📖 Biblia online

Citește Biblia

Biblia audio Planuri audio structurate — ascultă Biblia zilnică

1 Corinteni 14

¹ Urmăriţi dragostea. Umblaţi şi după darurile duhovniceşti, dar mai ales să proorociţi.

² În adevăr, cine vorbeşte în altă limbă, nu vorbeşte oamenilor, ci lui Dumnezeu; căci nimeni nu-l înţelege, şi, cu duhul, el spune taine.

³ Cine prooroceşte, dimpotrivă, vorbeşte oamenilor, spre zidire, sfătuire şi mângâiere.

⁴ Cine vorbeşte în altă limbă, se zideşte pe sine însuş; dar cine prooroceşte, zideşte sufleteşte Biserica.

⁵ Aş dori ca toţi să vorbiţi în alte limbi, dar mai ales să proorociţi. Cine prooroceşte, este mai mare decât cine vorbeşte în alte limbi; afară numai dacă tâlmăceşte aceste limbi, pentruca să capete Biserica zidire sufletească.

⁶ În adevăr, fraţilor, de ce folos v-aş fi eu, dacă aş veni la voi vorbind în alte limbi, şi dacă cuvântul meu nu v-ar aduce nici descoperire, nici cunoştinţă, nici proorocie, nici învăţătură?

⁷ Chiar şi lucrurile neânsufleţite, cari dau un sunet, fie un fluier sau o alăută: dacă nu dau sunete desluşite, cine va cunoaşte ce se cântă cu fluierul sau cu alăuta?

⁸ Şi dacă trâmbiţa dă un sunet încurcat, cine se va pregăti de luptă?

⁹ Tot aşa şi voi, dacă nu rostiţi cu limba o vorbă înţeleasă, cum se va pricepe ce spuneţi? Atunci parcă aţi vorbi în vânt.

¹⁰ Sânt multe feluri de limbi în lume, totuş niciuna din ele nu este fără sunete înţelese.

¹¹ Dar dacă nu cunosc înţelesul sunetului, voi fi un străin pentru cel ce vorbeşte, şi cel ce vorbeşte, va fi un străin pentru mine.

¹² Tot aşa şi voi, fiindcă râvniţi după daruri duhovniceşti, să căutaţi să le aveţi din belşug, în vederea zidirii sufleteşti a Bisericii.

¹³ De aceea, cine vorbeşte în altă limbă, să se roage să aibă şi darul s-o tălmăcească.

¹⁴ Fiindcă, dacă mă rog în altă limbă, duhul meu se roagă, dar mintea mea este fără rod.

¹⁵ Ce este de făcut atunci? Mă voi ruga cu duhul, dar mă voi ruga şi cu mintea; voi cânta cu duhul, dar voi cânta şi cu mintea.

¹⁶ Altmintrelea, dacă aduci mulţămiri cu duhul, cum va răspunde ,,Amin`` la mulţămirile, pe cari le aduci tu, cel lipsit de daruri, când el nu ştie ce spui?

¹⁷ Negreşit, tu mulţămeşti lui Dumnezeu foarte frumos, dar celălalt nu rămâne zidit sufleteşte.

¹⁸ Mulţămesc lui Dumnezeu că eu vorbesc în alte limbi mai mult decât voi toţi.

¹⁹ Dar în Biserică, voiesc mai bine să spun cinci cuvinte înţelese, ca să învăţ şi pe alţii, decât să spun zece mii de cuvinte în altă limbă.

²⁰ Fraţilor, nu fiţi copii la minte; ci, la răutate, fiţi prunci; iar la minte, fiţi oameni mari.

²¹ În Lege este scris: ,,Voi vorbi norodului acestuia prin altă limbă şi prin buze străine; şi nici aşa nu Mă vor asculta, zice Domnul.``

²² Prin urmare, limbile sânt un semn nu pentru cei credincioşi, ci pentru cei necredincioşi. Proorocia, dimpotrivă, este un semn nu pentru cei necredincioşi, ci pentru cei credincioşi.

²³ Deci, dacă s-ar aduna toată Biserica la un loc, şi toţi ar vorbi în alte limbi, şi ar intra şi de cei fără daruri, sau necredincioşi, n-ar zice ei că sânteţi nebuni?

²⁴ Dar dacă toţi proorocesc, şi intră vreun necredincios sau vreunul fără daruri, el este încredinţat de toţi, este judecat de toţi.

²⁵ Tainele inimii lui sânt descoperite, aşa că va cădea cu faţa la pământ, se va închina lui Dumnezeu, şi va mărturisi că, în adevăr, Dumnezeu este în mijlocul vostru.

²⁶ Ce este de făcut atunci, fraţilor? Când vă adunaţi laolaltă, dacă unul din voi are o cântare, altul o învăţătură, altul o descoperire, altul o vorbă în altă limbă, altul o tălmăcire, toate să se facă spre zidirea sufletească.

²⁷ Dacă sânt unii, cari vorbesc în altă limbă, să vorbească numai câte doi sau cel mult trei, fiecare la rând: şi unul să tălmăcească.

²⁸ Dacă nu este cine să tălmăcească, să tacă în Biserică, şi să-şi vorbească numai lui însuş şi lui Dumnezeu.

