Domnul Dumnezeul tău este în mijlocul tău, ca un viteaz care poate ajuta; se va bucura de tine cu mare bucurie, va tăcea în dragostea Lui, şi nu va mai putea de veselie pentru tine.
18 ,,Voi strânge pe cei întristaţi, cari sânt departe de adunarea sfântă, pe cei ieşiţi din sânul tău, asupra cărora acum apasă ocara.
19 Iată, în vremea aceea, voi lucra împotriva tuturor asupritorilor tăi; voi izbăvi pe cei şchiopi şi voi strânge pe cei ce au fost izgoniţi, şi îi voi face o pricină de laudă şi de slavă în toate ţările unde sânt de ocară acum.
20 În vremea aceea, vă voi aduce înapoi; în vremea aceea, vă voi strânge; căci vă voi face o pricină de slavă şi de laudă între toate popoarele pământului, când voi aduce înapoi pe prinşii voştri de război supt ochii voştri, zice Domnul.`
{"verseMap":{"1":[{"id":39183,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Zephaniah","title_en":"Book of Zephaniah","content_ro":"<h3>ZEPHANIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the books of the Minor Prophets in the OT.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to the editorial heading (Zep 1:1), Zephaniah prophesied during the reign of Josiah (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>). His family tree is given in an unusually full form. Some scholars have suggested that his great-great-grandfather was King Hezekiah (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>). But remarkably there is no Jewish or Christian tradition to support the suggestion, which there probably would have been if it had been true. His own name, meaning “he whom the Lord protects or hides,” was not uncommon and was a testimony to the keeping power of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>Zephaniah probably prophesied around 630 <span>BC<\/span>. The fall of Nineveh (612 <span>BC<\/span>) had not yet occurred (2:13-15). Josiah’s reign falls into two periods, dividing at 622 <span>BC<\/span>. In that year, while the temple was being cleared of pagan articles, the Book of the Law was found, which gave momentum to Josiah’s religious reforms (2 Kgs 22). The unreformed state of affairs described by Zephaniah (Zep 1:4-12; 3:1-4) points to a date before 622, at least for his denunciations. The prophet addressed Judah, the southern kingdom, and in particular the civil and religious authorities in Jerusalem. He most probably prophesied during the reign of Josiah, who came to the throne at the age of eight.<\/p>\n<p>The negative parts of the book concerning the sin and punishment of Judah—now fulfilled—would serve as a serious warning against disobedience to God. Moreover, the fulfillment of Zephaniah’s prophetic threats would serve to enhance the positive side of the book, confirming the hope of completion in the experience of a fresh generation of God’s people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Politically, the Assyrian Empire had spread westward and held Palestine in its grip. The long reign of Manasseh (696–642 <span>BC<\/span>) had been a period of total subservience to Assyria. Political subservience as an Assyrian vassal meant religious subservience to the gods of Assyria, especially worship of the heavenly bodies (2 Kgs 21:5). Zephaniah complained of this sin (Zep 1:5). When the door opened to one foreign religion, others naturally came in. Once the exclusiveness of the worship of the God of Israel was abandoned, Palestinian cults were openly accepted. The Canaanite Baal was blatantly worshiped (2 Kgs 21:3), as Zephaniah attested (Zep 1:4). Zephaniah condemned the worshipers of Molech (v 5), who sacrificed children to the Ammonite god (1 Kgs 11:7; 2 Kgs 23:10). International imperialism meant a weakening of national culture, so that foreign customs were practiced, probably with religious overtones (Zep 1:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The reign of Josiah brought changes, marking a political and religious turning point. Assyria, preoccupied with troubles on the eastern and northern frontiers and unable to consolidate its acquisitions, became unable to reinforce its authority in the west. This weakness induced Josiah to launch a national liberation movement. He threw off the yoke of Assyria and expanded his sphere of influence northward into the territory of the old northern kingdom. From a religious standpoint, he completely dissociated himself and his country from the religions that prevailed in Judah and recalled the nation to a pure and exclusive faith in the God of Israel. The book of Zephaniah shows that there was at least one person who shared his ideals. His prophetic ministry undoubtedly paved the way for Josiah’s subsequent reformation. He was a contemporary of Jeremiah, at least for the early part of that prophet’s career (Jeremiah began prophesying in 627 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Scholars have suggested that Zephaniah’s prophesying was prompted in part by attacks of the Scythians. The Greek historian Herodotus tells how the barbaric Scythians overran western Asia and reached as far south as the Egyptian frontier at about the time that Zephaniah prophesied. There is now much less inclination to believe Herodotus’s tale and relate Zephaniah’s prophetic ministry to it. There is no objective evidence for Scythian attacks on so large a scale as Herodotus claimed. Probably Zephaniah spoke simply out of a theological necessity, as he himself claimed (e.g., 1:17). From his inspired standpoint, he foresaw that a clash involving divine intervention and human downfall was unavoidable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTeaching\">Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>As Zephaniah prophesied in God’s name, he denounced the religious sins of Judah and the corruption rampant among both civil and religious authorities. He foretold the downfall of the nation that actually occurred in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The moral and religious landslide could only culminate in a political avalanche of destruction that would engulf the nation. This avalanche is called by Zephaniah “the Day of the Lord.” It was not a new term, and the prophet knew that it would arouse terror in the hearts of his hearers. Amos used it, and even in his time it was well established (Am 5:18-20). Isaiah was the first to use the expression in the southern kingdom (Is 2:6-22, see v 12). In this, as in a number of respects, Zephaniah was a latter-day Isaiah called by God to reapply truths earlier prophesied by Isaiah to a later generation.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of the Day of the Lord refers to a time when the Lord would decisively intervene in the world to establish his sovereignty. Hostile elements would be swept aside. The enemies of God, sinners against his moral will, would be exposed and punished. It was associated with judgment upon those who did not acknowledge God’s sovereignty—especially Gentiles, but also sinful Israel. The emphasis on the suffering of God’s people was intended to correct the popular assumption that other nations would be the sole target of divine judgment.<\/p>\n<p>The “day” also would vindicate those who were loyal to God. It guaranteed the rehabilitation of his oppressed supporters. Zephaniah developed this two-sided phenomenon in order to communicate the truth of God to his own generation. It is “a day of the wrath of God” (Zep 1:15, 18; 2:2), when his reaction to human sin would be demonstrated. Its target was not only other nations but Judah as well, both Jerusalem, the capital (1:10-13), and the other cities of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>Zephaniah also had a positive message for the people of Judah. For the prophets, the message of salvation did not cancel the message of doom. Judgment would come first, then salvation would follow. But the period of tribulation could not be avoided. The prophet’s grim descriptions of “the day of wrath” are interpreted as dire warnings and implicit pleas to the people of Judah to abandon their complacent, sinful ways.<\/p>\n<p>Clearly, Zephaniah’s role under God was to reapply earlier truths sadly forgotten by his own generation. Zephaniah was able to foresee God’s judgment of Judah and the world. But he also proclaimed permanent truths concerning the nature of God and his providential relationship to the world and concerning the responsibilities of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of the book of Zephaniah for the NT lies in the phraseology about the Day of the Lord. There are a number of allusions to this aspect of his message (Mt 13:41 [Zep 1:3]; Rv 6:17 [1:14]; 14:5 [3:13]; 16:1 [3:8]). These echoes stress Zephaniah’s importance beyond his own time. He contributed to the total biblical picture of a God who intervenes in human history and will establish his kingdom. Zephaniah’s descriptions are a pattern for events that will mark the end of history.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>The heading (Zep 1:1) introduces Zephaniah, gives the historical setting, and above all stresses his meditation on the divine word.<\/p>\n<p>The first major part of the book is 1:2–2:3. It subdivides into four units: verses 2-7, 8-13, 14-18; 2:1-3. Verses 2-7 include Judah in a forecast of universal destruction. Zephaniah used traditional material to stress that God’s people were by no means exempt, as they often chose to believe (cf. Am 5:18-20). The prophet supported his startling revelation with reasoned statements regarding the religious deviations practiced in Jerusalem. The image of sacrifice was used ironically, portraying Judah as the victim.<\/p>\n<p>The national administration and members of the royal family were guilty (Zep 1:8-13). Superstitions were punctiliously observed, yet basic divine commands against stealing and fraudulent gain went unheeded. Zephaniah saw the enemy attack on the north side of Jerusalem as an illustration of God’s punishment of dishonest traders (cf. Am 8:5-6; Mi 6:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>There follows a shocking and terrifying description of the grimness of the coming “Day” (Zep 1:14-18). The prophet stirred up a complacent people who did not want to hear God’s message. He frightened them into reality with a monotonous drumbeat of doom and destruction. Judah would be the demoralized target of God’s wrath. Their wealth had secured luxurious imports but could not prevent divine judgment.<\/p>\n<p>The prophet completed his sermon with an appeal for repentance (2:1-3). Having emotionally stirred his audience from their apathy, he was able to bring the good news that all was not yet lost. A penitential assembly at the temple and the intercession of the spiritually minded and obedient among God’s people might prevent destruction. God’s punishment of foreign nations is described in the second main part of the book (2:4-15). Representative states are named to the west, east, south, and north of Judah. In the context of the previous material, it amplifies the universal nature of the Day of the Lord. Like the first part, it subdivides into four passages: verses 2:4-7, 8-11, 12, and 13-15.<\/p>\n<p>The subject of the first passage is the Philistines. In the case of the cities of Gaza and Ekron, there is a play on words typical of Hebrew prophecy. Both names contain doom within their very sound. The Philistines are labeled as trespassers because they were illegal immigrants from Crete into the Promised Land, which was intended for God’s own people.<\/p>\n<p>Zephaniah predicted that Moab and Ammon would suffer attack for their overbearing attitude and their annexation of Judean territory (2:8-11). God would come to the aid of his covenant people.<\/p>\n<p>The first two main sections have spelled out at length a message of judgment for both Judah and the surrounding nations. This twofold message is now repeated in a much shorter form in the third main section (3:1-8). Zephaniah criticized Jerusalem in its combined role of political capital and religious center. The responsibility of being God’s representatives rested too lightly on the shoulders of government and temple officials. Civil leaders abused their powers by demanding bribes and even killing their political opponents. Instead of being the shepherds of the people (cf. Ez 34), they were beasts of prey (cf. Ez 22:25-27). The prophets misused their gifts for their own selfish interests, while the priests broke the strict regulations of the temple. The lessons of history went unheeded; they had not learned caution and reverence. The conclusion is clear: Judah could not escape punishment in the coming Day of the Lord but would suffer with other nations.<\/p>\n<p>The outworking of God’s will for both Judah and the nations is in view in the final main section (Zep 3:9-20), but this time from a quite different aspect. Punishment was not God’s last word for his own people or even for the nations at large. Ultimately God’s will is not destruction but salvation (2 Pt 3:9). The section has three parts: Zephaniah 3:9-10, 11-13, and 14-20. Verses 9-10 deal with the conversion of the nations. This remarkable passage looks forward with divinely guaranteed certainty to the willing submission of Gentiles to the God of Israel. Their turning to God would not be based on human initiative but would originate in the providential activity of God. Lips defiled by worship of pagan gods would be purified and devoted solely to the adoration of the God of Israel. People from remote parts of the earth, here illustrated as the remote south beyond the Ethiopian Nile, would come as suppliants, as if they were scattered Jews returning home.<\/p>\n<p>God’s own people would be marked by a change of heart (3:11-13). By now they would have been purged of the proud people who put themselves before God in the sphere of politics and religion. They would be a purified people who humbly trusted in God. To them were promised the blessings of paradise.<\/p>\n<p>The last passage speaks of coming joys (3:14-20). The prophet projects himself into the future, to the time when God’s judgment would be over and the time of salvation had dawned. God’s people would rejoice in the presence of their Lord. Fear and demoralization would be canceled by God’s powerful presence and radiant joy. His joy would infectiously communicate itself to them so that they too would rejoice. Moreover, his joy would be a reaction to the transformation he was working in the lives of his people (v 17; “he will renew you in his love,” <span>rsv<\/span>). A necessary part of this transformation would feature the vindication of God’s suffering people. They would be brought to a position of honor, as the visible representatives of the God of glory. Ultimately, God’s power would be revealed through a people of power.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Josiah #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ZEPHANIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the books of the Minor Prophets in the OT.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to the editorial heading (Zep 1:1), Zephaniah prophesied during the reign of Josiah (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>). His family tree is given in an unusually full form. Some scholars have suggested that his great-great-grandfather was King Hezekiah (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>). But remarkably there is no Jewish or Christian tradition to support the suggestion, which there probably would have been if it had been true. His own name, meaning “he whom the Lord protects or hides,” was not uncommon and was a testimony to the keeping power of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>Zephaniah probably prophesied around 630 <span>BC<\/span>. The fall of Nineveh (612 <span>BC<\/span>) had not yet occurred (2:13-15). Josiah’s reign falls into two periods, dividing at 622 <span>BC<\/span>. In that year, while the temple was being cleared of pagan articles, the Book of the Law was found, which gave momentum to Josiah’s religious reforms (2 Kgs 22). The unreformed state of affairs described by Zephaniah (Zep 1:4-12; 3:1-4) points to a date before 622, at least for his denunciations. The prophet addressed Judah, the southern kingdom, and in particular the civil and religious authorities in Jerusalem. He most probably prophesied during the reign of Josiah, who came to the throne at the age of eight.<\/p>\n<p>The negative parts of the book concerning the sin and punishment of Judah—now fulfilled—would serve as a serious warning against disobedience to God. Moreover, the fulfillment of Zephaniah’s prophetic threats would serve to enhance the positive side of the book, confirming the hope of completion in the experience of a fresh generation of God’s people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Politically, the Assyrian Empire had spread westward and held Palestine in its grip. The long reign of Manasseh (696–642 <span>BC<\/span>) had been a period of total subservience to Assyria. Political subservience as an Assyrian vassal meant religious subservience to the gods of Assyria, especially worship of the heavenly bodies (2 Kgs 21:5). Zephaniah complained of this sin (Zep 1:5). When the door opened to one foreign religion, others naturally came in. Once the exclusiveness of the worship of the God of Israel was abandoned, Palestinian cults were openly accepted. The Canaanite Baal was blatantly worshiped (2 Kgs 21:3), as Zephaniah attested (Zep 1:4). Zephaniah condemned the worshipers of Molech (v 5), who sacrificed children to the Ammonite god (1 Kgs 11:7; 2 Kgs 23:10). International imperialism meant a weakening of national culture, so that foreign customs were practiced, probably with religious overtones (Zep 1:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The reign of Josiah brought changes, marking a political and religious turning point. Assyria, preoccupied with troubles on the eastern and northern frontiers and unable to consolidate its acquisitions, became unable to reinforce its authority in the west. This weakness induced Josiah to launch a national liberation movement. He threw off the yoke of Assyria and expanded his sphere of influence northward into the territory of the old northern kingdom. From a religious standpoint, he completely dissociated himself and his country from the religions that prevailed in Judah and recalled the nation to a pure and exclusive faith in the God of Israel. The book of Zephaniah shows that there was at least one person who shared his ideals. His prophetic ministry undoubtedly paved the way for Josiah’s subsequent reformation. He was a contemporary of Jeremiah, at least for the early part of that prophet’s career (Jeremiah began prophesying in 627 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Scholars have suggested that Zephaniah’s prophesying was prompted in part by attacks of the Scythians. The Greek historian Herodotus tells how the barbaric Scythians overran western Asia and reached as far south as the Egyptian frontier at about the time that Zephaniah prophesied. There is now much less inclination to believe Herodotus’s tale and relate Zephaniah’s prophetic ministry to it. There is no objective evidence for Scythian attacks on so large a scale as Herodotus claimed. Probably Zephaniah spoke simply out of a theological necessity, as he himself claimed (e.g., 1:17). From his inspired standpoint, he foresaw that a clash involving divine intervention and human downfall was unavoidable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTeaching\">Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>As Zephaniah prophesied in God’s name, he denounced the religious sins of Judah and the corruption rampant among both civil and religious authorities. He foretold the downfall of the nation that actually occurred in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The moral and religious landslide could only culminate in a political avalanche of destruction that would engulf the nation. This avalanche is called by Zephaniah “the Day of the Lord.” It was not a new term, and the prophet knew that it would arouse terror in the hearts of his hearers. Amos used it, and even in his time it was well established (Am 5:18-20). Isaiah was the first to use the expression in the southern kingdom (Is 2:6-22, see v 12). In this, as in a number of respects, Zephaniah was a latter-day Isaiah called by God to reapply truths earlier prophesied by Isaiah to a later generation.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of the Day of the Lord refers to a time when the Lord would decisively intervene in the world to establish his sovereignty. Hostile elements would be swept aside. The enemies of God, sinners against his moral will, would be exposed and punished. It was associated with judgment upon those who did not acknowledge God’s sovereignty—especially Gentiles, but also sinful Israel. The emphasis on the suffering of God’s people was intended to correct the popular assumption that other nations would be the sole target of divine judgment.<\/p>\n<p>The “day” also would vindicate those who were loyal to God. It guaranteed the rehabilitation of his oppressed supporters. Zephaniah developed this two-sided phenomenon in order to communicate the truth of God to his own generation. It is “a day of the wrath of God” (Zep 1:15, 18; 2:2), when his reaction to human sin would be demonstrated. Its target was not only other nations but Judah as well, both Jerusalem, the capital (1:10-13), and the other cities of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>Zephaniah also had a positive message for the people of Judah. For the prophets, the message of salvation did not cancel the message of doom. Judgment would come first, then salvation would follow. But the period of tribulation could not be avoided. The prophet’s grim descriptions of “the day of wrath” are interpreted as dire warnings and implicit pleas to the people of Judah to abandon their complacent, sinful ways.<\/p>\n<p>Clearly, Zephaniah’s role under God was to reapply earlier truths sadly forgotten by his own generation. Zephaniah was able to foresee God’s judgment of Judah and the world. But he also proclaimed permanent truths concerning the nature of God and his providential relationship to the world and concerning the responsibilities of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of the book of Zephaniah for the NT lies in the phraseology about the Day of the Lord. There are a number of allusions to this aspect of his message (Mt 13:41 [Zep 1:3]; Rv 6:17 [1:14]; 14:5 [3:13]; 16:1 [3:8]). These echoes stress Zephaniah’s importance beyond his own time. He contributed to the total biblical picture of a God who intervenes in human history and will establish his kingdom. Zephaniah’s descriptions are a pattern for events that will mark the end of history.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>The heading (Zep 1:1) introduces Zephaniah, gives the historical setting, and above all stresses his meditation on the divine word.<\/p>\n<p>The first major part of the book is 1:2–2:3. It subdivides into four units: verses 2-7, 8-13, 14-18; 2:1-3. Verses 2-7 include Judah in a forecast of universal destruction. Zephaniah used traditional material to stress that God’s people were by no means exempt, as they often chose to believe (cf. Am 5:18-20). The prophet supported his startling revelation with reasoned statements regarding the religious deviations practiced in Jerusalem. The image of sacrifice was used ironically, portraying Judah as the victim.<\/p>\n<p>The national administration and members of the royal family were guilty (Zep 1:8-13). Superstitions were punctiliously observed, yet basic divine commands against stealing and fraudulent gain went unheeded. Zephaniah saw the enemy attack on the north side of Jerusalem as an illustration of God’s punishment of dishonest traders (cf. Am 8:5-6; Mi 6:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>There follows a shocking and terrifying description of the grimness of the coming “Day” (Zep 1:14-18). The prophet stirred up a complacent people who did not want to hear God’s message. He frightened them into reality with a monotonous drumbeat of doom and destruction. Judah would be the demoralized target of God’s wrath. Their wealth had secured luxurious imports but could not prevent divine judgment.<\/p>\n<p>The prophet completed his sermon with an appeal for repentance (2:1-3). Having emotionally stirred his audience from their apathy, he was able to bring the good news that all was not yet lost. A penitential assembly at the temple and the intercession of the spiritually minded and obedient among God’s people might prevent destruction. God’s punishment of foreign nations is described in the second main part of the book (2:4-15). Representative states are named to the west, east, south, and north of Judah. In the context of the previous material, it amplifies the universal nature of the Day of the Lord. Like the first part, it subdivides into four passages: verses 2:4-7, 8-11, 12, and 13-15.<\/p>\n<p>The subject of the first passage is the Philistines. In the case of the cities of Gaza and Ekron, there is a play on words typical of Hebrew prophecy. Both names contain doom within their very sound. The Philistines are labeled as trespassers because they were illegal immigrants from Crete into the Promised Land, which was intended for God’s own people.<\/p>\n<p>Zephaniah predicted that Moab and Ammon would suffer attack for their overbearing attitude and their annexation of Judean territory (2:8-11). God would come to the aid of his covenant people.<\/p>\n<p>The first two main sections have spelled out at length a message of judgment for both Judah and the surrounding nations. This twofold message is now repeated in a much shorter form in the third main section (3:1-8). Zephaniah criticized Jerusalem in its combined role of political capital and religious center. The responsibility of being God’s representatives rested too lightly on the shoulders of government and temple officials. Civil leaders abused their powers by demanding bribes and even killing their political opponents. Instead of being the shepherds of the people (cf. Ez 34), they were beasts of prey (cf. Ez 22:25-27). The prophets misused their gifts for their own selfish interests, while the priests broke the strict regulations of the temple. The lessons of history went unheeded; they had not learned caution and reverence. The conclusion is clear: Judah could not escape punishment in the coming Day of the Lord but would suffer with other nations.<\/p>\n<p>The outworking of God’s will for both Judah and the nations is in view in the final main section (Zep 3:9-20), but this time from a quite different aspect. Punishment was not God’s last word for his own people or even for the nations at large. Ultimately God’s will is not destruction but salvation (2 Pt 3:9). The section has three parts: Zephaniah 3:9-10, 11-13, and 14-20. Verses 9-10 deal with the conversion of the nations. This remarkable passage looks forward with divinely guaranteed certainty to the willing submission of Gentiles to the God of Israel. Their turning to God would not be based on human initiative but would originate in the providential activity of God. Lips defiled by worship of pagan gods would be purified and devoted solely to the adoration of the God of Israel. People from remote parts of the earth, here illustrated as the remote south beyond the Ethiopian Nile, would come as suppliants, as if they were scattered Jews returning home.<\/p>\n<p>God’s own people would be marked by a change of heart (3:11-13). By now they would have been purged of the proud people who put themselves before God in the sphere of politics and religion. They would be a purified people who humbly trusted in God. To them were promised the blessings of paradise.<\/p>\n<p>The last passage speaks of coming joys (3:14-20). The prophet projects himself into the future, to the time when God’s judgment would be over and the time of salvation had dawned. God’s people would rejoice in the presence of their Lord. Fear and demoralization would be canceled by God’s powerful presence and radiant joy. His joy would infectiously communicate itself to them so that they too would rejoice. Moreover, his joy would be a reaction to the transformation he was working in the lives of his people (v 17; “he will renew you in his love,” <span>rsv<\/span>). A necessary part of this transformation would feature the vindication of God’s suffering people. They would be brought to a position of honor, as the visible representatives of the God of glory. Ultimately, God’s power would be revealed through a people of power.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Josiah #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ZEPHANIAH, Book of One of the books of the Minor Prophets in the OT. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Background • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author According to the editorial heading (Zep 1:1), Zephaniah prophesied during the reign of Josiah (640–609 BC). His family tree is given in an unusually full form. Some scholars have suggested that his great-great-grandfather was King Hezekiah (715–686 BC). But remarkably there is no Jewish or Christian tradition to support the ...","summary_en":"ZEPHANIAH, Book of One of the books of the Minor Prophets in the OT. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Background • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author According to the editorial heading (Zep 1:1), Zephaniah prophesied during the reign of Josiah (640–609 BC). His family tree is given in an unusually full form. Some scholars have suggested that his great-great-grandfather was King Hezekiah (715–686 BC). But remarkably there is no Jewish or Christian tradition to support the ...","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":54233,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:1","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:1-8<\/strong> Zephaniah pronounces a message of sorrow for Judah and Jerusalem and admonishes them to wait patiently for the results of God’s righteous judgment.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:1-8<\/strong> Zephaniah pronounces a message of sorrow for Judah and Jerusalem and admonishes them to wait patiently for the results of God’s righteous judgment.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:1-8 Zephaniah pronounces a message of sorrow for Judah and Jerusalem and admonishes them to wait patiently for the results of God’s righteous judgment.","summary_en":"3:1-8 Zephaniah pronounces a message of sorrow for Judah and Jerusalem and admonishes them to wait patiently for the results of God’s righteous judgment.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":54234,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:1","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:1<\/strong> <em>Polluted Jerusalem<\/em> had wandered far from its call to be a holy city (Isa 52:1).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:1<\/strong> <em>Polluted Jerusalem<\/em> had wandered far from its call to be a holy city (Isa 52:1).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:1 Polluted Jerusalem had wandered far from its call to be a holy city (Isa 52:1).","summary_en":"3:1 Polluted Jerusalem had wandered far from its call to be a holy city (Isa 52:1).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81859,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:1","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:1-8<\/strong> Zephaniah pronounces a message of sorrow for Judah and Jerusalem and admonishes them to wait patiently for the results of God’s righteous judgment.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:1-8<\/strong> Zephaniah pronounces a message of sorrow for Judah and Jerusalem and admonishes them to wait patiently for the results of God’s righteous judgment.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:1-8 Zephaniah pronounces a message of sorrow for Judah and Jerusalem and admonishes them to wait patiently for the results of God’s righteous judgment.","summary_en":"3:1-8 Zephaniah pronounces a message of sorrow for Judah and Jerusalem and admonishes them to wait patiently for the results of God’s righteous judgment.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81860,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:1","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:1<\/strong> <em>Polluted Jerusalem<\/em> had wandered far from its call to be a holy city (Isa 52:1).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:1<\/strong> <em>Polluted Jerusalem<\/em> had wandered far from its call to be a holy city (Isa 52:1).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:1 Polluted Jerusalem had wandered far from its call to be a holy city (Isa 52:1).","summary_en":"3:1 Polluted Jerusalem had wandered far from its call to be a holy city (Isa 52:1).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109485,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:1","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:1-8<\/strong> Zephaniah pronounces a message of sorrow for Judah and Jerusalem and admonishes them to wait patiently for the results of God’s righteous judgment.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:1-8<\/strong> Zephaniah pronounces a message of sorrow for Judah and Jerusalem and admonishes them to wait patiently for the results of God’s righteous judgment.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:1-8 Zephaniah pronounces a message of sorrow for Judah and Jerusalem and admonishes them to wait patiently for the results of God’s righteous judgment.","summary_en":"3:1-8 Zephaniah pronounces a message of sorrow for Judah and Jerusalem and admonishes them to wait patiently for the results of God’s righteous judgment.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109486,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:1","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:1<\/strong> <em>Polluted Jerusalem<\/em> had wandered far from its call to be a holy city (Isa 52:1).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:1<\/strong> <em>Polluted Jerusalem<\/em> had wandered far from its call to be a holy city (Isa 52:1).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:1 Polluted Jerusalem had wandered far from its call to be a holy city (Isa 52:1).","summary_en":"3:1 Polluted Jerusalem had wandered far from its call to be a holy city (Isa 52:1).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":137111,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:1","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:1-8<\/strong> Zephaniah pronounces a message of sorrow for Judah and Jerusalem and admonishes them to wait patiently for the results of God’s righteous judgment.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:1-8<\/strong> Zephaniah pronounces a message of sorrow for Judah and Jerusalem and admonishes them to wait patiently for the results of God’s righteous judgment.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:1-8 Zephaniah pronounces a message of sorrow for Judah and Jerusalem and admonishes them to wait patiently for the results of God’s righteous judgment.","summary_en":"3:1-8 Zephaniah pronounces a message of sorrow for Judah and Jerusalem and admonishes them to wait patiently for the results of God’s righteous judgment.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":137112,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:1","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:1<\/strong> <em>Polluted Jerusalem<\/em> had wandered far from its call to be a holy city (Isa 52:1).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:1<\/strong> <em>Polluted Jerusalem<\/em> had wandered far from its call to be a holy city (Isa 52:1).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:1 Polluted Jerusalem had wandered far from its call to be a holy city (Isa 52:1).","summary_en":"3:1 Polluted Jerusalem had wandered far from its call to be a holy city (Isa 52:1).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"3":[{"id":2120,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Animals","title_en":"Animals","content_ro":"<h3>ANIMALS<\/h3>\n<p>In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals as object lessons.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical approach to classification of animals is somewhat different from the system of classification used by biologists today. The present system of classification, which traces back to Carolus Linnaeus (an 18th-century Swedish botanist), is based on structure, both internal and external. The biblical basis of classification is habitat. Thus Genesis 1 speaks of aquatic organisms (v 20); aerial organisms (v 21); animals that crawl on the ground (v 24); cattle or domesticated animals (animals that live in association with humans) (v 24); and wild animals (v 24). The same system of classification is followed in Leviticus 11 and throughout Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Because of the divergence between systems of classification, the various animals of the Bible will be listed here in alphabetical order—including reptiles, fish, and even invertebrates such as insects, spiders, worms, and sponges. Birds are discussed in a separate article.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Adder<\/p>\n<p>• Ant<\/p>\n<p>• Antelope<\/p>\n<p>• Ape<\/p>\n<p>• Asp<\/p>\n<p>• Ass<\/p>\n<p>• Badger<\/p>\n<p>• Bat<\/p>\n<p>• Bear<\/p>\n<p>• Bee<\/p>\n<p>• Behemoth<\/p>\n<p>• Camel<\/p>\n<p>• Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>• Cattle<\/p>\n<p>• Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>• Coral<\/p>\n<p>• Cricket<\/p>\n<p>• Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>• Deer<\/p>\n<p>• Dog<\/p>\n<p>• Donkey<\/p>\n<p>• Dragon<\/p>\n<p>• Fish<\/p>\n<p>• Flea<\/p>\n<p>• Fly<\/p>\n<p>• Fox<\/p>\n<p>• Frog<\/p>\n<p>• Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>• Gecko<\/p>\n<p>• Gnat<\/p>\n<p>• Goat<\/p>\n<p>• Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>• Hare<\/p>\n<p>• Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>• Horse<\/p>\n<p>• Hyena<\/p>\n<p>• Jackal<\/p>\n<p>• Leech<\/p>\n<p>• Leopard<\/p>\n<p>• Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>• Lion<\/p>\n<p>• Lizard<\/p>\n<p>• Locust<\/p>\n<p>• Mole<\/p>\n<p>• Moth<\/p>\n<p>• Mouse<\/p>\n<p>• Mule<\/p>\n<p>• Pig<\/p>\n<p>• Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>• Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>• Sheep<\/p>\n<p>• Snail<\/p>\n<p>• Snake<\/p>\n<p>• Spider<\/p>\n<p>• Sponge<\/p>\n<p>• Unicorn<\/p>\n<p>• Wasp<\/p>\n<p>• Whale<\/p>\n<p>• Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>• Wolf<\/p>\n<p>• Worm<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Adder\">Adder<\/p>\n<p>One of the 20 poisonous snakes found in Israel and surrounding countries, also referred to as cockatrice and viper. True vipers (genus <em>Cerastes, Echis colorata,<\/em> and <em>Vipera palestina<\/em>) also exist there, poisonous snakes with curved fangs that spring into position when the snake strikes. The horned viper <em>(Cerastes hasselquistii)<\/em> may attack horses. It is 12 to 18 inches (30 to 46 centimeters) long and often lies in ambush in the sand with only its eyes and the hornlike protrusions on its head visible.<\/p>\n<p>Both Jesus and John the Baptist referred to the viper several times (Mt 3:7; 12:34; 23:33). The reference in Acts 28:3 is probably to a small viper <em>(Vipera aspis)<\/em> that strikes rapidly and is very pugnacious. It is found in southern Europe and hisses each time it inhales and exhales. The poison of vipers attacks the respiratory system and disintegrates red blood cells.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ant\">Ant<\/p>\n<p>Mentioned only twice in the Bible, both times in the book of Proverbs. For many years Solomon was charged with a biological error when he referred to the ant as providing her meat in the summer and gathering her food in the harvest (Prv 6:8). Critics of the Bible were quick to point out that, so far as was then known, ants do not store up food. They assumed that Solomon had probably kicked open an ant hill and mistaken the pupal cases (pods in which immature ants grow to maturity) for grain or had observed ants carrying bits of grain, leaves, and other matter to their nests.<\/p>\n<p>At least three species of grain-storing ants are now known—two occur in Israel and the other in Mediterranean countries. The particular species referred to by Solomon (Prv 6:6-8; 30:24-25) is probably the harvester ant <em>(Messor semirufus).<\/em> Its granaries are flat chambers connected by galleries irregularly scattered over an area about six feet (1.8 meters) in diameter and about a foot (.3 meter) deep in the ground. Seeds are collected from the ground or picked from plants. The head, or radicle, which is the softest part of the kernel, is bitten off to prevent germination, and the chaff and empty capsules are discarded on kitchen middens (refuse piles) outside the nest. Individual granaries may be 5 inches (12.7 centimeters) in diameter and a half inch (1.2 centimeters) high. Some nests are known to be 40 feet (12 meters) in diameter and 6 to 7 feet (approx. 2 meters) deep with several entrances.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Antelope\">Antelope<\/p>\n<p>Several antelope-like creatures are referred to in the Scriptures. One seems to be the white oryx <em>(Oryx leucoryx),<\/em> referred to in Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild ox”; <span>rsv<\/span> “antelope”) and Isaiah 51:20 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild bull”; <span>RSV <\/span>“antelope”). The oryx was probably the antelope, commonly used for food because its long horns made it relatively easy to catch.<\/p>\n<p>Another antelope mentioned in the Bible is the addax <em>(Addax nasomaculatus),<\/em> probably the “pygarg” of Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span>). It is a native of North Africa with grayish white hinder parts, a white patch on the forehead, and twisted and ringed horns. The word “pygarg” comes from a Greek word meaning “white rump.” The addax is about the size of a donkey. Its body is closely covered with short hair. It has a short mane on the underside of its neck that makes the head look somewhat like that of a goat. The hooves are broad and flat, and the tail resembles that of a donkey. It is common in Africa and in Arabia, where Arabs hunt it with falcons and dogs.<\/p>\n<p>Antelopes are very graceful and run with their heads held high. Both sexes have long, permanent, hollow horns. With the oryx the horns go straight back; addax horns are twisted and ringed. Antelope are alert, wary, and keen sighted. They are usually found in herds of from two to a dozen. If injured or brought to bay, an antelope attacks with its head lowered so that the sharp horns point forward. Antelopes feed on grasses and shrubs, drinking from streams and water holes. When water is scarce, they eat melons and succulent bulbs. Both addax and oryx were ceremonially clean in Jewish law.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ape\">Ape<\/p>\n<p>Primate not native to Palestine. The two references to apes in the OT (1 Kgs 10:22; 2 Chr 9:21) refer to their importation by King Solomon with other treasures on board the ships of his mercantile fleet. There is some question concerning the origin of those primates. Some believe that the mention of “ivory” in the same verses suggests they came from East Africa and that they were indeed apes, that is, tailless primates. Others, believing they came from India or Ceylon, suggest that they were actually monkeys. There the baboon (genus Papeio), a large monkey, was considered sacred to the god Thoth. Males of that genus were kept in temples, and the more docile females were often kept as house pets. Such baboons frequently had some of their teeth removed or ground down to lessen the danger of their biting. A number of mummified baboons have been found in Egypt, indicating the high regard in which they were held.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Asp\">Asp<\/p>\n<p>Poisonous snake. Most biblical references to the asp (Dt 32:33) seem to be to the Egyptian cobra <em>(Naja haje),<\/em> which conceals itself in holes, walls, and rocks and has the ability to expand its neck by raising its anterior ribs so as to enlarge the front of its breast into the shape of a flat disc. Its potent poison can cause death in 30 minutes. It attains a length of about 80 inches (2 meters). The fangs are permanently erect, not movable as in the vipers (the common poisonous snakes of North America; only the coral snake in America has permanently erect fangs). Cobra poison attacks the nervous system, causing muscular paralysis. The Egyptians looked upon it as a sacred creature; they regarded it as a protector since it fed on the rodents that ate their crops. The “fiery serpents” (Nm 21:6; Dt 8:15, both <span>rsv<\/span>) may have been cobras; “fiery” probably refers to the burning fever caused by their venom. Isaiah 14:29 and 30:6 (“flying serpent”) may refer to the hood of the cobra.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ass\">Ass<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Donkey (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Badger\">Badger<\/p>\n<p>Small hoofed mammal. What the <span>kjv<\/span> calls a “coney,” modern translations name “rock badger” (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7; Ps 104:18; Prv 30:26). The rock badger spoken of in the Bible is probably the Syrian rock hyrax <em>(Hyrax syriaca),<\/em> the only species of hyrax found outside Africa. This small ungulate (having hooflike toenails) lives among rocks from the Dead Sea valley to Mt Hermon. It is strictly a herbivorous (plant-eating) animal about the size of a rabbit. It resembles a guinea pig more than a rabbit, having quite inconspicuous ears and a very small tail. It has broad nails with four toes on its forelegs and three on its hind legs, the toes being connected with skin almost like a web. Pads acting as sucking discs under its feet enable it to keep its footing on slippery rocks. With its yellow and brown fur, it is sometimes called the bear rat because of its resemblance to a tailless rat. It is also equipped with black whiskers that may be seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p>These rock badgers, or hyraxes, live together in colonies of from 6 to 50 animals, often sunning themselves on rocks. They are difficult to catch. Guards are posted, and if approaching danger is sighted, the whole group will scurry for cover, warned by the sharp whistles of the guards. Thus they are commended for taking refuge in the rocks (Ps 104:18) and are called wise for making “their houses in the rocks” (Prv 30:24, 26, <span>kjv<\/span>). The badger is not a ruminant (does not chew its cud), but the motion of its jaws may suggest that it chews its cud. That is probably why it was included with other cud-chewing animals in the Jewish food laws (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7). It was forbidden to the Jews as food because it did not have cloven hooves. Some Arabs eat and even prize its meat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bat\">Bat<\/p>\n<p>Flying mammals according to modern classification. They have hair and provide milk for their young. The Bible classifies them with other aerial creatures. Bats take shelter in caves, crevices, tree cavities, buildings, and also in exposed places on trees. In colder areas they hibernate or migrate. The normal resting position for a bat is hanging head downward. Bats “swim” through the air rather than fly because they move with their legs as well as with their wings.<\/p>\n<p>The bat’s thumb is free and terminates in a single hook claw used for climbing and hanging. The hind feet have five toes, all pointing the same way. The large chest accommodates the powerful muscles needed for flying. Because they orient themselves by echo location, the sense of hearing is very well developed.<\/p>\n<p>Most bats are insect eaters, seizing insects in flight. Many insectivorous bats also eat some fruit. Other bats feed exclusively, usually in groups, on fruit and green vegetation. Fruit-eating bats generally live in the tropics where fruit is constantly ripening, although some have been found in the Holy Land. These bats tend to be larger than the insectivores, having a wingspread of up to five feet (1.5 meters).<\/p>\n<p>A third group includes flower-eating bats that feed on pollen and nectar. These small bats with long pointed heads and long tongues are found only in tropical and semitropical regions. Three species of vampire bats, which do not occur in the Holy Land, eat blood by making a small incision and lapping it up. Carnivorous (meat-eating) bats prey on birds, lizards, and frogs. Fish-eating bats catch fish at or near the water surface.<\/p>\n<p>Eight varieties of bats are known in the Holy Land. One of them, the little brown bat (genus <em>Myotis<\/em>), is worldwide in its distribution. It is insectivorous and probably has the widest distribution of any nonhuman terrestrial mammal. Brown bats are mostly cave dwellers. The females form maternity colonies that may number in the tens of thousands.<\/p>\n<p>Two species of mouse-tailed bats (genus <em>Rhinopoma<\/em>) are found in the Holy Land. Their tails are nearly as long as the head and body combined. They are colonial, roosting in caves, rock clefts, wells, pyramids, palaces, and houses. Like the brown bat, they are insectivorous. The slit-faced or hollow-faced bats (genus <em>Nycteris<\/em>) are also found in the Holy Land. They are insectivorous and roost in groups from 6 to 20.<\/p>\n<p>The bats found in the Holy Land vary in size from that of a mouse to the size of a rat; the largest species measures more than 20 inches (51 centimeters) across the wings. The bat was unclean to the Jews (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bear\">Bear<\/p>\n<p>Large, heavy, big-headed mammal with short, powerful limbs, a short tail, and small eyes and ears. Bears have a “plantigrade” walk: they walk on both the sole and heel as humans do. The Palestinian bear is a Syrian version of the brown bear <em>(Ursus arctos syriacus).<\/em> It can grow to a height of 6 feet (1.8 meters) and may weigh as much as 500 pounds (227 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>Bears have an excellent sense of smell but less developed senses of sight and hearing. They are omnivorous (eating any kind of food); they subsist largely on vegetation, fruits, insects, and fish.<\/p>\n<p>Bears are usually peaceful and inoffensive, but if they think they must defend themselves (Lam 3:10) or their young (2 Sm 17:8; Prv 17:12; Hos 13:8), they may be formidable and dangerous adversaries. David boasted of his role as a bear killer (1 Sm 17:34-37). Since a blow from a bear’s paw can be fatal, David’s courage and strength as a young shepherd in running after a bear and wrenching one of his father’s sheep from its jaws were noteworthy.<\/p>\n<p>Some biblical passages seem to imply that bears attacked for no apparent reason (e.g., Prv 28:15; Am 5:19). At other times they were God’s instruments of punishment, as in the story of Elisha and the two she-bears (2 Kgs 2:24). The bear and the lion, often mentioned together in the Bible (1 Sm 17:37), were the two largest and strongest beasts of prey in the Holy Land. Thus they symbolized both strength and terror (Am 5:19).<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times bears seem to have roamed all over Palestine. Today they are found only in the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Mountains, and even there they are rare.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bee\">Bee<\/p>\n<p>One of two domesticated insects <em>(Apis mellifica),<\/em> the other being the silkworm. Bees gather nectar from flowers, transferring pollen from one flower to another in the process. It is believed that they convey the location of sources of nectar to other bees through a bee “dance,” which may indicate both distance and direction. Bees are sensitive to four colors: blue-green, yellow-green, blue-violet, and ultra-violet (invisible to humans).<\/p>\n<p>The wild bees of the Holy Land are especially noted for their ferocity in attack. Only the female “worker” bees sting people and animals, the virulence of their venom increasing in warm weather. A number of biblical passages allude to the irritable, vindictive nature of bees and to the painful stings they inflict (Dt 1:44; Ps 118:12; Is 7:18).<\/p>\n<p>One reference calls attention to the fact that in semidesert regions a dead animal’s carcass, stripped to the bone by jackals or vultures and dried in the sun, can provide wild bees an excellent place to start a new colony (Jgs 14:5-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptians considered the bee sacred. In ancient Greece candles were made from beeswax. In the Holy Land, beekeeping was probably not practiced until the Hellenistic period (second century <span>BC<\/span>), although Ezekiel 27:17 suggests that it may have been practiced earlier. If domestic honey was not available to the Hebrews, wild honey certainly was, and travelers would be on the lookout for caches of honey in rocky clefts and other likely places. The Philistines and the Hittites practiced beekeeping in their cities.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible contains many references to bees and bee products. A bee swarm was a valuable asset, though the price of honey itself was low. Honey was sometimes eaten with the honeycomb (Sg 5:1). Honey also had uses other than food, e.g., in embalming.<\/p>\n<p>The land of Israel was described as a land flowing with milk and honey. Honey was a major source of sweetening in the ancient Near East—hence, its importance (cf. Jgs 14:8-9). Actually the Hebrew word for “honey” may include not only bee honey but also the sweet syrup extracted from such fruits as figs, dates, and grapes. Thus “a land flowing with milk and honey” (Ex 3:8, <span>rsv<\/span>) does not necessarily stand for a land of bees but for a land rich in sweetness.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Food and Food Preparation; Honey.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Behemoth\">Behemoth<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Hippopotamus (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Camel\">Camel<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of burden. Unintelligent, ill-natured, and quarrelsome, the camel <em>(Camelus dromedarius)<\/em> is nevertheless a blessing to people living in the desert and on its borders because it is especially adapted to that habitat. It has been called the ship of the desert. Having thick elastic pads of fibrous tissue on its feet, it can walk on hot desert sands. It can go without water for long periods and can subsist on vegetation growing on the saline soils. The camel’s nostrils are pinched together and can be closed at will to prevent penetration of sand during violent sandstorms.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are used for transporting both goods and people. A person riding a camel can cover from 60 to 75 miles (96.5 to 121 kilometers) in a day. A camel can carry a load weighing 600 pounds (272 kilograms) or more. Camels were used heavily in the spice trade (Gn 37:25) and traveled regularly in camel trains between Arabia, Egypt, and Assyria. They were also ridden in time of war (Jgs 6:5). A camel can even be hitched to a plow in areas where the land is cultivated.<\/p>\n<p>The hair shed by camels during the early spring is preserved and used in weaving cloth and making tents. As much as 10 pounds (4.5 kilograms) of hair can be obtained from one camel. A rough cloak of camel’s hair, as worn by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4), is still worn by Bedouins today. A camel’s hair garment was also the sign of the prophetic office (Zec 13:4).<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of camel occur within the one-humped species, the slow burden-bearing camel referred to in Genesis 37:25 and the fast dromedary of 1 Samuel 30:17. The dromedary can stand seven feet (2.1 meters) tall and measure as much as nine feet (2.7 meters) from the muzzle to the tip of the tail. With its three-chambered stomach, which can hold from 15 to 30 quarts (14.2 to 28.4 liters) of liquid, it can go for as long as 5 days during the summer or 25 days in winter without drinking. The camel’s hump is a reserve store of fat, making it possible for the animal to subsist on very little food during a desert journey.<\/p>\n<p>Another species of camel, the Bactrian camel <em>(Camelus bactrianus),<\/em> is also resident in the Holy Land. It has two humps. It is heavier, bigger, and has longer hair than the one-humped camel and is slower than the swift dromedary. Isaiah 21:7 may refer to the Bactrian camel; both kinds of camel are referred to in Esther 8:10 (<span>kjv<\/span>). Camels ranked in importance with sheep, cattle, and asses in OT times. A third of the 66 biblical references to the camel lists it with other animals.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are ruminants (cud-chewing mammals) but do not have cloven hooves. Thus, they were included in the list of unclean beasts, forbidden by the Israelites as food (Lv 11:4; Dt 14:7). They are eaten by Arabs, however, who also drink their milk (cf. Gn 32:15).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham had camels in Egypt (Gn 12:16). At first Job had 3,000 camels (Jb 1:3) and after his recovery, 6,000 (Jb 42:12). Although wide use of camels does not seem to have begun until shortly before 1000 <span>BC<\/span> (Jgs 6:5), Sumerian texts from the Old Babylonian period list camels and indicate that they had been domesticated. Camel bones and figurines have been found at various eastern archaeological sites dating from well before 1200 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Caterpillar\">Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>Larval stage of insects characterized by complete metamorphosis. Such insects pass through four stages: egg, larva or caterpillar, pupa, and adult. Bees, flies, moths, and butterflies all pass through a larval or caterpillar stage.<\/p>\n<p>The word “caterpillar” occurs three times in the <span>nlt<\/span> (1 Kgs 8:37; 2 Chr 6:28; Ps 78:46). In the book of Joel that same Hebrew word is translated “locust” (1:4; 2:25, <span>nlt<\/span>). The locust and grasshopper to which the Hebrew word refers have an incomplete type of metamorphosis with only three stages: egg, nymph, and adult. The nymph is a miniature adult in which the wings are not fully developed, though their outline may be present. There are several nymph stages known as instars. The reference is to one of the last instars, in which the wing structures are still folded together and enclosed in a sac but are nevertheless clearly recognizable. That form of the insect is about an inch (2.5 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cattle\">Cattle<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animals of the bovine species <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> The OT often emphasized the beauty of cattle. Egypt was rich in cattle, especially in the Nile River delta area (Goshen), where the Hebrews settled under Joseph.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars believe that milk rather than meat was the foremost consideration in the domestication of cattle and that in early civilizations meat supplies came chiefly from wild game. Cattle also supplied strong hides that supplanted wood in the manufacture of shields. Their dung was a source of fuel when wood was scarce (Ez 4:15). They were used as beasts of burden and for plowing. Development of wheeled transportation was associated more closely with cattle than with any other animal.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical term “cattle” often refers to all domesticated animals or livestock (Gn 1:24; 2:20; 7:23; 47:6, 16-17; Ex 9:3-7; Nm 3:41, 45). Occasionally, the term was used to refer to all large domestic animals (Nm 31:9; 32:26), although sometimes the word as used in the <span>kjv<\/span> refers only to sheep and goats (Gn 30:32, 39, 43; 31:8, 10; Is 7:25; 43:23).<\/p>\n<p>Probably several kinds of cattle were domesticated in the Holy Land. Small, short-legged, black or brown shorthorn cattle were found in the southern part of Judah; that type submitted easily to the yoke and was prominent in agricultural operations. Along the coast a larger variety was found, and the wild districts east of the Jordan River were populated with a breed of huge black cattle.<\/p>\n<p>Cattle breeding was widely practiced by the patriarchs (cf. Gn 32:15; Jb 21:10). Strict laws in Mesopotamia, as well as in Israel, penalized the owner of a bull that gored a man or other cattle (Ex 21:28-36). Bulls were sometimes employed figuratively as pictures of strength or violence (Dt 33:17; Pss 22:12; 68:30; Is 10:13). For breeding purposes one bull is normally adequate for about 30 cows, but many more were kept since bulls were widely used in Israel for sacrifices. They might be used as a general sacrifice (Lv 22:23; Nm 23:1) or for special sacrifices (Jgs 6:25; 1 Sm 1:24). Particular sacrifices were offered at the consecration of priests (Ex 29:1), consecration of an altar (Nm 7), purification of the Levites (Nm 8), sin offerings (Lv 16), day of the new moon (Nm 28:11-14), Passover (Nm 28:19), Feast of Weeks (Nm 28:27), Feast of Trumpets (Nm 29:1-2), Day of Atonement (Nm 29:7-9), and the Feast of Tabernacles (Nm 29:12-38). The Feast of Tabernacles required the largest number of bulls for burnt offerings of all the annual feasts, with a total of 71 being slaughtered during the course of eight days.<\/p>\n<p>Calves were sometimes referred to as “sons of the herd” in the original Hebrew (Gn 18:8; 1 Sm 6:7; 14:32). The calf, a symbol of peacefulness (Is 11:6), was also used figuratively to refer to the weak (Ps 68:30). A calf’s head decorated the back of Solomon’s throne (1 Kgs 10:19). Calves were sometimes fattened in stalls to keep them from running off weight in the field (Am 6:4; Mal 4:2; Lk 15:23) or were kept around the house; the witch of Endor kept a calf in her house that she killed and served to Saul and his men (1 Sm 28:24-25). Calves supplied veal (Gn 18:7), considered a delicacy by the wealthy; Amos referred to stall-fattened calves in a denunciation of luxurious and careless living (Am 6:4). Calves also supplied meat for all Saul’s armies at the great slaughter of the Philistines (1 Sm 14:32). The “fatted calf” served roasted or boiled was gourmet fare, suitable for the finest banquet (Gn 18:7; Mt 22:4; Lk 15:23).<\/p>\n<p>Cattle were subject to the law of firstlings (Ex 13:12). They were a mark of wealth (Gn 13:2) and were considered proper booty of war (Jos 8:2). Aaron, the first high priest, made a golden calf as a rival to the ark of the covenant (Ex 32; Dt 9:16, 21). Even though he represented the calf as an image of the invisible God, it was especially offensive because the calf was a fertility symbol related to Egyptian and Canaanite practices. Two calves were later made by Jeroboam I of Israel (930–909 <span>BC<\/span>) for his shrines at Bethel and Dan (1 Kgs 12:28-33). Hosea’s prophetic denunciations of calf worship were directed at those shrines (Hos 8:5-6; 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>An ox is an adult castrated bull. A steer is a young ox. Oxen were used to do work (Nm 7:3; Dt 22:10; 25:4), though for moving heavy objects, cows were typically favored over bulls because of their more docile nature. Oxen were also used as pack animals (1 Chr 12:40, although they did not have the endurance of the ass, camel, or mule. They usually fed on grass (Nm 22:4; Ps 106:20), but they also ate straw (Is 11:7) and salted fodder (Is 30:24) and could be kept in a stable (Lk 13:15). Oxen could not be offered as sacrifices because they had been castrated (Lv 22:24). They could be used for food but were rarely eaten. Possession of an ox and an ass was regarded as the bare minimum for existence in the ancient Palestinian agriculture economy (Jb 24:3; cf. Ex 20:17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Agriculture; Food and Food Preparation; Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chameleon\">Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>Lizard characterized by its ability to change color according to its surroundings <em>(Chameleon vulgaris).<\/em> To the Israelites the chameleon was ritually unclean (Lv 11:30). The Hebrew word for chameleon is derived from a word meaning “to pant.” A lizard’s lungs are very large, and in ancient times lizards were believed to live on air. A chameleon’s eyes move independently of each other; so at times one eye may be turned upward and the other downward. Chameleons live in trees and bushes, clinging to branches with their long tails.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Coral\">Coral<\/p>\n<p>Calcareous (lime-containing) skeletons of relatively simple marine organisms <em>(Corallium rubrum).<\/em> Red coral from the Mediterranean and Red Seas is widely used for jewelry and for medicinal purposes. While the animal is alive, the coral is green in color and shrublike in appearance, looking rather like an underwater plant since the coral animals are immobil. When the coral is removed from the water, it becomes hard and red in color.<\/p>\n<p>In ancient times coral was sometimes used as money, along with precious stones, pearls, and gold. Some believe the biblical reference in Lamentations 4:7 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is to pearls rather than to coral, but it is probable that the references in Job 28:18 and Ezekiel 27:16 are to the red coral (see <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cricket\">Cricket<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the order Orthptera related to grasshoppers and locusts. According to Leviticus 11:22, the cricket was edible. The reference may be to one of the growth stages of the locust.<\/p>\n<p>The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word as “beetle.” Beetles are insects with chewing mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the fore pair being hard and sheathlike and the hind pair being membranous and folded under the fore pair. Some beetles are carnivorous, others are chiefly herbivorous. Some are aquatic, some produce a secretion that blisters the skin, some damage fabrics, some damage crops, and some feed on other insects that are harmful to humans. In ancient Egypt the beetle, or sacred scarab, was a symbol of the sun god Ra. Scarab seals and amulets were extremely popular in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Crocodile\">Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all existing reptiles <em>(Crocodilus vulgaris),<\/em> attaining a length of well over 20 feet (6 meters). Crocodiles are characterized by large lizardlike bodies supported by short legs. The head terminates in a flattened snout armed with strong conical teeth, each of which is implanted in a distinct socket. New teeth growing from beneath continually replace those in use. The toes are webbed. The back and tail are protected by quadrangular horny shields of varying sizes arranged in regular rows and in contact with one another at the edges. The eyes are covered with movable lids that can be closed when the animal enters the water.<\/p>\n<p>The crocodile spends most of its time in the water where it feeds mainly on fish but also on aquatic birds and even small animals that come down to the water’s edge to drink. It is surprisingly fast and agile on dry land, even though its legs are so short that its belly and tail drag across the earth leaving a distinct path.<\/p>\n<p>Until the beginning of the 20th century, the crocodile was found in the marshes and small coastal rivers of western Palestine. A first-century Roman writer, Pliny, referred to a place in the Holy Land called Crocodeilopolis (“crocodile city”) to the south of Mt Carmel, and visitors to the Holy Land as late as the 19th century reported seeing crocodiles in that general region.<\/p>\n<p>The description of “Leviathan” in Job 41 seems to be based on the crocodile (thus the translation of the <span>nlt<\/span>). The “dragon” of Ezekiel 29:3, used figuratively of the Egyptian pharaoh, may be a reference to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Deer\">Deer<\/p>\n<p>Large ruminant (cud-chewing) animals. Only the males have antlers (branching horns). Deer antlers grow annually and are solid, in contrast to those of the antelope and the gazelle. Fully developed antlers are devoid of any covering of skin or horn and, for all practical purposes, may be regarded as a mass of dead bone carried for a certain time by the living animal.<\/p>\n<p>The end of the deer’s muzzle is naked in all species. The stomach is divided into a series of compartments, some of which are used to store partly chewed food. The food is later regurgitated, rechewed, and finally swallowed into a section of the stomach where true digestion takes place.<\/p>\n<p>Three species of deer were known in Palestine: the red deer <em>(Cervus elaphus),<\/em> the Persian fallow deer <em>(Dama mesopotamica),<\/em> and the roe deer <em>(Capreolus capreolus).<\/em> All are now extinct there. The last deer were hunted in the Holy Land in 1914. The red deer referred to in the Bible as “hart” (male), “stag” (male), or “hind” (female) stood about four feet (1.2 meters) high at the shoulder. It was gregarious (living in herds or flocks), each group remaining in a definite territory. Red deer grazed and browsed during the morning and late afternoon (Lam 1:6). The sexes remained in separate herds. The red deer was known for its leaping (Is 35:6) and sure-footedness in the mountains (Ps 18:33; Sg 2:8-9, 17; 8:14; Hb 3:19).<\/p>\n<p>The antlers of the Persian fallow deer (1 Kgs 4:23) were large, flattened, and palmated (shaped like an open palm with fingers extended), and its coat was a yellowbrown. It traveled in small groups, feeding mainly on grass in the morning and evening.<\/p>\n<p>The roe deer (Dt 14:5; 1 Kgs 4:23) was a small, graceful animal, dark reddish brown in summer and yellowish gray in winter. Its antlers were about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and had three points. The roe deer preferred sparsely wooded valleys and the lower slopes of mountains, grazing in open grasslands. It usually associated in family groups made up of the doe and her offspring. They were shy, yet very curious. The roe deer barked like a dog when disturbed, and they were excellent swimmers.<\/p>\n<p>There is some question as to whether the roe deer is actually referred to in such passages as 1 Kings 4:23; references may be to the fallow deer, although that animal does not seem to have lived in the southern part of Palestine around the Sinai Desert because of its need for ample amounts of food and water. Fallow deer were found in northern Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The hart (the male red deer) was listed among the clean beasts that Jewish law permitted as food (Dt 12:15, 22; 14:5), but deer were not listed among the animals appropriate for sacrifice. The hind (female red deer) normally gave birth to one calf at a time, though twins were born with some degree of regularity (Jb 39:1; Ps 29:9, <span>kjv<\/span>; Jer 14:5). The gestation period was about 40 weeks. When it was about to give birth, the hind looked for a secure hiding place, preferably in the dense undergrowth of the forest where it could find natural protection for the tiny calf. During the first few days after birth, the mother never went far from her young. The fawn was able to stand on its own legs a few hours after birth. The solicitous care by the hind for her calf during the first days of its life is hinted at in a touching way in Jeremiah 14:4-5, where only a severe drought is said to drive the hind from her calf. Job 39:1-4 describes the calving of the hinds. The hind illustrated grace and charm (Gn 49:21; Prv 5:19), and its dark, gentle eyes and graceful limbs were used to describe the beauty of a woman (Prv 5:18-19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dog\">Dog<\/p>\n<p>Probably the earliest domesticated animal <em>(Canis familiaris),<\/em> used very early in hunting. The modern dog is believed to have come from the Indian wolf <em>(Canis lupus pallipes).<\/em> The dogs of biblical times probably looked like a modern German shepherd, with short pointed ears, a pointed nose, and a long tail.<\/p>\n<p>The dog was generally looked down upon in biblical times (Prv 26:11; 2 Pt 2:22). The biblical writers did not share modern sentiments about dogs being man’s best friends. The dog was pictured as a scavenger, haunting streets and dumps (Ex 22:31; 1 Kgs 22:38; Mt 15:26; Lk 16:21). Human corpses could become the spoil of dogs (2 Kgs 9:35-36). In general, dogs served the same function as vultures and other birds of prey. Most of the 41 references in the Scriptures to dogs show strong disfavor. Dogs were considered cowardly, filthy creatures.<\/p>\n<p>Dogs used in hunting occur in paintings in Egyptian tombs, and there is a reference to dogs herding sheep in Job 30:1. One good quality of dogs highly esteemed by the Israelites was watchfulness (Is 56:10). In general, however, in biblical times “dog” was a term of contempt (1 Sm 17:43; 2 Sm 16:9) and was used of overly submissive persons (2 Sm 9:8; 2 Kgs 8:13) and of evil persons (Is 56:10-11; Mt 7:6; Phil 3:2; Rv 22:15).<\/p>\n<p>Dogs, like pigs, were voracious and omnivorous (eating any kind of food). In response to a Gentile woman’s request that he heal her daughter, Jesus used the metaphor of throwing household food scraps to dogs (Mt 15:22-28; Mk 7:25-30). At the time of Jesus, the word “dog” was a standard Jewish term of contempt for Gentiles who, like dogs, were considered unclean, although the diminutive form of the word, used by Jesus, softened this considerably. Seeing her faith, Jesus granted the woman’s request, giving a non-Jew some of “the children’s bread.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Donkey\">Donkey<\/p>\n<p>Beast of burden. The donkey of the Holy Land <em>(Equus asinus)<\/em> was quite different from the European donkey of today, which is usually a small, stubborn animal. In biblical times the donkey was a beautiful, stately, friendly animal. Its color was usually reddish brown. Three wild races have been described, all from Africa. The race from northwest Africa is extinct; the one from northeast Africa, if not extinct, is close to extinction; the Somalian race, which survives, did not play an important part in domestication. The northeast African race, the Nubian donkey, was evidently domesticated in the Nile River region in early historic times. The donkey was used as a mount from the time of domestication on. It is first mentioned in the Bible among the animals that Abraham acquired in Egypt (Gn 12:16). The donkey was primarily a beast of burden, driven but not bridled. From the time of the Middle Kingdom on (c. 2040 <span>BC<\/span>), it was used for riding in Egypt, but only the Jews and Nubians rode donkeys regularly. The donkey was also used for threshing grain and for pulling the plow. In Arab countries today peasants plow with a donkey and a cow or camel hitched together. In Israel the law forbade plowing with a donkey and an ox hitched together (Dt 22:10). Until the time of Solomon (960 <span>BC<\/span>), horses were not used in Palestine. From that time on, the horse was ridden by warriors; the donkey was used by those who were traveling peaceably.<\/p>\n<p>The donkey was held in high regard by the Jews and was considered an economic asset. An individual had to have a donkey for minimum existence (Jb 24:3), and wealth was frequently counted by the number of donkeys one possessed (Gn 12:16; 24:35). The donkey was considered an acceptable gift (Gn 32:13-15). It was allowed to rest on the Sabbath (Dt 5:14). Women in biblical times often used the donkey as a riding animal (Jos 15:18; 1 Sm 25:23; 2 Kgs 4:24); often a special driver would help a woman guide the animal, running along at its side. If a married couple possessed only one donkey, the husband usually walked alongside while the wife rode (Ex 4:20).<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel returning from Babylon had ten times as many donkeys as horses and camels (Ezr 2:66-67; Neh 7:68-69). Job’s wealth was indicated by the fact that he had 500 she-donkeys before catastrophe hit him (Jb 1:3); after his recovery he had 1,000 donkeys (Jb 42:12). Joseph’s brothers used donkeys to transport the grain they purchased in Egypt (Gn 42:26; 43:24). Abigail transported food on donkeys to David and his troops during their conflict with Saul (1 Sm 25:18). David assigned one of the 12 managers of his royal estates to look after his donkeys exclusively (1 Chr 27:30).<\/p>\n<p>The onager, or Syrian wild donkey <em>(Equus hemionus hemihippus)<\/em>, is an intermediate between the true horse and the true donkey. Its ears are longer than those of a horse but shorter than those of a donkey. The front hooves are narrow; there are chestnuts (callouslike spots on the inside of the knees) on the front legs only, and the tail is short haired for a long distance from its root so that it appears to be tufted.<\/p>\n<p>The Sumerians (ancient Mesopotamians) were able to domesticate the onager, which was eventually replaced by the horse. It was used to draw chariots in Ur; a number of onagers were buried with their vehicles in a royal grave that dates from about 2500 <span>BC<\/span>. Later the wild onager was a favorite hunter’s prize for Babylonian and Assyrian kings.<\/p>\n<p>The onager was very common in the steppe lands near Israel, where it was described as a freedom-loving desert animal (Jb 24:5; 39:5-8; Ps 104:11; Is 32:14; Jer 2:24; Hos 8:9). Ishmael was described as “free and untamed as a wild donkey” (Gn 16:12, <span>nlt<\/span>)—that is, one who could not adjust to domestic life. Drought seems to have been responsible for the population decline of the onager in biblical times (Jer 14:6). The modern onager <em>(Equus hemionus onager)<\/em> is slightly larger than the Syrian wild donkey that is extinct.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dragon\">Dragon<\/p>\n<p>Any one of a number of monstrous land and sea creatures. In biblical usage, “dragon” does not refer to the huge, fire-breathing, winged reptile of European folklore. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> used the term to translate two Hebrew words that are usually rendered more precisely in modern translations. One word referred to desert animals; most scholars agree with the <span>niv<\/span> that “jackals” is its proper meaning (Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; Jer 9:11; Mal 1:3). <em>See<\/em> Jackal (below).<\/p>\n<p>The other Hebrew word translated “dragon” is harder to define. It was frequently used in reference to serpents (so translated in the <span>rsv<\/span>: Ex 7:9-12; Dt 32:33; Ps 91:13). In other <span>rsv<\/span> passages it is translated “sea monster” (Gn 1:21; Jb 7:12; Ps 148:7). The exact identity of such sea monsters is not known. Several <span>rsv<\/span> passages retain the English “dragon.” In two of them (Ps 74:13; Is 27:1), the context indicates that sea monsters are meant. In three others (Is 51:9; Ez 29:3; 32:2) “dragon” seems to refer to the crocodile, a figurative reference to the Egyptian pharaoh at the time of the exodus. Jeremiah 51:34 (translated “monster” in the <span>rsv<\/span>) may also refer to a voracious creature such as a crocodile. <em>See<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p>Babylonian myths described monsters and dragons in primordial conflict with the god Marduk; they represented the principle of evil. In its figurative usages in Scripture, “dragon” has a similar significance, especially in the prophetic books. In the book of Revelation it is a symbol of Satan, the archenemy of God and his people (Rv 12:3-17; 13:2, 4, 11; 16:13; 20:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fish\">Fish<\/p>\n<p>Aquatic animals frequently mentioned in the Bible without names or descriptions that enable us to identify the particular species. Since time immemorial, fish have constituted one of the staple foods of humanity, and they still serve as the chief source of protein in many parts of the world. The trade in fish was highly developed in biblical times. For example, one of the gates in Jerusalem was called the Fish Gate (Neh 3:3; Zep 1:10). The law in Leviticus 11:9-12 permitted the Jews to eat fish, but only those having both fins and scales. Scaleless fish such as catfish were forbidden, even though they had fins.<\/p>\n<p>Egyptian paintings depict various methods of fishing, and the Philistines fished in the Mediterranean Sea. Since the people of Israel were not a seafaring nation, it is safe to assume that most of their fish came from freshwater lakes and rivers, especially the Sea of Galilee. Some 36 species of fish have been identified in that lake, including varieties of perch, carp, barbel, “sardine,” and catfish.<\/p>\n<p>The method of fishing characteristic of NT times was the dragnet. After a boat had put out into the deep (Lk 5:4), a large net would be thrown out from it and then dragged toward shore by the rowers in the boat, possibly with the help of a crew in another boat. The catch was sorted out on shore (Mt 13:47-48). Fishing was usually carried out at night when the coolness of the water brought fish closer to the surface and when they could not see the approaching nets.<\/p>\n<p>The Jews also fished by hook and line (Mt 17:27), a few by spear (Jb 41:7), and some by the throw net (Ez 47:10). Habakkuk refers to hook-and-line fishing, netting, and seining (1:15).<\/p>\n<p>Very early in the history of the Christian church the fish became a symbol for Christ and the faith. It was scratched on the walls of Roman catacombs and may be seen today decorating walls, altars, pews, and vestments. The symbol came into use because the Greek word for “fish” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ichthus<\/span><em>)<\/em> is composed of the first letter of each word in the Greek phrase “Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior.” <em>See<\/em> Whale (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Flea\">Flea<\/p>\n<p>Tiny, irritating insect (1 Sm 24:14; 26:20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Many species of fleas occur in Palestine, the most common being <em>Pulex irritans.<\/em> About a thousand species are known around the world. Fleas are wingless parasites that have sharp jaws and suck out blood from the bodies of humans and animals. The body is wedge shaped, enabling the flea to burrow into folds of skin and hide there. The eggs, laid by the female in dust heaps in the corners of rooms, hatch into small, white larvae that pupate (a nonfeeding stage) in a cocoon. Soon adult fleas appear that immediately attach themselves to the body of a host. The female requires blood for the development of her eggs.<\/p>\n<p>A flea bite is painful and causes some swelling and itching. Fleas are attracted by warmth. With favorable moisture and temperature, adult fleas can live a year or longer without food, but they are voracious feeders. The most dangerous fleas are those of the rat that transmit the organism responsible for bubonic plague. There were 41 recorded epidemics of bubonic plague before the Christian era.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fly\">Fly<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the order Diptera, which have one pair of wings. Many winged insects of other orders, however, are also called flies, such as the dragonfly or butterfly.<\/p>\n<p>As in almost all parts of the world, flies are abundant in Palestine. One of the most numerous is the common housefly <em>(Musca domestica),<\/em> found chiefly around dung heaps and garbage. The female lays her eggs, out of which emerge white maggots that feed on refuse. After a few days the maggot develops into a cocoon out of which emerges the adult housefly. In the summer the whole cycle lasts about 12 days, so that a fly can breed about 20 generations a year.<\/p>\n<p>Another fly common to Palestine is the botfly (family Oestridae). It causes much discomfort among livestock by irritating them and spreading diseases. Tabanid flies (family Tabanidae), including the horsefly (genus <em>Tabanus<\/em>) and related species, are also found in Palestine. Both the botfly and horsefly are known as gadflies because of the persistent distress they inflict. Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar is spoken of as a gadfly in view of his invasion of Egypt (Jer 46:20).<\/p>\n<p>The fourth plague in Egypt just before the exodus featured “swarms of flies” (Ex 8:21-31, <span>nlt<\/span>; cf. Pss 78:45; 105:31). Those swarms may have been made up of any or all the flies mentioned above. The maggots mentioned in Job 25:6 and Isaiah 14:11 and the worms in Exodus 16:24 and Job 7:5 and 17:14 were probably fly larvae.<\/p>\n<p>A proverb quoted in Ecclesiastes 10:1 probably refers to the housefly, which would be attracted to an open, perfumed ointment bottle. Once inside it would drown and eventually decay, causing the ointment to spoil and stink. The fly is also referred to in Isaiah 7:18 where it symbolizes Egypt. Isaiah may have had in mind a horsefly <em>(Tabanus arenivagus)<\/em> that attacks both humans and animals.<\/p>\n<p>Philistine inhabitants of the city of Ekron worshiped a god named Baal-zebul, meaning “Lord of the high places.” The Hebrews mockingly spoke of Baal-zebub, meaning “Lord of the flies” (2 Kgs 1:2). The NT form is Beelzebub (e.g., Mt 10:25; 12:24, 27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fox\">Fox<\/p>\n<p>Small, doglike carnivore with a bushy tail that is about half its body length. The red fox of the Holy Land <em>(Vulpes palaetinae)<\/em> is similar to the North American red fox; it is smaller than a wolf and is normally a nocturnal solitary animal. The omnivorous fox eats almost any kind of food—fruits, plants, mice, beetles, and birds—but seldom touches carrion. It loves the sweet juice of grapes, but it also burrows underground tunnels that can destroy the vines (Sg 2:15). The fox is intelligent and known for its slyness (Lk 13:32). It has considerable endurance and can run at speeds up to 30 miles (48 kilometers) per hour. The Jews rebuilding Jerusalem’s wall were taunted by the wisecrack that even a fox jumping on their wall would knock it over (Neh 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptian fox <em>(Vulpes niloticus)<\/em> is found in the central and southern parts of the Holy Land. It is somewhat smaller than the common red fox. Its back is rust colored and its belly light. The Syrian fox <em>(Vulpes flavescens)<\/em> that lives in the northern part of the Holy Land is shiny gold in color.<\/p>\n<p>Some OT references such as Psalm 63:10 and Lamentations 5:18 are translated “fox” in the <span>kjv<\/span> but probably refer to jackals. Jackals, not foxes, hunt in packs and tend to act as scavengers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Frog\">Frog<\/p>\n<p>Amphibian (genus <em>Rana<\/em>), living part of its life in the water and part on land.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs and toads are covered with soft, hairless skin and lack a tail in the adult stage. The hind legs are much longer and more powerfully developed than the forelegs so that the animals are able to jump large distances. It has been suggested that the frog referred to in Scripture is an edible one, <em>Rana ridibunda,<\/em> one of the aquatic frogs found in Egypt and in the stagnant waters of the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The female frog lays her eggs in the water; after about a week the eggs hatch into tadpoles. Gradually through metamorphosis the tail is lost and limbs are acquired. Frogs must maintain a moist skin since they take oxygen through the skin as well as through their lungs; thus they must always remain close to water. They feed on insects and worms.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs are found throughout the Palestinian lowlands, where their croaking is heard in the spring and on summer evenings. The Israelites seem to have associated frogs primarily with sliminess and foulness. They fell into the category of creeping or swarming creatures, which in general were ritually unclean (Lv 11:29-31). Since the frog was not specifically listed, however, rabbis did not consider it one of the animals that defiled human beings through contact.<\/p>\n<p>In Revelation 16:13 certain foul spirits are said to look like frogs. The ancient Egyptians made the frog a symbol of life and birth and an image of Heqet, the patron goddess of birth. She is depicted with a frog’s head giving life to the newborn. Thus that deity was discredited when the power of God afflicted Egypt in the second of the ten plagues on the Egyptians with the very animal that was her symbol (Ex 8:1-14; Pss 78:45; 105:30). The frog in question may have been the spotted frog of Egypt <em>(Rana punctata,<\/em> or <em>Rana ridibunda).<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gazelle\">Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>Small, dainty, graceful antelope with hollow recurved horns on both sexes. Two varieties exist in the Holy Land, the dorcas gazelle <em>(Gazella dorcas),<\/em> which is pale fawn in color and up to 22 inches (56 centimeters) tall, and the Arabian gazelle <em>(Gazella arabica),<\/em> which is a dark smoky color and up to 25 inches (63.5 centimeters) tall.<\/p>\n<p>Gazelles are still quite common throughout the desert and steppe areas of the Holy Land, especially in the Negev Desert. Herds usually consist of from 5 to 10 animals, but some varieties assemble in large migratory herds in the fall to relocate to lower elevations and new feeding grounds. Gazelles are herbivorous (plant eating). They are very shy and post guards to warn the herd of approaching danger.<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times the gazelle was probably the game animal most hunted by the Jews (Prv 6:5; Is 13:14). Pharaoh Tutankhamen hunted gazelles and ostriches. The gazelle is said to have graced Solomon’s table (1 Kgs 4:23). Gazelles were not easy to catch because of their great speed (2 Sm 2:18; 1 Chr 12:8; Prv 6:5); they surpass the deer in swiftness. They were trapped in various ways—encircled with nets, driven into enclosures with pitfalls, or forced into narrow valleys and shot with arrows. The Bedouin hunt gazelle with falcons and dogs; the falcon annoys the gazelle, striking it on the head and injuring it so that the dogs can overtake it.<\/p>\n<p>The gazelle is referred to in Song of Songs 2:9, 17; 4:5; 7:3; 8:14, where it is an image of feminine beauty.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gecko\">Gecko<\/p>\n<p>Reptile of the family Gekkonidae, referred to in Leviticus 11:30. In Jewish food law it was a ritually unclean lizard. There are seven species of geckos in the Holy Land (including <em>Hemidactylus turcicus<\/em> and <em>Ptyodactylus hasselquistii,<\/em> all insectivorous—insect eating). The gecko makes a low mourning sound by vibrating its tongue rapidly against the roof of its mouth. In legend the gecko was said to cause leprosy by crawling across a person’s body.<\/p>\n<p>Another name for the gecko is the wall lizard, so named because it can walk upside down on ceilings with the aid of the suction discs on its toes—but it often plops down into the middle of the home. Since it was considered unclean, such an intrusion would have been a disgusting nuisance to Jewish households (Lv 11:31-38).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gnat\">Gnat<\/p>\n<p>Any very small fly, in common and biblical usage. According to the <span>nlt<\/span>, the third plague in Egypt before the exodus consisted of gnats (Ex 8:16-18; Ps 105:31). The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word there as “lice,” but the breeding pattern described in Exodus 8—insects rising from the dust—seems to fit gnats better than lice. Since “gnat” is a general term, the small flies of that plague may have included several small species such as mosquitos, harvester gnats, midges, or sand flies.<\/p>\n<p>The sand fly inflicts a far more painful bite than the mosquito. Further, it does not betray itself by a buzzing noise in flight and is so small that it penetrates most mosquito netting.<\/p>\n<p>Gnats were drawn to wine while it was fermenting. The Pharisees in particular would strain their wine to avoid consuming unclean insects (Mt 23:24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Goat\">Goat<\/p>\n<p>Cloven-hooved mammals (genus <em>Capra<\/em>) with large eyes and big, floppy ears that constantly twitch. Both males and females have backward arching horns. The Palestinian goat is a ruminant (cud-chewing animal) of lighter build than the sheep.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was probably the earliest ruminant to be domesticated. Its wild ancestor seems to have been the Gezoar goat <em>(Capra aegagrus).<\/em> Wild goats are believed to have been domesticated very early in Palestine. The goat of Bible times was probably the Syrian or Mamber variety <em>(Capra hircus mambrica).<\/em> Domesticated goats may have as many as four kids in a litter, whereas wild goats bear only one or two.<\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian goat was commonly black. Speckled and spotted goats were a rarity, and for that reason Jacob’s request for those goats in Genesis 30:32 appeared very modest. There may also have been red goats (cf. 1 Sm 16:12; 19:13, where goat’s hair was used to imitate David’s hair, which was “ruddy” or auburn).<\/p>\n<p>Almost every part of the goat was used by the Israelites. The whole goat was used for sacrifice. Its flesh served as meat (Lv 7:23; Dt 14:4), and it was the principal source of milk (Prv 27:27). Goats were sheared in the late spring, and the goat hair was used for weaving tent cloth and for various domestic purposes (Ex 36:14; 1 Sm 19:13, 16). The tabernacle at Mt Sinai was made of goat’s hair blankets (Ex 26:7).<\/p>\n<p>Adult male goats were generally not eaten because of their strong flavor and toughness and also because they were necessary to insure the flock’s increase. Young kids, however, were usually the chief meat for a feast and were offered to visitors as a symbol of hospitality. Goat milk is richer than the milk of cows and sheep and evidently had broader uses. A good goat gives three quarts of milk a day, from which a rich butter and buttermilk can be made. The average Hebrew family could have lived almost entirely on a single goat’s production.<\/p>\n<p>Goatskin was tanned as leather, and the whole hide was turned into a skin bottle by sewing shut leg and neck apertures (Gn 21:14; Jos 9:4). Goatskin had many uses, including the construction of Hebrew musical instruments. The nebal, a large harp, was made with goatskin for its base sound. Drums had goatskin coverings.<\/p>\n<p>Goats were herded with sheep in biblical times, but each group remained separate following its own bell-laden leader. Jesus was evidently referring to their common herding in his description of the Last Judgment (Mt 25:31-46).<\/p>\n<p>Because of their wool, sheep are valued more than goats. However, where pasture and water are scarce and thorny shrubs dominate over grass, sheep are difficult to keep and goats become important. They can live under conditions that suit neither cows nor sheep, producing large quantities of milk. The goat does not supply fat as the sheep does, and since its hair is coarse its wool is rather scarce. Goat-hair cloth called cilicium was used to make tents.<\/p>\n<p>Goats have voracious appetites. They also were responsible for much damage done to the land of Palestine, breaking down terraces, destroying forests, and bringing about soil erosion by eating off all cover.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was recognized as a form of wealth, subject to the law of firstlings (Nm 18:17). It had to be eight days old before it could be offered as a sacrifice. A year-old male goat was one of the animals offered at the Passover (28:22), and two goats were offered on the Day of Atonement (Lv 16:7-10). The goat was also used for other specific sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p>The ibex, a type of wild goat <em>(Capra ibex nubiana),<\/em> still lives in small numbers on the cliffs close to the Dead Sea. That it was known in ancient times is evident from rock carvings. It is distinguished from the true wild goat by having a more compact rump and horns that are slender and curved back. Its slender legs and sharp cloven hooves enable it to cling to narrow rock ledges, to jump between them, and to climb steep cliffs.<\/p>\n<p>Usually the ibex is found in rugged mountain country among rocky crags and meadows just below the snow line (Ps 104:18). In Job 39:1 they are referred to as “mountain goats.” They frequently gather in herds of 5 to 20. They graze and browse, being active in the afternoon and sometimes feeding through the night. The large horn of the ibex was at one period made into the shofar that was blown in the second Jerusalem temple to announce the new year and the jubilee year.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was often used in a figurative and symbolic sense by the writers of the Bible: in Song of Songs 4:1 and 6:5 for the bride’s black hair; in Matthew 25:31-46 for the wicked; and in Ezekiel 34:17 and Daniel 8:5-8 for various human leaders.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Grasshopper\">Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>Large insects of the Orthoptera order. They have chewing or biting mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the front pair of which is narrow and somewhat thickened and the hind pair membranous and used for flying. When not in use the flight wings are folded beneath the protective front wings like a fan against the body. By rubbing their wings together, male grasshoppers produce sounds that both males and females can detect. Grasshoppers pass through a partial metamorphosis; the egg hatches into a juvenile nymph that looks like an adult except for its smaller size and undeveloped wings. After several months the nymph becomes a winged adult.<\/p>\n<p>The terms “grasshopper” and “locust” are often used interchangeably. Actually the locust is a kind of grasshopper. Also confusing is the fact that other insects such as cicadas are sometimes called locusts. The difference between grasshoppers and locusts depends more on behavior than appearance. Grasshoppers are individual insects that lead solitary lives and do not migrate. The same insects when migrating in a swarm are called migratory grasshoppers or locusts. Elimination of their food supply by drought, flood, or fire may lead to migration. Climatic factors such as a warm dry winter also stimulate migrations.<\/p>\n<p>Grasshoppers and locusts have been a staple food in the Middle East and also among the Indians of the American Southwest. To the Israelites the grasshopper was considered ritually clean and could be eaten (Lv 11:22).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hare\">Hare<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the genus and species <em>Lepus europaeus judaeus, Lepus capensis,<\/em> and <em>Lepus arabicus.<\/em> It is found in open country, often near or on cultivated lands, and in woods, usually deciduous rather than evergreen. It is an herbivorous rodent and is different from the rabbit, which is not found in Palestine. Although it is not a true ruminant according to modern classification (because it does not have a four-chambered stomach), the hare does rechew its food. It has a process of partial regurgitation of material too hard for the cells in the stomach to absorb initially; thus, the hare actually chews food previously swallowed.<\/p>\n<p>Near Eastern hares have very long ears and large hind feet; their feet are well furred. They are similar to American jackrabbits, which are true hares. Hares do not dig or occupy burrows the way rabbits do. Hares are mainly nocturnal and spend their inactive hours hiding in vegetation. They eat grasses and herbaceous matter as well as twigs and young bark of woody plants. Hares breed with great rapidity—the young attaining sexual maturity at six months after birth.<\/p>\n<p>The hare was ceremonially unclean (Lv 11:6; Dt 14:7), evidently because although it appeared to chew its cud, it did not have cloven hooves. Consumption of hares has also been forbidden among the Arabs, Chinese, and Lapps, but the hare was widely hunted by other people in ancient and modern times. Its great speed, prolific breeding, timidity, and caution have saved it from extermination by its many enemies.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hippopotamus\">Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of problematic interpretation. Some early interpreters thought it referred to the elephant, others to the wild ox, the mammoth, or any large animal. It was called “behemoth” by the <span>kjv<\/span> translators. Today it is generally agreed that the reference is to the hippopotamus <em>(Hippopotamus amphibius),<\/em> a large, thick-skinned, amphibious mammal, an ungulate (having hooflike toenails) with a large head, a bulky, hairless body, and short legs.<\/p>\n<p>The description in Job 40:15-24 fits closely the modern hippopotamus (see <span>nlt<\/span>), except for the depiction of the tail. At present the hippopotamus is found only in the rivers of Africa, but there is fossil evidence that it has existed in the Holy Land, perhaps in the swamps of northern Galilee and the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\n<p>The hippopotamus has highly developed sense organs, placed in such a way that it can see, hear, and smell almost without being seen; its eyes, ears, and nostrils can reach above water while the rest of the animal lies submerged. It has a large mouth, large tusks, and a short, heavy throat. The strong legs are so short that the belly almost reaches the ground when the animal is on the land. The hippopotamus lives on plants and herbs growing in rivers, but if food is scarce there, it forages on land, usually at night. In spite of its heavy body it is surprisingly agile on land.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Horse\">Horse<\/p>\n<p>Przewalski’s horse (<em>Equus przewalskii,<\/em> an eastern race that roamed about Mongolia until modern firearms destroyed most of them after World War I) and the tarpan (a western race of southern Russia that became extinct in the Ukraine in 1851). The domesticated horse <em>(Equus caballus)<\/em> seems to have been derived from the tarpan. The original site of domestication is believed to have been Turkestan, a region north of Afghanistan and India, now in Russia. The horse differs from the donkey in that it has shorter ears, a longer mane with a forelock, a long hairy tail, and a soft, sensitive muzzle.<\/p>\n<p>Horses were used in war not only for riding but also for pulling the heavy, springless war chariots. Two kinds of horses were needed for these different purposes, and the Hebrews distinguished between chariot horses and cavalry horses.<\/p>\n\n<p>The Lord warned the early Israelites against unnecessarily amassing military strength in the form of horses and thereby following the oppressive tactics of the powerful Egyptians (Dt 17:14-16), but the demands of war caused both David and Solomon to import horses from Egypt into their kingdoms and to breed them. Solomon greatly increased the number of horses in the Jewish kingdom and maintained large stables at various cities (1 Kgs 10:26) such as the regional defense centers of Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer (1 Kgs 9:15-19). Ahab’s horses are mentioned in 1 Kings 18:5, and records of Shalmaneser III state that Ahab furnished 2,000 chariots to a coalition against Assyria.<\/p>\n<p>In early Israel, the horse was opposed as a symbol of pagan luxury and of dependence on physical power for defense (Dt 17:16; 1 Sm 8:11; Ps 20:7; Is 31:1). Horse trading, mentioned as early as Genesis 47:17, was carried on by Solomon between Egypt and the Syro-Hittite principalities (1 Kgs 10:28-29). Most biblical references to horses refer to their use in war, but horses were also used for transportation. Riding seems to have been less popular than the use of chariots. Cavalry units were not introduced until the 12th century <span>BC<\/span> by the Medes. Joseph rode in Pharaoh’s second horse-drawn chariot (Gn 41:43), and Absalom made a display by riding a horse-drawn chariot (2 Sm 15:1). Naaman traveled by horse and chariot (2 Kgs 5:9). Later, horses were so common in Jerusalem that the royal palace had a special horse gate (2 Chr 23:15), and a gate of the city itself was known as the Horse Gate (Neh 3:28; Jer 31:40). Mordecai rode a royal horse of King Xerxes as a sign of honor (Est 6:8-11). Horses are often spoken of figuratively (Ps 32:9; “mare,” Sg 1:9; “stallions,” Jer 5:8; 12:5), especially in the context of judgment (Hb 3:8; Zec 1:8; 6:1-8; Rv 6:2-8; 9:17; 19:11-16).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Warfare; Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyena\">Hyena<\/p>\n<p>Stocky carnivore <em>(Hyaena hyaena)<\/em> with coarse hair, an erect mane, and long hairs along the neck and back. Hyenas live in holes among rocks and banks. They are mainly nocturnal but are ordinarily neither noisy nor aggressive. Their cry, however, is a disagreeable, unearthly sound. Hyenas usually feed on carrion, crushing bones with their powerful jaws. If the carrion supply is inadequate, they will kill sheep, goats, or other small animals. When threatened, hyenas growl and erect their mane, but they rarely fight. They are massively built with forelegs longer than the hind legs.<\/p>\n<p>Known as scavengers in Africa, hyenas eat domestic refuse in the villages. In Palestine the striped hyena is a common predator, preferring rocky territory and even rock tombs. Since hyenas were notorious for raiding the graves of the dead, all Israelites who could afford it arranged for burial in tombs protected by massive stone doors. Absalom, King David’s son who was killed by Joab in the wild, was buried under a huge pile of stones to protect his corpse from molestation by hyenas (2 Sm 18:17).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Jackal\">Jackal<\/p>\n<p>Carnivore <em>(Canis aureus)<\/em> smaller than the true wolf and with a shorter tail. It is similar to the fox but has a broader head, shorter ears, and longer legs. The fox is solitary; the jackal tends to be gregarious. Its tail can be drooping or erect, compared with the long horizontal tail of the fox. Jackals usually prowl at night, either singly, in pairs, or in packs through open savannah country. They eat small mammals, poultry, fruit, vegetables, and carrion. They spend their days in thickets and clumps of vegetation. Often they obtain scraps from kills by larger carnivores. Jackals can run at speeds of about 33 miles (53 kilometers) per hour.<\/p>\n<p>The jackal can reach a height of about 20 inches (51 centimeters), roughly the size of a German shepherd dog. Its back is pale yellow with dark, almost black, flanks. Its lips are black and its ears white on the inside. The howl of the jackal sounds like the crying of a child or the heartrending wail of the bereaved (Mi 1:8; cf. Jb 30:29). To other jackals the howl is merely an invitation calling the pack together for its nocturnal hunting.<\/p>\n<p>OT references are chiefly to jackals prowling around ruined cities and wilderness areas (Neh 2:13; Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; 34:13; 35:7; Jer 9:11; 14:6; 49:33; 51:37; Lam 4:3; 5:18; Mal 1:3). Many such references are translated “dragon” in the <span>kjv<\/span>, but “jackal” is more appropriate.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leech\">Leech<\/p>\n<p>Segmented worm (class Hirundinea) up to five inches (12.7 centimeters) long with a flat body equipped with suction pads at each end. The mouth, located at the bottom of the front suction pad, has three teeth that the leech uses to pierce the skin of its host. The leech feeds on blood, and its glands secrete an anticoagulant to prevent the blood from clotting. The ordinary medicinal leech (Hirudo medicinalis) is abundant in springs and ponds from the Negev Desert to Galilee. It adheres to the bodies of human beings and animals that submerge themselves in water, injects its anticoagulant, and sucks their blood.<\/p>\n<p>The reference in Proverbs 30:15 is uncertain (see <span>nlt<\/span>) but may be to the parasitic and greedy nature of the horse leech (genus <em>Haemopis<\/em>). The small horse leech enters its host’s mouth and nostrils from water while the animal is drinking. A leech weighing one-half ounce (14.2 grams) has been known to gorge itself with two and a half ounces (71 grams) of concentrated blood and then to exist for 15 months with no more to eat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leopard\">Leopard<\/p>\n<p>Called <em>Panthera pardus tulliana,<\/em> it is the most widespread of all the large wildcats. In rocky areas it lives in caves, but in forested regions it lives in thick vegetation. In OT times many lived in the vicinity of Mt Hermon (Sg 4:8).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is somewhat smaller than the tiger, measuring up to 5 feet (1.5 meters) in length with a tail of about 30 inches (.8 meter). Its body is better proportioned than that of the tiger. The leopard takes its victim by surprise from a silent ambush, often concealing itself near villages or watering places and waiting for its prey, remaining in one spot for long spans of time. The leopard is swift on the ground (Hb 1:8), agile in trees, and very graceful in its movements. Its color is yellowish speckled with black spots (Jer 13:23). Daniel and John saw visions in which leopards were symbols of world powers (Dn 7:6; Rv 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is a wary and cunning animal, formidable and ferocious (Jer 5:6; Hos 13:7; cf. Is 11:6). The leopard is dangerous not only to domestic animals but also to humans. With its natural camouflage it can hide on the forest floor, blending into the changing light and shadows. The Israelites were terrified of the leopard because it constantly ravaged their sheep and goats. Several biblical place names suggest that they were known for the leopards in their vicinity: Nimrah, Beth-nimrah, and Nimrim, a district northeast of the Dead Sea. It has survived in the Holy Land into the present century; a few leopards still exist in remote areas near Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leviathan\">Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>Sea monster mentioned several times in the Bible (Pss 74:14; 104:26; Is 27:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). It may refer to any of the larger marine animals such as large jellyfish, whales, or sharks, or to a large reptile like the crocodile. Some scholars think “Leviathan” may refer to animals now extinct, such as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs (marine reptiles similar to dinosaurs). The scriptural term might also refer to certain dinosaurs that spent part of their lives half-submerged in shallow lakes and oceans. Other scholars believe that most of the references are to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lion\">Lion<\/p>\n<p>Large, tawny-colored carnivore <em>(Panthera leo)<\/em> that preys chiefly on hoofed mammals and charges by a series of leaps and bounds. Within historic times the lion ranged in Africa, Europe, and the Holy Land. In ancient times the territories of the African and Persian lions met in the Middle East. The lion of the Holy Land was the Asiatic or Persian lion <em>(Panthera leo persica).<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The males have heavy manes that stop at the shoulders but cover much of the chest. The Persian lion cannot climb and is mainly nocturnal, returning to its lair or a thicket by day (Jer 4:7; 25:38; Na 2:11-12). This lion is about 5 feet (1.5 meters) long with a tasseled tail 30 inches (.8 meter) or so long; its shoulders may reach a height of 35 inches (.9 meter). It is one of the smallest of the lion breeds.<\/p>\n<p>Lions are usually found in pairs, though sometimes in larger numbers. A small group is known as a pride. They generally prefer open country but in Palestine evidently prowled the subtropical vegetation of the Jordan River valley. Lions, which usually hunt at dusk, kill smaller animals by a blow of the paw, larger ones by a bite in the throat. A lion does not remain in the same place for more than a few days. The animal is in its prime at about seven years of age, when it weighs from 400 to 600 pounds (181.6 to 272.4 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>The lion does not characteristically attack humans, though like other great cats it may become a man-eater (1 Kgs 13:24-28; 20:36; 2 Kgs 17:25-26; Ps 57:4; Dn 6:7-27). Ordinarily, it attacks only out of great hunger or in self-defense. A very young lion that attacks humans can become dangerous if it develops a taste for human flesh. A very old lion, expelled from the pride because it can no longer keep up in the pursuit of antelope or gazelles, may choose humans as a relatively slow-moving prey.<\/p>\n<p>A lion generally roars only on a full stomach—that is, after it has consumed its prey (Ps 22:13; Ez 22:25; Am 3:4). Nevertheless, its roaring arouses fear (Am 3:8; 1 Pt 5:8). The lion is a bold (2 Sm 17:10; Prv 28:1), destructive animal (Ps 7:2; Jer 2:30; Hos 5:14; Mi 5:8), and the enemy of flocks (Am 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>Lions were common in biblical times in all parts of the Holy Land. Hebrew has at least seven words for lion and young lion. The lion is referred to about 130 times in the OT—more than any other wild animal. Lions were evidently much less common in NT times. After gradually declining, they became extinct in Palestine shortly after <span>AD<\/span> 1300. The lion was present in Mesopotamia, however, until the end of the 19th century.<\/p>\n<p>Lions played an important part in the political and religious symbolism of the Near East (1 Kgs 10:19-20). In Assyria and Babylonia the lion was regarded as a royal beast (Dn 7:4). Oriental monarchs maintained artificial lion pits as places of execution (Ez 19:1-9; Dn 6:7-16). Animals for these were captured in camouflaged nets or pits. To the Jews, the lion was the mightiest of beasts (Prv 30:29-31). Thus, it symbolized leadership (Gn 49:9-10; Nm 24:9) and hence eventually became a title for Christ (Rv 5:5). It was also the ensign of Judah’s tribe and was used by King Solomon in the decoration of his house and the temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lizard\">Lizard<\/p>\n<p>Reptiles of the suborder Lacertilia. Their skin is covered with scales. The lizard is a useful creature because it captures harmful insects and worms. Like other reptiles, it lays eggs with shells softer than those of a bird and with no clear division between the yolk and the white. Lizards are “cold-blooded” organisms without a temperature-maintenance mechanism; hence, they become inactive in cold weather.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards can survive in barren parched countryside. In the Near East they are encountered in great numbers in the Arabian Desert, the Sinai Peninsula, and the Judean wilderness. There may be as many as 44 different species of lizards in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The Dabb lizard (genus <em>Uromastyx<\/em>), which attains a length of about 24 inches (61 centimeters), is found in the Negev Desert. It is omnivorous, an unusual trait since most lizards are insectivorous. It has a hard, rough skin, green with brown spots; a short, rounded head; and a powerful tail encircled with a row of strong spines that it uses as a weapon of defense.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards are listed as ceremonially unclean in Jewish law (Lv 11:29-31). The fact that lizards crawl on their bellies made them unclean. Contact with a lizard’s carcass defiled a law-abiding Jew (Lv 11:32-36). The <span>nlt<\/span> translates the “lizards” of Leviticus 11 as “great lizard,” “gecko,” “monitor lizard,” “sand lizard,” and “chameleon.” The monitor lizard is a large lizard that lives in the deserts of southern Palestine, Sinai, and Egypt. It is up to 55 inches (1.4 meters) long with a long snout and sharp teeth. Other translators and commentators render the original Hebrew in a wide variety of ways, including “tortoise,” “ferret,” “lizard,” “snail,” “mole,” and even “water hen.” The fact that most of the original Hebrew words occur only once in Scripture makes it very difficult to be certain about their appropriate translation.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Gecko (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Locust\">Locust<\/p>\n<p>An insect of the family <em>Acridiidae.<\/em> It is referred to by at least 12 different names in Scripture. The various Hebrew words may refer to different stages of its development from larva to adult or to the type of damage that it causes. Locusts are characterized by swarming and mass migration. In modern times they have caused extensive and disastrous destruction to vegetation. Grasshoppers do not swarm or migrate en masse, differentiating them from the true locusts.<\/p>\n<p>The OT mentions several different species of locusts. Leviticus 11:22 seems to refer to the slant-faced (bald) locust and also to the katydid, or long-horned grasshopper. The reference in Deuteronomy 28:42 may be to the mole cricket. In Joel 1:4 and 2:25 and in Nahum 3:16-17, successive stages of the insect’s development are described. The cutting locust (<span>kjv<\/span> “palmerworm”) of Joel is probably the first instar (stage of development), the swarming locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “locust”) are middle stages, and the hopping locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “cankerworm”) later instars but not yet fully matured insects. In the adult stage, called destroying locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “caterpillar”), the color of the locust is reddish brown, which turns to yellow with a brownish network on the wings.<\/p>\n<p>Only three of the hundreds of varieties of locusts found in Bible lands are capable of multiplying into great swarms, and only the desert locust <em>(Schistocerca gergaria)<\/em> can be considered widespread in all the Bible lands. The desert locust is native to the Sudan (Africa). It is a little over two inches (5 centimeters) long and has a wingspread of some five inches (12.7 centimeters). It shows two phases, a solitary phase and a gregarious phase, with a possible third phase known as transiens. There are differences in the immature and adult forms of the phases in color and physiology.<\/p>\n<p>The quantity and distribution of rains are important factors in the extent of swarming. Moist soil is needed for depositing the eggs and permitting them to develop. Each female deposits from one to six egg pods, containing 28 to 146 eggs each. The larvae emerge in 15 to 43 days.<\/p>\n<p>In the gregarious phase (from the second stage of metamorphosis onward), the locust is driven by a strong wandering instinct. Masses of them form a random procession of overflowing locust bodies that ignore any obstruction. They swarm over everything (Jl 2:4-9). The only regulator of their activities is temperature; they are immobilized by high or low temperatures. Taking to wing they may move 1,200 miles (1,930.8 kilometers) from their native home. They fly in compact formations large enough to blot out the light of the sun. Their movement seems to be controlled by hormones, but the direction is influenced by the wind. The swarms consume almost every plant in their path, sparing only the carob, sycamore, castor tree, and oleander bush.<\/p>\n<p>A locust plague was one of the most severe evils to come upon the ancient world (Dt 28:38). Joel 2:1-11 describes a locust plague in graphic terms, using it as a symbol of God’s destroying judgment. Special days of prayer, fasting, and trumpet blowing were prescribed to remove locust plagues (1 Kgs 8:37-38; 2 Chr 6:28-29; Jl 2:12-17). Locusts symbolized powerful and merciless enemies that completely destroyed the earnings of human toil (Jgs 6:5; Is 33:4; Jer 46:23; 51:27; Na 3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Bedouins eat locusts raw, roasted, or boiled, preserving them by drying and threading. They are also crushed and ground, and the grist used in cooking or eaten with bread, sometimes mixed with honey and dates. Such was the diet of John the Baptist (Mk 1:6). The Greeks ground locusts in stone mortars to make flour of them.<\/p>\n<p>The ancients considered the two large hind legs, or jumping legs, as separate limbs and had a special name for them. Hence locusts were described as having four legs, a reference to the four smaller walking legs. “Going on all fours” thus referred to creeping or walking as opposed to jumping and did not mean that the unclean insects had only four legs in all. Because of its two hind jumping legs, the locust was exempted from the prohibition against unclean insects (Lv 11:20-23).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mole\">Mole<\/p>\n<p>Rodent <em>(Spalax ehrenbergi)<\/em> from six to nine inches (15 to 23 centimeters) long, which burrows in any area where the soil is suitable for digging; it should be called a mole rat. Common in the Holy Land, large numbers are found in the vicinity of Jerusalem. Isaiah 2:20 refers to the mole, as does Leviticus 11:29-30 (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The mole rat has no tail and is molelike in appearance, but neither true moles nor shrews have ever been found in the Holy Land. The mole rat’s teeth are strong and protruding like those of a squirrel. The neck is short and thick with a plump body shaped like a sausage. The short legs have broad paws with claws adapted for burrowing. The fur is soft, thick, and ashen gray. Its ears and almost sightless eyes, which are no larger than poppyseeds, are hidden in the fur. Folklore taught that touching a mole rat would result in blindness.<\/p>\n<p>In the wet winter season the mole rat builds breeding mounds resembling those of pocket gophers. It builds less complex resting mounds in the summer, although both have rather elaborate tunnel systems. The mole rat feeds on roots, bulbs, tubers, and various other subterranean plant parts, often doing extensive damage to agriculture.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Moth\">Moth<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the genus <em>Tineola<\/em> that lays its eggs on wool or furs, its larvae feeding on those materials. The destructive qualities of moths are referred to in several biblical passages (Jb 13:28; Ps 39:11; Is 50:9; Hos 5:12; Mt 6:19-20; Lk 12:33; Jas 5:2). In Isaiah 51:8 “worm” (<span>nlt<\/span>) refers specifically to the larva of the clothes moth. The moth symbolizes disintegration, decay, and weakening. It is only the larvae that do the damage. The adult is quite harmless and feeds mainly on the nectar of flowers. It is easily crushed (Jb 4:19). The clothes moth reproduces in May or June. It enters human dwellings in the evening. A week after the eggs are laid the larvae appear and immediately begin their work of destruction, eating anything within reach made of animal fibers.<\/p>\n<p>The moth’s destructive activity is done in secret without any sound and without any dramatic appearance, such as a swarm that blots out the sun. In an age when wealth was counted more in possessions than in money, and when among those possessions wool clothing was highly valued, moths could literally cause economic disaster; hence the words of Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount (Mt 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p>There are hundreds of species of moths other than the clothes moth in the Holy Land; they are harmless to leaves, flowers, fruit, trees, and seeds. As with the clothes moth, the larvae inflict the damage.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mouse\">Mouse<\/p>\n<p>Rodent of the family Muridae, especially genus <em>Mus.<\/em> The mouse was regarded as unclean because, being short legged, it was considered one of the creeping creatures (Lv 11:29). Mice known as commensals live in dwellings and tend to have longer tails and to be darker in color than wild mice, which are active chiefly at night. Mice are good climbers and even good swimmers. Wild mice eat many kinds of vegetation, including seeds, fleshy roots, leaves, and stems. At times they store food.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word for “mouse” (Lv 11:29; 1 Sm 6:4-5; Is 66:17) is probably a general term for various rats and mice. The root meaning of the Hebrew word “mouse” is “destruction of corn,” a reference to the damage mice do to field crops. At least 23 varieties of mouselike rodents are known in the Holy Land. They cause food spoilage, damage household articles, and transport the host fleas that spread typhus, spotted fever, and bubonic plague. Plague bacteria may have caused the tumors or swellings among the Philistines (1 Sm 6:5). Isaiah 66:17 refers to a pre-exilic Canaanite cultic practice in which mice were eaten; the reference may actually be to the hamster. A number of rodents are eaten by Arabs of the Near East; the gerbil is considered a special delicacy. <em>See<\/em> Mole (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mule\">Mule<\/p>\n<p>Hybrid offspring of a male ass and a female horse <em>(Equus asinus mulus),<\/em> ordinarily sterile. The offspring of a female donkey and a stallion (male horse) is known as a hinny and is of little value because of its inferior size.<\/p>\n<p>Because crossbreeding was forbidden in the law (Lv 19:19), the Israelites procured mules from the Gentiles, perhaps from the Phoenicians, since Tyre (a Phoenician seaport in what is now southern Lebanon) imported horses and mules (Ez 27:14). Mules did not appear in Israel until David’s reign (2 Sm 13:29), possibly because of the rarity of horses among the Hebrews. Mules were used chiefly by members of the royal court and by other nobles. King David rode on a mule, and Solomon rode to his inaugaration on King David’s mule (1 Kgs 1:33). Absalom met his death riding on a mule (2 Sm 18:9). Mules were less common than horses, camels, and asses in the postexilic community (Ezr 2:66). In antiquity Asia Minor was especially noted for breeding fine mules.<\/p>\n<p>Mules have long enjoyed a reputation for obstinacy, but that trait is not mentioned in the Bible. The mule is prized for riding and for carrying heavy burdens, especially in warm mountainous regions. They are sure-footed and thrive best in hot, dry climates. The mule has the frugality, endurance, and steady gait of an ass along with the size, strength, swiftness, and courage of a horse. Mules are almost never sick. They live longer than horses. They can carry a load of up to 300 pounds (136 kilograms) as far as 30 miles (48.3 kilometers) a day.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pig\">Pig<\/p>\n<p>Most properly, newborn swine. “Swine” is technically the better name for the species, but it is rarely used in common speech today. The domestic pigs of the Middle East derived from the wild pig <em>(Sus scrofa).<\/em> The pig is the most prolific and abundant supplier of meat and fat for food. A thick layer of fat just under the skin is especially pronounced in domestic breeds. Pigs cannot be driven, so they are of value only to the settled farmer. The Hebrews were originally a nomadic people; therefore, they had little use for an animal closely associated with settled life. An Egyptian prince of about 1500 <span>BC<\/span>, however, is recorded as owning a herd of 1,500 swine.<\/p>\n<p>The pig is clumsily built, yet lively and able to move with agility and speed. The most conspicuous characteristic of the pig is a truncated, mobile snout terminating in a disc-shaped surface on which the nostrils are located. Most pigs have large tusks in both jaws which grow continuously in life. The tusks of the upper jaw are unique in that they curve upward instead of pointing downward as in most animals. The excrement of a pig has an almost unbearable odor, which clings not only to the pig itself but also to swineherds, who can be identified a long way off.<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were never raised in the Holy Land by Jews. The great herd into which Jesus drove the unclean spirits was encountered in the land of the Gadarenes, a non-Jewish area east of the Jordan. The Gadarene demons took refuge in a herd of pigs feeding on a bluff overlooking the Sea of Galilee (Mt 8:28-32).<\/p>\n<p>Wild pigs were found in the Holy Land as in many countries today. Psalm 80:13 refers to the destructiveness of a wild boar (the male, or hog) attacking growing crops. A party of wild boars can destroy an entire vineyard or a field of crops in a single night. They devour, trample, and ravage everything within reach.<\/p>\n<p>Boar hunts were common in ancient Mesopotamia. Wild boars do not attack unless molested, but they are dangerous when aroused. They travel in bands of from 6 to 50 and are most active in the evening and early morning hours. The body is covered with stiff bristles and usually some finer hair, but the body covering is often quite scanty. Wild pigs are mainly vegetarian, feeding on roots, nuts, grains, and plant stems. Wild boars were particularly abundant in the mountainous regions of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, in the Jordan River valley, and in wooded sections such as Mt Tabor.<\/p>\n<p>Strict Jews would not even mention swine by name but would always substitute the term “the abomination.” Israelites considered themselves polluted if they were even touched by a swine’s bristle. To the Jews, the pig symbolized filth and ugliness. Pigs will eat fecal material, vermin, rodents, carrion, and the like (2 Pt 2:22). Proverbs 11:22 refers to the incongruity of a golden ring in the nose of an animal showing such characteristics. A similar metaphor occurs in Jesus’ statement about casting pearls before swine (Mt 7:6). The prodigal son’s degeneration was shown by his being forced in his poverty to feed pigs and eat their food (Lk 15:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>Eating the flesh of pigs was forbidden to the Jews (Lv 11:7; Dt 14:8). The Canaanites in the Holy Land killed and ate pigs freely. In intertestamental times Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), a Syrian king whose territories included Israel, used the pig to “Hellenize” the Jews. He first tested their loyalty to the Jewish faith by requiring the consumption of pork, considered a delicacy by the Greeks (2 Macc 6:18). The act of desecration that drove the Jews to rebellion, however, was the sprinkling of pig blood on the temple altar in a sacrifice to Zeus (1 Macc 1:47).<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were frequently used in pagan worship (Is 65:4; 66:3, 17), which may account for their being forbidden to the Jews as food. Evidence in the Holy Land shows that pigs were sacrificed long before Hellenistic times. Pig bones were found in a grotto below the rock-cut place of sacrifice at Gezer. A similar underground chamber with vessels containing piglet bones at Tirzah dates to the middle Bronze Age (about 2000 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Alabaster fragments of a statuette of a pig ready to be sacrificed have been unearthed. Swine were sacrificed to Aphrodite (Venus) in Greece and Asia Minor. In addition, pigs were sacrificed in connection with oaths and treaties; in the <em>Iliad,<\/em> Agamemnon sacrificed a boar to Zeus and Helios. So it is not surprising that among the Jews the pig became a symbol of filthiness and paganism.<\/p>\n<p>It is possible that eating pork was forbidden primarily because the pig may carry many worm parasites such as trichina, though that is also true of some “clean” animals. Another reason for forbidding their consumption may have been that pigs eat carrion. Some people are allergic to pork in hot weather—another suggested reason behind the Jewish taboo. The same taboo exists among the Muslims and existed in certain social strata in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Porcupine\">Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>Rodent, <em>Hystrix cristata,<\/em> which lives in forested areas, rocky hills, ravines, and valleys. The porcupine is still found in the Holy Land today. It has long quills that can be raised to give the appearance of a crest. It is almost entirely nocturnal. It burrows by day into a natural cavity or crevice. The Old World porcupine rarely climbed trees, although the New World porcupine frequently does. A porcupine may weigh as much as 60 pounds (27.2 kilograms). It eats fruit, bark, roots, and other vegetation, and carrion as well. Although its flesh is edible, the porcupine was not classed among the clean animals for the Israelites. The reference in Isaiah 34:11 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is probably to the porcupine, as is Isaiah 14:23 in the <span>nlt<\/span>. <em>See<\/em> Hedgehog.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Scorpion\">Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>Arthropod of the same group as spiders (arachnids). A dozen species of scorpions (order Scorpionida) are found in the Holy Land, but 90 percent of the scorpions are yellow scorpions, usually three to five inches (7.6 to 12.7 centimeters) long. The rock scorpion, also common to the Holy Land, is as thick as a man’s finger and from five to seven inches (12.7 to 17.8 centimeters) in length. Scorpions are slow, nocturnal invertebrates that rest beneath stones by day and prey on insects and other arachnids by night. At the end of its long tail the scorpion carries a poisonous sting that is fatal to most prey and extremely painful to humans (Rv 9:3, 5, 10; cf. 1 Kgs 12:11, 14). Scorpions symbolize Ezekiel’s evil countrymen (Ez 2:6) and the demonic forces of Satan (Lk 10:19). The scorpion is referred to as frequenting the Sinai Desert (Dt 8:15).<\/p>\n<p>A scorpion has from six to eight eyes. It has eight legs like a spider and two lobsterlike claws with which it catches and holds its prey. It feeds particularly on locusts and beetles. In many species the female scorpion eats the male after mating. Scorpions lay eggs that hatch very shortly after laying. Scorpions prefer warmer climates, and because of their desire for warmth, enter houses, especially at night, hiding in beds, blankets, footwear, and clothing.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sheep\">Sheep<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animal, <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> referred to directly or by some term such as ewe, lamb, ram, or by some fact concerning them over 700 times in Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Sheep represented the chief wealth and total livelihood of pastoral peoples, providing food to eat, milk to drink, wool for the making of cloth, and hides and bones for other uses. In addition, the sheep was a medium of exchange and a sacrificial animal. The number of sheep raised in ancient times was prodigious. Mesha, king of Moab, paid a tribute annually of 100,000 lambs and the wool of 100,000 rams (2 Kgs 3:4). The Israelites took 250,000 sheep from the Hagrites (1 Chr 5:21).<\/p>\n<p>Sheep shearing was often done for festivals (2 Sm 13:23). The sheep was held down on its side and its legs were tied together; then it lay docilely while its wool was clipped (Is 53:7). Sheep reserved for burnt offerings were not shorn; nothing could be held back from a sacrifice to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Wool had to be processed before it could be used for clothing. First it was washed, sometimes while still on the sheep, then carded and perhaps weighed for the market. The spinning of wool was regarded as a woman’s work (Prv 31:19), but weaving the spun thread into cloth on a loom was primarily a man’s occupation.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible reports that Abel kept sheep (Gn 4:2). The first sheep to be domesticated was probably the argali <em>(Ovis ammon),<\/em> a variety of the urial <em>(Ovis vignei),<\/em> a mountainous species still existing in Turkestan and Mongolia. Five breeds had reached Mesopotamia by 2000 <span>BC<\/span>; all were of the urial stock.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep known in Israel was the broad-tailed sheep <em>(Ovis orientalis vignei<\/em> or <em>laticaudata),<\/em> of which the tail weighs from 10 to 15 pounds (4.5 to 6.8 kilograms) and has always been considered a delicacy. Thus the Lord asked for this choice part as a sacrifice (Ex 29:22-25).<\/p>\n<p>Only the ram of the broad-tailed sheep has horns, but in other varieties of sheep in the Holy Land the ewe also has horns. The horns, two to three inches (5 to 8 centimeters) in diameter, can be potent weapons. Rams’ horns could be used as trumpets (Jos 6:4) or as oil containers (1 Sm 16:1).<\/p>\n<p>Although the sheep is very similar to the goat, it is differentiated by a lower forehead, its angulated spiral horns marked with transverse wrinkles and curved slightly outward, its covering of wool, and its lack of a “goatee.” Most sheep are white (Ps 147:16; Is 1:18; Dn 7:9; Rv 1:14).<\/p>\n<p>The flesh of sheep was a luxury in the biblical culture. King Solomon required a daily provision of 100 sheep for his table (1 Kgs 4:23), but the common people ate lamb or mutton only on festive occasions. A young ram was usually chosen because the ewes were more important to the future prospects of the herd. The meat was boiled in large caldrons. The milk of the sheep is extremely rich; in biblical times it was usually allowed to curdle before drinking. Possibly some Israelites kept lambs in their houses as pets (2 Sm 12:3-4).<\/p>\n<p>To protect the flock at night against predatory attacks, the shepherd tried to provide a fold. In meadows near villages, folds were built and watchmen were hired to relieve the shepherds. The shepherds of the nativity story were out in the field (Lk 2:8); they had no fold but probably had set up a tent for shelter, consisting simply of goat-hair blankets spread across sapling supports. The scarcity of springs in the Holy Land made the watering of the flock a crucial problem for the shepherd (Gn 13:8-11).<\/p>\n<p>Wild mountain sheep, varieties of <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> are known in the Mediterranean area (Dt 14:5). The Deuteronomy passage (<span>kjv<\/span> “chamois”) might also refer to <em>Ovis traelaphus,<\/em> a sheep about five feet high (1.5 meters) with long, curved horns. Another possibility is the Barbary sheep that lives in small flocks in rugged mountain areas in Barbary, Egypt, and Mt Sinai. The true chamois is unknown in Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep is also used figuratively in Scripture. The ram represented great strength and fittingly symbolized Medo-Persia in Daniel’s vision (Dn 8:3). It is the nature of sheep to be gentle and submissive (Is 53:7; Jer 11:19), defenseless (Mi 5:8; Mt 10:16), and in constant need of guidance and care (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36). Such qualities are regarded as desirable in the lives of believers in Christ; hence the many figurative references to sheep in the NT and to Jesus as shepherd (Mk 6:34; Jn 10:1-30; Rom 8:35-37; Heb 13:20-21; 1 Pt 2:25). The resurrected Christ told the apostle Peter to “feed my lambs” and “tend my sheep” (Jn 21:15-17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snail\">Snail<\/p>\n<p>Invertebrate gastropods (mollusks). Land snails are very numerous in the Near East. Some freshwater forms serve as hosts for the schistosome worm, the fluke parasite causing the dread disease bilharzia (schistosomiasis).<\/p>\n<p>Purple dyes of all shades were highly valued in the ancient world. A royal purple dye was obtained from secretions of a sea snail <em>(Murex trunculus<\/em> and <em>Murex brandaris).<\/em> Evidently, that process was developed by Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Assyrians as early as 1500 <span>BC<\/span>. The “purple” fishermen had their own guild during the time of the Roman Empire. The snails were harvested during the fall and winter seasons; in the spring, when egg laying took place, little dye was available. The snails tended to remain concealed in the summer. They inhabited the waters off Crete and Phoenicia. Tyrian purple, produced in the Phoenician city of Tyre, the center of the purple-dye industry, was obtained by a double dyeing. Large deposits of murex shells from dyeing operations have been found along the Mediterranean shoreline. The Israelites had to import purple goods (Ez 27:16). Lydia was a “seller of purple” or of cloth so dyed (Acts 16:14). Purple was a sign of distinction, royalty, and wealth (cf. Ex 25:4; 28:5-6, 15; Nm 15:38; 2 Chr 2:7; Est 8:15; Prv 31:22; Sg 3:10; Ez 27:7; Dn 5:7).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 30:34-35 refers to “onycha,” which was an important ingredient of incense. Onycha is the horny, clawlike operculum (the plate that closes off the opening of its shell when a snail is retracted) of a Near Eastern member of the molluskan family Strombidae. The operculum is sometimes used for offense or locomotion as well as for defense. When burned, the operculum gives off a sharp, strong scent, and when mixed with more fragrant but less powerful substances is even more potent. The name “onycha” is derived from a Greek word <em>(onyx)<\/em> for a fingernail or a claw.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snake\">Snake<\/p>\n<p>Various species of snake, suborder Ophidia (Serpentes). In the Bible nine Hebrew words and four Greek ones refer to snakes. The most common Hebrew word is onomatopoeic—that is, it is an imitation of a snake hissing or of the sound it produces as it scrapes its scales along the ground (cf. Jer 46:22). Many types of snakes lay eggs (Is 59:5), although some retain the eggs in the body until ready to hatch.<\/p>\n<p>Snakes are among the most widespread reptiles and are found on all continents except Antarctica; they decrease in numbers and species toward the poles but increase as one approaches the equator. Thirty-three species of snakes are known in Palestine and neighboring countries, 20 of which are poisonous. Two dangerous characteristics of the snake noted by biblical writers are its inconspicuous way of moving and the ease with which it hides itself.<\/p>\n<p>Many snakes are able to swallow animals several times their own diameter because of their unusually flexible jaw mechanism. They lack not only legs but also movable eyelids. Snakes periodically shed their skins. The tongue is actually a hearing apparatus sensitive to airborne vibrations and probably to heat waves.<\/p>\n<p>The venom of poisonous species is a clear, thin secretion, transmitted to the victim’s bloodstream by means of fangs. Two types of venom are known: that of the vipers, which affects respiration and disintegrates red blood cells, and that of the cobras, which paralyzes the nervous system.<\/p>\n<p>The “asp” referred to in the Bible is probably the cobra; the “adder” is the viper. The “cockatrice” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is probably the adder. Serpents were associated with worship in Canaanite religion and symbolized evil deities among many other peoples. Steles (upright stones bearing inscriptions) have been unearthed at several sites in the Holy Land and Syria depicting a god or worshiper with a snake winding about the legs or body. Because the Israelites were burning incense in pagan worship of Moses’ bronze serpent (Nm 21:8-9), King Hezekiah destroyed it in his religious reform (2 Kgs 18:4).<\/p>\n<p>Although snakes have been an object of veneration in some religions, in the Judeo-Christian tradition snakes represent evil and, more specifically, the devil. That association began in the Garden of Eden (Gn 3:1-15) and is also found in the book of Revelation (12:9; 20:2-3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adder (above); Asp (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Spider\">Spider<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the order Araneida. Between 600 and 700 different species inhabit the Holy Land. Spiders are different from insects in that, like scorpions, they have four pairs of legs instead of three. Spiders are equipped with poison glands—the effectiveness varying from species to species. A few can kill only insects, but others can also kill birds and mice.<\/p>\n<p>Most spiders have a pair of spinnerets attached to silk glands on the underside of the abdomen; from them a web is extruded. In the Bible the spider’s web is referred to as a symbol of frailty and insecurity (Jb 8:14; Is 59:5-6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sponge\">Sponge<\/p>\n<p>Simple marine animals, phylum Porifera. The term “sponge” also refers to those animals’ skeletal remains. The sponge has a porous body composed of tubules and cells.<\/p>\n<p>Sponge fishing was well known in the Mediterranean area in ancient times. It was practiced particularly along the Anatolian and Syrian coasts. Sponges were harvested by divers. The use of sponges in absorbing liquids is referred to in the Bible (Mt 27:48; Mk 15:36).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Unicorn\">Unicorn<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Wild Ox (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wasp\">Wasp<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the family Vespidae. Hornets are social wasps that build large aerial apartment houses in which 1,000 or more individuals may live. In the Bible the hornet is used as a metaphor for God’s use of military forces (Ex 23:28; Dt 7:20; Jos 24:12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Whale\">Whale<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all living creatures, including those that have become extinct. Whales are air-breathing mammals of the order Cetacea.<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of whales visit the shores of the Holy Land at times. The finback whale <em>(Balaenoptera physalus)<\/em> weighs about 200 tons (181 metric tons) and lives mainly in the Arctic region but sometimes passes through the Straits of Gibraltar to reach the eastern Mediterranean Sea. It feeds on small marine organisms that it strains through its whale bone; it does not have teeth. The finback whale’s esophagus is narrow.<\/p>\n<p>The sperm whale <em>(Physeter catodon),<\/em> about 60 feet (18.3 meters) long, has a curiously shaped head that looks like a battering ram. The teeth in the lower jaw of the male sperm whale are about seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long. It feeds on big fish, even on sharks. It has a large throat opening.<\/p>\n<p>Whales are referred to in Genesis 1:21 and Job 7:12 (<span>kjv<\/span> only). The “great fish” of Jonah 2:1 need not have been a whale but could have been a large shark, such as the whale shark <em>(Rhineodon),<\/em> which grows 70 feet (21.3 meters) long and lacks the terrible teeth of other sharks. Whatever the actual marine organism, Jonah’s deliverance was miraculous. The Greek word for “whale” is sometimes used as a general term for “sea monster” or huge fish and may be used in that sense in Matthew 12:40.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WildOx\">Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>Large, fierce, fleet, intractable animal <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> It had a long, lean rump with a straight back and a long, narrow head. The animal described in Job 39:9-12 is clearly the wild ox. The two horns (Dt 33:17), its outstanding characteristic, were straight and as long as the head (Nm 23:22; 24:8; Ps 22:21). Kings often symbolized their dominion by wearing a helmet with two wild ox horns (cf. Pss 92:10; 132:17-18). The horns were often used as drinking vessels by the Israelites; some were large enough to hold four gallons (15 liters).<\/p>\n<p>Hunting the wild ox was a favorite sport of Assyrian kings. Tiglath-pileser I hunted it in the Lebanon Mountains about 1100 <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Ps 29:6). At one time the animal referred to in Job 39:9-12 was thought to be the oryx or antelope because of the similarity between the Hebrew word in Job and the Arabian name for oryx. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> called the wild ox a “unicorn” because of representations found on Babylonian mosaics and Egyptian drawings. Those representations showed it in strict profile, showing only one horn—hence, “unicorn.” Jerome’s Vulgate, a Latin Bible translation (fourth century <span>AD<\/span>) and Martin Luther’s German version translated it similarly.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wolf\">Wolf<\/p>\n<p>Large doglike mammal <em>(Canis lupus)<\/em> that travels in bands of up to 30 animals. From the nose to the rump, the wolf measures about 3 feet (.9 meter); its drooping tail is about 18 inches (.5 meter) long. It looks much like a skinny German shepherd dog. The grayish yellow pelt is coarse and short haired.<\/p>\n<p>Wolves hunt singly or in relays, usually at night (Jer 5:6). Wolves have acute hearing and sight but rely chiefly on scent and usually catch their prey in a swift, open chase. The wolf has a reputation for boldness, fierceness, and voracity (Gn 49:27; Hb 1:8). It commonly kills more than it can eat or drag away and thus is known for its greediness.<\/p>\n<p>The wolf is a restless animal, always on the move; hunger drives it from one place to another in constant search of new hunting grounds. During spring and fall, wolves usually roam singly or in pairs, whereas in summer they may travel in family groups. In winter, several such groups may join to form a large pack. Wolves are intelligent, social creatures, faithful to their own kind. They mate for life. Individually, the wolf is a rather timid animal; it would much rather avoid human beings. But collectively wolves can be among the most dangerous animals alive.<\/p>\n<p>In Egypt, Rome, and Greece the wolf was considered sacred. Wolves were well known in the Holy Land and are still found there and also in many places in Asia Minor. Shepherds continually battled with wolves that plundered their flocks (Jn 10:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible refers to wolves in a literal sense in only three places (Is 11:6; 65:25; Jn 10:12), all other references being figurative. Usually the wolf is a symbol of enemies or the wicked (e.g., Ez 22:27; Zep 3:3; Acts 20:29). Both the wolf’s courage and its cruelty were probably in the mind of the patriarch Jacob when he predicted the fate of Benjamin’s tribe (Gn 49:27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Worm\">Worm<\/p>\n<p>Actually insect larvae in most biblical references, usually maggots, the larvae of flies (see Fly, above). For example, maggots are evidently referred to in accounts of worms feeding on spoiled manna (Ex 16:19-20), corpses (Jb 21:26; Is 14:11), or open wounds (Jb 7:5). Mark 9:48 refers to a maggot that eats dead flesh. In Acts 12:23 a fatal, worm-induced abdominal disease of King Herod is mentioned. In other cases, the reference is to the larvae of other insects (Is 51:8). In Deuteronomy 28:39 and Jonah 4:7 the vine weevil <em>(Cochylis ambiguella)<\/em> is probably referred to; it destroys vines by boring into their stems. Comparing a man to a worm is a metaphor for abasement (Jb 25:6; Ps 22:6).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ANIMALS<\/h3>\n<p>In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals as object lessons.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical approach to classification of animals is somewhat different from the system of classification used by biologists today. The present system of classification, which traces back to Carolus Linnaeus (an 18th-century Swedish botanist), is based on structure, both internal and external. The biblical basis of classification is habitat. Thus Genesis 1 speaks of aquatic organisms (v 20); aerial organisms (v 21); animals that crawl on the ground (v 24); cattle or domesticated animals (animals that live in association with humans) (v 24); and wild animals (v 24). The same system of classification is followed in Leviticus 11 and throughout Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Because of the divergence between systems of classification, the various animals of the Bible will be listed here in alphabetical order—including reptiles, fish, and even invertebrates such as insects, spiders, worms, and sponges. Birds are discussed in a separate article.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Adder<\/p>\n<p>• Ant<\/p>\n<p>• Antelope<\/p>\n<p>• Ape<\/p>\n<p>• Asp<\/p>\n<p>• Ass<\/p>\n<p>• Badger<\/p>\n<p>• Bat<\/p>\n<p>• Bear<\/p>\n<p>• Bee<\/p>\n<p>• Behemoth<\/p>\n<p>• Camel<\/p>\n<p>• Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>• Cattle<\/p>\n<p>• Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>• Coral<\/p>\n<p>• Cricket<\/p>\n<p>• Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>• Deer<\/p>\n<p>• Dog<\/p>\n<p>• Donkey<\/p>\n<p>• Dragon<\/p>\n<p>• Fish<\/p>\n<p>• Flea<\/p>\n<p>• Fly<\/p>\n<p>• Fox<\/p>\n<p>• Frog<\/p>\n<p>• Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>• Gecko<\/p>\n<p>• Gnat<\/p>\n<p>• Goat<\/p>\n<p>• Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>• Hare<\/p>\n<p>• Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>• Horse<\/p>\n<p>• Hyena<\/p>\n<p>• Jackal<\/p>\n<p>• Leech<\/p>\n<p>• Leopard<\/p>\n<p>• Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>• Lion<\/p>\n<p>• Lizard<\/p>\n<p>• Locust<\/p>\n<p>• Mole<\/p>\n<p>• Moth<\/p>\n<p>• Mouse<\/p>\n<p>• Mule<\/p>\n<p>• Pig<\/p>\n<p>• Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>• Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>• Sheep<\/p>\n<p>• Snail<\/p>\n<p>• Snake<\/p>\n<p>• Spider<\/p>\n<p>• Sponge<\/p>\n<p>• Unicorn<\/p>\n<p>• Wasp<\/p>\n<p>• Whale<\/p>\n<p>• Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>• Wolf<\/p>\n<p>• Worm<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Adder\">Adder<\/p>\n<p>One of the 20 poisonous snakes found in Israel and surrounding countries, also referred to as cockatrice and viper. True vipers (genus <em>Cerastes, Echis colorata,<\/em> and <em>Vipera palestina<\/em>) also exist there, poisonous snakes with curved fangs that spring into position when the snake strikes. The horned viper <em>(Cerastes hasselquistii)<\/em> may attack horses. It is 12 to 18 inches (30 to 46 centimeters) long and often lies in ambush in the sand with only its eyes and the hornlike protrusions on its head visible.<\/p>\n<p>Both Jesus and John the Baptist referred to the viper several times (Mt 3:7; 12:34; 23:33). The reference in Acts 28:3 is probably to a small viper <em>(Vipera aspis)<\/em> that strikes rapidly and is very pugnacious. It is found in southern Europe and hisses each time it inhales and exhales. The poison of vipers attacks the respiratory system and disintegrates red blood cells.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ant\">Ant<\/p>\n<p>Mentioned only twice in the Bible, both times in the book of Proverbs. For many years Solomon was charged with a biological error when he referred to the ant as providing her meat in the summer and gathering her food in the harvest (Prv 6:8). Critics of the Bible were quick to point out that, so far as was then known, ants do not store up food. They assumed that Solomon had probably kicked open an ant hill and mistaken the pupal cases (pods in which immature ants grow to maturity) for grain or had observed ants carrying bits of grain, leaves, and other matter to their nests.<\/p>\n<p>At least three species of grain-storing ants are now known—two occur in Israel and the other in Mediterranean countries. The particular species referred to by Solomon (Prv 6:6-8; 30:24-25) is probably the harvester ant <em>(Messor semirufus).<\/em> Its granaries are flat chambers connected by galleries irregularly scattered over an area about six feet (1.8 meters) in diameter and about a foot (.3 meter) deep in the ground. Seeds are collected from the ground or picked from plants. The head, or radicle, which is the softest part of the kernel, is bitten off to prevent germination, and the chaff and empty capsules are discarded on kitchen middens (refuse piles) outside the nest. Individual granaries may be 5 inches (12.7 centimeters) in diameter and a half inch (1.2 centimeters) high. Some nests are known to be 40 feet (12 meters) in diameter and 6 to 7 feet (approx. 2 meters) deep with several entrances.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Antelope\">Antelope<\/p>\n<p>Several antelope-like creatures are referred to in the Scriptures. One seems to be the white oryx <em>(Oryx leucoryx),<\/em> referred to in Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild ox”; <span>rsv<\/span> “antelope”) and Isaiah 51:20 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild bull”; <span>RSV <\/span>“antelope”). The oryx was probably the antelope, commonly used for food because its long horns made it relatively easy to catch.<\/p>\n<p>Another antelope mentioned in the Bible is the addax <em>(Addax nasomaculatus),<\/em> probably the “pygarg” of Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span>). It is a native of North Africa with grayish white hinder parts, a white patch on the forehead, and twisted and ringed horns. The word “pygarg” comes from a Greek word meaning “white rump.” The addax is about the size of a donkey. Its body is closely covered with short hair. It has a short mane on the underside of its neck that makes the head look somewhat like that of a goat. The hooves are broad and flat, and the tail resembles that of a donkey. It is common in Africa and in Arabia, where Arabs hunt it with falcons and dogs.<\/p>\n<p>Antelopes are very graceful and run with their heads held high. Both sexes have long, permanent, hollow horns. With the oryx the horns go straight back; addax horns are twisted and ringed. Antelope are alert, wary, and keen sighted. They are usually found in herds of from two to a dozen. If injured or brought to bay, an antelope attacks with its head lowered so that the sharp horns point forward. Antelopes feed on grasses and shrubs, drinking from streams and water holes. When water is scarce, they eat melons and succulent bulbs. Both addax and oryx were ceremonially clean in Jewish law.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ape\">Ape<\/p>\n<p>Primate not native to Palestine. The two references to apes in the OT (1 Kgs 10:22; 2 Chr 9:21) refer to their importation by King Solomon with other treasures on board the ships of his mercantile fleet. There is some question concerning the origin of those primates. Some believe that the mention of “ivory” in the same verses suggests they came from East Africa and that they were indeed apes, that is, tailless primates. Others, believing they came from India or Ceylon, suggest that they were actually monkeys. There the baboon (genus Papeio), a large monkey, was considered sacred to the god Thoth. Males of that genus were kept in temples, and the more docile females were often kept as house pets. Such baboons frequently had some of their teeth removed or ground down to lessen the danger of their biting. A number of mummified baboons have been found in Egypt, indicating the high regard in which they were held.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Asp\">Asp<\/p>\n<p>Poisonous snake. Most biblical references to the asp (Dt 32:33) seem to be to the Egyptian cobra <em>(Naja haje),<\/em> which conceals itself in holes, walls, and rocks and has the ability to expand its neck by raising its anterior ribs so as to enlarge the front of its breast into the shape of a flat disc. Its potent poison can cause death in 30 minutes. It attains a length of about 80 inches (2 meters). The fangs are permanently erect, not movable as in the vipers (the common poisonous snakes of North America; only the coral snake in America has permanently erect fangs). Cobra poison attacks the nervous system, causing muscular paralysis. The Egyptians looked upon it as a sacred creature; they regarded it as a protector since it fed on the rodents that ate their crops. The “fiery serpents” (Nm 21:6; Dt 8:15, both <span>rsv<\/span>) may have been cobras; “fiery” probably refers to the burning fever caused by their venom. Isaiah 14:29 and 30:6 (“flying serpent”) may refer to the hood of the cobra.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ass\">Ass<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Donkey (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Badger\">Badger<\/p>\n<p>Small hoofed mammal. What the <span>kjv<\/span> calls a “coney,” modern translations name “rock badger” (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7; Ps 104:18; Prv 30:26). The rock badger spoken of in the Bible is probably the Syrian rock hyrax <em>(Hyrax syriaca),<\/em> the only species of hyrax found outside Africa. This small ungulate (having hooflike toenails) lives among rocks from the Dead Sea valley to Mt Hermon. It is strictly a herbivorous (plant-eating) animal about the size of a rabbit. It resembles a guinea pig more than a rabbit, having quite inconspicuous ears and a very small tail. It has broad nails with four toes on its forelegs and three on its hind legs, the toes being connected with skin almost like a web. Pads acting as sucking discs under its feet enable it to keep its footing on slippery rocks. With its yellow and brown fur, it is sometimes called the bear rat because of its resemblance to a tailless rat. It is also equipped with black whiskers that may be seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p>These rock badgers, or hyraxes, live together in colonies of from 6 to 50 animals, often sunning themselves on rocks. They are difficult to catch. Guards are posted, and if approaching danger is sighted, the whole group will scurry for cover, warned by the sharp whistles of the guards. Thus they are commended for taking refuge in the rocks (Ps 104:18) and are called wise for making “their houses in the rocks” (Prv 30:24, 26, <span>kjv<\/span>). The badger is not a ruminant (does not chew its cud), but the motion of its jaws may suggest that it chews its cud. That is probably why it was included with other cud-chewing animals in the Jewish food laws (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7). It was forbidden to the Jews as food because it did not have cloven hooves. Some Arabs eat and even prize its meat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bat\">Bat<\/p>\n<p>Flying mammals according to modern classification. They have hair and provide milk for their young. The Bible classifies them with other aerial creatures. Bats take shelter in caves, crevices, tree cavities, buildings, and also in exposed places on trees. In colder areas they hibernate or migrate. The normal resting position for a bat is hanging head downward. Bats “swim” through the air rather than fly because they move with their legs as well as with their wings.<\/p>\n<p>The bat’s thumb is free and terminates in a single hook claw used for climbing and hanging. The hind feet have five toes, all pointing the same way. The large chest accommodates the powerful muscles needed for flying. Because they orient themselves by echo location, the sense of hearing is very well developed.<\/p>\n<p>Most bats are insect eaters, seizing insects in flight. Many insectivorous bats also eat some fruit. Other bats feed exclusively, usually in groups, on fruit and green vegetation. Fruit-eating bats generally live in the tropics where fruit is constantly ripening, although some have been found in the Holy Land. These bats tend to be larger than the insectivores, having a wingspread of up to five feet (1.5 meters).<\/p>\n<p>A third group includes flower-eating bats that feed on pollen and nectar. These small bats with long pointed heads and long tongues are found only in tropical and semitropical regions. Three species of vampire bats, which do not occur in the Holy Land, eat blood by making a small incision and lapping it up. Carnivorous (meat-eating) bats prey on birds, lizards, and frogs. Fish-eating bats catch fish at or near the water surface.<\/p>\n<p>Eight varieties of bats are known in the Holy Land. One of them, the little brown bat (genus <em>Myotis<\/em>), is worldwide in its distribution. It is insectivorous and probably has the widest distribution of any nonhuman terrestrial mammal. Brown bats are mostly cave dwellers. The females form maternity colonies that may number in the tens of thousands.<\/p>\n<p>Two species of mouse-tailed bats (genus <em>Rhinopoma<\/em>) are found in the Holy Land. Their tails are nearly as long as the head and body combined. They are colonial, roosting in caves, rock clefts, wells, pyramids, palaces, and houses. Like the brown bat, they are insectivorous. The slit-faced or hollow-faced bats (genus <em>Nycteris<\/em>) are also found in the Holy Land. They are insectivorous and roost in groups from 6 to 20.<\/p>\n<p>The bats found in the Holy Land vary in size from that of a mouse to the size of a rat; the largest species measures more than 20 inches (51 centimeters) across the wings. The bat was unclean to the Jews (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bear\">Bear<\/p>\n<p>Large, heavy, big-headed mammal with short, powerful limbs, a short tail, and small eyes and ears. Bears have a “plantigrade” walk: they walk on both the sole and heel as humans do. The Palestinian bear is a Syrian version of the brown bear <em>(Ursus arctos syriacus).<\/em> It can grow to a height of 6 feet (1.8 meters) and may weigh as much as 500 pounds (227 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>Bears have an excellent sense of smell but less developed senses of sight and hearing. They are omnivorous (eating any kind of food); they subsist largely on vegetation, fruits, insects, and fish.<\/p>\n<p>Bears are usually peaceful and inoffensive, but if they think they must defend themselves (Lam 3:10) or their young (2 Sm 17:8; Prv 17:12; Hos 13:8), they may be formidable and dangerous adversaries. David boasted of his role as a bear killer (1 Sm 17:34-37). Since a blow from a bear’s paw can be fatal, David’s courage and strength as a young shepherd in running after a bear and wrenching one of his father’s sheep from its jaws were noteworthy.<\/p>\n<p>Some biblical passages seem to imply that bears attacked for no apparent reason (e.g., Prv 28:15; Am 5:19). At other times they were God’s instruments of punishment, as in the story of Elisha and the two she-bears (2 Kgs 2:24). The bear and the lion, often mentioned together in the Bible (1 Sm 17:37), were the two largest and strongest beasts of prey in the Holy Land. Thus they symbolized both strength and terror (Am 5:19).<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times bears seem to have roamed all over Palestine. Today they are found only in the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Mountains, and even there they are rare.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bee\">Bee<\/p>\n<p>One of two domesticated insects <em>(Apis mellifica),<\/em> the other being the silkworm. Bees gather nectar from flowers, transferring pollen from one flower to another in the process. It is believed that they convey the location of sources of nectar to other bees through a bee “dance,” which may indicate both distance and direction. Bees are sensitive to four colors: blue-green, yellow-green, blue-violet, and ultra-violet (invisible to humans).<\/p>\n<p>The wild bees of the Holy Land are especially noted for their ferocity in attack. Only the female “worker” bees sting people and animals, the virulence of their venom increasing in warm weather. A number of biblical passages allude to the irritable, vindictive nature of bees and to the painful stings they inflict (Dt 1:44; Ps 118:12; Is 7:18).<\/p>\n<p>One reference calls attention to the fact that in semidesert regions a dead animal’s carcass, stripped to the bone by jackals or vultures and dried in the sun, can provide wild bees an excellent place to start a new colony (Jgs 14:5-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptians considered the bee sacred. In ancient Greece candles were made from beeswax. In the Holy Land, beekeeping was probably not practiced until the Hellenistic period (second century <span>BC<\/span>), although Ezekiel 27:17 suggests that it may have been practiced earlier. If domestic honey was not available to the Hebrews, wild honey certainly was, and travelers would be on the lookout for caches of honey in rocky clefts and other likely places. The Philistines and the Hittites practiced beekeeping in their cities.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible contains many references to bees and bee products. A bee swarm was a valuable asset, though the price of honey itself was low. Honey was sometimes eaten with the honeycomb (Sg 5:1). Honey also had uses other than food, e.g., in embalming.<\/p>\n<p>The land of Israel was described as a land flowing with milk and honey. Honey was a major source of sweetening in the ancient Near East—hence, its importance (cf. Jgs 14:8-9). Actually the Hebrew word for “honey” may include not only bee honey but also the sweet syrup extracted from such fruits as figs, dates, and grapes. Thus “a land flowing with milk and honey” (Ex 3:8, <span>rsv<\/span>) does not necessarily stand for a land of bees but for a land rich in sweetness.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Food and Food Preparation; Honey.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Behemoth\">Behemoth<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Hippopotamus (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Camel\">Camel<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of burden. Unintelligent, ill-natured, and quarrelsome, the camel <em>(Camelus dromedarius)<\/em> is nevertheless a blessing to people living in the desert and on its borders because it is especially adapted to that habitat. It has been called the ship of the desert. Having thick elastic pads of fibrous tissue on its feet, it can walk on hot desert sands. It can go without water for long periods and can subsist on vegetation growing on the saline soils. The camel’s nostrils are pinched together and can be closed at will to prevent penetration of sand during violent sandstorms.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are used for transporting both goods and people. A person riding a camel can cover from 60 to 75 miles (96.5 to 121 kilometers) in a day. A camel can carry a load weighing 600 pounds (272 kilograms) or more. Camels were used heavily in the spice trade (Gn 37:25) and traveled regularly in camel trains between Arabia, Egypt, and Assyria. They were also ridden in time of war (Jgs 6:5). A camel can even be hitched to a plow in areas where the land is cultivated.<\/p>\n<p>The hair shed by camels during the early spring is preserved and used in weaving cloth and making tents. As much as 10 pounds (4.5 kilograms) of hair can be obtained from one camel. A rough cloak of camel’s hair, as worn by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4), is still worn by Bedouins today. A camel’s hair garment was also the sign of the prophetic office (Zec 13:4).<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of camel occur within the one-humped species, the slow burden-bearing camel referred to in Genesis 37:25 and the fast dromedary of 1 Samuel 30:17. The dromedary can stand seven feet (2.1 meters) tall and measure as much as nine feet (2.7 meters) from the muzzle to the tip of the tail. With its three-chambered stomach, which can hold from 15 to 30 quarts (14.2 to 28.4 liters) of liquid, it can go for as long as 5 days during the summer or 25 days in winter without drinking. The camel’s hump is a reserve store of fat, making it possible for the animal to subsist on very little food during a desert journey.<\/p>\n<p>Another species of camel, the Bactrian camel <em>(Camelus bactrianus),<\/em> is also resident in the Holy Land. It has two humps. It is heavier, bigger, and has longer hair than the one-humped camel and is slower than the swift dromedary. Isaiah 21:7 may refer to the Bactrian camel; both kinds of camel are referred to in Esther 8:10 (<span>kjv<\/span>). Camels ranked in importance with sheep, cattle, and asses in OT times. A third of the 66 biblical references to the camel lists it with other animals.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are ruminants (cud-chewing mammals) but do not have cloven hooves. Thus, they were included in the list of unclean beasts, forbidden by the Israelites as food (Lv 11:4; Dt 14:7). They are eaten by Arabs, however, who also drink their milk (cf. Gn 32:15).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham had camels in Egypt (Gn 12:16). At first Job had 3,000 camels (Jb 1:3) and after his recovery, 6,000 (Jb 42:12). Although wide use of camels does not seem to have begun until shortly before 1000 <span>BC<\/span> (Jgs 6:5), Sumerian texts from the Old Babylonian period list camels and indicate that they had been domesticated. Camel bones and figurines have been found at various eastern archaeological sites dating from well before 1200 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Caterpillar\">Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>Larval stage of insects characterized by complete metamorphosis. Such insects pass through four stages: egg, larva or caterpillar, pupa, and adult. Bees, flies, moths, and butterflies all pass through a larval or caterpillar stage.<\/p>\n<p>The word “caterpillar” occurs three times in the <span>nlt<\/span> (1 Kgs 8:37; 2 Chr 6:28; Ps 78:46). In the book of Joel that same Hebrew word is translated “locust” (1:4; 2:25, <span>nlt<\/span>). The locust and grasshopper to which the Hebrew word refers have an incomplete type of metamorphosis with only three stages: egg, nymph, and adult. The nymph is a miniature adult in which the wings are not fully developed, though their outline may be present. There are several nymph stages known as instars. The reference is to one of the last instars, in which the wing structures are still folded together and enclosed in a sac but are nevertheless clearly recognizable. That form of the insect is about an inch (2.5 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cattle\">Cattle<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animals of the bovine species <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> The OT often emphasized the beauty of cattle. Egypt was rich in cattle, especially in the Nile River delta area (Goshen), where the Hebrews settled under Joseph.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars believe that milk rather than meat was the foremost consideration in the domestication of cattle and that in early civilizations meat supplies came chiefly from wild game. Cattle also supplied strong hides that supplanted wood in the manufacture of shields. Their dung was a source of fuel when wood was scarce (Ez 4:15). They were used as beasts of burden and for plowing. Development of wheeled transportation was associated more closely with cattle than with any other animal.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical term “cattle” often refers to all domesticated animals or livestock (Gn 1:24; 2:20; 7:23; 47:6, 16-17; Ex 9:3-7; Nm 3:41, 45). Occasionally, the term was used to refer to all large domestic animals (Nm 31:9; 32:26), although sometimes the word as used in the <span>kjv<\/span> refers only to sheep and goats (Gn 30:32, 39, 43; 31:8, 10; Is 7:25; 43:23).<\/p>\n<p>Probably several kinds of cattle were domesticated in the Holy Land. Small, short-legged, black or brown shorthorn cattle were found in the southern part of Judah; that type submitted easily to the yoke and was prominent in agricultural operations. Along the coast a larger variety was found, and the wild districts east of the Jordan River were populated with a breed of huge black cattle.<\/p>\n<p>Cattle breeding was widely practiced by the patriarchs (cf. Gn 32:15; Jb 21:10). Strict laws in Mesopotamia, as well as in Israel, penalized the owner of a bull that gored a man or other cattle (Ex 21:28-36). Bulls were sometimes employed figuratively as pictures of strength or violence (Dt 33:17; Pss 22:12; 68:30; Is 10:13). For breeding purposes one bull is normally adequate for about 30 cows, but many more were kept since bulls were widely used in Israel for sacrifices. They might be used as a general sacrifice (Lv 22:23; Nm 23:1) or for special sacrifices (Jgs 6:25; 1 Sm 1:24). Particular sacrifices were offered at the consecration of priests (Ex 29:1), consecration of an altar (Nm 7), purification of the Levites (Nm 8), sin offerings (Lv 16), day of the new moon (Nm 28:11-14), Passover (Nm 28:19), Feast of Weeks (Nm 28:27), Feast of Trumpets (Nm 29:1-2), Day of Atonement (Nm 29:7-9), and the Feast of Tabernacles (Nm 29:12-38). The Feast of Tabernacles required the largest number of bulls for burnt offerings of all the annual feasts, with a total of 71 being slaughtered during the course of eight days.<\/p>\n<p>Calves were sometimes referred to as “sons of the herd” in the original Hebrew (Gn 18:8; 1 Sm 6:7; 14:32). The calf, a symbol of peacefulness (Is 11:6), was also used figuratively to refer to the weak (Ps 68:30). A calf’s head decorated the back of Solomon’s throne (1 Kgs 10:19). Calves were sometimes fattened in stalls to keep them from running off weight in the field (Am 6:4; Mal 4:2; Lk 15:23) or were kept around the house; the witch of Endor kept a calf in her house that she killed and served to Saul and his men (1 Sm 28:24-25). Calves supplied veal (Gn 18:7), considered a delicacy by the wealthy; Amos referred to stall-fattened calves in a denunciation of luxurious and careless living (Am 6:4). Calves also supplied meat for all Saul’s armies at the great slaughter of the Philistines (1 Sm 14:32). The “fatted calf” served roasted or boiled was gourmet fare, suitable for the finest banquet (Gn 18:7; Mt 22:4; Lk 15:23).<\/p>\n<p>Cattle were subject to the law of firstlings (Ex 13:12). They were a mark of wealth (Gn 13:2) and were considered proper booty of war (Jos 8:2). Aaron, the first high priest, made a golden calf as a rival to the ark of the covenant (Ex 32; Dt 9:16, 21). Even though he represented the calf as an image of the invisible God, it was especially offensive because the calf was a fertility symbol related to Egyptian and Canaanite practices. Two calves were later made by Jeroboam I of Israel (930–909 <span>BC<\/span>) for his shrines at Bethel and Dan (1 Kgs 12:28-33). Hosea’s prophetic denunciations of calf worship were directed at those shrines (Hos 8:5-6; 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>An ox is an adult castrated bull. A steer is a young ox. Oxen were used to do work (Nm 7:3; Dt 22:10; 25:4), though for moving heavy objects, cows were typically favored over bulls because of their more docile nature. Oxen were also used as pack animals (1 Chr 12:40, although they did not have the endurance of the ass, camel, or mule. They usually fed on grass (Nm 22:4; Ps 106:20), but they also ate straw (Is 11:7) and salted fodder (Is 30:24) and could be kept in a stable (Lk 13:15). Oxen could not be offered as sacrifices because they had been castrated (Lv 22:24). They could be used for food but were rarely eaten. Possession of an ox and an ass was regarded as the bare minimum for existence in the ancient Palestinian agriculture economy (Jb 24:3; cf. Ex 20:17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Agriculture; Food and Food Preparation; Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chameleon\">Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>Lizard characterized by its ability to change color according to its surroundings <em>(Chameleon vulgaris).<\/em> To the Israelites the chameleon was ritually unclean (Lv 11:30). The Hebrew word for chameleon is derived from a word meaning “to pant.” A lizard’s lungs are very large, and in ancient times lizards were believed to live on air. A chameleon’s eyes move independently of each other; so at times one eye may be turned upward and the other downward. Chameleons live in trees and bushes, clinging to branches with their long tails.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Coral\">Coral<\/p>\n<p>Calcareous (lime-containing) skeletons of relatively simple marine organisms <em>(Corallium rubrum).<\/em> Red coral from the Mediterranean and Red Seas is widely used for jewelry and for medicinal purposes. While the animal is alive, the coral is green in color and shrublike in appearance, looking rather like an underwater plant since the coral animals are immobil. When the coral is removed from the water, it becomes hard and red in color.<\/p>\n<p>In ancient times coral was sometimes used as money, along with precious stones, pearls, and gold. Some believe the biblical reference in Lamentations 4:7 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is to pearls rather than to coral, but it is probable that the references in Job 28:18 and Ezekiel 27:16 are to the red coral (see <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cricket\">Cricket<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the order Orthptera related to grasshoppers and locusts. According to Leviticus 11:22, the cricket was edible. The reference may be to one of the growth stages of the locust.<\/p>\n<p>The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word as “beetle.” Beetles are insects with chewing mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the fore pair being hard and sheathlike and the hind pair being membranous and folded under the fore pair. Some beetles are carnivorous, others are chiefly herbivorous. Some are aquatic, some produce a secretion that blisters the skin, some damage fabrics, some damage crops, and some feed on other insects that are harmful to humans. In ancient Egypt the beetle, or sacred scarab, was a symbol of the sun god Ra. Scarab seals and amulets were extremely popular in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Crocodile\">Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all existing reptiles <em>(Crocodilus vulgaris),<\/em> attaining a length of well over 20 feet (6 meters). Crocodiles are characterized by large lizardlike bodies supported by short legs. The head terminates in a flattened snout armed with strong conical teeth, each of which is implanted in a distinct socket. New teeth growing from beneath continually replace those in use. The toes are webbed. The back and tail are protected by quadrangular horny shields of varying sizes arranged in regular rows and in contact with one another at the edges. The eyes are covered with movable lids that can be closed when the animal enters the water.<\/p>\n<p>The crocodile spends most of its time in the water where it feeds mainly on fish but also on aquatic birds and even small animals that come down to the water’s edge to drink. It is surprisingly fast and agile on dry land, even though its legs are so short that its belly and tail drag across the earth leaving a distinct path.<\/p>\n<p>Until the beginning of the 20th century, the crocodile was found in the marshes and small coastal rivers of western Palestine. A first-century Roman writer, Pliny, referred to a place in the Holy Land called Crocodeilopolis (“crocodile city”) to the south of Mt Carmel, and visitors to the Holy Land as late as the 19th century reported seeing crocodiles in that general region.<\/p>\n<p>The description of “Leviathan” in Job 41 seems to be based on the crocodile (thus the translation of the <span>nlt<\/span>). The “dragon” of Ezekiel 29:3, used figuratively of the Egyptian pharaoh, may be a reference to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Deer\">Deer<\/p>\n<p>Large ruminant (cud-chewing) animals. Only the males have antlers (branching horns). Deer antlers grow annually and are solid, in contrast to those of the antelope and the gazelle. Fully developed antlers are devoid of any covering of skin or horn and, for all practical purposes, may be regarded as a mass of dead bone carried for a certain time by the living animal.<\/p>\n<p>The end of the deer’s muzzle is naked in all species. The stomach is divided into a series of compartments, some of which are used to store partly chewed food. The food is later regurgitated, rechewed, and finally swallowed into a section of the stomach where true digestion takes place.<\/p>\n<p>Three species of deer were known in Palestine: the red deer <em>(Cervus elaphus),<\/em> the Persian fallow deer <em>(Dama mesopotamica),<\/em> and the roe deer <em>(Capreolus capreolus).<\/em> All are now extinct there. The last deer were hunted in the Holy Land in 1914. The red deer referred to in the Bible as “hart” (male), “stag” (male), or “hind” (female) stood about four feet (1.2 meters) high at the shoulder. It was gregarious (living in herds or flocks), each group remaining in a definite territory. Red deer grazed and browsed during the morning and late afternoon (Lam 1:6). The sexes remained in separate herds. The red deer was known for its leaping (Is 35:6) and sure-footedness in the mountains (Ps 18:33; Sg 2:8-9, 17; 8:14; Hb 3:19).<\/p>\n<p>The antlers of the Persian fallow deer (1 Kgs 4:23) were large, flattened, and palmated (shaped like an open palm with fingers extended), and its coat was a yellowbrown. It traveled in small groups, feeding mainly on grass in the morning and evening.<\/p>\n<p>The roe deer (Dt 14:5; 1 Kgs 4:23) was a small, graceful animal, dark reddish brown in summer and yellowish gray in winter. Its antlers were about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and had three points. The roe deer preferred sparsely wooded valleys and the lower slopes of mountains, grazing in open grasslands. It usually associated in family groups made up of the doe and her offspring. They were shy, yet very curious. The roe deer barked like a dog when disturbed, and they were excellent swimmers.<\/p>\n<p>There is some question as to whether the roe deer is actually referred to in such passages as 1 Kings 4:23; references may be to the fallow deer, although that animal does not seem to have lived in the southern part of Palestine around the Sinai Desert because of its need for ample amounts of food and water. Fallow deer were found in northern Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The hart (the male red deer) was listed among the clean beasts that Jewish law permitted as food (Dt 12:15, 22; 14:5), but deer were not listed among the animals appropriate for sacrifice. The hind (female red deer) normally gave birth to one calf at a time, though twins were born with some degree of regularity (Jb 39:1; Ps 29:9, <span>kjv<\/span>; Jer 14:5). The gestation period was about 40 weeks. When it was about to give birth, the hind looked for a secure hiding place, preferably in the dense undergrowth of the forest where it could find natural protection for the tiny calf. During the first few days after birth, the mother never went far from her young. The fawn was able to stand on its own legs a few hours after birth. The solicitous care by the hind for her calf during the first days of its life is hinted at in a touching way in Jeremiah 14:4-5, where only a severe drought is said to drive the hind from her calf. Job 39:1-4 describes the calving of the hinds. The hind illustrated grace and charm (Gn 49:21; Prv 5:19), and its dark, gentle eyes and graceful limbs were used to describe the beauty of a woman (Prv 5:18-19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dog\">Dog<\/p>\n<p>Probably the earliest domesticated animal <em>(Canis familiaris),<\/em> used very early in hunting. The modern dog is believed to have come from the Indian wolf <em>(Canis lupus pallipes).<\/em> The dogs of biblical times probably looked like a modern German shepherd, with short pointed ears, a pointed nose, and a long tail.<\/p>\n<p>The dog was generally looked down upon in biblical times (Prv 26:11; 2 Pt 2:22). The biblical writers did not share modern sentiments about dogs being man’s best friends. The dog was pictured as a scavenger, haunting streets and dumps (Ex 22:31; 1 Kgs 22:38; Mt 15:26; Lk 16:21). Human corpses could become the spoil of dogs (2 Kgs 9:35-36). In general, dogs served the same function as vultures and other birds of prey. Most of the 41 references in the Scriptures to dogs show strong disfavor. Dogs were considered cowardly, filthy creatures.<\/p>\n<p>Dogs used in hunting occur in paintings in Egyptian tombs, and there is a reference to dogs herding sheep in Job 30:1. One good quality of dogs highly esteemed by the Israelites was watchfulness (Is 56:10). In general, however, in biblical times “dog” was a term of contempt (1 Sm 17:43; 2 Sm 16:9) and was used of overly submissive persons (2 Sm 9:8; 2 Kgs 8:13) and of evil persons (Is 56:10-11; Mt 7:6; Phil 3:2; Rv 22:15).<\/p>\n<p>Dogs, like pigs, were voracious and omnivorous (eating any kind of food). In response to a Gentile woman’s request that he heal her daughter, Jesus used the metaphor of throwing household food scraps to dogs (Mt 15:22-28; Mk 7:25-30). At the time of Jesus, the word “dog” was a standard Jewish term of contempt for Gentiles who, like dogs, were considered unclean, although the diminutive form of the word, used by Jesus, softened this considerably. Seeing her faith, Jesus granted the woman’s request, giving a non-Jew some of “the children’s bread.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Donkey\">Donkey<\/p>\n<p>Beast of burden. The donkey of the Holy Land <em>(Equus asinus)<\/em> was quite different from the European donkey of today, which is usually a small, stubborn animal. In biblical times the donkey was a beautiful, stately, friendly animal. Its color was usually reddish brown. Three wild races have been described, all from Africa. The race from northwest Africa is extinct; the one from northeast Africa, if not extinct, is close to extinction; the Somalian race, which survives, did not play an important part in domestication. The northeast African race, the Nubian donkey, was evidently domesticated in the Nile River region in early historic times. The donkey was used as a mount from the time of domestication on. It is first mentioned in the Bible among the animals that Abraham acquired in Egypt (Gn 12:16). The donkey was primarily a beast of burden, driven but not bridled. From the time of the Middle Kingdom on (c. 2040 <span>BC<\/span>), it was used for riding in Egypt, but only the Jews and Nubians rode donkeys regularly. The donkey was also used for threshing grain and for pulling the plow. In Arab countries today peasants plow with a donkey and a cow or camel hitched together. In Israel the law forbade plowing with a donkey and an ox hitched together (Dt 22:10). Until the time of Solomon (960 <span>BC<\/span>), horses were not used in Palestine. From that time on, the horse was ridden by warriors; the donkey was used by those who were traveling peaceably.<\/p>\n<p>The donkey was held in high regard by the Jews and was considered an economic asset. An individual had to have a donkey for minimum existence (Jb 24:3), and wealth was frequently counted by the number of donkeys one possessed (Gn 12:16; 24:35). The donkey was considered an acceptable gift (Gn 32:13-15). It was allowed to rest on the Sabbath (Dt 5:14). Women in biblical times often used the donkey as a riding animal (Jos 15:18; 1 Sm 25:23; 2 Kgs 4:24); often a special driver would help a woman guide the animal, running along at its side. If a married couple possessed only one donkey, the husband usually walked alongside while the wife rode (Ex 4:20).<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel returning from Babylon had ten times as many donkeys as horses and camels (Ezr 2:66-67; Neh 7:68-69). Job’s wealth was indicated by the fact that he had 500 she-donkeys before catastrophe hit him (Jb 1:3); after his recovery he had 1,000 donkeys (Jb 42:12). Joseph’s brothers used donkeys to transport the grain they purchased in Egypt (Gn 42:26; 43:24). Abigail transported food on donkeys to David and his troops during their conflict with Saul (1 Sm 25:18). David assigned one of the 12 managers of his royal estates to look after his donkeys exclusively (1 Chr 27:30).<\/p>\n<p>The onager, or Syrian wild donkey <em>(Equus hemionus hemihippus)<\/em>, is an intermediate between the true horse and the true donkey. Its ears are longer than those of a horse but shorter than those of a donkey. The front hooves are narrow; there are chestnuts (callouslike spots on the inside of the knees) on the front legs only, and the tail is short haired for a long distance from its root so that it appears to be tufted.<\/p>\n<p>The Sumerians (ancient Mesopotamians) were able to domesticate the onager, which was eventually replaced by the horse. It was used to draw chariots in Ur; a number of onagers were buried with their vehicles in a royal grave that dates from about 2500 <span>BC<\/span>. Later the wild onager was a favorite hunter’s prize for Babylonian and Assyrian kings.<\/p>\n<p>The onager was very common in the steppe lands near Israel, where it was described as a freedom-loving desert animal (Jb 24:5; 39:5-8; Ps 104:11; Is 32:14; Jer 2:24; Hos 8:9). Ishmael was described as “free and untamed as a wild donkey” (Gn 16:12, <span>nlt<\/span>)—that is, one who could not adjust to domestic life. Drought seems to have been responsible for the population decline of the onager in biblical times (Jer 14:6). The modern onager <em>(Equus hemionus onager)<\/em> is slightly larger than the Syrian wild donkey that is extinct.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dragon\">Dragon<\/p>\n<p>Any one of a number of monstrous land and sea creatures. In biblical usage, “dragon” does not refer to the huge, fire-breathing, winged reptile of European folklore. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> used the term to translate two Hebrew words that are usually rendered more precisely in modern translations. One word referred to desert animals; most scholars agree with the <span>niv<\/span> that “jackals” is its proper meaning (Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; Jer 9:11; Mal 1:3). <em>See<\/em> Jackal (below).<\/p>\n<p>The other Hebrew word translated “dragon” is harder to define. It was frequently used in reference to serpents (so translated in the <span>rsv<\/span>: Ex 7:9-12; Dt 32:33; Ps 91:13). In other <span>rsv<\/span> passages it is translated “sea monster” (Gn 1:21; Jb 7:12; Ps 148:7). The exact identity of such sea monsters is not known. Several <span>rsv<\/span> passages retain the English “dragon.” In two of them (Ps 74:13; Is 27:1), the context indicates that sea monsters are meant. In three others (Is 51:9; Ez 29:3; 32:2) “dragon” seems to refer to the crocodile, a figurative reference to the Egyptian pharaoh at the time of the exodus. Jeremiah 51:34 (translated “monster” in the <span>rsv<\/span>) may also refer to a voracious creature such as a crocodile. <em>See<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p>Babylonian myths described monsters and dragons in primordial conflict with the god Marduk; they represented the principle of evil. In its figurative usages in Scripture, “dragon” has a similar significance, especially in the prophetic books. In the book of Revelation it is a symbol of Satan, the archenemy of God and his people (Rv 12:3-17; 13:2, 4, 11; 16:13; 20:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fish\">Fish<\/p>\n<p>Aquatic animals frequently mentioned in the Bible without names or descriptions that enable us to identify the particular species. Since time immemorial, fish have constituted one of the staple foods of humanity, and they still serve as the chief source of protein in many parts of the world. The trade in fish was highly developed in biblical times. For example, one of the gates in Jerusalem was called the Fish Gate (Neh 3:3; Zep 1:10). The law in Leviticus 11:9-12 permitted the Jews to eat fish, but only those having both fins and scales. Scaleless fish such as catfish were forbidden, even though they had fins.<\/p>\n<p>Egyptian paintings depict various methods of fishing, and the Philistines fished in the Mediterranean Sea. Since the people of Israel were not a seafaring nation, it is safe to assume that most of their fish came from freshwater lakes and rivers, especially the Sea of Galilee. Some 36 species of fish have been identified in that lake, including varieties of perch, carp, barbel, “sardine,” and catfish.<\/p>\n<p>The method of fishing characteristic of NT times was the dragnet. After a boat had put out into the deep (Lk 5:4), a large net would be thrown out from it and then dragged toward shore by the rowers in the boat, possibly with the help of a crew in another boat. The catch was sorted out on shore (Mt 13:47-48). Fishing was usually carried out at night when the coolness of the water brought fish closer to the surface and when they could not see the approaching nets.<\/p>\n<p>The Jews also fished by hook and line (Mt 17:27), a few by spear (Jb 41:7), and some by the throw net (Ez 47:10). Habakkuk refers to hook-and-line fishing, netting, and seining (1:15).<\/p>\n<p>Very early in the history of the Christian church the fish became a symbol for Christ and the faith. It was scratched on the walls of Roman catacombs and may be seen today decorating walls, altars, pews, and vestments. The symbol came into use because the Greek word for “fish” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ichthus<\/span><em>)<\/em> is composed of the first letter of each word in the Greek phrase “Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior.” <em>See<\/em> Whale (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Flea\">Flea<\/p>\n<p>Tiny, irritating insect (1 Sm 24:14; 26:20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Many species of fleas occur in Palestine, the most common being <em>Pulex irritans.<\/em> About a thousand species are known around the world. Fleas are wingless parasites that have sharp jaws and suck out blood from the bodies of humans and animals. The body is wedge shaped, enabling the flea to burrow into folds of skin and hide there. The eggs, laid by the female in dust heaps in the corners of rooms, hatch into small, white larvae that pupate (a nonfeeding stage) in a cocoon. Soon adult fleas appear that immediately attach themselves to the body of a host. The female requires blood for the development of her eggs.<\/p>\n<p>A flea bite is painful and causes some swelling and itching. Fleas are attracted by warmth. With favorable moisture and temperature, adult fleas can live a year or longer without food, but they are voracious feeders. The most dangerous fleas are those of the rat that transmit the organism responsible for bubonic plague. There were 41 recorded epidemics of bubonic plague before the Christian era.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fly\">Fly<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the order Diptera, which have one pair of wings. Many winged insects of other orders, however, are also called flies, such as the dragonfly or butterfly.<\/p>\n<p>As in almost all parts of the world, flies are abundant in Palestine. One of the most numerous is the common housefly <em>(Musca domestica),<\/em> found chiefly around dung heaps and garbage. The female lays her eggs, out of which emerge white maggots that feed on refuse. After a few days the maggot develops into a cocoon out of which emerges the adult housefly. In the summer the whole cycle lasts about 12 days, so that a fly can breed about 20 generations a year.<\/p>\n<p>Another fly common to Palestine is the botfly (family Oestridae). It causes much discomfort among livestock by irritating them and spreading diseases. Tabanid flies (family Tabanidae), including the horsefly (genus <em>Tabanus<\/em>) and related species, are also found in Palestine. Both the botfly and horsefly are known as gadflies because of the persistent distress they inflict. Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar is spoken of as a gadfly in view of his invasion of Egypt (Jer 46:20).<\/p>\n<p>The fourth plague in Egypt just before the exodus featured “swarms of flies” (Ex 8:21-31, <span>nlt<\/span>; cf. Pss 78:45; 105:31). Those swarms may have been made up of any or all the flies mentioned above. The maggots mentioned in Job 25:6 and Isaiah 14:11 and the worms in Exodus 16:24 and Job 7:5 and 17:14 were probably fly larvae.<\/p>\n<p>A proverb quoted in Ecclesiastes 10:1 probably refers to the housefly, which would be attracted to an open, perfumed ointment bottle. Once inside it would drown and eventually decay, causing the ointment to spoil and stink. The fly is also referred to in Isaiah 7:18 where it symbolizes Egypt. Isaiah may have had in mind a horsefly <em>(Tabanus arenivagus)<\/em> that attacks both humans and animals.<\/p>\n<p>Philistine inhabitants of the city of Ekron worshiped a god named Baal-zebul, meaning “Lord of the high places.” The Hebrews mockingly spoke of Baal-zebub, meaning “Lord of the flies” (2 Kgs 1:2). The NT form is Beelzebub (e.g., Mt 10:25; 12:24, 27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fox\">Fox<\/p>\n<p>Small, doglike carnivore with a bushy tail that is about half its body length. The red fox of the Holy Land <em>(Vulpes palaetinae)<\/em> is similar to the North American red fox; it is smaller than a wolf and is normally a nocturnal solitary animal. The omnivorous fox eats almost any kind of food—fruits, plants, mice, beetles, and birds—but seldom touches carrion. It loves the sweet juice of grapes, but it also burrows underground tunnels that can destroy the vines (Sg 2:15). The fox is intelligent and known for its slyness (Lk 13:32). It has considerable endurance and can run at speeds up to 30 miles (48 kilometers) per hour. The Jews rebuilding Jerusalem’s wall were taunted by the wisecrack that even a fox jumping on their wall would knock it over (Neh 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptian fox <em>(Vulpes niloticus)<\/em> is found in the central and southern parts of the Holy Land. It is somewhat smaller than the common red fox. Its back is rust colored and its belly light. The Syrian fox <em>(Vulpes flavescens)<\/em> that lives in the northern part of the Holy Land is shiny gold in color.<\/p>\n<p>Some OT references such as Psalm 63:10 and Lamentations 5:18 are translated “fox” in the <span>kjv<\/span> but probably refer to jackals. Jackals, not foxes, hunt in packs and tend to act as scavengers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Frog\">Frog<\/p>\n<p>Amphibian (genus <em>Rana<\/em>), living part of its life in the water and part on land.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs and toads are covered with soft, hairless skin and lack a tail in the adult stage. The hind legs are much longer and more powerfully developed than the forelegs so that the animals are able to jump large distances. It has been suggested that the frog referred to in Scripture is an edible one, <em>Rana ridibunda,<\/em> one of the aquatic frogs found in Egypt and in the stagnant waters of the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The female frog lays her eggs in the water; after about a week the eggs hatch into tadpoles. Gradually through metamorphosis the tail is lost and limbs are acquired. Frogs must maintain a moist skin since they take oxygen through the skin as well as through their lungs; thus they must always remain close to water. They feed on insects and worms.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs are found throughout the Palestinian lowlands, where their croaking is heard in the spring and on summer evenings. The Israelites seem to have associated frogs primarily with sliminess and foulness. They fell into the category of creeping or swarming creatures, which in general were ritually unclean (Lv 11:29-31). Since the frog was not specifically listed, however, rabbis did not consider it one of the animals that defiled human beings through contact.<\/p>\n<p>In Revelation 16:13 certain foul spirits are said to look like frogs. The ancient Egyptians made the frog a symbol of life and birth and an image of Heqet, the patron goddess of birth. She is depicted with a frog’s head giving life to the newborn. Thus that deity was discredited when the power of God afflicted Egypt in the second of the ten plagues on the Egyptians with the very animal that was her symbol (Ex 8:1-14; Pss 78:45; 105:30). The frog in question may have been the spotted frog of Egypt <em>(Rana punctata,<\/em> or <em>Rana ridibunda).<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gazelle\">Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>Small, dainty, graceful antelope with hollow recurved horns on both sexes. Two varieties exist in the Holy Land, the dorcas gazelle <em>(Gazella dorcas),<\/em> which is pale fawn in color and up to 22 inches (56 centimeters) tall, and the Arabian gazelle <em>(Gazella arabica),<\/em> which is a dark smoky color and up to 25 inches (63.5 centimeters) tall.<\/p>\n<p>Gazelles are still quite common throughout the desert and steppe areas of the Holy Land, especially in the Negev Desert. Herds usually consist of from 5 to 10 animals, but some varieties assemble in large migratory herds in the fall to relocate to lower elevations and new feeding grounds. Gazelles are herbivorous (plant eating). They are very shy and post guards to warn the herd of approaching danger.<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times the gazelle was probably the game animal most hunted by the Jews (Prv 6:5; Is 13:14). Pharaoh Tutankhamen hunted gazelles and ostriches. The gazelle is said to have graced Solomon’s table (1 Kgs 4:23). Gazelles were not easy to catch because of their great speed (2 Sm 2:18; 1 Chr 12:8; Prv 6:5); they surpass the deer in swiftness. They were trapped in various ways—encircled with nets, driven into enclosures with pitfalls, or forced into narrow valleys and shot with arrows. The Bedouin hunt gazelle with falcons and dogs; the falcon annoys the gazelle, striking it on the head and injuring it so that the dogs can overtake it.<\/p>\n<p>The gazelle is referred to in Song of Songs 2:9, 17; 4:5; 7:3; 8:14, where it is an image of feminine beauty.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gecko\">Gecko<\/p>\n<p>Reptile of the family Gekkonidae, referred to in Leviticus 11:30. In Jewish food law it was a ritually unclean lizard. There are seven species of geckos in the Holy Land (including <em>Hemidactylus turcicus<\/em> and <em>Ptyodactylus hasselquistii,<\/em> all insectivorous—insect eating). The gecko makes a low mourning sound by vibrating its tongue rapidly against the roof of its mouth. In legend the gecko was said to cause leprosy by crawling across a person’s body.<\/p>\n<p>Another name for the gecko is the wall lizard, so named because it can walk upside down on ceilings with the aid of the suction discs on its toes—but it often plops down into the middle of the home. Since it was considered unclean, such an intrusion would have been a disgusting nuisance to Jewish households (Lv 11:31-38).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gnat\">Gnat<\/p>\n<p>Any very small fly, in common and biblical usage. According to the <span>nlt<\/span>, the third plague in Egypt before the exodus consisted of gnats (Ex 8:16-18; Ps 105:31). The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word there as “lice,” but the breeding pattern described in Exodus 8—insects rising from the dust—seems to fit gnats better than lice. Since “gnat” is a general term, the small flies of that plague may have included several small species such as mosquitos, harvester gnats, midges, or sand flies.<\/p>\n<p>The sand fly inflicts a far more painful bite than the mosquito. Further, it does not betray itself by a buzzing noise in flight and is so small that it penetrates most mosquito netting.<\/p>\n<p>Gnats were drawn to wine while it was fermenting. The Pharisees in particular would strain their wine to avoid consuming unclean insects (Mt 23:24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Goat\">Goat<\/p>\n<p>Cloven-hooved mammals (genus <em>Capra<\/em>) with large eyes and big, floppy ears that constantly twitch. Both males and females have backward arching horns. The Palestinian goat is a ruminant (cud-chewing animal) of lighter build than the sheep.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was probably the earliest ruminant to be domesticated. Its wild ancestor seems to have been the Gezoar goat <em>(Capra aegagrus).<\/em> Wild goats are believed to have been domesticated very early in Palestine. The goat of Bible times was probably the Syrian or Mamber variety <em>(Capra hircus mambrica).<\/em> Domesticated goats may have as many as four kids in a litter, whereas wild goats bear only one or two.<\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian goat was commonly black. Speckled and spotted goats were a rarity, and for that reason Jacob’s request for those goats in Genesis 30:32 appeared very modest. There may also have been red goats (cf. 1 Sm 16:12; 19:13, where goat’s hair was used to imitate David’s hair, which was “ruddy” or auburn).<\/p>\n<p>Almost every part of the goat was used by the Israelites. The whole goat was used for sacrifice. Its flesh served as meat (Lv 7:23; Dt 14:4), and it was the principal source of milk (Prv 27:27). Goats were sheared in the late spring, and the goat hair was used for weaving tent cloth and for various domestic purposes (Ex 36:14; 1 Sm 19:13, 16). The tabernacle at Mt Sinai was made of goat’s hair blankets (Ex 26:7).<\/p>\n<p>Adult male goats were generally not eaten because of their strong flavor and toughness and also because they were necessary to insure the flock’s increase. Young kids, however, were usually the chief meat for a feast and were offered to visitors as a symbol of hospitality. Goat milk is richer than the milk of cows and sheep and evidently had broader uses. A good goat gives three quarts of milk a day, from which a rich butter and buttermilk can be made. The average Hebrew family could have lived almost entirely on a single goat’s production.<\/p>\n<p>Goatskin was tanned as leather, and the whole hide was turned into a skin bottle by sewing shut leg and neck apertures (Gn 21:14; Jos 9:4). Goatskin had many uses, including the construction of Hebrew musical instruments. The nebal, a large harp, was made with goatskin for its base sound. Drums had goatskin coverings.<\/p>\n<p>Goats were herded with sheep in biblical times, but each group remained separate following its own bell-laden leader. Jesus was evidently referring to their common herding in his description of the Last Judgment (Mt 25:31-46).<\/p>\n<p>Because of their wool, sheep are valued more than goats. However, where pasture and water are scarce and thorny shrubs dominate over grass, sheep are difficult to keep and goats become important. They can live under conditions that suit neither cows nor sheep, producing large quantities of milk. The goat does not supply fat as the sheep does, and since its hair is coarse its wool is rather scarce. Goat-hair cloth called cilicium was used to make tents.<\/p>\n<p>Goats have voracious appetites. They also were responsible for much damage done to the land of Palestine, breaking down terraces, destroying forests, and bringing about soil erosion by eating off all cover.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was recognized as a form of wealth, subject to the law of firstlings (Nm 18:17). It had to be eight days old before it could be offered as a sacrifice. A year-old male goat was one of the animals offered at the Passover (28:22), and two goats were offered on the Day of Atonement (Lv 16:7-10). The goat was also used for other specific sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p>The ibex, a type of wild goat <em>(Capra ibex nubiana),<\/em> still lives in small numbers on the cliffs close to the Dead Sea. That it was known in ancient times is evident from rock carvings. It is distinguished from the true wild goat by having a more compact rump and horns that are slender and curved back. Its slender legs and sharp cloven hooves enable it to cling to narrow rock ledges, to jump between them, and to climb steep cliffs.<\/p>\n<p>Usually the ibex is found in rugged mountain country among rocky crags and meadows just below the snow line (Ps 104:18). In Job 39:1 they are referred to as “mountain goats.” They frequently gather in herds of 5 to 20. They graze and browse, being active in the afternoon and sometimes feeding through the night. The large horn of the ibex was at one period made into the shofar that was blown in the second Jerusalem temple to announce the new year and the jubilee year.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was often used in a figurative and symbolic sense by the writers of the Bible: in Song of Songs 4:1 and 6:5 for the bride’s black hair; in Matthew 25:31-46 for the wicked; and in Ezekiel 34:17 and Daniel 8:5-8 for various human leaders.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Grasshopper\">Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>Large insects of the Orthoptera order. They have chewing or biting mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the front pair of which is narrow and somewhat thickened and the hind pair membranous and used for flying. When not in use the flight wings are folded beneath the protective front wings like a fan against the body. By rubbing their wings together, male grasshoppers produce sounds that both males and females can detect. Grasshoppers pass through a partial metamorphosis; the egg hatches into a juvenile nymph that looks like an adult except for its smaller size and undeveloped wings. After several months the nymph becomes a winged adult.<\/p>\n<p>The terms “grasshopper” and “locust” are often used interchangeably. Actually the locust is a kind of grasshopper. Also confusing is the fact that other insects such as cicadas are sometimes called locusts. The difference between grasshoppers and locusts depends more on behavior than appearance. Grasshoppers are individual insects that lead solitary lives and do not migrate. The same insects when migrating in a swarm are called migratory grasshoppers or locusts. Elimination of their food supply by drought, flood, or fire may lead to migration. Climatic factors such as a warm dry winter also stimulate migrations.<\/p>\n<p>Grasshoppers and locusts have been a staple food in the Middle East and also among the Indians of the American Southwest. To the Israelites the grasshopper was considered ritually clean and could be eaten (Lv 11:22).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hare\">Hare<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the genus and species <em>Lepus europaeus judaeus, Lepus capensis,<\/em> and <em>Lepus arabicus.<\/em> It is found in open country, often near or on cultivated lands, and in woods, usually deciduous rather than evergreen. It is an herbivorous rodent and is different from the rabbit, which is not found in Palestine. Although it is not a true ruminant according to modern classification (because it does not have a four-chambered stomach), the hare does rechew its food. It has a process of partial regurgitation of material too hard for the cells in the stomach to absorb initially; thus, the hare actually chews food previously swallowed.<\/p>\n<p>Near Eastern hares have very long ears and large hind feet; their feet are well furred. They are similar to American jackrabbits, which are true hares. Hares do not dig or occupy burrows the way rabbits do. Hares are mainly nocturnal and spend their inactive hours hiding in vegetation. They eat grasses and herbaceous matter as well as twigs and young bark of woody plants. Hares breed with great rapidity—the young attaining sexual maturity at six months after birth.<\/p>\n<p>The hare was ceremonially unclean (Lv 11:6; Dt 14:7), evidently because although it appeared to chew its cud, it did not have cloven hooves. Consumption of hares has also been forbidden among the Arabs, Chinese, and Lapps, but the hare was widely hunted by other people in ancient and modern times. Its great speed, prolific breeding, timidity, and caution have saved it from extermination by its many enemies.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hippopotamus\">Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of problematic interpretation. Some early interpreters thought it referred to the elephant, others to the wild ox, the mammoth, or any large animal. It was called “behemoth” by the <span>kjv<\/span> translators. Today it is generally agreed that the reference is to the hippopotamus <em>(Hippopotamus amphibius),<\/em> a large, thick-skinned, amphibious mammal, an ungulate (having hooflike toenails) with a large head, a bulky, hairless body, and short legs.<\/p>\n<p>The description in Job 40:15-24 fits closely the modern hippopotamus (see <span>nlt<\/span>), except for the depiction of the tail. At present the hippopotamus is found only in the rivers of Africa, but there is fossil evidence that it has existed in the Holy Land, perhaps in the swamps of northern Galilee and the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\n<p>The hippopotamus has highly developed sense organs, placed in such a way that it can see, hear, and smell almost without being seen; its eyes, ears, and nostrils can reach above water while the rest of the animal lies submerged. It has a large mouth, large tusks, and a short, heavy throat. The strong legs are so short that the belly almost reaches the ground when the animal is on the land. The hippopotamus lives on plants and herbs growing in rivers, but if food is scarce there, it forages on land, usually at night. In spite of its heavy body it is surprisingly agile on land.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Horse\">Horse<\/p>\n<p>Przewalski’s horse (<em>Equus przewalskii,<\/em> an eastern race that roamed about Mongolia until modern firearms destroyed most of them after World War I) and the tarpan (a western race of southern Russia that became extinct in the Ukraine in 1851). The domesticated horse <em>(Equus caballus)<\/em> seems to have been derived from the tarpan. The original site of domestication is believed to have been Turkestan, a region north of Afghanistan and India, now in Russia. The horse differs from the donkey in that it has shorter ears, a longer mane with a forelock, a long hairy tail, and a soft, sensitive muzzle.<\/p>\n<p>Horses were used in war not only for riding but also for pulling the heavy, springless war chariots. Two kinds of horses were needed for these different purposes, and the Hebrews distinguished between chariot horses and cavalry horses.<\/p>\n\n<p>The Lord warned the early Israelites against unnecessarily amassing military strength in the form of horses and thereby following the oppressive tactics of the powerful Egyptians (Dt 17:14-16), but the demands of war caused both David and Solomon to import horses from Egypt into their kingdoms and to breed them. Solomon greatly increased the number of horses in the Jewish kingdom and maintained large stables at various cities (1 Kgs 10:26) such as the regional defense centers of Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer (1 Kgs 9:15-19). Ahab’s horses are mentioned in 1 Kings 18:5, and records of Shalmaneser III state that Ahab furnished 2,000 chariots to a coalition against Assyria.<\/p>\n<p>In early Israel, the horse was opposed as a symbol of pagan luxury and of dependence on physical power for defense (Dt 17:16; 1 Sm 8:11; Ps 20:7; Is 31:1). Horse trading, mentioned as early as Genesis 47:17, was carried on by Solomon between Egypt and the Syro-Hittite principalities (1 Kgs 10:28-29). Most biblical references to horses refer to their use in war, but horses were also used for transportation. Riding seems to have been less popular than the use of chariots. Cavalry units were not introduced until the 12th century <span>BC<\/span> by the Medes. Joseph rode in Pharaoh’s second horse-drawn chariot (Gn 41:43), and Absalom made a display by riding a horse-drawn chariot (2 Sm 15:1). Naaman traveled by horse and chariot (2 Kgs 5:9). Later, horses were so common in Jerusalem that the royal palace had a special horse gate (2 Chr 23:15), and a gate of the city itself was known as the Horse Gate (Neh 3:28; Jer 31:40). Mordecai rode a royal horse of King Xerxes as a sign of honor (Est 6:8-11). Horses are often spoken of figuratively (Ps 32:9; “mare,” Sg 1:9; “stallions,” Jer 5:8; 12:5), especially in the context of judgment (Hb 3:8; Zec 1:8; 6:1-8; Rv 6:2-8; 9:17; 19:11-16).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Warfare; Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyena\">Hyena<\/p>\n<p>Stocky carnivore <em>(Hyaena hyaena)<\/em> with coarse hair, an erect mane, and long hairs along the neck and back. Hyenas live in holes among rocks and banks. They are mainly nocturnal but are ordinarily neither noisy nor aggressive. Their cry, however, is a disagreeable, unearthly sound. Hyenas usually feed on carrion, crushing bones with their powerful jaws. If the carrion supply is inadequate, they will kill sheep, goats, or other small animals. When threatened, hyenas growl and erect their mane, but they rarely fight. They are massively built with forelegs longer than the hind legs.<\/p>\n<p>Known as scavengers in Africa, hyenas eat domestic refuse in the villages. In Palestine the striped hyena is a common predator, preferring rocky territory and even rock tombs. Since hyenas were notorious for raiding the graves of the dead, all Israelites who could afford it arranged for burial in tombs protected by massive stone doors. Absalom, King David’s son who was killed by Joab in the wild, was buried under a huge pile of stones to protect his corpse from molestation by hyenas (2 Sm 18:17).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Jackal\">Jackal<\/p>\n<p>Carnivore <em>(Canis aureus)<\/em> smaller than the true wolf and with a shorter tail. It is similar to the fox but has a broader head, shorter ears, and longer legs. The fox is solitary; the jackal tends to be gregarious. Its tail can be drooping or erect, compared with the long horizontal tail of the fox. Jackals usually prowl at night, either singly, in pairs, or in packs through open savannah country. They eat small mammals, poultry, fruit, vegetables, and carrion. They spend their days in thickets and clumps of vegetation. Often they obtain scraps from kills by larger carnivores. Jackals can run at speeds of about 33 miles (53 kilometers) per hour.<\/p>\n<p>The jackal can reach a height of about 20 inches (51 centimeters), roughly the size of a German shepherd dog. Its back is pale yellow with dark, almost black, flanks. Its lips are black and its ears white on the inside. The howl of the jackal sounds like the crying of a child or the heartrending wail of the bereaved (Mi 1:8; cf. Jb 30:29). To other jackals the howl is merely an invitation calling the pack together for its nocturnal hunting.<\/p>\n<p>OT references are chiefly to jackals prowling around ruined cities and wilderness areas (Neh 2:13; Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; 34:13; 35:7; Jer 9:11; 14:6; 49:33; 51:37; Lam 4:3; 5:18; Mal 1:3). Many such references are translated “dragon” in the <span>kjv<\/span>, but “jackal” is more appropriate.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leech\">Leech<\/p>\n<p>Segmented worm (class Hirundinea) up to five inches (12.7 centimeters) long with a flat body equipped with suction pads at each end. The mouth, located at the bottom of the front suction pad, has three teeth that the leech uses to pierce the skin of its host. The leech feeds on blood, and its glands secrete an anticoagulant to prevent the blood from clotting. The ordinary medicinal leech (Hirudo medicinalis) is abundant in springs and ponds from the Negev Desert to Galilee. It adheres to the bodies of human beings and animals that submerge themselves in water, injects its anticoagulant, and sucks their blood.<\/p>\n<p>The reference in Proverbs 30:15 is uncertain (see <span>nlt<\/span>) but may be to the parasitic and greedy nature of the horse leech (genus <em>Haemopis<\/em>). The small horse leech enters its host’s mouth and nostrils from water while the animal is drinking. A leech weighing one-half ounce (14.2 grams) has been known to gorge itself with two and a half ounces (71 grams) of concentrated blood and then to exist for 15 months with no more to eat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leopard\">Leopard<\/p>\n<p>Called <em>Panthera pardus tulliana,<\/em> it is the most widespread of all the large wildcats. In rocky areas it lives in caves, but in forested regions it lives in thick vegetation. In OT times many lived in the vicinity of Mt Hermon (Sg 4:8).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is somewhat smaller than the tiger, measuring up to 5 feet (1.5 meters) in length with a tail of about 30 inches (.8 meter). Its body is better proportioned than that of the tiger. The leopard takes its victim by surprise from a silent ambush, often concealing itself near villages or watering places and waiting for its prey, remaining in one spot for long spans of time. The leopard is swift on the ground (Hb 1:8), agile in trees, and very graceful in its movements. Its color is yellowish speckled with black spots (Jer 13:23). Daniel and John saw visions in which leopards were symbols of world powers (Dn 7:6; Rv 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is a wary and cunning animal, formidable and ferocious (Jer 5:6; Hos 13:7; cf. Is 11:6). The leopard is dangerous not only to domestic animals but also to humans. With its natural camouflage it can hide on the forest floor, blending into the changing light and shadows. The Israelites were terrified of the leopard because it constantly ravaged their sheep and goats. Several biblical place names suggest that they were known for the leopards in their vicinity: Nimrah, Beth-nimrah, and Nimrim, a district northeast of the Dead Sea. It has survived in the Holy Land into the present century; a few leopards still exist in remote areas near Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leviathan\">Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>Sea monster mentioned several times in the Bible (Pss 74:14; 104:26; Is 27:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). It may refer to any of the larger marine animals such as large jellyfish, whales, or sharks, or to a large reptile like the crocodile. Some scholars think “Leviathan” may refer to animals now extinct, such as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs (marine reptiles similar to dinosaurs). The scriptural term might also refer to certain dinosaurs that spent part of their lives half-submerged in shallow lakes and oceans. Other scholars believe that most of the references are to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lion\">Lion<\/p>\n<p>Large, tawny-colored carnivore <em>(Panthera leo)<\/em> that preys chiefly on hoofed mammals and charges by a series of leaps and bounds. Within historic times the lion ranged in Africa, Europe, and the Holy Land. In ancient times the territories of the African and Persian lions met in the Middle East. The lion of the Holy Land was the Asiatic or Persian lion <em>(Panthera leo persica).<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The males have heavy manes that stop at the shoulders but cover much of the chest. The Persian lion cannot climb and is mainly nocturnal, returning to its lair or a thicket by day (Jer 4:7; 25:38; Na 2:11-12). This lion is about 5 feet (1.5 meters) long with a tasseled tail 30 inches (.8 meter) or so long; its shoulders may reach a height of 35 inches (.9 meter). It is one of the smallest of the lion breeds.<\/p>\n<p>Lions are usually found in pairs, though sometimes in larger numbers. A small group is known as a pride. They generally prefer open country but in Palestine evidently prowled the subtropical vegetation of the Jordan River valley. Lions, which usually hunt at dusk, kill smaller animals by a blow of the paw, larger ones by a bite in the throat. A lion does not remain in the same place for more than a few days. The animal is in its prime at about seven years of age, when it weighs from 400 to 600 pounds (181.6 to 272.4 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>The lion does not characteristically attack humans, though like other great cats it may become a man-eater (1 Kgs 13:24-28; 20:36; 2 Kgs 17:25-26; Ps 57:4; Dn 6:7-27). Ordinarily, it attacks only out of great hunger or in self-defense. A very young lion that attacks humans can become dangerous if it develops a taste for human flesh. A very old lion, expelled from the pride because it can no longer keep up in the pursuit of antelope or gazelles, may choose humans as a relatively slow-moving prey.<\/p>\n<p>A lion generally roars only on a full stomach—that is, after it has consumed its prey (Ps 22:13; Ez 22:25; Am 3:4). Nevertheless, its roaring arouses fear (Am 3:8; 1 Pt 5:8). The lion is a bold (2 Sm 17:10; Prv 28:1), destructive animal (Ps 7:2; Jer 2:30; Hos 5:14; Mi 5:8), and the enemy of flocks (Am 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>Lions were common in biblical times in all parts of the Holy Land. Hebrew has at least seven words for lion and young lion. The lion is referred to about 130 times in the OT—more than any other wild animal. Lions were evidently much less common in NT times. After gradually declining, they became extinct in Palestine shortly after <span>AD<\/span> 1300. The lion was present in Mesopotamia, however, until the end of the 19th century.<\/p>\n<p>Lions played an important part in the political and religious symbolism of the Near East (1 Kgs 10:19-20). In Assyria and Babylonia the lion was regarded as a royal beast (Dn 7:4). Oriental monarchs maintained artificial lion pits as places of execution (Ez 19:1-9; Dn 6:7-16). Animals for these were captured in camouflaged nets or pits. To the Jews, the lion was the mightiest of beasts (Prv 30:29-31). Thus, it symbolized leadership (Gn 49:9-10; Nm 24:9) and hence eventually became a title for Christ (Rv 5:5). It was also the ensign of Judah’s tribe and was used by King Solomon in the decoration of his house and the temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lizard\">Lizard<\/p>\n<p>Reptiles of the suborder Lacertilia. Their skin is covered with scales. The lizard is a useful creature because it captures harmful insects and worms. Like other reptiles, it lays eggs with shells softer than those of a bird and with no clear division between the yolk and the white. Lizards are “cold-blooded” organisms without a temperature-maintenance mechanism; hence, they become inactive in cold weather.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards can survive in barren parched countryside. In the Near East they are encountered in great numbers in the Arabian Desert, the Sinai Peninsula, and the Judean wilderness. There may be as many as 44 different species of lizards in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The Dabb lizard (genus <em>Uromastyx<\/em>), which attains a length of about 24 inches (61 centimeters), is found in the Negev Desert. It is omnivorous, an unusual trait since most lizards are insectivorous. It has a hard, rough skin, green with brown spots; a short, rounded head; and a powerful tail encircled with a row of strong spines that it uses as a weapon of defense.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards are listed as ceremonially unclean in Jewish law (Lv 11:29-31). The fact that lizards crawl on their bellies made them unclean. Contact with a lizard’s carcass defiled a law-abiding Jew (Lv 11:32-36). The <span>nlt<\/span> translates the “lizards” of Leviticus 11 as “great lizard,” “gecko,” “monitor lizard,” “sand lizard,” and “chameleon.” The monitor lizard is a large lizard that lives in the deserts of southern Palestine, Sinai, and Egypt. It is up to 55 inches (1.4 meters) long with a long snout and sharp teeth. Other translators and commentators render the original Hebrew in a wide variety of ways, including “tortoise,” “ferret,” “lizard,” “snail,” “mole,” and even “water hen.” The fact that most of the original Hebrew words occur only once in Scripture makes it very difficult to be certain about their appropriate translation.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Gecko (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Locust\">Locust<\/p>\n<p>An insect of the family <em>Acridiidae.<\/em> It is referred to by at least 12 different names in Scripture. The various Hebrew words may refer to different stages of its development from larva to adult or to the type of damage that it causes. Locusts are characterized by swarming and mass migration. In modern times they have caused extensive and disastrous destruction to vegetation. Grasshoppers do not swarm or migrate en masse, differentiating them from the true locusts.<\/p>\n<p>The OT mentions several different species of locusts. Leviticus 11:22 seems to refer to the slant-faced (bald) locust and also to the katydid, or long-horned grasshopper. The reference in Deuteronomy 28:42 may be to the mole cricket. In Joel 1:4 and 2:25 and in Nahum 3:16-17, successive stages of the insect’s development are described. The cutting locust (<span>kjv<\/span> “palmerworm”) of Joel is probably the first instar (stage of development), the swarming locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “locust”) are middle stages, and the hopping locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “cankerworm”) later instars but not yet fully matured insects. In the adult stage, called destroying locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “caterpillar”), the color of the locust is reddish brown, which turns to yellow with a brownish network on the wings.<\/p>\n<p>Only three of the hundreds of varieties of locusts found in Bible lands are capable of multiplying into great swarms, and only the desert locust <em>(Schistocerca gergaria)<\/em> can be considered widespread in all the Bible lands. The desert locust is native to the Sudan (Africa). It is a little over two inches (5 centimeters) long and has a wingspread of some five inches (12.7 centimeters). It shows two phases, a solitary phase and a gregarious phase, with a possible third phase known as transiens. There are differences in the immature and adult forms of the phases in color and physiology.<\/p>\n<p>The quantity and distribution of rains are important factors in the extent of swarming. Moist soil is needed for depositing the eggs and permitting them to develop. Each female deposits from one to six egg pods, containing 28 to 146 eggs each. The larvae emerge in 15 to 43 days.<\/p>\n<p>In the gregarious phase (from the second stage of metamorphosis onward), the locust is driven by a strong wandering instinct. Masses of them form a random procession of overflowing locust bodies that ignore any obstruction. They swarm over everything (Jl 2:4-9). The only regulator of their activities is temperature; they are immobilized by high or low temperatures. Taking to wing they may move 1,200 miles (1,930.8 kilometers) from their native home. They fly in compact formations large enough to blot out the light of the sun. Their movement seems to be controlled by hormones, but the direction is influenced by the wind. The swarms consume almost every plant in their path, sparing only the carob, sycamore, castor tree, and oleander bush.<\/p>\n<p>A locust plague was one of the most severe evils to come upon the ancient world (Dt 28:38). Joel 2:1-11 describes a locust plague in graphic terms, using it as a symbol of God’s destroying judgment. Special days of prayer, fasting, and trumpet blowing were prescribed to remove locust plagues (1 Kgs 8:37-38; 2 Chr 6:28-29; Jl 2:12-17). Locusts symbolized powerful and merciless enemies that completely destroyed the earnings of human toil (Jgs 6:5; Is 33:4; Jer 46:23; 51:27; Na 3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Bedouins eat locusts raw, roasted, or boiled, preserving them by drying and threading. They are also crushed and ground, and the grist used in cooking or eaten with bread, sometimes mixed with honey and dates. Such was the diet of John the Baptist (Mk 1:6). The Greeks ground locusts in stone mortars to make flour of them.<\/p>\n<p>The ancients considered the two large hind legs, or jumping legs, as separate limbs and had a special name for them. Hence locusts were described as having four legs, a reference to the four smaller walking legs. “Going on all fours” thus referred to creeping or walking as opposed to jumping and did not mean that the unclean insects had only four legs in all. Because of its two hind jumping legs, the locust was exempted from the prohibition against unclean insects (Lv 11:20-23).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mole\">Mole<\/p>\n<p>Rodent <em>(Spalax ehrenbergi)<\/em> from six to nine inches (15 to 23 centimeters) long, which burrows in any area where the soil is suitable for digging; it should be called a mole rat. Common in the Holy Land, large numbers are found in the vicinity of Jerusalem. Isaiah 2:20 refers to the mole, as does Leviticus 11:29-30 (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The mole rat has no tail and is molelike in appearance, but neither true moles nor shrews have ever been found in the Holy Land. The mole rat’s teeth are strong and protruding like those of a squirrel. The neck is short and thick with a plump body shaped like a sausage. The short legs have broad paws with claws adapted for burrowing. The fur is soft, thick, and ashen gray. Its ears and almost sightless eyes, which are no larger than poppyseeds, are hidden in the fur. Folklore taught that touching a mole rat would result in blindness.<\/p>\n<p>In the wet winter season the mole rat builds breeding mounds resembling those of pocket gophers. It builds less complex resting mounds in the summer, although both have rather elaborate tunnel systems. The mole rat feeds on roots, bulbs, tubers, and various other subterranean plant parts, often doing extensive damage to agriculture.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Moth\">Moth<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the genus <em>Tineola<\/em> that lays its eggs on wool or furs, its larvae feeding on those materials. The destructive qualities of moths are referred to in several biblical passages (Jb 13:28; Ps 39:11; Is 50:9; Hos 5:12; Mt 6:19-20; Lk 12:33; Jas 5:2). In Isaiah 51:8 “worm” (<span>nlt<\/span>) refers specifically to the larva of the clothes moth. The moth symbolizes disintegration, decay, and weakening. It is only the larvae that do the damage. The adult is quite harmless and feeds mainly on the nectar of flowers. It is easily crushed (Jb 4:19). The clothes moth reproduces in May or June. It enters human dwellings in the evening. A week after the eggs are laid the larvae appear and immediately begin their work of destruction, eating anything within reach made of animal fibers.<\/p>\n<p>The moth’s destructive activity is done in secret without any sound and without any dramatic appearance, such as a swarm that blots out the sun. In an age when wealth was counted more in possessions than in money, and when among those possessions wool clothing was highly valued, moths could literally cause economic disaster; hence the words of Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount (Mt 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p>There are hundreds of species of moths other than the clothes moth in the Holy Land; they are harmless to leaves, flowers, fruit, trees, and seeds. As with the clothes moth, the larvae inflict the damage.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mouse\">Mouse<\/p>\n<p>Rodent of the family Muridae, especially genus <em>Mus.<\/em> The mouse was regarded as unclean because, being short legged, it was considered one of the creeping creatures (Lv 11:29). Mice known as commensals live in dwellings and tend to have longer tails and to be darker in color than wild mice, which are active chiefly at night. Mice are good climbers and even good swimmers. Wild mice eat many kinds of vegetation, including seeds, fleshy roots, leaves, and stems. At times they store food.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word for “mouse” (Lv 11:29; 1 Sm 6:4-5; Is 66:17) is probably a general term for various rats and mice. The root meaning of the Hebrew word “mouse” is “destruction of corn,” a reference to the damage mice do to field crops. At least 23 varieties of mouselike rodents are known in the Holy Land. They cause food spoilage, damage household articles, and transport the host fleas that spread typhus, spotted fever, and bubonic plague. Plague bacteria may have caused the tumors or swellings among the Philistines (1 Sm 6:5). Isaiah 66:17 refers to a pre-exilic Canaanite cultic practice in which mice were eaten; the reference may actually be to the hamster. A number of rodents are eaten by Arabs of the Near East; the gerbil is considered a special delicacy. <em>See<\/em> Mole (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mule\">Mule<\/p>\n<p>Hybrid offspring of a male ass and a female horse <em>(Equus asinus mulus),<\/em> ordinarily sterile. The offspring of a female donkey and a stallion (male horse) is known as a hinny and is of little value because of its inferior size.<\/p>\n<p>Because crossbreeding was forbidden in the law (Lv 19:19), the Israelites procured mules from the Gentiles, perhaps from the Phoenicians, since Tyre (a Phoenician seaport in what is now southern Lebanon) imported horses and mules (Ez 27:14). Mules did not appear in Israel until David’s reign (2 Sm 13:29), possibly because of the rarity of horses among the Hebrews. Mules were used chiefly by members of the royal court and by other nobles. King David rode on a mule, and Solomon rode to his inaugaration on King David’s mule (1 Kgs 1:33). Absalom met his death riding on a mule (2 Sm 18:9). Mules were less common than horses, camels, and asses in the postexilic community (Ezr 2:66). In antiquity Asia Minor was especially noted for breeding fine mules.<\/p>\n<p>Mules have long enjoyed a reputation for obstinacy, but that trait is not mentioned in the Bible. The mule is prized for riding and for carrying heavy burdens, especially in warm mountainous regions. They are sure-footed and thrive best in hot, dry climates. The mule has the frugality, endurance, and steady gait of an ass along with the size, strength, swiftness, and courage of a horse. Mules are almost never sick. They live longer than horses. They can carry a load of up to 300 pounds (136 kilograms) as far as 30 miles (48.3 kilometers) a day.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pig\">Pig<\/p>\n<p>Most properly, newborn swine. “Swine” is technically the better name for the species, but it is rarely used in common speech today. The domestic pigs of the Middle East derived from the wild pig <em>(Sus scrofa).<\/em> The pig is the most prolific and abundant supplier of meat and fat for food. A thick layer of fat just under the skin is especially pronounced in domestic breeds. Pigs cannot be driven, so they are of value only to the settled farmer. The Hebrews were originally a nomadic people; therefore, they had little use for an animal closely associated with settled life. An Egyptian prince of about 1500 <span>BC<\/span>, however, is recorded as owning a herd of 1,500 swine.<\/p>\n<p>The pig is clumsily built, yet lively and able to move with agility and speed. The most conspicuous characteristic of the pig is a truncated, mobile snout terminating in a disc-shaped surface on which the nostrils are located. Most pigs have large tusks in both jaws which grow continuously in life. The tusks of the upper jaw are unique in that they curve upward instead of pointing downward as in most animals. The excrement of a pig has an almost unbearable odor, which clings not only to the pig itself but also to swineherds, who can be identified a long way off.<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were never raised in the Holy Land by Jews. The great herd into which Jesus drove the unclean spirits was encountered in the land of the Gadarenes, a non-Jewish area east of the Jordan. The Gadarene demons took refuge in a herd of pigs feeding on a bluff overlooking the Sea of Galilee (Mt 8:28-32).<\/p>\n<p>Wild pigs were found in the Holy Land as in many countries today. Psalm 80:13 refers to the destructiveness of a wild boar (the male, or hog) attacking growing crops. A party of wild boars can destroy an entire vineyard or a field of crops in a single night. They devour, trample, and ravage everything within reach.<\/p>\n<p>Boar hunts were common in ancient Mesopotamia. Wild boars do not attack unless molested, but they are dangerous when aroused. They travel in bands of from 6 to 50 and are most active in the evening and early morning hours. The body is covered with stiff bristles and usually some finer hair, but the body covering is often quite scanty. Wild pigs are mainly vegetarian, feeding on roots, nuts, grains, and plant stems. Wild boars were particularly abundant in the mountainous regions of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, in the Jordan River valley, and in wooded sections such as Mt Tabor.<\/p>\n<p>Strict Jews would not even mention swine by name but would always substitute the term “the abomination.” Israelites considered themselves polluted if they were even touched by a swine’s bristle. To the Jews, the pig symbolized filth and ugliness. Pigs will eat fecal material, vermin, rodents, carrion, and the like (2 Pt 2:22). Proverbs 11:22 refers to the incongruity of a golden ring in the nose of an animal showing such characteristics. A similar metaphor occurs in Jesus’ statement about casting pearls before swine (Mt 7:6). The prodigal son’s degeneration was shown by his being forced in his poverty to feed pigs and eat their food (Lk 15:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>Eating the flesh of pigs was forbidden to the Jews (Lv 11:7; Dt 14:8). The Canaanites in the Holy Land killed and ate pigs freely. In intertestamental times Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), a Syrian king whose territories included Israel, used the pig to “Hellenize” the Jews. He first tested their loyalty to the Jewish faith by requiring the consumption of pork, considered a delicacy by the Greeks (2 Macc 6:18). The act of desecration that drove the Jews to rebellion, however, was the sprinkling of pig blood on the temple altar in a sacrifice to Zeus (1 Macc 1:47).<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were frequently used in pagan worship (Is 65:4; 66:3, 17), which may account for their being forbidden to the Jews as food. Evidence in the Holy Land shows that pigs were sacrificed long before Hellenistic times. Pig bones were found in a grotto below the rock-cut place of sacrifice at Gezer. A similar underground chamber with vessels containing piglet bones at Tirzah dates to the middle Bronze Age (about 2000 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Alabaster fragments of a statuette of a pig ready to be sacrificed have been unearthed. Swine were sacrificed to Aphrodite (Venus) in Greece and Asia Minor. In addition, pigs were sacrificed in connection with oaths and treaties; in the <em>Iliad,<\/em> Agamemnon sacrificed a boar to Zeus and Helios. So it is not surprising that among the Jews the pig became a symbol of filthiness and paganism.<\/p>\n<p>It is possible that eating pork was forbidden primarily because the pig may carry many worm parasites such as trichina, though that is also true of some “clean” animals. Another reason for forbidding their consumption may have been that pigs eat carrion. Some people are allergic to pork in hot weather—another suggested reason behind the Jewish taboo. The same taboo exists among the Muslims and existed in certain social strata in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Porcupine\">Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>Rodent, <em>Hystrix cristata,<\/em> which lives in forested areas, rocky hills, ravines, and valleys. The porcupine is still found in the Holy Land today. It has long quills that can be raised to give the appearance of a crest. It is almost entirely nocturnal. It burrows by day into a natural cavity or crevice. The Old World porcupine rarely climbed trees, although the New World porcupine frequently does. A porcupine may weigh as much as 60 pounds (27.2 kilograms). It eats fruit, bark, roots, and other vegetation, and carrion as well. Although its flesh is edible, the porcupine was not classed among the clean animals for the Israelites. The reference in Isaiah 34:11 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is probably to the porcupine, as is Isaiah 14:23 in the <span>nlt<\/span>. <em>See<\/em> Hedgehog.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Scorpion\">Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>Arthropod of the same group as spiders (arachnids). A dozen species of scorpions (order Scorpionida) are found in the Holy Land, but 90 percent of the scorpions are yellow scorpions, usually three to five inches (7.6 to 12.7 centimeters) long. The rock scorpion, also common to the Holy Land, is as thick as a man’s finger and from five to seven inches (12.7 to 17.8 centimeters) in length. Scorpions are slow, nocturnal invertebrates that rest beneath stones by day and prey on insects and other arachnids by night. At the end of its long tail the scorpion carries a poisonous sting that is fatal to most prey and extremely painful to humans (Rv 9:3, 5, 10; cf. 1 Kgs 12:11, 14). Scorpions symbolize Ezekiel’s evil countrymen (Ez 2:6) and the demonic forces of Satan (Lk 10:19). The scorpion is referred to as frequenting the Sinai Desert (Dt 8:15).<\/p>\n<p>A scorpion has from six to eight eyes. It has eight legs like a spider and two lobsterlike claws with which it catches and holds its prey. It feeds particularly on locusts and beetles. In many species the female scorpion eats the male after mating. Scorpions lay eggs that hatch very shortly after laying. Scorpions prefer warmer climates, and because of their desire for warmth, enter houses, especially at night, hiding in beds, blankets, footwear, and clothing.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sheep\">Sheep<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animal, <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> referred to directly or by some term such as ewe, lamb, ram, or by some fact concerning them over 700 times in Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Sheep represented the chief wealth and total livelihood of pastoral peoples, providing food to eat, milk to drink, wool for the making of cloth, and hides and bones for other uses. In addition, the sheep was a medium of exchange and a sacrificial animal. The number of sheep raised in ancient times was prodigious. Mesha, king of Moab, paid a tribute annually of 100,000 lambs and the wool of 100,000 rams (2 Kgs 3:4). The Israelites took 250,000 sheep from the Hagrites (1 Chr 5:21).<\/p>\n<p>Sheep shearing was often done for festivals (2 Sm 13:23). The sheep was held down on its side and its legs were tied together; then it lay docilely while its wool was clipped (Is 53:7). Sheep reserved for burnt offerings were not shorn; nothing could be held back from a sacrifice to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Wool had to be processed before it could be used for clothing. First it was washed, sometimes while still on the sheep, then carded and perhaps weighed for the market. The spinning of wool was regarded as a woman’s work (Prv 31:19), but weaving the spun thread into cloth on a loom was primarily a man’s occupation.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible reports that Abel kept sheep (Gn 4:2). The first sheep to be domesticated was probably the argali <em>(Ovis ammon),<\/em> a variety of the urial <em>(Ovis vignei),<\/em> a mountainous species still existing in Turkestan and Mongolia. Five breeds had reached Mesopotamia by 2000 <span>BC<\/span>; all were of the urial stock.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep known in Israel was the broad-tailed sheep <em>(Ovis orientalis vignei<\/em> or <em>laticaudata),<\/em> of which the tail weighs from 10 to 15 pounds (4.5 to 6.8 kilograms) and has always been considered a delicacy. Thus the Lord asked for this choice part as a sacrifice (Ex 29:22-25).<\/p>\n<p>Only the ram of the broad-tailed sheep has horns, but in other varieties of sheep in the Holy Land the ewe also has horns. The horns, two to three inches (5 to 8 centimeters) in diameter, can be potent weapons. Rams’ horns could be used as trumpets (Jos 6:4) or as oil containers (1 Sm 16:1).<\/p>\n<p>Although the sheep is very similar to the goat, it is differentiated by a lower forehead, its angulated spiral horns marked with transverse wrinkles and curved slightly outward, its covering of wool, and its lack of a “goatee.” Most sheep are white (Ps 147:16; Is 1:18; Dn 7:9; Rv 1:14).<\/p>\n<p>The flesh of sheep was a luxury in the biblical culture. King Solomon required a daily provision of 100 sheep for his table (1 Kgs 4:23), but the common people ate lamb or mutton only on festive occasions. A young ram was usually chosen because the ewes were more important to the future prospects of the herd. The meat was boiled in large caldrons. The milk of the sheep is extremely rich; in biblical times it was usually allowed to curdle before drinking. Possibly some Israelites kept lambs in their houses as pets (2 Sm 12:3-4).<\/p>\n<p>To protect the flock at night against predatory attacks, the shepherd tried to provide a fold. In meadows near villages, folds were built and watchmen were hired to relieve the shepherds. The shepherds of the nativity story were out in the field (Lk 2:8); they had no fold but probably had set up a tent for shelter, consisting simply of goat-hair blankets spread across sapling supports. The scarcity of springs in the Holy Land made the watering of the flock a crucial problem for the shepherd (Gn 13:8-11).<\/p>\n<p>Wild mountain sheep, varieties of <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> are known in the Mediterranean area (Dt 14:5). The Deuteronomy passage (<span>kjv<\/span> “chamois”) might also refer to <em>Ovis traelaphus,<\/em> a sheep about five feet high (1.5 meters) with long, curved horns. Another possibility is the Barbary sheep that lives in small flocks in rugged mountain areas in Barbary, Egypt, and Mt Sinai. The true chamois is unknown in Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep is also used figuratively in Scripture. The ram represented great strength and fittingly symbolized Medo-Persia in Daniel’s vision (Dn 8:3). It is the nature of sheep to be gentle and submissive (Is 53:7; Jer 11:19), defenseless (Mi 5:8; Mt 10:16), and in constant need of guidance and care (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36). Such qualities are regarded as desirable in the lives of believers in Christ; hence the many figurative references to sheep in the NT and to Jesus as shepherd (Mk 6:34; Jn 10:1-30; Rom 8:35-37; Heb 13:20-21; 1 Pt 2:25). The resurrected Christ told the apostle Peter to “feed my lambs” and “tend my sheep” (Jn 21:15-17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snail\">Snail<\/p>\n<p>Invertebrate gastropods (mollusks). Land snails are very numerous in the Near East. Some freshwater forms serve as hosts for the schistosome worm, the fluke parasite causing the dread disease bilharzia (schistosomiasis).<\/p>\n<p>Purple dyes of all shades were highly valued in the ancient world. A royal purple dye was obtained from secretions of a sea snail <em>(Murex trunculus<\/em> and <em>Murex brandaris).<\/em> Evidently, that process was developed by Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Assyrians as early as 1500 <span>BC<\/span>. The “purple” fishermen had their own guild during the time of the Roman Empire. The snails were harvested during the fall and winter seasons; in the spring, when egg laying took place, little dye was available. The snails tended to remain concealed in the summer. They inhabited the waters off Crete and Phoenicia. Tyrian purple, produced in the Phoenician city of Tyre, the center of the purple-dye industry, was obtained by a double dyeing. Large deposits of murex shells from dyeing operations have been found along the Mediterranean shoreline. The Israelites had to import purple goods (Ez 27:16). Lydia was a “seller of purple” or of cloth so dyed (Acts 16:14). Purple was a sign of distinction, royalty, and wealth (cf. Ex 25:4; 28:5-6, 15; Nm 15:38; 2 Chr 2:7; Est 8:15; Prv 31:22; Sg 3:10; Ez 27:7; Dn 5:7).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 30:34-35 refers to “onycha,” which was an important ingredient of incense. Onycha is the horny, clawlike operculum (the plate that closes off the opening of its shell when a snail is retracted) of a Near Eastern member of the molluskan family Strombidae. The operculum is sometimes used for offense or locomotion as well as for defense. When burned, the operculum gives off a sharp, strong scent, and when mixed with more fragrant but less powerful substances is even more potent. The name “onycha” is derived from a Greek word <em>(onyx)<\/em> for a fingernail or a claw.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snake\">Snake<\/p>\n<p>Various species of snake, suborder Ophidia (Serpentes). In the Bible nine Hebrew words and four Greek ones refer to snakes. The most common Hebrew word is onomatopoeic—that is, it is an imitation of a snake hissing or of the sound it produces as it scrapes its scales along the ground (cf. Jer 46:22). Many types of snakes lay eggs (Is 59:5), although some retain the eggs in the body until ready to hatch.<\/p>\n<p>Snakes are among the most widespread reptiles and are found on all continents except Antarctica; they decrease in numbers and species toward the poles but increase as one approaches the equator. Thirty-three species of snakes are known in Palestine and neighboring countries, 20 of which are poisonous. Two dangerous characteristics of the snake noted by biblical writers are its inconspicuous way of moving and the ease with which it hides itself.<\/p>\n<p>Many snakes are able to swallow animals several times their own diameter because of their unusually flexible jaw mechanism. They lack not only legs but also movable eyelids. Snakes periodically shed their skins. The tongue is actually a hearing apparatus sensitive to airborne vibrations and probably to heat waves.<\/p>\n<p>The venom of poisonous species is a clear, thin secretion, transmitted to the victim’s bloodstream by means of fangs. Two types of venom are known: that of the vipers, which affects respiration and disintegrates red blood cells, and that of the cobras, which paralyzes the nervous system.<\/p>\n<p>The “asp” referred to in the Bible is probably the cobra; the “adder” is the viper. The “cockatrice” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is probably the adder. Serpents were associated with worship in Canaanite religion and symbolized evil deities among many other peoples. Steles (upright stones bearing inscriptions) have been unearthed at several sites in the Holy Land and Syria depicting a god or worshiper with a snake winding about the legs or body. Because the Israelites were burning incense in pagan worship of Moses’ bronze serpent (Nm 21:8-9), King Hezekiah destroyed it in his religious reform (2 Kgs 18:4).<\/p>\n<p>Although snakes have been an object of veneration in some religions, in the Judeo-Christian tradition snakes represent evil and, more specifically, the devil. That association began in the Garden of Eden (Gn 3:1-15) and is also found in the book of Revelation (12:9; 20:2-3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adder (above); Asp (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Spider\">Spider<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the order Araneida. Between 600 and 700 different species inhabit the Holy Land. Spiders are different from insects in that, like scorpions, they have four pairs of legs instead of three. Spiders are equipped with poison glands—the effectiveness varying from species to species. A few can kill only insects, but others can also kill birds and mice.<\/p>\n<p>Most spiders have a pair of spinnerets attached to silk glands on the underside of the abdomen; from them a web is extruded. In the Bible the spider’s web is referred to as a symbol of frailty and insecurity (Jb 8:14; Is 59:5-6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sponge\">Sponge<\/p>\n<p>Simple marine animals, phylum Porifera. The term “sponge” also refers to those animals’ skeletal remains. The sponge has a porous body composed of tubules and cells.<\/p>\n<p>Sponge fishing was well known in the Mediterranean area in ancient times. It was practiced particularly along the Anatolian and Syrian coasts. Sponges were harvested by divers. The use of sponges in absorbing liquids is referred to in the Bible (Mt 27:48; Mk 15:36).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Unicorn\">Unicorn<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Wild Ox (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wasp\">Wasp<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the family Vespidae. Hornets are social wasps that build large aerial apartment houses in which 1,000 or more individuals may live. In the Bible the hornet is used as a metaphor for God’s use of military forces (Ex 23:28; Dt 7:20; Jos 24:12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Whale\">Whale<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all living creatures, including those that have become extinct. Whales are air-breathing mammals of the order Cetacea.<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of whales visit the shores of the Holy Land at times. The finback whale <em>(Balaenoptera physalus)<\/em> weighs about 200 tons (181 metric tons) and lives mainly in the Arctic region but sometimes passes through the Straits of Gibraltar to reach the eastern Mediterranean Sea. It feeds on small marine organisms that it strains through its whale bone; it does not have teeth. The finback whale’s esophagus is narrow.<\/p>\n<p>The sperm whale <em>(Physeter catodon),<\/em> about 60 feet (18.3 meters) long, has a curiously shaped head that looks like a battering ram. The teeth in the lower jaw of the male sperm whale are about seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long. It feeds on big fish, even on sharks. It has a large throat opening.<\/p>\n<p>Whales are referred to in Genesis 1:21 and Job 7:12 (<span>kjv<\/span> only). The “great fish” of Jonah 2:1 need not have been a whale but could have been a large shark, such as the whale shark <em>(Rhineodon),<\/em> which grows 70 feet (21.3 meters) long and lacks the terrible teeth of other sharks. Whatever the actual marine organism, Jonah’s deliverance was miraculous. The Greek word for “whale” is sometimes used as a general term for “sea monster” or huge fish and may be used in that sense in Matthew 12:40.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WildOx\">Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>Large, fierce, fleet, intractable animal <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> It had a long, lean rump with a straight back and a long, narrow head. The animal described in Job 39:9-12 is clearly the wild ox. The two horns (Dt 33:17), its outstanding characteristic, were straight and as long as the head (Nm 23:22; 24:8; Ps 22:21). Kings often symbolized their dominion by wearing a helmet with two wild ox horns (cf. Pss 92:10; 132:17-18). The horns were often used as drinking vessels by the Israelites; some were large enough to hold four gallons (15 liters).<\/p>\n<p>Hunting the wild ox was a favorite sport of Assyrian kings. Tiglath-pileser I hunted it in the Lebanon Mountains about 1100 <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Ps 29:6). At one time the animal referred to in Job 39:9-12 was thought to be the oryx or antelope because of the similarity between the Hebrew word in Job and the Arabian name for oryx. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> called the wild ox a “unicorn” because of representations found on Babylonian mosaics and Egyptian drawings. Those representations showed it in strict profile, showing only one horn—hence, “unicorn.” Jerome’s Vulgate, a Latin Bible translation (fourth century <span>AD<\/span>) and Martin Luther’s German version translated it similarly.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wolf\">Wolf<\/p>\n<p>Large doglike mammal <em>(Canis lupus)<\/em> that travels in bands of up to 30 animals. From the nose to the rump, the wolf measures about 3 feet (.9 meter); its drooping tail is about 18 inches (.5 meter) long. It looks much like a skinny German shepherd dog. The grayish yellow pelt is coarse and short haired.<\/p>\n<p>Wolves hunt singly or in relays, usually at night (Jer 5:6). Wolves have acute hearing and sight but rely chiefly on scent and usually catch their prey in a swift, open chase. The wolf has a reputation for boldness, fierceness, and voracity (Gn 49:27; Hb 1:8). It commonly kills more than it can eat or drag away and thus is known for its greediness.<\/p>\n<p>The wolf is a restless animal, always on the move; hunger drives it from one place to another in constant search of new hunting grounds. During spring and fall, wolves usually roam singly or in pairs, whereas in summer they may travel in family groups. In winter, several such groups may join to form a large pack. Wolves are intelligent, social creatures, faithful to their own kind. They mate for life. Individually, the wolf is a rather timid animal; it would much rather avoid human beings. But collectively wolves can be among the most dangerous animals alive.<\/p>\n<p>In Egypt, Rome, and Greece the wolf was considered sacred. Wolves were well known in the Holy Land and are still found there and also in many places in Asia Minor. Shepherds continually battled with wolves that plundered their flocks (Jn 10:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible refers to wolves in a literal sense in only three places (Is 11:6; 65:25; Jn 10:12), all other references being figurative. Usually the wolf is a symbol of enemies or the wicked (e.g., Ez 22:27; Zep 3:3; Acts 20:29). Both the wolf’s courage and its cruelty were probably in the mind of the patriarch Jacob when he predicted the fate of Benjamin’s tribe (Gn 49:27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Worm\">Worm<\/p>\n<p>Actually insect larvae in most biblical references, usually maggots, the larvae of flies (see Fly, above). For example, maggots are evidently referred to in accounts of worms feeding on spoiled manna (Ex 16:19-20), corpses (Jb 21:26; Is 14:11), or open wounds (Jb 7:5). Mark 9:48 refers to a maggot that eats dead flesh. In Acts 12:23 a fatal, worm-induced abdominal disease of King Herod is mentioned. In other cases, the reference is to the larvae of other insects (Is 51:8). In Deuteronomy 28:39 and Jonah 4:7 the vine weevil <em>(Cochylis ambiguella)<\/em> is probably referred to; it destroys vines by boring into their stems. Comparing a man to a worm is a metaphor for abasement (Jb 25:6; Ps 22:6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ANIMALS In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals ...","summary_en":"ANIMALS In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals ...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":54235,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:3","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:3-4<\/strong> See also Ezek 22:23-29.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:3-4<\/strong> See also Ezek 22:23-29.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:3-4 See also Ezek 22:23-29.","summary_en":"3:3-4 See also Ezek 22:23-29.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81861,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:3","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:3-4<\/strong> See also Ezek 22:23-29.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:3-4<\/strong> See also Ezek 22:23-29.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:3-4 See also Ezek 22:23-29.","summary_en":"3:3-4 See also Ezek 22:23-29.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109487,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:3","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:3-4<\/strong> See also Ezek 22:23-29.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:3-4<\/strong> See also Ezek 22:23-29.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:3-4 See also Ezek 22:23-29.","summary_en":"3:3-4 See also Ezek 22:23-29.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":137113,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:3","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:3-4<\/strong> See also Ezek 22:23-29.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:3-4<\/strong> See also Ezek 22:23-29.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:3-4 See also Ezek 22:23-29.","summary_en":"3:3-4 See also Ezek 22:23-29.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"5":[{"id":33119,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Righteousness","title_en":"Righteousness","content_ro":"<h3>RIGHTEOUSNESS<\/h3>\n<p>The establishment of a right relationship—primarily between God and people, secondarily between people themselves. Righteousness is the fulfillment of just expectations in any relationship, whether with God or other people. It is applicable at all levels of society and is relevant in every area of life. Therefore, righteousness denotes the fulfilled expectations in relationships between man and wife, parents and children, fellow citizens, employer and employee, merchant and customers, ruler and citizens, and God and people. Depending on the fulfillment of one’s expectations, an individual could be called righteous and his or her acts and speech could be designated as righteous. The opposite of righteous is “evil,” “wicked,” or “wrong” (cf. Ps 1:6; Zep 3:5).<\/p>\n<p>In Israel the concept of righteousness transformed all of life, both religious and secular. Israel had been called into existence as a separate nation through which Yahweh was to witness to the nations concerning his universal rule, his nature, and his expectations of life on earth. This meant that Israel required a revelation from God so that they might learn his will and be instructed in maintaining a relationship with him. The quality of a person’s relationship with God is directly linked to his relationship with his fellow human.<\/p>\n<p>God is righteous (2 Chr 12:6; Pss 7:9; 103:17; Zep 3:5; Zec 8:8). His righteousness is dynamic, since it describes his acts on behalf of his people and also the nature of his relationship with them. All of God’s acts are righteous (cf. Dt 32:4; Jgs 5:11; Ps 103:6), and God’s people rejoiced in the righteous acts of God (Ps 89:16). Because God is righteous, he expects righteousness of others, who are to reflect the nature of their Creator. The expected response to God’s rule is in the form of righteousness, that is, conformity to his rule and will. In this basic sense, Noah is called “righteous” because he walked with God and showed integrity in comparison to his contemporaries (Gn 6:9). After humanity’s fall and acts of rebellion, culminating in the Flood and the dispersion at Babel, God renewed his relationship with humanity in Abraham and his descendants. Abraham was righteous because he ordered his life by the revealed will of God (15:6; cf. 17:1; 18:19; 26:5).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord revealed to Israel even more clearly how they were to relate to him and to each other. The law in Israel was for the purpose of helping the people of God to live in conformity to the will of God and thereby be righteous. The person who was devoted to the service of God in worship and life was called righteous (cf. Mal 3:18). Thus, righteousness is a state of integrity in relation to God and one’s neighbor, expressing itself in one’s acts and speech.<\/p>\n<p>The hope for an era characterized by righteousness was rooted in the prophetic revelation of the messianic rule and the establishment of God’s kingdom on earth (Is 11:1-9), whose rule will extend to the nations (vv 10-16) and last forever (9:7). Isaiah developed the revelation of the glorious, victorious entrance of the kingdom of God in a most exquisite way, when his enemies will be subdued and his people will be gathered together and will live in a state of peace in his presence. The acts of restoration, extending from Israel’s return from exile until the final coming of the external kingdom are, in his prophetic purview, the demonstration of God’s righteous acts. He forgives, restores, remains faithful, loves, elects, and sends his Spirit to renew his people and to bestow on them all the benefits of the renewed covenant relationship. Both Jews and Gentiles will be the recipients of his righteous acts (Is 45:8, 23; 46:13, 48:18; 51:5, 8, 16; 56:1; 59:17; 60:17; 61:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>Out of concern for the salvation of his people and the establishment of his everlasting kingdom, God revealed his righteousness in the sending of his beloved Son. The coming of Christ marks an era of renewal of his relationship with people, the renewal of the covenant and renewal of his kingdom on earth. The older covenant was mediated by Moses; the covenant was renewed by the Son of God, who came “to fulfill all righteousness” (Mt 3:15). The message of Jesus is consistent with the OT in the close identification of God’s kingdom with his righteousness (6:33; 13:43). Jesus also taught that God expects all people to live in harmony with his will (7:21). Jesus is God’s final revelation of what God requires of individuals so as to enter the kingdom and to live righteously.<\/p>\n<p> But individuals cannot attain this righteousness by their own merits; it is a gift from God (Rom 3:21–5:21). There is no righteousness apart from Jesus Christ. In the proclamation of the gospel of Jesus we discover that “it is through faith that a righteous person has life” (Rom 1:17; cf. Hb 2:4). Therefore, the Father requires acceptance of his Son as his appointed means of justification (Rom 3:25-26; 5:9). God declares people to be righteous when they put their trust in his Son (Rom 8:33-34; 2 Cor 3:18; 11:15). God pardons sins, is reconciled with sinners, and grants his peace to them (Rom 5:1, 9-11; Eph 2:14-17). Those who have been declared righteous enjoy a new relationship. They are “sons of God” by adoption. The Father relates to his children righteously and expects them to relate righteously to him.<\/p>\n<p>The fullness of righteousness will be manifest at the coming of the Lord Jesus, when all those who have been justified will also be glorified (Rom 8:30). The goal of salvation history moves toward the final glorious manifestation of God’s kingdom, when all creation will be renewed in “righteousness”—that is, all creation will be right with God (2 Pt 3:13).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> God, Being and Attributes of; Justification, Justified; Law, Biblical Concept of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>RIGHTEOUSNESS<\/h3>\n<p>The establishment of a right relationship—primarily between God and people, secondarily between people themselves. Righteousness is the fulfillment of just expectations in any relationship, whether with God or other people. It is applicable at all levels of society and is relevant in every area of life. Therefore, righteousness denotes the fulfilled expectations in relationships between man and wife, parents and children, fellow citizens, employer and employee, merchant and customers, ruler and citizens, and God and people. Depending on the fulfillment of one’s expectations, an individual could be called righteous and his or her acts and speech could be designated as righteous. The opposite of righteous is “evil,” “wicked,” or “wrong” (cf. Ps 1:6; Zep 3:5).<\/p>\n<p>In Israel the concept of righteousness transformed all of life, both religious and secular. Israel had been called into existence as a separate nation through which Yahweh was to witness to the nations concerning his universal rule, his nature, and his expectations of life on earth. This meant that Israel required a revelation from God so that they might learn his will and be instructed in maintaining a relationship with him. The quality of a person’s relationship with God is directly linked to his relationship with his fellow human.<\/p>\n<p>God is righteous (2 Chr 12:6; Pss 7:9; 103:17; Zep 3:5; Zec 8:8). His righteousness is dynamic, since it describes his acts on behalf of his people and also the nature of his relationship with them. All of God’s acts are righteous (cf. Dt 32:4; Jgs 5:11; Ps 103:6), and God’s people rejoiced in the righteous acts of God (Ps 89:16). Because God is righteous, he expects righteousness of others, who are to reflect the nature of their Creator. The expected response to God’s rule is in the form of righteousness, that is, conformity to his rule and will. In this basic sense, Noah is called “righteous” because he walked with God and showed integrity in comparison to his contemporaries (Gn 6:9). After humanity’s fall and acts of rebellion, culminating in the Flood and the dispersion at Babel, God renewed his relationship with humanity in Abraham and his descendants. Abraham was righteous because he ordered his life by the revealed will of God (15:6; cf. 17:1; 18:19; 26:5).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord revealed to Israel even more clearly how they were to relate to him and to each other. The law in Israel was for the purpose of helping the people of God to live in conformity to the will of God and thereby be righteous. The person who was devoted to the service of God in worship and life was called righteous (cf. Mal 3:18). Thus, righteousness is a state of integrity in relation to God and one’s neighbor, expressing itself in one’s acts and speech.<\/p>\n<p>The hope for an era characterized by righteousness was rooted in the prophetic revelation of the messianic rule and the establishment of God’s kingdom on earth (Is 11:1-9), whose rule will extend to the nations (vv 10-16) and last forever (9:7). Isaiah developed the revelation of the glorious, victorious entrance of the kingdom of God in a most exquisite way, when his enemies will be subdued and his people will be gathered together and will live in a state of peace in his presence. The acts of restoration, extending from Israel’s return from exile until the final coming of the external kingdom are, in his prophetic purview, the demonstration of God’s righteous acts. He forgives, restores, remains faithful, loves, elects, and sends his Spirit to renew his people and to bestow on them all the benefits of the renewed covenant relationship. Both Jews and Gentiles will be the recipients of his righteous acts (Is 45:8, 23; 46:13, 48:18; 51:5, 8, 16; 56:1; 59:17; 60:17; 61:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>Out of concern for the salvation of his people and the establishment of his everlasting kingdom, God revealed his righteousness in the sending of his beloved Son. The coming of Christ marks an era of renewal of his relationship with people, the renewal of the covenant and renewal of his kingdom on earth. The older covenant was mediated by Moses; the covenant was renewed by the Son of God, who came “to fulfill all righteousness” (Mt 3:15). The message of Jesus is consistent with the OT in the close identification of God’s kingdom with his righteousness (6:33; 13:43). Jesus also taught that God expects all people to live in harmony with his will (7:21). Jesus is God’s final revelation of what God requires of individuals so as to enter the kingdom and to live righteously.<\/p>\n<p> But individuals cannot attain this righteousness by their own merits; it is a gift from God (Rom 3:21–5:21). There is no righteousness apart from Jesus Christ. In the proclamation of the gospel of Jesus we discover that “it is through faith that a righteous person has life” (Rom 1:17; cf. Hb 2:4). Therefore, the Father requires acceptance of his Son as his appointed means of justification (Rom 3:25-26; 5:9). God declares people to be righteous when they put their trust in his Son (Rom 8:33-34; 2 Cor 3:18; 11:15). God pardons sins, is reconciled with sinners, and grants his peace to them (Rom 5:1, 9-11; Eph 2:14-17). Those who have been declared righteous enjoy a new relationship. They are “sons of God” by adoption. The Father relates to his children righteously and expects them to relate righteously to him.<\/p>\n<p>The fullness of righteousness will be manifest at the coming of the Lord Jesus, when all those who have been justified will also be glorified (Rom 8:30). The goal of salvation history moves toward the final glorious manifestation of God’s kingdom, when all creation will be renewed in “righteousness”—that is, all creation will be right with God (2 Pt 3:13).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> God, Being and Attributes of; Justification, Justified; Law, Biblical Concept of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"RIGHTEOUSNESS The establishment of a right relationship—primarily between God and people, secondarily between people themselves. Righteousness is the fulfillment of just expectations in any relationship, whether with God or other people. It is applicable at all levels of society and is relevant in every area of life. Therefore, righteousness denotes the fulfilled expectations in relationships between man and wife, parents and children, fellow citizens, employer and employee, merchant and cust...","summary_en":"RIGHTEOUSNESS The establishment of a right relationship—primarily between God and people, secondarily between people themselves. Righteousness is the fulfillment of just expectations in any relationship, whether with God or other people. It is applicable at all levels of society and is relevant in every area of life. Therefore, righteousness denotes the fulfilled expectations in relationships between man and wife, parents and children, fellow citizens, employer and employee, merchant and cust...","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":54236,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:5","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:5<\/strong> <em>He does no wrong<\/em><em>,<\/em> unlike those mentioned in 3:3-4.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:5<\/strong> <em>He does no wrong<\/em><em>,<\/em> unlike those mentioned in 3:3-4.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:5 He does no wrong, unlike those mentioned in 3:3-4.","summary_en":"3:5 He does no wrong, unlike those mentioned in 3:3-4.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81862,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:5","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:5<\/strong> <em>He does no wrong<\/em><em>,<\/em> unlike those mentioned in 3:3-4.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:5<\/strong> <em>He does no wrong<\/em><em>,<\/em> unlike those mentioned in 3:3-4.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:5 He does no wrong, unlike those mentioned in 3:3-4.","summary_en":"3:5 He does no wrong, unlike those mentioned in 3:3-4.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109488,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:5","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:5<\/strong> <em>He does no wrong<\/em><em>,<\/em> unlike those mentioned in 3:3-4.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:5<\/strong> <em>He does no wrong<\/em><em>,<\/em> unlike those mentioned in 3:3-4.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:5 He does no wrong, unlike those mentioned in 3:3-4.","summary_en":"3:5 He does no wrong, unlike those mentioned in 3:3-4.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":137114,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:5","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:5<\/strong> <em>He does no wrong<\/em><em>,<\/em> unlike those mentioned in 3:3-4.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:5<\/strong> <em>He does no wrong<\/em><em>,<\/em> unlike those mentioned in 3:3-4.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:5 He does no wrong, unlike those mentioned in 3:3-4.","summary_en":"3:5 He does no wrong, unlike those mentioned in 3:3-4.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"7":[{"id":54237,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:7","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:7<\/strong> <em>get up early:<\/em> Jerusalem’s citizens couldn’t wait to jump out of bed in the morning and do more <em>evil deeds<\/em> (cp. Prov 1:16). They had moved far from the ways of their ancestor Abraham, who arose early to obey God’s command (Gen 22:3).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:7<\/strong> <em>get up early:<\/em> Jerusalem’s citizens couldn’t wait to jump out of bed in the morning and do more <em>evil deeds<\/em> (cp. Prov 1:16). They had moved far from the ways of their ancestor Abraham, who arose early to obey God’s command (Gen 22:3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:7 get up early: Jerusalem’s citizens couldn’t wait to jump out of bed in the morning and do more evil deeds (cp. Prov 1:16). They had moved far from the ways of their ancestor Abraham, who arose early to obey God’s command (Gen 22:3).","summary_en":"3:7 get up early: Jerusalem’s citizens couldn’t wait to jump out of bed in the morning and do more evil deeds (cp. Prov 1:16). They had moved far from the ways of their ancestor Abraham, who arose early to obey God’s command (Gen 22:3).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81863,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:7","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:7<\/strong> <em>get up early:<\/em> Jerusalem’s citizens couldn’t wait to jump out of bed in the morning and do more <em>evil deeds<\/em> (cp. Prov 1:16). They had moved far from the ways of their ancestor Abraham, who arose early to obey God’s command (Gen 22:3).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:7<\/strong> <em>get up early:<\/em> Jerusalem’s citizens couldn’t wait to jump out of bed in the morning and do more <em>evil deeds<\/em> (cp. Prov 1:16). They had moved far from the ways of their ancestor Abraham, who arose early to obey God’s command (Gen 22:3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:7 get up early: Jerusalem’s citizens couldn’t wait to jump out of bed in the morning and do more evil deeds (cp. Prov 1:16). They had moved far from the ways of their ancestor Abraham, who arose early to obey God’s command (Gen 22:3).","summary_en":"3:7 get up early: Jerusalem’s citizens couldn’t wait to jump out of bed in the morning and do more evil deeds (cp. Prov 1:16). They had moved far from the ways of their ancestor Abraham, who arose early to obey God’s command (Gen 22:3).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109489,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:7","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:7<\/strong> <em>get up early:<\/em> Jerusalem’s citizens couldn’t wait to jump out of bed in the morning and do more <em>evil deeds<\/em> (cp. Prov 1:16). They had moved far from the ways of their ancestor Abraham, who arose early to obey God’s command (Gen 22:3).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:7<\/strong> <em>get up early:<\/em> Jerusalem’s citizens couldn’t wait to jump out of bed in the morning and do more <em>evil deeds<\/em> (cp. Prov 1:16). They had moved far from the ways of their ancestor Abraham, who arose early to obey God’s command (Gen 22:3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:7 get up early: Jerusalem’s citizens couldn’t wait to jump out of bed in the morning and do more evil deeds (cp. Prov 1:16). They had moved far from the ways of their ancestor Abraham, who arose early to obey God’s command (Gen 22:3).","summary_en":"3:7 get up early: Jerusalem’s citizens couldn’t wait to jump out of bed in the morning and do more evil deeds (cp. Prov 1:16). They had moved far from the ways of their ancestor Abraham, who arose early to obey God’s command (Gen 22:3).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":137115,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:7","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:7<\/strong> <em>get up early:<\/em> Jerusalem’s citizens couldn’t wait to jump out of bed in the morning and do more <em>evil deeds<\/em> (cp. Prov 1:16). They had moved far from the ways of their ancestor Abraham, who arose early to obey God’s command (Gen 22:3).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:7<\/strong> <em>get up early:<\/em> Jerusalem’s citizens couldn’t wait to jump out of bed in the morning and do more <em>evil deeds<\/em> (cp. Prov 1:16). They had moved far from the ways of their ancestor Abraham, who arose early to obey God’s command (Gen 22:3).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:7 get up early: Jerusalem’s citizens couldn’t wait to jump out of bed in the morning and do more evil deeds (cp. Prov 1:16). They had moved far from the ways of their ancestor Abraham, who arose early to obey God’s command (Gen 22:3).","summary_en":"3:7 get up early: Jerusalem’s citizens couldn’t wait to jump out of bed in the morning and do more evil deeds (cp. Prov 1:16). They had moved far from the ways of their ancestor Abraham, who arose early to obey God’s command (Gen 22:3).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"8":[{"id":39204,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Zephaniah","title_en":"Book of Zephaniah","content_ro":"<h3>ZEPHANIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the books of the Minor Prophets in the OT.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to the editorial heading (Zep 1:1), Zephaniah prophesied during the reign of Josiah (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>). His family tree is given in an unusually full form. Some scholars have suggested that his great-great-grandfather was King Hezekiah (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>). But remarkably there is no Jewish or Christian tradition to support the suggestion, which there probably would have been if it had been true. His own name, meaning “he whom the Lord protects or hides,” was not uncommon and was a testimony to the keeping power of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>Zephaniah probably prophesied around 630 <span>BC<\/span>. The fall of Nineveh (612 <span>BC<\/span>) had not yet occurred (2:13-15). Josiah’s reign falls into two periods, dividing at 622 <span>BC<\/span>. In that year, while the temple was being cleared of pagan articles, the Book of the Law was found, which gave momentum to Josiah’s religious reforms (2 Kgs 22). The unreformed state of affairs described by Zephaniah (Zep 1:4-12; 3:1-4) points to a date before 622, at least for his denunciations. The prophet addressed Judah, the southern kingdom, and in particular the civil and religious authorities in Jerusalem. He most probably prophesied during the reign of Josiah, who came to the throne at the age of eight.<\/p>\n<p>The negative parts of the book concerning the sin and punishment of Judah—now fulfilled—would serve as a serious warning against disobedience to God. Moreover, the fulfillment of Zephaniah’s prophetic threats would serve to enhance the positive side of the book, confirming the hope of completion in the experience of a fresh generation of God’s people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Politically, the Assyrian Empire had spread westward and held Palestine in its grip. The long reign of Manasseh (696–642 <span>BC<\/span>) had been a period of total subservience to Assyria. Political subservience as an Assyrian vassal meant religious subservience to the gods of Assyria, especially worship of the heavenly bodies (2 Kgs 21:5). Zephaniah complained of this sin (Zep 1:5). When the door opened to one foreign religion, others naturally came in. Once the exclusiveness of the worship of the God of Israel was abandoned, Palestinian cults were openly accepted. The Canaanite Baal was blatantly worshiped (2 Kgs 21:3), as Zephaniah attested (Zep 1:4). Zephaniah condemned the worshipers of Molech (v 5), who sacrificed children to the Ammonite god (1 Kgs 11:7; 2 Kgs 23:10). International imperialism meant a weakening of national culture, so that foreign customs were practiced, probably with religious overtones (Zep 1:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The reign of Josiah brought changes, marking a political and religious turning point. Assyria, preoccupied with troubles on the eastern and northern frontiers and unable to consolidate its acquisitions, became unable to reinforce its authority in the west. This weakness induced Josiah to launch a national liberation movement. He threw off the yoke of Assyria and expanded his sphere of influence northward into the territory of the old northern kingdom. From a religious standpoint, he completely dissociated himself and his country from the religions that prevailed in Judah and recalled the nation to a pure and exclusive faith in the God of Israel. The book of Zephaniah shows that there was at least one person who shared his ideals. His prophetic ministry undoubtedly paved the way for Josiah’s subsequent reformation. He was a contemporary of Jeremiah, at least for the early part of that prophet’s career (Jeremiah began prophesying in 627 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Scholars have suggested that Zephaniah’s prophesying was prompted in part by attacks of the Scythians. The Greek historian Herodotus tells how the barbaric Scythians overran western Asia and reached as far south as the Egyptian frontier at about the time that Zephaniah prophesied. There is now much less inclination to believe Herodotus’s tale and relate Zephaniah’s prophetic ministry to it. There is no objective evidence for Scythian attacks on so large a scale as Herodotus claimed. Probably Zephaniah spoke simply out of a theological necessity, as he himself claimed (e.g., 1:17). From his inspired standpoint, he foresaw that a clash involving divine intervention and human downfall was unavoidable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTeaching\">Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>As Zephaniah prophesied in God’s name, he denounced the religious sins of Judah and the corruption rampant among both civil and religious authorities. He foretold the downfall of the nation that actually occurred in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The moral and religious landslide could only culminate in a political avalanche of destruction that would engulf the nation. This avalanche is called by Zephaniah “the Day of the Lord.” It was not a new term, and the prophet knew that it would arouse terror in the hearts of his hearers. Amos used it, and even in his time it was well established (Am 5:18-20). Isaiah was the first to use the expression in the southern kingdom (Is 2:6-22, see v 12). In this, as in a number of respects, Zephaniah was a latter-day Isaiah called by God to reapply truths earlier prophesied by Isaiah to a later generation.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of the Day of the Lord refers to a time when the Lord would decisively intervene in the world to establish his sovereignty. Hostile elements would be swept aside. The enemies of God, sinners against his moral will, would be exposed and punished. It was associated with judgment upon those who did not acknowledge God’s sovereignty—especially Gentiles, but also sinful Israel. The emphasis on the suffering of God’s people was intended to correct the popular assumption that other nations would be the sole target of divine judgment.<\/p>\n<p>The “day” also would vindicate those who were loyal to God. It guaranteed the rehabilitation of his oppressed supporters. Zephaniah developed this two-sided phenomenon in order to communicate the truth of God to his own generation. It is “a day of the wrath of God” (Zep 1:15, 18; 2:2), when his reaction to human sin would be demonstrated. Its target was not only other nations but Judah as well, both Jerusalem, the capital (1:10-13), and the other cities of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>Zephaniah also had a positive message for the people of Judah. For the prophets, the message of salvation did not cancel the message of doom. Judgment would come first, then salvation would follow. But the period of tribulation could not be avoided. The prophet’s grim descriptions of “the day of wrath” are interpreted as dire warnings and implicit pleas to the people of Judah to abandon their complacent, sinful ways.<\/p>\n<p>Clearly, Zephaniah’s role under God was to reapply earlier truths sadly forgotten by his own generation. Zephaniah was able to foresee God’s judgment of Judah and the world. But he also proclaimed permanent truths concerning the nature of God and his providential relationship to the world and concerning the responsibilities of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of the book of Zephaniah for the NT lies in the phraseology about the Day of the Lord. There are a number of allusions to this aspect of his message (Mt 13:41 [Zep 1:3]; Rv 6:17 [1:14]; 14:5 [3:13]; 16:1 [3:8]). These echoes stress Zephaniah’s importance beyond his own time. He contributed to the total biblical picture of a God who intervenes in human history and will establish his kingdom. Zephaniah’s descriptions are a pattern for events that will mark the end of history.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>The heading (Zep 1:1) introduces Zephaniah, gives the historical setting, and above all stresses his meditation on the divine word.<\/p>\n<p>The first major part of the book is 1:2–2:3. It subdivides into four units: verses 2-7, 8-13, 14-18; 2:1-3. Verses 2-7 include Judah in a forecast of universal destruction. Zephaniah used traditional material to stress that God’s people were by no means exempt, as they often chose to believe (cf. Am 5:18-20). The prophet supported his startling revelation with reasoned statements regarding the religious deviations practiced in Jerusalem. The image of sacrifice was used ironically, portraying Judah as the victim.<\/p>\n<p>The national administration and members of the royal family were guilty (Zep 1:8-13). Superstitions were punctiliously observed, yet basic divine commands against stealing and fraudulent gain went unheeded. Zephaniah saw the enemy attack on the north side of Jerusalem as an illustration of God’s punishment of dishonest traders (cf. Am 8:5-6; Mi 6:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>There follows a shocking and terrifying description of the grimness of the coming “Day” (Zep 1:14-18). The prophet stirred up a complacent people who did not want to hear God’s message. He frightened them into reality with a monotonous drumbeat of doom and destruction. Judah would be the demoralized target of God’s wrath. Their wealth had secured luxurious imports but could not prevent divine judgment.<\/p>\n<p>The prophet completed his sermon with an appeal for repentance (2:1-3). Having emotionally stirred his audience from their apathy, he was able to bring the good news that all was not yet lost. A penitential assembly at the temple and the intercession of the spiritually minded and obedient among God’s people might prevent destruction. God’s punishment of foreign nations is described in the second main part of the book (2:4-15). Representative states are named to the west, east, south, and north of Judah. In the context of the previous material, it amplifies the universal nature of the Day of the Lord. Like the first part, it subdivides into four passages: verses 2:4-7, 8-11, 12, and 13-15.<\/p>\n<p>The subject of the first passage is the Philistines. In the case of the cities of Gaza and Ekron, there is a play on words typical of Hebrew prophecy. Both names contain doom within their very sound. The Philistines are labeled as trespassers because they were illegal immigrants from Crete into the Promised Land, which was intended for God’s own people.<\/p>\n<p>Zephaniah predicted that Moab and Ammon would suffer attack for their overbearing attitude and their annexation of Judean territory (2:8-11). God would come to the aid of his covenant people.<\/p>\n<p>The first two main sections have spelled out at length a message of judgment for both Judah and the surrounding nations. This twofold message is now repeated in a much shorter form in the third main section (3:1-8). Zephaniah criticized Jerusalem in its combined role of political capital and religious center. The responsibility of being God’s representatives rested too lightly on the shoulders of government and temple officials. Civil leaders abused their powers by demanding bribes and even killing their political opponents. Instead of being the shepherds of the people (cf. Ez 34), they were beasts of prey (cf. Ez 22:25-27). The prophets misused their gifts for their own selfish interests, while the priests broke the strict regulations of the temple. The lessons of history went unheeded; they had not learned caution and reverence. The conclusion is clear: Judah could not escape punishment in the coming Day of the Lord but would suffer with other nations.<\/p>\n<p>The outworking of God’s will for both Judah and the nations is in view in the final main section (Zep 3:9-20), but this time from a quite different aspect. Punishment was not God’s last word for his own people or even for the nations at large. Ultimately God’s will is not destruction but salvation (2 Pt 3:9). The section has three parts: Zephaniah 3:9-10, 11-13, and 14-20. Verses 9-10 deal with the conversion of the nations. This remarkable passage looks forward with divinely guaranteed certainty to the willing submission of Gentiles to the God of Israel. Their turning to God would not be based on human initiative but would originate in the providential activity of God. Lips defiled by worship of pagan gods would be purified and devoted solely to the adoration of the God of Israel. People from remote parts of the earth, here illustrated as the remote south beyond the Ethiopian Nile, would come as suppliants, as if they were scattered Jews returning home.<\/p>\n<p>God’s own people would be marked by a change of heart (3:11-13). By now they would have been purged of the proud people who put themselves before God in the sphere of politics and religion. They would be a purified people who humbly trusted in God. To them were promised the blessings of paradise.<\/p>\n<p>The last passage speaks of coming joys (3:14-20). The prophet projects himself into the future, to the time when God’s judgment would be over and the time of salvation had dawned. God’s people would rejoice in the presence of their Lord. Fear and demoralization would be canceled by God’s powerful presence and radiant joy. His joy would infectiously communicate itself to them so that they too would rejoice. Moreover, his joy would be a reaction to the transformation he was working in the lives of his people (v 17; “he will renew you in his love,” <span>rsv<\/span>). A necessary part of this transformation would feature the vindication of God’s suffering people. They would be brought to a position of honor, as the visible representatives of the God of glory. Ultimately, God’s power would be revealed through a people of power.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Josiah #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ZEPHANIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the books of the Minor Prophets in the OT.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to the editorial heading (Zep 1:1), Zephaniah prophesied during the reign of Josiah (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>). His family tree is given in an unusually full form. Some scholars have suggested that his great-great-grandfather was King Hezekiah (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>). But remarkably there is no Jewish or Christian tradition to support the suggestion, which there probably would have been if it had been true. His own name, meaning “he whom the Lord protects or hides,” was not uncommon and was a testimony to the keeping power of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>Zephaniah probably prophesied around 630 <span>BC<\/span>. The fall of Nineveh (612 <span>BC<\/span>) had not yet occurred (2:13-15). Josiah’s reign falls into two periods, dividing at 622 <span>BC<\/span>. In that year, while the temple was being cleared of pagan articles, the Book of the Law was found, which gave momentum to Josiah’s religious reforms (2 Kgs 22). The unreformed state of affairs described by Zephaniah (Zep 1:4-12; 3:1-4) points to a date before 622, at least for his denunciations. The prophet addressed Judah, the southern kingdom, and in particular the civil and religious authorities in Jerusalem. He most probably prophesied during the reign of Josiah, who came to the throne at the age of eight.<\/p>\n<p>The negative parts of the book concerning the sin and punishment of Judah—now fulfilled—would serve as a serious warning against disobedience to God. Moreover, the fulfillment of Zephaniah’s prophetic threats would serve to enhance the positive side of the book, confirming the hope of completion in the experience of a fresh generation of God’s people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Politically, the Assyrian Empire had spread westward and held Palestine in its grip. The long reign of Manasseh (696–642 <span>BC<\/span>) had been a period of total subservience to Assyria. Political subservience as an Assyrian vassal meant religious subservience to the gods of Assyria, especially worship of the heavenly bodies (2 Kgs 21:5). Zephaniah complained of this sin (Zep 1:5). When the door opened to one foreign religion, others naturally came in. Once the exclusiveness of the worship of the God of Israel was abandoned, Palestinian cults were openly accepted. The Canaanite Baal was blatantly worshiped (2 Kgs 21:3), as Zephaniah attested (Zep 1:4). Zephaniah condemned the worshipers of Molech (v 5), who sacrificed children to the Ammonite god (1 Kgs 11:7; 2 Kgs 23:10). International imperialism meant a weakening of national culture, so that foreign customs were practiced, probably with religious overtones (Zep 1:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The reign of Josiah brought changes, marking a political and religious turning point. Assyria, preoccupied with troubles on the eastern and northern frontiers and unable to consolidate its acquisitions, became unable to reinforce its authority in the west. This weakness induced Josiah to launch a national liberation movement. He threw off the yoke of Assyria and expanded his sphere of influence northward into the territory of the old northern kingdom. From a religious standpoint, he completely dissociated himself and his country from the religions that prevailed in Judah and recalled the nation to a pure and exclusive faith in the God of Israel. The book of Zephaniah shows that there was at least one person who shared his ideals. His prophetic ministry undoubtedly paved the way for Josiah’s subsequent reformation. He was a contemporary of Jeremiah, at least for the early part of that prophet’s career (Jeremiah began prophesying in 627 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Scholars have suggested that Zephaniah’s prophesying was prompted in part by attacks of the Scythians. The Greek historian Herodotus tells how the barbaric Scythians overran western Asia and reached as far south as the Egyptian frontier at about the time that Zephaniah prophesied. There is now much less inclination to believe Herodotus’s tale and relate Zephaniah’s prophetic ministry to it. There is no objective evidence for Scythian attacks on so large a scale as Herodotus claimed. Probably Zephaniah spoke simply out of a theological necessity, as he himself claimed (e.g., 1:17). From his inspired standpoint, he foresaw that a clash involving divine intervention and human downfall was unavoidable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTeaching\">Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>As Zephaniah prophesied in God’s name, he denounced the religious sins of Judah and the corruption rampant among both civil and religious authorities. He foretold the downfall of the nation that actually occurred in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The moral and religious landslide could only culminate in a political avalanche of destruction that would engulf the nation. This avalanche is called by Zephaniah “the Day of the Lord.” It was not a new term, and the prophet knew that it would arouse terror in the hearts of his hearers. Amos used it, and even in his time it was well established (Am 5:18-20). Isaiah was the first to use the expression in the southern kingdom (Is 2:6-22, see v 12). In this, as in a number of respects, Zephaniah was a latter-day Isaiah called by God to reapply truths earlier prophesied by Isaiah to a later generation.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of the Day of the Lord refers to a time when the Lord would decisively intervene in the world to establish his sovereignty. Hostile elements would be swept aside. The enemies of God, sinners against his moral will, would be exposed and punished. It was associated with judgment upon those who did not acknowledge God’s sovereignty—especially Gentiles, but also sinful Israel. The emphasis on the suffering of God’s people was intended to correct the popular assumption that other nations would be the sole target of divine judgment.<\/p>\n<p>The “day” also would vindicate those who were loyal to God. It guaranteed the rehabilitation of his oppressed supporters. Zephaniah developed this two-sided phenomenon in order to communicate the truth of God to his own generation. It is “a day of the wrath of God” (Zep 1:15, 18; 2:2), when his reaction to human sin would be demonstrated. Its target was not only other nations but Judah as well, both Jerusalem, the capital (1:10-13), and the other cities of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>Zephaniah also had a positive message for the people of Judah. For the prophets, the message of salvation did not cancel the message of doom. Judgment would come first, then salvation would follow. But the period of tribulation could not be avoided. The prophet’s grim descriptions of “the day of wrath” are interpreted as dire warnings and implicit pleas to the people of Judah to abandon their complacent, sinful ways.<\/p>\n<p>Clearly, Zephaniah’s role under God was to reapply earlier truths sadly forgotten by his own generation. Zephaniah was able to foresee God’s judgment of Judah and the world. But he also proclaimed permanent truths concerning the nature of God and his providential relationship to the world and concerning the responsibilities of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of the book of Zephaniah for the NT lies in the phraseology about the Day of the Lord. There are a number of allusions to this aspect of his message (Mt 13:41 [Zep 1:3]; Rv 6:17 [1:14]; 14:5 [3:13]; 16:1 [3:8]). These echoes stress Zephaniah’s importance beyond his own time. He contributed to the total biblical picture of a God who intervenes in human history and will establish his kingdom. Zephaniah’s descriptions are a pattern for events that will mark the end of history.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>The heading (Zep 1:1) introduces Zephaniah, gives the historical setting, and above all stresses his meditation on the divine word.<\/p>\n<p>The first major part of the book is 1:2–2:3. It subdivides into four units: verses 2-7, 8-13, 14-18; 2:1-3. Verses 2-7 include Judah in a forecast of universal destruction. Zephaniah used traditional material to stress that God’s people were by no means exempt, as they often chose to believe (cf. Am 5:18-20). The prophet supported his startling revelation with reasoned statements regarding the religious deviations practiced in Jerusalem. The image of sacrifice was used ironically, portraying Judah as the victim.<\/p>\n<p>The national administration and members of the royal family were guilty (Zep 1:8-13). Superstitions were punctiliously observed, yet basic divine commands against stealing and fraudulent gain went unheeded. Zephaniah saw the enemy attack on the north side of Jerusalem as an illustration of God’s punishment of dishonest traders (cf. Am 8:5-6; Mi 6:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>There follows a shocking and terrifying description of the grimness of the coming “Day” (Zep 1:14-18). The prophet stirred up a complacent people who did not want to hear God’s message. He frightened them into reality with a monotonous drumbeat of doom and destruction. Judah would be the demoralized target of God’s wrath. Their wealth had secured luxurious imports but could not prevent divine judgment.<\/p>\n<p>The prophet completed his sermon with an appeal for repentance (2:1-3). Having emotionally stirred his audience from their apathy, he was able to bring the good news that all was not yet lost. A penitential assembly at the temple and the intercession of the spiritually minded and obedient among God’s people might prevent destruction. God’s punishment of foreign nations is described in the second main part of the book (2:4-15). Representative states are named to the west, east, south, and north of Judah. In the context of the previous material, it amplifies the universal nature of the Day of the Lord. Like the first part, it subdivides into four passages: verses 2:4-7, 8-11, 12, and 13-15.<\/p>\n<p>The subject of the first passage is the Philistines. In the case of the cities of Gaza and Ekron, there is a play on words typical of Hebrew prophecy. Both names contain doom within their very sound. The Philistines are labeled as trespassers because they were illegal immigrants from Crete into the Promised Land, which was intended for God’s own people.<\/p>\n<p>Zephaniah predicted that Moab and Ammon would suffer attack for their overbearing attitude and their annexation of Judean territory (2:8-11). God would come to the aid of his covenant people.<\/p>\n<p>The first two main sections have spelled out at length a message of judgment for both Judah and the surrounding nations. This twofold message is now repeated in a much shorter form in the third main section (3:1-8). Zephaniah criticized Jerusalem in its combined role of political capital and religious center. The responsibility of being God’s representatives rested too lightly on the shoulders of government and temple officials. Civil leaders abused their powers by demanding bribes and even killing their political opponents. Instead of being the shepherds of the people (cf. Ez 34), they were beasts of prey (cf. Ez 22:25-27). The prophets misused their gifts for their own selfish interests, while the priests broke the strict regulations of the temple. The lessons of history went unheeded; they had not learned caution and reverence. The conclusion is clear: Judah could not escape punishment in the coming Day of the Lord but would suffer with other nations.<\/p>\n<p>The outworking of God’s will for both Judah and the nations is in view in the final main section (Zep 3:9-20), but this time from a quite different aspect. Punishment was not God’s last word for his own people or even for the nations at large. Ultimately God’s will is not destruction but salvation (2 Pt 3:9). The section has three parts: Zephaniah 3:9-10, 11-13, and 14-20. Verses 9-10 deal with the conversion of the nations. This remarkable passage looks forward with divinely guaranteed certainty to the willing submission of Gentiles to the God of Israel. Their turning to God would not be based on human initiative but would originate in the providential activity of God. Lips defiled by worship of pagan gods would be purified and devoted solely to the adoration of the God of Israel. People from remote parts of the earth, here illustrated as the remote south beyond the Ethiopian Nile, would come as suppliants, as if they were scattered Jews returning home.<\/p>\n<p>God’s own people would be marked by a change of heart (3:11-13). By now they would have been purged of the proud people who put themselves before God in the sphere of politics and religion. They would be a purified people who humbly trusted in God. To them were promised the blessings of paradise.<\/p>\n<p>The last passage speaks of coming joys (3:14-20). The prophet projects himself into the future, to the time when God’s judgment would be over and the time of salvation had dawned. God’s people would rejoice in the presence of their Lord. Fear and demoralization would be canceled by God’s powerful presence and radiant joy. His joy would infectiously communicate itself to them so that they too would rejoice. Moreover, his joy would be a reaction to the transformation he was working in the lives of his people (v 17; “he will renew you in his love,” <span>rsv<\/span>). A necessary part of this transformation would feature the vindication of God’s suffering people. They would be brought to a position of honor, as the visible representatives of the God of glory. Ultimately, God’s power would be revealed through a people of power.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Josiah #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ZEPHANIAH, Book of One of the books of the Minor Prophets in the OT. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Background • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author According to the editorial heading (Zep 1:1), Zephaniah prophesied during the reign of Josiah (640–609 BC). His family tree is given in an unusually full form. Some scholars have suggested that his great-great-grandfather was King Hezekiah (715–686 BC). But remarkably there is no Jewish or Christian tradition to support the ...","summary_en":"ZEPHANIAH, Book of One of the books of the Minor Prophets in the OT. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Background • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author According to the editorial heading (Zep 1:1), Zephaniah prophesied during the reign of Josiah (640–609 BC). His family tree is given in an unusually full form. Some scholars have suggested that his great-great-grandfather was King Hezekiah (715–686 BC). But remarkably there is no Jewish or Christian tradition to support the ...","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":54238,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:8","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:8<\/strong> <em>be patient:<\/em> See Hab 2:3. • <em>stand and accuse:<\/em> The prophet portrays a courtroom scene where God rises first as witness (see also Jer 29:23; Mal 3:5) on his own behalf, and then presides as judge (see also Job 9:15; Ps 50:6) to deliver his righteous sentence. • <em>The fire of my jealousy<\/em> describes the Lord’s righteous hatred of sin, as well as his concern for his holy name and for the welfare of his people (see Isa 66:13-16).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:8<\/strong> <em>be patient:<\/em> See Hab 2:3. • <em>stand and accuse:<\/em> The prophet portrays a courtroom scene where God rises first as witness (see also Jer 29:23; Mal 3:5) on his own behalf, and then presides as judge (see also Job 9:15; Ps 50:6) to deliver his righteous sentence. • <em>The fire of my jealousy<\/em> describes the Lord’s righteous hatred of sin, as well as his concern for his holy name and for the welfare of his people (see Isa 66:13-16).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:8 be patient: See Hab 2:3. • stand and accuse: The prophet portrays a courtroom scene where God rises first as witness (see also Jer 29:23; Mal 3:5) on his own behalf, and then presides as judge (see also Job 9:15; Ps 50:6) to deliver his righteous sentence. • The fire of my jealousy describes the Lord’s righteous hatred of sin, as well as his concern for his holy name and for the welfare of his people (see Isa 66:13-16).","summary_en":"3:8 be patient: See Hab 2:3. • stand and accuse: The prophet portrays a courtroom scene where God rises first as witness (see also Jer 29:23; Mal 3:5) on his own behalf, and then presides as judge (see also Job 9:15; Ps 50:6) to deliver his righteous sentence. • The fire of my jealousy describes the Lord’s righteous hatred of sin, as well as his concern for his holy name and for the welfare of his people (see Isa 66:13-16).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81864,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:8","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:8<\/strong> <em>be patient:<\/em> See Hab 2:3. • <em>stand and accuse:<\/em> The prophet portrays a courtroom scene where God rises first as witness (see also Jer 29:23; Mal 3:5) on his own behalf, and then presides as judge (see also Job 9:15; Ps 50:6) to deliver his righteous sentence. • <em>The fire of my jealousy<\/em> describes the Lord’s righteous hatred of sin, as well as his concern for his holy name and for the welfare of his people (see Isa 66:13-16).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:8<\/strong> <em>be patient:<\/em> See Hab 2:3. • <em>stand and accuse:<\/em> The prophet portrays a courtroom scene where God rises first as witness (see also Jer 29:23; Mal 3:5) on his own behalf, and then presides as judge (see also Job 9:15; Ps 50:6) to deliver his righteous sentence. • <em>The fire of my jealousy<\/em> describes the Lord’s righteous hatred of sin, as well as his concern for his holy name and for the welfare of his people (see Isa 66:13-16).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:8 be patient: See Hab 2:3. • stand and accuse: The prophet portrays a courtroom scene where God rises first as witness (see also Jer 29:23; Mal 3:5) on his own behalf, and then presides as judge (see also Job 9:15; Ps 50:6) to deliver his righteous sentence. • The fire of my jealousy describes the Lord’s righteous hatred of sin, as well as his concern for his holy name and for the welfare of his people (see Isa 66:13-16).","summary_en":"3:8 be patient: See Hab 2:3. • stand and accuse: The prophet portrays a courtroom scene where God rises first as witness (see also Jer 29:23; Mal 3:5) on his own behalf, and then presides as judge (see also Job 9:15; Ps 50:6) to deliver his righteous sentence. • The fire of my jealousy describes the Lord’s righteous hatred of sin, as well as his concern for his holy name and for the welfare of his people (see Isa 66:13-16).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109490,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:8","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:8<\/strong> <em>be patient:<\/em> See Hab 2:3. • <em>stand and accuse:<\/em> The prophet portrays a courtroom scene where God rises first as witness (see also Jer 29:23; Mal 3:5) on his own behalf, and then presides as judge (see also Job 9:15; Ps 50:6) to deliver his righteous sentence. • <em>The fire of my jealousy<\/em> describes the Lord’s righteous hatred of sin, as well as his concern for his holy name and for the welfare of his people (see Isa 66:13-16).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:8<\/strong> <em>be patient:<\/em> See Hab 2:3. • <em>stand and accuse:<\/em> The prophet portrays a courtroom scene where God rises first as witness (see also Jer 29:23; Mal 3:5) on his own behalf, and then presides as judge (see also Job 9:15; Ps 50:6) to deliver his righteous sentence. • <em>The fire of my jealousy<\/em> describes the Lord’s righteous hatred of sin, as well as his concern for his holy name and for the welfare of his people (see Isa 66:13-16).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:8 be patient: See Hab 2:3. • stand and accuse: The prophet portrays a courtroom scene where God rises first as witness (see also Jer 29:23; Mal 3:5) on his own behalf, and then presides as judge (see also Job 9:15; Ps 50:6) to deliver his righteous sentence. • The fire of my jealousy describes the Lord’s righteous hatred of sin, as well as his concern for his holy name and for the welfare of his people (see Isa 66:13-16).","summary_en":"3:8 be patient: See Hab 2:3. • stand and accuse: The prophet portrays a courtroom scene where God rises first as witness (see also Jer 29:23; Mal 3:5) on his own behalf, and then presides as judge (see also Job 9:15; Ps 50:6) to deliver his righteous sentence. • The fire of my jealousy describes the Lord’s righteous hatred of sin, as well as his concern for his holy name and for the welfare of his people (see Isa 66:13-16).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":137116,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:8","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:8<\/strong> <em>be patient:<\/em> See Hab 2:3. • <em>stand and accuse:<\/em> The prophet portrays a courtroom scene where God rises first as witness (see also Jer 29:23; Mal 3:5) on his own behalf, and then presides as judge (see also Job 9:15; Ps 50:6) to deliver his righteous sentence. • <em>The fire of my jealousy<\/em> describes the Lord’s righteous hatred of sin, as well as his concern for his holy name and for the welfare of his people (see Isa 66:13-16).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:8<\/strong> <em>be patient:<\/em> See Hab 2:3. • <em>stand and accuse:<\/em> The prophet portrays a courtroom scene where God rises first as witness (see also Jer 29:23; Mal 3:5) on his own behalf, and then presides as judge (see also Job 9:15; Ps 50:6) to deliver his righteous sentence. • <em>The fire of my jealousy<\/em> describes the Lord’s righteous hatred of sin, as well as his concern for his holy name and for the welfare of his people (see Isa 66:13-16).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:8 be patient: See Hab 2:3. • stand and accuse: The prophet portrays a courtroom scene where God rises first as witness (see also Jer 29:23; Mal 3:5) on his own behalf, and then presides as judge (see also Job 9:15; Ps 50:6) to deliver his righteous sentence. • The fire of my jealousy describes the Lord’s righteous hatred of sin, as well as his concern for his holy name and for the welfare of his people (see Isa 66:13-16).","summary_en":"3:8 be patient: See Hab 2:3. • stand and accuse: The prophet portrays a courtroom scene where God rises first as witness (see also Jer 29:23; Mal 3:5) on his own behalf, and then presides as judge (see also Job 9:15; Ps 50:6) to deliver his righteous sentence. • The fire of my jealousy describes the Lord’s righteous hatred of sin, as well as his concern for his holy name and for the welfare of his people (see Isa 66:13-16).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"9":[{"id":21861,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Kingdom of Heaven Kingdom of God","title_en":"Kingdom of Heaven Kingdom of God","content_ro":"<h3>KINGDOM OF GOD, KINGDOM OF HEAVEN<\/h3>\n<p>The sovereign rule of God, initiated by Christ’s earthly ministry and consummated when the kingdom of the world becomes the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ (Rv 11:15).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Introduction<\/p>\n<p>• Old Testament Background<\/p>\n<p>• In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Introduction\">Introduction<\/p>\n<p>According to the testimony of the first three Gospels, the proclamation of the kingdom of God was Jesus’ central message. Matthew summarizes the Galilean ministry with the words “Jesus traveled throughout Galilee teaching in the synagogues, preaching everywhere the Good News about the Kingdom” (Mt 4:23, <span>nlt<\/span>). The Sermon on the Mount is concerned with the righteousness that qualifies people to enter the kingdom of God (5:20). The collection of parables in Matthew 13 and Mark 4 illustrate the “mystery” of the kingdom of God (Mt 13:11; Mk 4:11). The establishment of the Lord’s Supper looks forward to the establishment of the kingdom of God (Mt 26:29; Mk 14:25).<\/p>\n<p>The NT reports two different forms of the expression: “the kingdom of God” and “the kingdom of the heavens.” The latter is found only in Matthew, but Matthew also has “the kingdom of God” four times (Mt 12:28; 19:24; 21:31, 43). “The kingdom of heaven” is a Semitic phrase that would have been meaningful to Jews but not to Greeks. The Jews, out of reverence for God, avoided uttering the divine name, and contemporary literature gives examples of substituting the word “heaven” for God (1 Macc 3:18, 50; 4:10; see Lk 15:18).<\/p>\n<p>The key to an understanding of the kingdom of God is that the basic meaning of the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span><em>,<\/em> as also of the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span><em>,<\/em> is rule, reign, dominion. We frequently find in the OT the expression “in the year of the kingdom of . . . ,” meaning in the year of the reign of a given king (e.g., 1 Chr 26:31; 2 Chr 3:2; 15:10; Ezr 7:1; 8:1; Est 2:16; Jer 10:7; 52:31). When we read that Solomon’s kingdom was firmly established (1 Kgs 2:12), we are to understand that his authority to reign was settled. To “turn the kingdom of Saul over to [David]” (1 Chr 12:23, <span>kjv<\/span>) indicates that the authority that had been Saul’s was given to David. As a result of having received legal authority, David became king. This abstract idea of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span> is evident when it is found in parallelisms with such ideas as power, might, glory, and dominion (Dn 4:34; 7:14).<\/p>\n<p>When <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span> is used of God, it almost always refers to his authority or to his rule as the heavenly King. “They will talk together about the glory of your kingdom; they will celebrate examples of your power. . . . For your kingdom is an everlasting kingdom. You rule generation after generation” (Ps 145:11, 13, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Further, if a king rules, there must be a realm or sphere over which he reigns. This is also called <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span><em>.<\/em> “So the realm of Jehoshaphat was quiet, for his God gave him rest round about” (2 Chr 20:30, <span>rsv<\/span>; see Est 3:6; Jer 10:7; Dn 9:1; 11:9).<\/p>\n<p>This same twofold use of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span> is found in the NT. In fact, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span> could be translated by the expression “kingly power” in Luke 23:42 (<span>niv<\/span> mg) and by “kingship” in John 18:36. When a nobleman went into a far country to get a “kingdom” (Luke 19:12, <span>nasb<\/span>) he went to the governing authority to get an appointment as king. When Jesus said, “My kingship is not of this world” (Jn 18:36, <span>rsv<\/span>), he did not mean to say that his rule has nothing to do with the world but rather that his kingship—his dominion—does not come from man but from God. Therefore, he rejects the use of worldly fighting to gain his ends.<\/p>\n<p>This central meaning of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span> makes it easy to understand many sayings in the Gospels. In the Lord’s Prayer the petition “Thy kingdom come” (Mt 6:10) is a prayer for God to manifest his reign so that his will may be done on earth as it is in heaven. When we read that we are to “receive the kingdom of God like a child” (Mk 10:15, <span>rsv<\/span>), we must open our hearts and lives to the rule of God.<\/p>\n<p>Also in the NT are sayings about being <em>in<\/em> the kingdom or of <em>entering<\/em> the kingdom (Mt 8:11; Mk 9:47; 10:23-25; Lk 13:28). There is no philological or theological objection to understanding “the kingdom of God” first as the divine reign or rule and second as the sphere of blessing in which that reign is experienced.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentBackground\">Old Testament Background<\/p>\n<p>The expression “the kingdom of God” is not found in the OT, but the idea appears throughout the prophets. God is frequently spoken of as the King, both of Israel (Ex 15:18; Nm 23:21; Dt 33:5; Is 43:15) and of all the earth (2 Kgs 19:15; Pss 29:10; 47:2; 93:1-2; 96:10; 97:1-9; 99:1-4; 145:11-13; Is 6:5; Jer 46:18). Although God is not the earthly King of Israel, other references speak of a day when God shall become King and shall rule over his people (Is 24:23; 33:22; 52:7; Ob 1:21; Zep 3:15; Zec 14:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>This brief summary of God’s kingship provides the outline for the entire OT concept. While God is King over all the earth, he is in a special way King over his people, Israel. God’s rule is therefore something realized in Israel’s history. However, it is only partially and imperfectly realized. Israel again and again rebelled against the divine sovereignty. Furthermore, Israel was constantly plagued by wars with its pagan neighbors in which it was not always victorious. Again, there are evils in nature and the physical world that often bring suffering to God’s people. Therefore, the prophets look forward to a day when God’s rule will be fully experienced, not by Israel alone, but by all the world. The main emphasis of the prophets is on hope, the establishing of God’s perfect rule in the world.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets describe the final establishment of God’s kingdom in terms of a theophany—a divine visitation (Mi 1:3-4). Zechariah foresees a “Day of the Lord” when all nations will be gathered in battle against Jerusalem, when the Lord will go forth and fight against those nations (Zec 14:3, 5). Israel will be visited by the Lord (Is 29:6) and delivered from its enemies (35:4; 59:20). God’s coming will also mean judgment (2:21; 26:21). This final coming of God will mean the salvation of the Gentiles as well as of Israel (Zec 2:10-11; cf. Is 66:18-24).<\/p>\n<p>Behind this language is a distinct theology of “the God who comes.” It is a fact widely recognized in contemporary OT theology that the God of the OT is not a nature god, like the gods of other peoples, but a God of history—a God who visits his people in history to bless or to judge them. God visited Israel in Egypt to deliver them from bondage and to constitute them as his people. The rescue from Egypt was not merely an act of deliverance; it was an act through which God made himself known and through which Israel was to know and serve him.<\/p>\n<p>Because God has visited his people again and again in their history, he must finally come to them in the future to judge wickedness and to establish his kingdom. Israel’s hope is thus rooted in history, or rather in the God who works in history. God will finally break into history in a glorious theophany to establish his rule in all the earth. The source of the kingdom is not history itself but God.<\/p>\n<p>While the prophets visualize the kingdom as coming from God, the kingdom is always on earth. The divine irruption into the natural order is not designed to accomplish its destruction but to make way for a new, perfect order arising out of the old, imperfect one. The prophets do not present a single consistent picture of the new order. Sometimes the new order is described very much in this-worldly terms. “The terraced vineyards on the hills of Israel will drip with sweet wine” (Am 9:13, <span>nlt<\/span>). On the other hand, God will create new heavens and a new earth (Is 65:17; 66:22), where there will be untroubled joy, prosperity, peace, and righteousness. The final visitation of God will mean the redemption of the world, for a redeemed earth is the scene of the kingdom of God. The prophets look forward again and again to the deliverance of creation “from the bondage to decay.” The description is often couched in simple physical terms. The wilderness will become fruitful (32:15); the desert will blossom (35:2); sorrow and sighing will flee away (v 10). The burning sands will be cooled and the dry places become springs of water (v 7); peace will return to the animal world so that all injury and destruction are done away with (11:6). All this results because the earth becomes full of the knowledge of God (v 9).<\/p>\n<p>Such language is not mere poetry but reflects a profound theology of creation. Humans as creatures were made to dwell on the earth, and the earth shares in human destiny. The main point is that creation as such is good and not a hindrance to true spirituality, as was often true in Greek thought. Redemption always includes redemption of the earth, which then becomes the blessed environment God intended it to be. Salvation does not mean deliverance from creaturehood, for this is not an evil thing but an essential and permanent element of true, human existence. Salvation does not mean escape from bodily creaturely existence, as in some Greek thought. On the contrary, ultimate redemption will mean the redemption of the whole person. The emergence of the doctrine of bodily resurrection is a reflection of this theology of creaturehood. The corollary of this is that creation in its entirety must share in the blessing of redemption.<\/p>\n<p>A distinctive element in prophetic eschatology is the tension between history and eschatology. That is, as the prophets looked into the future, they saw an immediate historical judgment as well as a more remote eschatological visitation. For Amos, the Day of the Lord is both the immediate judgment of Israel by the Assyrians and a final eschatological salvation. Joel sees an imminent historical visitation of drought and locusts, but beyond this he sees the eschatological Day of the Lord. Zephaniah sees an imminent Day of the Lord in some undesignated historical visitation (Zep 1:2-18), but beyond it he sees the salvation of the Gentiles (3:9). The same God who acts in history to bless and judge his people will act at the end of history in an eschatological act of judgment and salvation. The prophets do not sharply distinguish between these two days, for it is one and the same God who is concerned to judge and save his people.<\/p>\n<p>The eschatological hope of the prophets is always an ethical hope. That is to say, the prophets are not interested in the future for its own sake but for the impact of the future on the present. The prophetic predictions were given that, in light of future judgment and salvation, Israel might be confronted in the present by the will of God. “Prepare to meet your God as he comes in judgment, you people of Israel” (Am 4:12, <span>nlt<\/span>) might well be taken as the keynote of all the prophets.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>The Synoptic Gospels<\/h5>\n<p>Jesus’ teachings about the kingdom of God embodied the same contrast between the present order and the future age as that of the prophets, and he expressed it in the idiom “this age and the age to come.” This fact is obscured in the <span>kjv<\/span>, which translates the word for “age” by “world.” These are, however, two different concepts. A rich man asked Jesus what he must do to inherit eternal life (Mk 10:17). The context makes it clear that he was asking about eschatological life—the life of the resurrection (Dn 12:2). Jesus speaks of the difficulty of entering the kingdom of God. (The parallel passage in Matthew 19:23-24 has both “kingdom of God” and “kingdom of heaven,” proving that they are interchangeable terms.) In their reaction the disciples ask, “Then who can be saved?” Jesus’ answer contrasts the lot of his disciples “in this time” with the “age to come” (Mk 10:29-30) when they would inherit eternal life. It is clear from this passage that in some sense the kingdom of God, the kingdom of heaven, salvation, and eternal life all belong to the age to come. So far as this saying is concerned, God’s people will not experience eternal life until they do so in the new age.<\/p>\n<p>Matthew alone records the expression “the close of the age.” This age will be terminated by the coming of the Son of Man (Mt 24:3) and by the judgment of humanity (13:39-42). Then the righteous will be separated from the wicked (v 49). The same expression occurs in the promise of the risen Jesus assuring his disciples of his presence until the consummation of the age (28:20). It follows that if this age is to come to its consummation, it must be followed by another age—the age to come.<\/p>\n<p>The eschatological kingdom will be inaugurated by an apocalyptic event—the glorious coming of the Son of Man. This is made clear by two of the parables about the kingdom of God. In the parable of the tares, “the Son of man will send his angels, and they will gather out of his kingdom all causes of sin and all evildoers, and throw them into the furnace of fire” (Mt 13:41-42, <span>rsv<\/span>). The parable of the sheep and goats reflects the same eschatology. When the Son of Man comes in his glory, he will sit on his glorious throne to judge the nations, separating the sheep from the goats. The righteous—the sheep—are to “inherit the kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world”; and entrance into the kingdom is synonymous with entrance into life (25:31-46, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The eschatological character of the kingdom of God is seen also in the other two parables of Matthew 25. “The kingdom of heaven shall be compared to ten maidens who took their lamps and went to meet the bridegroom” (v 1, <span>rsv<\/span>). However, five of them were foolish and did not provide an adequate supply of oil for their lamps. Thus they were late for the wedding and were excluded from the wedding feast—a symbol of the eschatological kingdom—while those properly prepared entered the kingdom. In the same way the two faithful servants who had been “faithful over a little” were granted to “enter into the joy of your master” (vv 21, 23), while the unfaithful servant was excluded from the kingdom and cast into outer darkness.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus almost never showed any interest in descriptions of the eschatological kingdom, but it is clear that its coming was constantly in his thoughts. The pure in heart will see God (Mt 5:8). The harvest will take place and the grain will be gathered into the barn (13:30, 39; Mk 4:29). Jesus frequently used the metaphor of a feast or table fellowship to describe life in the eschatological kingdom. He will drink wine again with his disciples in the kingdom of God. They will eat and drink at Jesus’ table in the kingdom (Lk 22:30). People will be gathered from all corners of the earth to sit at a table with the OT saints (Mt 8:11-12; Lk 13:29). The consummation is likened to a wedding feast (Mt 22:1-14) and a banquet (Lk 14:16-24). All of these metaphors picture the restoration of communion between God and people, a union that had been broken by sin.<\/p>\n<p>In most of the sayings cited to illustrate the future character of the kingdom, “kingdom” refers to the eschatological order—the eschaton, the age to come. However, when Jesus taught his disciples to pray “Thy kingdom come” (Mt 6:10), he was not referring to the new eschatological order; he was referring to the kingdom as God’s kingly rule, his reign. It is a prayer that God will effectively establish his sovereign rule in the world.<\/p>\n<p>In his teaching about the kingdom of God as the apocalyptic consummation, Jesus does not differ essentially from the OT prophets. The most distinctive element in Jesus’ teaching—indeed, the fact that characterizes his entire mission and message—is the fact that in some real sense of the word, the kingdom of God has come in history in an utterly unexpected way. This sets Jesus’ teaching apart from all contemporary Jewish thought.<\/p>\n<p>This is seen first of all in his repeated teaching that his mission is a fulfillment of the OT messianic prophets. Mark summarizes Jesus’ message with the words “The Kingdom of God is near! Turn from your sins and believe this Good News!” (Mk 1:15, <span>nlt<\/span>). This saying can have one of two meanings. It may refer to the imminent coming of the apocalyptic kingdom. Matthew summarizes the message of John the Baptist with nearly the same words: “Turn from your sins and turn to God, because the Kingdom of Heaven is near” (Mt 3:2, <span>nlt<\/span>). The Baptist expounds what he means by the approach of the kingdom of God: “He is ready to separate the chaff from the grain with his winnowing fork. Then he will clean up the threshing area, storing the grain in his barn but burning the chaff with never-ending fire” (v 12, <span>nlt<\/span>). John proclaimed an apocalyptic act; “unquenchable fire” can mean no strictly historical event but only an apocalyptic judgment. John expected Jesus to be the one in whom the cosmic event expected by the prophets would be carried out.<\/p>\n<p>It is possible that this was also Jesus’ meaning. However, another interpretation is possible that is better supported by the actual course of his mission: “The time is fulfilled.” The messianic promises of the prophets were not only about to be fulfilled; they were actually in process of fulfillment in his mission. In Jesus, God was visiting his people. The hope of the prophets in some real sense was being realized.<\/p>\n<p>The meaning of this can be seen in Luke’s introduction of Jesus’ ministry. Luke selects an event that occurred in Nazareth later in Jesus’ ministry (Lk 4:16-21) and places it at the beginning of his Gospel in order to sound this note of fulfillment. Jesus read from Isaiah a promise that looked forward to the messianic salvation: “The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, for he has appointed me to preach Good News to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim that captives will be released, that the blind will see, that the downtrodden will be freed from their oppressors, and that the time of the Lord’s favor has come” (vv 18-19, <span>nlt<\/span>). Then Jesus astonished his audience by the assertion “This Scripture has come true today before your very eyes!” (v 21, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Here was an amazing claim. John the Baptist had announced an apocalyptic visitation of God that would mean the fulfillment of the eschatological hope and the consummation of the messianic age. Jesus proclaimed that the messianic promise was actually being fulfilled in his person. This is no apocalyptic kingdom but a present salvation. In these words Jesus did not proclaim the imminence of the apocalyptic kingdom. Rather, he boldly announced that the kingdom of God had come. The presence of the kingdom was a happening, an event, the gracious action of God. This was no new theology or new idea or new promise; it was a new event in history.<\/p>\n<p>The note of fulfillment is again sounded in Jesus’ answer to the question about fasting. “Do wedding guests fast while celebrating with the groom? Of course not. They can’t fast while they are with the groom” (Mk 2:19, <span>nlt<\/span>). The marriage feast had become a metaphor in Judaism for the messianic consummation. In these words Jesus announced the presence of the messianic time of salvation. It would be a contradiction in terms for the disciples to fast when they were enjoying the blessings of the messianic age. The time of fulfillment had come.<\/p>\n<p>A saying found in different contexts in Matthew and Luke touches this central note of the fulfillment in history of the OT hope: “Blessed are the eyes which see what you see! For I tell you that many prophets and kings desired to see what you see, and did not see it, and to hear what you hear, and did not hear it” (Lk 10:23-24, <span>rsv<\/span>; cf. Mt 13:16-17). Both Matthew and Luke associate this saying with the kingdom of God, and both agree that the hope of former generations has become an object of experience. Many prophets and kings looked forward to something, but they looked in vain, for it did not come to them. What they longed for has now come, and this can be nothing less than the promised messianic salvation.<\/p>\n<p>Fulfillment in history is again asserted in Jesus’ answer to John’s question about the one who is to come (Mt 11:2-3). “The deeds of the Christ” (Messiah) were not the deeds John had announced. Wicked rulers like Herod were not being judged in fire. Instead, Jesus was helping people, not bringing an apocalyptic kingdom. Jesus replied in words that echo the promise of the messianic salvation in Isaiah 35:5-6: “Go and tell John what you hear and see: the blind receive their sight and the lame walk, lepers are cleansed and the deaf hear, and the dead are raised up, and the poor have the gospel preached to them” (Mt 11:4-5, <span>rsv<\/span>). In these words Jesus claimed that the blessings of the messianic salvation are present. There was indeed reason for John’s perplexity, for the fulfillment was not taking place along expected lines. The apocalyptic consummation did not appear to be on the horizon. The point of Jesus’ answer was that fulfillment was taking place without the eschatological consummation. Therefore, Jesus pronounced a special blessing upon those who were not offended by the character of the messianic fulfillment (v 6). The fulfillment was indeed taking place, but not the apocalyptic consummation.<\/p>\n<p>The most unambiguous statement of the presence of the kingdom is found in the words about the binding of Satan. One of Jesus’ most characteristic acts was the exorcism of demons—deliverance from satanic power. The Pharisees admitted his power but attributed it to Satan. Jesus replied, “If Satan casts out Satan, he is divided against himself; how then will his kingdom stand? . . . But if it is by the Spirit of God that I cast out demons, then the kingdom of God is come upon you” (Mt 12:26, 28, <span>rsv<\/span>). Here the verb has the clear meaning “to come, to arrive” (cf. Rom 9:30; 2 Cor 10:14; Phil 3:16). Here is a clear affirmation that the kingdom of God has come among men.<\/p>\n<p>In explanation Jesus said, “Or how can one enter a strong man’s house and plunder his goods, unless he first binds the strong man? Then indeed he may plunder his house” (Mt 12:29, <span>rsv<\/span>). The strong man is Satan; this “present evil age” (Gal 1:4) is his “house”; his “goods” are demon-possessed men and women. Jesus has invaded the strong man’s house to snatch away from him men and women whom he has in his power, and this is the work of the kingdom of God. The kingly reign of God has come into history in the person of Jesus before the apocalyptic consummation when Satan will be destroyed, to render Satan a preliminary defeat. Jesus has already “bound” Satan (i.e., curbed his power). This has been accomplished by the presence of the kingdom of God in the mission of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>A similar saying is found in Luke 10:18. Jesus had sent a band of his disciples on a preaching mission. Like Jesus, they were to proclaim the nearness of the kingdom of God (Lk 10:9). They, too, were to exorcize demons. When they returned to Jesus to report their success, Jesus said, “I saw Satan fall like lightning from heaven” (v 18, <span>rsv<\/span>). This again is metaphorical language that asserts that in the mission of Jesus’ disciples, as well as in Jesus himself, Satan has fallen from his place of power. Both “binding” and “falling” are metaphors that describe the same truth: the victory of the kingdom of God over Satan.<\/p>\n<p>Here is the element that sets Jesus apart from the OT and from all of contemporary Judaism. The prophets conceived of the kingdom being established by a heavenly supernatural being (Dn 7) or ruled by a powerful Davidic messianic king (Is 9, 11). The fulfillment of the messianic hope is everywhere in the prophets an eschatological hope. The same is true of the Jewish writers who despaired of history and cast all hope into the future.<\/p>\n<p>In contrast to all that had gone before him, Jesus proclaimed the kingdom of God as an event taking place in his own person and mission. God had again assumed the initiative; God was acting. No first-century Jew had any idea of the kingdom of God coming into history in the person of an ordinary man—a teacher who was meek and lowly.<\/p>\n<p>The presence of the kingdom is further seen in the fact that the rule of God, present in Jesus, is a gift to be received. This is also true of the kingdom in its eschatological consummation, where the kingdom is freely inherited by the righteous (Mt 25:34). In answer to the young man’s question about inheriting eternal life (Mk 10:17), Jesus spoke of entering the kingdom (vv 23-24) and receiving the gift of eternal life (v 30) as though they were synonymous. The kingdom is a gift that the Father is pleased to bestow upon the little flock of Jesus’ disciples (Lk 12:32).<\/p>\n<p>If God’s eschatological rule brings to his people the blessings of that kingdom, and if God’s kingdom is his rule invading history before the eschatological consummation, then we may expect God’s rule in the present to bring a preliminary blessing to his people. This fact is reflected in numerous sayings. The kingdom is something to be sought here and now (Mt 6:33) and to be received as children receive a gift (Mk 10:15; Lk 18:16-17). Although it is present in an unexpected form, the kingdom of God in Jesus’ person is like a hidden treasure or a pearl of great price whose possession outranks all other goods (Mt 13:44-46). The gift of the kingdom is also seen in that the deaf hear, the blind see, lepers are cleansed, and the poor have good news preached to them (11:5).<\/p>\n<h5>John’s Gospel<\/h5>\n<p>In the Gospel of John the concept of eternal life takes the place of the kingdom of God in Jesus’ teaching. The kingdom of God is mentioned twice (Jn 3:3, 5), and it is placed in connection with eternal life. The kingdom of God is here the eschatological kingdom, and eternal life is the life of the kingdom. Thus, as the kingdom of God in the synoptic Gospels is both future and present, so eternal life is both the life of the age to come (12:25) and also a present blessing (3:16, etc.).<\/p>\n<h5>Acts<\/h5>\n<p>In Acts it seems the earliest disciples generally failed to understand Jesus’ message about the kingdom of God as a present spiritual blessing. They gathered together to await the coming of the eschatological kingdom to Israel (Acts 1:6). Acts relates that the disciples continued to preach the kingdom of God, but usually it is an eschatological blessing (8:12; 14:22; 19:8; 20:25; 28:23, 31). However, the last two references make the kingdom of God synonymous with the gospel about Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>One important theme in Acts is linked to that of the kingdom of God. On the Day of Pentecost, Peter announces that God has seated Jesus at his right hand in fulfillment of Psalm 110:1 (Acts 2:33-35). In the Psalms this is a prophecy of the enthronement of the Davidic king in Jerusalem. Peter asserts that this prophecy is now fulfilled in the heavenly reign of Jesus. Therefore, he has been made both Lord and Christ (Messiah). These are interchangeable terms, “Lord” meaning absolute sovereign, “Christ” meaning the messianic king.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Writings<\/h5>\n<p>Paul carried further this theme of the heavenly rule of Christ, the anointed King. The kingdom is both an eschatological inheritance (1 Cor 6:9; 15:50; Gal 5:21; Eph 5:5; 1 Thes 2:12; 2 Thes 1:5; 2 Tm 4:1, 18) and a present blessing into which believers now enter (Rom 14:17; Col 1:13). The key to this is the interchangeable character of lordship and messianic kingship. Jesus is now exalted as Lord over all (Phil 2:11), and even as his lordship is invisible, it will become manifest to all at his second coming. In the same way, he has been enthroned as messianic King by virtue of his resurrection and heavenly session, and he must reign as King until he has put all his enemies under his feet (1 Cor 15:25; Eph 1:22). The last enemy to be destroyed is death.<\/p>\n<h5>Revelation<\/h5>\n<p>The central message of the Revelation to John is the consummation of God’s redemptive purpose, when the kingdom of this world becomes the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ (Rv 11:15). Revelation pictures the plight of a persecuted church in a hostile world, but it assures the church that Christ has already won a victory over the powers of evil (5:5), by virtue of which he can finally destroy them (19:11–20:14). Again, the last enemy to be destroyed is death (20:13-14). Revelation closes with a highly symbolic picture of the kingdom of God (chs 21–22) when God comes to dwell among his people, and “they shall see his face” (22:4). Thus the NT ends: divine order is restored to a disordered world. This is the kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jesus Christ, Teachings of; King; Parable.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KINGDOM OF GOD, KINGDOM OF HEAVEN<\/h3>\n<p>The sovereign rule of God, initiated by Christ’s earthly ministry and consummated when the kingdom of the world becomes the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ (Rv 11:15).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Introduction<\/p>\n<p>• Old Testament Background<\/p>\n<p>• In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Introduction\">Introduction<\/p>\n<p>According to the testimony of the first three Gospels, the proclamation of the kingdom of God was Jesus’ central message. Matthew summarizes the Galilean ministry with the words “Jesus traveled throughout Galilee teaching in the synagogues, preaching everywhere the Good News about the Kingdom” (Mt 4:23, <span>nlt<\/span>). The Sermon on the Mount is concerned with the righteousness that qualifies people to enter the kingdom of God (5:20). The collection of parables in Matthew 13 and Mark 4 illustrate the “mystery” of the kingdom of God (Mt 13:11; Mk 4:11). The establishment of the Lord’s Supper looks forward to the establishment of the kingdom of God (Mt 26:29; Mk 14:25).<\/p>\n<p>The NT reports two different forms of the expression: “the kingdom of God” and “the kingdom of the heavens.” The latter is found only in Matthew, but Matthew also has “the kingdom of God” four times (Mt 12:28; 19:24; 21:31, 43). “The kingdom of heaven” is a Semitic phrase that would have been meaningful to Jews but not to Greeks. The Jews, out of reverence for God, avoided uttering the divine name, and contemporary literature gives examples of substituting the word “heaven” for God (1 Macc 3:18, 50; 4:10; see Lk 15:18).<\/p>\n<p>The key to an understanding of the kingdom of God is that the basic meaning of the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span><em>,<\/em> as also of the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span><em>,<\/em> is rule, reign, dominion. We frequently find in the OT the expression “in the year of the kingdom of . . . ,” meaning in the year of the reign of a given king (e.g., 1 Chr 26:31; 2 Chr 3:2; 15:10; Ezr 7:1; 8:1; Est 2:16; Jer 10:7; 52:31). When we read that Solomon’s kingdom was firmly established (1 Kgs 2:12), we are to understand that his authority to reign was settled. To “turn the kingdom of Saul over to [David]” (1 Chr 12:23, <span>kjv<\/span>) indicates that the authority that had been Saul’s was given to David. As a result of having received legal authority, David became king. This abstract idea of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span> is evident when it is found in parallelisms with such ideas as power, might, glory, and dominion (Dn 4:34; 7:14).<\/p>\n<p>When <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span> is used of God, it almost always refers to his authority or to his rule as the heavenly King. “They will talk together about the glory of your kingdom; they will celebrate examples of your power. . . . For your kingdom is an everlasting kingdom. You rule generation after generation” (Ps 145:11, 13, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Further, if a king rules, there must be a realm or sphere over which he reigns. This is also called <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span><em>.<\/em> “So the realm of Jehoshaphat was quiet, for his God gave him rest round about” (2 Chr 20:30, <span>rsv<\/span>; see Est 3:6; Jer 10:7; Dn 9:1; 11:9).<\/p>\n<p>This same twofold use of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span> is found in the NT. In fact, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span> could be translated by the expression “kingly power” in Luke 23:42 (<span>niv<\/span> mg) and by “kingship” in John 18:36. When a nobleman went into a far country to get a “kingdom” (Luke 19:12, <span>nasb<\/span>) he went to the governing authority to get an appointment as king. When Jesus said, “My kingship is not of this world” (Jn 18:36, <span>rsv<\/span>), he did not mean to say that his rule has nothing to do with the world but rather that his kingship—his dominion—does not come from man but from God. Therefore, he rejects the use of worldly fighting to gain his ends.<\/p>\n<p>This central meaning of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span> makes it easy to understand many sayings in the Gospels. In the Lord’s Prayer the petition “Thy kingdom come” (Mt 6:10) is a prayer for God to manifest his reign so that his will may be done on earth as it is in heaven. When we read that we are to “receive the kingdom of God like a child” (Mk 10:15, <span>rsv<\/span>), we must open our hearts and lives to the rule of God.<\/p>\n<p>Also in the NT are sayings about being <em>in<\/em> the kingdom or of <em>entering<\/em> the kingdom (Mt 8:11; Mk 9:47; 10:23-25; Lk 13:28). There is no philological or theological objection to understanding “the kingdom of God” first as the divine reign or rule and second as the sphere of blessing in which that reign is experienced.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentBackground\">Old Testament Background<\/p>\n<p>The expression “the kingdom of God” is not found in the OT, but the idea appears throughout the prophets. God is frequently spoken of as the King, both of Israel (Ex 15:18; Nm 23:21; Dt 33:5; Is 43:15) and of all the earth (2 Kgs 19:15; Pss 29:10; 47:2; 93:1-2; 96:10; 97:1-9; 99:1-4; 145:11-13; Is 6:5; Jer 46:18). Although God is not the earthly King of Israel, other references speak of a day when God shall become King and shall rule over his people (Is 24:23; 33:22; 52:7; Ob 1:21; Zep 3:15; Zec 14:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>This brief summary of God’s kingship provides the outline for the entire OT concept. While God is King over all the earth, he is in a special way King over his people, Israel. God’s rule is therefore something realized in Israel’s history. However, it is only partially and imperfectly realized. Israel again and again rebelled against the divine sovereignty. Furthermore, Israel was constantly plagued by wars with its pagan neighbors in which it was not always victorious. Again, there are evils in nature and the physical world that often bring suffering to God’s people. Therefore, the prophets look forward to a day when God’s rule will be fully experienced, not by Israel alone, but by all the world. The main emphasis of the prophets is on hope, the establishing of God’s perfect rule in the world.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets describe the final establishment of God’s kingdom in terms of a theophany—a divine visitation (Mi 1:3-4). Zechariah foresees a “Day of the Lord” when all nations will be gathered in battle against Jerusalem, when the Lord will go forth and fight against those nations (Zec 14:3, 5). Israel will be visited by the Lord (Is 29:6) and delivered from its enemies (35:4; 59:20). God’s coming will also mean judgment (2:21; 26:21). This final coming of God will mean the salvation of the Gentiles as well as of Israel (Zec 2:10-11; cf. Is 66:18-24).<\/p>\n<p>Behind this language is a distinct theology of “the God who comes.” It is a fact widely recognized in contemporary OT theology that the God of the OT is not a nature god, like the gods of other peoples, but a God of history—a God who visits his people in history to bless or to judge them. God visited Israel in Egypt to deliver them from bondage and to constitute them as his people. The rescue from Egypt was not merely an act of deliverance; it was an act through which God made himself known and through which Israel was to know and serve him.<\/p>\n<p>Because God has visited his people again and again in their history, he must finally come to them in the future to judge wickedness and to establish his kingdom. Israel’s hope is thus rooted in history, or rather in the God who works in history. God will finally break into history in a glorious theophany to establish his rule in all the earth. The source of the kingdom is not history itself but God.<\/p>\n<p>While the prophets visualize the kingdom as coming from God, the kingdom is always on earth. The divine irruption into the natural order is not designed to accomplish its destruction but to make way for a new, perfect order arising out of the old, imperfect one. The prophets do not present a single consistent picture of the new order. Sometimes the new order is described very much in this-worldly terms. “The terraced vineyards on the hills of Israel will drip with sweet wine” (Am 9:13, <span>nlt<\/span>). On the other hand, God will create new heavens and a new earth (Is 65:17; 66:22), where there will be untroubled joy, prosperity, peace, and righteousness. The final visitation of God will mean the redemption of the world, for a redeemed earth is the scene of the kingdom of God. The prophets look forward again and again to the deliverance of creation “from the bondage to decay.” The description is often couched in simple physical terms. The wilderness will become fruitful (32:15); the desert will blossom (35:2); sorrow and sighing will flee away (v 10). The burning sands will be cooled and the dry places become springs of water (v 7); peace will return to the animal world so that all injury and destruction are done away with (11:6). All this results because the earth becomes full of the knowledge of God (v 9).<\/p>\n<p>Such language is not mere poetry but reflects a profound theology of creation. Humans as creatures were made to dwell on the earth, and the earth shares in human destiny. The main point is that creation as such is good and not a hindrance to true spirituality, as was often true in Greek thought. Redemption always includes redemption of the earth, which then becomes the blessed environment God intended it to be. Salvation does not mean deliverance from creaturehood, for this is not an evil thing but an essential and permanent element of true, human existence. Salvation does not mean escape from bodily creaturely existence, as in some Greek thought. On the contrary, ultimate redemption will mean the redemption of the whole person. The emergence of the doctrine of bodily resurrection is a reflection of this theology of creaturehood. The corollary of this is that creation in its entirety must share in the blessing of redemption.<\/p>\n<p>A distinctive element in prophetic eschatology is the tension between history and eschatology. That is, as the prophets looked into the future, they saw an immediate historical judgment as well as a more remote eschatological visitation. For Amos, the Day of the Lord is both the immediate judgment of Israel by the Assyrians and a final eschatological salvation. Joel sees an imminent historical visitation of drought and locusts, but beyond this he sees the eschatological Day of the Lord. Zephaniah sees an imminent Day of the Lord in some undesignated historical visitation (Zep 1:2-18), but beyond it he sees the salvation of the Gentiles (3:9). The same God who acts in history to bless and judge his people will act at the end of history in an eschatological act of judgment and salvation. The prophets do not sharply distinguish between these two days, for it is one and the same God who is concerned to judge and save his people.<\/p>\n<p>The eschatological hope of the prophets is always an ethical hope. That is to say, the prophets are not interested in the future for its own sake but for the impact of the future on the present. The prophetic predictions were given that, in light of future judgment and salvation, Israel might be confronted in the present by the will of God. “Prepare to meet your God as he comes in judgment, you people of Israel” (Am 4:12, <span>nlt<\/span>) might well be taken as the keynote of all the prophets.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>The Synoptic Gospels<\/h5>\n<p>Jesus’ teachings about the kingdom of God embodied the same contrast between the present order and the future age as that of the prophets, and he expressed it in the idiom “this age and the age to come.” This fact is obscured in the <span>kjv<\/span>, which translates the word for “age” by “world.” These are, however, two different concepts. A rich man asked Jesus what he must do to inherit eternal life (Mk 10:17). The context makes it clear that he was asking about eschatological life—the life of the resurrection (Dn 12:2). Jesus speaks of the difficulty of entering the kingdom of God. (The parallel passage in Matthew 19:23-24 has both “kingdom of God” and “kingdom of heaven,” proving that they are interchangeable terms.) In their reaction the disciples ask, “Then who can be saved?” Jesus’ answer contrasts the lot of his disciples “in this time” with the “age to come” (Mk 10:29-30) when they would inherit eternal life. It is clear from this passage that in some sense the kingdom of God, the kingdom of heaven, salvation, and eternal life all belong to the age to come. So far as this saying is concerned, God’s people will not experience eternal life until they do so in the new age.<\/p>\n<p>Matthew alone records the expression “the close of the age.” This age will be terminated by the coming of the Son of Man (Mt 24:3) and by the judgment of humanity (13:39-42). Then the righteous will be separated from the wicked (v 49). The same expression occurs in the promise of the risen Jesus assuring his disciples of his presence until the consummation of the age (28:20). It follows that if this age is to come to its consummation, it must be followed by another age—the age to come.<\/p>\n<p>The eschatological kingdom will be inaugurated by an apocalyptic event—the glorious coming of the Son of Man. This is made clear by two of the parables about the kingdom of God. In the parable of the tares, “the Son of man will send his angels, and they will gather out of his kingdom all causes of sin and all evildoers, and throw them into the furnace of fire” (Mt 13:41-42, <span>rsv<\/span>). The parable of the sheep and goats reflects the same eschatology. When the Son of Man comes in his glory, he will sit on his glorious throne to judge the nations, separating the sheep from the goats. The righteous—the sheep—are to “inherit the kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world”; and entrance into the kingdom is synonymous with entrance into life (25:31-46, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The eschatological character of the kingdom of God is seen also in the other two parables of Matthew 25. “The kingdom of heaven shall be compared to ten maidens who took their lamps and went to meet the bridegroom” (v 1, <span>rsv<\/span>). However, five of them were foolish and did not provide an adequate supply of oil for their lamps. Thus they were late for the wedding and were excluded from the wedding feast—a symbol of the eschatological kingdom—while those properly prepared entered the kingdom. In the same way the two faithful servants who had been “faithful over a little” were granted to “enter into the joy of your master” (vv 21, 23), while the unfaithful servant was excluded from the kingdom and cast into outer darkness.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus almost never showed any interest in descriptions of the eschatological kingdom, but it is clear that its coming was constantly in his thoughts. The pure in heart will see God (Mt 5:8). The harvest will take place and the grain will be gathered into the barn (13:30, 39; Mk 4:29). Jesus frequently used the metaphor of a feast or table fellowship to describe life in the eschatological kingdom. He will drink wine again with his disciples in the kingdom of God. They will eat and drink at Jesus’ table in the kingdom (Lk 22:30). People will be gathered from all corners of the earth to sit at a table with the OT saints (Mt 8:11-12; Lk 13:29). The consummation is likened to a wedding feast (Mt 22:1-14) and a banquet (Lk 14:16-24). All of these metaphors picture the restoration of communion between God and people, a union that had been broken by sin.<\/p>\n<p>In most of the sayings cited to illustrate the future character of the kingdom, “kingdom” refers to the eschatological order—the eschaton, the age to come. However, when Jesus taught his disciples to pray “Thy kingdom come” (Mt 6:10), he was not referring to the new eschatological order; he was referring to the kingdom as God’s kingly rule, his reign. It is a prayer that God will effectively establish his sovereign rule in the world.<\/p>\n<p>In his teaching about the kingdom of God as the apocalyptic consummation, Jesus does not differ essentially from the OT prophets. The most distinctive element in Jesus’ teaching—indeed, the fact that characterizes his entire mission and message—is the fact that in some real sense of the word, the kingdom of God has come in history in an utterly unexpected way. This sets Jesus’ teaching apart from all contemporary Jewish thought.<\/p>\n<p>This is seen first of all in his repeated teaching that his mission is a fulfillment of the OT messianic prophets. Mark summarizes Jesus’ message with the words “The Kingdom of God is near! Turn from your sins and believe this Good News!” (Mk 1:15, <span>nlt<\/span>). This saying can have one of two meanings. It may refer to the imminent coming of the apocalyptic kingdom. Matthew summarizes the message of John the Baptist with nearly the same words: “Turn from your sins and turn to God, because the Kingdom of Heaven is near” (Mt 3:2, <span>nlt<\/span>). The Baptist expounds what he means by the approach of the kingdom of God: “He is ready to separate the chaff from the grain with his winnowing fork. Then he will clean up the threshing area, storing the grain in his barn but burning the chaff with never-ending fire” (v 12, <span>nlt<\/span>). John proclaimed an apocalyptic act; “unquenchable fire” can mean no strictly historical event but only an apocalyptic judgment. John expected Jesus to be the one in whom the cosmic event expected by the prophets would be carried out.<\/p>\n<p>It is possible that this was also Jesus’ meaning. However, another interpretation is possible that is better supported by the actual course of his mission: “The time is fulfilled.” The messianic promises of the prophets were not only about to be fulfilled; they were actually in process of fulfillment in his mission. In Jesus, God was visiting his people. The hope of the prophets in some real sense was being realized.<\/p>\n<p>The meaning of this can be seen in Luke’s introduction of Jesus’ ministry. Luke selects an event that occurred in Nazareth later in Jesus’ ministry (Lk 4:16-21) and places it at the beginning of his Gospel in order to sound this note of fulfillment. Jesus read from Isaiah a promise that looked forward to the messianic salvation: “The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, for he has appointed me to preach Good News to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim that captives will be released, that the blind will see, that the downtrodden will be freed from their oppressors, and that the time of the Lord’s favor has come” (vv 18-19, <span>nlt<\/span>). Then Jesus astonished his audience by the assertion “This Scripture has come true today before your very eyes!” (v 21, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Here was an amazing claim. John the Baptist had announced an apocalyptic visitation of God that would mean the fulfillment of the eschatological hope and the consummation of the messianic age. Jesus proclaimed that the messianic promise was actually being fulfilled in his person. This is no apocalyptic kingdom but a present salvation. In these words Jesus did not proclaim the imminence of the apocalyptic kingdom. Rather, he boldly announced that the kingdom of God had come. The presence of the kingdom was a happening, an event, the gracious action of God. This was no new theology or new idea or new promise; it was a new event in history.<\/p>\n<p>The note of fulfillment is again sounded in Jesus’ answer to the question about fasting. “Do wedding guests fast while celebrating with the groom? Of course not. They can’t fast while they are with the groom” (Mk 2:19, <span>nlt<\/span>). The marriage feast had become a metaphor in Judaism for the messianic consummation. In these words Jesus announced the presence of the messianic time of salvation. It would be a contradiction in terms for the disciples to fast when they were enjoying the blessings of the messianic age. The time of fulfillment had come.<\/p>\n<p>A saying found in different contexts in Matthew and Luke touches this central note of the fulfillment in history of the OT hope: “Blessed are the eyes which see what you see! For I tell you that many prophets and kings desired to see what you see, and did not see it, and to hear what you hear, and did not hear it” (Lk 10:23-24, <span>rsv<\/span>; cf. Mt 13:16-17). Both Matthew and Luke associate this saying with the kingdom of God, and both agree that the hope of former generations has become an object of experience. Many prophets and kings looked forward to something, but they looked in vain, for it did not come to them. What they longed for has now come, and this can be nothing less than the promised messianic salvation.<\/p>\n<p>Fulfillment in history is again asserted in Jesus’ answer to John’s question about the one who is to come (Mt 11:2-3). “The deeds of the Christ” (Messiah) were not the deeds John had announced. Wicked rulers like Herod were not being judged in fire. Instead, Jesus was helping people, not bringing an apocalyptic kingdom. Jesus replied in words that echo the promise of the messianic salvation in Isaiah 35:5-6: “Go and tell John what you hear and see: the blind receive their sight and the lame walk, lepers are cleansed and the deaf hear, and the dead are raised up, and the poor have the gospel preached to them” (Mt 11:4-5, <span>rsv<\/span>). In these words Jesus claimed that the blessings of the messianic salvation are present. There was indeed reason for John’s perplexity, for the fulfillment was not taking place along expected lines. The apocalyptic consummation did not appear to be on the horizon. The point of Jesus’ answer was that fulfillment was taking place without the eschatological consummation. Therefore, Jesus pronounced a special blessing upon those who were not offended by the character of the messianic fulfillment (v 6). The fulfillment was indeed taking place, but not the apocalyptic consummation.<\/p>\n<p>The most unambiguous statement of the presence of the kingdom is found in the words about the binding of Satan. One of Jesus’ most characteristic acts was the exorcism of demons—deliverance from satanic power. The Pharisees admitted his power but attributed it to Satan. Jesus replied, “If Satan casts out Satan, he is divided against himself; how then will his kingdom stand? . . . But if it is by the Spirit of God that I cast out demons, then the kingdom of God is come upon you” (Mt 12:26, 28, <span>rsv<\/span>). Here the verb has the clear meaning “to come, to arrive” (cf. Rom 9:30; 2 Cor 10:14; Phil 3:16). Here is a clear affirmation that the kingdom of God has come among men.<\/p>\n<p>In explanation Jesus said, “Or how can one enter a strong man’s house and plunder his goods, unless he first binds the strong man? Then indeed he may plunder his house” (Mt 12:29, <span>rsv<\/span>). The strong man is Satan; this “present evil age” (Gal 1:4) is his “house”; his “goods” are demon-possessed men and women. Jesus has invaded the strong man’s house to snatch away from him men and women whom he has in his power, and this is the work of the kingdom of God. The kingly reign of God has come into history in the person of Jesus before the apocalyptic consummation when Satan will be destroyed, to render Satan a preliminary defeat. Jesus has already “bound” Satan (i.e., curbed his power). This has been accomplished by the presence of the kingdom of God in the mission of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>A similar saying is found in Luke 10:18. Jesus had sent a band of his disciples on a preaching mission. Like Jesus, they were to proclaim the nearness of the kingdom of God (Lk 10:9). They, too, were to exorcize demons. When they returned to Jesus to report their success, Jesus said, “I saw Satan fall like lightning from heaven” (v 18, <span>rsv<\/span>). This again is metaphorical language that asserts that in the mission of Jesus’ disciples, as well as in Jesus himself, Satan has fallen from his place of power. Both “binding” and “falling” are metaphors that describe the same truth: the victory of the kingdom of God over Satan.<\/p>\n<p>Here is the element that sets Jesus apart from the OT and from all of contemporary Judaism. The prophets conceived of the kingdom being established by a heavenly supernatural being (Dn 7) or ruled by a powerful Davidic messianic king (Is 9, 11). The fulfillment of the messianic hope is everywhere in the prophets an eschatological hope. The same is true of the Jewish writers who despaired of history and cast all hope into the future.<\/p>\n<p>In contrast to all that had gone before him, Jesus proclaimed the kingdom of God as an event taking place in his own person and mission. God had again assumed the initiative; God was acting. No first-century Jew had any idea of the kingdom of God coming into history in the person of an ordinary man—a teacher who was meek and lowly.<\/p>\n<p>The presence of the kingdom is further seen in the fact that the rule of God, present in Jesus, is a gift to be received. This is also true of the kingdom in its eschatological consummation, where the kingdom is freely inherited by the righteous (Mt 25:34). In answer to the young man’s question about inheriting eternal life (Mk 10:17), Jesus spoke of entering the kingdom (vv 23-24) and receiving the gift of eternal life (v 30) as though they were synonymous. The kingdom is a gift that the Father is pleased to bestow upon the little flock of Jesus’ disciples (Lk 12:32).<\/p>\n<p>If God’s eschatological rule brings to his people the blessings of that kingdom, and if God’s kingdom is his rule invading history before the eschatological consummation, then we may expect God’s rule in the present to bring a preliminary blessing to his people. This fact is reflected in numerous sayings. The kingdom is something to be sought here and now (Mt 6:33) and to be received as children receive a gift (Mk 10:15; Lk 18:16-17). Although it is present in an unexpected form, the kingdom of God in Jesus’ person is like a hidden treasure or a pearl of great price whose possession outranks all other goods (Mt 13:44-46). The gift of the kingdom is also seen in that the deaf hear, the blind see, lepers are cleansed, and the poor have good news preached to them (11:5).<\/p>\n<h5>John’s Gospel<\/h5>\n<p>In the Gospel of John the concept of eternal life takes the place of the kingdom of God in Jesus’ teaching. The kingdom of God is mentioned twice (Jn 3:3, 5), and it is placed in connection with eternal life. The kingdom of God is here the eschatological kingdom, and eternal life is the life of the kingdom. Thus, as the kingdom of God in the synoptic Gospels is both future and present, so eternal life is both the life of the age to come (12:25) and also a present blessing (3:16, etc.).<\/p>\n<h5>Acts<\/h5>\n<p>In Acts it seems the earliest disciples generally failed to understand Jesus’ message about the kingdom of God as a present spiritual blessing. They gathered together to await the coming of the eschatological kingdom to Israel (Acts 1:6). Acts relates that the disciples continued to preach the kingdom of God, but usually it is an eschatological blessing (8:12; 14:22; 19:8; 20:25; 28:23, 31). However, the last two references make the kingdom of God synonymous with the gospel about Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>One important theme in Acts is linked to that of the kingdom of God. On the Day of Pentecost, Peter announces that God has seated Jesus at his right hand in fulfillment of Psalm 110:1 (Acts 2:33-35). In the Psalms this is a prophecy of the enthronement of the Davidic king in Jerusalem. Peter asserts that this prophecy is now fulfilled in the heavenly reign of Jesus. Therefore, he has been made both Lord and Christ (Messiah). These are interchangeable terms, “Lord” meaning absolute sovereign, “Christ” meaning the messianic king.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Writings<\/h5>\n<p>Paul carried further this theme of the heavenly rule of Christ, the anointed King. The kingdom is both an eschatological inheritance (1 Cor 6:9; 15:50; Gal 5:21; Eph 5:5; 1 Thes 2:12; 2 Thes 1:5; 2 Tm 4:1, 18) and a present blessing into which believers now enter (Rom 14:17; Col 1:13). The key to this is the interchangeable character of lordship and messianic kingship. Jesus is now exalted as Lord over all (Phil 2:11), and even as his lordship is invisible, it will become manifest to all at his second coming. In the same way, he has been enthroned as messianic King by virtue of his resurrection and heavenly session, and he must reign as King until he has put all his enemies under his feet (1 Cor 15:25; Eph 1:22). The last enemy to be destroyed is death.<\/p>\n<h5>Revelation<\/h5>\n<p>The central message of the Revelation to John is the consummation of God’s redemptive purpose, when the kingdom of this world becomes the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ (Rv 11:15). Revelation pictures the plight of a persecuted church in a hostile world, but it assures the church that Christ has already won a victory over the powers of evil (5:5), by virtue of which he can finally destroy them (19:11–20:14). Again, the last enemy to be destroyed is death (20:13-14). Revelation closes with a highly symbolic picture of the kingdom of God (chs 21–22) when God comes to dwell among his people, and “they shall see his face” (22:4). Thus the NT ends: divine order is restored to a disordered world. This is the kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jesus Christ, Teachings of; King; Parable.<\/p>","summary_ro":"KINGDOM OF GOD, KINGDOM OF HEAVEN The sovereign rule of God, initiated by Christ’s earthly ministry and consummated when the kingdom of the world becomes the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ (Rv 11:15). Preview • Introduction • Old Testament Background • In the New Testament Introduction According to the testimony of the first three Gospels, the proclamation of the kingdom of God was Jesus’ central message. Matthew summarizes the Galilean ministry with the words “Jesus traveled throughou...","summary_en":"KINGDOM OF GOD, KINGDOM OF HEAVEN The sovereign rule of God, initiated by Christ’s earthly ministry and consummated when the kingdom of the world becomes the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ (Rv 11:15). Preview • Introduction • Old Testament Background • In the New Testament Introduction According to the testimony of the first three Gospels, the proclamation of the kingdom of God was Jesus’ central message. Matthew summarizes the Galilean ministry with the words “Jesus traveled throughou...","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27036,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nations","title_en":"Nations","content_ro":"<h3>NATIONS<\/h3>\n<p>Groups formed on the basis of political or social interests or on kinship. Generally, the word “nations” implies peoples of the world other than the Hebrews, although it can also include the Jews.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Origins\">Origins<\/p>\n<p>The book of Genesis attributes to the three sons of Noah the origin of the various “families” or ethnic groups (about 70 in all) who inhabited the eastern Mediterranean regions (Gn 10). The narrative presupposes that each group has its own individual geographical location and language (vv 5, 20, 31). The story of the tower (ziggurat) of Babel, whose peak was to reach to heaven (ch 11), explains that ethnic groups were separated by language barriers and scattered geographically so that they might not collaborate on presumptuous ventures.<\/p>\n<p>Paul, in his sermon in Athens, assumes that the various nations had a common origin, just as the writer of Genesis did, and accepts as part of the design of God the fact that nations should be separated by geographical boundaries (Acts 17:26). The prophet Zephaniah looked forward to the day when God would reverse this state of affairs and cause all the nations to speak one language (Zep 3:9). The writer of Revelation, in his vision of the new heaven and the new earth, saw these natural boundaries abolished. The nations freely intermingle in the new Jerusalem (Rv 21:22-26).<\/p>\n<p>The distinction between “Israel” and “the nations” is not clear-cut. “Israel” evolved from various ethnic groups, and several of “the nations” traced their origins to prominent figures in the Israelite community. Abraham, the father of the Jewish nation, lived in Ur of the Chaldees in the delta region of the Tigris-Euphrates valley. With his father he migrated north to Haran, and finally southwest to the land of Canaan (Gn 11:31–12:9). Deuteronomy 26:5 (“a wandering Aramean was my father”) suggests Abraham’s residence was in the district of Mesopotamia known as Aram-naharaim. When Abraham entered into covenant with God, God gave him the token of the covenant relationship: circumcision. Foreigners purchased as slaves were circumcised, thus including them in the covenant community. When Moses led the Israelites out of Egypt into the wilderness, a mixed multitude also went up with them (Ex 12:38), which suggests again that people not biologically related nevertheless identified themselves with the people of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The nation of Israel did not include all of those physically descended from Abraham. The first son of Abraham, Ishmael, had an Egyptian mother and is the ancestor of the Ishmaelites, bedouins who roamed the southern wilderness region (Gn 16). Of the twin sons born to Isaac and Rebekah, Esau, the firstborn, is the father of the Edomites living in the southeast, traditional enemies of Israel (Gn 25:23; Nm 20:21).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GodandtheNations\">God and the Nations<\/p>\n<p>Scripture presents negative and positive attitudes toward the nations. The nations inhabiting the territory between the Tigris-Euphrates valley and the Nile River were wicked nations. Therefore, God took away their land and gave it to the descendants of Abraham (Gn 15:16-20). Incestuous relationships, adultery, homosexuality, and sexual relationships between men and animals characterized the nations and incurred God’s displeasure (Lv 18). The nations indulged in the practice of spiritism, augury, witchcraft, and necromancy, so the Hebrews were instructed to avoid such activities (19:26; 20:6). The nations worshiped many gods and included in their worship the practice of human sacrifice, often the sacrifice of children—a ritual that God abhors (Lv 20:1-5; 2 Kgs 17:29-34). The prophet Isaiah spoke scathingly of the craftsman who, taking a branch of a tree, used part of it to kindle a fire and fashioned from the remainder a graven image that he then worshiped (Is 44:12-20). The Baalim and Ashteroth, fertility gods of the Canaanites, were a constant source of temptation to the people of Israel. The message repeated throughout Scripture is that for these reasons God would drive out the nations and give their territory to Israel (Ex 34:24; Dt 12:29-31). The prophetic oracles against the nations reinforced this negative attitude (Jer 46–51; Am 1:3–2:3).<\/p>\n<p>However, the Scripture also reflects a more positive attitude toward the nations. As revealed in the book of Psalms, God is not only concerned about Israel; his eyes keep watch over the nations, and all the earth praises and worships him (Ps 66:1-8). The psalmist prays that God’s saving power may be known among all the nations. He affirms that God righteously judges the peoples and guides the nations. All the ends of the earth should fear him (67:7). The prophet Isaiah declares that the Jerusalem temple is to be a house of prayer for all peoples and that God welcomes the foreigner who comes with sacrifices and offering worship (Is 56:6-8). Isaiah’s vision of hope for the latter days pictures people of all nations pouring into Jerusalem to worship the Lord and learn his ways. Instead of nation warring against nation, all will live in peace, ruled by God (2:2-4).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheNationsintheNewTestament\">The Nations in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>According to the Gospels, Jesus ministered not only to the Jews but also to the Gentile nations in accordance with ancient prophecy (Mt 4:15-16). Jesus taught in Galilee, a predominantly non-Jewish area, traveled to Tyre and Sidon (Mk 7:24) and through the Decapolis (v 31). He ministered to a Roman centurion (Lk 7:1-10), the widow of Nain (vv 11-17), and a Syrophoenician woman (Mk 7:26). People from Idumea came to observe his miracles (3:8).<\/p>\n<p>The teaching of Jesus was also wide in scope. The narrative of the great judgment (Mt 25:31-46) depicts all nations gathered before the Son of Man, and Jesus commissions the apostles to “make disciples of all nations” (Mt 28:19).<\/p>\n<p>Although the book of Acts does not overlook the nations’ role in the death of Jesus (Acts 4:27) and their role in opposing the ministry of Paul (26:17), it nevertheless clearly indicates that the church fulfilled its commission to present the gospel to non-Jewish peoples. Peter proclaims the message about Jesus to the household of Cornelius, a Roman soldier of the Italian Cohort (ch 10). Although the early church resisted the fact that non-Jewish peoples might freely receive the gift of the Spirit, they eventually welcomed this conclusion (11:1-8; 15:1-29). Paul traveled through Cyprus, Asia Minor, Greece, and Italy, founding or visiting churches that were predominantly Gentile. The book of Acts ends dramatically with Paul preaching the gospel in the city of Rome, the heart of the Roman Empire.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NATIONS<\/h3>\n<p>Groups formed on the basis of political or social interests or on kinship. Generally, the word “nations” implies peoples of the world other than the Hebrews, although it can also include the Jews.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Origins\">Origins<\/p>\n<p>The book of Genesis attributes to the three sons of Noah the origin of the various “families” or ethnic groups (about 70 in all) who inhabited the eastern Mediterranean regions (Gn 10). The narrative presupposes that each group has its own individual geographical location and language (vv 5, 20, 31). The story of the tower (ziggurat) of Babel, whose peak was to reach to heaven (ch 11), explains that ethnic groups were separated by language barriers and scattered geographically so that they might not collaborate on presumptuous ventures.<\/p>\n<p>Paul, in his sermon in Athens, assumes that the various nations had a common origin, just as the writer of Genesis did, and accepts as part of the design of God the fact that nations should be separated by geographical boundaries (Acts 17:26). The prophet Zephaniah looked forward to the day when God would reverse this state of affairs and cause all the nations to speak one language (Zep 3:9). The writer of Revelation, in his vision of the new heaven and the new earth, saw these natural boundaries abolished. The nations freely intermingle in the new Jerusalem (Rv 21:22-26).<\/p>\n<p>The distinction between “Israel” and “the nations” is not clear-cut. “Israel” evolved from various ethnic groups, and several of “the nations” traced their origins to prominent figures in the Israelite community. Abraham, the father of the Jewish nation, lived in Ur of the Chaldees in the delta region of the Tigris-Euphrates valley. With his father he migrated north to Haran, and finally southwest to the land of Canaan (Gn 11:31–12:9). Deuteronomy 26:5 (“a wandering Aramean was my father”) suggests Abraham’s residence was in the district of Mesopotamia known as Aram-naharaim. When Abraham entered into covenant with God, God gave him the token of the covenant relationship: circumcision. Foreigners purchased as slaves were circumcised, thus including them in the covenant community. When Moses led the Israelites out of Egypt into the wilderness, a mixed multitude also went up with them (Ex 12:38), which suggests again that people not biologically related nevertheless identified themselves with the people of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The nation of Israel did not include all of those physically descended from Abraham. The first son of Abraham, Ishmael, had an Egyptian mother and is the ancestor of the Ishmaelites, bedouins who roamed the southern wilderness region (Gn 16). Of the twin sons born to Isaac and Rebekah, Esau, the firstborn, is the father of the Edomites living in the southeast, traditional enemies of Israel (Gn 25:23; Nm 20:21).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GodandtheNations\">God and the Nations<\/p>\n<p>Scripture presents negative and positive attitudes toward the nations. The nations inhabiting the territory between the Tigris-Euphrates valley and the Nile River were wicked nations. Therefore, God took away their land and gave it to the descendants of Abraham (Gn 15:16-20). Incestuous relationships, adultery, homosexuality, and sexual relationships between men and animals characterized the nations and incurred God’s displeasure (Lv 18). The nations indulged in the practice of spiritism, augury, witchcraft, and necromancy, so the Hebrews were instructed to avoid such activities (19:26; 20:6). The nations worshiped many gods and included in their worship the practice of human sacrifice, often the sacrifice of children—a ritual that God abhors (Lv 20:1-5; 2 Kgs 17:29-34). The prophet Isaiah spoke scathingly of the craftsman who, taking a branch of a tree, used part of it to kindle a fire and fashioned from the remainder a graven image that he then worshiped (Is 44:12-20). The Baalim and Ashteroth, fertility gods of the Canaanites, were a constant source of temptation to the people of Israel. The message repeated throughout Scripture is that for these reasons God would drive out the nations and give their territory to Israel (Ex 34:24; Dt 12:29-31). The prophetic oracles against the nations reinforced this negative attitude (Jer 46–51; Am 1:3–2:3).<\/p>\n<p>However, the Scripture also reflects a more positive attitude toward the nations. As revealed in the book of Psalms, God is not only concerned about Israel; his eyes keep watch over the nations, and all the earth praises and worships him (Ps 66:1-8). The psalmist prays that God’s saving power may be known among all the nations. He affirms that God righteously judges the peoples and guides the nations. All the ends of the earth should fear him (67:7). The prophet Isaiah declares that the Jerusalem temple is to be a house of prayer for all peoples and that God welcomes the foreigner who comes with sacrifices and offering worship (Is 56:6-8). Isaiah’s vision of hope for the latter days pictures people of all nations pouring into Jerusalem to worship the Lord and learn his ways. Instead of nation warring against nation, all will live in peace, ruled by God (2:2-4).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheNationsintheNewTestament\">The Nations in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>According to the Gospels, Jesus ministered not only to the Jews but also to the Gentile nations in accordance with ancient prophecy (Mt 4:15-16). Jesus taught in Galilee, a predominantly non-Jewish area, traveled to Tyre and Sidon (Mk 7:24) and through the Decapolis (v 31). He ministered to a Roman centurion (Lk 7:1-10), the widow of Nain (vv 11-17), and a Syrophoenician woman (Mk 7:26). People from Idumea came to observe his miracles (3:8).<\/p>\n<p>The teaching of Jesus was also wide in scope. The narrative of the great judgment (Mt 25:31-46) depicts all nations gathered before the Son of Man, and Jesus commissions the apostles to “make disciples of all nations” (Mt 28:19).<\/p>\n<p>Although the book of Acts does not overlook the nations’ role in the death of Jesus (Acts 4:27) and their role in opposing the ministry of Paul (26:17), it nevertheless clearly indicates that the church fulfilled its commission to present the gospel to non-Jewish peoples. Peter proclaims the message about Jesus to the household of Cornelius, a Roman soldier of the Italian Cohort (ch 10). Although the early church resisted the fact that non-Jewish peoples might freely receive the gift of the Spirit, they eventually welcomed this conclusion (11:1-8; 15:1-29). Paul traveled through Cyprus, Asia Minor, Greece, and Italy, founding or visiting churches that were predominantly Gentile. The book of Acts ends dramatically with Paul preaching the gospel in the city of Rome, the heart of the Roman Empire.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NATIONS Groups formed on the basis of political or social interests or on kinship. Generally, the word “nations” implies peoples of the world other than the Hebrews, although it can also include the Jews. Origins The book of Genesis attributes to the three sons of Noah the origin of the various “families” or ethnic groups (about 70 in all) who inhabited the eastern Mediterranean regions (Gn 10). The narrative presupposes that each group has its own individual geographical location and languag...","summary_en":"NATIONS Groups formed on the basis of political or social interests or on kinship. Generally, the word “nations” implies peoples of the world other than the Hebrews, although it can also include the Jews. Origins The book of Genesis attributes to the three sons of Noah the origin of the various “families” or ethnic groups (about 70 in all) who inhabited the eastern Mediterranean regions (Gn 10). The narrative presupposes that each group has its own individual geographical location and languag...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":39213,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Zephaniah","title_en":"Book of Zephaniah","content_ro":"<h3>ZEPHANIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the books of the Minor Prophets in the OT.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to the editorial heading (Zep 1:1), Zephaniah prophesied during the reign of Josiah (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>). His family tree is given in an unusually full form. Some scholars have suggested that his great-great-grandfather was King Hezekiah (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>). But remarkably there is no Jewish or Christian tradition to support the suggestion, which there probably would have been if it had been true. His own name, meaning “he whom the Lord protects or hides,” was not uncommon and was a testimony to the keeping power of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>Zephaniah probably prophesied around 630 <span>BC<\/span>. The fall of Nineveh (612 <span>BC<\/span>) had not yet occurred (2:13-15). Josiah’s reign falls into two periods, dividing at 622 <span>BC<\/span>. In that year, while the temple was being cleared of pagan articles, the Book of the Law was found, which gave momentum to Josiah’s religious reforms (2 Kgs 22). The unreformed state of affairs described by Zephaniah (Zep 1:4-12; 3:1-4) points to a date before 622, at least for his denunciations. The prophet addressed Judah, the southern kingdom, and in particular the civil and religious authorities in Jerusalem. He most probably prophesied during the reign of Josiah, who came to the throne at the age of eight.<\/p>\n<p>The negative parts of the book concerning the sin and punishment of Judah—now fulfilled—would serve as a serious warning against disobedience to God. Moreover, the fulfillment of Zephaniah’s prophetic threats would serve to enhance the positive side of the book, confirming the hope of completion in the experience of a fresh generation of God’s people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Politically, the Assyrian Empire had spread westward and held Palestine in its grip. The long reign of Manasseh (696–642 <span>BC<\/span>) had been a period of total subservience to Assyria. Political subservience as an Assyrian vassal meant religious subservience to the gods of Assyria, especially worship of the heavenly bodies (2 Kgs 21:5). Zephaniah complained of this sin (Zep 1:5). When the door opened to one foreign religion, others naturally came in. Once the exclusiveness of the worship of the God of Israel was abandoned, Palestinian cults were openly accepted. The Canaanite Baal was blatantly worshiped (2 Kgs 21:3), as Zephaniah attested (Zep 1:4). Zephaniah condemned the worshipers of Molech (v 5), who sacrificed children to the Ammonite god (1 Kgs 11:7; 2 Kgs 23:10). International imperialism meant a weakening of national culture, so that foreign customs were practiced, probably with religious overtones (Zep 1:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The reign of Josiah brought changes, marking a political and religious turning point. Assyria, preoccupied with troubles on the eastern and northern frontiers and unable to consolidate its acquisitions, became unable to reinforce its authority in the west. This weakness induced Josiah to launch a national liberation movement. He threw off the yoke of Assyria and expanded his sphere of influence northward into the territory of the old northern kingdom. From a religious standpoint, he completely dissociated himself and his country from the religions that prevailed in Judah and recalled the nation to a pure and exclusive faith in the God of Israel. The book of Zephaniah shows that there was at least one person who shared his ideals. His prophetic ministry undoubtedly paved the way for Josiah’s subsequent reformation. He was a contemporary of Jeremiah, at least for the early part of that prophet’s career (Jeremiah began prophesying in 627 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Scholars have suggested that Zephaniah’s prophesying was prompted in part by attacks of the Scythians. The Greek historian Herodotus tells how the barbaric Scythians overran western Asia and reached as far south as the Egyptian frontier at about the time that Zephaniah prophesied. There is now much less inclination to believe Herodotus’s tale and relate Zephaniah’s prophetic ministry to it. There is no objective evidence for Scythian attacks on so large a scale as Herodotus claimed. Probably Zephaniah spoke simply out of a theological necessity, as he himself claimed (e.g., 1:17). From his inspired standpoint, he foresaw that a clash involving divine intervention and human downfall was unavoidable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTeaching\">Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>As Zephaniah prophesied in God’s name, he denounced the religious sins of Judah and the corruption rampant among both civil and religious authorities. He foretold the downfall of the nation that actually occurred in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The moral and religious landslide could only culminate in a political avalanche of destruction that would engulf the nation. This avalanche is called by Zephaniah “the Day of the Lord.” It was not a new term, and the prophet knew that it would arouse terror in the hearts of his hearers. Amos used it, and even in his time it was well established (Am 5:18-20). Isaiah was the first to use the expression in the southern kingdom (Is 2:6-22, see v 12). In this, as in a number of respects, Zephaniah was a latter-day Isaiah called by God to reapply truths earlier prophesied by Isaiah to a later generation.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of the Day of the Lord refers to a time when the Lord would decisively intervene in the world to establish his sovereignty. Hostile elements would be swept aside. The enemies of God, sinners against his moral will, would be exposed and punished. It was associated with judgment upon those who did not acknowledge God’s sovereignty—especially Gentiles, but also sinful Israel. The emphasis on the suffering of God’s people was intended to correct the popular assumption that other nations would be the sole target of divine judgment.<\/p>\n<p>The “day” also would vindicate those who were loyal to God. It guaranteed the rehabilitation of his oppressed supporters. Zephaniah developed this two-sided phenomenon in order to communicate the truth of God to his own generation. It is “a day of the wrath of God” (Zep 1:15, 18; 2:2), when his reaction to human sin would be demonstrated. Its target was not only other nations but Judah as well, both Jerusalem, the capital (1:10-13), and the other cities of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>Zephaniah also had a positive message for the people of Judah. For the prophets, the message of salvation did not cancel the message of doom. Judgment would come first, then salvation would follow. But the period of tribulation could not be avoided. The prophet’s grim descriptions of “the day of wrath” are interpreted as dire warnings and implicit pleas to the people of Judah to abandon their complacent, sinful ways.<\/p>\n<p>Clearly, Zephaniah’s role under God was to reapply earlier truths sadly forgotten by his own generation. Zephaniah was able to foresee God’s judgment of Judah and the world. But he also proclaimed permanent truths concerning the nature of God and his providential relationship to the world and concerning the responsibilities of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of the book of Zephaniah for the NT lies in the phraseology about the Day of the Lord. There are a number of allusions to this aspect of his message (Mt 13:41 [Zep 1:3]; Rv 6:17 [1:14]; 14:5 [3:13]; 16:1 [3:8]). These echoes stress Zephaniah’s importance beyond his own time. He contributed to the total biblical picture of a God who intervenes in human history and will establish his kingdom. Zephaniah’s descriptions are a pattern for events that will mark the end of history.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>The heading (Zep 1:1) introduces Zephaniah, gives the historical setting, and above all stresses his meditation on the divine word.<\/p>\n<p>The first major part of the book is 1:2–2:3. It subdivides into four units: verses 2-7, 8-13, 14-18; 2:1-3. Verses 2-7 include Judah in a forecast of universal destruction. Zephaniah used traditional material to stress that God’s people were by no means exempt, as they often chose to believe (cf. Am 5:18-20). The prophet supported his startling revelation with reasoned statements regarding the religious deviations practiced in Jerusalem. The image of sacrifice was used ironically, portraying Judah as the victim.<\/p>\n<p>The national administration and members of the royal family were guilty (Zep 1:8-13). Superstitions were punctiliously observed, yet basic divine commands against stealing and fraudulent gain went unheeded. Zephaniah saw the enemy attack on the north side of Jerusalem as an illustration of God’s punishment of dishonest traders (cf. Am 8:5-6; Mi 6:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>There follows a shocking and terrifying description of the grimness of the coming “Day” (Zep 1:14-18). The prophet stirred up a complacent people who did not want to hear God’s message. He frightened them into reality with a monotonous drumbeat of doom and destruction. Judah would be the demoralized target of God’s wrath. Their wealth had secured luxurious imports but could not prevent divine judgment.<\/p>\n<p>The prophet completed his sermon with an appeal for repentance (2:1-3). Having emotionally stirred his audience from their apathy, he was able to bring the good news that all was not yet lost. A penitential assembly at the temple and the intercession of the spiritually minded and obedient among God’s people might prevent destruction. God’s punishment of foreign nations is described in the second main part of the book (2:4-15). Representative states are named to the west, east, south, and north of Judah. In the context of the previous material, it amplifies the universal nature of the Day of the Lord. Like the first part, it subdivides into four passages: verses 2:4-7, 8-11, 12, and 13-15.<\/p>\n<p>The subject of the first passage is the Philistines. In the case of the cities of Gaza and Ekron, there is a play on words typical of Hebrew prophecy. Both names contain doom within their very sound. The Philistines are labeled as trespassers because they were illegal immigrants from Crete into the Promised Land, which was intended for God’s own people.<\/p>\n<p>Zephaniah predicted that Moab and Ammon would suffer attack for their overbearing attitude and their annexation of Judean territory (2:8-11). God would come to the aid of his covenant people.<\/p>\n<p>The first two main sections have spelled out at length a message of judgment for both Judah and the surrounding nations. This twofold message is now repeated in a much shorter form in the third main section (3:1-8). Zephaniah criticized Jerusalem in its combined role of political capital and religious center. The responsibility of being God’s representatives rested too lightly on the shoulders of government and temple officials. Civil leaders abused their powers by demanding bribes and even killing their political opponents. Instead of being the shepherds of the people (cf. Ez 34), they were beasts of prey (cf. Ez 22:25-27). The prophets misused their gifts for their own selfish interests, while the priests broke the strict regulations of the temple. The lessons of history went unheeded; they had not learned caution and reverence. The conclusion is clear: Judah could not escape punishment in the coming Day of the Lord but would suffer with other nations.<\/p>\n<p>The outworking of God’s will for both Judah and the nations is in view in the final main section (Zep 3:9-20), but this time from a quite different aspect. Punishment was not God’s last word for his own people or even for the nations at large. Ultimately God’s will is not destruction but salvation (2 Pt 3:9). The section has three parts: Zephaniah 3:9-10, 11-13, and 14-20. Verses 9-10 deal with the conversion of the nations. This remarkable passage looks forward with divinely guaranteed certainty to the willing submission of Gentiles to the God of Israel. Their turning to God would not be based on human initiative but would originate in the providential activity of God. Lips defiled by worship of pagan gods would be purified and devoted solely to the adoration of the God of Israel. People from remote parts of the earth, here illustrated as the remote south beyond the Ethiopian Nile, would come as suppliants, as if they were scattered Jews returning home.<\/p>\n<p>God’s own people would be marked by a change of heart (3:11-13). By now they would have been purged of the proud people who put themselves before God in the sphere of politics and religion. They would be a purified people who humbly trusted in God. To them were promised the blessings of paradise.<\/p>\n<p>The last passage speaks of coming joys (3:14-20). The prophet projects himself into the future, to the time when God’s judgment would be over and the time of salvation had dawned. God’s people would rejoice in the presence of their Lord. Fear and demoralization would be canceled by God’s powerful presence and radiant joy. His joy would infectiously communicate itself to them so that they too would rejoice. Moreover, his joy would be a reaction to the transformation he was working in the lives of his people (v 17; “he will renew you in his love,” <span>rsv<\/span>). A necessary part of this transformation would feature the vindication of God’s suffering people. They would be brought to a position of honor, as the visible representatives of the God of glory. Ultimately, God’s power would be revealed through a people of power.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Josiah #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ZEPHANIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the books of the Minor Prophets in the OT.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to the editorial heading (Zep 1:1), Zephaniah prophesied during the reign of Josiah (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>). His family tree is given in an unusually full form. Some scholars have suggested that his great-great-grandfather was King Hezekiah (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>). But remarkably there is no Jewish or Christian tradition to support the suggestion, which there probably would have been if it had been true. His own name, meaning “he whom the Lord protects or hides,” was not uncommon and was a testimony to the keeping power of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>Zephaniah probably prophesied around 630 <span>BC<\/span>. The fall of Nineveh (612 <span>BC<\/span>) had not yet occurred (2:13-15). Josiah’s reign falls into two periods, dividing at 622 <span>BC<\/span>. In that year, while the temple was being cleared of pagan articles, the Book of the Law was found, which gave momentum to Josiah’s religious reforms (2 Kgs 22). The unreformed state of affairs described by Zephaniah (Zep 1:4-12; 3:1-4) points to a date before 622, at least for his denunciations. The prophet addressed Judah, the southern kingdom, and in particular the civil and religious authorities in Jerusalem. He most probably prophesied during the reign of Josiah, who came to the throne at the age of eight.<\/p>\n<p>The negative parts of the book concerning the sin and punishment of Judah—now fulfilled—would serve as a serious warning against disobedience to God. Moreover, the fulfillment of Zephaniah’s prophetic threats would serve to enhance the positive side of the book, confirming the hope of completion in the experience of a fresh generation of God’s people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Politically, the Assyrian Empire had spread westward and held Palestine in its grip. The long reign of Manasseh (696–642 <span>BC<\/span>) had been a period of total subservience to Assyria. Political subservience as an Assyrian vassal meant religious subservience to the gods of Assyria, especially worship of the heavenly bodies (2 Kgs 21:5). Zephaniah complained of this sin (Zep 1:5). When the door opened to one foreign religion, others naturally came in. Once the exclusiveness of the worship of the God of Israel was abandoned, Palestinian cults were openly accepted. The Canaanite Baal was blatantly worshiped (2 Kgs 21:3), as Zephaniah attested (Zep 1:4). Zephaniah condemned the worshipers of Molech (v 5), who sacrificed children to the Ammonite god (1 Kgs 11:7; 2 Kgs 23:10). International imperialism meant a weakening of national culture, so that foreign customs were practiced, probably with religious overtones (Zep 1:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The reign of Josiah brought changes, marking a political and religious turning point. Assyria, preoccupied with troubles on the eastern and northern frontiers and unable to consolidate its acquisitions, became unable to reinforce its authority in the west. This weakness induced Josiah to launch a national liberation movement. He threw off the yoke of Assyria and expanded his sphere of influence northward into the territory of the old northern kingdom. From a religious standpoint, he completely dissociated himself and his country from the religions that prevailed in Judah and recalled the nation to a pure and exclusive faith in the God of Israel. The book of Zephaniah shows that there was at least one person who shared his ideals. His prophetic ministry undoubtedly paved the way for Josiah’s subsequent reformation. He was a contemporary of Jeremiah, at least for the early part of that prophet’s career (Jeremiah began prophesying in 627 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Scholars have suggested that Zephaniah’s prophesying was prompted in part by attacks of the Scythians. The Greek historian Herodotus tells how the barbaric Scythians overran western Asia and reached as far south as the Egyptian frontier at about the time that Zephaniah prophesied. There is now much less inclination to believe Herodotus’s tale and relate Zephaniah’s prophetic ministry to it. There is no objective evidence for Scythian attacks on so large a scale as Herodotus claimed. Probably Zephaniah spoke simply out of a theological necessity, as he himself claimed (e.g., 1:17). From his inspired standpoint, he foresaw that a clash involving divine intervention and human downfall was unavoidable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTeaching\">Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>As Zephaniah prophesied in God’s name, he denounced the religious sins of Judah and the corruption rampant among both civil and religious authorities. He foretold the downfall of the nation that actually occurred in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The moral and religious landslide could only culminate in a political avalanche of destruction that would engulf the nation. This avalanche is called by Zephaniah “the Day of the Lord.” It was not a new term, and the prophet knew that it would arouse terror in the hearts of his hearers. Amos used it, and even in his time it was well established (Am 5:18-20). Isaiah was the first to use the expression in the southern kingdom (Is 2:6-22, see v 12). In this, as in a number of respects, Zephaniah was a latter-day Isaiah called by God to reapply truths earlier prophesied by Isaiah to a later generation.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of the Day of the Lord refers to a time when the Lord would decisively intervene in the world to establish his sovereignty. Hostile elements would be swept aside. The enemies of God, sinners against his moral will, would be exposed and punished. It was associated with judgment upon those who did not acknowledge God’s sovereignty—especially Gentiles, but also sinful Israel. The emphasis on the suffering of God’s people was intended to correct the popular assumption that other nations would be the sole target of divine judgment.<\/p>\n<p>The “day” also would vindicate those who were loyal to God. It guaranteed the rehabilitation of his oppressed supporters. Zephaniah developed this two-sided phenomenon in order to communicate the truth of God to his own generation. It is “a day of the wrath of God” (Zep 1:15, 18; 2:2), when his reaction to human sin would be demonstrated. Its target was not only other nations but Judah as well, both Jerusalem, the capital (1:10-13), and the other cities of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>Zephaniah also had a positive message for the people of Judah. For the prophets, the message of salvation did not cancel the message of doom. Judgment would come first, then salvation would follow. But the period of tribulation could not be avoided. The prophet’s grim descriptions of “the day of wrath” are interpreted as dire warnings and implicit pleas to the people of Judah to abandon their complacent, sinful ways.<\/p>\n<p>Clearly, Zephaniah’s role under God was to reapply earlier truths sadly forgotten by his own generation. Zephaniah was able to foresee God’s judgment of Judah and the world. But he also proclaimed permanent truths concerning the nature of God and his providential relationship to the world and concerning the responsibilities of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of the book of Zephaniah for the NT lies in the phraseology about the Day of the Lord. There are a number of allusions to this aspect of his message (Mt 13:41 [Zep 1:3]; Rv 6:17 [1:14]; 14:5 [3:13]; 16:1 [3:8]). These echoes stress Zephaniah’s importance beyond his own time. He contributed to the total biblical picture of a God who intervenes in human history and will establish his kingdom. Zephaniah’s descriptions are a pattern for events that will mark the end of history.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>The heading (Zep 1:1) introduces Zephaniah, gives the historical setting, and above all stresses his meditation on the divine word.<\/p>\n<p>The first major part of the book is 1:2–2:3. It subdivides into four units: verses 2-7, 8-13, 14-18; 2:1-3. Verses 2-7 include Judah in a forecast of universal destruction. Zephaniah used traditional material to stress that God’s people were by no means exempt, as they often chose to believe (cf. Am 5:18-20). The prophet supported his startling revelation with reasoned statements regarding the religious deviations practiced in Jerusalem. The image of sacrifice was used ironically, portraying Judah as the victim.<\/p>\n<p>The national administration and members of the royal family were guilty (Zep 1:8-13). Superstitions were punctiliously observed, yet basic divine commands against stealing and fraudulent gain went unheeded. Zephaniah saw the enemy attack on the north side of Jerusalem as an illustration of God’s punishment of dishonest traders (cf. Am 8:5-6; Mi 6:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>There follows a shocking and terrifying description of the grimness of the coming “Day” (Zep 1:14-18). The prophet stirred up a complacent people who did not want to hear God’s message. He frightened them into reality with a monotonous drumbeat of doom and destruction. Judah would be the demoralized target of God’s wrath. Their wealth had secured luxurious imports but could not prevent divine judgment.<\/p>\n<p>The prophet completed his sermon with an appeal for repentance (2:1-3). Having emotionally stirred his audience from their apathy, he was able to bring the good news that all was not yet lost. A penitential assembly at the temple and the intercession of the spiritually minded and obedient among God’s people might prevent destruction. God’s punishment of foreign nations is described in the second main part of the book (2:4-15). Representative states are named to the west, east, south, and north of Judah. In the context of the previous material, it amplifies the universal nature of the Day of the Lord. Like the first part, it subdivides into four passages: verses 2:4-7, 8-11, 12, and 13-15.<\/p>\n<p>The subject of the first passage is the Philistines. In the case of the cities of Gaza and Ekron, there is a play on words typical of Hebrew prophecy. Both names contain doom within their very sound. The Philistines are labeled as trespassers because they were illegal immigrants from Crete into the Promised Land, which was intended for God’s own people.<\/p>\n<p>Zephaniah predicted that Moab and Ammon would suffer attack for their overbearing attitude and their annexation of Judean territory (2:8-11). God would come to the aid of his covenant people.<\/p>\n<p>The first two main sections have spelled out at length a message of judgment for both Judah and the surrounding nations. This twofold message is now repeated in a much shorter form in the third main section (3:1-8). Zephaniah criticized Jerusalem in its combined role of political capital and religious center. The responsibility of being God’s representatives rested too lightly on the shoulders of government and temple officials. Civil leaders abused their powers by demanding bribes and even killing their political opponents. Instead of being the shepherds of the people (cf. Ez 34), they were beasts of prey (cf. Ez 22:25-27). The prophets misused their gifts for their own selfish interests, while the priests broke the strict regulations of the temple. The lessons of history went unheeded; they had not learned caution and reverence. The conclusion is clear: Judah could not escape punishment in the coming Day of the Lord but would suffer with other nations.<\/p>\n<p>The outworking of God’s will for both Judah and the nations is in view in the final main section (Zep 3:9-20), but this time from a quite different aspect. Punishment was not God’s last word for his own people or even for the nations at large. Ultimately God’s will is not destruction but salvation (2 Pt 3:9). The section has three parts: Zephaniah 3:9-10, 11-13, and 14-20. Verses 9-10 deal with the conversion of the nations. This remarkable passage looks forward with divinely guaranteed certainty to the willing submission of Gentiles to the God of Israel. Their turning to God would not be based on human initiative but would originate in the providential activity of God. Lips defiled by worship of pagan gods would be purified and devoted solely to the adoration of the God of Israel. People from remote parts of the earth, here illustrated as the remote south beyond the Ethiopian Nile, would come as suppliants, as if they were scattered Jews returning home.<\/p>\n<p>God’s own people would be marked by a change of heart (3:11-13). By now they would have been purged of the proud people who put themselves before God in the sphere of politics and religion. They would be a purified people who humbly trusted in God. To them were promised the blessings of paradise.<\/p>\n<p>The last passage speaks of coming joys (3:14-20). The prophet projects himself into the future, to the time when God’s judgment would be over and the time of salvation had dawned. God’s people would rejoice in the presence of their Lord. Fear and demoralization would be canceled by God’s powerful presence and radiant joy. His joy would infectiously communicate itself to them so that they too would rejoice. Moreover, his joy would be a reaction to the transformation he was working in the lives of his people (v 17; “he will renew you in his love,” <span>rsv<\/span>). A necessary part of this transformation would feature the vindication of God’s suffering people. They would be brought to a position of honor, as the visible representatives of the God of glory. Ultimately, God’s power would be revealed through a people of power.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Josiah #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ZEPHANIAH, Book of One of the books of the Minor Prophets in the OT. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Background • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author According to the editorial heading (Zep 1:1), Zephaniah prophesied during the reign of Josiah (640–609 BC). His family tree is given in an unusually full form. Some scholars have suggested that his great-great-grandfather was King Hezekiah (715–686 BC). But remarkably there is no Jewish or Christian tradition to support the ...","summary_en":"ZEPHANIAH, Book of One of the books of the Minor Prophets in the OT. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Background • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author According to the editorial heading (Zep 1:1), Zephaniah prophesied during the reign of Josiah (640–609 BC). His family tree is given in an unusually full form. Some scholars have suggested that his great-great-grandfather was King Hezekiah (715–686 BC). But remarkably there is no Jewish or Christian tradition to support the ...","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":39423,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Zion","title_en":"Zion","content_ro":"<h3>ZION<\/h3>\n<p>The Jebusite fortress in Jerusalem conquered by David. Thereafter, Zion was used by biblical writers to identify other areas of Jerusalem and was used as a designation of the entire city. Zion was also used to describe, spiritually speaking, the eternal city of God.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GeographicalSites\">Geographical Sites<\/p>\n<h5>The Jebusite Fortress<\/h5>\n<p>The first occurrence of the word “Zion” is in the narrative of David’s conquest of Jerusalem (2 Sm 5:6-10; 1 Chr 11:4-9). David captured the “fortress of Zion,” which was thereafter known as the “city of David.” The “fortress of Zion” may refer to the entire walled perimeter of the approximately 11-acre (4.5-hectare) site on the southeastern ridge (the Ophel Ridge), or to a smaller fortified area within that site.<\/p>\n<h5>The Temple Mount<\/h5>\n<p>Changes in the perimeter of the city by incorporating more territory within the walls extend the term Zion. When Solomon built the temple and his palace and extended the walls north of the Ophel Ridge to encompass the threshing floor of Ornan the Jebusite (2 Sm 24:16-18; 1 Chr 21:15-18, 28), the name Zion was applied to these areas as well. The transfer of the ark “from the city of David which is Zion” (1 Kgs 8:1; 2 Chr 5:2) to the temple hill brought both an extension and a reduction of the territory embraced by the term “Zion.” The whole city could still be called Zion, but from this point on, there would be a close identification between Zion and the temple hill. The temple precincts became the primary Zion; references to Zion in the poetic books and the preaching of the prophets are primarily to the temple area as the dwelling place of God.<\/p>\n<h5>The Entire City<\/h5>\n<p>The word “Zion” can be used as a designation of the entire city or its population without any particular reference to the temple area. This use is clearest in poetic passages where Zion is the parallel term to Jerusalem (Pss 51:18; 76:2; 102:21; 135:21; 147:12; Is 2:3; 30:19; 33:20; 37:32; 40:9; 41:27; 62:1; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Am 1:2; Zep 3:14) or to the villages of Judah (Pss 69:35; 97:8; Is 40:9).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalMotifs\">Theological Motifs<\/p>\n<h5>In the Old Testament<\/h5>\n<p>Many theological motifs attach to the Zion theme as it develops in redemptive history. The dominant motif of Zion as the dwelling place of God, the place where God is in the midst of his people, is conjoined to the larger theme of Immanuel, “God in our midst.” Just as the pillar of fire and cloud stood above the tabernacle during the wilderness wandering, so once Israel had attained the place of God’s choosing (Dt 12:5-14), he would dwell there. When Jerusalem became David’s capital and Solomon had completed the temple, the glory cloud filled the temple (1 Kgs 8:10; 2 Chr 5:13-14) and Jerusalem became the dwelling place of God (Pss 74:2; 76:2; 135:21; Is 8:18; Jl 3:17-21). The Lord loved and chose Zion (Pss 78:68; 132:13). His glorious presence was there, and from there he would speak (50:1-2). His fire was in Zion, his furnace in Jerusalem (Is 31:8-9). There he was enthroned above the cherubim (Pss 9:11; 99:1-2) and ruled over his people and the nations (Is 24:23). His chosen king ruled from that holy hill (Pss 2:6; 48:1).<\/p>\n<p>Though the size of the site of ancient Jerusalem is not particularly impressive and ordinarily would not be considered a large hill, for the psalmist Zion is God’s holy hill (Ps 99:9). The prophets describe it as “chief among the mountains, raised above the hills” (Is 2:2; Mi 4:1). The Canaanite god Baal was thought to dwell on a great mountain to the north, Mt Zaphon, so the psalmist describes Zion as “beautiful in its loftiness, like the utmost heights of Mt Zaphon” (Ps 48:1-2). God’s sanctuary is “like the high mountains” (Ps 78:68; Ez 40:2).<\/p>\n<p>An adequate water supply has been a problem for Jerusalem throughout its history. During the OT period, the city’s water came from one small spring. But in the eyes of the poets and prophets, Zion is gladdened by a great river that brings life wherever it flows (Ps 46:4; Ez 47:1-12; Jl 3:18; Zec 13:1; 14:8; see Rv 22:1-2). The threatening waters of chaos cannot shake the city of God (Ps 46:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Because Zion is the city of God, it is the object of pilgrims, Jew and Gentile alike, who thirst to be in the presence of God in Zion’s temple (Pss 42:1-2; 63:1). The pilgrim psalms give vivid expression to their longing (84; 122; 125–128). All humanity will come to God in Zion (65:1-4). The Gentiles will make annual pilgrimages bringing gifts (Ps 76; Is 18:7; Zep 3:9-10); even former enemies will be regarded as native-born citizens of Zion (Ps 87; Is 60:14; Zec 14:21). The nations will stream into Jerusalem to inaugurate an era of peace (Is 2:1-5; Mi 4:1-8). Year after year the festivals of Israel will be celebrated in Zion by Gentiles (Zec 14:16-19).<\/p>\n<h5>In the New Testament<\/h5>\n<p>The NT further develops the emphasis on both the heavenly and the eschatological Zion. For example, the author of Hebrews said that the OT saints looked “forward to the city with foundations, whose architect and builder is God . . . longing for a better country—a heavenly one” (Heb 11:10, 16, <span>niv<\/span>), but none of them received the promises because God had planned something even better (vv 39-40). The church now enjoys what believers of the old covenant could never know: unlimited access to the presence of God in that Holy City, “Mount Zion, the heavenly Jerusalem, the city of the living God” (12:22; see vv 18-24). Earthly Zion is but a shadow of the heavenly reality. The present city of Jerusalem is likened to a slave woman, but the heavenly Jerusalem is free and the mother of both Jew and Gentile (Gal 4:21-27; see Is 49:14-23; 54:1). The NT also looks forward to the eschatological expectation of the re-creation of heaven and earth and the revelation of the new Jerusalem (Rv 21:2). It is a city on a great high mountain (Rv 21:10; see Pss 48:1-2; 78:68; Is 2:2; Ez 40:2; Mi 4:1), and a river of life flows within (Rv 22:1-2).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jerusalem; Jerusalem, New.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ZION<\/h3>\n<p>The Jebusite fortress in Jerusalem conquered by David. Thereafter, Zion was used by biblical writers to identify other areas of Jerusalem and was used as a designation of the entire city. Zion was also used to describe, spiritually speaking, the eternal city of God.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GeographicalSites\">Geographical Sites<\/p>\n<h5>The Jebusite Fortress<\/h5>\n<p>The first occurrence of the word “Zion” is in the narrative of David’s conquest of Jerusalem (2 Sm 5:6-10; 1 Chr 11:4-9). David captured the “fortress of Zion,” which was thereafter known as the “city of David.” The “fortress of Zion” may refer to the entire walled perimeter of the approximately 11-acre (4.5-hectare) site on the southeastern ridge (the Ophel Ridge), or to a smaller fortified area within that site.<\/p>\n<h5>The Temple Mount<\/h5>\n<p>Changes in the perimeter of the city by incorporating more territory within the walls extend the term Zion. When Solomon built the temple and his palace and extended the walls north of the Ophel Ridge to encompass the threshing floor of Ornan the Jebusite (2 Sm 24:16-18; 1 Chr 21:15-18, 28), the name Zion was applied to these areas as well. The transfer of the ark “from the city of David which is Zion” (1 Kgs 8:1; 2 Chr 5:2) to the temple hill brought both an extension and a reduction of the territory embraced by the term “Zion.” The whole city could still be called Zion, but from this point on, there would be a close identification between Zion and the temple hill. The temple precincts became the primary Zion; references to Zion in the poetic books and the preaching of the prophets are primarily to the temple area as the dwelling place of God.<\/p>\n<h5>The Entire City<\/h5>\n<p>The word “Zion” can be used as a designation of the entire city or its population without any particular reference to the temple area. This use is clearest in poetic passages where Zion is the parallel term to Jerusalem (Pss 51:18; 76:2; 102:21; 135:21; 147:12; Is 2:3; 30:19; 33:20; 37:32; 40:9; 41:27; 62:1; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Am 1:2; Zep 3:14) or to the villages of Judah (Pss 69:35; 97:8; Is 40:9).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalMotifs\">Theological Motifs<\/p>\n<h5>In the Old Testament<\/h5>\n<p>Many theological motifs attach to the Zion theme as it develops in redemptive history. The dominant motif of Zion as the dwelling place of God, the place where God is in the midst of his people, is conjoined to the larger theme of Immanuel, “God in our midst.” Just as the pillar of fire and cloud stood above the tabernacle during the wilderness wandering, so once Israel had attained the place of God’s choosing (Dt 12:5-14), he would dwell there. When Jerusalem became David’s capital and Solomon had completed the temple, the glory cloud filled the temple (1 Kgs 8:10; 2 Chr 5:13-14) and Jerusalem became the dwelling place of God (Pss 74:2; 76:2; 135:21; Is 8:18; Jl 3:17-21). The Lord loved and chose Zion (Pss 78:68; 132:13). His glorious presence was there, and from there he would speak (50:1-2). His fire was in Zion, his furnace in Jerusalem (Is 31:8-9). There he was enthroned above the cherubim (Pss 9:11; 99:1-2) and ruled over his people and the nations (Is 24:23). His chosen king ruled from that holy hill (Pss 2:6; 48:1).<\/p>\n<p>Though the size of the site of ancient Jerusalem is not particularly impressive and ordinarily would not be considered a large hill, for the psalmist Zion is God’s holy hill (Ps 99:9). The prophets describe it as “chief among the mountains, raised above the hills” (Is 2:2; Mi 4:1). The Canaanite god Baal was thought to dwell on a great mountain to the north, Mt Zaphon, so the psalmist describes Zion as “beautiful in its loftiness, like the utmost heights of Mt Zaphon” (Ps 48:1-2). God’s sanctuary is “like the high mountains” (Ps 78:68; Ez 40:2).<\/p>\n<p>An adequate water supply has been a problem for Jerusalem throughout its history. During the OT period, the city’s water came from one small spring. But in the eyes of the poets and prophets, Zion is gladdened by a great river that brings life wherever it flows (Ps 46:4; Ez 47:1-12; Jl 3:18; Zec 13:1; 14:8; see Rv 22:1-2). The threatening waters of chaos cannot shake the city of God (Ps 46:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Because Zion is the city of God, it is the object of pilgrims, Jew and Gentile alike, who thirst to be in the presence of God in Zion’s temple (Pss 42:1-2; 63:1). The pilgrim psalms give vivid expression to their longing (84; 122; 125–128). All humanity will come to God in Zion (65:1-4). The Gentiles will make annual pilgrimages bringing gifts (Ps 76; Is 18:7; Zep 3:9-10); even former enemies will be regarded as native-born citizens of Zion (Ps 87; Is 60:14; Zec 14:21). The nations will stream into Jerusalem to inaugurate an era of peace (Is 2:1-5; Mi 4:1-8). Year after year the festivals of Israel will be celebrated in Zion by Gentiles (Zec 14:16-19).<\/p>\n<h5>In the New Testament<\/h5>\n<p>The NT further develops the emphasis on both the heavenly and the eschatological Zion. For example, the author of Hebrews said that the OT saints looked “forward to the city with foundations, whose architect and builder is God . . . longing for a better country—a heavenly one” (Heb 11:10, 16, <span>niv<\/span>), but none of them received the promises because God had planned something even better (vv 39-40). The church now enjoys what believers of the old covenant could never know: unlimited access to the presence of God in that Holy City, “Mount Zion, the heavenly Jerusalem, the city of the living God” (12:22; see vv 18-24). Earthly Zion is but a shadow of the heavenly reality. The present city of Jerusalem is likened to a slave woman, but the heavenly Jerusalem is free and the mother of both Jew and Gentile (Gal 4:21-27; see Is 49:14-23; 54:1). The NT also looks forward to the eschatological expectation of the re-creation of heaven and earth and the revelation of the new Jerusalem (Rv 21:2). It is a city on a great high mountain (Rv 21:10; see Pss 48:1-2; 78:68; Is 2:2; Ez 40:2; Mi 4:1), and a river of life flows within (Rv 22:1-2).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jerusalem; Jerusalem, New.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ZION The Jebusite fortress in Jerusalem conquered by David. Thereafter, Zion was used by biblical writers to identify other areas of Jerusalem and was used as a designation of the entire city. Zion was also used to describe, spiritually speaking, the eternal city of God. Geographical Sites The Jebusite Fortress The first occurrence of the word “Zion” is in the narrative of David’s conquest of Jerusalem (2 Sm 5:6-10; 1 Chr 11:4-9). David captured the “fortress of Zion,” which was thereafter kn...","summary_en":"ZION The Jebusite fortress in Jerusalem conquered by David. Thereafter, Zion was used by biblical writers to identify other areas of Jerusalem and was used as a designation of the entire city. Zion was also used to describe, spiritually speaking, the eternal city of God. Geographical Sites The Jebusite Fortress The first occurrence of the word “Zion” is in the narrative of David’s conquest of Jerusalem (2 Sm 5:6-10; 1 Chr 11:4-9). David captured the “fortress of Zion,” which was thereafter kn...","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":54239,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:9","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:9-20<\/strong> God reveals his plans for a humble and purified remnant of his people (3:9-13) and encourages them to rejoice in the coming abundant blessings of their saving Lord (3:14-20).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:9-20<\/strong> God reveals his plans for a humble and purified remnant of his people (3:9-13) and encourages them to rejoice in the coming abundant blessings of their saving Lord (3:14-20).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:9-20 God reveals his plans for a humble and purified remnant of his people (3:9-13) and encourages them to rejoice in the coming abundant blessings of their saving Lord (3:14-20).","summary_en":"3:9-20 God reveals his plans for a humble and purified remnant of his people (3:9-13) and encourages them to rejoice in the coming abundant blessings of their saving Lord (3:14-20).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":54240,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:9","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:9-13<\/strong> The glorious future described in these verses provides further reason to wait patiently for the Lord (3:8). Like fellow prophets Isaiah, Nahum, and Habakkuk, Zephaniah uses judgment and hope as twin themes.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:9-13<\/strong> The glorious future described in these verses provides further reason to wait patiently for the Lord (3:8). Like fellow prophets Isaiah, Nahum, and Habakkuk, Zephaniah uses judgment and hope as twin themes.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:9-13 The glorious future described in these verses provides further reason to wait patiently for the Lord (3:8). Like fellow prophets Isaiah, Nahum, and Habakkuk, Zephaniah uses judgment and hope as twin themes.","summary_en":"3:9-13 The glorious future described in these verses provides further reason to wait patiently for the Lord (3:8). Like fellow prophets Isaiah, Nahum, and Habakkuk, Zephaniah uses judgment and hope as twin themes.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":54241,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:9","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:9<\/strong> God intends for the blessings promised to the faithful remnant of 3:9-13 to reach people from every nation of the world. Not just Israel, but <em>all people<\/em> would be transformed, call on the Lord (see Isa 55:5), and serve him (see Isa 59:19-21; Zech 14:16). The spread of the Good News to all nations furthered the fulfillment of this vision (Matt 28:19-20; Rom 10:9-13).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:9<\/strong> God intends for the blessings promised to the faithful remnant of 3:9-13 to reach people from every nation of the world. Not just Israel, but <em>all people<\/em> would be transformed, call on the Lord (see Isa 55:5), and serve him (see Isa 59:19-21; Zech 14:16). The spread of the Good News to all nations furthered the fulfillment of this vision (Matt 28:19-20; Rom 10:9-13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:9 God intends for the blessings promised to the faithful remnant of 3:9-13 to reach people from every nation of the world. Not just Israel, but all people would be transformed, call on the Lord (see Isa 55:5), and serve him (see Isa 59:19-21; Zech 14:16). The spread of the Good News to all nations furthered the fulfillment of this vision (Matt 28:19-20; Rom 10:9-13).","summary_en":"3:9 God intends for the blessings promised to the faithful remnant of 3:9-13 to reach people from every nation of the world. Not just Israel, but all people would be transformed, call on the Lord (see Isa 55:5), and serve him (see Isa 59:19-21; Zech 14:16). The spread of the Good News to all nations furthered the fulfillment of this vision (Matt 28:19-20; Rom 10:9-13).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81865,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:9","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:9-20<\/strong> God reveals his plans for a humble and purified remnant of his people (3:9-13) and encourages them to rejoice in the coming abundant blessings of their saving Lord (3:14-20).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:9-20<\/strong> God reveals his plans for a humble and purified remnant of his people (3:9-13) and encourages them to rejoice in the coming abundant blessings of their saving Lord (3:14-20).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:9-20 God reveals his plans for a humble and purified remnant of his people (3:9-13) and encourages them to rejoice in the coming abundant blessings of their saving Lord (3:14-20).","summary_en":"3:9-20 God reveals his plans for a humble and purified remnant of his people (3:9-13) and encourages them to rejoice in the coming abundant blessings of their saving Lord (3:14-20).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81866,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:9","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:9-13<\/strong> The glorious future described in these verses provides further reason to wait patiently for the Lord (3:8). Like fellow prophets Isaiah, Nahum, and Habakkuk, Zephaniah uses judgment and hope as twin themes.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:9-13<\/strong> The glorious future described in these verses provides further reason to wait patiently for the Lord (3:8). Like fellow prophets Isaiah, Nahum, and Habakkuk, Zephaniah uses judgment and hope as twin themes.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:9-13 The glorious future described in these verses provides further reason to wait patiently for the Lord (3:8). Like fellow prophets Isaiah, Nahum, and Habakkuk, Zephaniah uses judgment and hope as twin themes.","summary_en":"3:9-13 The glorious future described in these verses provides further reason to wait patiently for the Lord (3:8). Like fellow prophets Isaiah, Nahum, and Habakkuk, Zephaniah uses judgment and hope as twin themes.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81867,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:9","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:9<\/strong> God intends for the blessings promised to the faithful remnant of 3:9-13 to reach people from every nation of the world. Not just Israel, but <em>all people<\/em> would be transformed, call on the Lord (see Isa 55:5), and serve him (see Isa 59:19-21; Zech 14:16). The spread of the Good News to all nations furthered the fulfillment of this vision (Matt 28:19-20; Rom 10:9-13).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:9<\/strong> God intends for the blessings promised to the faithful remnant of 3:9-13 to reach people from every nation of the world. Not just Israel, but <em>all people<\/em> would be transformed, call on the Lord (see Isa 55:5), and serve him (see Isa 59:19-21; Zech 14:16). The spread of the Good News to all nations furthered the fulfillment of this vision (Matt 28:19-20; Rom 10:9-13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:9 God intends for the blessings promised to the faithful remnant of 3:9-13 to reach people from every nation of the world. Not just Israel, but all people would be transformed, call on the Lord (see Isa 55:5), and serve him (see Isa 59:19-21; Zech 14:16). The spread of the Good News to all nations furthered the fulfillment of this vision (Matt 28:19-20; Rom 10:9-13).","summary_en":"3:9 God intends for the blessings promised to the faithful remnant of 3:9-13 to reach people from every nation of the world. Not just Israel, but all people would be transformed, call on the Lord (see Isa 55:5), and serve him (see Isa 59:19-21; Zech 14:16). The spread of the Good News to all nations furthered the fulfillment of this vision (Matt 28:19-20; Rom 10:9-13).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109491,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:9","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:9-20<\/strong> God reveals his plans for a humble and purified remnant of his people (3:9-13) and encourages them to rejoice in the coming abundant blessings of their saving Lord (3:14-20).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:9-20<\/strong> God reveals his plans for a humble and purified remnant of his people (3:9-13) and encourages them to rejoice in the coming abundant blessings of their saving Lord (3:14-20).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:9-20 God reveals his plans for a humble and purified remnant of his people (3:9-13) and encourages them to rejoice in the coming abundant blessings of their saving Lord (3:14-20).","summary_en":"3:9-20 God reveals his plans for a humble and purified remnant of his people (3:9-13) and encourages them to rejoice in the coming abundant blessings of their saving Lord (3:14-20).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109492,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:9","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:9-13<\/strong> The glorious future described in these verses provides further reason to wait patiently for the Lord (3:8). Like fellow prophets Isaiah, Nahum, and Habakkuk, Zephaniah uses judgment and hope as twin themes.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:9-13<\/strong> The glorious future described in these verses provides further reason to wait patiently for the Lord (3:8). Like fellow prophets Isaiah, Nahum, and Habakkuk, Zephaniah uses judgment and hope as twin themes.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:9-13 The glorious future described in these verses provides further reason to wait patiently for the Lord (3:8). Like fellow prophets Isaiah, Nahum, and Habakkuk, Zephaniah uses judgment and hope as twin themes.","summary_en":"3:9-13 The glorious future described in these verses provides further reason to wait patiently for the Lord (3:8). Like fellow prophets Isaiah, Nahum, and Habakkuk, Zephaniah uses judgment and hope as twin themes.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109493,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:9","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:9<\/strong> God intends for the blessings promised to the faithful remnant of 3:9-13 to reach people from every nation of the world. Not just Israel, but <em>all people<\/em> would be transformed, call on the Lord (see Isa 55:5), and serve him (see Isa 59:19-21; Zech 14:16). The spread of the Good News to all nations furthered the fulfillment of this vision (Matt 28:19-20; Rom 10:9-13).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:9<\/strong> God intends for the blessings promised to the faithful remnant of 3:9-13 to reach people from every nation of the world. Not just Israel, but <em>all people<\/em> would be transformed, call on the Lord (see Isa 55:5), and serve him (see Isa 59:19-21; Zech 14:16). The spread of the Good News to all nations furthered the fulfillment of this vision (Matt 28:19-20; Rom 10:9-13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:9 God intends for the blessings promised to the faithful remnant of 3:9-13 to reach people from every nation of the world. Not just Israel, but all people would be transformed, call on the Lord (see Isa 55:5), and serve him (see Isa 59:19-21; Zech 14:16). The spread of the Good News to all nations furthered the fulfillment of this vision (Matt 28:19-20; Rom 10:9-13).","summary_en":"3:9 God intends for the blessings promised to the faithful remnant of 3:9-13 to reach people from every nation of the world. Not just Israel, but all people would be transformed, call on the Lord (see Isa 55:5), and serve him (see Isa 59:19-21; Zech 14:16). The spread of the Good News to all nations furthered the fulfillment of this vision (Matt 28:19-20; Rom 10:9-13).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":137117,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:9","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:9-20<\/strong> God reveals his plans for a humble and purified remnant of his people (3:9-13) and encourages them to rejoice in the coming abundant blessings of their saving Lord (3:14-20).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:9-20<\/strong> God reveals his plans for a humble and purified remnant of his people (3:9-13) and encourages them to rejoice in the coming abundant blessings of their saving Lord (3:14-20).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:9-20 God reveals his plans for a humble and purified remnant of his people (3:9-13) and encourages them to rejoice in the coming abundant blessings of their saving Lord (3:14-20).","summary_en":"3:9-20 God reveals his plans for a humble and purified remnant of his people (3:9-13) and encourages them to rejoice in the coming abundant blessings of their saving Lord (3:14-20).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":137118,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:9","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:9-13<\/strong> The glorious future described in these verses provides further reason to wait patiently for the Lord (3:8). Like fellow prophets Isaiah, Nahum, and Habakkuk, Zephaniah uses judgment and hope as twin themes.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:9-13<\/strong> The glorious future described in these verses provides further reason to wait patiently for the Lord (3:8). Like fellow prophets Isaiah, Nahum, and Habakkuk, Zephaniah uses judgment and hope as twin themes.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:9-13 The glorious future described in these verses provides further reason to wait patiently for the Lord (3:8). Like fellow prophets Isaiah, Nahum, and Habakkuk, Zephaniah uses judgment and hope as twin themes.","summary_en":"3:9-13 The glorious future described in these verses provides further reason to wait patiently for the Lord (3:8). Like fellow prophets Isaiah, Nahum, and Habakkuk, Zephaniah uses judgment and hope as twin themes.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":137119,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:9","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:9<\/strong> God intends for the blessings promised to the faithful remnant of 3:9-13 to reach people from every nation of the world. Not just Israel, but <em>all people<\/em> would be transformed, call on the Lord (see Isa 55:5), and serve him (see Isa 59:19-21; Zech 14:16). The spread of the Good News to all nations furthered the fulfillment of this vision (Matt 28:19-20; Rom 10:9-13).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:9<\/strong> God intends for the blessings promised to the faithful remnant of 3:9-13 to reach people from every nation of the world. Not just Israel, but <em>all people<\/em> would be transformed, call on the Lord (see Isa 55:5), and serve him (see Isa 59:19-21; Zech 14:16). The spread of the Good News to all nations furthered the fulfillment of this vision (Matt 28:19-20; Rom 10:9-13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:9 God intends for the blessings promised to the faithful remnant of 3:9-13 to reach people from every nation of the world. Not just Israel, but all people would be transformed, call on the Lord (see Isa 55:5), and serve him (see Isa 59:19-21; Zech 14:16). The spread of the Good News to all nations furthered the fulfillment of this vision (Matt 28:19-20; Rom 10:9-13).","summary_en":"3:9 God intends for the blessings promised to the faithful remnant of 3:9-13 to reach people from every nation of the world. Not just Israel, but all people would be transformed, call on the Lord (see Isa 55:5), and serve him (see Isa 59:19-21; Zech 14:16). The spread of the Good News to all nations furthered the fulfillment of this vision (Matt 28:19-20; Rom 10:9-13).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"10":[{"id":9515,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"of the Jews*, Diaspora","title_en":"of the Jews*, Diaspora","content_ro":"<h3>DIASPORA OF THE JEWS*<\/h3>\n<p>Dispersion of Jewish people from Israel to foreign lands. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Diaspora<\/span><em>,<\/em> a Greek noun meaning a “sowing” or “scattering,” is regularly used in the Septuagint to mean “exile” (Jer 25:34; cf. Is 11:12; Ez 20:23; Zep 3:10). The word occurs twice in the NT (Jas 1:1; 1 Pt 1:1), referring to Christian Jews residing outside Palestine as a result of the several dispersions in Israel’s history. Diaspora sometimes refers to the exiled people, sometimes to the place of exile.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MajorDiasporas\">Major Diasporas<\/p>\n<p>From the end of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> onward, Jewish history was marked by several major dispersions.<\/p>\n<h5>Diaspora of the Northern Kingdom<\/h5>\n<p>After Solomon’s death, his kingdom broke in two. The northern kingdom of Israel sunk deeper into idolatry and immorality (2 Kgs 17:14-18). Jeroboam, the first king of the divided Israel, established a pattern of apostasy (“falling away” from faith). Epitaphs for succeeding kings regularly recorded that the deceased ruler “did not turn from the sins of Jeroboam” (10:31; 13:11; 14:24; 15:9, 18, 24, 28, <span>rsv<\/span>). Assyria conquered the northern kingdom in 722 <span>BC<\/span> and took over 27,000 Israelites into exile, as had been predicted (17:23). They were settled in cities along the tributaries of the Euphrates River and in Media. Assyrians from cities around Babylon, in turn, colonized Israel (vv 6, 24).<\/p>\n<h5>Diaspora of the Southern Kingdom<\/h5>\n<p>The southern kingdom of Judah suffered exile to the east in Babylonia and to the south in Egypt. The Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar captured Judeans in several expeditions from 605 <span>BC<\/span> to the fall of Jerusalem in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The first deportation to Babylon took Jerusalem’s treasures from the temple and palace, and “all the princes, and all the mighty men of valor, ten thousand captives, and all the craftsmen and the smiths; none remained, except the poorest people of the land” (2 Kgs 24:12-14, <span>rsv<\/span>; cf. 2 Chr 36:10; Jer 52:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>A year later a second expedition focused on the rebellious Jewish vassal king Zedekiah and his sons (2 Kgs 25:1, 6-7; Jer 52:4-11). In the 19th year of Nebuchadnezzar’s reign, Babylonia struck Judah a third time, destroyed the temple and the king’s palace, and broke down the city’s walls. All but the very poorest people were carried away captive (2 Kgs 25:8-21; Jer 52:12-16).<\/p>\n<p>Shishak, king of Egypt, deported exiles from Judah as early as the 10th century <span>BC<\/span>. Judah lost people and also temple gold at that time (1 Kgs 14:25-26; 2 Chr 12:9). About 400 years later, Johanan, a Judean, thought he could escape from Nebuchadnezzar by fleeing to Egypt. Johanan forced Jeremiah and a group of other Jews to go with him; they settled at Migdol, Tahpanhes, and Memphis. Nevertheless, the Babylonians pursued them, took control of Egypt, and executed many of the Jews there (Jer 43:5–44:30). Records of property ownership and artifacts of an altar suggest that the few surviving exiles established permanent colonies in Egypt (Is 19:18-19).<\/p>\n<h5>Other Diasporas<\/h5>\n<p>The Egyptian king Ptolemy I (323–285 <span>BC<\/span>) captured many Jews and carried them off to Egypt about 300 <span>BC<\/span>. Those exiles populated Alexandria, a city thereafter noted as a center of both Greek and Jewish scholarship. Elsewhere large colonies of Jews were exported from Babylonia to Phrygia and Lydia by Antiochus III (the Great) of Syria (223–187 <span>BC<\/span>). The Romans transplanted a sizable group of Jews to Rome. The Roman general Pompey took many there as slaves in the first century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>How widely the Jews were scattered is suggested in the NT book of Acts, where Luke listed Jerusalem’s visitors: Parthians, Medes, Elamites, people from Mesopotamia, Judea, Cappadocia, Pontus, the province of Asia, Phrygia, Pamphylia, Egypt, and the areas of Libya toward Cyrene, visitors from Rome (both Jews and converts to Judaism), Cretans, and Arabians (Acts 2:9-11). Those Jews of “the Diaspora” were in Jerusalem to celebrate the Feast of Pentecost.<\/p>\n<p>Other Jewish communities were located in the Macedonian cities visited by the apostle Paul on his missionary journeys: Thessalonica, Berea, and Corinth (Acts 17:1, 10; 18:2-4). Around the middle of the first century <span>AD<\/span>, the Roman emperor Claudius commanded all Jews to leave Rome (18:2). Scholarly estimates of the Jewish population in Palestine at the time of Jesus’ birth range from about four to six million. The dispersion population numbered several times that of Palestine; communities with more than a million each flourished in Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, and Alexandria. Today, even with a national homeland, far more Jews still live outside Israel than inside.<\/p>\n<p>In spite of their scatterings, Jews of various diasporas retained a basic unity with Palestinian Jews through several practices. (1) The great national feasts—Passover, Harvest, and Tabernacles (Ex 23:12-17; Dt 16:1-17)—continued to be observed abroad. (2) The temple tax used for the temple’s upkeep (Ex 30:11-16) was collected in foreign Jewish communities even after the temple had been destroyed. (3) All Jews everywhere recognized the authority of the Sanhedrin (the Jewish religious council) over them.<\/p>\n<h5>Positive Aspects<\/h5>\n<p>In exile the Jews tended to abandon the idol worship that had in part alienated them from God. Their exile led them to establish synagogues as institutions for prayer and education. Alexandrian Jews translated the OT Scriptures into Greek, at that time the international language. The result, called the Septuagint, was the version often cited by NT writers.<\/p>\n<p>From the Christian point of view, the network of dispersed Jewish communities had a special significance. They provided strategic bases for the spread of Christianity, which quickly broke out of those communities and into the surrounding gentile world. Thus, God used the dispersions to bring the gospel to the Gentiles (Rom 1:11-15; 1 Cor 10:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, the arts, sciences, and humanities have been greatly enriched by the Jews scattered throughout Western culture. Few other peoples have endured so much ferocious ethnic bigotry as the Jews and yet rewarded that rejection with cultural gifts and graces of such excellence. Although the church of Jesus Christ has become a “new Israel” and a “chosen race” (1 Pt 2:9), the testimony of history and of Scripture indicates that God still has a unique interest in the Jews.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DIASPORA OF THE JEWS*<\/h3>\n<p>Dispersion of Jewish people from Israel to foreign lands. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Diaspora<\/span><em>,<\/em> a Greek noun meaning a “sowing” or “scattering,” is regularly used in the Septuagint to mean “exile” (Jer 25:34; cf. Is 11:12; Ez 20:23; Zep 3:10). The word occurs twice in the NT (Jas 1:1; 1 Pt 1:1), referring to Christian Jews residing outside Palestine as a result of the several dispersions in Israel’s history. Diaspora sometimes refers to the exiled people, sometimes to the place of exile.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MajorDiasporas\">Major Diasporas<\/p>\n<p>From the end of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> onward, Jewish history was marked by several major dispersions.<\/p>\n<h5>Diaspora of the Northern Kingdom<\/h5>\n<p>After Solomon’s death, his kingdom broke in two. The northern kingdom of Israel sunk deeper into idolatry and immorality (2 Kgs 17:14-18). Jeroboam, the first king of the divided Israel, established a pattern of apostasy (“falling away” from faith). Epitaphs for succeeding kings regularly recorded that the deceased ruler “did not turn from the sins of Jeroboam” (10:31; 13:11; 14:24; 15:9, 18, 24, 28, <span>rsv<\/span>). Assyria conquered the northern kingdom in 722 <span>BC<\/span> and took over 27,000 Israelites into exile, as had been predicted (17:23). They were settled in cities along the tributaries of the Euphrates River and in Media. Assyrians from cities around Babylon, in turn, colonized Israel (vv 6, 24).<\/p>\n<h5>Diaspora of the Southern Kingdom<\/h5>\n<p>The southern kingdom of Judah suffered exile to the east in Babylonia and to the south in Egypt. The Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar captured Judeans in several expeditions from 605 <span>BC<\/span> to the fall of Jerusalem in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The first deportation to Babylon took Jerusalem’s treasures from the temple and palace, and “all the princes, and all the mighty men of valor, ten thousand captives, and all the craftsmen and the smiths; none remained, except the poorest people of the land” (2 Kgs 24:12-14, <span>rsv<\/span>; cf. 2 Chr 36:10; Jer 52:29-30).<\/p>\n<p>A year later a second expedition focused on the rebellious Jewish vassal king Zedekiah and his sons (2 Kgs 25:1, 6-7; Jer 52:4-11). In the 19th year of Nebuchadnezzar’s reign, Babylonia struck Judah a third time, destroyed the temple and the king’s palace, and broke down the city’s walls. All but the very poorest people were carried away captive (2 Kgs 25:8-21; Jer 52:12-16).<\/p>\n<p>Shishak, king of Egypt, deported exiles from Judah as early as the 10th century <span>BC<\/span>. Judah lost people and also temple gold at that time (1 Kgs 14:25-26; 2 Chr 12:9). About 400 years later, Johanan, a Judean, thought he could escape from Nebuchadnezzar by fleeing to Egypt. Johanan forced Jeremiah and a group of other Jews to go with him; they settled at Migdol, Tahpanhes, and Memphis. Nevertheless, the Babylonians pursued them, took control of Egypt, and executed many of the Jews there (Jer 43:5–44:30). Records of property ownership and artifacts of an altar suggest that the few surviving exiles established permanent colonies in Egypt (Is 19:18-19).<\/p>\n<h5>Other Diasporas<\/h5>\n<p>The Egyptian king Ptolemy I (323–285 <span>BC<\/span>) captured many Jews and carried them off to Egypt about 300 <span>BC<\/span>. Those exiles populated Alexandria, a city thereafter noted as a center of both Greek and Jewish scholarship. Elsewhere large colonies of Jews were exported from Babylonia to Phrygia and Lydia by Antiochus III (the Great) of Syria (223–187 <span>BC<\/span>). The Romans transplanted a sizable group of Jews to Rome. The Roman general Pompey took many there as slaves in the first century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>How widely the Jews were scattered is suggested in the NT book of Acts, where Luke listed Jerusalem’s visitors: Parthians, Medes, Elamites, people from Mesopotamia, Judea, Cappadocia, Pontus, the province of Asia, Phrygia, Pamphylia, Egypt, and the areas of Libya toward Cyrene, visitors from Rome (both Jews and converts to Judaism), Cretans, and Arabians (Acts 2:9-11). Those Jews of “the Diaspora” were in Jerusalem to celebrate the Feast of Pentecost.<\/p>\n<p>Other Jewish communities were located in the Macedonian cities visited by the apostle Paul on his missionary journeys: Thessalonica, Berea, and Corinth (Acts 17:1, 10; 18:2-4). Around the middle of the first century <span>AD<\/span>, the Roman emperor Claudius commanded all Jews to leave Rome (18:2). Scholarly estimates of the Jewish population in Palestine at the time of Jesus’ birth range from about four to six million. The dispersion population numbered several times that of Palestine; communities with more than a million each flourished in Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, and Alexandria. Today, even with a national homeland, far more Jews still live outside Israel than inside.<\/p>\n<p>In spite of their scatterings, Jews of various diasporas retained a basic unity with Palestinian Jews through several practices. (1) The great national feasts—Passover, Harvest, and Tabernacles (Ex 23:12-17; Dt 16:1-17)—continued to be observed abroad. (2) The temple tax used for the temple’s upkeep (Ex 30:11-16) was collected in foreign Jewish communities even after the temple had been destroyed. (3) All Jews everywhere recognized the authority of the Sanhedrin (the Jewish religious council) over them.<\/p>\n<h5>Positive Aspects<\/h5>\n<p>In exile the Jews tended to abandon the idol worship that had in part alienated them from God. Their exile led them to establish synagogues as institutions for prayer and education. Alexandrian Jews translated the OT Scriptures into Greek, at that time the international language. The result, called the Septuagint, was the version often cited by NT writers.<\/p>\n<p>From the Christian point of view, the network of dispersed Jewish communities had a special significance. They provided strategic bases for the spread of Christianity, which quickly broke out of those communities and into the surrounding gentile world. Thus, God used the dispersions to bring the gospel to the Gentiles (Rom 1:11-15; 1 Cor 10:11-12).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, the arts, sciences, and humanities have been greatly enriched by the Jews scattered throughout Western culture. Few other peoples have endured so much ferocious ethnic bigotry as the Jews and yet rewarded that rejection with cultural gifts and graces of such excellence. Although the church of Jesus Christ has become a “new Israel” and a “chosen race” (1 Pt 2:9), the testimony of history and of Scripture indicates that God still has a unique interest in the Jews.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Postexilic Period.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DIASPORA OF THE JEWS* Dispersion of Jewish people from Israel to foreign lands. Diaspora, a Greek noun meaning a “sowing” or “scattering,” is regularly used in the Septuagint to mean “exile” (Jer 25:34; cf. Is 11:12; Ez 20:23; Zep 3:10). The word occurs twice in the NT (Jas 1:1; 1 Pt 1:1), referring to Christian Jews residing outside Palestine as a result of the several dispersions in Israel’s history. Diaspora sometimes refers to the exiled people, sometimes to the place of exile. Major Dias...","summary_en":"DIASPORA OF THE JEWS* Dispersion of Jewish people from Israel to foreign lands. Diaspora, a Greek noun meaning a “sowing” or “scattering,” is regularly used in the Septuagint to mean “exile” (Jer 25:34; cf. Is 11:12; Ez 20:23; Zep 3:10). The word occurs twice in the NT (Jas 1:1; 1 Pt 1:1), referring to Christian Jews residing outside Palestine as a result of the several dispersions in Israel’s history. Diaspora sometimes refers to the exiled people, sometimes to the place of exile. Major Dias...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":11258,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ethiopia","title_en":"Ethiopia","content_ro":"<h3>ETHIOPIA<\/h3>\n<p>In the OT, Ethiopia was generally referred to as Cush (Gn 10:6; 1 Chr 1:8; Is 11:11, <span>kjv<\/span>), which is a transliteration of the only Hebrew word used to describe the land lying to the south of Egypt. The Greek version, however, spoke of this territory as Ethiopia and kept the name Cush for the lists of peoples in Genesis 10:6-8 and 1 Chronicles 1:8-10. English translations have generally followed the Greek, except in cases where Cushi appears as a personal name (2 Sm 18:21-23, 31-32).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Location\">Location<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Cush<\/span> is actually an old Egyptian loanword that came into use in the early Middle Kingdom period. At that time it was used of a small area between the second and third cataracts of the Nile. Later on, in the New Kingdom period (c. 1570–1160 <span>BC<\/span>), it was applied to a larger area that extended some distance to the south. This broader designation corresponds geographically to the modern lands of Nubia and northern Sudan. It is misleading to think that the Ethiopia of Scripture is the same territory as the Ethiopia of modern times, which in an earlier period was called Abyssinia. The name Ethiopia was of Greek origin, and according to some interpreters means “burnt-faced” (cf. Acts 8:27). This tradition has been perpetuated by the Arabic name Beled es Sudan, or “land of the blacks,” from which the designation Sudan comes.<\/p>\n<p>The use of Cush by the OT writers seems to have paralleled the Egyptian geographical terminology in naming an arid land stretching south to Aswan, the Syene of Ezekiel 29:10. The borders of Ethiopia were never clearly defined, even by the Egyptians, so the territory may be regarded as extending to some indeterminate point in the Sudan beyond Meroé.<\/p>\n<p>Ethiopia consisted predominantly of desert lying east of the Nile, and the topography of the region made travel hazardous. Even the river itself presented obstacles to navigation in the form of cataracts. Outcroppings of hard stone forced the Nile down narrow channels and produced rough water that swamped boats easily. Such forbidding natural obstacles protected Egypt against invasion from the south but also gave an inhospitable character to Ethiopia. Almost all the land suitable for farming in Egyptian Nubia and part of northern Sudan was inundated, and the Nubians were compelled to move below Aswan to Kom Ombo.<\/p>\n<p>Since the area covered by Nubia is predominantly desert, it is hardly surprising that the rainfall is minimal, except for the upstream areas. The territory around Meroé, which was the capital during the Meroitic period, experiences seasonal rains; an area bordered on the west and north by the Nile and the Atbara, the so-called “island of Meroé,” was apparently quite fertile in antiquity and may have been heavily forested.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BiblicalReferences\">Biblical References<\/p>\n<p>In Esther 1:1 and 8:9, Ethiopia is described as the most distant southwesterly province in the Persian Empire. Its “rivers” were presumably the Nile and the Atbara (cf. Is 18:1; Zep 3:10). The products of Cush were referred to in Job 28:19 and Isaiah 45:14, which according to Egyptian lists included semiprecious stones, animals, and agricultural products. Some prophets expected exiled Jews in Ethiopia to return (Ps 87:4; Is 11:11), while others foresaw divine judgment coming upon the land (Is 20:3; Ez 30:4; Zep 2:12). But since Cush was under God’s sovereignty, it could hope for divine blessing as well as punishment—hence, the expectation in Psalm 68:31, Isaiah 45:14, and Zephaniah 3:10 that its peoples would be converted to the Hebrew faith. The Ethiopia of Acts 8:27 was the kingdom of Candace (“queen”), who ruled from Meroé, where the capital of Cush had been moved about 300 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cush (Place).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ETHIOPIA<\/h3>\n<p>In the OT, Ethiopia was generally referred to as Cush (Gn 10:6; 1 Chr 1:8; Is 11:11, <span>kjv<\/span>), which is a transliteration of the only Hebrew word used to describe the land lying to the south of Egypt. The Greek version, however, spoke of this territory as Ethiopia and kept the name Cush for the lists of peoples in Genesis 10:6-8 and 1 Chronicles 1:8-10. English translations have generally followed the Greek, except in cases where Cushi appears as a personal name (2 Sm 18:21-23, 31-32).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Location\">Location<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Cush<\/span> is actually an old Egyptian loanword that came into use in the early Middle Kingdom period. At that time it was used of a small area between the second and third cataracts of the Nile. Later on, in the New Kingdom period (c. 1570–1160 <span>BC<\/span>), it was applied to a larger area that extended some distance to the south. This broader designation corresponds geographically to the modern lands of Nubia and northern Sudan. It is misleading to think that the Ethiopia of Scripture is the same territory as the Ethiopia of modern times, which in an earlier period was called Abyssinia. The name Ethiopia was of Greek origin, and according to some interpreters means “burnt-faced” (cf. Acts 8:27). This tradition has been perpetuated by the Arabic name Beled es Sudan, or “land of the blacks,” from which the designation Sudan comes.<\/p>\n<p>The use of Cush by the OT writers seems to have paralleled the Egyptian geographical terminology in naming an arid land stretching south to Aswan, the Syene of Ezekiel 29:10. The borders of Ethiopia were never clearly defined, even by the Egyptians, so the territory may be regarded as extending to some indeterminate point in the Sudan beyond Meroé.<\/p>\n<p>Ethiopia consisted predominantly of desert lying east of the Nile, and the topography of the region made travel hazardous. Even the river itself presented obstacles to navigation in the form of cataracts. Outcroppings of hard stone forced the Nile down narrow channels and produced rough water that swamped boats easily. Such forbidding natural obstacles protected Egypt against invasion from the south but also gave an inhospitable character to Ethiopia. Almost all the land suitable for farming in Egyptian Nubia and part of northern Sudan was inundated, and the Nubians were compelled to move below Aswan to Kom Ombo.<\/p>\n<p>Since the area covered by Nubia is predominantly desert, it is hardly surprising that the rainfall is minimal, except for the upstream areas. The territory around Meroé, which was the capital during the Meroitic period, experiences seasonal rains; an area bordered on the west and north by the Nile and the Atbara, the so-called “island of Meroé,” was apparently quite fertile in antiquity and may have been heavily forested.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BiblicalReferences\">Biblical References<\/p>\n<p>In Esther 1:1 and 8:9, Ethiopia is described as the most distant southwesterly province in the Persian Empire. Its “rivers” were presumably the Nile and the Atbara (cf. Is 18:1; Zep 3:10). The products of Cush were referred to in Job 28:19 and Isaiah 45:14, which according to Egyptian lists included semiprecious stones, animals, and agricultural products. Some prophets expected exiled Jews in Ethiopia to return (Ps 87:4; Is 11:11), while others foresaw divine judgment coming upon the land (Is 20:3; Ez 30:4; Zep 2:12). But since Cush was under God’s sovereignty, it could hope for divine blessing as well as punishment—hence, the expectation in Psalm 68:31, Isaiah 45:14, and Zephaniah 3:10 that its peoples would be converted to the Hebrew faith. The Ethiopia of Acts 8:27 was the kingdom of Candace (“queen”), who ruled from Meroé, where the capital of Cush had been moved about 300 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cush (Place).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ETHIOPIA In the OT, Ethiopia was generally referred to as Cush (Gn 10:6; 1 Chr 1:8; Is 11:11, kjv), which is a transliteration of the only Hebrew word used to describe the land lying to the south of Egypt. The Greek version, however, spoke of this territory as Ethiopia and kept the name Cush for the lists of peoples in Genesis 10:6-8 and 1 Chronicles 1:8-10. English translations have generally followed the Greek, except in cases where Cushi appears as a personal name (2 Sm 18:21-23, 31-32). L...","summary_en":"ETHIOPIA In the OT, Ethiopia was generally referred to as Cush (Gn 10:6; 1 Chr 1:8; Is 11:11, kjv), which is a transliteration of the only Hebrew word used to describe the land lying to the south of Egypt. The Greek version, however, spoke of this territory as Ethiopia and kept the name Cush for the lists of peoples in Genesis 10:6-8 and 1 Chronicles 1:8-10. English translations have generally followed the Greek, except in cases where Cushi appears as a personal name (2 Sm 18:21-23, 31-32). L...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":54242,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:10","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:10<\/strong> The <em>rivers of Ethiopia<\/em> are the distant headwaters of the Nile River. The ancient world considered the origin of the Nile a great mystery, so the expression speaks of the farthest reaches of the earth.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:10<\/strong> The <em>rivers of Ethiopia<\/em> are the distant headwaters of the Nile River. The ancient world considered the origin of the Nile a great mystery, so the expression speaks of the farthest reaches of the earth.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:10 The rivers of Ethiopia are the distant headwaters of the Nile River. The ancient world considered the origin of the Nile a great mystery, so the expression speaks of the farthest reaches of the earth.","summary_en":"3:10 The rivers of Ethiopia are the distant headwaters of the Nile River. The ancient world considered the origin of the Nile a great mystery, so the expression speaks of the farthest reaches of the earth.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81868,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:10","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:10<\/strong> The <em>rivers of Ethiopia<\/em> are the distant headwaters of the Nile River. The ancient world considered the origin of the Nile a great mystery, so the expression speaks of the farthest reaches of the earth.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:10<\/strong> The <em>rivers of Ethiopia<\/em> are the distant headwaters of the Nile River. The ancient world considered the origin of the Nile a great mystery, so the expression speaks of the farthest reaches of the earth.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:10 The rivers of Ethiopia are the distant headwaters of the Nile River. The ancient world considered the origin of the Nile a great mystery, so the expression speaks of the farthest reaches of the earth.","summary_en":"3:10 The rivers of Ethiopia are the distant headwaters of the Nile River. The ancient world considered the origin of the Nile a great mystery, so the expression speaks of the farthest reaches of the earth.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109494,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:10","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:10<\/strong> The <em>rivers of Ethiopia<\/em> are the distant headwaters of the Nile River. The ancient world considered the origin of the Nile a great mystery, so the expression speaks of the farthest reaches of the earth.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:10<\/strong> The <em>rivers of Ethiopia<\/em> are the distant headwaters of the Nile River. The ancient world considered the origin of the Nile a great mystery, so the expression speaks of the farthest reaches of the earth.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:10 The rivers of Ethiopia are the distant headwaters of the Nile River. The ancient world considered the origin of the Nile a great mystery, so the expression speaks of the farthest reaches of the earth.","summary_en":"3:10 The rivers of Ethiopia are the distant headwaters of the Nile River. The ancient world considered the origin of the Nile a great mystery, so the expression speaks of the farthest reaches of the earth.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":137120,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:10","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:10<\/strong> The <em>rivers of Ethiopia<\/em> are the distant headwaters of the Nile River. The ancient world considered the origin of the Nile a great mystery, so the expression speaks of the farthest reaches of the earth.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:10<\/strong> The <em>rivers of Ethiopia<\/em> are the distant headwaters of the Nile River. The ancient world considered the origin of the Nile a great mystery, so the expression speaks of the farthest reaches of the earth.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:10 The rivers of Ethiopia are the distant headwaters of the Nile River. The ancient world considered the origin of the Nile a great mystery, so the expression speaks of the farthest reaches of the earth.","summary_en":"3:10 The rivers of Ethiopia are the distant headwaters of the Nile River. The ancient world considered the origin of the Nile a great mystery, so the expression speaks of the farthest reaches of the earth.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"11":[{"id":31272,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Pride","title_en":"Pride","content_ro":"<h3>PRIDE<\/h3>\n<p>A reasonable or justifiable self-respect; or improper and excessive self-esteem known as conceit or arrogance. The apostle Paul expressed a positive kind of pride when speaking of confidence in Christians (2 Cor 7:4) or of strength in the Lord (12:5, 9). However, it is the latter, sinful meaning of “pride” that most frequently appears in the Bible, both in the OT and the NT.<\/p>\n<p>The ten Hebrew and two Greek words generally used for pride refer to being high or exalted in attitude, the opposite of the virtue of humility, which is so often praised and rewarded by God. One other Greek word refers to a person’s being puffed up or inflated with pride or egotism. The idea is that one gives the impression of substance but is really filled only with air (see, e.g., 1 Cor 5:2; 8:1; 13:4; Col 2:18).<\/p>\n<p>Pride is basically a sin of attitude and of the heart and spirit. Hence one reads, “Haughty eyes and a proud heart, the lamp of the wicked, are sin” (Prv 21:4, <span>rsv<\/span>). Ecclesiastes 7:8 speaks of being proud in spirit and the psalmist declares, “O <span>Lord<\/span>, my heart is not proud, nor my eyes haughty” (Ps 131:1, <span>nasb<\/span>). Pride is cited in the two lists of the most glaring sins in the Bible. Along with the sins for which God is going to judge the Gentiles, one finds insolence, arrogance, and boasting (Rom 1:30). Included with the sins that will be prevalent in the last days, Paul includes boasting, arrogance, and conceit (2 Tm 3:2-4).<\/p>\n<p>As so many of the sins of attitude, pride cannot remain internalized. It can infect one’s speech; boasting is one way by which this sin can appear in one’s speaking (see the passages referred to above and also Mal 3:13). Pride can also appear in the way one looks at another person. Hence, the Scriptures speak of “haughty eyes” in Proverbs 6:17, or, as it could also be rendered, “a proud look.” The psalmist speaks of a person with haughty looks and arrogant heart (Ps 101:5; see also Prv 30:13). Pride may also take the ugly form of contemptible treatment of others (Prv 21:24). One of the illustrations of this in the Bible is the way in which the Pharisees and other Jewish leaders treated and spoke of those beneath their social level (e.g., Mt 23:5-12; Jn 9:34). They especially despised tax collectors and sinners.<\/p>\n<p>Outstanding examples of proud people can be found in both Testaments. Pride was the downfall of King Uzziah, who, because of this sin, dared to offer incense on the altar of incense and was smitten with leprosy as his punishment from God (2 Chr 26:16). Hezekiah, after his healing by the Lord, became proud of heart and brought God’s anger upon himself, Judah, and Jerusalem (32:25-26). The Pharisee praying in the temple, comparing himself with the humble tax collector, is another example (Lk 18:9-14). Herod’s refusal to give God the glory for his greatness brought judgment from God; Herod was eaten by worms and died for his sin of pride (Acts 12:21-23). In fact, Ezekiel 28, which describes the pride of the leader of Tyre, is taken by many biblical scholars to refer, in a deeper sense, to the fall of Satan back in the beginning.<\/p>\n<p>Pride can bring about the downfall not only of individuals but also of nations. This was the sin that is specifically mentioned as leading to other sins and that ultimately brought about the removal of both Israel and Judah from the land of Canaan (Is 3:16; 5:15; Ez 16:50; Hos 13:6; Zep 3:11). It is also the specific sin that brought about the downfall of the king of Assyria (Is 10:12, 33) and of the king of Moab (Jer 48:29). Because of its deadliness, Israel is specifically warned against pride and the tendency to forget God that so often stems from it (Dt 8:14).<\/p>\n<p>In the light of the preceding discussion, it is no surprise to read in the Bible that pride is one of the seven things that the Lord hates (Prv 6:17). It is also said by two different writers that God opposes the proud but gives grace to the humble (see Jas 4:6 and 1 Pt 5:5; see also Prv 3:34 and 18:12, to which James and Peter may be referring). The words of Mary, the mother of Jesus, in her hymn of praise to God may summarize the attitude of God and the Bible toward pride: “His mighty arm does tremendous things! How he scatters the proud and haughty ones! He has taken princes from their thrones and exalted the lowly” (Lk 1:51-52, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PRIDE<\/h3>\n<p>A reasonable or justifiable self-respect; or improper and excessive self-esteem known as conceit or arrogance. The apostle Paul expressed a positive kind of pride when speaking of confidence in Christians (2 Cor 7:4) or of strength in the Lord (12:5, 9). However, it is the latter, sinful meaning of “pride” that most frequently appears in the Bible, both in the OT and the NT.<\/p>\n<p>The ten Hebrew and two Greek words generally used for pride refer to being high or exalted in attitude, the opposite of the virtue of humility, which is so often praised and rewarded by God. One other Greek word refers to a person’s being puffed up or inflated with pride or egotism. The idea is that one gives the impression of substance but is really filled only with air (see, e.g., 1 Cor 5:2; 8:1; 13:4; Col 2:18).<\/p>\n<p>Pride is basically a sin of attitude and of the heart and spirit. Hence one reads, “Haughty eyes and a proud heart, the lamp of the wicked, are sin” (Prv 21:4, <span>rsv<\/span>). Ecclesiastes 7:8 speaks of being proud in spirit and the psalmist declares, “O <span>Lord<\/span>, my heart is not proud, nor my eyes haughty” (Ps 131:1, <span>nasb<\/span>). Pride is cited in the two lists of the most glaring sins in the Bible. Along with the sins for which God is going to judge the Gentiles, one finds insolence, arrogance, and boasting (Rom 1:30). Included with the sins that will be prevalent in the last days, Paul includes boasting, arrogance, and conceit (2 Tm 3:2-4).<\/p>\n<p>As so many of the sins of attitude, pride cannot remain internalized. It can infect one’s speech; boasting is one way by which this sin can appear in one’s speaking (see the passages referred to above and also Mal 3:13). Pride can also appear in the way one looks at another person. Hence, the Scriptures speak of “haughty eyes” in Proverbs 6:17, or, as it could also be rendered, “a proud look.” The psalmist speaks of a person with haughty looks and arrogant heart (Ps 101:5; see also Prv 30:13). Pride may also take the ugly form of contemptible treatment of others (Prv 21:24). One of the illustrations of this in the Bible is the way in which the Pharisees and other Jewish leaders treated and spoke of those beneath their social level (e.g., Mt 23:5-12; Jn 9:34). They especially despised tax collectors and sinners.<\/p>\n<p>Outstanding examples of proud people can be found in both Testaments. Pride was the downfall of King Uzziah, who, because of this sin, dared to offer incense on the altar of incense and was smitten with leprosy as his punishment from God (2 Chr 26:16). Hezekiah, after his healing by the Lord, became proud of heart and brought God’s anger upon himself, Judah, and Jerusalem (32:25-26). The Pharisee praying in the temple, comparing himself with the humble tax collector, is another example (Lk 18:9-14). Herod’s refusal to give God the glory for his greatness brought judgment from God; Herod was eaten by worms and died for his sin of pride (Acts 12:21-23). In fact, Ezekiel 28, which describes the pride of the leader of Tyre, is taken by many biblical scholars to refer, in a deeper sense, to the fall of Satan back in the beginning.<\/p>\n<p>Pride can bring about the downfall not only of individuals but also of nations. This was the sin that is specifically mentioned as leading to other sins and that ultimately brought about the removal of both Israel and Judah from the land of Canaan (Is 3:16; 5:15; Ez 16:50; Hos 13:6; Zep 3:11). It is also the specific sin that brought about the downfall of the king of Assyria (Is 10:12, 33) and of the king of Moab (Jer 48:29). Because of its deadliness, Israel is specifically warned against pride and the tendency to forget God that so often stems from it (Dt 8:14).<\/p>\n<p>In the light of the preceding discussion, it is no surprise to read in the Bible that pride is one of the seven things that the Lord hates (Prv 6:17). It is also said by two different writers that God opposes the proud but gives grace to the humble (see Jas 4:6 and 1 Pt 5:5; see also Prv 3:34 and 18:12, to which James and Peter may be referring). The words of Mary, the mother of Jesus, in her hymn of praise to God may summarize the attitude of God and the Bible toward pride: “His mighty arm does tremendous things! How he scatters the proud and haughty ones! He has taken princes from their thrones and exalted the lowly” (Lk 1:51-52, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>","summary_ro":"PRIDE A reasonable or justifiable self-respect; or improper and excessive self-esteem known as conceit or arrogance. The apostle Paul expressed a positive kind of pride when speaking of confidence in Christians (2 Cor 7:4) or of strength in the Lord (12:5, 9). However, it is the latter, sinful meaning of “pride” that most frequently appears in the Bible, both in the OT and the NT. The ten Hebrew and two Greek words generally used for pride refer to being high or exalted in attitude, the oppos...","summary_en":"PRIDE A reasonable or justifiable self-respect; or improper and excessive self-esteem known as conceit or arrogance. The apostle Paul expressed a positive kind of pride when speaking of confidence in Christians (2 Cor 7:4) or of strength in the Lord (12:5, 9). However, it is the latter, sinful meaning of “pride” that most frequently appears in the Bible, both in the OT and the NT. The ten Hebrew and two Greek words generally used for pride refer to being high or exalted in attitude, the oppos...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":39216,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Zephaniah","title_en":"Book of Zephaniah","content_ro":"<h3>ZEPHANIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the books of the Minor Prophets in the OT.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to the editorial heading (Zep 1:1), Zephaniah prophesied during the reign of Josiah (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>). His family tree is given in an unusually full form. Some scholars have suggested that his great-great-grandfather was King Hezekiah (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>). But remarkably there is no Jewish or Christian tradition to support the suggestion, which there probably would have been if it had been true. His own name, meaning “he whom the Lord protects or hides,” was not uncommon and was a testimony to the keeping power of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>Zephaniah probably prophesied around 630 <span>BC<\/span>. The fall of Nineveh (612 <span>BC<\/span>) had not yet occurred (2:13-15). Josiah’s reign falls into two periods, dividing at 622 <span>BC<\/span>. In that year, while the temple was being cleared of pagan articles, the Book of the Law was found, which gave momentum to Josiah’s religious reforms (2 Kgs 22). The unreformed state of affairs described by Zephaniah (Zep 1:4-12; 3:1-4) points to a date before 622, at least for his denunciations. The prophet addressed Judah, the southern kingdom, and in particular the civil and religious authorities in Jerusalem. He most probably prophesied during the reign of Josiah, who came to the throne at the age of eight.<\/p>\n<p>The negative parts of the book concerning the sin and punishment of Judah—now fulfilled—would serve as a serious warning against disobedience to God. Moreover, the fulfillment of Zephaniah’s prophetic threats would serve to enhance the positive side of the book, confirming the hope of completion in the experience of a fresh generation of God’s people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Politically, the Assyrian Empire had spread westward and held Palestine in its grip. The long reign of Manasseh (696–642 <span>BC<\/span>) had been a period of total subservience to Assyria. Political subservience as an Assyrian vassal meant religious subservience to the gods of Assyria, especially worship of the heavenly bodies (2 Kgs 21:5). Zephaniah complained of this sin (Zep 1:5). When the door opened to one foreign religion, others naturally came in. Once the exclusiveness of the worship of the God of Israel was abandoned, Palestinian cults were openly accepted. The Canaanite Baal was blatantly worshiped (2 Kgs 21:3), as Zephaniah attested (Zep 1:4). Zephaniah condemned the worshipers of Molech (v 5), who sacrificed children to the Ammonite god (1 Kgs 11:7; 2 Kgs 23:10). International imperialism meant a weakening of national culture, so that foreign customs were practiced, probably with religious overtones (Zep 1:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The reign of Josiah brought changes, marking a political and religious turning point. Assyria, preoccupied with troubles on the eastern and northern frontiers and unable to consolidate its acquisitions, became unable to reinforce its authority in the west. This weakness induced Josiah to launch a national liberation movement. He threw off the yoke of Assyria and expanded his sphere of influence northward into the territory of the old northern kingdom. From a religious standpoint, he completely dissociated himself and his country from the religions that prevailed in Judah and recalled the nation to a pure and exclusive faith in the God of Israel. The book of Zephaniah shows that there was at least one person who shared his ideals. His prophetic ministry undoubtedly paved the way for Josiah’s subsequent reformation. He was a contemporary of Jeremiah, at least for the early part of that prophet’s career (Jeremiah began prophesying in 627 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Scholars have suggested that Zephaniah’s prophesying was prompted in part by attacks of the Scythians. The Greek historian Herodotus tells how the barbaric Scythians overran western Asia and reached as far south as the Egyptian frontier at about the time that Zephaniah prophesied. There is now much less inclination to believe Herodotus’s tale and relate Zephaniah’s prophetic ministry to it. There is no objective evidence for Scythian attacks on so large a scale as Herodotus claimed. Probably Zephaniah spoke simply out of a theological necessity, as he himself claimed (e.g., 1:17). From his inspired standpoint, he foresaw that a clash involving divine intervention and human downfall was unavoidable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTeaching\">Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>As Zephaniah prophesied in God’s name, he denounced the religious sins of Judah and the corruption rampant among both civil and religious authorities. He foretold the downfall of the nation that actually occurred in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The moral and religious landslide could only culminate in a political avalanche of destruction that would engulf the nation. This avalanche is called by Zephaniah “the Day of the Lord.” It was not a new term, and the prophet knew that it would arouse terror in the hearts of his hearers. Amos used it, and even in his time it was well established (Am 5:18-20). Isaiah was the first to use the expression in the southern kingdom (Is 2:6-22, see v 12). In this, as in a number of respects, Zephaniah was a latter-day Isaiah called by God to reapply truths earlier prophesied by Isaiah to a later generation.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of the Day of the Lord refers to a time when the Lord would decisively intervene in the world to establish his sovereignty. Hostile elements would be swept aside. The enemies of God, sinners against his moral will, would be exposed and punished. It was associated with judgment upon those who did not acknowledge God’s sovereignty—especially Gentiles, but also sinful Israel. The emphasis on the suffering of God’s people was intended to correct the popular assumption that other nations would be the sole target of divine judgment.<\/p>\n<p>The “day” also would vindicate those who were loyal to God. It guaranteed the rehabilitation of his oppressed supporters. Zephaniah developed this two-sided phenomenon in order to communicate the truth of God to his own generation. It is “a day of the wrath of God” (Zep 1:15, 18; 2:2), when his reaction to human sin would be demonstrated. Its target was not only other nations but Judah as well, both Jerusalem, the capital (1:10-13), and the other cities of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>Zephaniah also had a positive message for the people of Judah. For the prophets, the message of salvation did not cancel the message of doom. Judgment would come first, then salvation would follow. But the period of tribulation could not be avoided. The prophet’s grim descriptions of “the day of wrath” are interpreted as dire warnings and implicit pleas to the people of Judah to abandon their complacent, sinful ways.<\/p>\n<p>Clearly, Zephaniah’s role under God was to reapply earlier truths sadly forgotten by his own generation. Zephaniah was able to foresee God’s judgment of Judah and the world. But he also proclaimed permanent truths concerning the nature of God and his providential relationship to the world and concerning the responsibilities of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of the book of Zephaniah for the NT lies in the phraseology about the Day of the Lord. There are a number of allusions to this aspect of his message (Mt 13:41 [Zep 1:3]; Rv 6:17 [1:14]; 14:5 [3:13]; 16:1 [3:8]). These echoes stress Zephaniah’s importance beyond his own time. He contributed to the total biblical picture of a God who intervenes in human history and will establish his kingdom. Zephaniah’s descriptions are a pattern for events that will mark the end of history.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>The heading (Zep 1:1) introduces Zephaniah, gives the historical setting, and above all stresses his meditation on the divine word.<\/p>\n<p>The first major part of the book is 1:2–2:3. It subdivides into four units: verses 2-7, 8-13, 14-18; 2:1-3. Verses 2-7 include Judah in a forecast of universal destruction. Zephaniah used traditional material to stress that God’s people were by no means exempt, as they often chose to believe (cf. Am 5:18-20). The prophet supported his startling revelation with reasoned statements regarding the religious deviations practiced in Jerusalem. The image of sacrifice was used ironically, portraying Judah as the victim.<\/p>\n<p>The national administration and members of the royal family were guilty (Zep 1:8-13). Superstitions were punctiliously observed, yet basic divine commands against stealing and fraudulent gain went unheeded. Zephaniah saw the enemy attack on the north side of Jerusalem as an illustration of God’s punishment of dishonest traders (cf. Am 8:5-6; Mi 6:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>There follows a shocking and terrifying description of the grimness of the coming “Day” (Zep 1:14-18). The prophet stirred up a complacent people who did not want to hear God’s message. He frightened them into reality with a monotonous drumbeat of doom and destruction. Judah would be the demoralized target of God’s wrath. Their wealth had secured luxurious imports but could not prevent divine judgment.<\/p>\n<p>The prophet completed his sermon with an appeal for repentance (2:1-3). Having emotionally stirred his audience from their apathy, he was able to bring the good news that all was not yet lost. A penitential assembly at the temple and the intercession of the spiritually minded and obedient among God’s people might prevent destruction. God’s punishment of foreign nations is described in the second main part of the book (2:4-15). Representative states are named to the west, east, south, and north of Judah. In the context of the previous material, it amplifies the universal nature of the Day of the Lord. Like the first part, it subdivides into four passages: verses 2:4-7, 8-11, 12, and 13-15.<\/p>\n<p>The subject of the first passage is the Philistines. In the case of the cities of Gaza and Ekron, there is a play on words typical of Hebrew prophecy. Both names contain doom within their very sound. The Philistines are labeled as trespassers because they were illegal immigrants from Crete into the Promised Land, which was intended for God’s own people.<\/p>\n<p>Zephaniah predicted that Moab and Ammon would suffer attack for their overbearing attitude and their annexation of Judean territory (2:8-11). God would come to the aid of his covenant people.<\/p>\n<p>The first two main sections have spelled out at length a message of judgment for both Judah and the surrounding nations. This twofold message is now repeated in a much shorter form in the third main section (3:1-8). Zephaniah criticized Jerusalem in its combined role of political capital and religious center. The responsibility of being God’s representatives rested too lightly on the shoulders of government and temple officials. Civil leaders abused their powers by demanding bribes and even killing their political opponents. Instead of being the shepherds of the people (cf. Ez 34), they were beasts of prey (cf. Ez 22:25-27). The prophets misused their gifts for their own selfish interests, while the priests broke the strict regulations of the temple. The lessons of history went unheeded; they had not learned caution and reverence. The conclusion is clear: Judah could not escape punishment in the coming Day of the Lord but would suffer with other nations.<\/p>\n<p>The outworking of God’s will for both Judah and the nations is in view in the final main section (Zep 3:9-20), but this time from a quite different aspect. Punishment was not God’s last word for his own people or even for the nations at large. Ultimately God’s will is not destruction but salvation (2 Pt 3:9). The section has three parts: Zephaniah 3:9-10, 11-13, and 14-20. Verses 9-10 deal with the conversion of the nations. This remarkable passage looks forward with divinely guaranteed certainty to the willing submission of Gentiles to the God of Israel. Their turning to God would not be based on human initiative but would originate in the providential activity of God. Lips defiled by worship of pagan gods would be purified and devoted solely to the adoration of the God of Israel. People from remote parts of the earth, here illustrated as the remote south beyond the Ethiopian Nile, would come as suppliants, as if they were scattered Jews returning home.<\/p>\n<p>God’s own people would be marked by a change of heart (3:11-13). By now they would have been purged of the proud people who put themselves before God in the sphere of politics and religion. They would be a purified people who humbly trusted in God. To them were promised the blessings of paradise.<\/p>\n<p>The last passage speaks of coming joys (3:14-20). The prophet projects himself into the future, to the time when God’s judgment would be over and the time of salvation had dawned. God’s people would rejoice in the presence of their Lord. Fear and demoralization would be canceled by God’s powerful presence and radiant joy. His joy would infectiously communicate itself to them so that they too would rejoice. Moreover, his joy would be a reaction to the transformation he was working in the lives of his people (v 17; “he will renew you in his love,” <span>rsv<\/span>). A necessary part of this transformation would feature the vindication of God’s suffering people. They would be brought to a position of honor, as the visible representatives of the God of glory. Ultimately, God’s power would be revealed through a people of power.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Josiah #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ZEPHANIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the books of the Minor Prophets in the OT.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to the editorial heading (Zep 1:1), Zephaniah prophesied during the reign of Josiah (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>). His family tree is given in an unusually full form. Some scholars have suggested that his great-great-grandfather was King Hezekiah (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>). But remarkably there is no Jewish or Christian tradition to support the suggestion, which there probably would have been if it had been true. His own name, meaning “he whom the Lord protects or hides,” was not uncommon and was a testimony to the keeping power of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>Zephaniah probably prophesied around 630 <span>BC<\/span>. The fall of Nineveh (612 <span>BC<\/span>) had not yet occurred (2:13-15). Josiah’s reign falls into two periods, dividing at 622 <span>BC<\/span>. In that year, while the temple was being cleared of pagan articles, the Book of the Law was found, which gave momentum to Josiah’s religious reforms (2 Kgs 22). The unreformed state of affairs described by Zephaniah (Zep 1:4-12; 3:1-4) points to a date before 622, at least for his denunciations. The prophet addressed Judah, the southern kingdom, and in particular the civil and religious authorities in Jerusalem. He most probably prophesied during the reign of Josiah, who came to the throne at the age of eight.<\/p>\n<p>The negative parts of the book concerning the sin and punishment of Judah—now fulfilled—would serve as a serious warning against disobedience to God. Moreover, the fulfillment of Zephaniah’s prophetic threats would serve to enhance the positive side of the book, confirming the hope of completion in the experience of a fresh generation of God’s people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Politically, the Assyrian Empire had spread westward and held Palestine in its grip. The long reign of Manasseh (696–642 <span>BC<\/span>) had been a period of total subservience to Assyria. Political subservience as an Assyrian vassal meant religious subservience to the gods of Assyria, especially worship of the heavenly bodies (2 Kgs 21:5). Zephaniah complained of this sin (Zep 1:5). When the door opened to one foreign religion, others naturally came in. Once the exclusiveness of the worship of the God of Israel was abandoned, Palestinian cults were openly accepted. The Canaanite Baal was blatantly worshiped (2 Kgs 21:3), as Zephaniah attested (Zep 1:4). Zephaniah condemned the worshipers of Molech (v 5), who sacrificed children to the Ammonite god (1 Kgs 11:7; 2 Kgs 23:10). International imperialism meant a weakening of national culture, so that foreign customs were practiced, probably with religious overtones (Zep 1:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The reign of Josiah brought changes, marking a political and religious turning point. Assyria, preoccupied with troubles on the eastern and northern frontiers and unable to consolidate its acquisitions, became unable to reinforce its authority in the west. This weakness induced Josiah to launch a national liberation movement. He threw off the yoke of Assyria and expanded his sphere of influence northward into the territory of the old northern kingdom. From a religious standpoint, he completely dissociated himself and his country from the religions that prevailed in Judah and recalled the nation to a pure and exclusive faith in the God of Israel. The book of Zephaniah shows that there was at least one person who shared his ideals. His prophetic ministry undoubtedly paved the way for Josiah’s subsequent reformation. He was a contemporary of Jeremiah, at least for the early part of that prophet’s career (Jeremiah began prophesying in 627 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Scholars have suggested that Zephaniah’s prophesying was prompted in part by attacks of the Scythians. The Greek historian Herodotus tells how the barbaric Scythians overran western Asia and reached as far south as the Egyptian frontier at about the time that Zephaniah prophesied. There is now much less inclination to believe Herodotus’s tale and relate Zephaniah’s prophetic ministry to it. There is no objective evidence for Scythian attacks on so large a scale as Herodotus claimed. Probably Zephaniah spoke simply out of a theological necessity, as he himself claimed (e.g., 1:17). From his inspired standpoint, he foresaw that a clash involving divine intervention and human downfall was unavoidable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTeaching\">Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>As Zephaniah prophesied in God’s name, he denounced the religious sins of Judah and the corruption rampant among both civil and religious authorities. He foretold the downfall of the nation that actually occurred in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The moral and religious landslide could only culminate in a political avalanche of destruction that would engulf the nation. This avalanche is called by Zephaniah “the Day of the Lord.” It was not a new term, and the prophet knew that it would arouse terror in the hearts of his hearers. Amos used it, and even in his time it was well established (Am 5:18-20). Isaiah was the first to use the expression in the southern kingdom (Is 2:6-22, see v 12). In this, as in a number of respects, Zephaniah was a latter-day Isaiah called by God to reapply truths earlier prophesied by Isaiah to a later generation.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of the Day of the Lord refers to a time when the Lord would decisively intervene in the world to establish his sovereignty. Hostile elements would be swept aside. The enemies of God, sinners against his moral will, would be exposed and punished. It was associated with judgment upon those who did not acknowledge God’s sovereignty—especially Gentiles, but also sinful Israel. The emphasis on the suffering of God’s people was intended to correct the popular assumption that other nations would be the sole target of divine judgment.<\/p>\n<p>The “day” also would vindicate those who were loyal to God. It guaranteed the rehabilitation of his oppressed supporters. Zephaniah developed this two-sided phenomenon in order to communicate the truth of God to his own generation. It is “a day of the wrath of God” (Zep 1:15, 18; 2:2), when his reaction to human sin would be demonstrated. Its target was not only other nations but Judah as well, both Jerusalem, the capital (1:10-13), and the other cities of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>Zephaniah also had a positive message for the people of Judah. For the prophets, the message of salvation did not cancel the message of doom. Judgment would come first, then salvation would follow. But the period of tribulation could not be avoided. The prophet’s grim descriptions of “the day of wrath” are interpreted as dire warnings and implicit pleas to the people of Judah to abandon their complacent, sinful ways.<\/p>\n<p>Clearly, Zephaniah’s role under God was to reapply earlier truths sadly forgotten by his own generation. Zephaniah was able to foresee God’s judgment of Judah and the world. But he also proclaimed permanent truths concerning the nature of God and his providential relationship to the world and concerning the responsibilities of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of the book of Zephaniah for the NT lies in the phraseology about the Day of the Lord. There are a number of allusions to this aspect of his message (Mt 13:41 [Zep 1:3]; Rv 6:17 [1:14]; 14:5 [3:13]; 16:1 [3:8]). These echoes stress Zephaniah’s importance beyond his own time. He contributed to the total biblical picture of a God who intervenes in human history and will establish his kingdom. Zephaniah’s descriptions are a pattern for events that will mark the end of history.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>The heading (Zep 1:1) introduces Zephaniah, gives the historical setting, and above all stresses his meditation on the divine word.<\/p>\n<p>The first major part of the book is 1:2–2:3. It subdivides into four units: verses 2-7, 8-13, 14-18; 2:1-3. Verses 2-7 include Judah in a forecast of universal destruction. Zephaniah used traditional material to stress that God’s people were by no means exempt, as they often chose to believe (cf. Am 5:18-20). The prophet supported his startling revelation with reasoned statements regarding the religious deviations practiced in Jerusalem. The image of sacrifice was used ironically, portraying Judah as the victim.<\/p>\n<p>The national administration and members of the royal family were guilty (Zep 1:8-13). Superstitions were punctiliously observed, yet basic divine commands against stealing and fraudulent gain went unheeded. Zephaniah saw the enemy attack on the north side of Jerusalem as an illustration of God’s punishment of dishonest traders (cf. Am 8:5-6; Mi 6:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>There follows a shocking and terrifying description of the grimness of the coming “Day” (Zep 1:14-18). The prophet stirred up a complacent people who did not want to hear God’s message. He frightened them into reality with a monotonous drumbeat of doom and destruction. Judah would be the demoralized target of God’s wrath. Their wealth had secured luxurious imports but could not prevent divine judgment.<\/p>\n<p>The prophet completed his sermon with an appeal for repentance (2:1-3). Having emotionally stirred his audience from their apathy, he was able to bring the good news that all was not yet lost. A penitential assembly at the temple and the intercession of the spiritually minded and obedient among God’s people might prevent destruction. God’s punishment of foreign nations is described in the second main part of the book (2:4-15). Representative states are named to the west, east, south, and north of Judah. In the context of the previous material, it amplifies the universal nature of the Day of the Lord. Like the first part, it subdivides into four passages: verses 2:4-7, 8-11, 12, and 13-15.<\/p>\n<p>The subject of the first passage is the Philistines. In the case of the cities of Gaza and Ekron, there is a play on words typical of Hebrew prophecy. Both names contain doom within their very sound. The Philistines are labeled as trespassers because they were illegal immigrants from Crete into the Promised Land, which was intended for God’s own people.<\/p>\n<p>Zephaniah predicted that Moab and Ammon would suffer attack for their overbearing attitude and their annexation of Judean territory (2:8-11). God would come to the aid of his covenant people.<\/p>\n<p>The first two main sections have spelled out at length a message of judgment for both Judah and the surrounding nations. This twofold message is now repeated in a much shorter form in the third main section (3:1-8). Zephaniah criticized Jerusalem in its combined role of political capital and religious center. The responsibility of being God’s representatives rested too lightly on the shoulders of government and temple officials. Civil leaders abused their powers by demanding bribes and even killing their political opponents. Instead of being the shepherds of the people (cf. Ez 34), they were beasts of prey (cf. Ez 22:25-27). The prophets misused their gifts for their own selfish interests, while the priests broke the strict regulations of the temple. The lessons of history went unheeded; they had not learned caution and reverence. The conclusion is clear: Judah could not escape punishment in the coming Day of the Lord but would suffer with other nations.<\/p>\n<p>The outworking of God’s will for both Judah and the nations is in view in the final main section (Zep 3:9-20), but this time from a quite different aspect. Punishment was not God’s last word for his own people or even for the nations at large. Ultimately God’s will is not destruction but salvation (2 Pt 3:9). The section has three parts: Zephaniah 3:9-10, 11-13, and 14-20. Verses 9-10 deal with the conversion of the nations. This remarkable passage looks forward with divinely guaranteed certainty to the willing submission of Gentiles to the God of Israel. Their turning to God would not be based on human initiative but would originate in the providential activity of God. Lips defiled by worship of pagan gods would be purified and devoted solely to the adoration of the God of Israel. People from remote parts of the earth, here illustrated as the remote south beyond the Ethiopian Nile, would come as suppliants, as if they were scattered Jews returning home.<\/p>\n<p>God’s own people would be marked by a change of heart (3:11-13). By now they would have been purged of the proud people who put themselves before God in the sphere of politics and religion. They would be a purified people who humbly trusted in God. To them were promised the blessings of paradise.<\/p>\n<p>The last passage speaks of coming joys (3:14-20). The prophet projects himself into the future, to the time when God’s judgment would be over and the time of salvation had dawned. God’s people would rejoice in the presence of their Lord. Fear and demoralization would be canceled by God’s powerful presence and radiant joy. His joy would infectiously communicate itself to them so that they too would rejoice. Moreover, his joy would be a reaction to the transformation he was working in the lives of his people (v 17; “he will renew you in his love,” <span>rsv<\/span>). A necessary part of this transformation would feature the vindication of God’s suffering people. They would be brought to a position of honor, as the visible representatives of the God of glory. Ultimately, God’s power would be revealed through a people of power.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Josiah #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ZEPHANIAH, Book of One of the books of the Minor Prophets in the OT. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Background • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author According to the editorial heading (Zep 1:1), Zephaniah prophesied during the reign of Josiah (640–609 BC). His family tree is given in an unusually full form. Some scholars have suggested that his great-great-grandfather was King Hezekiah (715–686 BC). But remarkably there is no Jewish or Christian tradition to support the ...","summary_en":"ZEPHANIAH, Book of One of the books of the Minor Prophets in the OT. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Background • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author According to the editorial heading (Zep 1:1), Zephaniah prophesied during the reign of Josiah (640–609 BC). His family tree is given in an unusually full form. Some scholars have suggested that his great-great-grandfather was King Hezekiah (715–686 BC). But remarkably there is no Jewish or Christian tradition to support the ...","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":63841,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Remnant","title_en":"The Remnant","content_ro":"<h3>The Remnant<\/h3>\n<p>In the face of foreign invasion and the prospect of exile, the notion of the remnant was a source of hope for God’s people (see Mic 2:12-13; 4:6-8). While the Exile would be the outworking of God’s judgment on his people, God indicated that he would not completely destroy them (see Hos 11:8-11). The fact that a remnant was preserved demonstrated God’s mercy and faithfulness.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of the remnant was integral to Isaiah’s message. In fact, one of his sons was named Shear-jashub, which means “a remnant will return” (Isa 7:3; see 10:21). Isaiah prophesied that when the Lord judged his people with destruction (which occurred at the hands of the Babylonians in 605–586 <span>BC<\/span>), he would save a small community—the remnant—to be the core of a new beginning. Because the population of Judah would be decimated (as the northern kingdom of Israel had been already), this remnant would be a very small beginning. It is depicted as a “branch” (4:2), a “stump” (6:13), a community of the “poor” and “needy” (25:4), and “handpicked grain” (27:12-13). This remnant was to put their trust in the Lord while waiting for him to establish his rule and come to reward them (see 3:10; 40:10). The Lord promised that this small community would swell into a huge multitude that would come out of both Israel and the Gentile nations (27:6; 60:3).<\/p>\n<p>In fulfillment of prophecy, a remnant of God’s people were allowed to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the Temple during the reign of King Cyrus of Persia (Ezra 1:2-4). Ezra the priest recognized this preservation of a remnant as purely an act of God’s grace, an act that could be jeopardized if the people followed their ancestors in disobedience (Ezra 9:5-15).<\/p>\n<p>The notion of the remnant serves as an encouragement to remain faithful to God in the midst of the unfaithfulness of others. In the case of the people of Israel and Judah, such faithfulness would lead to the restoration of their land and to the blessings God had promised his people.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 19:31; 2 Chr 36:20; Ezra 9:14; Isa 1:8-9; 4:1-3; 6:13; 10:19-22; 11:10-16; 27:12-13; 28:5; 37:31-32; 46:3-4; Jer 6:9; 23:3-4; 31:7-8; Amos 5:15; Mic 2:12; 4:6-7; 5:7-8; 7:18; Zeph 3:11-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Remnant<\/h3>\n<p>In the face of foreign invasion and the prospect of exile, the notion of the remnant was a source of hope for God’s people (see Mic 2:12-13; 4:6-8). While the Exile would be the outworking of God’s judgment on his people, God indicated that he would not completely destroy them (see Hos 11:8-11). The fact that a remnant was preserved demonstrated God’s mercy and faithfulness.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of the remnant was integral to Isaiah’s message. In fact, one of his sons was named Shear-jashub, which means “a remnant will return” (Isa 7:3; see 10:21). Isaiah prophesied that when the Lord judged his people with destruction (which occurred at the hands of the Babylonians in 605–586 <span>BC<\/span>), he would save a small community—the remnant—to be the core of a new beginning. Because the population of Judah would be decimated (as the northern kingdom of Israel had been already), this remnant would be a very small beginning. It is depicted as a “branch” (4:2), a “stump” (6:13), a community of the “poor” and “needy” (25:4), and “handpicked grain” (27:12-13). This remnant was to put their trust in the Lord while waiting for him to establish his rule and come to reward them (see 3:10; 40:10). The Lord promised that this small community would swell into a huge multitude that would come out of both Israel and the Gentile nations (27:6; 60:3).<\/p>\n<p>In fulfillment of prophecy, a remnant of God’s people were allowed to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the Temple during the reign of King Cyrus of Persia (Ezra 1:2-4). Ezra the priest recognized this preservation of a remnant as purely an act of God’s grace, an act that could be jeopardized if the people followed their ancestors in disobedience (Ezra 9:5-15).<\/p>\n<p>The notion of the remnant serves as an encouragement to remain faithful to God in the midst of the unfaithfulness of others. In the case of the people of Israel and Judah, such faithfulness would lead to the restoration of their land and to the blessings God had promised his people.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 19:31; 2 Chr 36:20; Ezra 9:14; Isa 1:8-9; 4:1-3; 6:13; 10:19-22; 11:10-16; 27:12-13; 28:5; 37:31-32; 46:3-4; Jer 6:9; 23:3-4; 31:7-8; Amos 5:15; Mic 2:12; 4:6-7; 5:7-8; 7:18; Zeph 3:11-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Remnant In the face of foreign invasion and the prospect of exile, the notion of the remnant was a source of hope for God’s people (see Mic 2:12-13; 4:6-8). While the Exile would be the outworking of God’s judgment on his people, God indicated that he would not completely destroy them (see Hos 11:8-11). The fact that a remnant was preserved demonstrated God’s mercy and faithfulness. The theme of the remnant was integral to Isaiah’s message. In fact, one of his sons was named Shear-jashub,...","summary_en":"The Remnant In the face of foreign invasion and the prospect of exile, the notion of the remnant was a source of hope for God’s people (see Mic 2:12-13; 4:6-8). While the Exile would be the outworking of God’s judgment on his people, God indicated that he would not completely destroy them (see Hos 11:8-11). The fact that a remnant was preserved demonstrated God’s mercy and faithfulness. The theme of the remnant was integral to Isaiah’s message. In fact, one of his sons was named Shear-jashub,...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":91467,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Remnant","title_en":"The Remnant","content_ro":"<h3>The Remnant<\/h3>\n<p>In the face of foreign invasion and the prospect of exile, the notion of the remnant was a source of hope for God’s people (see Mic 2:12-13; 4:6-8). While the Exile would be the outworking of God’s judgment on his people, God indicated that he would not completely destroy them (see Hos 11:8-11). The fact that a remnant was preserved demonstrated God’s mercy and faithfulness.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of the remnant was integral to Isaiah’s message. In fact, one of his sons was named Shear-jashub, which means “a remnant will return” (Isa 7:3; see 10:21). Isaiah prophesied that when the Lord judged his people with destruction (which occurred at the hands of the Babylonians in 605–586 <span>BC<\/span>), he would save a small community—the remnant—to be the core of a new beginning. Because the population of Judah would be decimated (as the northern kingdom of Israel had been already), this remnant would be a very small beginning. It is depicted as a “branch” (4:2), a “stump” (6:13), a community of the “poor” and “needy” (25:4), and “handpicked grain” (27:12-13). This remnant was to put their trust in the Lord while waiting for him to establish his rule and come to reward them (see 3:10; 40:10). The Lord promised that this small community would swell into a huge multitude that would come out of both Israel and the Gentile nations (27:6; 60:3).<\/p>\n<p>In fulfillment of prophecy, a remnant of God’s people were allowed to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the Temple during the reign of King Cyrus of Persia (Ezra 1:2-4). Ezra the priest recognized this preservation of a remnant as purely an act of God’s grace, an act that could be jeopardized if the people followed their ancestors in disobedience (Ezra 9:5-15).<\/p>\n<p>The notion of the remnant serves as an encouragement to remain faithful to God in the midst of the unfaithfulness of others. In the case of the people of Israel and Judah, such faithfulness would lead to the restoration of their land and to the blessings God had promised his people.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 19:31; 2 Chr 36:20; Ezra 9:14; Isa 1:8-9; 4:1-3; 6:13; 10:19-22; 11:10-16; 27:12-13; 28:5; 37:31-32; 46:3-4; Jer 6:9; 23:3-4; 31:7-8; Amos 5:15; Mic 2:12; 4:6-7; 5:7-8; 7:18; Zeph 3:11-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Remnant<\/h3>\n<p>In the face of foreign invasion and the prospect of exile, the notion of the remnant was a source of hope for God’s people (see Mic 2:12-13; 4:6-8). While the Exile would be the outworking of God’s judgment on his people, God indicated that he would not completely destroy them (see Hos 11:8-11). The fact that a remnant was preserved demonstrated God’s mercy and faithfulness.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of the remnant was integral to Isaiah’s message. In fact, one of his sons was named Shear-jashub, which means “a remnant will return” (Isa 7:3; see 10:21). Isaiah prophesied that when the Lord judged his people with destruction (which occurred at the hands of the Babylonians in 605–586 <span>BC<\/span>), he would save a small community—the remnant—to be the core of a new beginning. Because the population of Judah would be decimated (as the northern kingdom of Israel had been already), this remnant would be a very small beginning. It is depicted as a “branch” (4:2), a “stump” (6:13), a community of the “poor” and “needy” (25:4), and “handpicked grain” (27:12-13). This remnant was to put their trust in the Lord while waiting for him to establish his rule and come to reward them (see 3:10; 40:10). The Lord promised that this small community would swell into a huge multitude that would come out of both Israel and the Gentile nations (27:6; 60:3).<\/p>\n<p>In fulfillment of prophecy, a remnant of God’s people were allowed to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the Temple during the reign of King Cyrus of Persia (Ezra 1:2-4). Ezra the priest recognized this preservation of a remnant as purely an act of God’s grace, an act that could be jeopardized if the people followed their ancestors in disobedience (Ezra 9:5-15).<\/p>\n<p>The notion of the remnant serves as an encouragement to remain faithful to God in the midst of the unfaithfulness of others. In the case of the people of Israel and Judah, such faithfulness would lead to the restoration of their land and to the blessings God had promised his people.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 19:31; 2 Chr 36:20; Ezra 9:14; Isa 1:8-9; 4:1-3; 6:13; 10:19-22; 11:10-16; 27:12-13; 28:5; 37:31-32; 46:3-4; Jer 6:9; 23:3-4; 31:7-8; Amos 5:15; Mic 2:12; 4:6-7; 5:7-8; 7:18; Zeph 3:11-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Remnant In the face of foreign invasion and the prospect of exile, the notion of the remnant was a source of hope for God’s people (see Mic 2:12-13; 4:6-8). While the Exile would be the outworking of God’s judgment on his people, God indicated that he would not completely destroy them (see Hos 11:8-11). The fact that a remnant was preserved demonstrated God’s mercy and faithfulness. The theme of the remnant was integral to Isaiah’s message. In fact, one of his sons was named Shear-jashub,...","summary_en":"The Remnant In the face of foreign invasion and the prospect of exile, the notion of the remnant was a source of hope for God’s people (see Mic 2:12-13; 4:6-8). While the Exile would be the outworking of God’s judgment on his people, God indicated that he would not completely destroy them (see Hos 11:8-11). The fact that a remnant was preserved demonstrated God’s mercy and faithfulness. The theme of the remnant was integral to Isaiah’s message. In fact, one of his sons was named Shear-jashub,...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":119093,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Remnant","title_en":"The Remnant","content_ro":"<h3>The Remnant<\/h3>\n<p>In the face of foreign invasion and the prospect of exile, the notion of the remnant was a source of hope for God’s people (see Mic 2:12-13; 4:6-8). While the Exile would be the outworking of God’s judgment on his people, God indicated that he would not completely destroy them (see Hos 11:8-11). The fact that a remnant was preserved demonstrated God’s mercy and faithfulness.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of the remnant was integral to Isaiah’s message. In fact, one of his sons was named Shear-jashub, which means “a remnant will return” (Isa 7:3; see 10:21). Isaiah prophesied that when the Lord judged his people with destruction (which occurred at the hands of the Babylonians in 605–586 <span>BC<\/span>), he would save a small community—the remnant—to be the core of a new beginning. Because the population of Judah would be decimated (as the northern kingdom of Israel had been already), this remnant would be a very small beginning. It is depicted as a “branch” (4:2), a “stump” (6:13), a community of the “poor” and “needy” (25:4), and “handpicked grain” (27:12-13). This remnant was to put their trust in the Lord while waiting for him to establish his rule and come to reward them (see 3:10; 40:10). The Lord promised that this small community would swell into a huge multitude that would come out of both Israel and the Gentile nations (27:6; 60:3).<\/p>\n<p>In fulfillment of prophecy, a remnant of God’s people were allowed to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the Temple during the reign of King Cyrus of Persia (Ezra 1:2-4). Ezra the priest recognized this preservation of a remnant as purely an act of God’s grace, an act that could be jeopardized if the people followed their ancestors in disobedience (Ezra 9:5-15).<\/p>\n<p>The notion of the remnant serves as an encouragement to remain faithful to God in the midst of the unfaithfulness of others. In the case of the people of Israel and Judah, such faithfulness would lead to the restoration of their land and to the blessings God had promised his people.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 19:31; 2 Chr 36:20; Ezra 9:14; Isa 1:8-9; 4:1-3; 6:13; 10:19-22; 11:10-16; 27:12-13; 28:5; 37:31-32; 46:3-4; Jer 6:9; 23:3-4; 31:7-8; Amos 5:15; Mic 2:12; 4:6-7; 5:7-8; 7:18; Zeph 3:11-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Remnant<\/h3>\n<p>In the face of foreign invasion and the prospect of exile, the notion of the remnant was a source of hope for God’s people (see Mic 2:12-13; 4:6-8). While the Exile would be the outworking of God’s judgment on his people, God indicated that he would not completely destroy them (see Hos 11:8-11). The fact that a remnant was preserved demonstrated God’s mercy and faithfulness.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of the remnant was integral to Isaiah’s message. In fact, one of his sons was named Shear-jashub, which means “a remnant will return” (Isa 7:3; see 10:21). Isaiah prophesied that when the Lord judged his people with destruction (which occurred at the hands of the Babylonians in 605–586 <span>BC<\/span>), he would save a small community—the remnant—to be the core of a new beginning. Because the population of Judah would be decimated (as the northern kingdom of Israel had been already), this remnant would be a very small beginning. It is depicted as a “branch” (4:2), a “stump” (6:13), a community of the “poor” and “needy” (25:4), and “handpicked grain” (27:12-13). This remnant was to put their trust in the Lord while waiting for him to establish his rule and come to reward them (see 3:10; 40:10). The Lord promised that this small community would swell into a huge multitude that would come out of both Israel and the Gentile nations (27:6; 60:3).<\/p>\n<p>In fulfillment of prophecy, a remnant of God’s people were allowed to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the Temple during the reign of King Cyrus of Persia (Ezra 1:2-4). Ezra the priest recognized this preservation of a remnant as purely an act of God’s grace, an act that could be jeopardized if the people followed their ancestors in disobedience (Ezra 9:5-15).<\/p>\n<p>The notion of the remnant serves as an encouragement to remain faithful to God in the midst of the unfaithfulness of others. In the case of the people of Israel and Judah, such faithfulness would lead to the restoration of their land and to the blessings God had promised his people.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 19:31; 2 Chr 36:20; Ezra 9:14; Isa 1:8-9; 4:1-3; 6:13; 10:19-22; 11:10-16; 27:12-13; 28:5; 37:31-32; 46:3-4; Jer 6:9; 23:3-4; 31:7-8; Amos 5:15; Mic 2:12; 4:6-7; 5:7-8; 7:18; Zeph 3:11-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Remnant In the face of foreign invasion and the prospect of exile, the notion of the remnant was a source of hope for God’s people (see Mic 2:12-13; 4:6-8). While the Exile would be the outworking of God’s judgment on his people, God indicated that he would not completely destroy them (see Hos 11:8-11). The fact that a remnant was preserved demonstrated God’s mercy and faithfulness. The theme of the remnant was integral to Isaiah’s message. In fact, one of his sons was named Shear-jashub,...","summary_en":"The Remnant In the face of foreign invasion and the prospect of exile, the notion of the remnant was a source of hope for God’s people (see Mic 2:12-13; 4:6-8). While the Exile would be the outworking of God’s judgment on his people, God indicated that he would not completely destroy them (see Hos 11:8-11). The fact that a remnant was preserved demonstrated God’s mercy and faithfulness. The theme of the remnant was integral to Isaiah’s message. In fact, one of his sons was named Shear-jashub,...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":146719,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Remnant","title_en":"The Remnant","content_ro":"<h3>The Remnant<\/h3>\n<p>In the face of foreign invasion and the prospect of exile, the notion of the remnant was a source of hope for God’s people (see Mic 2:12-13; 4:6-8). While the Exile would be the outworking of God’s judgment on his people, God indicated that he would not completely destroy them (see Hos 11:8-11). The fact that a remnant was preserved demonstrated God’s mercy and faithfulness.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of the remnant was integral to Isaiah’s message. In fact, one of his sons was named Shear-jashub, which means “a remnant will return” (Isa 7:3; see 10:21). Isaiah prophesied that when the Lord judged his people with destruction (which occurred at the hands of the Babylonians in 605–586 <span>BC<\/span>), he would save a small community—the remnant—to be the core of a new beginning. Because the population of Judah would be decimated (as the northern kingdom of Israel had been already), this remnant would be a very small beginning. It is depicted as a “branch” (4:2), a “stump” (6:13), a community of the “poor” and “needy” (25:4), and “handpicked grain” (27:12-13). This remnant was to put their trust in the Lord while waiting for him to establish his rule and come to reward them (see 3:10; 40:10). The Lord promised that this small community would swell into a huge multitude that would come out of both Israel and the Gentile nations (27:6; 60:3).<\/p>\n<p>In fulfillment of prophecy, a remnant of God’s people were allowed to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the Temple during the reign of King Cyrus of Persia (Ezra 1:2-4). Ezra the priest recognized this preservation of a remnant as purely an act of God’s grace, an act that could be jeopardized if the people followed their ancestors in disobedience (Ezra 9:5-15).<\/p>\n<p>The notion of the remnant serves as an encouragement to remain faithful to God in the midst of the unfaithfulness of others. In the case of the people of Israel and Judah, such faithfulness would lead to the restoration of their land and to the blessings God had promised his people.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 19:31; 2 Chr 36:20; Ezra 9:14; Isa 1:8-9; 4:1-3; 6:13; 10:19-22; 11:10-16; 27:12-13; 28:5; 37:31-32; 46:3-4; Jer 6:9; 23:3-4; 31:7-8; Amos 5:15; Mic 2:12; 4:6-7; 5:7-8; 7:18; Zeph 3:11-13<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Remnant<\/h3>\n<p>In the face of foreign invasion and the prospect of exile, the notion of the remnant was a source of hope for God’s people (see Mic 2:12-13; 4:6-8). While the Exile would be the outworking of God’s judgment on his people, God indicated that he would not completely destroy them (see Hos 11:8-11). The fact that a remnant was preserved demonstrated God’s mercy and faithfulness.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of the remnant was integral to Isaiah’s message. In fact, one of his sons was named Shear-jashub, which means “a remnant will return” (Isa 7:3; see 10:21). Isaiah prophesied that when the Lord judged his people with destruction (which occurred at the hands of the Babylonians in 605–586 <span>BC<\/span>), he would save a small community—the remnant—to be the core of a new beginning. Because the population of Judah would be decimated (as the northern kingdom of Israel had been already), this remnant would be a very small beginning. It is depicted as a “branch” (4:2), a “stump” (6:13), a community of the “poor” and “needy” (25:4), and “handpicked grain” (27:12-13). This remnant was to put their trust in the Lord while waiting for him to establish his rule and come to reward them (see 3:10; 40:10). The Lord promised that this small community would swell into a huge multitude that would come out of both Israel and the Gentile nations (27:6; 60:3).<\/p>\n<p>In fulfillment of prophecy, a remnant of God’s people were allowed to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the Temple during the reign of King Cyrus of Persia (Ezra 1:2-4). Ezra the priest recognized this preservation of a remnant as purely an act of God’s grace, an act that could be jeopardized if the people followed their ancestors in disobedience (Ezra 9:5-15).<\/p>\n<p>The notion of the remnant serves as an encouragement to remain faithful to God in the midst of the unfaithfulness of others. In the case of the people of Israel and Judah, such faithfulness would lead to the restoration of their land and to the blessings God had promised his people.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Kgs 19:31; 2 Chr 36:20; Ezra 9:14; Isa 1:8-9; 4:1-3; 6:13; 10:19-22; 11:10-16; 27:12-13; 28:5; 37:31-32; 46:3-4; Jer 6:9; 23:3-4; 31:7-8; Amos 5:15; Mic 2:12; 4:6-7; 5:7-8; 7:18; Zeph 3:11-13<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Remnant In the face of foreign invasion and the prospect of exile, the notion of the remnant was a source of hope for God’s people (see Mic 2:12-13; 4:6-8). While the Exile would be the outworking of God’s judgment on his people, God indicated that he would not completely destroy them (see Hos 11:8-11). The fact that a remnant was preserved demonstrated God’s mercy and faithfulness. The theme of the remnant was integral to Isaiah’s message. In fact, one of his sons was named Shear-jashub,...","summary_en":"The Remnant In the face of foreign invasion and the prospect of exile, the notion of the remnant was a source of hope for God’s people (see Mic 2:12-13; 4:6-8). While the Exile would be the outworking of God’s judgment on his people, God indicated that he would not completely destroy them (see Hos 11:8-11). The fact that a remnant was preserved demonstrated God’s mercy and faithfulness. The theme of the remnant was integral to Isaiah’s message. In fact, one of his sons was named Shear-jashub,...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"12":[{"id":30893,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"the Poor","title_en":"the Poor","content_ro":"<h3>POOR, T<span>he<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Those lacking material wealth.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PovertyasaBadThing\">Poverty as a Bad Thing<\/p>\n<p>At times the Bible gives a very simple explanation of why people are rich or poor. If a person delights in the law of the Lord, he or she will get wealth and riches. Such people will prosper in everything they do (Pss 1:3; 112:3). With regard to Israel in OT days, these ideas are not quite so naive as they might seem. There was indeed a connection between sin and poverty. Israelite society was built on rules laid down by God, so if there was poverty, that must mean that somewhere the rules were being broken.<\/p>\n<p>Whether a person’s poverty was due to his or her own sin or to someone else’s, the OT saw it as an evil to be combated, and the law made many provisions for the relief of it (e.g., Ex 22:21-27; Lv 19:9-10; Dt 15:1-15; 24:10-22). God cared for the needy and expected his people to do the same.<\/p>\n<p>During the period between the testaments, that care continued to be exercised within Jewish communities scattered around the Mediterranean, and it was in due course taken up as a practical responsibility by the Christian church (Acts 11:29; 24:17; Rom 15:26; 1 Cor 16:1; Gal 2:10; Jas 2:15-16; 1 Jn 3:17); for Christians also, the giving of alms was a duty plainly expected by their Lord (Mt 6:2-4; Lk 12:33). It was not really a primitive communism that the early church practiced, for had they renounced personal possessions, they could not have done what they in fact did—namely, to <em>give<\/em> in cash or in kind “as any had need” (Acts 2:45; 4:35).<\/p>\n<p>Poverty, then, although it provides the wealthy with a chance to show the virtue of generosity, is in itself (in the NT as in the OT) a bad thing.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PovertyasaGoodThing\">Poverty as a Good Thing<\/p>\n<p>As we can see, there is a certain sense in which righteousness will make people prosperous and sin will make them poor. But ordinary life is more complicated than that. Psalms 1 and 112, referred to above, show only one side of the matter. What about the prosperity of the wicked (Ps 73:3) and its corollary, the person who is righteous yet poor? The answer of Scripture (e.g., Jb 21; Pss 37, 49, 73) is that the wealth of bad people is a fleeting thing and that the righteous, though poor in worldly goods, have spiritual riches.<\/p>\n<p>This thought—that far from being prosperous, the good person may often be poor—is sometimes curiously inverted. The righteous may be poor, but Scripture sometimes appears to reckon that to be poor is to be righteous. Of course, it is not automatically so (Prv 30:8-9), but such references are frequent enough, especially in the Psalms (e.g., Pss 9:18; 10:14; 12:5; 34:6; 35:10; 74:19), to deserve careful consideration. And on reflection, they are not so strange. As God is specially concerned about the poor, so the poor may be specially concerned about God, for two good reasons. First, if there was poverty in Israel, it was because those with power were misusing it; therefore, the poor would claim God’s help first because it is his rule that was being flouted, and he must vindicate himself. And second, poverty turns people to God because in those circumstances there is no one else to turn to. In this way “poor” becomes almost a technical term. “The poor” are the humble, and the humble are the godly (Pss 10:17; 14:5-6; 37:11; Zep 3:12-13). Just as being rich can foster self-indulgence, self-confidence, pride, and the despising and oppression of one’s fellow human beings, so being poor should encourage the opposite virtues.<\/p>\n<p>Instead of being an evil to be shunned, poverty thus becomes an ideal to be sought. Following the OT use of “the poor” and “the pious” as almost interchangeable terms, personal property was renounced by many Jews during the period between the testaments. Among them were the sect of the Essenes and the related community that was set up at Qumran near the Dead Sea. The latter actually called themselves “The Poor.” This tradition continued into NT times. Possibly “the poor” at Jerusalem means a definite group within the church there (or even the Jerusalem church as a whole; Rom 15:26; Gal 2:10). Certainly there emerged later a Jewish-Christian sect called the “Ebionites” (from a Hebrew word for “poor”).<\/p>\n<p>The NT teaches clearly, of course, that what really matters is the attitude of the heart. It is quite possible to be poor yet grasping, or rich yet generous. Even so, with the OT background outlined above, the general sense of these words in the Gospels is that rich = bad, poor = good. On the one hand, the Sadducees are rich in worldly wealth and the Pharisees in spiritual pride, and men of property are selfish, foolish, and in grave spiritual peril (Mk 10:23; Lk 12:13-21; 16:19-31). On the other hand, it is devout and simple folk, like Jesus’s own family and friends, who generally represent the poor.<\/p>\n<p>In truth, therefore, the two versions of the first beatitude (Matthew’s and Luke’s) amount to the same thing. Matthew’s has the depth: “Blessed are the poor in spirit” (Mt 5:3). But Luke’s has the breadth. When he says simply “Blessed are you poor” (Lk 6:20), he means those who in their need—in <em>any<\/em> kind of need—turn to the Lord. It was to bring the gospel to such people that Christ came into the world (Mt 11:5; Lk 4:18). Jesus Christ himself embodies the same ideal. As Paul put it, “Though he was very rich, yet for your sakes he became poor, so that by his poverty he could make you rich” (2 Cor 8:9, <span>nlt<\/span>). Our helpless poverty is an evil from which he comes to rescue us; his deliberately chosen poverty is the glorious means by which he does so.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Alms; Riches; Righteousness; Wages; Wealth.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>POOR, T<span>he<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Those lacking material wealth.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PovertyasaBadThing\">Poverty as a Bad Thing<\/p>\n<p>At times the Bible gives a very simple explanation of why people are rich or poor. If a person delights in the law of the Lord, he or she will get wealth and riches. Such people will prosper in everything they do (Pss 1:3; 112:3). With regard to Israel in OT days, these ideas are not quite so naive as they might seem. There was indeed a connection between sin and poverty. Israelite society was built on rules laid down by God, so if there was poverty, that must mean that somewhere the rules were being broken.<\/p>\n<p>Whether a person’s poverty was due to his or her own sin or to someone else’s, the OT saw it as an evil to be combated, and the law made many provisions for the relief of it (e.g., Ex 22:21-27; Lv 19:9-10; Dt 15:1-15; 24:10-22). God cared for the needy and expected his people to do the same.<\/p>\n<p>During the period between the testaments, that care continued to be exercised within Jewish communities scattered around the Mediterranean, and it was in due course taken up as a practical responsibility by the Christian church (Acts 11:29; 24:17; Rom 15:26; 1 Cor 16:1; Gal 2:10; Jas 2:15-16; 1 Jn 3:17); for Christians also, the giving of alms was a duty plainly expected by their Lord (Mt 6:2-4; Lk 12:33). It was not really a primitive communism that the early church practiced, for had they renounced personal possessions, they could not have done what they in fact did—namely, to <em>give<\/em> in cash or in kind “as any had need” (Acts 2:45; 4:35).<\/p>\n<p>Poverty, then, although it provides the wealthy with a chance to show the virtue of generosity, is in itself (in the NT as in the OT) a bad thing.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PovertyasaGoodThing\">Poverty as a Good Thing<\/p>\n<p>As we can see, there is a certain sense in which righteousness will make people prosperous and sin will make them poor. But ordinary life is more complicated than that. Psalms 1 and 112, referred to above, show only one side of the matter. What about the prosperity of the wicked (Ps 73:3) and its corollary, the person who is righteous yet poor? The answer of Scripture (e.g., Jb 21; Pss 37, 49, 73) is that the wealth of bad people is a fleeting thing and that the righteous, though poor in worldly goods, have spiritual riches.<\/p>\n<p>This thought—that far from being prosperous, the good person may often be poor—is sometimes curiously inverted. The righteous may be poor, but Scripture sometimes appears to reckon that to be poor is to be righteous. Of course, it is not automatically so (Prv 30:8-9), but such references are frequent enough, especially in the Psalms (e.g., Pss 9:18; 10:14; 12:5; 34:6; 35:10; 74:19), to deserve careful consideration. And on reflection, they are not so strange. As God is specially concerned about the poor, so the poor may be specially concerned about God, for two good reasons. First, if there was poverty in Israel, it was because those with power were misusing it; therefore, the poor would claim God’s help first because it is his rule that was being flouted, and he must vindicate himself. And second, poverty turns people to God because in those circumstances there is no one else to turn to. In this way “poor” becomes almost a technical term. “The poor” are the humble, and the humble are the godly (Pss 10:17; 14:5-6; 37:11; Zep 3:12-13). Just as being rich can foster self-indulgence, self-confidence, pride, and the despising and oppression of one’s fellow human beings, so being poor should encourage the opposite virtues.<\/p>\n<p>Instead of being an evil to be shunned, poverty thus becomes an ideal to be sought. Following the OT use of “the poor” and “the pious” as almost interchangeable terms, personal property was renounced by many Jews during the period between the testaments. Among them were the sect of the Essenes and the related community that was set up at Qumran near the Dead Sea. The latter actually called themselves “The Poor.” This tradition continued into NT times. Possibly “the poor” at Jerusalem means a definite group within the church there (or even the Jerusalem church as a whole; Rom 15:26; Gal 2:10). Certainly there emerged later a Jewish-Christian sect called the “Ebionites” (from a Hebrew word for “poor”).<\/p>\n<p>The NT teaches clearly, of course, that what really matters is the attitude of the heart. It is quite possible to be poor yet grasping, or rich yet generous. Even so, with the OT background outlined above, the general sense of these words in the Gospels is that rich = bad, poor = good. On the one hand, the Sadducees are rich in worldly wealth and the Pharisees in spiritual pride, and men of property are selfish, foolish, and in grave spiritual peril (Mk 10:23; Lk 12:13-21; 16:19-31). On the other hand, it is devout and simple folk, like Jesus’s own family and friends, who generally represent the poor.<\/p>\n<p>In truth, therefore, the two versions of the first beatitude (Matthew’s and Luke’s) amount to the same thing. Matthew’s has the depth: “Blessed are the poor in spirit” (Mt 5:3). But Luke’s has the breadth. When he says simply “Blessed are you poor” (Lk 6:20), he means those who in their need—in <em>any<\/em> kind of need—turn to the Lord. It was to bring the gospel to such people that Christ came into the world (Mt 11:5; Lk 4:18). Jesus Christ himself embodies the same ideal. As Paul put it, “Though he was very rich, yet for your sakes he became poor, so that by his poverty he could make you rich” (2 Cor 8:9, <span>nlt<\/span>). Our helpless poverty is an evil from which he comes to rescue us; his deliberately chosen poverty is the glorious means by which he does so.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Alms; Riches; Righteousness; Wages; Wealth.<\/p>","summary_ro":"POOR, The Those lacking material wealth. Poverty as a Bad Thing At times the Bible gives a very simple explanation of why people are rich or poor. If a person delights in the law of the Lord, he or she will get wealth and riches. Such people will prosper in everything they do (Pss 1:3; 112:3). With regard to Israel in OT days, these ideas are not quite so naive as they might seem. There was indeed a connection between sin and poverty. Israelite society was built on rules laid down by God, so ...","summary_en":"POOR, The Those lacking material wealth. Poverty as a Bad Thing At times the Bible gives a very simple explanation of why people are rich or poor. If a person delights in the law of the Lord, he or she will get wealth and riches. Such people will prosper in everything they do (Pss 1:3; 112:3). With regard to Israel in OT days, these ideas are not quite so naive as they might seem. There was indeed a connection between sin and poverty. Israelite society was built on rules laid down by God, so ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":54243,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:12","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:12<\/strong> Jesus the Messiah perfectly expresses the ethical qualities predicted for the godly remnant of Israel (Isa 42:1-4; 53:3, 7-9; Zech 9:9; see Matt 11:28-30; 12:15-21; Phil 2:1-8; 1 Pet 2:23).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:12<\/strong> Jesus the Messiah perfectly expresses the ethical qualities predicted for the godly remnant of Israel (Isa 42:1-4; 53:3, 7-9; Zech 9:9; see Matt 11:28-30; 12:15-21; Phil 2:1-8; 1 Pet 2:23).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:12 Jesus the Messiah perfectly expresses the ethical qualities predicted for the godly remnant of Israel (Isa 42:1-4; 53:3, 7-9; Zech 9:9; see Matt 11:28-30; 12:15-21; Phil 2:1-8; 1 Pet 2:23).","summary_en":"3:12 Jesus the Messiah perfectly expresses the ethical qualities predicted for the godly remnant of Israel (Isa 42:1-4; 53:3, 7-9; Zech 9:9; see Matt 11:28-30; 12:15-21; Phil 2:1-8; 1 Pet 2:23).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81869,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:12","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:12<\/strong> Jesus the Messiah perfectly expresses the ethical qualities predicted for the godly remnant of Israel (Isa 42:1-4; 53:3, 7-9; Zech 9:9; see Matt 11:28-30; 12:15-21; Phil 2:1-8; 1 Pet 2:23).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:12<\/strong> Jesus the Messiah perfectly expresses the ethical qualities predicted for the godly remnant of Israel (Isa 42:1-4; 53:3, 7-9; Zech 9:9; see Matt 11:28-30; 12:15-21; Phil 2:1-8; 1 Pet 2:23).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:12 Jesus the Messiah perfectly expresses the ethical qualities predicted for the godly remnant of Israel (Isa 42:1-4; 53:3, 7-9; Zech 9:9; see Matt 11:28-30; 12:15-21; Phil 2:1-8; 1 Pet 2:23).","summary_en":"3:12 Jesus the Messiah perfectly expresses the ethical qualities predicted for the godly remnant of Israel (Isa 42:1-4; 53:3, 7-9; Zech 9:9; see Matt 11:28-30; 12:15-21; Phil 2:1-8; 1 Pet 2:23).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109495,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:12","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:12<\/strong> Jesus the Messiah perfectly expresses the ethical qualities predicted for the godly remnant of Israel (Isa 42:1-4; 53:3, 7-9; Zech 9:9; see Matt 11:28-30; 12:15-21; Phil 2:1-8; 1 Pet 2:23).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:12<\/strong> Jesus the Messiah perfectly expresses the ethical qualities predicted for the godly remnant of Israel (Isa 42:1-4; 53:3, 7-9; Zech 9:9; see Matt 11:28-30; 12:15-21; Phil 2:1-8; 1 Pet 2:23).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:12 Jesus the Messiah perfectly expresses the ethical qualities predicted for the godly remnant of Israel (Isa 42:1-4; 53:3, 7-9; Zech 9:9; see Matt 11:28-30; 12:15-21; Phil 2:1-8; 1 Pet 2:23).","summary_en":"3:12 Jesus the Messiah perfectly expresses the ethical qualities predicted for the godly remnant of Israel (Isa 42:1-4; 53:3, 7-9; Zech 9:9; see Matt 11:28-30; 12:15-21; Phil 2:1-8; 1 Pet 2:23).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":137121,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:12","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:12<\/strong> Jesus the Messiah perfectly expresses the ethical qualities predicted for the godly remnant of Israel (Isa 42:1-4; 53:3, 7-9; Zech 9:9; see Matt 11:28-30; 12:15-21; Phil 2:1-8; 1 Pet 2:23).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:12<\/strong> Jesus the Messiah perfectly expresses the ethical qualities predicted for the godly remnant of Israel (Isa 42:1-4; 53:3, 7-9; Zech 9:9; see Matt 11:28-30; 12:15-21; Phil 2:1-8; 1 Pet 2:23).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:12 Jesus the Messiah perfectly expresses the ethical qualities predicted for the godly remnant of Israel (Isa 42:1-4; 53:3, 7-9; Zech 9:9; see Matt 11:28-30; 12:15-21; Phil 2:1-8; 1 Pet 2:23).","summary_en":"3:12 Jesus the Messiah perfectly expresses the ethical qualities predicted for the godly remnant of Israel (Isa 42:1-4; 53:3, 7-9; Zech 9:9; see Matt 11:28-30; 12:15-21; Phil 2:1-8; 1 Pet 2:23).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"13":[{"id":39202,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Zephaniah","title_en":"Book of Zephaniah","content_ro":"<h3>ZEPHANIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the books of the Minor Prophets in the OT.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to the editorial heading (Zep 1:1), Zephaniah prophesied during the reign of Josiah (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>). His family tree is given in an unusually full form. Some scholars have suggested that his great-great-grandfather was King Hezekiah (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>). But remarkably there is no Jewish or Christian tradition to support the suggestion, which there probably would have been if it had been true. His own name, meaning “he whom the Lord protects or hides,” was not uncommon and was a testimony to the keeping power of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>Zephaniah probably prophesied around 630 <span>BC<\/span>. The fall of Nineveh (612 <span>BC<\/span>) had not yet occurred (2:13-15). Josiah’s reign falls into two periods, dividing at 622 <span>BC<\/span>. In that year, while the temple was being cleared of pagan articles, the Book of the Law was found, which gave momentum to Josiah’s religious reforms (2 Kgs 22). The unreformed state of affairs described by Zephaniah (Zep 1:4-12; 3:1-4) points to a date before 622, at least for his denunciations. The prophet addressed Judah, the southern kingdom, and in particular the civil and religious authorities in Jerusalem. He most probably prophesied during the reign of Josiah, who came to the throne at the age of eight.<\/p>\n<p>The negative parts of the book concerning the sin and punishment of Judah—now fulfilled—would serve as a serious warning against disobedience to God. Moreover, the fulfillment of Zephaniah’s prophetic threats would serve to enhance the positive side of the book, confirming the hope of completion in the experience of a fresh generation of God’s people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Politically, the Assyrian Empire had spread westward and held Palestine in its grip. The long reign of Manasseh (696–642 <span>BC<\/span>) had been a period of total subservience to Assyria. Political subservience as an Assyrian vassal meant religious subservience to the gods of Assyria, especially worship of the heavenly bodies (2 Kgs 21:5). Zephaniah complained of this sin (Zep 1:5). When the door opened to one foreign religion, others naturally came in. Once the exclusiveness of the worship of the God of Israel was abandoned, Palestinian cults were openly accepted. The Canaanite Baal was blatantly worshiped (2 Kgs 21:3), as Zephaniah attested (Zep 1:4). Zephaniah condemned the worshipers of Molech (v 5), who sacrificed children to the Ammonite god (1 Kgs 11:7; 2 Kgs 23:10). International imperialism meant a weakening of national culture, so that foreign customs were practiced, probably with religious overtones (Zep 1:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The reign of Josiah brought changes, marking a political and religious turning point. Assyria, preoccupied with troubles on the eastern and northern frontiers and unable to consolidate its acquisitions, became unable to reinforce its authority in the west. This weakness induced Josiah to launch a national liberation movement. He threw off the yoke of Assyria and expanded his sphere of influence northward into the territory of the old northern kingdom. From a religious standpoint, he completely dissociated himself and his country from the religions that prevailed in Judah and recalled the nation to a pure and exclusive faith in the God of Israel. The book of Zephaniah shows that there was at least one person who shared his ideals. His prophetic ministry undoubtedly paved the way for Josiah’s subsequent reformation. He was a contemporary of Jeremiah, at least for the early part of that prophet’s career (Jeremiah began prophesying in 627 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Scholars have suggested that Zephaniah’s prophesying was prompted in part by attacks of the Scythians. The Greek historian Herodotus tells how the barbaric Scythians overran western Asia and reached as far south as the Egyptian frontier at about the time that Zephaniah prophesied. There is now much less inclination to believe Herodotus’s tale and relate Zephaniah’s prophetic ministry to it. There is no objective evidence for Scythian attacks on so large a scale as Herodotus claimed. Probably Zephaniah spoke simply out of a theological necessity, as he himself claimed (e.g., 1:17). From his inspired standpoint, he foresaw that a clash involving divine intervention and human downfall was unavoidable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTeaching\">Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>As Zephaniah prophesied in God’s name, he denounced the religious sins of Judah and the corruption rampant among both civil and religious authorities. He foretold the downfall of the nation that actually occurred in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The moral and religious landslide could only culminate in a political avalanche of destruction that would engulf the nation. This avalanche is called by Zephaniah “the Day of the Lord.” It was not a new term, and the prophet knew that it would arouse terror in the hearts of his hearers. Amos used it, and even in his time it was well established (Am 5:18-20). Isaiah was the first to use the expression in the southern kingdom (Is 2:6-22, see v 12). In this, as in a number of respects, Zephaniah was a latter-day Isaiah called by God to reapply truths earlier prophesied by Isaiah to a later generation.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of the Day of the Lord refers to a time when the Lord would decisively intervene in the world to establish his sovereignty. Hostile elements would be swept aside. The enemies of God, sinners against his moral will, would be exposed and punished. It was associated with judgment upon those who did not acknowledge God’s sovereignty—especially Gentiles, but also sinful Israel. The emphasis on the suffering of God’s people was intended to correct the popular assumption that other nations would be the sole target of divine judgment.<\/p>\n<p>The “day” also would vindicate those who were loyal to God. It guaranteed the rehabilitation of his oppressed supporters. Zephaniah developed this two-sided phenomenon in order to communicate the truth of God to his own generation. It is “a day of the wrath of God” (Zep 1:15, 18; 2:2), when his reaction to human sin would be demonstrated. Its target was not only other nations but Judah as well, both Jerusalem, the capital (1:10-13), and the other cities of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>Zephaniah also had a positive message for the people of Judah. For the prophets, the message of salvation did not cancel the message of doom. Judgment would come first, then salvation would follow. But the period of tribulation could not be avoided. The prophet’s grim descriptions of “the day of wrath” are interpreted as dire warnings and implicit pleas to the people of Judah to abandon their complacent, sinful ways.<\/p>\n<p>Clearly, Zephaniah’s role under God was to reapply earlier truths sadly forgotten by his own generation. Zephaniah was able to foresee God’s judgment of Judah and the world. But he also proclaimed permanent truths concerning the nature of God and his providential relationship to the world and concerning the responsibilities of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of the book of Zephaniah for the NT lies in the phraseology about the Day of the Lord. There are a number of allusions to this aspect of his message (Mt 13:41 [Zep 1:3]; Rv 6:17 [1:14]; 14:5 [3:13]; 16:1 [3:8]). These echoes stress Zephaniah’s importance beyond his own time. He contributed to the total biblical picture of a God who intervenes in human history and will establish his kingdom. Zephaniah’s descriptions are a pattern for events that will mark the end of history.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>The heading (Zep 1:1) introduces Zephaniah, gives the historical setting, and above all stresses his meditation on the divine word.<\/p>\n<p>The first major part of the book is 1:2–2:3. It subdivides into four units: verses 2-7, 8-13, 14-18; 2:1-3. Verses 2-7 include Judah in a forecast of universal destruction. Zephaniah used traditional material to stress that God’s people were by no means exempt, as they often chose to believe (cf. Am 5:18-20). The prophet supported his startling revelation with reasoned statements regarding the religious deviations practiced in Jerusalem. The image of sacrifice was used ironically, portraying Judah as the victim.<\/p>\n<p>The national administration and members of the royal family were guilty (Zep 1:8-13). Superstitions were punctiliously observed, yet basic divine commands against stealing and fraudulent gain went unheeded. Zephaniah saw the enemy attack on the north side of Jerusalem as an illustration of God’s punishment of dishonest traders (cf. Am 8:5-6; Mi 6:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>There follows a shocking and terrifying description of the grimness of the coming “Day” (Zep 1:14-18). The prophet stirred up a complacent people who did not want to hear God’s message. He frightened them into reality with a monotonous drumbeat of doom and destruction. Judah would be the demoralized target of God’s wrath. Their wealth had secured luxurious imports but could not prevent divine judgment.<\/p>\n<p>The prophet completed his sermon with an appeal for repentance (2:1-3). Having emotionally stirred his audience from their apathy, he was able to bring the good news that all was not yet lost. A penitential assembly at the temple and the intercession of the spiritually minded and obedient among God’s people might prevent destruction. God’s punishment of foreign nations is described in the second main part of the book (2:4-15). Representative states are named to the west, east, south, and north of Judah. In the context of the previous material, it amplifies the universal nature of the Day of the Lord. Like the first part, it subdivides into four passages: verses 2:4-7, 8-11, 12, and 13-15.<\/p>\n<p>The subject of the first passage is the Philistines. In the case of the cities of Gaza and Ekron, there is a play on words typical of Hebrew prophecy. Both names contain doom within their very sound. The Philistines are labeled as trespassers because they were illegal immigrants from Crete into the Promised Land, which was intended for God’s own people.<\/p>\n<p>Zephaniah predicted that Moab and Ammon would suffer attack for their overbearing attitude and their annexation of Judean territory (2:8-11). God would come to the aid of his covenant people.<\/p>\n<p>The first two main sections have spelled out at length a message of judgment for both Judah and the surrounding nations. This twofold message is now repeated in a much shorter form in the third main section (3:1-8). Zephaniah criticized Jerusalem in its combined role of political capital and religious center. The responsibility of being God’s representatives rested too lightly on the shoulders of government and temple officials. Civil leaders abused their powers by demanding bribes and even killing their political opponents. Instead of being the shepherds of the people (cf. Ez 34), they were beasts of prey (cf. Ez 22:25-27). The prophets misused their gifts for their own selfish interests, while the priests broke the strict regulations of the temple. The lessons of history went unheeded; they had not learned caution and reverence. The conclusion is clear: Judah could not escape punishment in the coming Day of the Lord but would suffer with other nations.<\/p>\n<p>The outworking of God’s will for both Judah and the nations is in view in the final main section (Zep 3:9-20), but this time from a quite different aspect. Punishment was not God’s last word for his own people or even for the nations at large. Ultimately God’s will is not destruction but salvation (2 Pt 3:9). The section has three parts: Zephaniah 3:9-10, 11-13, and 14-20. Verses 9-10 deal with the conversion of the nations. This remarkable passage looks forward with divinely guaranteed certainty to the willing submission of Gentiles to the God of Israel. Their turning to God would not be based on human initiative but would originate in the providential activity of God. Lips defiled by worship of pagan gods would be purified and devoted solely to the adoration of the God of Israel. People from remote parts of the earth, here illustrated as the remote south beyond the Ethiopian Nile, would come as suppliants, as if they were scattered Jews returning home.<\/p>\n<p>God’s own people would be marked by a change of heart (3:11-13). By now they would have been purged of the proud people who put themselves before God in the sphere of politics and religion. They would be a purified people who humbly trusted in God. To them were promised the blessings of paradise.<\/p>\n<p>The last passage speaks of coming joys (3:14-20). The prophet projects himself into the future, to the time when God’s judgment would be over and the time of salvation had dawned. God’s people would rejoice in the presence of their Lord. Fear and demoralization would be canceled by God’s powerful presence and radiant joy. His joy would infectiously communicate itself to them so that they too would rejoice. Moreover, his joy would be a reaction to the transformation he was working in the lives of his people (v 17; “he will renew you in his love,” <span>rsv<\/span>). A necessary part of this transformation would feature the vindication of God’s suffering people. They would be brought to a position of honor, as the visible representatives of the God of glory. Ultimately, God’s power would be revealed through a people of power.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Josiah #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ZEPHANIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the books of the Minor Prophets in the OT.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to the editorial heading (Zep 1:1), Zephaniah prophesied during the reign of Josiah (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>). His family tree is given in an unusually full form. Some scholars have suggested that his great-great-grandfather was King Hezekiah (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>). But remarkably there is no Jewish or Christian tradition to support the suggestion, which there probably would have been if it had been true. His own name, meaning “he whom the Lord protects or hides,” was not uncommon and was a testimony to the keeping power of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>Zephaniah probably prophesied around 630 <span>BC<\/span>. The fall of Nineveh (612 <span>BC<\/span>) had not yet occurred (2:13-15). Josiah’s reign falls into two periods, dividing at 622 <span>BC<\/span>. In that year, while the temple was being cleared of pagan articles, the Book of the Law was found, which gave momentum to Josiah’s religious reforms (2 Kgs 22). The unreformed state of affairs described by Zephaniah (Zep 1:4-12; 3:1-4) points to a date before 622, at least for his denunciations. The prophet addressed Judah, the southern kingdom, and in particular the civil and religious authorities in Jerusalem. He most probably prophesied during the reign of Josiah, who came to the throne at the age of eight.<\/p>\n<p>The negative parts of the book concerning the sin and punishment of Judah—now fulfilled—would serve as a serious warning against disobedience to God. Moreover, the fulfillment of Zephaniah’s prophetic threats would serve to enhance the positive side of the book, confirming the hope of completion in the experience of a fresh generation of God’s people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Politically, the Assyrian Empire had spread westward and held Palestine in its grip. The long reign of Manasseh (696–642 <span>BC<\/span>) had been a period of total subservience to Assyria. Political subservience as an Assyrian vassal meant religious subservience to the gods of Assyria, especially worship of the heavenly bodies (2 Kgs 21:5). Zephaniah complained of this sin (Zep 1:5). When the door opened to one foreign religion, others naturally came in. Once the exclusiveness of the worship of the God of Israel was abandoned, Palestinian cults were openly accepted. The Canaanite Baal was blatantly worshiped (2 Kgs 21:3), as Zephaniah attested (Zep 1:4). Zephaniah condemned the worshipers of Molech (v 5), who sacrificed children to the Ammonite god (1 Kgs 11:7; 2 Kgs 23:10). International imperialism meant a weakening of national culture, so that foreign customs were practiced, probably with religious overtones (Zep 1:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The reign of Josiah brought changes, marking a political and religious turning point. Assyria, preoccupied with troubles on the eastern and northern frontiers and unable to consolidate its acquisitions, became unable to reinforce its authority in the west. This weakness induced Josiah to launch a national liberation movement. He threw off the yoke of Assyria and expanded his sphere of influence northward into the territory of the old northern kingdom. From a religious standpoint, he completely dissociated himself and his country from the religions that prevailed in Judah and recalled the nation to a pure and exclusive faith in the God of Israel. The book of Zephaniah shows that there was at least one person who shared his ideals. His prophetic ministry undoubtedly paved the way for Josiah’s subsequent reformation. He was a contemporary of Jeremiah, at least for the early part of that prophet’s career (Jeremiah began prophesying in 627 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Scholars have suggested that Zephaniah’s prophesying was prompted in part by attacks of the Scythians. The Greek historian Herodotus tells how the barbaric Scythians overran western Asia and reached as far south as the Egyptian frontier at about the time that Zephaniah prophesied. There is now much less inclination to believe Herodotus’s tale and relate Zephaniah’s prophetic ministry to it. There is no objective evidence for Scythian attacks on so large a scale as Herodotus claimed. Probably Zephaniah spoke simply out of a theological necessity, as he himself claimed (e.g., 1:17). From his inspired standpoint, he foresaw that a clash involving divine intervention and human downfall was unavoidable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTeaching\">Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>As Zephaniah prophesied in God’s name, he denounced the religious sins of Judah and the corruption rampant among both civil and religious authorities. He foretold the downfall of the nation that actually occurred in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The moral and religious landslide could only culminate in a political avalanche of destruction that would engulf the nation. This avalanche is called by Zephaniah “the Day of the Lord.” It was not a new term, and the prophet knew that it would arouse terror in the hearts of his hearers. Amos used it, and even in his time it was well established (Am 5:18-20). Isaiah was the first to use the expression in the southern kingdom (Is 2:6-22, see v 12). In this, as in a number of respects, Zephaniah was a latter-day Isaiah called by God to reapply truths earlier prophesied by Isaiah to a later generation.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of the Day of the Lord refers to a time when the Lord would decisively intervene in the world to establish his sovereignty. Hostile elements would be swept aside. The enemies of God, sinners against his moral will, would be exposed and punished. It was associated with judgment upon those who did not acknowledge God’s sovereignty—especially Gentiles, but also sinful Israel. The emphasis on the suffering of God’s people was intended to correct the popular assumption that other nations would be the sole target of divine judgment.<\/p>\n<p>The “day” also would vindicate those who were loyal to God. It guaranteed the rehabilitation of his oppressed supporters. Zephaniah developed this two-sided phenomenon in order to communicate the truth of God to his own generation. It is “a day of the wrath of God” (Zep 1:15, 18; 2:2), when his reaction to human sin would be demonstrated. Its target was not only other nations but Judah as well, both Jerusalem, the capital (1:10-13), and the other cities of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>Zephaniah also had a positive message for the people of Judah. For the prophets, the message of salvation did not cancel the message of doom. Judgment would come first, then salvation would follow. But the period of tribulation could not be avoided. The prophet’s grim descriptions of “the day of wrath” are interpreted as dire warnings and implicit pleas to the people of Judah to abandon their complacent, sinful ways.<\/p>\n<p>Clearly, Zephaniah’s role under God was to reapply earlier truths sadly forgotten by his own generation. Zephaniah was able to foresee God’s judgment of Judah and the world. But he also proclaimed permanent truths concerning the nature of God and his providential relationship to the world and concerning the responsibilities of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of the book of Zephaniah for the NT lies in the phraseology about the Day of the Lord. There are a number of allusions to this aspect of his message (Mt 13:41 [Zep 1:3]; Rv 6:17 [1:14]; 14:5 [3:13]; 16:1 [3:8]). These echoes stress Zephaniah’s importance beyond his own time. He contributed to the total biblical picture of a God who intervenes in human history and will establish his kingdom. Zephaniah’s descriptions are a pattern for events that will mark the end of history.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>The heading (Zep 1:1) introduces Zephaniah, gives the historical setting, and above all stresses his meditation on the divine word.<\/p>\n<p>The first major part of the book is 1:2–2:3. It subdivides into four units: verses 2-7, 8-13, 14-18; 2:1-3. Verses 2-7 include Judah in a forecast of universal destruction. Zephaniah used traditional material to stress that God’s people were by no means exempt, as they often chose to believe (cf. Am 5:18-20). The prophet supported his startling revelation with reasoned statements regarding the religious deviations practiced in Jerusalem. The image of sacrifice was used ironically, portraying Judah as the victim.<\/p>\n<p>The national administration and members of the royal family were guilty (Zep 1:8-13). Superstitions were punctiliously observed, yet basic divine commands against stealing and fraudulent gain went unheeded. Zephaniah saw the enemy attack on the north side of Jerusalem as an illustration of God’s punishment of dishonest traders (cf. Am 8:5-6; Mi 6:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>There follows a shocking and terrifying description of the grimness of the coming “Day” (Zep 1:14-18). The prophet stirred up a complacent people who did not want to hear God’s message. He frightened them into reality with a monotonous drumbeat of doom and destruction. Judah would be the demoralized target of God’s wrath. Their wealth had secured luxurious imports but could not prevent divine judgment.<\/p>\n<p>The prophet completed his sermon with an appeal for repentance (2:1-3). Having emotionally stirred his audience from their apathy, he was able to bring the good news that all was not yet lost. A penitential assembly at the temple and the intercession of the spiritually minded and obedient among God’s people might prevent destruction. God’s punishment of foreign nations is described in the second main part of the book (2:4-15). Representative states are named to the west, east, south, and north of Judah. In the context of the previous material, it amplifies the universal nature of the Day of the Lord. Like the first part, it subdivides into four passages: verses 2:4-7, 8-11, 12, and 13-15.<\/p>\n<p>The subject of the first passage is the Philistines. In the case of the cities of Gaza and Ekron, there is a play on words typical of Hebrew prophecy. Both names contain doom within their very sound. The Philistines are labeled as trespassers because they were illegal immigrants from Crete into the Promised Land, which was intended for God’s own people.<\/p>\n<p>Zephaniah predicted that Moab and Ammon would suffer attack for their overbearing attitude and their annexation of Judean territory (2:8-11). God would come to the aid of his covenant people.<\/p>\n<p>The first two main sections have spelled out at length a message of judgment for both Judah and the surrounding nations. This twofold message is now repeated in a much shorter form in the third main section (3:1-8). Zephaniah criticized Jerusalem in its combined role of political capital and religious center. The responsibility of being God’s representatives rested too lightly on the shoulders of government and temple officials. Civil leaders abused their powers by demanding bribes and even killing their political opponents. Instead of being the shepherds of the people (cf. Ez 34), they were beasts of prey (cf. Ez 22:25-27). The prophets misused their gifts for their own selfish interests, while the priests broke the strict regulations of the temple. The lessons of history went unheeded; they had not learned caution and reverence. The conclusion is clear: Judah could not escape punishment in the coming Day of the Lord but would suffer with other nations.<\/p>\n<p>The outworking of God’s will for both Judah and the nations is in view in the final main section (Zep 3:9-20), but this time from a quite different aspect. Punishment was not God’s last word for his own people or even for the nations at large. Ultimately God’s will is not destruction but salvation (2 Pt 3:9). The section has three parts: Zephaniah 3:9-10, 11-13, and 14-20. Verses 9-10 deal with the conversion of the nations. This remarkable passage looks forward with divinely guaranteed certainty to the willing submission of Gentiles to the God of Israel. Their turning to God would not be based on human initiative but would originate in the providential activity of God. Lips defiled by worship of pagan gods would be purified and devoted solely to the adoration of the God of Israel. People from remote parts of the earth, here illustrated as the remote south beyond the Ethiopian Nile, would come as suppliants, as if they were scattered Jews returning home.<\/p>\n<p>God’s own people would be marked by a change of heart (3:11-13). By now they would have been purged of the proud people who put themselves before God in the sphere of politics and religion. They would be a purified people who humbly trusted in God. To them were promised the blessings of paradise.<\/p>\n<p>The last passage speaks of coming joys (3:14-20). The prophet projects himself into the future, to the time when God’s judgment would be over and the time of salvation had dawned. God’s people would rejoice in the presence of their Lord. Fear and demoralization would be canceled by God’s powerful presence and radiant joy. His joy would infectiously communicate itself to them so that they too would rejoice. Moreover, his joy would be a reaction to the transformation he was working in the lives of his people (v 17; “he will renew you in his love,” <span>rsv<\/span>). A necessary part of this transformation would feature the vindication of God’s suffering people. They would be brought to a position of honor, as the visible representatives of the God of glory. Ultimately, God’s power would be revealed through a people of power.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Josiah #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ZEPHANIAH, Book of One of the books of the Minor Prophets in the OT. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Background • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author According to the editorial heading (Zep 1:1), Zephaniah prophesied during the reign of Josiah (640–609 BC). His family tree is given in an unusually full form. Some scholars have suggested that his great-great-grandfather was King Hezekiah (715–686 BC). But remarkably there is no Jewish or Christian tradition to support the ...","summary_en":"ZEPHANIAH, Book of One of the books of the Minor Prophets in the OT. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Background • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author According to the editorial heading (Zep 1:1), Zephaniah prophesied during the reign of Josiah (640–609 BC). His family tree is given in an unusually full form. Some scholars have suggested that his great-great-grandfather was King Hezekiah (715–686 BC). But remarkably there is no Jewish or Christian tradition to support the ...","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":63953,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Justice","title_en":"God’s Justice","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Justice<\/h3>\n<p>God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s justice (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishpat<\/span>) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set aside the order planned by the Creator. Since the Creator himself is just (Deut 32:4), it follows that his rule will be just and righteous. His Messiah will usher in a just world (Isa 9:7; 11:2-5; 16:5; 32:1-2), and his Spirit will transform the world into a place of justice, righteousness, and peace (32:15-17). This is good news for the oppressed, whose rights have been denied by the powerful of society (see 25:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s justice may sometimes seem slow in coming (Nah 1:3). This seemingly delayed judgment is the result of his patience and mercy toward people (Jon 3–4; 2 Pet 3:9-15). God does not execute justice with rigid disinterest; he gives justice with love and seeks to bring those who deserve judgment into a relationship with him.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of God’s justice is notably prominent throughout the prophets, and particularly in the book of Isaiah. God expects his people to act justly toward others (Mic 6:8; Zech 7:9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 58:6-7), and he repeately censures the people of Israel for their injustice, particularly toward the poor and needy (e.g., Amos 5:11-12; Mal 3:5; Isa 3:12-15; 5:7-8; 10:1-4; 29:21). Many of Israel’s prophets proclaim God’s judgment on his people in relation to their injustice. They also relay a number of prophecies against other oppressive, proud, unjust nations. God’s retribution for such behavior is just (see Isa 3:9-11; 13:11; 59:18).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nahum is specifically filled with the expression of God’s justice toward Nineveh (1:14; 2:13; 3:4). Nahum’s “good news” (Nah 1:15) is that all who trust in God will one day enjoy the peace and well-being that come with the final defeat of evil (see also Isa 11:1-9; Zeph 3:13). The ultimate fulfillment of this promise was inaugurated in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Acts 10:34-43; Rom 10:9-15). Those who believe in the Lord Jesus experience a measure of the blessings of salvation in the present as they await God’s final judgment of evil and the coming of his Kingdom in its fullness (see Rev 20:7–22:5).<\/p>\n<p>In reality, all humanity stands condemned before the just and holy God. Yet God also provides undeserved grace. In Jesus Christ, God poured out his just judgment on a willing substitute, whose death calls people to turn away from their sin and live by God’s righteousness (Rom 6:22-23; 1 Pet 3:18). And when God’s kingdom is fully established through Christ, the world, too, will be just and righteous (Isa 1:26; 28:6; 2 Pet 3:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 18:17-19, 25; Exod 34:6-7; Lev 19:15; Deut 16:18-20; 17:8-13; 32:4; Pss 9:7-8; 67:4; 89:14; 119:75; Prov 21:3; Eccl 12:14; Isa 1:17-28; 5:7; 11:1-9; 16:5; 32:1-2, 16-17; 40:22-24; 61:8; Jer 46:27-28; Lam 3:25-39; Ezek 34:15-16; 36:22-36; 37:24-27; Joel 3:1-2; Amos 5:21-24; Jon 3:1–4:11; Mic 6:6-8; Nah 1:3-10; 3:4; Zech 7:9-10; Matt 5:6, 10, 20; Luke 1:74-75; Acts 10:34-43; 17:30-31; 2 Pet 3:11-14; Rev 20:11-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Justice<\/h3>\n<p>God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s justice (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishpat<\/span>) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set aside the order planned by the Creator. Since the Creator himself is just (Deut 32:4), it follows that his rule will be just and righteous. His Messiah will usher in a just world (Isa 9:7; 11:2-5; 16:5; 32:1-2), and his Spirit will transform the world into a place of justice, righteousness, and peace (32:15-17). This is good news for the oppressed, whose rights have been denied by the powerful of society (see 25:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s justice may sometimes seem slow in coming (Nah 1:3). This seemingly delayed judgment is the result of his patience and mercy toward people (Jon 3–4; 2 Pet 3:9-15). God does not execute justice with rigid disinterest; he gives justice with love and seeks to bring those who deserve judgment into a relationship with him.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of God’s justice is notably prominent throughout the prophets, and particularly in the book of Isaiah. God expects his people to act justly toward others (Mic 6:8; Zech 7:9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 58:6-7), and he repeately censures the people of Israel for their injustice, particularly toward the poor and needy (e.g., Amos 5:11-12; Mal 3:5; Isa 3:12-15; 5:7-8; 10:1-4; 29:21). Many of Israel’s prophets proclaim God’s judgment on his people in relation to their injustice. They also relay a number of prophecies against other oppressive, proud, unjust nations. God’s retribution for such behavior is just (see Isa 3:9-11; 13:11; 59:18).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nahum is specifically filled with the expression of God’s justice toward Nineveh (1:14; 2:13; 3:4). Nahum’s “good news” (Nah 1:15) is that all who trust in God will one day enjoy the peace and well-being that come with the final defeat of evil (see also Isa 11:1-9; Zeph 3:13). The ultimate fulfillment of this promise was inaugurated in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Acts 10:34-43; Rom 10:9-15). Those who believe in the Lord Jesus experience a measure of the blessings of salvation in the present as they await God’s final judgment of evil and the coming of his Kingdom in its fullness (see Rev 20:7–22:5).<\/p>\n<p>In reality, all humanity stands condemned before the just and holy God. Yet God also provides undeserved grace. In Jesus Christ, God poured out his just judgment on a willing substitute, whose death calls people to turn away from their sin and live by God’s righteousness (Rom 6:22-23; 1 Pet 3:18). And when God’s kingdom is fully established through Christ, the world, too, will be just and righteous (Isa 1:26; 28:6; 2 Pet 3:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 18:17-19, 25; Exod 34:6-7; Lev 19:15; Deut 16:18-20; 17:8-13; 32:4; Pss 9:7-8; 67:4; 89:14; 119:75; Prov 21:3; Eccl 12:14; Isa 1:17-28; 5:7; 11:1-9; 16:5; 32:1-2, 16-17; 40:22-24; 61:8; Jer 46:27-28; Lam 3:25-39; Ezek 34:15-16; 36:22-36; 37:24-27; Joel 3:1-2; Amos 5:21-24; Jon 3:1–4:11; Mic 6:6-8; Nah 1:3-10; 3:4; Zech 7:9-10; Matt 5:6, 10, 20; Luke 1:74-75; Acts 10:34-43; 17:30-31; 2 Pet 3:11-14; Rev 20:11-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Justice God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24). The Lord’s justice (Hebrew mishpat) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set asid...","summary_en":"God’s Justice God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24). The Lord’s justice (Hebrew mishpat) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set asid...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":91579,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Justice","title_en":"God’s Justice","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Justice<\/h3>\n<p>God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s justice (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishpat<\/span>) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set aside the order planned by the Creator. Since the Creator himself is just (Deut 32:4), it follows that his rule will be just and righteous. His Messiah will usher in a just world (Isa 9:7; 11:2-5; 16:5; 32:1-2), and his Spirit will transform the world into a place of justice, righteousness, and peace (32:15-17). This is good news for the oppressed, whose rights have been denied by the powerful of society (see 25:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s justice may sometimes seem slow in coming (Nah 1:3). This seemingly delayed judgment is the result of his patience and mercy toward people (Jon 3–4; 2 Pet 3:9-15). God does not execute justice with rigid disinterest; he gives justice with love and seeks to bring those who deserve judgment into a relationship with him.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of God’s justice is notably prominent throughout the prophets, and particularly in the book of Isaiah. God expects his people to act justly toward others (Mic 6:8; Zech 7:9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 58:6-7), and he repeately censures the people of Israel for their injustice, particularly toward the poor and needy (e.g., Amos 5:11-12; Mal 3:5; Isa 3:12-15; 5:7-8; 10:1-4; 29:21). Many of Israel’s prophets proclaim God’s judgment on his people in relation to their injustice. They also relay a number of prophecies against other oppressive, proud, unjust nations. God’s retribution for such behavior is just (see Isa 3:9-11; 13:11; 59:18).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nahum is specifically filled with the expression of God’s justice toward Nineveh (1:14; 2:13; 3:4). Nahum’s “good news” (Nah 1:15) is that all who trust in God will one day enjoy the peace and well-being that come with the final defeat of evil (see also Isa 11:1-9; Zeph 3:13). The ultimate fulfillment of this promise was inaugurated in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Acts 10:34-43; Rom 10:9-15). Those who believe in the Lord Jesus experience a measure of the blessings of salvation in the present as they await God’s final judgment of evil and the coming of his Kingdom in its fullness (see Rev 20:7–22:5).<\/p>\n<p>In reality, all humanity stands condemned before the just and holy God. Yet God also provides undeserved grace. In Jesus Christ, God poured out his just judgment on a willing substitute, whose death calls people to turn away from their sin and live by God’s righteousness (Rom 6:22-23; 1 Pet 3:18). And when God’s kingdom is fully established through Christ, the world, too, will be just and righteous (Isa 1:26; 28:6; 2 Pet 3:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 18:17-19, 25; Exod 34:6-7; Lev 19:15; Deut 16:18-20; 17:8-13; 32:4; Pss 9:7-8; 67:4; 89:14; 119:75; Prov 21:3; Eccl 12:14; Isa 1:17-28; 5:7; 11:1-9; 16:5; 32:1-2, 16-17; 40:22-24; 61:8; Jer 46:27-28; Lam 3:25-39; Ezek 34:15-16; 36:22-36; 37:24-27; Joel 3:1-2; Amos 5:21-24; Jon 3:1–4:11; Mic 6:6-8; Nah 1:3-10; 3:4; Zech 7:9-10; Matt 5:6, 10, 20; Luke 1:74-75; Acts 10:34-43; 17:30-31; 2 Pet 3:11-14; Rev 20:11-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Justice<\/h3>\n<p>God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s justice (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishpat<\/span>) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set aside the order planned by the Creator. Since the Creator himself is just (Deut 32:4), it follows that his rule will be just and righteous. His Messiah will usher in a just world (Isa 9:7; 11:2-5; 16:5; 32:1-2), and his Spirit will transform the world into a place of justice, righteousness, and peace (32:15-17). This is good news for the oppressed, whose rights have been denied by the powerful of society (see 25:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s justice may sometimes seem slow in coming (Nah 1:3). This seemingly delayed judgment is the result of his patience and mercy toward people (Jon 3–4; 2 Pet 3:9-15). God does not execute justice with rigid disinterest; he gives justice with love and seeks to bring those who deserve judgment into a relationship with him.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of God’s justice is notably prominent throughout the prophets, and particularly in the book of Isaiah. God expects his people to act justly toward others (Mic 6:8; Zech 7:9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 58:6-7), and he repeately censures the people of Israel for their injustice, particularly toward the poor and needy (e.g., Amos 5:11-12; Mal 3:5; Isa 3:12-15; 5:7-8; 10:1-4; 29:21). Many of Israel’s prophets proclaim God’s judgment on his people in relation to their injustice. They also relay a number of prophecies against other oppressive, proud, unjust nations. God’s retribution for such behavior is just (see Isa 3:9-11; 13:11; 59:18).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nahum is specifically filled with the expression of God’s justice toward Nineveh (1:14; 2:13; 3:4). Nahum’s “good news” (Nah 1:15) is that all who trust in God will one day enjoy the peace and well-being that come with the final defeat of evil (see also Isa 11:1-9; Zeph 3:13). The ultimate fulfillment of this promise was inaugurated in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Acts 10:34-43; Rom 10:9-15). Those who believe in the Lord Jesus experience a measure of the blessings of salvation in the present as they await God’s final judgment of evil and the coming of his Kingdom in its fullness (see Rev 20:7–22:5).<\/p>\n<p>In reality, all humanity stands condemned before the just and holy God. Yet God also provides undeserved grace. In Jesus Christ, God poured out his just judgment on a willing substitute, whose death calls people to turn away from their sin and live by God’s righteousness (Rom 6:22-23; 1 Pet 3:18). And when God’s kingdom is fully established through Christ, the world, too, will be just and righteous (Isa 1:26; 28:6; 2 Pet 3:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 18:17-19, 25; Exod 34:6-7; Lev 19:15; Deut 16:18-20; 17:8-13; 32:4; Pss 9:7-8; 67:4; 89:14; 119:75; Prov 21:3; Eccl 12:14; Isa 1:17-28; 5:7; 11:1-9; 16:5; 32:1-2, 16-17; 40:22-24; 61:8; Jer 46:27-28; Lam 3:25-39; Ezek 34:15-16; 36:22-36; 37:24-27; Joel 3:1-2; Amos 5:21-24; Jon 3:1–4:11; Mic 6:6-8; Nah 1:3-10; 3:4; Zech 7:9-10; Matt 5:6, 10, 20; Luke 1:74-75; Acts 10:34-43; 17:30-31; 2 Pet 3:11-14; Rev 20:11-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Justice God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24). The Lord’s justice (Hebrew mishpat) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set asid...","summary_en":"God’s Justice God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24). The Lord’s justice (Hebrew mishpat) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set asid...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":119205,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Justice","title_en":"God’s Justice","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Justice<\/h3>\n<p>God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s justice (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishpat<\/span>) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set aside the order planned by the Creator. Since the Creator himself is just (Deut 32:4), it follows that his rule will be just and righteous. His Messiah will usher in a just world (Isa 9:7; 11:2-5; 16:5; 32:1-2), and his Spirit will transform the world into a place of justice, righteousness, and peace (32:15-17). This is good news for the oppressed, whose rights have been denied by the powerful of society (see 25:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s justice may sometimes seem slow in coming (Nah 1:3). This seemingly delayed judgment is the result of his patience and mercy toward people (Jon 3–4; 2 Pet 3:9-15). God does not execute justice with rigid disinterest; he gives justice with love and seeks to bring those who deserve judgment into a relationship with him.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of God’s justice is notably prominent throughout the prophets, and particularly in the book of Isaiah. God expects his people to act justly toward others (Mic 6:8; Zech 7:9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 58:6-7), and he repeately censures the people of Israel for their injustice, particularly toward the poor and needy (e.g., Amos 5:11-12; Mal 3:5; Isa 3:12-15; 5:7-8; 10:1-4; 29:21). Many of Israel’s prophets proclaim God’s judgment on his people in relation to their injustice. They also relay a number of prophecies against other oppressive, proud, unjust nations. God’s retribution for such behavior is just (see Isa 3:9-11; 13:11; 59:18).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nahum is specifically filled with the expression of God’s justice toward Nineveh (1:14; 2:13; 3:4). Nahum’s “good news” (Nah 1:15) is that all who trust in God will one day enjoy the peace and well-being that come with the final defeat of evil (see also Isa 11:1-9; Zeph 3:13). The ultimate fulfillment of this promise was inaugurated in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Acts 10:34-43; Rom 10:9-15). Those who believe in the Lord Jesus experience a measure of the blessings of salvation in the present as they await God’s final judgment of evil and the coming of his Kingdom in its fullness (see Rev 20:7–22:5).<\/p>\n<p>In reality, all humanity stands condemned before the just and holy God. Yet God also provides undeserved grace. In Jesus Christ, God poured out his just judgment on a willing substitute, whose death calls people to turn away from their sin and live by God’s righteousness (Rom 6:22-23; 1 Pet 3:18). And when God’s kingdom is fully established through Christ, the world, too, will be just and righteous (Isa 1:26; 28:6; 2 Pet 3:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 18:17-19, 25; Exod 34:6-7; Lev 19:15; Deut 16:18-20; 17:8-13; 32:4; Pss 9:7-8; 67:4; 89:14; 119:75; Prov 21:3; Eccl 12:14; Isa 1:17-28; 5:7; 11:1-9; 16:5; 32:1-2, 16-17; 40:22-24; 61:8; Jer 46:27-28; Lam 3:25-39; Ezek 34:15-16; 36:22-36; 37:24-27; Joel 3:1-2; Amos 5:21-24; Jon 3:1–4:11; Mic 6:6-8; Nah 1:3-10; 3:4; Zech 7:9-10; Matt 5:6, 10, 20; Luke 1:74-75; Acts 10:34-43; 17:30-31; 2 Pet 3:11-14; Rev 20:11-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Justice<\/h3>\n<p>God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s justice (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishpat<\/span>) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set aside the order planned by the Creator. Since the Creator himself is just (Deut 32:4), it follows that his rule will be just and righteous. His Messiah will usher in a just world (Isa 9:7; 11:2-5; 16:5; 32:1-2), and his Spirit will transform the world into a place of justice, righteousness, and peace (32:15-17). This is good news for the oppressed, whose rights have been denied by the powerful of society (see 25:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s justice may sometimes seem slow in coming (Nah 1:3). This seemingly delayed judgment is the result of his patience and mercy toward people (Jon 3–4; 2 Pet 3:9-15). God does not execute justice with rigid disinterest; he gives justice with love and seeks to bring those who deserve judgment into a relationship with him.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of God’s justice is notably prominent throughout the prophets, and particularly in the book of Isaiah. God expects his people to act justly toward others (Mic 6:8; Zech 7:9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 58:6-7), and he repeately censures the people of Israel for their injustice, particularly toward the poor and needy (e.g., Amos 5:11-12; Mal 3:5; Isa 3:12-15; 5:7-8; 10:1-4; 29:21). Many of Israel’s prophets proclaim God’s judgment on his people in relation to their injustice. They also relay a number of prophecies against other oppressive, proud, unjust nations. God’s retribution for such behavior is just (see Isa 3:9-11; 13:11; 59:18).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nahum is specifically filled with the expression of God’s justice toward Nineveh (1:14; 2:13; 3:4). Nahum’s “good news” (Nah 1:15) is that all who trust in God will one day enjoy the peace and well-being that come with the final defeat of evil (see also Isa 11:1-9; Zeph 3:13). The ultimate fulfillment of this promise was inaugurated in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Acts 10:34-43; Rom 10:9-15). Those who believe in the Lord Jesus experience a measure of the blessings of salvation in the present as they await God’s final judgment of evil and the coming of his Kingdom in its fullness (see Rev 20:7–22:5).<\/p>\n<p>In reality, all humanity stands condemned before the just and holy God. Yet God also provides undeserved grace. In Jesus Christ, God poured out his just judgment on a willing substitute, whose death calls people to turn away from their sin and live by God’s righteousness (Rom 6:22-23; 1 Pet 3:18). And when God’s kingdom is fully established through Christ, the world, too, will be just and righteous (Isa 1:26; 28:6; 2 Pet 3:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 18:17-19, 25; Exod 34:6-7; Lev 19:15; Deut 16:18-20; 17:8-13; 32:4; Pss 9:7-8; 67:4; 89:14; 119:75; Prov 21:3; Eccl 12:14; Isa 1:17-28; 5:7; 11:1-9; 16:5; 32:1-2, 16-17; 40:22-24; 61:8; Jer 46:27-28; Lam 3:25-39; Ezek 34:15-16; 36:22-36; 37:24-27; Joel 3:1-2; Amos 5:21-24; Jon 3:1–4:11; Mic 6:6-8; Nah 1:3-10; 3:4; Zech 7:9-10; Matt 5:6, 10, 20; Luke 1:74-75; Acts 10:34-43; 17:30-31; 2 Pet 3:11-14; Rev 20:11-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Justice God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24). The Lord’s justice (Hebrew mishpat) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set asid...","summary_en":"God’s Justice God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24). The Lord’s justice (Hebrew mishpat) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set asid...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":146831,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Justice","title_en":"God’s Justice","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Justice<\/h3>\n<p>God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s justice (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishpat<\/span>) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set aside the order planned by the Creator. Since the Creator himself is just (Deut 32:4), it follows that his rule will be just and righteous. His Messiah will usher in a just world (Isa 9:7; 11:2-5; 16:5; 32:1-2), and his Spirit will transform the world into a place of justice, righteousness, and peace (32:15-17). This is good news for the oppressed, whose rights have been denied by the powerful of society (see 25:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s justice may sometimes seem slow in coming (Nah 1:3). This seemingly delayed judgment is the result of his patience and mercy toward people (Jon 3–4; 2 Pet 3:9-15). God does not execute justice with rigid disinterest; he gives justice with love and seeks to bring those who deserve judgment into a relationship with him.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of God’s justice is notably prominent throughout the prophets, and particularly in the book of Isaiah. God expects his people to act justly toward others (Mic 6:8; Zech 7:9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 58:6-7), and he repeately censures the people of Israel for their injustice, particularly toward the poor and needy (e.g., Amos 5:11-12; Mal 3:5; Isa 3:12-15; 5:7-8; 10:1-4; 29:21). Many of Israel’s prophets proclaim God’s judgment on his people in relation to their injustice. They also relay a number of prophecies against other oppressive, proud, unjust nations. God’s retribution for such behavior is just (see Isa 3:9-11; 13:11; 59:18).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nahum is specifically filled with the expression of God’s justice toward Nineveh (1:14; 2:13; 3:4). Nahum’s “good news” (Nah 1:15) is that all who trust in God will one day enjoy the peace and well-being that come with the final defeat of evil (see also Isa 11:1-9; Zeph 3:13). The ultimate fulfillment of this promise was inaugurated in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Acts 10:34-43; Rom 10:9-15). Those who believe in the Lord Jesus experience a measure of the blessings of salvation in the present as they await God’s final judgment of evil and the coming of his Kingdom in its fullness (see Rev 20:7–22:5).<\/p>\n<p>In reality, all humanity stands condemned before the just and holy God. Yet God also provides undeserved grace. In Jesus Christ, God poured out his just judgment on a willing substitute, whose death calls people to turn away from their sin and live by God’s righteousness (Rom 6:22-23; 1 Pet 3:18). And when God’s kingdom is fully established through Christ, the world, too, will be just and righteous (Isa 1:26; 28:6; 2 Pet 3:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 18:17-19, 25; Exod 34:6-7; Lev 19:15; Deut 16:18-20; 17:8-13; 32:4; Pss 9:7-8; 67:4; 89:14; 119:75; Prov 21:3; Eccl 12:14; Isa 1:17-28; 5:7; 11:1-9; 16:5; 32:1-2, 16-17; 40:22-24; 61:8; Jer 46:27-28; Lam 3:25-39; Ezek 34:15-16; 36:22-36; 37:24-27; Joel 3:1-2; Amos 5:21-24; Jon 3:1–4:11; Mic 6:6-8; Nah 1:3-10; 3:4; Zech 7:9-10; Matt 5:6, 10, 20; Luke 1:74-75; Acts 10:34-43; 17:30-31; 2 Pet 3:11-14; Rev 20:11-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Justice<\/h3>\n<p>God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord’s justice (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mishpat<\/span>) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set aside the order planned by the Creator. Since the Creator himself is just (Deut 32:4), it follows that his rule will be just and righteous. His Messiah will usher in a just world (Isa 9:7; 11:2-5; 16:5; 32:1-2), and his Spirit will transform the world into a place of justice, righteousness, and peace (32:15-17). This is good news for the oppressed, whose rights have been denied by the powerful of society (see 25:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>God’s justice may sometimes seem slow in coming (Nah 1:3). This seemingly delayed judgment is the result of his patience and mercy toward people (Jon 3–4; 2 Pet 3:9-15). God does not execute justice with rigid disinterest; he gives justice with love and seeks to bring those who deserve judgment into a relationship with him.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of God’s justice is notably prominent throughout the prophets, and particularly in the book of Isaiah. God expects his people to act justly toward others (Mic 6:8; Zech 7:9; Isa 1:17; 5:7; 58:6-7), and he repeately censures the people of Israel for their injustice, particularly toward the poor and needy (e.g., Amos 5:11-12; Mal 3:5; Isa 3:12-15; 5:7-8; 10:1-4; 29:21). Many of Israel’s prophets proclaim God’s judgment on his people in relation to their injustice. They also relay a number of prophecies against other oppressive, proud, unjust nations. God’s retribution for such behavior is just (see Isa 3:9-11; 13:11; 59:18).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Nahum is specifically filled with the expression of God’s justice toward Nineveh (1:14; 2:13; 3:4). Nahum’s “good news” (Nah 1:15) is that all who trust in God will one day enjoy the peace and well-being that come with the final defeat of evil (see also Isa 11:1-9; Zeph 3:13). The ultimate fulfillment of this promise was inaugurated in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Acts 10:34-43; Rom 10:9-15). Those who believe in the Lord Jesus experience a measure of the blessings of salvation in the present as they await God’s final judgment of evil and the coming of his Kingdom in its fullness (see Rev 20:7–22:5).<\/p>\n<p>In reality, all humanity stands condemned before the just and holy God. Yet God also provides undeserved grace. In Jesus Christ, God poured out his just judgment on a willing substitute, whose death calls people to turn away from their sin and live by God’s righteousness (Rom 6:22-23; 1 Pet 3:18). And when God’s kingdom is fully established through Christ, the world, too, will be just and righteous (Isa 1:26; 28:6; 2 Pet 3:13).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 18:17-19, 25; Exod 34:6-7; Lev 19:15; Deut 16:18-20; 17:8-13; 32:4; Pss 9:7-8; 67:4; 89:14; 119:75; Prov 21:3; Eccl 12:14; Isa 1:17-28; 5:7; 11:1-9; 16:5; 32:1-2, 16-17; 40:22-24; 61:8; Jer 46:27-28; Lam 3:25-39; Ezek 34:15-16; 36:22-36; 37:24-27; Joel 3:1-2; Amos 5:21-24; Jon 3:1–4:11; Mic 6:6-8; Nah 1:3-10; 3:4; Zech 7:9-10; Matt 5:6, 10, 20; Luke 1:74-75; Acts 10:34-43; 17:30-31; 2 Pet 3:11-14; Rev 20:11-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Justice God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24). The Lord’s justice (Hebrew mishpat) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set asid...","summary_en":"God’s Justice God is just (Ps 9:7-8); he detests sin and rewards people and nations justly in accordance with what they do (Ps 67:4; Isa 1:27; Jer 46:28; Joel 3:1-8; Acts 17:31). God is in sovereign control of the natural world (Nah 1:4-6, 8) and of all nations (1:3, 6-10, 15), and the world and its inhabitants stand helpless when opposing him (Job 41:10-11; Isa 40:22-24). The Lord’s justice (Hebrew mishpat) is part of his divine order. A world without justice is a place where people set asid...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"14":[{"id":39215,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Zephaniah","title_en":"Book of Zephaniah","content_ro":"<h3>ZEPHANIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the books of the Minor Prophets in the OT.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to the editorial heading (Zep 1:1), Zephaniah prophesied during the reign of Josiah (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>). His family tree is given in an unusually full form. Some scholars have suggested that his great-great-grandfather was King Hezekiah (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>). But remarkably there is no Jewish or Christian tradition to support the suggestion, which there probably would have been if it had been true. His own name, meaning “he whom the Lord protects or hides,” was not uncommon and was a testimony to the keeping power of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>Zephaniah probably prophesied around 630 <span>BC<\/span>. The fall of Nineveh (612 <span>BC<\/span>) had not yet occurred (2:13-15). Josiah’s reign falls into two periods, dividing at 622 <span>BC<\/span>. In that year, while the temple was being cleared of pagan articles, the Book of the Law was found, which gave momentum to Josiah’s religious reforms (2 Kgs 22). The unreformed state of affairs described by Zephaniah (Zep 1:4-12; 3:1-4) points to a date before 622, at least for his denunciations. The prophet addressed Judah, the southern kingdom, and in particular the civil and religious authorities in Jerusalem. He most probably prophesied during the reign of Josiah, who came to the throne at the age of eight.<\/p>\n<p>The negative parts of the book concerning the sin and punishment of Judah—now fulfilled—would serve as a serious warning against disobedience to God. Moreover, the fulfillment of Zephaniah’s prophetic threats would serve to enhance the positive side of the book, confirming the hope of completion in the experience of a fresh generation of God’s people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Politically, the Assyrian Empire had spread westward and held Palestine in its grip. The long reign of Manasseh (696–642 <span>BC<\/span>) had been a period of total subservience to Assyria. Political subservience as an Assyrian vassal meant religious subservience to the gods of Assyria, especially worship of the heavenly bodies (2 Kgs 21:5). Zephaniah complained of this sin (Zep 1:5). When the door opened to one foreign religion, others naturally came in. Once the exclusiveness of the worship of the God of Israel was abandoned, Palestinian cults were openly accepted. The Canaanite Baal was blatantly worshiped (2 Kgs 21:3), as Zephaniah attested (Zep 1:4). Zephaniah condemned the worshipers of Molech (v 5), who sacrificed children to the Ammonite god (1 Kgs 11:7; 2 Kgs 23:10). International imperialism meant a weakening of national culture, so that foreign customs were practiced, probably with religious overtones (Zep 1:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The reign of Josiah brought changes, marking a political and religious turning point. Assyria, preoccupied with troubles on the eastern and northern frontiers and unable to consolidate its acquisitions, became unable to reinforce its authority in the west. This weakness induced Josiah to launch a national liberation movement. He threw off the yoke of Assyria and expanded his sphere of influence northward into the territory of the old northern kingdom. From a religious standpoint, he completely dissociated himself and his country from the religions that prevailed in Judah and recalled the nation to a pure and exclusive faith in the God of Israel. The book of Zephaniah shows that there was at least one person who shared his ideals. His prophetic ministry undoubtedly paved the way for Josiah’s subsequent reformation. He was a contemporary of Jeremiah, at least for the early part of that prophet’s career (Jeremiah began prophesying in 627 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Scholars have suggested that Zephaniah’s prophesying was prompted in part by attacks of the Scythians. The Greek historian Herodotus tells how the barbaric Scythians overran western Asia and reached as far south as the Egyptian frontier at about the time that Zephaniah prophesied. There is now much less inclination to believe Herodotus’s tale and relate Zephaniah’s prophetic ministry to it. There is no objective evidence for Scythian attacks on so large a scale as Herodotus claimed. Probably Zephaniah spoke simply out of a theological necessity, as he himself claimed (e.g., 1:17). From his inspired standpoint, he foresaw that a clash involving divine intervention and human downfall was unavoidable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTeaching\">Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>As Zephaniah prophesied in God’s name, he denounced the religious sins of Judah and the corruption rampant among both civil and religious authorities. He foretold the downfall of the nation that actually occurred in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The moral and religious landslide could only culminate in a political avalanche of destruction that would engulf the nation. This avalanche is called by Zephaniah “the Day of the Lord.” It was not a new term, and the prophet knew that it would arouse terror in the hearts of his hearers. Amos used it, and even in his time it was well established (Am 5:18-20). Isaiah was the first to use the expression in the southern kingdom (Is 2:6-22, see v 12). In this, as in a number of respects, Zephaniah was a latter-day Isaiah called by God to reapply truths earlier prophesied by Isaiah to a later generation.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of the Day of the Lord refers to a time when the Lord would decisively intervene in the world to establish his sovereignty. Hostile elements would be swept aside. The enemies of God, sinners against his moral will, would be exposed and punished. It was associated with judgment upon those who did not acknowledge God’s sovereignty—especially Gentiles, but also sinful Israel. The emphasis on the suffering of God’s people was intended to correct the popular assumption that other nations would be the sole target of divine judgment.<\/p>\n<p>The “day” also would vindicate those who were loyal to God. It guaranteed the rehabilitation of his oppressed supporters. Zephaniah developed this two-sided phenomenon in order to communicate the truth of God to his own generation. It is “a day of the wrath of God” (Zep 1:15, 18; 2:2), when his reaction to human sin would be demonstrated. Its target was not only other nations but Judah as well, both Jerusalem, the capital (1:10-13), and the other cities of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>Zephaniah also had a positive message for the people of Judah. For the prophets, the message of salvation did not cancel the message of doom. Judgment would come first, then salvation would follow. But the period of tribulation could not be avoided. The prophet’s grim descriptions of “the day of wrath” are interpreted as dire warnings and implicit pleas to the people of Judah to abandon their complacent, sinful ways.<\/p>\n<p>Clearly, Zephaniah’s role under God was to reapply earlier truths sadly forgotten by his own generation. Zephaniah was able to foresee God’s judgment of Judah and the world. But he also proclaimed permanent truths concerning the nature of God and his providential relationship to the world and concerning the responsibilities of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of the book of Zephaniah for the NT lies in the phraseology about the Day of the Lord. There are a number of allusions to this aspect of his message (Mt 13:41 [Zep 1:3]; Rv 6:17 [1:14]; 14:5 [3:13]; 16:1 [3:8]). These echoes stress Zephaniah’s importance beyond his own time. He contributed to the total biblical picture of a God who intervenes in human history and will establish his kingdom. Zephaniah’s descriptions are a pattern for events that will mark the end of history.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>The heading (Zep 1:1) introduces Zephaniah, gives the historical setting, and above all stresses his meditation on the divine word.<\/p>\n<p>The first major part of the book is 1:2–2:3. It subdivides into four units: verses 2-7, 8-13, 14-18; 2:1-3. Verses 2-7 include Judah in a forecast of universal destruction. Zephaniah used traditional material to stress that God’s people were by no means exempt, as they often chose to believe (cf. Am 5:18-20). The prophet supported his startling revelation with reasoned statements regarding the religious deviations practiced in Jerusalem. The image of sacrifice was used ironically, portraying Judah as the victim.<\/p>\n<p>The national administration and members of the royal family were guilty (Zep 1:8-13). Superstitions were punctiliously observed, yet basic divine commands against stealing and fraudulent gain went unheeded. Zephaniah saw the enemy attack on the north side of Jerusalem as an illustration of God’s punishment of dishonest traders (cf. Am 8:5-6; Mi 6:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>There follows a shocking and terrifying description of the grimness of the coming “Day” (Zep 1:14-18). The prophet stirred up a complacent people who did not want to hear God’s message. He frightened them into reality with a monotonous drumbeat of doom and destruction. Judah would be the demoralized target of God’s wrath. Their wealth had secured luxurious imports but could not prevent divine judgment.<\/p>\n<p>The prophet completed his sermon with an appeal for repentance (2:1-3). Having emotionally stirred his audience from their apathy, he was able to bring the good news that all was not yet lost. A penitential assembly at the temple and the intercession of the spiritually minded and obedient among God’s people might prevent destruction. God’s punishment of foreign nations is described in the second main part of the book (2:4-15). Representative states are named to the west, east, south, and north of Judah. In the context of the previous material, it amplifies the universal nature of the Day of the Lord. Like the first part, it subdivides into four passages: verses 2:4-7, 8-11, 12, and 13-15.<\/p>\n<p>The subject of the first passage is the Philistines. In the case of the cities of Gaza and Ekron, there is a play on words typical of Hebrew prophecy. Both names contain doom within their very sound. The Philistines are labeled as trespassers because they were illegal immigrants from Crete into the Promised Land, which was intended for God’s own people.<\/p>\n<p>Zephaniah predicted that Moab and Ammon would suffer attack for their overbearing attitude and their annexation of Judean territory (2:8-11). God would come to the aid of his covenant people.<\/p>\n<p>The first two main sections have spelled out at length a message of judgment for both Judah and the surrounding nations. This twofold message is now repeated in a much shorter form in the third main section (3:1-8). Zephaniah criticized Jerusalem in its combined role of political capital and religious center. The responsibility of being God’s representatives rested too lightly on the shoulders of government and temple officials. Civil leaders abused their powers by demanding bribes and even killing their political opponents. Instead of being the shepherds of the people (cf. Ez 34), they were beasts of prey (cf. Ez 22:25-27). The prophets misused their gifts for their own selfish interests, while the priests broke the strict regulations of the temple. The lessons of history went unheeded; they had not learned caution and reverence. The conclusion is clear: Judah could not escape punishment in the coming Day of the Lord but would suffer with other nations.<\/p>\n<p>The outworking of God’s will for both Judah and the nations is in view in the final main section (Zep 3:9-20), but this time from a quite different aspect. Punishment was not God’s last word for his own people or even for the nations at large. Ultimately God’s will is not destruction but salvation (2 Pt 3:9). The section has three parts: Zephaniah 3:9-10, 11-13, and 14-20. Verses 9-10 deal with the conversion of the nations. This remarkable passage looks forward with divinely guaranteed certainty to the willing submission of Gentiles to the God of Israel. Their turning to God would not be based on human initiative but would originate in the providential activity of God. Lips defiled by worship of pagan gods would be purified and devoted solely to the adoration of the God of Israel. People from remote parts of the earth, here illustrated as the remote south beyond the Ethiopian Nile, would come as suppliants, as if they were scattered Jews returning home.<\/p>\n<p>God’s own people would be marked by a change of heart (3:11-13). By now they would have been purged of the proud people who put themselves before God in the sphere of politics and religion. They would be a purified people who humbly trusted in God. To them were promised the blessings of paradise.<\/p>\n<p>The last passage speaks of coming joys (3:14-20). The prophet projects himself into the future, to the time when God’s judgment would be over and the time of salvation had dawned. God’s people would rejoice in the presence of their Lord. Fear and demoralization would be canceled by God’s powerful presence and radiant joy. His joy would infectiously communicate itself to them so that they too would rejoice. Moreover, his joy would be a reaction to the transformation he was working in the lives of his people (v 17; “he will renew you in his love,” <span>rsv<\/span>). A necessary part of this transformation would feature the vindication of God’s suffering people. They would be brought to a position of honor, as the visible representatives of the God of glory. Ultimately, God’s power would be revealed through a people of power.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Josiah #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ZEPHANIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the books of the Minor Prophets in the OT.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to the editorial heading (Zep 1:1), Zephaniah prophesied during the reign of Josiah (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>). His family tree is given in an unusually full form. Some scholars have suggested that his great-great-grandfather was King Hezekiah (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>). But remarkably there is no Jewish or Christian tradition to support the suggestion, which there probably would have been if it had been true. His own name, meaning “he whom the Lord protects or hides,” was not uncommon and was a testimony to the keeping power of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>Zephaniah probably prophesied around 630 <span>BC<\/span>. The fall of Nineveh (612 <span>BC<\/span>) had not yet occurred (2:13-15). Josiah’s reign falls into two periods, dividing at 622 <span>BC<\/span>. In that year, while the temple was being cleared of pagan articles, the Book of the Law was found, which gave momentum to Josiah’s religious reforms (2 Kgs 22). The unreformed state of affairs described by Zephaniah (Zep 1:4-12; 3:1-4) points to a date before 622, at least for his denunciations. The prophet addressed Judah, the southern kingdom, and in particular the civil and religious authorities in Jerusalem. He most probably prophesied during the reign of Josiah, who came to the throne at the age of eight.<\/p>\n<p>The negative parts of the book concerning the sin and punishment of Judah—now fulfilled—would serve as a serious warning against disobedience to God. Moreover, the fulfillment of Zephaniah’s prophetic threats would serve to enhance the positive side of the book, confirming the hope of completion in the experience of a fresh generation of God’s people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Politically, the Assyrian Empire had spread westward and held Palestine in its grip. The long reign of Manasseh (696–642 <span>BC<\/span>) had been a period of total subservience to Assyria. Political subservience as an Assyrian vassal meant religious subservience to the gods of Assyria, especially worship of the heavenly bodies (2 Kgs 21:5). Zephaniah complained of this sin (Zep 1:5). When the door opened to one foreign religion, others naturally came in. Once the exclusiveness of the worship of the God of Israel was abandoned, Palestinian cults were openly accepted. The Canaanite Baal was blatantly worshiped (2 Kgs 21:3), as Zephaniah attested (Zep 1:4). Zephaniah condemned the worshipers of Molech (v 5), who sacrificed children to the Ammonite god (1 Kgs 11:7; 2 Kgs 23:10). International imperialism meant a weakening of national culture, so that foreign customs were practiced, probably with religious overtones (Zep 1:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The reign of Josiah brought changes, marking a political and religious turning point. Assyria, preoccupied with troubles on the eastern and northern frontiers and unable to consolidate its acquisitions, became unable to reinforce its authority in the west. This weakness induced Josiah to launch a national liberation movement. He threw off the yoke of Assyria and expanded his sphere of influence northward into the territory of the old northern kingdom. From a religious standpoint, he completely dissociated himself and his country from the religions that prevailed in Judah and recalled the nation to a pure and exclusive faith in the God of Israel. The book of Zephaniah shows that there was at least one person who shared his ideals. His prophetic ministry undoubtedly paved the way for Josiah’s subsequent reformation. He was a contemporary of Jeremiah, at least for the early part of that prophet’s career (Jeremiah began prophesying in 627 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Scholars have suggested that Zephaniah’s prophesying was prompted in part by attacks of the Scythians. The Greek historian Herodotus tells how the barbaric Scythians overran western Asia and reached as far south as the Egyptian frontier at about the time that Zephaniah prophesied. There is now much less inclination to believe Herodotus’s tale and relate Zephaniah’s prophetic ministry to it. There is no objective evidence for Scythian attacks on so large a scale as Herodotus claimed. Probably Zephaniah spoke simply out of a theological necessity, as he himself claimed (e.g., 1:17). From his inspired standpoint, he foresaw that a clash involving divine intervention and human downfall was unavoidable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTeaching\">Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>As Zephaniah prophesied in God’s name, he denounced the religious sins of Judah and the corruption rampant among both civil and religious authorities. He foretold the downfall of the nation that actually occurred in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The moral and religious landslide could only culminate in a political avalanche of destruction that would engulf the nation. This avalanche is called by Zephaniah “the Day of the Lord.” It was not a new term, and the prophet knew that it would arouse terror in the hearts of his hearers. Amos used it, and even in his time it was well established (Am 5:18-20). Isaiah was the first to use the expression in the southern kingdom (Is 2:6-22, see v 12). In this, as in a number of respects, Zephaniah was a latter-day Isaiah called by God to reapply truths earlier prophesied by Isaiah to a later generation.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of the Day of the Lord refers to a time when the Lord would decisively intervene in the world to establish his sovereignty. Hostile elements would be swept aside. The enemies of God, sinners against his moral will, would be exposed and punished. It was associated with judgment upon those who did not acknowledge God’s sovereignty—especially Gentiles, but also sinful Israel. The emphasis on the suffering of God’s people was intended to correct the popular assumption that other nations would be the sole target of divine judgment.<\/p>\n<p>The “day” also would vindicate those who were loyal to God. It guaranteed the rehabilitation of his oppressed supporters. Zephaniah developed this two-sided phenomenon in order to communicate the truth of God to his own generation. It is “a day of the wrath of God” (Zep 1:15, 18; 2:2), when his reaction to human sin would be demonstrated. Its target was not only other nations but Judah as well, both Jerusalem, the capital (1:10-13), and the other cities of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>Zephaniah also had a positive message for the people of Judah. For the prophets, the message of salvation did not cancel the message of doom. Judgment would come first, then salvation would follow. But the period of tribulation could not be avoided. The prophet’s grim descriptions of “the day of wrath” are interpreted as dire warnings and implicit pleas to the people of Judah to abandon their complacent, sinful ways.<\/p>\n<p>Clearly, Zephaniah’s role under God was to reapply earlier truths sadly forgotten by his own generation. Zephaniah was able to foresee God’s judgment of Judah and the world. But he also proclaimed permanent truths concerning the nature of God and his providential relationship to the world and concerning the responsibilities of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of the book of Zephaniah for the NT lies in the phraseology about the Day of the Lord. There are a number of allusions to this aspect of his message (Mt 13:41 [Zep 1:3]; Rv 6:17 [1:14]; 14:5 [3:13]; 16:1 [3:8]). These echoes stress Zephaniah’s importance beyond his own time. He contributed to the total biblical picture of a God who intervenes in human history and will establish his kingdom. Zephaniah’s descriptions are a pattern for events that will mark the end of history.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>The heading (Zep 1:1) introduces Zephaniah, gives the historical setting, and above all stresses his meditation on the divine word.<\/p>\n<p>The first major part of the book is 1:2–2:3. It subdivides into four units: verses 2-7, 8-13, 14-18; 2:1-3. Verses 2-7 include Judah in a forecast of universal destruction. Zephaniah used traditional material to stress that God’s people were by no means exempt, as they often chose to believe (cf. Am 5:18-20). The prophet supported his startling revelation with reasoned statements regarding the religious deviations practiced in Jerusalem. The image of sacrifice was used ironically, portraying Judah as the victim.<\/p>\n<p>The national administration and members of the royal family were guilty (Zep 1:8-13). Superstitions were punctiliously observed, yet basic divine commands against stealing and fraudulent gain went unheeded. Zephaniah saw the enemy attack on the north side of Jerusalem as an illustration of God’s punishment of dishonest traders (cf. Am 8:5-6; Mi 6:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>There follows a shocking and terrifying description of the grimness of the coming “Day” (Zep 1:14-18). The prophet stirred up a complacent people who did not want to hear God’s message. He frightened them into reality with a monotonous drumbeat of doom and destruction. Judah would be the demoralized target of God’s wrath. Their wealth had secured luxurious imports but could not prevent divine judgment.<\/p>\n<p>The prophet completed his sermon with an appeal for repentance (2:1-3). Having emotionally stirred his audience from their apathy, he was able to bring the good news that all was not yet lost. A penitential assembly at the temple and the intercession of the spiritually minded and obedient among God’s people might prevent destruction. God’s punishment of foreign nations is described in the second main part of the book (2:4-15). Representative states are named to the west, east, south, and north of Judah. In the context of the previous material, it amplifies the universal nature of the Day of the Lord. Like the first part, it subdivides into four passages: verses 2:4-7, 8-11, 12, and 13-15.<\/p>\n<p>The subject of the first passage is the Philistines. In the case of the cities of Gaza and Ekron, there is a play on words typical of Hebrew prophecy. Both names contain doom within their very sound. The Philistines are labeled as trespassers because they were illegal immigrants from Crete into the Promised Land, which was intended for God’s own people.<\/p>\n<p>Zephaniah predicted that Moab and Ammon would suffer attack for their overbearing attitude and their annexation of Judean territory (2:8-11). God would come to the aid of his covenant people.<\/p>\n<p>The first two main sections have spelled out at length a message of judgment for both Judah and the surrounding nations. This twofold message is now repeated in a much shorter form in the third main section (3:1-8). Zephaniah criticized Jerusalem in its combined role of political capital and religious center. The responsibility of being God’s representatives rested too lightly on the shoulders of government and temple officials. Civil leaders abused their powers by demanding bribes and even killing their political opponents. Instead of being the shepherds of the people (cf. Ez 34), they were beasts of prey (cf. Ez 22:25-27). The prophets misused their gifts for their own selfish interests, while the priests broke the strict regulations of the temple. The lessons of history went unheeded; they had not learned caution and reverence. The conclusion is clear: Judah could not escape punishment in the coming Day of the Lord but would suffer with other nations.<\/p>\n<p>The outworking of God’s will for both Judah and the nations is in view in the final main section (Zep 3:9-20), but this time from a quite different aspect. Punishment was not God’s last word for his own people or even for the nations at large. Ultimately God’s will is not destruction but salvation (2 Pt 3:9). The section has three parts: Zephaniah 3:9-10, 11-13, and 14-20. Verses 9-10 deal with the conversion of the nations. This remarkable passage looks forward with divinely guaranteed certainty to the willing submission of Gentiles to the God of Israel. Their turning to God would not be based on human initiative but would originate in the providential activity of God. Lips defiled by worship of pagan gods would be purified and devoted solely to the adoration of the God of Israel. People from remote parts of the earth, here illustrated as the remote south beyond the Ethiopian Nile, would come as suppliants, as if they were scattered Jews returning home.<\/p>\n<p>God’s own people would be marked by a change of heart (3:11-13). By now they would have been purged of the proud people who put themselves before God in the sphere of politics and religion. They would be a purified people who humbly trusted in God. To them were promised the blessings of paradise.<\/p>\n<p>The last passage speaks of coming joys (3:14-20). The prophet projects himself into the future, to the time when God’s judgment would be over and the time of salvation had dawned. God’s people would rejoice in the presence of their Lord. Fear and demoralization would be canceled by God’s powerful presence and radiant joy. His joy would infectiously communicate itself to them so that they too would rejoice. Moreover, his joy would be a reaction to the transformation he was working in the lives of his people (v 17; “he will renew you in his love,” <span>rsv<\/span>). A necessary part of this transformation would feature the vindication of God’s suffering people. They would be brought to a position of honor, as the visible representatives of the God of glory. Ultimately, God’s power would be revealed through a people of power.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Josiah #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ZEPHANIAH, Book of One of the books of the Minor Prophets in the OT. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Background • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author According to the editorial heading (Zep 1:1), Zephaniah prophesied during the reign of Josiah (640–609 BC). His family tree is given in an unusually full form. Some scholars have suggested that his great-great-grandfather was King Hezekiah (715–686 BC). But remarkably there is no Jewish or Christian tradition to support the ...","summary_en":"ZEPHANIAH, Book of One of the books of the Minor Prophets in the OT. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Background • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author According to the editorial heading (Zep 1:1), Zephaniah prophesied during the reign of Josiah (640–609 BC). His family tree is given in an unusually full form. Some scholars have suggested that his great-great-grandfather was King Hezekiah (715–686 BC). But remarkably there is no Jewish or Christian tradition to support the ...","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":39386,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Zion","title_en":"Zion","content_ro":"<h3>ZION<\/h3>\n<p>The Jebusite fortress in Jerusalem conquered by David. Thereafter, Zion was used by biblical writers to identify other areas of Jerusalem and was used as a designation of the entire city. Zion was also used to describe, spiritually speaking, the eternal city of God.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GeographicalSites\">Geographical Sites<\/p>\n<h5>The Jebusite Fortress<\/h5>\n<p>The first occurrence of the word “Zion” is in the narrative of David’s conquest of Jerusalem (2 Sm 5:6-10; 1 Chr 11:4-9). David captured the “fortress of Zion,” which was thereafter known as the “city of David.” The “fortress of Zion” may refer to the entire walled perimeter of the approximately 11-acre (4.5-hectare) site on the southeastern ridge (the Ophel Ridge), or to a smaller fortified area within that site.<\/p>\n<h5>The Temple Mount<\/h5>\n<p>Changes in the perimeter of the city by incorporating more territory within the walls extend the term Zion. When Solomon built the temple and his palace and extended the walls north of the Ophel Ridge to encompass the threshing floor of Ornan the Jebusite (2 Sm 24:16-18; 1 Chr 21:15-18, 28), the name Zion was applied to these areas as well. The transfer of the ark “from the city of David which is Zion” (1 Kgs 8:1; 2 Chr 5:2) to the temple hill brought both an extension and a reduction of the territory embraced by the term “Zion.” The whole city could still be called Zion, but from this point on, there would be a close identification between Zion and the temple hill. The temple precincts became the primary Zion; references to Zion in the poetic books and the preaching of the prophets are primarily to the temple area as the dwelling place of God.<\/p>\n<h5>The Entire City<\/h5>\n<p>The word “Zion” can be used as a designation of the entire city or its population without any particular reference to the temple area. This use is clearest in poetic passages where Zion is the parallel term to Jerusalem (Pss 51:18; 76:2; 102:21; 135:21; 147:12; Is 2:3; 30:19; 33:20; 37:32; 40:9; 41:27; 62:1; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Am 1:2; Zep 3:14) or to the villages of Judah (Pss 69:35; 97:8; Is 40:9).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalMotifs\">Theological Motifs<\/p>\n<h5>In the Old Testament<\/h5>\n<p>Many theological motifs attach to the Zion theme as it develops in redemptive history. The dominant motif of Zion as the dwelling place of God, the place where God is in the midst of his people, is conjoined to the larger theme of Immanuel, “God in our midst.” Just as the pillar of fire and cloud stood above the tabernacle during the wilderness wandering, so once Israel had attained the place of God’s choosing (Dt 12:5-14), he would dwell there. When Jerusalem became David’s capital and Solomon had completed the temple, the glory cloud filled the temple (1 Kgs 8:10; 2 Chr 5:13-14) and Jerusalem became the dwelling place of God (Pss 74:2; 76:2; 135:21; Is 8:18; Jl 3:17-21). The Lord loved and chose Zion (Pss 78:68; 132:13). His glorious presence was there, and from there he would speak (50:1-2). His fire was in Zion, his furnace in Jerusalem (Is 31:8-9). There he was enthroned above the cherubim (Pss 9:11; 99:1-2) and ruled over his people and the nations (Is 24:23). His chosen king ruled from that holy hill (Pss 2:6; 48:1).<\/p>\n<p>Though the size of the site of ancient Jerusalem is not particularly impressive and ordinarily would not be considered a large hill, for the psalmist Zion is God’s holy hill (Ps 99:9). The prophets describe it as “chief among the mountains, raised above the hills” (Is 2:2; Mi 4:1). The Canaanite god Baal was thought to dwell on a great mountain to the north, Mt Zaphon, so the psalmist describes Zion as “beautiful in its loftiness, like the utmost heights of Mt Zaphon” (Ps 48:1-2). God’s sanctuary is “like the high mountains” (Ps 78:68; Ez 40:2).<\/p>\n<p>An adequate water supply has been a problem for Jerusalem throughout its history. During the OT period, the city’s water came from one small spring. But in the eyes of the poets and prophets, Zion is gladdened by a great river that brings life wherever it flows (Ps 46:4; Ez 47:1-12; Jl 3:18; Zec 13:1; 14:8; see Rv 22:1-2). The threatening waters of chaos cannot shake the city of God (Ps 46:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Because Zion is the city of God, it is the object of pilgrims, Jew and Gentile alike, who thirst to be in the presence of God in Zion’s temple (Pss 42:1-2; 63:1). The pilgrim psalms give vivid expression to their longing (84; 122; 125–128). All humanity will come to God in Zion (65:1-4). The Gentiles will make annual pilgrimages bringing gifts (Ps 76; Is 18:7; Zep 3:9-10); even former enemies will be regarded as native-born citizens of Zion (Ps 87; Is 60:14; Zec 14:21). The nations will stream into Jerusalem to inaugurate an era of peace (Is 2:1-5; Mi 4:1-8). Year after year the festivals of Israel will be celebrated in Zion by Gentiles (Zec 14:16-19).<\/p>\n<h5>In the New Testament<\/h5>\n<p>The NT further develops the emphasis on both the heavenly and the eschatological Zion. For example, the author of Hebrews said that the OT saints looked “forward to the city with foundations, whose architect and builder is God . . . longing for a better country—a heavenly one” (Heb 11:10, 16, <span>niv<\/span>), but none of them received the promises because God had planned something even better (vv 39-40). The church now enjoys what believers of the old covenant could never know: unlimited access to the presence of God in that Holy City, “Mount Zion, the heavenly Jerusalem, the city of the living God” (12:22; see vv 18-24). Earthly Zion is but a shadow of the heavenly reality. The present city of Jerusalem is likened to a slave woman, but the heavenly Jerusalem is free and the mother of both Jew and Gentile (Gal 4:21-27; see Is 49:14-23; 54:1). The NT also looks forward to the eschatological expectation of the re-creation of heaven and earth and the revelation of the new Jerusalem (Rv 21:2). It is a city on a great high mountain (Rv 21:10; see Pss 48:1-2; 78:68; Is 2:2; Ez 40:2; Mi 4:1), and a river of life flows within (Rv 22:1-2).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jerusalem; Jerusalem, New.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ZION<\/h3>\n<p>The Jebusite fortress in Jerusalem conquered by David. Thereafter, Zion was used by biblical writers to identify other areas of Jerusalem and was used as a designation of the entire city. Zion was also used to describe, spiritually speaking, the eternal city of God.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GeographicalSites\">Geographical Sites<\/p>\n<h5>The Jebusite Fortress<\/h5>\n<p>The first occurrence of the word “Zion” is in the narrative of David’s conquest of Jerusalem (2 Sm 5:6-10; 1 Chr 11:4-9). David captured the “fortress of Zion,” which was thereafter known as the “city of David.” The “fortress of Zion” may refer to the entire walled perimeter of the approximately 11-acre (4.5-hectare) site on the southeastern ridge (the Ophel Ridge), or to a smaller fortified area within that site.<\/p>\n<h5>The Temple Mount<\/h5>\n<p>Changes in the perimeter of the city by incorporating more territory within the walls extend the term Zion. When Solomon built the temple and his palace and extended the walls north of the Ophel Ridge to encompass the threshing floor of Ornan the Jebusite (2 Sm 24:16-18; 1 Chr 21:15-18, 28), the name Zion was applied to these areas as well. The transfer of the ark “from the city of David which is Zion” (1 Kgs 8:1; 2 Chr 5:2) to the temple hill brought both an extension and a reduction of the territory embraced by the term “Zion.” The whole city could still be called Zion, but from this point on, there would be a close identification between Zion and the temple hill. The temple precincts became the primary Zion; references to Zion in the poetic books and the preaching of the prophets are primarily to the temple area as the dwelling place of God.<\/p>\n<h5>The Entire City<\/h5>\n<p>The word “Zion” can be used as a designation of the entire city or its population without any particular reference to the temple area. This use is clearest in poetic passages where Zion is the parallel term to Jerusalem (Pss 51:18; 76:2; 102:21; 135:21; 147:12; Is 2:3; 30:19; 33:20; 37:32; 40:9; 41:27; 62:1; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Am 1:2; Zep 3:14) or to the villages of Judah (Pss 69:35; 97:8; Is 40:9).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologicalMotifs\">Theological Motifs<\/p>\n<h5>In the Old Testament<\/h5>\n<p>Many theological motifs attach to the Zion theme as it develops in redemptive history. The dominant motif of Zion as the dwelling place of God, the place where God is in the midst of his people, is conjoined to the larger theme of Immanuel, “God in our midst.” Just as the pillar of fire and cloud stood above the tabernacle during the wilderness wandering, so once Israel had attained the place of God’s choosing (Dt 12:5-14), he would dwell there. When Jerusalem became David’s capital and Solomon had completed the temple, the glory cloud filled the temple (1 Kgs 8:10; 2 Chr 5:13-14) and Jerusalem became the dwelling place of God (Pss 74:2; 76:2; 135:21; Is 8:18; Jl 3:17-21). The Lord loved and chose Zion (Pss 78:68; 132:13). His glorious presence was there, and from there he would speak (50:1-2). His fire was in Zion, his furnace in Jerusalem (Is 31:8-9). There he was enthroned above the cherubim (Pss 9:11; 99:1-2) and ruled over his people and the nations (Is 24:23). His chosen king ruled from that holy hill (Pss 2:6; 48:1).<\/p>\n<p>Though the size of the site of ancient Jerusalem is not particularly impressive and ordinarily would not be considered a large hill, for the psalmist Zion is God’s holy hill (Ps 99:9). The prophets describe it as “chief among the mountains, raised above the hills” (Is 2:2; Mi 4:1). The Canaanite god Baal was thought to dwell on a great mountain to the north, Mt Zaphon, so the psalmist describes Zion as “beautiful in its loftiness, like the utmost heights of Mt Zaphon” (Ps 48:1-2). God’s sanctuary is “like the high mountains” (Ps 78:68; Ez 40:2).<\/p>\n<p>An adequate water supply has been a problem for Jerusalem throughout its history. During the OT period, the city’s water came from one small spring. But in the eyes of the poets and prophets, Zion is gladdened by a great river that brings life wherever it flows (Ps 46:4; Ez 47:1-12; Jl 3:18; Zec 13:1; 14:8; see Rv 22:1-2). The threatening waters of chaos cannot shake the city of God (Ps 46:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Because Zion is the city of God, it is the object of pilgrims, Jew and Gentile alike, who thirst to be in the presence of God in Zion’s temple (Pss 42:1-2; 63:1). The pilgrim psalms give vivid expression to their longing (84; 122; 125–128). All humanity will come to God in Zion (65:1-4). The Gentiles will make annual pilgrimages bringing gifts (Ps 76; Is 18:7; Zep 3:9-10); even former enemies will be regarded as native-born citizens of Zion (Ps 87; Is 60:14; Zec 14:21). The nations will stream into Jerusalem to inaugurate an era of peace (Is 2:1-5; Mi 4:1-8). Year after year the festivals of Israel will be celebrated in Zion by Gentiles (Zec 14:16-19).<\/p>\n<h5>In the New Testament<\/h5>\n<p>The NT further develops the emphasis on both the heavenly and the eschatological Zion. For example, the author of Hebrews said that the OT saints looked “forward to the city with foundations, whose architect and builder is God . . . longing for a better country—a heavenly one” (Heb 11:10, 16, <span>niv<\/span>), but none of them received the promises because God had planned something even better (vv 39-40). The church now enjoys what believers of the old covenant could never know: unlimited access to the presence of God in that Holy City, “Mount Zion, the heavenly Jerusalem, the city of the living God” (12:22; see vv 18-24). Earthly Zion is but a shadow of the heavenly reality. The present city of Jerusalem is likened to a slave woman, but the heavenly Jerusalem is free and the mother of both Jew and Gentile (Gal 4:21-27; see Is 49:14-23; 54:1). The NT also looks forward to the eschatological expectation of the re-creation of heaven and earth and the revelation of the new Jerusalem (Rv 21:2). It is a city on a great high mountain (Rv 21:10; see Pss 48:1-2; 78:68; Is 2:2; Ez 40:2; Mi 4:1), and a river of life flows within (Rv 22:1-2).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jerusalem; Jerusalem, New.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ZION The Jebusite fortress in Jerusalem conquered by David. Thereafter, Zion was used by biblical writers to identify other areas of Jerusalem and was used as a designation of the entire city. Zion was also used to describe, spiritually speaking, the eternal city of God. Geographical Sites The Jebusite Fortress The first occurrence of the word “Zion” is in the narrative of David’s conquest of Jerusalem (2 Sm 5:6-10; 1 Chr 11:4-9). David captured the “fortress of Zion,” which was thereafter kn...","summary_en":"ZION The Jebusite fortress in Jerusalem conquered by David. Thereafter, Zion was used by biblical writers to identify other areas of Jerusalem and was used as a designation of the entire city. Zion was also used to describe, spiritually speaking, the eternal city of God. Geographical Sites The Jebusite Fortress The first occurrence of the word “Zion” is in the narrative of David’s conquest of Jerusalem (2 Sm 5:6-10; 1 Chr 11:4-9). David captured the “fortress of Zion,” which was thereafter kn...","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":54244,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:14","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:14<\/strong> <em>Sing . . . shout aloud . . . ! Be glad and rejoice:<\/em> The cumulative effect of these commands emphasizes that God’s people will one day experience unsurpassed joy.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:14<\/strong> <em>Sing . . . shout aloud . . . ! Be glad and rejoice:<\/em> The cumulative effect of these commands emphasizes that God’s people will one day experience unsurpassed joy.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:14 Sing . . . shout aloud . . . ! Be glad and rejoice: The cumulative effect of these commands emphasizes that God’s people will one day experience unsurpassed joy.","summary_en":"3:14 Sing . . . shout aloud . . . ! Be glad and rejoice: The cumulative effect of these commands emphasizes that God’s people will one day experience unsurpassed joy.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81870,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:14","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:14<\/strong> <em>Sing . . . shout aloud . . . ! Be glad and rejoice:<\/em> The cumulative effect of these commands emphasizes that God’s people will one day experience unsurpassed joy.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:14<\/strong> <em>Sing . . . shout aloud . . . ! Be glad and rejoice:<\/em> The cumulative effect of these commands emphasizes that God’s people will one day experience unsurpassed joy.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:14 Sing . . . shout aloud . . . ! Be glad and rejoice: The cumulative effect of these commands emphasizes that God’s people will one day experience unsurpassed joy.","summary_en":"3:14 Sing . . . shout aloud . . . ! Be glad and rejoice: The cumulative effect of these commands emphasizes that God’s people will one day experience unsurpassed joy.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109496,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:14","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:14<\/strong> <em>Sing . . . shout aloud . . . ! Be glad and rejoice:<\/em> The cumulative effect of these commands emphasizes that God’s people will one day experience unsurpassed joy.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:14<\/strong> <em>Sing . . . shout aloud . . . ! Be glad and rejoice:<\/em> The cumulative effect of these commands emphasizes that God’s people will one day experience unsurpassed joy.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:14 Sing . . . shout aloud . . . ! Be glad and rejoice: The cumulative effect of these commands emphasizes that God’s people will one day experience unsurpassed joy.","summary_en":"3:14 Sing . . . shout aloud . . . ! Be glad and rejoice: The cumulative effect of these commands emphasizes that God’s people will one day experience unsurpassed joy.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":137122,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:14","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:14<\/strong> <em>Sing . . . shout aloud . . . ! Be glad and rejoice:<\/em> The cumulative effect of these commands emphasizes that God’s people will one day experience unsurpassed joy.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:14<\/strong> <em>Sing . . . shout aloud . . . ! Be glad and rejoice:<\/em> The cumulative effect of these commands emphasizes that God’s people will one day experience unsurpassed joy.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:14 Sing . . . shout aloud . . . ! Be glad and rejoice: The cumulative effect of these commands emphasizes that God’s people will one day experience unsurpassed joy.","summary_en":"3:14 Sing . . . shout aloud . . . ! Be glad and rejoice: The cumulative effect of these commands emphasizes that God’s people will one day experience unsurpassed joy.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":62971,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Zion","title_en":"Zion","content_ro":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\n<p>Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates <em>Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\n<p>Zion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\n<p>Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates <em>Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\n<p>Zion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","summary_en":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":90597,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Zion","title_en":"Zion","content_ro":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\n<p>Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates <em>Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\n<p>Zion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\n<p>Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates <em>Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\n<p>Zion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","summary_en":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":118223,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Zion","title_en":"Zion","content_ro":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\n<p>Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates <em>Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\n<p>Zion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\n<p>Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates <em>Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\n<p>Zion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","summary_en":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145849,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Zion","title_en":"Zion","content_ro":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\n<p>Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates <em>Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\n<p>Zion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\n<p>Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates <em>Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\n<p>Zion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","summary_en":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"15":[{"id":21840,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Kingdom of Heaven Kingdom of God","title_en":"Kingdom of Heaven Kingdom of God","content_ro":"<h3>KINGDOM OF GOD, KINGDOM OF HEAVEN<\/h3>\n<p>The sovereign rule of God, initiated by Christ’s earthly ministry and consummated when the kingdom of the world becomes the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ (Rv 11:15).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Introduction<\/p>\n<p>• Old Testament Background<\/p>\n<p>• In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Introduction\">Introduction<\/p>\n<p>According to the testimony of the first three Gospels, the proclamation of the kingdom of God was Jesus’ central message. Matthew summarizes the Galilean ministry with the words “Jesus traveled throughout Galilee teaching in the synagogues, preaching everywhere the Good News about the Kingdom” (Mt 4:23, <span>nlt<\/span>). The Sermon on the Mount is concerned with the righteousness that qualifies people to enter the kingdom of God (5:20). The collection of parables in Matthew 13 and Mark 4 illustrate the “mystery” of the kingdom of God (Mt 13:11; Mk 4:11). The establishment of the Lord’s Supper looks forward to the establishment of the kingdom of God (Mt 26:29; Mk 14:25).<\/p>\n<p>The NT reports two different forms of the expression: “the kingdom of God” and “the kingdom of the heavens.” The latter is found only in Matthew, but Matthew also has “the kingdom of God” four times (Mt 12:28; 19:24; 21:31, 43). “The kingdom of heaven” is a Semitic phrase that would have been meaningful to Jews but not to Greeks. The Jews, out of reverence for God, avoided uttering the divine name, and contemporary literature gives examples of substituting the word “heaven” for God (1 Macc 3:18, 50; 4:10; see Lk 15:18).<\/p>\n<p>The key to an understanding of the kingdom of God is that the basic meaning of the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span><em>,<\/em> as also of the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span><em>,<\/em> is rule, reign, dominion. We frequently find in the OT the expression “in the year of the kingdom of . . . ,” meaning in the year of the reign of a given king (e.g., 1 Chr 26:31; 2 Chr 3:2; 15:10; Ezr 7:1; 8:1; Est 2:16; Jer 10:7; 52:31). When we read that Solomon’s kingdom was firmly established (1 Kgs 2:12), we are to understand that his authority to reign was settled. To “turn the kingdom of Saul over to [David]” (1 Chr 12:23, <span>kjv<\/span>) indicates that the authority that had been Saul’s was given to David. As a result of having received legal authority, David became king. This abstract idea of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span> is evident when it is found in parallelisms with such ideas as power, might, glory, and dominion (Dn 4:34; 7:14).<\/p>\n<p>When <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span> is used of God, it almost always refers to his authority or to his rule as the heavenly King. “They will talk together about the glory of your kingdom; they will celebrate examples of your power. . . . For your kingdom is an everlasting kingdom. You rule generation after generation” (Ps 145:11, 13, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Further, if a king rules, there must be a realm or sphere over which he reigns. This is also called <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span><em>.<\/em> “So the realm of Jehoshaphat was quiet, for his God gave him rest round about” (2 Chr 20:30, <span>rsv<\/span>; see Est 3:6; Jer 10:7; Dn 9:1; 11:9).<\/p>\n<p>This same twofold use of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span> is found in the NT. In fact, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span> could be translated by the expression “kingly power” in Luke 23:42 (<span>niv<\/span> mg) and by “kingship” in John 18:36. When a nobleman went into a far country to get a “kingdom” (Luke 19:12, <span>nasb<\/span>) he went to the governing authority to get an appointment as king. When Jesus said, “My kingship is not of this world” (Jn 18:36, <span>rsv<\/span>), he did not mean to say that his rule has nothing to do with the world but rather that his kingship—his dominion—does not come from man but from God. Therefore, he rejects the use of worldly fighting to gain his ends.<\/p>\n<p>This central meaning of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span> makes it easy to understand many sayings in the Gospels. In the Lord’s Prayer the petition “Thy kingdom come” (Mt 6:10) is a prayer for God to manifest his reign so that his will may be done on earth as it is in heaven. When we read that we are to “receive the kingdom of God like a child” (Mk 10:15, <span>rsv<\/span>), we must open our hearts and lives to the rule of God.<\/p>\n<p>Also in the NT are sayings about being <em>in<\/em> the kingdom or of <em>entering<\/em> the kingdom (Mt 8:11; Mk 9:47; 10:23-25; Lk 13:28). There is no philological or theological objection to understanding “the kingdom of God” first as the divine reign or rule and second as the sphere of blessing in which that reign is experienced.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentBackground\">Old Testament Background<\/p>\n<p>The expression “the kingdom of God” is not found in the OT, but the idea appears throughout the prophets. God is frequently spoken of as the King, both of Israel (Ex 15:18; Nm 23:21; Dt 33:5; Is 43:15) and of all the earth (2 Kgs 19:15; Pss 29:10; 47:2; 93:1-2; 96:10; 97:1-9; 99:1-4; 145:11-13; Is 6:5; Jer 46:18). Although God is not the earthly King of Israel, other references speak of a day when God shall become King and shall rule over his people (Is 24:23; 33:22; 52:7; Ob 1:21; Zep 3:15; Zec 14:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>This brief summary of God’s kingship provides the outline for the entire OT concept. While God is King over all the earth, he is in a special way King over his people, Israel. God’s rule is therefore something realized in Israel’s history. However, it is only partially and imperfectly realized. Israel again and again rebelled against the divine sovereignty. Furthermore, Israel was constantly plagued by wars with its pagan neighbors in which it was not always victorious. Again, there are evils in nature and the physical world that often bring suffering to God’s people. Therefore, the prophets look forward to a day when God’s rule will be fully experienced, not by Israel alone, but by all the world. The main emphasis of the prophets is on hope, the establishing of God’s perfect rule in the world.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets describe the final establishment of God’s kingdom in terms of a theophany—a divine visitation (Mi 1:3-4). Zechariah foresees a “Day of the Lord” when all nations will be gathered in battle against Jerusalem, when the Lord will go forth and fight against those nations (Zec 14:3, 5). Israel will be visited by the Lord (Is 29:6) and delivered from its enemies (35:4; 59:20). God’s coming will also mean judgment (2:21; 26:21). This final coming of God will mean the salvation of the Gentiles as well as of Israel (Zec 2:10-11; cf. Is 66:18-24).<\/p>\n<p>Behind this language is a distinct theology of “the God who comes.” It is a fact widely recognized in contemporary OT theology that the God of the OT is not a nature god, like the gods of other peoples, but a God of history—a God who visits his people in history to bless or to judge them. God visited Israel in Egypt to deliver them from bondage and to constitute them as his people. The rescue from Egypt was not merely an act of deliverance; it was an act through which God made himself known and through which Israel was to know and serve him.<\/p>\n<p>Because God has visited his people again and again in their history, he must finally come to them in the future to judge wickedness and to establish his kingdom. Israel’s hope is thus rooted in history, or rather in the God who works in history. God will finally break into history in a glorious theophany to establish his rule in all the earth. The source of the kingdom is not history itself but God.<\/p>\n<p>While the prophets visualize the kingdom as coming from God, the kingdom is always on earth. The divine irruption into the natural order is not designed to accomplish its destruction but to make way for a new, perfect order arising out of the old, imperfect one. The prophets do not present a single consistent picture of the new order. Sometimes the new order is described very much in this-worldly terms. “The terraced vineyards on the hills of Israel will drip with sweet wine” (Am 9:13, <span>nlt<\/span>). On the other hand, God will create new heavens and a new earth (Is 65:17; 66:22), where there will be untroubled joy, prosperity, peace, and righteousness. The final visitation of God will mean the redemption of the world, for a redeemed earth is the scene of the kingdom of God. The prophets look forward again and again to the deliverance of creation “from the bondage to decay.” The description is often couched in simple physical terms. The wilderness will become fruitful (32:15); the desert will blossom (35:2); sorrow and sighing will flee away (v 10). The burning sands will be cooled and the dry places become springs of water (v 7); peace will return to the animal world so that all injury and destruction are done away with (11:6). All this results because the earth becomes full of the knowledge of God (v 9).<\/p>\n<p>Such language is not mere poetry but reflects a profound theology of creation. Humans as creatures were made to dwell on the earth, and the earth shares in human destiny. The main point is that creation as such is good and not a hindrance to true spirituality, as was often true in Greek thought. Redemption always includes redemption of the earth, which then becomes the blessed environment God intended it to be. Salvation does not mean deliverance from creaturehood, for this is not an evil thing but an essential and permanent element of true, human existence. Salvation does not mean escape from bodily creaturely existence, as in some Greek thought. On the contrary, ultimate redemption will mean the redemption of the whole person. The emergence of the doctrine of bodily resurrection is a reflection of this theology of creaturehood. The corollary of this is that creation in its entirety must share in the blessing of redemption.<\/p>\n<p>A distinctive element in prophetic eschatology is the tension between history and eschatology. That is, as the prophets looked into the future, they saw an immediate historical judgment as well as a more remote eschatological visitation. For Amos, the Day of the Lord is both the immediate judgment of Israel by the Assyrians and a final eschatological salvation. Joel sees an imminent historical visitation of drought and locusts, but beyond this he sees the eschatological Day of the Lord. Zephaniah sees an imminent Day of the Lord in some undesignated historical visitation (Zep 1:2-18), but beyond it he sees the salvation of the Gentiles (3:9). The same God who acts in history to bless and judge his people will act at the end of history in an eschatological act of judgment and salvation. The prophets do not sharply distinguish between these two days, for it is one and the same God who is concerned to judge and save his people.<\/p>\n<p>The eschatological hope of the prophets is always an ethical hope. That is to say, the prophets are not interested in the future for its own sake but for the impact of the future on the present. The prophetic predictions were given that, in light of future judgment and salvation, Israel might be confronted in the present by the will of God. “Prepare to meet your God as he comes in judgment, you people of Israel” (Am 4:12, <span>nlt<\/span>) might well be taken as the keynote of all the prophets.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>The Synoptic Gospels<\/h5>\n<p>Jesus’ teachings about the kingdom of God embodied the same contrast between the present order and the future age as that of the prophets, and he expressed it in the idiom “this age and the age to come.” This fact is obscured in the <span>kjv<\/span>, which translates the word for “age” by “world.” These are, however, two different concepts. A rich man asked Jesus what he must do to inherit eternal life (Mk 10:17). The context makes it clear that he was asking about eschatological life—the life of the resurrection (Dn 12:2). Jesus speaks of the difficulty of entering the kingdom of God. (The parallel passage in Matthew 19:23-24 has both “kingdom of God” and “kingdom of heaven,” proving that they are interchangeable terms.) In their reaction the disciples ask, “Then who can be saved?” Jesus’ answer contrasts the lot of his disciples “in this time” with the “age to come” (Mk 10:29-30) when they would inherit eternal life. It is clear from this passage that in some sense the kingdom of God, the kingdom of heaven, salvation, and eternal life all belong to the age to come. So far as this saying is concerned, God’s people will not experience eternal life until they do so in the new age.<\/p>\n<p>Matthew alone records the expression “the close of the age.” This age will be terminated by the coming of the Son of Man (Mt 24:3) and by the judgment of humanity (13:39-42). Then the righteous will be separated from the wicked (v 49). The same expression occurs in the promise of the risen Jesus assuring his disciples of his presence until the consummation of the age (28:20). It follows that if this age is to come to its consummation, it must be followed by another age—the age to come.<\/p>\n<p>The eschatological kingdom will be inaugurated by an apocalyptic event—the glorious coming of the Son of Man. This is made clear by two of the parables about the kingdom of God. In the parable of the tares, “the Son of man will send his angels, and they will gather out of his kingdom all causes of sin and all evildoers, and throw them into the furnace of fire” (Mt 13:41-42, <span>rsv<\/span>). The parable of the sheep and goats reflects the same eschatology. When the Son of Man comes in his glory, he will sit on his glorious throne to judge the nations, separating the sheep from the goats. The righteous—the sheep—are to “inherit the kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world”; and entrance into the kingdom is synonymous with entrance into life (25:31-46, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The eschatological character of the kingdom of God is seen also in the other two parables of Matthew 25. “The kingdom of heaven shall be compared to ten maidens who took their lamps and went to meet the bridegroom” (v 1, <span>rsv<\/span>). However, five of them were foolish and did not provide an adequate supply of oil for their lamps. Thus they were late for the wedding and were excluded from the wedding feast—a symbol of the eschatological kingdom—while those properly prepared entered the kingdom. In the same way the two faithful servants who had been “faithful over a little” were granted to “enter into the joy of your master” (vv 21, 23), while the unfaithful servant was excluded from the kingdom and cast into outer darkness.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus almost never showed any interest in descriptions of the eschatological kingdom, but it is clear that its coming was constantly in his thoughts. The pure in heart will see God (Mt 5:8). The harvest will take place and the grain will be gathered into the barn (13:30, 39; Mk 4:29). Jesus frequently used the metaphor of a feast or table fellowship to describe life in the eschatological kingdom. He will drink wine again with his disciples in the kingdom of God. They will eat and drink at Jesus’ table in the kingdom (Lk 22:30). People will be gathered from all corners of the earth to sit at a table with the OT saints (Mt 8:11-12; Lk 13:29). The consummation is likened to a wedding feast (Mt 22:1-14) and a banquet (Lk 14:16-24). All of these metaphors picture the restoration of communion between God and people, a union that had been broken by sin.<\/p>\n<p>In most of the sayings cited to illustrate the future character of the kingdom, “kingdom” refers to the eschatological order—the eschaton, the age to come. However, when Jesus taught his disciples to pray “Thy kingdom come” (Mt 6:10), he was not referring to the new eschatological order; he was referring to the kingdom as God’s kingly rule, his reign. It is a prayer that God will effectively establish his sovereign rule in the world.<\/p>\n<p>In his teaching about the kingdom of God as the apocalyptic consummation, Jesus does not differ essentially from the OT prophets. The most distinctive element in Jesus’ teaching—indeed, the fact that characterizes his entire mission and message—is the fact that in some real sense of the word, the kingdom of God has come in history in an utterly unexpected way. This sets Jesus’ teaching apart from all contemporary Jewish thought.<\/p>\n<p>This is seen first of all in his repeated teaching that his mission is a fulfillment of the OT messianic prophets. Mark summarizes Jesus’ message with the words “The Kingdom of God is near! Turn from your sins and believe this Good News!” (Mk 1:15, <span>nlt<\/span>). This saying can have one of two meanings. It may refer to the imminent coming of the apocalyptic kingdom. Matthew summarizes the message of John the Baptist with nearly the same words: “Turn from your sins and turn to God, because the Kingdom of Heaven is near” (Mt 3:2, <span>nlt<\/span>). The Baptist expounds what he means by the approach of the kingdom of God: “He is ready to separate the chaff from the grain with his winnowing fork. Then he will clean up the threshing area, storing the grain in his barn but burning the chaff with never-ending fire” (v 12, <span>nlt<\/span>). John proclaimed an apocalyptic act; “unquenchable fire” can mean no strictly historical event but only an apocalyptic judgment. John expected Jesus to be the one in whom the cosmic event expected by the prophets would be carried out.<\/p>\n<p>It is possible that this was also Jesus’ meaning. However, another interpretation is possible that is better supported by the actual course of his mission: “The time is fulfilled.” The messianic promises of the prophets were not only about to be fulfilled; they were actually in process of fulfillment in his mission. In Jesus, God was visiting his people. The hope of the prophets in some real sense was being realized.<\/p>\n<p>The meaning of this can be seen in Luke’s introduction of Jesus’ ministry. Luke selects an event that occurred in Nazareth later in Jesus’ ministry (Lk 4:16-21) and places it at the beginning of his Gospel in order to sound this note of fulfillment. Jesus read from Isaiah a promise that looked forward to the messianic salvation: “The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, for he has appointed me to preach Good News to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim that captives will be released, that the blind will see, that the downtrodden will be freed from their oppressors, and that the time of the Lord’s favor has come” (vv 18-19, <span>nlt<\/span>). Then Jesus astonished his audience by the assertion “This Scripture has come true today before your very eyes!” (v 21, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Here was an amazing claim. John the Baptist had announced an apocalyptic visitation of God that would mean the fulfillment of the eschatological hope and the consummation of the messianic age. Jesus proclaimed that the messianic promise was actually being fulfilled in his person. This is no apocalyptic kingdom but a present salvation. In these words Jesus did not proclaim the imminence of the apocalyptic kingdom. Rather, he boldly announced that the kingdom of God had come. The presence of the kingdom was a happening, an event, the gracious action of God. This was no new theology or new idea or new promise; it was a new event in history.<\/p>\n<p>The note of fulfillment is again sounded in Jesus’ answer to the question about fasting. “Do wedding guests fast while celebrating with the groom? Of course not. They can’t fast while they are with the groom” (Mk 2:19, <span>nlt<\/span>). The marriage feast had become a metaphor in Judaism for the messianic consummation. In these words Jesus announced the presence of the messianic time of salvation. It would be a contradiction in terms for the disciples to fast when they were enjoying the blessings of the messianic age. The time of fulfillment had come.<\/p>\n<p>A saying found in different contexts in Matthew and Luke touches this central note of the fulfillment in history of the OT hope: “Blessed are the eyes which see what you see! For I tell you that many prophets and kings desired to see what you see, and did not see it, and to hear what you hear, and did not hear it” (Lk 10:23-24, <span>rsv<\/span>; cf. Mt 13:16-17). Both Matthew and Luke associate this saying with the kingdom of God, and both agree that the hope of former generations has become an object of experience. Many prophets and kings looked forward to something, but they looked in vain, for it did not come to them. What they longed for has now come, and this can be nothing less than the promised messianic salvation.<\/p>\n<p>Fulfillment in history is again asserted in Jesus’ answer to John’s question about the one who is to come (Mt 11:2-3). “The deeds of the Christ” (Messiah) were not the deeds John had announced. Wicked rulers like Herod were not being judged in fire. Instead, Jesus was helping people, not bringing an apocalyptic kingdom. Jesus replied in words that echo the promise of the messianic salvation in Isaiah 35:5-6: “Go and tell John what you hear and see: the blind receive their sight and the lame walk, lepers are cleansed and the deaf hear, and the dead are raised up, and the poor have the gospel preached to them” (Mt 11:4-5, <span>rsv<\/span>). In these words Jesus claimed that the blessings of the messianic salvation are present. There was indeed reason for John’s perplexity, for the fulfillment was not taking place along expected lines. The apocalyptic consummation did not appear to be on the horizon. The point of Jesus’ answer was that fulfillment was taking place without the eschatological consummation. Therefore, Jesus pronounced a special blessing upon those who were not offended by the character of the messianic fulfillment (v 6). The fulfillment was indeed taking place, but not the apocalyptic consummation.<\/p>\n<p>The most unambiguous statement of the presence of the kingdom is found in the words about the binding of Satan. One of Jesus’ most characteristic acts was the exorcism of demons—deliverance from satanic power. The Pharisees admitted his power but attributed it to Satan. Jesus replied, “If Satan casts out Satan, he is divided against himself; how then will his kingdom stand? . . . But if it is by the Spirit of God that I cast out demons, then the kingdom of God is come upon you” (Mt 12:26, 28, <span>rsv<\/span>). Here the verb has the clear meaning “to come, to arrive” (cf. Rom 9:30; 2 Cor 10:14; Phil 3:16). Here is a clear affirmation that the kingdom of God has come among men.<\/p>\n<p>In explanation Jesus said, “Or how can one enter a strong man’s house and plunder his goods, unless he first binds the strong man? Then indeed he may plunder his house” (Mt 12:29, <span>rsv<\/span>). The strong man is Satan; this “present evil age” (Gal 1:4) is his “house”; his “goods” are demon-possessed men and women. Jesus has invaded the strong man’s house to snatch away from him men and women whom he has in his power, and this is the work of the kingdom of God. The kingly reign of God has come into history in the person of Jesus before the apocalyptic consummation when Satan will be destroyed, to render Satan a preliminary defeat. Jesus has already “bound” Satan (i.e., curbed his power). This has been accomplished by the presence of the kingdom of God in the mission of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>A similar saying is found in Luke 10:18. Jesus had sent a band of his disciples on a preaching mission. Like Jesus, they were to proclaim the nearness of the kingdom of God (Lk 10:9). They, too, were to exorcize demons. When they returned to Jesus to report their success, Jesus said, “I saw Satan fall like lightning from heaven” (v 18, <span>rsv<\/span>). This again is metaphorical language that asserts that in the mission of Jesus’ disciples, as well as in Jesus himself, Satan has fallen from his place of power. Both “binding” and “falling” are metaphors that describe the same truth: the victory of the kingdom of God over Satan.<\/p>\n<p>Here is the element that sets Jesus apart from the OT and from all of contemporary Judaism. The prophets conceived of the kingdom being established by a heavenly supernatural being (Dn 7) or ruled by a powerful Davidic messianic king (Is 9, 11). The fulfillment of the messianic hope is everywhere in the prophets an eschatological hope. The same is true of the Jewish writers who despaired of history and cast all hope into the future.<\/p>\n<p>In contrast to all that had gone before him, Jesus proclaimed the kingdom of God as an event taking place in his own person and mission. God had again assumed the initiative; God was acting. No first-century Jew had any idea of the kingdom of God coming into history in the person of an ordinary man—a teacher who was meek and lowly.<\/p>\n<p>The presence of the kingdom is further seen in the fact that the rule of God, present in Jesus, is a gift to be received. This is also true of the kingdom in its eschatological consummation, where the kingdom is freely inherited by the righteous (Mt 25:34). In answer to the young man’s question about inheriting eternal life (Mk 10:17), Jesus spoke of entering the kingdom (vv 23-24) and receiving the gift of eternal life (v 30) as though they were synonymous. The kingdom is a gift that the Father is pleased to bestow upon the little flock of Jesus’ disciples (Lk 12:32).<\/p>\n<p>If God’s eschatological rule brings to his people the blessings of that kingdom, and if God’s kingdom is his rule invading history before the eschatological consummation, then we may expect God’s rule in the present to bring a preliminary blessing to his people. This fact is reflected in numerous sayings. The kingdom is something to be sought here and now (Mt 6:33) and to be received as children receive a gift (Mk 10:15; Lk 18:16-17). Although it is present in an unexpected form, the kingdom of God in Jesus’ person is like a hidden treasure or a pearl of great price whose possession outranks all other goods (Mt 13:44-46). The gift of the kingdom is also seen in that the deaf hear, the blind see, lepers are cleansed, and the poor have good news preached to them (11:5).<\/p>\n<h5>John’s Gospel<\/h5>\n<p>In the Gospel of John the concept of eternal life takes the place of the kingdom of God in Jesus’ teaching. The kingdom of God is mentioned twice (Jn 3:3, 5), and it is placed in connection with eternal life. The kingdom of God is here the eschatological kingdom, and eternal life is the life of the kingdom. Thus, as the kingdom of God in the synoptic Gospels is both future and present, so eternal life is both the life of the age to come (12:25) and also a present blessing (3:16, etc.).<\/p>\n<h5>Acts<\/h5>\n<p>In Acts it seems the earliest disciples generally failed to understand Jesus’ message about the kingdom of God as a present spiritual blessing. They gathered together to await the coming of the eschatological kingdom to Israel (Acts 1:6). Acts relates that the disciples continued to preach the kingdom of God, but usually it is an eschatological blessing (8:12; 14:22; 19:8; 20:25; 28:23, 31). However, the last two references make the kingdom of God synonymous with the gospel about Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>One important theme in Acts is linked to that of the kingdom of God. On the Day of Pentecost, Peter announces that God has seated Jesus at his right hand in fulfillment of Psalm 110:1 (Acts 2:33-35). In the Psalms this is a prophecy of the enthronement of the Davidic king in Jerusalem. Peter asserts that this prophecy is now fulfilled in the heavenly reign of Jesus. Therefore, he has been made both Lord and Christ (Messiah). These are interchangeable terms, “Lord” meaning absolute sovereign, “Christ” meaning the messianic king.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Writings<\/h5>\n<p>Paul carried further this theme of the heavenly rule of Christ, the anointed King. The kingdom is both an eschatological inheritance (1 Cor 6:9; 15:50; Gal 5:21; Eph 5:5; 1 Thes 2:12; 2 Thes 1:5; 2 Tm 4:1, 18) and a present blessing into which believers now enter (Rom 14:17; Col 1:13). The key to this is the interchangeable character of lordship and messianic kingship. Jesus is now exalted as Lord over all (Phil 2:11), and even as his lordship is invisible, it will become manifest to all at his second coming. In the same way, he has been enthroned as messianic King by virtue of his resurrection and heavenly session, and he must reign as King until he has put all his enemies under his feet (1 Cor 15:25; Eph 1:22). The last enemy to be destroyed is death.<\/p>\n<h5>Revelation<\/h5>\n<p>The central message of the Revelation to John is the consummation of God’s redemptive purpose, when the kingdom of this world becomes the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ (Rv 11:15). Revelation pictures the plight of a persecuted church in a hostile world, but it assures the church that Christ has already won a victory over the powers of evil (5:5), by virtue of which he can finally destroy them (19:11–20:14). Again, the last enemy to be destroyed is death (20:13-14). Revelation closes with a highly symbolic picture of the kingdom of God (chs 21–22) when God comes to dwell among his people, and “they shall see his face” (22:4). Thus the NT ends: divine order is restored to a disordered world. This is the kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jesus Christ, Teachings of; King; Parable.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KINGDOM OF GOD, KINGDOM OF HEAVEN<\/h3>\n<p>The sovereign rule of God, initiated by Christ’s earthly ministry and consummated when the kingdom of the world becomes the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ (Rv 11:15).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Introduction<\/p>\n<p>• Old Testament Background<\/p>\n<p>• In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Introduction\">Introduction<\/p>\n<p>According to the testimony of the first three Gospels, the proclamation of the kingdom of God was Jesus’ central message. Matthew summarizes the Galilean ministry with the words “Jesus traveled throughout Galilee teaching in the synagogues, preaching everywhere the Good News about the Kingdom” (Mt 4:23, <span>nlt<\/span>). The Sermon on the Mount is concerned with the righteousness that qualifies people to enter the kingdom of God (5:20). The collection of parables in Matthew 13 and Mark 4 illustrate the “mystery” of the kingdom of God (Mt 13:11; Mk 4:11). The establishment of the Lord’s Supper looks forward to the establishment of the kingdom of God (Mt 26:29; Mk 14:25).<\/p>\n<p>The NT reports two different forms of the expression: “the kingdom of God” and “the kingdom of the heavens.” The latter is found only in Matthew, but Matthew also has “the kingdom of God” four times (Mt 12:28; 19:24; 21:31, 43). “The kingdom of heaven” is a Semitic phrase that would have been meaningful to Jews but not to Greeks. The Jews, out of reverence for God, avoided uttering the divine name, and contemporary literature gives examples of substituting the word “heaven” for God (1 Macc 3:18, 50; 4:10; see Lk 15:18).<\/p>\n<p>The key to an understanding of the kingdom of God is that the basic meaning of the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span><em>,<\/em> as also of the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span><em>,<\/em> is rule, reign, dominion. We frequently find in the OT the expression “in the year of the kingdom of . . . ,” meaning in the year of the reign of a given king (e.g., 1 Chr 26:31; 2 Chr 3:2; 15:10; Ezr 7:1; 8:1; Est 2:16; Jer 10:7; 52:31). When we read that Solomon’s kingdom was firmly established (1 Kgs 2:12), we are to understand that his authority to reign was settled. To “turn the kingdom of Saul over to [David]” (1 Chr 12:23, <span>kjv<\/span>) indicates that the authority that had been Saul’s was given to David. As a result of having received legal authority, David became king. This abstract idea of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span> is evident when it is found in parallelisms with such ideas as power, might, glory, and dominion (Dn 4:34; 7:14).<\/p>\n<p>When <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span> is used of God, it almost always refers to his authority or to his rule as the heavenly King. “They will talk together about the glory of your kingdom; they will celebrate examples of your power. . . . For your kingdom is an everlasting kingdom. You rule generation after generation” (Ps 145:11, 13, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Further, if a king rules, there must be a realm or sphere over which he reigns. This is also called <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">malkut<\/span><em>.<\/em> “So the realm of Jehoshaphat was quiet, for his God gave him rest round about” (2 Chr 20:30, <span>rsv<\/span>; see Est 3:6; Jer 10:7; Dn 9:1; 11:9).<\/p>\n<p>This same twofold use of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span> is found in the NT. In fact, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span> could be translated by the expression “kingly power” in Luke 23:42 (<span>niv<\/span> mg) and by “kingship” in John 18:36. When a nobleman went into a far country to get a “kingdom” (Luke 19:12, <span>nasb<\/span>) he went to the governing authority to get an appointment as king. When Jesus said, “My kingship is not of this world” (Jn 18:36, <span>rsv<\/span>), he did not mean to say that his rule has nothing to do with the world but rather that his kingship—his dominion—does not come from man but from God. Therefore, he rejects the use of worldly fighting to gain his ends.<\/p>\n<p>This central meaning of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileia<\/span> makes it easy to understand many sayings in the Gospels. In the Lord’s Prayer the petition “Thy kingdom come” (Mt 6:10) is a prayer for God to manifest his reign so that his will may be done on earth as it is in heaven. When we read that we are to “receive the kingdom of God like a child” (Mk 10:15, <span>rsv<\/span>), we must open our hearts and lives to the rule of God.<\/p>\n<p>Also in the NT are sayings about being <em>in<\/em> the kingdom or of <em>entering<\/em> the kingdom (Mt 8:11; Mk 9:47; 10:23-25; Lk 13:28). There is no philological or theological objection to understanding “the kingdom of God” first as the divine reign or rule and second as the sphere of blessing in which that reign is experienced.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OldTestamentBackground\">Old Testament Background<\/p>\n<p>The expression “the kingdom of God” is not found in the OT, but the idea appears throughout the prophets. God is frequently spoken of as the King, both of Israel (Ex 15:18; Nm 23:21; Dt 33:5; Is 43:15) and of all the earth (2 Kgs 19:15; Pss 29:10; 47:2; 93:1-2; 96:10; 97:1-9; 99:1-4; 145:11-13; Is 6:5; Jer 46:18). Although God is not the earthly King of Israel, other references speak of a day when God shall become King and shall rule over his people (Is 24:23; 33:22; 52:7; Ob 1:21; Zep 3:15; Zec 14:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>This brief summary of God’s kingship provides the outline for the entire OT concept. While God is King over all the earth, he is in a special way King over his people, Israel. God’s rule is therefore something realized in Israel’s history. However, it is only partially and imperfectly realized. Israel again and again rebelled against the divine sovereignty. Furthermore, Israel was constantly plagued by wars with its pagan neighbors in which it was not always victorious. Again, there are evils in nature and the physical world that often bring suffering to God’s people. Therefore, the prophets look forward to a day when God’s rule will be fully experienced, not by Israel alone, but by all the world. The main emphasis of the prophets is on hope, the establishing of God’s perfect rule in the world.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets describe the final establishment of God’s kingdom in terms of a theophany—a divine visitation (Mi 1:3-4). Zechariah foresees a “Day of the Lord” when all nations will be gathered in battle against Jerusalem, when the Lord will go forth and fight against those nations (Zec 14:3, 5). Israel will be visited by the Lord (Is 29:6) and delivered from its enemies (35:4; 59:20). God’s coming will also mean judgment (2:21; 26:21). This final coming of God will mean the salvation of the Gentiles as well as of Israel (Zec 2:10-11; cf. Is 66:18-24).<\/p>\n<p>Behind this language is a distinct theology of “the God who comes.” It is a fact widely recognized in contemporary OT theology that the God of the OT is not a nature god, like the gods of other peoples, but a God of history—a God who visits his people in history to bless or to judge them. God visited Israel in Egypt to deliver them from bondage and to constitute them as his people. The rescue from Egypt was not merely an act of deliverance; it was an act through which God made himself known and through which Israel was to know and serve him.<\/p>\n<p>Because God has visited his people again and again in their history, he must finally come to them in the future to judge wickedness and to establish his kingdom. Israel’s hope is thus rooted in history, or rather in the God who works in history. God will finally break into history in a glorious theophany to establish his rule in all the earth. The source of the kingdom is not history itself but God.<\/p>\n<p>While the prophets visualize the kingdom as coming from God, the kingdom is always on earth. The divine irruption into the natural order is not designed to accomplish its destruction but to make way for a new, perfect order arising out of the old, imperfect one. The prophets do not present a single consistent picture of the new order. Sometimes the new order is described very much in this-worldly terms. “The terraced vineyards on the hills of Israel will drip with sweet wine” (Am 9:13, <span>nlt<\/span>). On the other hand, God will create new heavens and a new earth (Is 65:17; 66:22), where there will be untroubled joy, prosperity, peace, and righteousness. The final visitation of God will mean the redemption of the world, for a redeemed earth is the scene of the kingdom of God. The prophets look forward again and again to the deliverance of creation “from the bondage to decay.” The description is often couched in simple physical terms. The wilderness will become fruitful (32:15); the desert will blossom (35:2); sorrow and sighing will flee away (v 10). The burning sands will be cooled and the dry places become springs of water (v 7); peace will return to the animal world so that all injury and destruction are done away with (11:6). All this results because the earth becomes full of the knowledge of God (v 9).<\/p>\n<p>Such language is not mere poetry but reflects a profound theology of creation. Humans as creatures were made to dwell on the earth, and the earth shares in human destiny. The main point is that creation as such is good and not a hindrance to true spirituality, as was often true in Greek thought. Redemption always includes redemption of the earth, which then becomes the blessed environment God intended it to be. Salvation does not mean deliverance from creaturehood, for this is not an evil thing but an essential and permanent element of true, human existence. Salvation does not mean escape from bodily creaturely existence, as in some Greek thought. On the contrary, ultimate redemption will mean the redemption of the whole person. The emergence of the doctrine of bodily resurrection is a reflection of this theology of creaturehood. The corollary of this is that creation in its entirety must share in the blessing of redemption.<\/p>\n<p>A distinctive element in prophetic eschatology is the tension between history and eschatology. That is, as the prophets looked into the future, they saw an immediate historical judgment as well as a more remote eschatological visitation. For Amos, the Day of the Lord is both the immediate judgment of Israel by the Assyrians and a final eschatological salvation. Joel sees an imminent historical visitation of drought and locusts, but beyond this he sees the eschatological Day of the Lord. Zephaniah sees an imminent Day of the Lord in some undesignated historical visitation (Zep 1:2-18), but beyond it he sees the salvation of the Gentiles (3:9). The same God who acts in history to bless and judge his people will act at the end of history in an eschatological act of judgment and salvation. The prophets do not sharply distinguish between these two days, for it is one and the same God who is concerned to judge and save his people.<\/p>\n<p>The eschatological hope of the prophets is always an ethical hope. That is to say, the prophets are not interested in the future for its own sake but for the impact of the future on the present. The prophetic predictions were given that, in light of future judgment and salvation, Israel might be confronted in the present by the will of God. “Prepare to meet your God as he comes in judgment, you people of Israel” (Am 4:12, <span>nlt<\/span>) might well be taken as the keynote of all the prophets.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>The Synoptic Gospels<\/h5>\n<p>Jesus’ teachings about the kingdom of God embodied the same contrast between the present order and the future age as that of the prophets, and he expressed it in the idiom “this age and the age to come.” This fact is obscured in the <span>kjv<\/span>, which translates the word for “age” by “world.” These are, however, two different concepts. A rich man asked Jesus what he must do to inherit eternal life (Mk 10:17). The context makes it clear that he was asking about eschatological life—the life of the resurrection (Dn 12:2). Jesus speaks of the difficulty of entering the kingdom of God. (The parallel passage in Matthew 19:23-24 has both “kingdom of God” and “kingdom of heaven,” proving that they are interchangeable terms.) In their reaction the disciples ask, “Then who can be saved?” Jesus’ answer contrasts the lot of his disciples “in this time” with the “age to come” (Mk 10:29-30) when they would inherit eternal life. It is clear from this passage that in some sense the kingdom of God, the kingdom of heaven, salvation, and eternal life all belong to the age to come. So far as this saying is concerned, God’s people will not experience eternal life until they do so in the new age.<\/p>\n<p>Matthew alone records the expression “the close of the age.” This age will be terminated by the coming of the Son of Man (Mt 24:3) and by the judgment of humanity (13:39-42). Then the righteous will be separated from the wicked (v 49). The same expression occurs in the promise of the risen Jesus assuring his disciples of his presence until the consummation of the age (28:20). It follows that if this age is to come to its consummation, it must be followed by another age—the age to come.<\/p>\n<p>The eschatological kingdom will be inaugurated by an apocalyptic event—the glorious coming of the Son of Man. This is made clear by two of the parables about the kingdom of God. In the parable of the tares, “the Son of man will send his angels, and they will gather out of his kingdom all causes of sin and all evildoers, and throw them into the furnace of fire” (Mt 13:41-42, <span>rsv<\/span>). The parable of the sheep and goats reflects the same eschatology. When the Son of Man comes in his glory, he will sit on his glorious throne to judge the nations, separating the sheep from the goats. The righteous—the sheep—are to “inherit the kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world”; and entrance into the kingdom is synonymous with entrance into life (25:31-46, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The eschatological character of the kingdom of God is seen also in the other two parables of Matthew 25. “The kingdom of heaven shall be compared to ten maidens who took their lamps and went to meet the bridegroom” (v 1, <span>rsv<\/span>). However, five of them were foolish and did not provide an adequate supply of oil for their lamps. Thus they were late for the wedding and were excluded from the wedding feast—a symbol of the eschatological kingdom—while those properly prepared entered the kingdom. In the same way the two faithful servants who had been “faithful over a little” were granted to “enter into the joy of your master” (vv 21, 23), while the unfaithful servant was excluded from the kingdom and cast into outer darkness.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus almost never showed any interest in descriptions of the eschatological kingdom, but it is clear that its coming was constantly in his thoughts. The pure in heart will see God (Mt 5:8). The harvest will take place and the grain will be gathered into the barn (13:30, 39; Mk 4:29). Jesus frequently used the metaphor of a feast or table fellowship to describe life in the eschatological kingdom. He will drink wine again with his disciples in the kingdom of God. They will eat and drink at Jesus’ table in the kingdom (Lk 22:30). People will be gathered from all corners of the earth to sit at a table with the OT saints (Mt 8:11-12; Lk 13:29). The consummation is likened to a wedding feast (Mt 22:1-14) and a banquet (Lk 14:16-24). All of these metaphors picture the restoration of communion between God and people, a union that had been broken by sin.<\/p>\n<p>In most of the sayings cited to illustrate the future character of the kingdom, “kingdom” refers to the eschatological order—the eschaton, the age to come. However, when Jesus taught his disciples to pray “Thy kingdom come” (Mt 6:10), he was not referring to the new eschatological order; he was referring to the kingdom as God’s kingly rule, his reign. It is a prayer that God will effectively establish his sovereign rule in the world.<\/p>\n<p>In his teaching about the kingdom of God as the apocalyptic consummation, Jesus does not differ essentially from the OT prophets. The most distinctive element in Jesus’ teaching—indeed, the fact that characterizes his entire mission and message—is the fact that in some real sense of the word, the kingdom of God has come in history in an utterly unexpected way. This sets Jesus’ teaching apart from all contemporary Jewish thought.<\/p>\n<p>This is seen first of all in his repeated teaching that his mission is a fulfillment of the OT messianic prophets. Mark summarizes Jesus’ message with the words “The Kingdom of God is near! Turn from your sins and believe this Good News!” (Mk 1:15, <span>nlt<\/span>). This saying can have one of two meanings. It may refer to the imminent coming of the apocalyptic kingdom. Matthew summarizes the message of John the Baptist with nearly the same words: “Turn from your sins and turn to God, because the Kingdom of Heaven is near” (Mt 3:2, <span>nlt<\/span>). The Baptist expounds what he means by the approach of the kingdom of God: “He is ready to separate the chaff from the grain with his winnowing fork. Then he will clean up the threshing area, storing the grain in his barn but burning the chaff with never-ending fire” (v 12, <span>nlt<\/span>). John proclaimed an apocalyptic act; “unquenchable fire” can mean no strictly historical event but only an apocalyptic judgment. John expected Jesus to be the one in whom the cosmic event expected by the prophets would be carried out.<\/p>\n<p>It is possible that this was also Jesus’ meaning. However, another interpretation is possible that is better supported by the actual course of his mission: “The time is fulfilled.” The messianic promises of the prophets were not only about to be fulfilled; they were actually in process of fulfillment in his mission. In Jesus, God was visiting his people. The hope of the prophets in some real sense was being realized.<\/p>\n<p>The meaning of this can be seen in Luke’s introduction of Jesus’ ministry. Luke selects an event that occurred in Nazareth later in Jesus’ ministry (Lk 4:16-21) and places it at the beginning of his Gospel in order to sound this note of fulfillment. Jesus read from Isaiah a promise that looked forward to the messianic salvation: “The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, for he has appointed me to preach Good News to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim that captives will be released, that the blind will see, that the downtrodden will be freed from their oppressors, and that the time of the Lord’s favor has come” (vv 18-19, <span>nlt<\/span>). Then Jesus astonished his audience by the assertion “This Scripture has come true today before your very eyes!” (v 21, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Here was an amazing claim. John the Baptist had announced an apocalyptic visitation of God that would mean the fulfillment of the eschatological hope and the consummation of the messianic age. Jesus proclaimed that the messianic promise was actually being fulfilled in his person. This is no apocalyptic kingdom but a present salvation. In these words Jesus did not proclaim the imminence of the apocalyptic kingdom. Rather, he boldly announced that the kingdom of God had come. The presence of the kingdom was a happening, an event, the gracious action of God. This was no new theology or new idea or new promise; it was a new event in history.<\/p>\n<p>The note of fulfillment is again sounded in Jesus’ answer to the question about fasting. “Do wedding guests fast while celebrating with the groom? Of course not. They can’t fast while they are with the groom” (Mk 2:19, <span>nlt<\/span>). The marriage feast had become a metaphor in Judaism for the messianic consummation. In these words Jesus announced the presence of the messianic time of salvation. It would be a contradiction in terms for the disciples to fast when they were enjoying the blessings of the messianic age. The time of fulfillment had come.<\/p>\n<p>A saying found in different contexts in Matthew and Luke touches this central note of the fulfillment in history of the OT hope: “Blessed are the eyes which see what you see! For I tell you that many prophets and kings desired to see what you see, and did not see it, and to hear what you hear, and did not hear it” (Lk 10:23-24, <span>rsv<\/span>; cf. Mt 13:16-17). Both Matthew and Luke associate this saying with the kingdom of God, and both agree that the hope of former generations has become an object of experience. Many prophets and kings looked forward to something, but they looked in vain, for it did not come to them. What they longed for has now come, and this can be nothing less than the promised messianic salvation.<\/p>\n<p>Fulfillment in history is again asserted in Jesus’ answer to John’s question about the one who is to come (Mt 11:2-3). “The deeds of the Christ” (Messiah) were not the deeds John had announced. Wicked rulers like Herod were not being judged in fire. Instead, Jesus was helping people, not bringing an apocalyptic kingdom. Jesus replied in words that echo the promise of the messianic salvation in Isaiah 35:5-6: “Go and tell John what you hear and see: the blind receive their sight and the lame walk, lepers are cleansed and the deaf hear, and the dead are raised up, and the poor have the gospel preached to them” (Mt 11:4-5, <span>rsv<\/span>). In these words Jesus claimed that the blessings of the messianic salvation are present. There was indeed reason for John’s perplexity, for the fulfillment was not taking place along expected lines. The apocalyptic consummation did not appear to be on the horizon. The point of Jesus’ answer was that fulfillment was taking place without the eschatological consummation. Therefore, Jesus pronounced a special blessing upon those who were not offended by the character of the messianic fulfillment (v 6). The fulfillment was indeed taking place, but not the apocalyptic consummation.<\/p>\n<p>The most unambiguous statement of the presence of the kingdom is found in the words about the binding of Satan. One of Jesus’ most characteristic acts was the exorcism of demons—deliverance from satanic power. The Pharisees admitted his power but attributed it to Satan. Jesus replied, “If Satan casts out Satan, he is divided against himself; how then will his kingdom stand? . . . But if it is by the Spirit of God that I cast out demons, then the kingdom of God is come upon you” (Mt 12:26, 28, <span>rsv<\/span>). Here the verb has the clear meaning “to come, to arrive” (cf. Rom 9:30; 2 Cor 10:14; Phil 3:16). Here is a clear affirmation that the kingdom of God has come among men.<\/p>\n<p>In explanation Jesus said, “Or how can one enter a strong man’s house and plunder his goods, unless he first binds the strong man? Then indeed he may plunder his house” (Mt 12:29, <span>rsv<\/span>). The strong man is Satan; this “present evil age” (Gal 1:4) is his “house”; his “goods” are demon-possessed men and women. Jesus has invaded the strong man’s house to snatch away from him men and women whom he has in his power, and this is the work of the kingdom of God. The kingly reign of God has come into history in the person of Jesus before the apocalyptic consummation when Satan will be destroyed, to render Satan a preliminary defeat. Jesus has already “bound” Satan (i.e., curbed his power). This has been accomplished by the presence of the kingdom of God in the mission of Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>A similar saying is found in Luke 10:18. Jesus had sent a band of his disciples on a preaching mission. Like Jesus, they were to proclaim the nearness of the kingdom of God (Lk 10:9). They, too, were to exorcize demons. When they returned to Jesus to report their success, Jesus said, “I saw Satan fall like lightning from heaven” (v 18, <span>rsv<\/span>). This again is metaphorical language that asserts that in the mission of Jesus’ disciples, as well as in Jesus himself, Satan has fallen from his place of power. Both “binding” and “falling” are metaphors that describe the same truth: the victory of the kingdom of God over Satan.<\/p>\n<p>Here is the element that sets Jesus apart from the OT and from all of contemporary Judaism. The prophets conceived of the kingdom being established by a heavenly supernatural being (Dn 7) or ruled by a powerful Davidic messianic king (Is 9, 11). The fulfillment of the messianic hope is everywhere in the prophets an eschatological hope. The same is true of the Jewish writers who despaired of history and cast all hope into the future.<\/p>\n<p>In contrast to all that had gone before him, Jesus proclaimed the kingdom of God as an event taking place in his own person and mission. God had again assumed the initiative; God was acting. No first-century Jew had any idea of the kingdom of God coming into history in the person of an ordinary man—a teacher who was meek and lowly.<\/p>\n<p>The presence of the kingdom is further seen in the fact that the rule of God, present in Jesus, is a gift to be received. This is also true of the kingdom in its eschatological consummation, where the kingdom is freely inherited by the righteous (Mt 25:34). In answer to the young man’s question about inheriting eternal life (Mk 10:17), Jesus spoke of entering the kingdom (vv 23-24) and receiving the gift of eternal life (v 30) as though they were synonymous. The kingdom is a gift that the Father is pleased to bestow upon the little flock of Jesus’ disciples (Lk 12:32).<\/p>\n<p>If God’s eschatological rule brings to his people the blessings of that kingdom, and if God’s kingdom is his rule invading history before the eschatological consummation, then we may expect God’s rule in the present to bring a preliminary blessing to his people. This fact is reflected in numerous sayings. The kingdom is something to be sought here and now (Mt 6:33) and to be received as children receive a gift (Mk 10:15; Lk 18:16-17). Although it is present in an unexpected form, the kingdom of God in Jesus’ person is like a hidden treasure or a pearl of great price whose possession outranks all other goods (Mt 13:44-46). The gift of the kingdom is also seen in that the deaf hear, the blind see, lepers are cleansed, and the poor have good news preached to them (11:5).<\/p>\n<h5>John’s Gospel<\/h5>\n<p>In the Gospel of John the concept of eternal life takes the place of the kingdom of God in Jesus’ teaching. The kingdom of God is mentioned twice (Jn 3:3, 5), and it is placed in connection with eternal life. The kingdom of God is here the eschatological kingdom, and eternal life is the life of the kingdom. Thus, as the kingdom of God in the synoptic Gospels is both future and present, so eternal life is both the life of the age to come (12:25) and also a present blessing (3:16, etc.).<\/p>\n<h5>Acts<\/h5>\n<p>In Acts it seems the earliest disciples generally failed to understand Jesus’ message about the kingdom of God as a present spiritual blessing. They gathered together to await the coming of the eschatological kingdom to Israel (Acts 1:6). Acts relates that the disciples continued to preach the kingdom of God, but usually it is an eschatological blessing (8:12; 14:22; 19:8; 20:25; 28:23, 31). However, the last two references make the kingdom of God synonymous with the gospel about Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>One important theme in Acts is linked to that of the kingdom of God. On the Day of Pentecost, Peter announces that God has seated Jesus at his right hand in fulfillment of Psalm 110:1 (Acts 2:33-35). In the Psalms this is a prophecy of the enthronement of the Davidic king in Jerusalem. Peter asserts that this prophecy is now fulfilled in the heavenly reign of Jesus. Therefore, he has been made both Lord and Christ (Messiah). These are interchangeable terms, “Lord” meaning absolute sovereign, “Christ” meaning the messianic king.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Writings<\/h5>\n<p>Paul carried further this theme of the heavenly rule of Christ, the anointed King. The kingdom is both an eschatological inheritance (1 Cor 6:9; 15:50; Gal 5:21; Eph 5:5; 1 Thes 2:12; 2 Thes 1:5; 2 Tm 4:1, 18) and a present blessing into which believers now enter (Rom 14:17; Col 1:13). The key to this is the interchangeable character of lordship and messianic kingship. Jesus is now exalted as Lord over all (Phil 2:11), and even as his lordship is invisible, it will become manifest to all at his second coming. In the same way, he has been enthroned as messianic King by virtue of his resurrection and heavenly session, and he must reign as King until he has put all his enemies under his feet (1 Cor 15:25; Eph 1:22). The last enemy to be destroyed is death.<\/p>\n<h5>Revelation<\/h5>\n<p>The central message of the Revelation to John is the consummation of God’s redemptive purpose, when the kingdom of this world becomes the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ (Rv 11:15). Revelation pictures the plight of a persecuted church in a hostile world, but it assures the church that Christ has already won a victory over the powers of evil (5:5), by virtue of which he can finally destroy them (19:11–20:14). Again, the last enemy to be destroyed is death (20:13-14). Revelation closes with a highly symbolic picture of the kingdom of God (chs 21–22) when God comes to dwell among his people, and “they shall see his face” (22:4). Thus the NT ends: divine order is restored to a disordered world. This is the kingdom of God.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Jesus Christ, Teachings of; King; Parable.<\/p>","summary_ro":"KINGDOM OF GOD, KINGDOM OF HEAVEN The sovereign rule of God, initiated by Christ’s earthly ministry and consummated when the kingdom of the world becomes the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ (Rv 11:15). Preview • Introduction • Old Testament Background • In the New Testament Introduction According to the testimony of the first three Gospels, the proclamation of the kingdom of God was Jesus’ central message. Matthew summarizes the Galilean ministry with the words “Jesus traveled throughou...","summary_en":"KINGDOM OF GOD, KINGDOM OF HEAVEN The sovereign rule of God, initiated by Christ’s earthly ministry and consummated when the kingdom of the world becomes the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ (Rv 11:15). Preview • Introduction • Old Testament Background • In the New Testament Introduction According to the testimony of the first three Gospels, the proclamation of the kingdom of God was Jesus’ central message. Matthew summarizes the Galilean ministry with the words “Jesus traveled throughou...","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":54245,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:15","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:15<\/strong> The true <em>King of Israel<\/em> was always to be the Lord (Num 23:21; 1 Sam 8:7; Isa 44:6). • <em>will live among you:<\/em> See also Isa 54:4-8; 57:14-19; 62:10-12; Ezek 48:35; Joel 3:17, 21.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:15<\/strong> The true <em>King of Israel<\/em> was always to be the Lord (Num 23:21; 1 Sam 8:7; Isa 44:6). • <em>will live among you:<\/em> See also Isa 54:4-8; 57:14-19; 62:10-12; Ezek 48:35; Joel 3:17, 21.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:15 The true King of Israel was always to be the Lord (Num 23:21; 1 Sam 8:7; Isa 44:6). • will live among you: See also Isa 54:4-8; 57:14-19; 62:10-12; Ezek 48:35; Joel 3:17, 21.","summary_en":"3:15 The true King of Israel was always to be the Lord (Num 23:21; 1 Sam 8:7; Isa 44:6). • will live among you: See also Isa 54:4-8; 57:14-19; 62:10-12; Ezek 48:35; Joel 3:17, 21.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81871,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:15","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:15<\/strong> The true <em>King of Israel<\/em> was always to be the Lord (Num 23:21; 1 Sam 8:7; Isa 44:6). • <em>will live among you:<\/em> See also Isa 54:4-8; 57:14-19; 62:10-12; Ezek 48:35; Joel 3:17, 21.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:15<\/strong> The true <em>King of Israel<\/em> was always to be the Lord (Num 23:21; 1 Sam 8:7; Isa 44:6). • <em>will live among you:<\/em> See also Isa 54:4-8; 57:14-19; 62:10-12; Ezek 48:35; Joel 3:17, 21.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:15 The true King of Israel was always to be the Lord (Num 23:21; 1 Sam 8:7; Isa 44:6). • will live among you: See also Isa 54:4-8; 57:14-19; 62:10-12; Ezek 48:35; Joel 3:17, 21.","summary_en":"3:15 The true King of Israel was always to be the Lord (Num 23:21; 1 Sam 8:7; Isa 44:6). • will live among you: See also Isa 54:4-8; 57:14-19; 62:10-12; Ezek 48:35; Joel 3:17, 21.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109497,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:15","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:15<\/strong> The true <em>King of Israel<\/em> was always to be the Lord (Num 23:21; 1 Sam 8:7; Isa 44:6). • <em>will live among you:<\/em> See also Isa 54:4-8; 57:14-19; 62:10-12; Ezek 48:35; Joel 3:17, 21.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:15<\/strong> The true <em>King of Israel<\/em> was always to be the Lord (Num 23:21; 1 Sam 8:7; Isa 44:6). • <em>will live among you:<\/em> See also Isa 54:4-8; 57:14-19; 62:10-12; Ezek 48:35; Joel 3:17, 21.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:15 The true King of Israel was always to be the Lord (Num 23:21; 1 Sam 8:7; Isa 44:6). • will live among you: See also Isa 54:4-8; 57:14-19; 62:10-12; Ezek 48:35; Joel 3:17, 21.","summary_en":"3:15 The true King of Israel was always to be the Lord (Num 23:21; 1 Sam 8:7; Isa 44:6). • will live among you: See also Isa 54:4-8; 57:14-19; 62:10-12; Ezek 48:35; Joel 3:17, 21.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":137123,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:15","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:15<\/strong> The true <em>King of Israel<\/em> was always to be the Lord (Num 23:21; 1 Sam 8:7; Isa 44:6). • <em>will live among you:<\/em> See also Isa 54:4-8; 57:14-19; 62:10-12; Ezek 48:35; Joel 3:17, 21.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:15<\/strong> The true <em>King of Israel<\/em> was always to be the Lord (Num 23:21; 1 Sam 8:7; Isa 44:6). • <em>will live among you:<\/em> See also Isa 54:4-8; 57:14-19; 62:10-12; Ezek 48:35; Joel 3:17, 21.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:15 The true King of Israel was always to be the Lord (Num 23:21; 1 Sam 8:7; Isa 44:6). • will live among you: See also Isa 54:4-8; 57:14-19; 62:10-12; Ezek 48:35; Joel 3:17, 21.","summary_en":"3:15 The true King of Israel was always to be the Lord (Num 23:21; 1 Sam 8:7; Isa 44:6). • will live among you: See also Isa 54:4-8; 57:14-19; 62:10-12; Ezek 48:35; Joel 3:17, 21.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"16":[{"id":62972,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Zion","title_en":"Zion","content_ro":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\n<p>Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates <em>Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\n<p>Zion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\n<p>Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates <em>Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\n<p>Zion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","summary_en":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":90598,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Zion","title_en":"Zion","content_ro":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\n<p>Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates <em>Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\n<p>Zion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\n<p>Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates <em>Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\n<p>Zion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","summary_en":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":118224,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Zion","title_en":"Zion","content_ro":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\n<p>Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates <em>Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\n<p>Zion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\n<p>Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates <em>Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\n<p>Zion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","summary_en":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145850,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Zion","title_en":"Zion","content_ro":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\n<p>Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates <em>Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\n<p>Zion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Zion<\/h3>\n<p>Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates <em>Zion<\/em> as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 <span>BC<\/span> (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p>Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, the city in which he dwells (74:2; 76:2; 84:7; 135:21; see Isa 26). This city embodies trust, justice, righteousness, and commitment, for the Lord does not tolerate impurity, uncleanness, idolatry, injustice, or unrighteousness (Isa 1:21-28). The prophets and poets of Israel speak of the city of God as being more extensive than the physical city. The citizens of this city come from Judah, Israel, and the nations (see Ps 87:5-6; Heb 12:22-24). Zion is on a high mountain (Ps 48:2) at the center of God’s kingdom on earth (99:2; 132:13), and God’s throne is there (9:11). Therefore, godly prayers and praise focus on Zion (53:6; 65:1; 147:12; 149:2), and redemption is sought there (14:7; 20:2; 50:2; 53:6). David’s descendants are the legitimate heirs who rule over Zion to establish God’s universal kingdom (2:6; 110:2).<\/p>\n<p>Zion is symbolic of God’s protection and blessings (Pss 46:4-11; 48:1-14; 51:18; 128:5; 134:3). Anyone who trusts in the Lord is as secure as Mount Zion (125:1), but those who reject the Lord also reject the security of Zion and have no future (129:5-8).<\/p>\n<p>The New Testament speaks of Mount Zion as a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of those from all nations who have been reborn through faith in Jesus Christ (Heb 12:22-24; see also Gal 4:24-26; Rev 3:12; 21:2-4). Abraham looked forward in faith to “a city with eternal foundations” (Heb 11:10), a city in which all men and women of faith are citizens (Heb 12:22-24). Because the Lord knows no geographical limitations (1 Kgs 8:27), the true Zion he inhabits is the hearts of all who worship him.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>2 Sam 5:7; 1 Kgs 8:1; Pss 14:7; 48:1-14; 50:2; 51:18; 68:16; 78:68; 87:2, 5; 125:1; 128:5; 132:13; 133:3; 135:21; 147:12; Isa 1:27; 2:3; 3:16-17, 26; 4:3-5; 8:18; 10:12, 24, 32; 16:1; 24:23; 29:8; 30:19; 31:4, 9; 33:20; 37:22, 32; 40:9; 41:27; 52:1-2; 60:14; 62:1; 64:10; Jer 26:18; 51:35; Lam 2:13; Joel 2:32; 3:16-17; Amos 1:2; Obad 1:21; Mic 3:12; 4:2; Zeph 3:14, 16; Zech 1:14, 17; 2:7; 8:2-3; 9:9; Heb 12:22; Rev 14:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","summary_en":"Zion Zion is the Hebrew name for the mountain in Jerusalem where the Temple was located (2 Sam 5:7; see also 2 Chr 3:1). Zion is used as a synonym for Jerusalem, and the NLT often translates Zion as “Jerusalem” (e.g., Pss 69:35; 87:2; 97:8; 132:13). Thus Zion can refer to the actual, physical city of Jerusalem that was destroyed in 586 BC (see 102:13; 126:1; 137:1) and again in AD 70. Zion also signifies the city of God that transcends geographical location. Zion is God’s universal kingdom, t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"17":[{"id":39217,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Zephaniah","title_en":"Book of Zephaniah","content_ro":"<h3>ZEPHANIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the books of the Minor Prophets in the OT.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to the editorial heading (Zep 1:1), Zephaniah prophesied during the reign of Josiah (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>). His family tree is given in an unusually full form. Some scholars have suggested that his great-great-grandfather was King Hezekiah (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>). But remarkably there is no Jewish or Christian tradition to support the suggestion, which there probably would have been if it had been true. His own name, meaning “he whom the Lord protects or hides,” was not uncommon and was a testimony to the keeping power of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>Zephaniah probably prophesied around 630 <span>BC<\/span>. The fall of Nineveh (612 <span>BC<\/span>) had not yet occurred (2:13-15). Josiah’s reign falls into two periods, dividing at 622 <span>BC<\/span>. In that year, while the temple was being cleared of pagan articles, the Book of the Law was found, which gave momentum to Josiah’s religious reforms (2 Kgs 22). The unreformed state of affairs described by Zephaniah (Zep 1:4-12; 3:1-4) points to a date before 622, at least for his denunciations. The prophet addressed Judah, the southern kingdom, and in particular the civil and religious authorities in Jerusalem. He most probably prophesied during the reign of Josiah, who came to the throne at the age of eight.<\/p>\n<p>The negative parts of the book concerning the sin and punishment of Judah—now fulfilled—would serve as a serious warning against disobedience to God. Moreover, the fulfillment of Zephaniah’s prophetic threats would serve to enhance the positive side of the book, confirming the hope of completion in the experience of a fresh generation of God’s people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Politically, the Assyrian Empire had spread westward and held Palestine in its grip. The long reign of Manasseh (696–642 <span>BC<\/span>) had been a period of total subservience to Assyria. Political subservience as an Assyrian vassal meant religious subservience to the gods of Assyria, especially worship of the heavenly bodies (2 Kgs 21:5). Zephaniah complained of this sin (Zep 1:5). When the door opened to one foreign religion, others naturally came in. Once the exclusiveness of the worship of the God of Israel was abandoned, Palestinian cults were openly accepted. The Canaanite Baal was blatantly worshiped (2 Kgs 21:3), as Zephaniah attested (Zep 1:4). Zephaniah condemned the worshipers of Molech (v 5), who sacrificed children to the Ammonite god (1 Kgs 11:7; 2 Kgs 23:10). International imperialism meant a weakening of national culture, so that foreign customs were practiced, probably with religious overtones (Zep 1:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The reign of Josiah brought changes, marking a political and religious turning point. Assyria, preoccupied with troubles on the eastern and northern frontiers and unable to consolidate its acquisitions, became unable to reinforce its authority in the west. This weakness induced Josiah to launch a national liberation movement. He threw off the yoke of Assyria and expanded his sphere of influence northward into the territory of the old northern kingdom. From a religious standpoint, he completely dissociated himself and his country from the religions that prevailed in Judah and recalled the nation to a pure and exclusive faith in the God of Israel. The book of Zephaniah shows that there was at least one person who shared his ideals. His prophetic ministry undoubtedly paved the way for Josiah’s subsequent reformation. He was a contemporary of Jeremiah, at least for the early part of that prophet’s career (Jeremiah began prophesying in 627 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Scholars have suggested that Zephaniah’s prophesying was prompted in part by attacks of the Scythians. The Greek historian Herodotus tells how the barbaric Scythians overran western Asia and reached as far south as the Egyptian frontier at about the time that Zephaniah prophesied. There is now much less inclination to believe Herodotus’s tale and relate Zephaniah’s prophetic ministry to it. There is no objective evidence for Scythian attacks on so large a scale as Herodotus claimed. Probably Zephaniah spoke simply out of a theological necessity, as he himself claimed (e.g., 1:17). From his inspired standpoint, he foresaw that a clash involving divine intervention and human downfall was unavoidable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTeaching\">Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>As Zephaniah prophesied in God’s name, he denounced the religious sins of Judah and the corruption rampant among both civil and religious authorities. He foretold the downfall of the nation that actually occurred in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The moral and religious landslide could only culminate in a political avalanche of destruction that would engulf the nation. This avalanche is called by Zephaniah “the Day of the Lord.” It was not a new term, and the prophet knew that it would arouse terror in the hearts of his hearers. Amos used it, and even in his time it was well established (Am 5:18-20). Isaiah was the first to use the expression in the southern kingdom (Is 2:6-22, see v 12). In this, as in a number of respects, Zephaniah was a latter-day Isaiah called by God to reapply truths earlier prophesied by Isaiah to a later generation.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of the Day of the Lord refers to a time when the Lord would decisively intervene in the world to establish his sovereignty. Hostile elements would be swept aside. The enemies of God, sinners against his moral will, would be exposed and punished. It was associated with judgment upon those who did not acknowledge God’s sovereignty—especially Gentiles, but also sinful Israel. The emphasis on the suffering of God’s people was intended to correct the popular assumption that other nations would be the sole target of divine judgment.<\/p>\n<p>The “day” also would vindicate those who were loyal to God. It guaranteed the rehabilitation of his oppressed supporters. Zephaniah developed this two-sided phenomenon in order to communicate the truth of God to his own generation. It is “a day of the wrath of God” (Zep 1:15, 18; 2:2), when his reaction to human sin would be demonstrated. Its target was not only other nations but Judah as well, both Jerusalem, the capital (1:10-13), and the other cities of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>Zephaniah also had a positive message for the people of Judah. For the prophets, the message of salvation did not cancel the message of doom. Judgment would come first, then salvation would follow. But the period of tribulation could not be avoided. The prophet’s grim descriptions of “the day of wrath” are interpreted as dire warnings and implicit pleas to the people of Judah to abandon their complacent, sinful ways.<\/p>\n<p>Clearly, Zephaniah’s role under God was to reapply earlier truths sadly forgotten by his own generation. Zephaniah was able to foresee God’s judgment of Judah and the world. But he also proclaimed permanent truths concerning the nature of God and his providential relationship to the world and concerning the responsibilities of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of the book of Zephaniah for the NT lies in the phraseology about the Day of the Lord. There are a number of allusions to this aspect of his message (Mt 13:41 [Zep 1:3]; Rv 6:17 [1:14]; 14:5 [3:13]; 16:1 [3:8]). These echoes stress Zephaniah’s importance beyond his own time. He contributed to the total biblical picture of a God who intervenes in human history and will establish his kingdom. Zephaniah’s descriptions are a pattern for events that will mark the end of history.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>The heading (Zep 1:1) introduces Zephaniah, gives the historical setting, and above all stresses his meditation on the divine word.<\/p>\n<p>The first major part of the book is 1:2–2:3. It subdivides into four units: verses 2-7, 8-13, 14-18; 2:1-3. Verses 2-7 include Judah in a forecast of universal destruction. Zephaniah used traditional material to stress that God’s people were by no means exempt, as they often chose to believe (cf. Am 5:18-20). The prophet supported his startling revelation with reasoned statements regarding the religious deviations practiced in Jerusalem. The image of sacrifice was used ironically, portraying Judah as the victim.<\/p>\n<p>The national administration and members of the royal family were guilty (Zep 1:8-13). Superstitions were punctiliously observed, yet basic divine commands against stealing and fraudulent gain went unheeded. Zephaniah saw the enemy attack on the north side of Jerusalem as an illustration of God’s punishment of dishonest traders (cf. Am 8:5-6; Mi 6:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>There follows a shocking and terrifying description of the grimness of the coming “Day” (Zep 1:14-18). The prophet stirred up a complacent people who did not want to hear God’s message. He frightened them into reality with a monotonous drumbeat of doom and destruction. Judah would be the demoralized target of God’s wrath. Their wealth had secured luxurious imports but could not prevent divine judgment.<\/p>\n<p>The prophet completed his sermon with an appeal for repentance (2:1-3). Having emotionally stirred his audience from their apathy, he was able to bring the good news that all was not yet lost. A penitential assembly at the temple and the intercession of the spiritually minded and obedient among God’s people might prevent destruction. God’s punishment of foreign nations is described in the second main part of the book (2:4-15). Representative states are named to the west, east, south, and north of Judah. In the context of the previous material, it amplifies the universal nature of the Day of the Lord. Like the first part, it subdivides into four passages: verses 2:4-7, 8-11, 12, and 13-15.<\/p>\n<p>The subject of the first passage is the Philistines. In the case of the cities of Gaza and Ekron, there is a play on words typical of Hebrew prophecy. Both names contain doom within their very sound. The Philistines are labeled as trespassers because they were illegal immigrants from Crete into the Promised Land, which was intended for God’s own people.<\/p>\n<p>Zephaniah predicted that Moab and Ammon would suffer attack for their overbearing attitude and their annexation of Judean territory (2:8-11). God would come to the aid of his covenant people.<\/p>\n<p>The first two main sections have spelled out at length a message of judgment for both Judah and the surrounding nations. This twofold message is now repeated in a much shorter form in the third main section (3:1-8). Zephaniah criticized Jerusalem in its combined role of political capital and religious center. The responsibility of being God’s representatives rested too lightly on the shoulders of government and temple officials. Civil leaders abused their powers by demanding bribes and even killing their political opponents. Instead of being the shepherds of the people (cf. Ez 34), they were beasts of prey (cf. Ez 22:25-27). The prophets misused their gifts for their own selfish interests, while the priests broke the strict regulations of the temple. The lessons of history went unheeded; they had not learned caution and reverence. The conclusion is clear: Judah could not escape punishment in the coming Day of the Lord but would suffer with other nations.<\/p>\n<p>The outworking of God’s will for both Judah and the nations is in view in the final main section (Zep 3:9-20), but this time from a quite different aspect. Punishment was not God’s last word for his own people or even for the nations at large. Ultimately God’s will is not destruction but salvation (2 Pt 3:9). The section has three parts: Zephaniah 3:9-10, 11-13, and 14-20. Verses 9-10 deal with the conversion of the nations. This remarkable passage looks forward with divinely guaranteed certainty to the willing submission of Gentiles to the God of Israel. Their turning to God would not be based on human initiative but would originate in the providential activity of God. Lips defiled by worship of pagan gods would be purified and devoted solely to the adoration of the God of Israel. People from remote parts of the earth, here illustrated as the remote south beyond the Ethiopian Nile, would come as suppliants, as if they were scattered Jews returning home.<\/p>\n<p>God’s own people would be marked by a change of heart (3:11-13). By now they would have been purged of the proud people who put themselves before God in the sphere of politics and religion. They would be a purified people who humbly trusted in God. To them were promised the blessings of paradise.<\/p>\n<p>The last passage speaks of coming joys (3:14-20). The prophet projects himself into the future, to the time when God’s judgment would be over and the time of salvation had dawned. God’s people would rejoice in the presence of their Lord. Fear and demoralization would be canceled by God’s powerful presence and radiant joy. His joy would infectiously communicate itself to them so that they too would rejoice. Moreover, his joy would be a reaction to the transformation he was working in the lives of his people (v 17; “he will renew you in his love,” <span>rsv<\/span>). A necessary part of this transformation would feature the vindication of God’s suffering people. They would be brought to a position of honor, as the visible representatives of the God of glory. Ultimately, God’s power would be revealed through a people of power.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Josiah #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ZEPHANIAH, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the books of the Minor Prophets in the OT.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>According to the editorial heading (Zep 1:1), Zephaniah prophesied during the reign of Josiah (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>). His family tree is given in an unusually full form. Some scholars have suggested that his great-great-grandfather was King Hezekiah (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>). But remarkably there is no Jewish or Christian tradition to support the suggestion, which there probably would have been if it had been true. His own name, meaning “he whom the Lord protects or hides,” was not uncommon and was a testimony to the keeping power of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>Zephaniah probably prophesied around 630 <span>BC<\/span>. The fall of Nineveh (612 <span>BC<\/span>) had not yet occurred (2:13-15). Josiah’s reign falls into two periods, dividing at 622 <span>BC<\/span>. In that year, while the temple was being cleared of pagan articles, the Book of the Law was found, which gave momentum to Josiah’s religious reforms (2 Kgs 22). The unreformed state of affairs described by Zephaniah (Zep 1:4-12; 3:1-4) points to a date before 622, at least for his denunciations. The prophet addressed Judah, the southern kingdom, and in particular the civil and religious authorities in Jerusalem. He most probably prophesied during the reign of Josiah, who came to the throne at the age of eight.<\/p>\n<p>The negative parts of the book concerning the sin and punishment of Judah—now fulfilled—would serve as a serious warning against disobedience to God. Moreover, the fulfillment of Zephaniah’s prophetic threats would serve to enhance the positive side of the book, confirming the hope of completion in the experience of a fresh generation of God’s people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Politically, the Assyrian Empire had spread westward and held Palestine in its grip. The long reign of Manasseh (696–642 <span>BC<\/span>) had been a period of total subservience to Assyria. Political subservience as an Assyrian vassal meant religious subservience to the gods of Assyria, especially worship of the heavenly bodies (2 Kgs 21:5). Zephaniah complained of this sin (Zep 1:5). When the door opened to one foreign religion, others naturally came in. Once the exclusiveness of the worship of the God of Israel was abandoned, Palestinian cults were openly accepted. The Canaanite Baal was blatantly worshiped (2 Kgs 21:3), as Zephaniah attested (Zep 1:4). Zephaniah condemned the worshipers of Molech (v 5), who sacrificed children to the Ammonite god (1 Kgs 11:7; 2 Kgs 23:10). International imperialism meant a weakening of national culture, so that foreign customs were practiced, probably with religious overtones (Zep 1:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The reign of Josiah brought changes, marking a political and religious turning point. Assyria, preoccupied with troubles on the eastern and northern frontiers and unable to consolidate its acquisitions, became unable to reinforce its authority in the west. This weakness induced Josiah to launch a national liberation movement. He threw off the yoke of Assyria and expanded his sphere of influence northward into the territory of the old northern kingdom. From a religious standpoint, he completely dissociated himself and his country from the religions that prevailed in Judah and recalled the nation to a pure and exclusive faith in the God of Israel. The book of Zephaniah shows that there was at least one person who shared his ideals. His prophetic ministry undoubtedly paved the way for Josiah’s subsequent reformation. He was a contemporary of Jeremiah, at least for the early part of that prophet’s career (Jeremiah began prophesying in 627 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Scholars have suggested that Zephaniah’s prophesying was prompted in part by attacks of the Scythians. The Greek historian Herodotus tells how the barbaric Scythians overran western Asia and reached as far south as the Egyptian frontier at about the time that Zephaniah prophesied. There is now much less inclination to believe Herodotus’s tale and relate Zephaniah’s prophetic ministry to it. There is no objective evidence for Scythian attacks on so large a scale as Herodotus claimed. Probably Zephaniah spoke simply out of a theological necessity, as he himself claimed (e.g., 1:17). From his inspired standpoint, he foresaw that a clash involving divine intervention and human downfall was unavoidable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTeaching\">Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n<p>As Zephaniah prophesied in God’s name, he denounced the religious sins of Judah and the corruption rampant among both civil and religious authorities. He foretold the downfall of the nation that actually occurred in 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The moral and religious landslide could only culminate in a political avalanche of destruction that would engulf the nation. This avalanche is called by Zephaniah “the Day of the Lord.” It was not a new term, and the prophet knew that it would arouse terror in the hearts of his hearers. Amos used it, and even in his time it was well established (Am 5:18-20). Isaiah was the first to use the expression in the southern kingdom (Is 2:6-22, see v 12). In this, as in a number of respects, Zephaniah was a latter-day Isaiah called by God to reapply truths earlier prophesied by Isaiah to a later generation.<\/p>\n<p>The theme of the Day of the Lord refers to a time when the Lord would decisively intervene in the world to establish his sovereignty. Hostile elements would be swept aside. The enemies of God, sinners against his moral will, would be exposed and punished. It was associated with judgment upon those who did not acknowledge God’s sovereignty—especially Gentiles, but also sinful Israel. The emphasis on the suffering of God’s people was intended to correct the popular assumption that other nations would be the sole target of divine judgment.<\/p>\n<p>The “day” also would vindicate those who were loyal to God. It guaranteed the rehabilitation of his oppressed supporters. Zephaniah developed this two-sided phenomenon in order to communicate the truth of God to his own generation. It is “a day of the wrath of God” (Zep 1:15, 18; 2:2), when his reaction to human sin would be demonstrated. Its target was not only other nations but Judah as well, both Jerusalem, the capital (1:10-13), and the other cities of Judah.<\/p>\n<p>Zephaniah also had a positive message for the people of Judah. For the prophets, the message of salvation did not cancel the message of doom. Judgment would come first, then salvation would follow. But the period of tribulation could not be avoided. The prophet’s grim descriptions of “the day of wrath” are interpreted as dire warnings and implicit pleas to the people of Judah to abandon their complacent, sinful ways.<\/p>\n<p>Clearly, Zephaniah’s role under God was to reapply earlier truths sadly forgotten by his own generation. Zephaniah was able to foresee God’s judgment of Judah and the world. But he also proclaimed permanent truths concerning the nature of God and his providential relationship to the world and concerning the responsibilities of the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of the book of Zephaniah for the NT lies in the phraseology about the Day of the Lord. There are a number of allusions to this aspect of his message (Mt 13:41 [Zep 1:3]; Rv 6:17 [1:14]; 14:5 [3:13]; 16:1 [3:8]). These echoes stress Zephaniah’s importance beyond his own time. He contributed to the total biblical picture of a God who intervenes in human history and will establish his kingdom. Zephaniah’s descriptions are a pattern for events that will mark the end of history.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<p>The heading (Zep 1:1) introduces Zephaniah, gives the historical setting, and above all stresses his meditation on the divine word.<\/p>\n<p>The first major part of the book is 1:2–2:3. It subdivides into four units: verses 2-7, 8-13, 14-18; 2:1-3. Verses 2-7 include Judah in a forecast of universal destruction. Zephaniah used traditional material to stress that God’s people were by no means exempt, as they often chose to believe (cf. Am 5:18-20). The prophet supported his startling revelation with reasoned statements regarding the religious deviations practiced in Jerusalem. The image of sacrifice was used ironically, portraying Judah as the victim.<\/p>\n<p>The national administration and members of the royal family were guilty (Zep 1:8-13). Superstitions were punctiliously observed, yet basic divine commands against stealing and fraudulent gain went unheeded. Zephaniah saw the enemy attack on the north side of Jerusalem as an illustration of God’s punishment of dishonest traders (cf. Am 8:5-6; Mi 6:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>There follows a shocking and terrifying description of the grimness of the coming “Day” (Zep 1:14-18). The prophet stirred up a complacent people who did not want to hear God’s message. He frightened them into reality with a monotonous drumbeat of doom and destruction. Judah would be the demoralized target of God’s wrath. Their wealth had secured luxurious imports but could not prevent divine judgment.<\/p>\n<p>The prophet completed his sermon with an appeal for repentance (2:1-3). Having emotionally stirred his audience from their apathy, he was able to bring the good news that all was not yet lost. A penitential assembly at the temple and the intercession of the spiritually minded and obedient among God’s people might prevent destruction. God’s punishment of foreign nations is described in the second main part of the book (2:4-15). Representative states are named to the west, east, south, and north of Judah. In the context of the previous material, it amplifies the universal nature of the Day of the Lord. Like the first part, it subdivides into four passages: verses 2:4-7, 8-11, 12, and 13-15.<\/p>\n<p>The subject of the first passage is the Philistines. In the case of the cities of Gaza and Ekron, there is a play on words typical of Hebrew prophecy. Both names contain doom within their very sound. The Philistines are labeled as trespassers because they were illegal immigrants from Crete into the Promised Land, which was intended for God’s own people.<\/p>\n<p>Zephaniah predicted that Moab and Ammon would suffer attack for their overbearing attitude and their annexation of Judean territory (2:8-11). God would come to the aid of his covenant people.<\/p>\n<p>The first two main sections have spelled out at length a message of judgment for both Judah and the surrounding nations. This twofold message is now repeated in a much shorter form in the third main section (3:1-8). Zephaniah criticized Jerusalem in its combined role of political capital and religious center. The responsibility of being God’s representatives rested too lightly on the shoulders of government and temple officials. Civil leaders abused their powers by demanding bribes and even killing their political opponents. Instead of being the shepherds of the people (cf. Ez 34), they were beasts of prey (cf. Ez 22:25-27). The prophets misused their gifts for their own selfish interests, while the priests broke the strict regulations of the temple. The lessons of history went unheeded; they had not learned caution and reverence. The conclusion is clear: Judah could not escape punishment in the coming Day of the Lord but would suffer with other nations.<\/p>\n<p>The outworking of God’s will for both Judah and the nations is in view in the final main section (Zep 3:9-20), but this time from a quite different aspect. Punishment was not God’s last word for his own people or even for the nations at large. Ultimately God’s will is not destruction but salvation (2 Pt 3:9). The section has three parts: Zephaniah 3:9-10, 11-13, and 14-20. Verses 9-10 deal with the conversion of the nations. This remarkable passage looks forward with divinely guaranteed certainty to the willing submission of Gentiles to the God of Israel. Their turning to God would not be based on human initiative but would originate in the providential activity of God. Lips defiled by worship of pagan gods would be purified and devoted solely to the adoration of the God of Israel. People from remote parts of the earth, here illustrated as the remote south beyond the Ethiopian Nile, would come as suppliants, as if they were scattered Jews returning home.<\/p>\n<p>God’s own people would be marked by a change of heart (3:11-13). By now they would have been purged of the proud people who put themselves before God in the sphere of politics and religion. They would be a purified people who humbly trusted in God. To them were promised the blessings of paradise.<\/p>\n<p>The last passage speaks of coming joys (3:14-20). The prophet projects himself into the future, to the time when God’s judgment would be over and the time of salvation had dawned. God’s people would rejoice in the presence of their Lord. Fear and demoralization would be canceled by God’s powerful presence and radiant joy. His joy would infectiously communicate itself to them so that they too would rejoice. Moreover, his joy would be a reaction to the transformation he was working in the lives of his people (v 17; “he will renew you in his love,” <span>rsv<\/span>). A necessary part of this transformation would feature the vindication of God’s suffering people. They would be brought to a position of honor, as the visible representatives of the God of glory. Ultimately, God’s power would be revealed through a people of power.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Josiah #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ZEPHANIAH, Book of One of the books of the Minor Prophets in the OT. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Background • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author According to the editorial heading (Zep 1:1), Zephaniah prophesied during the reign of Josiah (640–609 BC). His family tree is given in an unusually full form. Some scholars have suggested that his great-great-grandfather was King Hezekiah (715–686 BC). But remarkably there is no Jewish or Christian tradition to support the ...","summary_en":"ZEPHANIAH, Book of One of the books of the Minor Prophets in the OT. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Background • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author According to the editorial heading (Zep 1:1), Zephaniah prophesied during the reign of Josiah (640–609 BC). His family tree is given in an unusually full form. Some scholars have suggested that his great-great-grandfather was King Hezekiah (715–686 BC). But remarkably there is no Jewish or Christian tradition to support the ...","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":54246,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:17","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:17<\/strong> <em>a mighty savior:<\/em> God was Israel’s Divine Warrior and Redeemer (see Ps 24:8-10; Isa 42:13; Hab 3:8-15). One of God’s titles is “the Mighty God” (Isa 10:21). This title also applies to the Messiah (Isa 9:6). • <em>He will rejoice over you:<\/em> Not only will Jerusalem and all Israel <em>rejoice<\/em> in God (Zeph 3:14) but God will also rejoice over them as a purified and faithful people (see 3:12-13).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:17<\/strong> <em>a mighty savior:<\/em> God was Israel’s Divine Warrior and Redeemer (see Ps 24:8-10; Isa 42:13; Hab 3:8-15). One of God’s titles is “the Mighty God” (Isa 10:21). This title also applies to the Messiah (Isa 9:6). • <em>He will rejoice over you:<\/em> Not only will Jerusalem and all Israel <em>rejoice<\/em> in God (Zeph 3:14) but God will also rejoice over them as a purified and faithful people (see 3:12-13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:17 a mighty savior: God was Israel’s Divine Warrior and Redeemer (see Ps 24:8-10; Isa 42:13; Hab 3:8-15). One of God’s titles is “the Mighty God” (Isa 10:21). This title also applies to the Messiah (Isa 9:6). • He will rejoice over you: Not only will Jerusalem and all Israel rejoice in God (Zeph 3:14) but God will also rejoice over them as a purified and faithful people (see 3:12-13).","summary_en":"3:17 a mighty savior: God was Israel’s Divine Warrior and Redeemer (see Ps 24:8-10; Isa 42:13; Hab 3:8-15). One of God’s titles is “the Mighty God” (Isa 10:21). This title also applies to the Messiah (Isa 9:6). • He will rejoice over you: Not only will Jerusalem and all Israel rejoice in God (Zeph 3:14) but God will also rejoice over them as a purified and faithful people (see 3:12-13).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81872,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:17","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:17<\/strong> <em>a mighty savior:<\/em> God was Israel’s Divine Warrior and Redeemer (see Ps 24:8-10; Isa 42:13; Hab 3:8-15). One of God’s titles is “the Mighty God” (Isa 10:21). This title also applies to the Messiah (Isa 9:6). • <em>He will rejoice over you:<\/em> Not only will Jerusalem and all Israel <em>rejoice<\/em> in God (Zeph 3:14) but God will also rejoice over them as a purified and faithful people (see 3:12-13).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:17<\/strong> <em>a mighty savior:<\/em> God was Israel’s Divine Warrior and Redeemer (see Ps 24:8-10; Isa 42:13; Hab 3:8-15). One of God’s titles is “the Mighty God” (Isa 10:21). This title also applies to the Messiah (Isa 9:6). • <em>He will rejoice over you:<\/em> Not only will Jerusalem and all Israel <em>rejoice<\/em> in God (Zeph 3:14) but God will also rejoice over them as a purified and faithful people (see 3:12-13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:17 a mighty savior: God was Israel’s Divine Warrior and Redeemer (see Ps 24:8-10; Isa 42:13; Hab 3:8-15). One of God’s titles is “the Mighty God” (Isa 10:21). This title also applies to the Messiah (Isa 9:6). • He will rejoice over you: Not only will Jerusalem and all Israel rejoice in God (Zeph 3:14) but God will also rejoice over them as a purified and faithful people (see 3:12-13).","summary_en":"3:17 a mighty savior: God was Israel’s Divine Warrior and Redeemer (see Ps 24:8-10; Isa 42:13; Hab 3:8-15). One of God’s titles is “the Mighty God” (Isa 10:21). This title also applies to the Messiah (Isa 9:6). • He will rejoice over you: Not only will Jerusalem and all Israel rejoice in God (Zeph 3:14) but God will also rejoice over them as a purified and faithful people (see 3:12-13).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109498,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:17","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:17<\/strong> <em>a mighty savior:<\/em> God was Israel’s Divine Warrior and Redeemer (see Ps 24:8-10; Isa 42:13; Hab 3:8-15). One of God’s titles is “the Mighty God” (Isa 10:21). This title also applies to the Messiah (Isa 9:6). • <em>He will rejoice over you:<\/em> Not only will Jerusalem and all Israel <em>rejoice<\/em> in God (Zeph 3:14) but God will also rejoice over them as a purified and faithful people (see 3:12-13).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:17<\/strong> <em>a mighty savior:<\/em> God was Israel’s Divine Warrior and Redeemer (see Ps 24:8-10; Isa 42:13; Hab 3:8-15). One of God’s titles is “the Mighty God” (Isa 10:21). This title also applies to the Messiah (Isa 9:6). • <em>He will rejoice over you:<\/em> Not only will Jerusalem and all Israel <em>rejoice<\/em> in God (Zeph 3:14) but God will also rejoice over them as a purified and faithful people (see 3:12-13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:17 a mighty savior: God was Israel’s Divine Warrior and Redeemer (see Ps 24:8-10; Isa 42:13; Hab 3:8-15). One of God’s titles is “the Mighty God” (Isa 10:21). This title also applies to the Messiah (Isa 9:6). • He will rejoice over you: Not only will Jerusalem and all Israel rejoice in God (Zeph 3:14) but God will also rejoice over them as a purified and faithful people (see 3:12-13).","summary_en":"3:17 a mighty savior: God was Israel’s Divine Warrior and Redeemer (see Ps 24:8-10; Isa 42:13; Hab 3:8-15). One of God’s titles is “the Mighty God” (Isa 10:21). This title also applies to the Messiah (Isa 9:6). • He will rejoice over you: Not only will Jerusalem and all Israel rejoice in God (Zeph 3:14) but God will also rejoice over them as a purified and faithful people (see 3:12-13).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":137124,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:17","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:17<\/strong> <em>a mighty savior:<\/em> God was Israel’s Divine Warrior and Redeemer (see Ps 24:8-10; Isa 42:13; Hab 3:8-15). One of God’s titles is “the Mighty God” (Isa 10:21). This title also applies to the Messiah (Isa 9:6). • <em>He will rejoice over you:<\/em> Not only will Jerusalem and all Israel <em>rejoice<\/em> in God (Zeph 3:14) but God will also rejoice over them as a purified and faithful people (see 3:12-13).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:17<\/strong> <em>a mighty savior:<\/em> God was Israel’s Divine Warrior and Redeemer (see Ps 24:8-10; Isa 42:13; Hab 3:8-15). One of God’s titles is “the Mighty God” (Isa 10:21). This title also applies to the Messiah (Isa 9:6). • <em>He will rejoice over you:<\/em> Not only will Jerusalem and all Israel <em>rejoice<\/em> in God (Zeph 3:14) but God will also rejoice over them as a purified and faithful people (see 3:12-13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:17 a mighty savior: God was Israel’s Divine Warrior and Redeemer (see Ps 24:8-10; Isa 42:13; Hab 3:8-15). One of God’s titles is “the Mighty God” (Isa 10:21). This title also applies to the Messiah (Isa 9:6). • He will rejoice over you: Not only will Jerusalem and all Israel rejoice in God (Zeph 3:14) but God will also rejoice over them as a purified and faithful people (see 3:12-13).","summary_en":"3:17 a mighty savior: God was Israel’s Divine Warrior and Redeemer (see Ps 24:8-10; Isa 42:13; Hab 3:8-15). One of God’s titles is “the Mighty God” (Isa 10:21). This title also applies to the Messiah (Isa 9:6). • He will rejoice over you: Not only will Jerusalem and all Israel rejoice in God (Zeph 3:14) but God will also rejoice over them as a purified and faithful people (see 3:12-13).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":61294,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Celebration","title_en":"Celebration","content_ro":"<h3>Celebration<\/h3>\n<p>God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">karar<\/span> (2 Sam 6:14, 16), <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pazaz<\/span> (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">raqad<\/span> (1 Chr 15:29, “skipping about”). All three words refer to vigorous physical expression beyond the meaning of the Hebrew term for “celebrate” used in David’s first attempt (2 Sam 6:5). Thus, in the first procession, David celebrated; in the second procession he engaged in exultant dancing and extravagant merrymaking with intensified musical expression through the addition of shouting and trumpets.<\/p>\n<p>Musical instruments played a significant role in Temple worship. In 1 Chronicles 25:1-31, David assigned various groups to the ministry of music. Many psalms refer to playing musical instruments in praise and worship of God (see Pss 33:2-3; 57:8; 81:2; 92:1-3; 98:4-6). In Pss 149 and 150, dance and music are combined as a praise offering. Similarly, music and dancing were heard in the father’s house in the parable of the lost son (Luke 15:25), as the son’s return was truly a joyful occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation gives a picture of the eternal celebration that awaits the faithful—a celebration characterized by worship in the presence of God (Rev 4:1-11; 5:8-14; 15:1-4). This celebration is described as a wedding feast, in which the bridegroom (Christ) and the bride (his church) are joined together forever (Rev 19:9; see also Matt 22:1-14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 5:1; 12:17; 15:20-21; 1 Sam 18:6; 2 Sam 6:1-15; 2 Chr 7:6-10; Ezra 3:10-11; Pss 30:11; 69:30; 98:4-6; 107:32; 149:1-9; 150:1-6; Isa 30:29; 54:1; Jer 30:18-19; 31:4, 13; Lam 5:14-15; Zeph 3:17; Luke 15:22-25; 1 Cor 5:8; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Rev 18:20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Celebration<\/h3>\n<p>God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">karar<\/span> (2 Sam 6:14, 16), <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pazaz<\/span> (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">raqad<\/span> (1 Chr 15:29, “skipping about”). All three words refer to vigorous physical expression beyond the meaning of the Hebrew term for “celebrate” used in David’s first attempt (2 Sam 6:5). Thus, in the first procession, David celebrated; in the second procession he engaged in exultant dancing and extravagant merrymaking with intensified musical expression through the addition of shouting and trumpets.<\/p>\n<p>Musical instruments played a significant role in Temple worship. In 1 Chronicles 25:1-31, David assigned various groups to the ministry of music. Many psalms refer to playing musical instruments in praise and worship of God (see Pss 33:2-3; 57:8; 81:2; 92:1-3; 98:4-6). In Pss 149 and 150, dance and music are combined as a praise offering. Similarly, music and dancing were heard in the father’s house in the parable of the lost son (Luke 15:25), as the son’s return was truly a joyful occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation gives a picture of the eternal celebration that awaits the faithful—a celebration characterized by worship in the presence of God (Rev 4:1-11; 5:8-14; 15:1-4). This celebration is described as a wedding feast, in which the bridegroom (Christ) and the bride (his church) are joined together forever (Rev 19:9; see also Matt 22:1-14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 5:1; 12:17; 15:20-21; 1 Sam 18:6; 2 Sam 6:1-15; 2 Chr 7:6-10; Ezra 3:10-11; Pss 30:11; 69:30; 98:4-6; 107:32; 149:1-9; 150:1-6; Isa 30:29; 54:1; Jer 30:18-19; 31:4, 13; Lam 5:14-15; Zeph 3:17; Luke 15:22-25; 1 Cor 5:8; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Rev 18:20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Celebration God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): karar (2 Sam 6:14, 16), pazaz (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and raqad (1 Chr 15:29, “skippin...","summary_en":"Celebration God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): karar (2 Sam 6:14, 16), pazaz (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and raqad (1 Chr 15:29, “skippin...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":88920,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Celebration","title_en":"Celebration","content_ro":"<h3>Celebration<\/h3>\n<p>God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">karar<\/span> (2 Sam 6:14, 16), <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pazaz<\/span> (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">raqad<\/span> (1 Chr 15:29, “skipping about”). All three words refer to vigorous physical expression beyond the meaning of the Hebrew term for “celebrate” used in David’s first attempt (2 Sam 6:5). Thus, in the first procession, David celebrated; in the second procession he engaged in exultant dancing and extravagant merrymaking with intensified musical expression through the addition of shouting and trumpets.<\/p>\n<p>Musical instruments played a significant role in Temple worship. In 1 Chronicles 25:1-31, David assigned various groups to the ministry of music. Many psalms refer to playing musical instruments in praise and worship of God (see Pss 33:2-3; 57:8; 81:2; 92:1-3; 98:4-6). In Pss 149 and 150, dance and music are combined as a praise offering. Similarly, music and dancing were heard in the father’s house in the parable of the lost son (Luke 15:25), as the son’s return was truly a joyful occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation gives a picture of the eternal celebration that awaits the faithful—a celebration characterized by worship in the presence of God (Rev 4:1-11; 5:8-14; 15:1-4). This celebration is described as a wedding feast, in which the bridegroom (Christ) and the bride (his church) are joined together forever (Rev 19:9; see also Matt 22:1-14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 5:1; 12:17; 15:20-21; 1 Sam 18:6; 2 Sam 6:1-15; 2 Chr 7:6-10; Ezra 3:10-11; Pss 30:11; 69:30; 98:4-6; 107:32; 149:1-9; 150:1-6; Isa 30:29; 54:1; Jer 30:18-19; 31:4, 13; Lam 5:14-15; Zeph 3:17; Luke 15:22-25; 1 Cor 5:8; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Rev 18:20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Celebration<\/h3>\n<p>God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">karar<\/span> (2 Sam 6:14, 16), <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pazaz<\/span> (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">raqad<\/span> (1 Chr 15:29, “skipping about”). All three words refer to vigorous physical expression beyond the meaning of the Hebrew term for “celebrate” used in David’s first attempt (2 Sam 6:5). Thus, in the first procession, David celebrated; in the second procession he engaged in exultant dancing and extravagant merrymaking with intensified musical expression through the addition of shouting and trumpets.<\/p>\n<p>Musical instruments played a significant role in Temple worship. In 1 Chronicles 25:1-31, David assigned various groups to the ministry of music. Many psalms refer to playing musical instruments in praise and worship of God (see Pss 33:2-3; 57:8; 81:2; 92:1-3; 98:4-6). In Pss 149 and 150, dance and music are combined as a praise offering. Similarly, music and dancing were heard in the father’s house in the parable of the lost son (Luke 15:25), as the son’s return was truly a joyful occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation gives a picture of the eternal celebration that awaits the faithful—a celebration characterized by worship in the presence of God (Rev 4:1-11; 5:8-14; 15:1-4). This celebration is described as a wedding feast, in which the bridegroom (Christ) and the bride (his church) are joined together forever (Rev 19:9; see also Matt 22:1-14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 5:1; 12:17; 15:20-21; 1 Sam 18:6; 2 Sam 6:1-15; 2 Chr 7:6-10; Ezra 3:10-11; Pss 30:11; 69:30; 98:4-6; 107:32; 149:1-9; 150:1-6; Isa 30:29; 54:1; Jer 30:18-19; 31:4, 13; Lam 5:14-15; Zeph 3:17; Luke 15:22-25; 1 Cor 5:8; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Rev 18:20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Celebration God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): karar (2 Sam 6:14, 16), pazaz (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and raqad (1 Chr 15:29, “skippin...","summary_en":"Celebration God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): karar (2 Sam 6:14, 16), pazaz (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and raqad (1 Chr 15:29, “skippin...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":116546,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Celebration","title_en":"Celebration","content_ro":"<h3>Celebration<\/h3>\n<p>God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">karar<\/span> (2 Sam 6:14, 16), <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pazaz<\/span> (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">raqad<\/span> (1 Chr 15:29, “skipping about”). All three words refer to vigorous physical expression beyond the meaning of the Hebrew term for “celebrate” used in David’s first attempt (2 Sam 6:5). Thus, in the first procession, David celebrated; in the second procession he engaged in exultant dancing and extravagant merrymaking with intensified musical expression through the addition of shouting and trumpets.<\/p>\n<p>Musical instruments played a significant role in Temple worship. In 1 Chronicles 25:1-31, David assigned various groups to the ministry of music. Many psalms refer to playing musical instruments in praise and worship of God (see Pss 33:2-3; 57:8; 81:2; 92:1-3; 98:4-6). In Pss 149 and 150, dance and music are combined as a praise offering. Similarly, music and dancing were heard in the father’s house in the parable of the lost son (Luke 15:25), as the son’s return was truly a joyful occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation gives a picture of the eternal celebration that awaits the faithful—a celebration characterized by worship in the presence of God (Rev 4:1-11; 5:8-14; 15:1-4). This celebration is described as a wedding feast, in which the bridegroom (Christ) and the bride (his church) are joined together forever (Rev 19:9; see also Matt 22:1-14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 5:1; 12:17; 15:20-21; 1 Sam 18:6; 2 Sam 6:1-15; 2 Chr 7:6-10; Ezra 3:10-11; Pss 30:11; 69:30; 98:4-6; 107:32; 149:1-9; 150:1-6; Isa 30:29; 54:1; Jer 30:18-19; 31:4, 13; Lam 5:14-15; Zeph 3:17; Luke 15:22-25; 1 Cor 5:8; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Rev 18:20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Celebration<\/h3>\n<p>God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">karar<\/span> (2 Sam 6:14, 16), <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pazaz<\/span> (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">raqad<\/span> (1 Chr 15:29, “skipping about”). All three words refer to vigorous physical expression beyond the meaning of the Hebrew term for “celebrate” used in David’s first attempt (2 Sam 6:5). Thus, in the first procession, David celebrated; in the second procession he engaged in exultant dancing and extravagant merrymaking with intensified musical expression through the addition of shouting and trumpets.<\/p>\n<p>Musical instruments played a significant role in Temple worship. In 1 Chronicles 25:1-31, David assigned various groups to the ministry of music. Many psalms refer to playing musical instruments in praise and worship of God (see Pss 33:2-3; 57:8; 81:2; 92:1-3; 98:4-6). In Pss 149 and 150, dance and music are combined as a praise offering. Similarly, music and dancing were heard in the father’s house in the parable of the lost son (Luke 15:25), as the son’s return was truly a joyful occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation gives a picture of the eternal celebration that awaits the faithful—a celebration characterized by worship in the presence of God (Rev 4:1-11; 5:8-14; 15:1-4). This celebration is described as a wedding feast, in which the bridegroom (Christ) and the bride (his church) are joined together forever (Rev 19:9; see also Matt 22:1-14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 5:1; 12:17; 15:20-21; 1 Sam 18:6; 2 Sam 6:1-15; 2 Chr 7:6-10; Ezra 3:10-11; Pss 30:11; 69:30; 98:4-6; 107:32; 149:1-9; 150:1-6; Isa 30:29; 54:1; Jer 30:18-19; 31:4, 13; Lam 5:14-15; Zeph 3:17; Luke 15:22-25; 1 Cor 5:8; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Rev 18:20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Celebration God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): karar (2 Sam 6:14, 16), pazaz (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and raqad (1 Chr 15:29, “skippin...","summary_en":"Celebration God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): karar (2 Sam 6:14, 16), pazaz (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and raqad (1 Chr 15:29, “skippin...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":144172,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Celebration","title_en":"Celebration","content_ro":"<h3>Celebration<\/h3>\n<p>God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">karar<\/span> (2 Sam 6:14, 16), <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pazaz<\/span> (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">raqad<\/span> (1 Chr 15:29, “skipping about”). All three words refer to vigorous physical expression beyond the meaning of the Hebrew term for “celebrate” used in David’s first attempt (2 Sam 6:5). Thus, in the first procession, David celebrated; in the second procession he engaged in exultant dancing and extravagant merrymaking with intensified musical expression through the addition of shouting and trumpets.<\/p>\n<p>Musical instruments played a significant role in Temple worship. In 1 Chronicles 25:1-31, David assigned various groups to the ministry of music. Many psalms refer to playing musical instruments in praise and worship of God (see Pss 33:2-3; 57:8; 81:2; 92:1-3; 98:4-6). In Pss 149 and 150, dance and music are combined as a praise offering. Similarly, music and dancing were heard in the father’s house in the parable of the lost son (Luke 15:25), as the son’s return was truly a joyful occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation gives a picture of the eternal celebration that awaits the faithful—a celebration characterized by worship in the presence of God (Rev 4:1-11; 5:8-14; 15:1-4). This celebration is described as a wedding feast, in which the bridegroom (Christ) and the bride (his church) are joined together forever (Rev 19:9; see also Matt 22:1-14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 5:1; 12:17; 15:20-21; 1 Sam 18:6; 2 Sam 6:1-15; 2 Chr 7:6-10; Ezra 3:10-11; Pss 30:11; 69:30; 98:4-6; 107:32; 149:1-9; 150:1-6; Isa 30:29; 54:1; Jer 30:18-19; 31:4, 13; Lam 5:14-15; Zeph 3:17; Luke 15:22-25; 1 Cor 5:8; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Rev 18:20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Celebration<\/h3>\n<p>God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">karar<\/span> (2 Sam 6:14, 16), <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pazaz<\/span> (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">raqad<\/span> (1 Chr 15:29, “skipping about”). All three words refer to vigorous physical expression beyond the meaning of the Hebrew term for “celebrate” used in David’s first attempt (2 Sam 6:5). Thus, in the first procession, David celebrated; in the second procession he engaged in exultant dancing and extravagant merrymaking with intensified musical expression through the addition of shouting and trumpets.<\/p>\n<p>Musical instruments played a significant role in Temple worship. In 1 Chronicles 25:1-31, David assigned various groups to the ministry of music. Many psalms refer to playing musical instruments in praise and worship of God (see Pss 33:2-3; 57:8; 81:2; 92:1-3; 98:4-6). In Pss 149 and 150, dance and music are combined as a praise offering. Similarly, music and dancing were heard in the father’s house in the parable of the lost son (Luke 15:25), as the son’s return was truly a joyful occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation gives a picture of the eternal celebration that awaits the faithful—a celebration characterized by worship in the presence of God (Rev 4:1-11; 5:8-14; 15:1-4). This celebration is described as a wedding feast, in which the bridegroom (Christ) and the bride (his church) are joined together forever (Rev 19:9; see also Matt 22:1-14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 5:1; 12:17; 15:20-21; 1 Sam 18:6; 2 Sam 6:1-15; 2 Chr 7:6-10; Ezra 3:10-11; Pss 30:11; 69:30; 98:4-6; 107:32; 149:1-9; 150:1-6; Isa 30:29; 54:1; Jer 30:18-19; 31:4, 13; Lam 5:14-15; Zeph 3:17; Luke 15:22-25; 1 Cor 5:8; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Rev 18:20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Celebration God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): karar (2 Sam 6:14, 16), pazaz (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and raqad (1 Chr 15:29, “skippin...","summary_en":"Celebration God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): karar (2 Sam 6:14, 16), pazaz (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and raqad (1 Chr 15:29, “skippin...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"18":[{"id":54247,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:18","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:18-20<\/strong> The repeated use of <em>I will<\/em> in these verses underscores God’s further assurances to his people.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:18-20<\/strong> The repeated use of <em>I will<\/em> in these verses underscores God’s further assurances to his people.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:18-20 The repeated use of I will in these verses underscores God’s further assurances to his people.","summary_en":"3:18-20 The repeated use of I will in these verses underscores God’s further assurances to his people.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":54248,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:18","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:18<\/strong> <em>I will gather you . . . disgraced no more:<\/em> The Lord’s assurance stands in stark contrast to the pronouncements at the beginning of the book, when God threatened to gather the nations to sweep the people of Judah from the face of the earth (1:2-4). Now he promises to gather up those who have been driven from Jerusalem and lead them safely home.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:18<\/strong> <em>I will gather you . . . disgraced no more:<\/em> The Lord’s assurance stands in stark contrast to the pronouncements at the beginning of the book, when God threatened to gather the nations to sweep the people of Judah from the face of the earth (1:2-4). Now he promises to gather up those who have been driven from Jerusalem and lead them safely home.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:18 I will gather you . . . disgraced no more: The Lord’s assurance stands in stark contrast to the pronouncements at the beginning of the book, when God threatened to gather the nations to sweep the people of Judah from the face of the earth (1:2-4). Now he promises to gather up those who have been driven from Jerusalem and lead them safely home.","summary_en":"3:18 I will gather you . . . disgraced no more: The Lord’s assurance stands in stark contrast to the pronouncements at the beginning of the book, when God threatened to gather the nations to sweep the people of Judah from the face of the earth (1:2-4). Now he promises to gather up those who have been driven from Jerusalem and lead them safely home.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81873,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:18","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:18-20<\/strong> The repeated use of <em>I will<\/em> in these verses underscores God’s further assurances to his people.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:18-20<\/strong> The repeated use of <em>I will<\/em> in these verses underscores God’s further assurances to his people.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:18-20 The repeated use of I will in these verses underscores God’s further assurances to his people.","summary_en":"3:18-20 The repeated use of I will in these verses underscores God’s further assurances to his people.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81874,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:18","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:18<\/strong> <em>I will gather you . . . disgraced no more:<\/em> The Lord’s assurance stands in stark contrast to the pronouncements at the beginning of the book, when God threatened to gather the nations to sweep the people of Judah from the face of the earth (1:2-4). Now he promises to gather up those who have been driven from Jerusalem and lead them safely home.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:18<\/strong> <em>I will gather you . . . disgraced no more:<\/em> The Lord’s assurance stands in stark contrast to the pronouncements at the beginning of the book, when God threatened to gather the nations to sweep the people of Judah from the face of the earth (1:2-4). Now he promises to gather up those who have been driven from Jerusalem and lead them safely home.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:18 I will gather you . . . disgraced no more: The Lord’s assurance stands in stark contrast to the pronouncements at the beginning of the book, when God threatened to gather the nations to sweep the people of Judah from the face of the earth (1:2-4). Now he promises to gather up those who have been driven from Jerusalem and lead them safely home.","summary_en":"3:18 I will gather you . . . disgraced no more: The Lord’s assurance stands in stark contrast to the pronouncements at the beginning of the book, when God threatened to gather the nations to sweep the people of Judah from the face of the earth (1:2-4). Now he promises to gather up those who have been driven from Jerusalem and lead them safely home.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109499,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:18","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:18-20<\/strong> The repeated use of <em>I will<\/em> in these verses underscores God’s further assurances to his people.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:18-20<\/strong> The repeated use of <em>I will<\/em> in these verses underscores God’s further assurances to his people.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:18-20 The repeated use of I will in these verses underscores God’s further assurances to his people.","summary_en":"3:18-20 The repeated use of I will in these verses underscores God’s further assurances to his people.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109500,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:18","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:18<\/strong> <em>I will gather you . . . disgraced no more:<\/em> The Lord’s assurance stands in stark contrast to the pronouncements at the beginning of the book, when God threatened to gather the nations to sweep the people of Judah from the face of the earth (1:2-4). Now he promises to gather up those who have been driven from Jerusalem and lead them safely home.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:18<\/strong> <em>I will gather you . . . disgraced no more:<\/em> The Lord’s assurance stands in stark contrast to the pronouncements at the beginning of the book, when God threatened to gather the nations to sweep the people of Judah from the face of the earth (1:2-4). Now he promises to gather up those who have been driven from Jerusalem and lead them safely home.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:18 I will gather you . . . disgraced no more: The Lord’s assurance stands in stark contrast to the pronouncements at the beginning of the book, when God threatened to gather the nations to sweep the people of Judah from the face of the earth (1:2-4). Now he promises to gather up those who have been driven from Jerusalem and lead them safely home.","summary_en":"3:18 I will gather you . . . disgraced no more: The Lord’s assurance stands in stark contrast to the pronouncements at the beginning of the book, when God threatened to gather the nations to sweep the people of Judah from the face of the earth (1:2-4). Now he promises to gather up those who have been driven from Jerusalem and lead them safely home.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":137125,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:18","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:18-20<\/strong> The repeated use of <em>I will<\/em> in these verses underscores God’s further assurances to his people.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:18-20<\/strong> The repeated use of <em>I will<\/em> in these verses underscores God’s further assurances to his people.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:18-20 The repeated use of I will in these verses underscores God’s further assurances to his people.","summary_en":"3:18-20 The repeated use of I will in these verses underscores God’s further assurances to his people.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":137126,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:18","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:18<\/strong> <em>I will gather you . . . disgraced no more:<\/em> The Lord’s assurance stands in stark contrast to the pronouncements at the beginning of the book, when God threatened to gather the nations to sweep the people of Judah from the face of the earth (1:2-4). Now he promises to gather up those who have been driven from Jerusalem and lead them safely home.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:18<\/strong> <em>I will gather you . . . disgraced no more:<\/em> The Lord’s assurance stands in stark contrast to the pronouncements at the beginning of the book, when God threatened to gather the nations to sweep the people of Judah from the face of the earth (1:2-4). Now he promises to gather up those who have been driven from Jerusalem and lead them safely home.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:18 I will gather you . . . disgraced no more: The Lord’s assurance stands in stark contrast to the pronouncements at the beginning of the book, when God threatened to gather the nations to sweep the people of Judah from the face of the earth (1:2-4). Now he promises to gather up those who have been driven from Jerusalem and lead them safely home.","summary_en":"3:18 I will gather you . . . disgraced no more: The Lord’s assurance stands in stark contrast to the pronouncements at the beginning of the book, when God threatened to gather the nations to sweep the people of Judah from the face of the earth (1:2-4). Now he promises to gather up those who have been driven from Jerusalem and lead them safely home.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"19":[{"id":54249,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:19","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:19<\/strong> God will turn his people’s former shame into <em>glory and fame<\/em> (see Deut 26:19; Isa 62:7; Mic 4:6-8; cp. 1 Pet 5:4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:19<\/strong> God will turn his people’s former shame into <em>glory and fame<\/em> (see Deut 26:19; Isa 62:7; Mic 4:6-8; cp. 1 Pet 5:4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:19 God will turn his people’s former shame into glory and fame (see Deut 26:19; Isa 62:7; Mic 4:6-8; cp. 1 Pet 5:4).","summary_en":"3:19 God will turn his people’s former shame into glory and fame (see Deut 26:19; Isa 62:7; Mic 4:6-8; cp. 1 Pet 5:4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81875,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:19","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:19<\/strong> God will turn his people’s former shame into <em>glory and fame<\/em> (see Deut 26:19; Isa 62:7; Mic 4:6-8; cp. 1 Pet 5:4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:19<\/strong> God will turn his people’s former shame into <em>glory and fame<\/em> (see Deut 26:19; Isa 62:7; Mic 4:6-8; cp. 1 Pet 5:4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:19 God will turn his people’s former shame into glory and fame (see Deut 26:19; Isa 62:7; Mic 4:6-8; cp. 1 Pet 5:4).","summary_en":"3:19 God will turn his people’s former shame into glory and fame (see Deut 26:19; Isa 62:7; Mic 4:6-8; cp. 1 Pet 5:4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109501,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:19","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:19<\/strong> God will turn his people’s former shame into <em>glory and fame<\/em> (see Deut 26:19; Isa 62:7; Mic 4:6-8; cp. 1 Pet 5:4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:19<\/strong> God will turn his people’s former shame into <em>glory and fame<\/em> (see Deut 26:19; Isa 62:7; Mic 4:6-8; cp. 1 Pet 5:4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:19 God will turn his people’s former shame into glory and fame (see Deut 26:19; Isa 62:7; Mic 4:6-8; cp. 1 Pet 5:4).","summary_en":"3:19 God will turn his people’s former shame into glory and fame (see Deut 26:19; Isa 62:7; Mic 4:6-8; cp. 1 Pet 5:4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":137127,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:19","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:19<\/strong> God will turn his people’s former shame into <em>glory and fame<\/em> (see Deut 26:19; Isa 62:7; Mic 4:6-8; cp. 1 Pet 5:4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:19<\/strong> God will turn his people’s former shame into <em>glory and fame<\/em> (see Deut 26:19; Isa 62:7; Mic 4:6-8; cp. 1 Pet 5:4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:19 God will turn his people’s former shame into glory and fame (see Deut 26:19; Isa 62:7; Mic 4:6-8; cp. 1 Pet 5:4).","summary_en":"3:19 God will turn his people’s former shame into glory and fame (see Deut 26:19; Isa 62:7; Mic 4:6-8; cp. 1 Pet 5:4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"20":[{"id":54250,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:20","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:20<\/strong> <em>On that day:<\/em> After a time of terrible wrath and judgment, the day of the Lord culminates in everlasting blessings for all who trust in him (3:9, 12; see Ps 2:12; Isa 45:22; see also Rev 19:11–22:5). • <em>I, the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>, have spoken!<\/em> Zephaniah’s prophecy, entirely from God (see also Zeph 1:1-3, 10; 2:9; 3:8), is utterly trustworthy.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:20<\/strong> <em>On that day:<\/em> After a time of terrible wrath and judgment, the day of the Lord culminates in everlasting blessings for all who trust in him (3:9, 12; see Ps 2:12; Isa 45:22; see also Rev 19:11–22:5). • <em>I, the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>, have spoken!<\/em> Zephaniah’s prophecy, entirely from God (see also Zeph 1:1-3, 10; 2:9; 3:8), is utterly trustworthy.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:20 On that day: After a time of terrible wrath and judgment, the day of the Lord culminates in everlasting blessings for all who trust in him (3:9, 12; see Ps 2:12; Isa 45:22; see also Rev 19:11–22:5). • I, the Lord, have spoken! Zephaniah’s prophecy, entirely from God (see also Zeph 1:1-3, 10; 2:9; 3:8), is utterly trustworthy.","summary_en":"3:20 On that day: After a time of terrible wrath and judgment, the day of the Lord culminates in everlasting blessings for all who trust in him (3:9, 12; see Ps 2:12; Isa 45:22; see also Rev 19:11–22:5). • I, the Lord, have spoken! Zephaniah’s prophecy, entirely from God (see also Zeph 1:1-3, 10; 2:9; 3:8), is utterly trustworthy.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":81876,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:20","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:20<\/strong> <em>On that day:<\/em> After a time of terrible wrath and judgment, the day of the Lord culminates in everlasting blessings for all who trust in him (3:9, 12; see Ps 2:12; Isa 45:22; see also Rev 19:11–22:5). • <em>I, the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>, have spoken!<\/em> Zephaniah’s prophecy, entirely from God (see also Zeph 1:1-3, 10; 2:9; 3:8), is utterly trustworthy.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:20<\/strong> <em>On that day:<\/em> After a time of terrible wrath and judgment, the day of the Lord culminates in everlasting blessings for all who trust in him (3:9, 12; see Ps 2:12; Isa 45:22; see also Rev 19:11–22:5). • <em>I, the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>, have spoken!<\/em> Zephaniah’s prophecy, entirely from God (see also Zeph 1:1-3, 10; 2:9; 3:8), is utterly trustworthy.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:20 On that day: After a time of terrible wrath and judgment, the day of the Lord culminates in everlasting blessings for all who trust in him (3:9, 12; see Ps 2:12; Isa 45:22; see also Rev 19:11–22:5). • I, the Lord, have spoken! Zephaniah’s prophecy, entirely from God (see also Zeph 1:1-3, 10; 2:9; 3:8), is utterly trustworthy.","summary_en":"3:20 On that day: After a time of terrible wrath and judgment, the day of the Lord culminates in everlasting blessings for all who trust in him (3:9, 12; see Ps 2:12; Isa 45:22; see also Rev 19:11–22:5). • I, the Lord, have spoken! Zephaniah’s prophecy, entirely from God (see also Zeph 1:1-3, 10; 2:9; 3:8), is utterly trustworthy.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":109502,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:20","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:20<\/strong> <em>On that day:<\/em> After a time of terrible wrath and judgment, the day of the Lord culminates in everlasting blessings for all who trust in him (3:9, 12; see Ps 2:12; Isa 45:22; see also Rev 19:11–22:5). • <em>I, the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>, have spoken!<\/em> Zephaniah’s prophecy, entirely from God (see also Zeph 1:1-3, 10; 2:9; 3:8), is utterly trustworthy.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:20<\/strong> <em>On that day:<\/em> After a time of terrible wrath and judgment, the day of the Lord culminates in everlasting blessings for all who trust in him (3:9, 12; see Ps 2:12; Isa 45:22; see also Rev 19:11–22:5). • <em>I, the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>, have spoken!<\/em> Zephaniah’s prophecy, entirely from God (see also Zeph 1:1-3, 10; 2:9; 3:8), is utterly trustworthy.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:20 On that day: After a time of terrible wrath and judgment, the day of the Lord culminates in everlasting blessings for all who trust in him (3:9, 12; see Ps 2:12; Isa 45:22; see also Rev 19:11–22:5). • I, the Lord, have spoken! Zephaniah’s prophecy, entirely from God (see also Zeph 1:1-3, 10; 2:9; 3:8), is utterly trustworthy.","summary_en":"3:20 On that day: After a time of terrible wrath and judgment, the day of the Lord culminates in everlasting blessings for all who trust in him (3:9, 12; see Ps 2:12; Isa 45:22; see also Rev 19:11–22:5). • I, the Lord, have spoken! Zephaniah’s prophecy, entirely from God (see also Zeph 1:1-3, 10; 2:9; 3:8), is utterly trustworthy.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":137128,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: Țefania 3:20","title_en":"Study Note: Țefania 3:20","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:20<\/strong> <em>On that day:<\/em> After a time of terrible wrath and judgment, the day of the Lord culminates in everlasting blessings for all who trust in him (3:9, 12; see Ps 2:12; Isa 45:22; see also Rev 19:11–22:5). • <em>I, the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>, have spoken!<\/em> Zephaniah’s prophecy, entirely from God (see also Zeph 1:1-3, 10; 2:9; 3:8), is utterly trustworthy.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:20<\/strong> <em>On that day:<\/em> After a time of terrible wrath and judgment, the day of the Lord culminates in everlasting blessings for all who trust in him (3:9, 12; see Ps 2:12; Isa 45:22; see also Rev 19:11–22:5). • <em>I, the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>, have spoken!<\/em> Zephaniah’s prophecy, entirely from God (see also Zeph 1:1-3, 10; 2:9; 3:8), is utterly trustworthy.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:20 On that day: After a time of terrible wrath and judgment, the day of the Lord culminates in everlasting blessings for all who trust in him (3:9, 12; see Ps 2:12; Isa 45:22; see also Rev 19:11–22:5). • I, the Lord, have spoken! Zephaniah’s prophecy, entirely from God (see also Zeph 1:1-3, 10; 2:9; 3:8), is utterly trustworthy.","summary_en":"3:20 On that day: After a time of terrible wrath and judgment, the day of the Lord culminates in everlasting blessings for all who trust in him (3:9, 12; see Ps 2:12; Isa 45:22; see also Rev 19:11–22:5). • I, the Lord, have spoken! Zephaniah’s prophecy, entirely from God (see also Zeph 1:1-3, 10; 2:9; 3:8), is utterly trustworthy.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}
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Țefania 3
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