²⁹ Cât despre prooroci, să vorbească doi sau trei, şi ceilalţi să judece.

³⁰ Şi dacă este făcută o descoperire unuia care şade jos, cel dintâi să tacă.

³¹ Fiindcă puteţi să proorociţi toţi, dar unul după altul, pentruca toţi să capete învăţătură şi toţi să fie îmbărbătaţi.

³² Duhurile proorocilor sânt supuse proorocilor;

³³ căci Dumnezeu nu este un Dumnezeu al neorânduielii, ci al păcii, ca în toate Bisericile sfinţilor.

³⁴ Femeile să tacă în adunări, căci lor nu le este îngăduit să ia cuvântul în ele, ci să fie supuse, cum zice şi Legea.

³⁵ Dacă voiesc să capete învăţătură asupra unui lucru, să întrebe pe bărbaţii lor acasă; căci este ruşine pentru o femeie să vorbească în Biserică.

³⁶ Ce? Dela voi a pornit Cuvântul lui Dumnezeu? Sau numai până la voi a ajuns el?

³⁷ Dacă crede cineva că este prooroc sau însuflat de Dumnezeu, să înţeleagă că ce vă scriu eu, este o poruncă a Domnului.

³⁸ Şi dacă cineva nu înţelege, să nu înţeleagă!

³⁹ Astfel, deci, fraţilor, râvniţi după proorocire, fără să împedecaţi vorbirea în alte limbi.

⁴⁰ Dar toate să se facă în chip cuviincios şi cu rânduială.

{"verseMap":{"1":[{"id":6236,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Charismata*","title_en":"Charismata*","content_ro":"<h3>CHARISMATA*<\/h3>\nAbilities the Holy Spirit gives to the church (1 Cor 12; 14). See<\/em> Spiritual Gifts.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CHARISMATA*<\/h3>\nAbilities the Holy Spirit gives to the church (1 Cor 12; 14). See<\/em> Spiritual Gifts.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CHARISMATA* Abilities the Holy Spirit gives to the church (1 Cor 12; 14). See Spiritual Gifts.","summary_en":"CHARISMATA* Abilities the Holy Spirit gives to the church (1 Cor 12; 14). See Spiritual Gifts.","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":6633,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Church Meetings","title_en":"Church Meetings","content_ro":"<h3>CHURCH MEETINGS<\/h3>\nThe assembling together of the believers. In the NT, the Greek word ekklesia<\/span> (usually translated “church”) is used primarily in two ways: (1) to describe a meeting or an assembly, and (2) to designate the people who participate in such assembling together—whether they are actually assembled or not. The NT contains a few places that speak of a secular Greek assembly (Acts 19:32, 41); every other instance speaks of a Christian assembly. Sometimes the word ekklesia<\/span> is used to designate the actual meeting together of Christians. This is certainly what Paul intended in 1 Corinthians 14:19, 28, and 35, in that the expression en ekklesia<\/span> must mean “in a meeting” and not “in the church.” To translate this phrase “in the church” (as is done in most modern English versions) is misleading, for most readers will think it means “in the church building.” The NT never once names the place of assembly a “church.” Aside from the few instances where the word clearly means the actual meeting together of believers, ekklesia<\/span> most often is used as a descriptor for the believers who constitute a local church (such as the church in Corinth, the church in Philippi, and the church in Colosse) or all the believers (past, present, and future) who constitute the universal church, the complete body of Christ.<\/p>\nWhen reading the NT, Christians need to be aware of the various ways in which the word ekklesia<\/span> (“church”) is used. On the most basic level, the ekklesia<\/span> is any gathering of believers. On another level, the ekklesia<\/span> is an organized local entity—comprised of all the believers in any given locality, under one pluralistic eldership. On another level, the ekklesia<\/span> is the universal church whose constituents are all the believers who have ever been, are now existing, and will ever be. The word ekklesia<\/span> was used by the NT writers with these various aspects of meaning, though, at times, it is not possible to differentiate one from the other. Nevertheless, students of the NT could avoid some confusion if they used discrimination in their exegesis of the text. Some interpreters have taught that the smallest unit of the church is the local church, but the NT writers sometimes used the word “church” to indicate a small home gathering. Other interpreters confuse the local church with the universal church. But some things in the NT are addressed to a local church that do not necessarily apply to the whole church, and some great things are spoken of the universal church that could never be attained by any particular local group. The things Paul said about the church in the Epistle to the Ephesians (which was written as an encyclical for several churches and not just for the church in Ephesus) could never be attained by a local church. For example, what local church could attain to the fullness of the stature of Christ?<\/p>\nThere is much to be said about how interpreters have confused the local church with the universal church, but this article is devoted to clearing up the confusion about what constitutes the smallest unit of the church—the local church, or what could be called the house church or home gathering.<\/p>\nThe NT seems to present the fact that a particular local church (i.e., a church comprising all the believers in a given locality under one eldership) could and did have several ekklesiai<\/span>—“meetings” or “assemblies” (carried on in homes of the local Christians). Thus, the smallest unit to comprise a “church” was one of these home meetings. However, there is no indication in the NT that each of these home meetings had its own eldership or was a distinct entity separate from the other gatherings (<\/em>ekklesiai<\/span>)<\/em> in the same locality. According to Acts 14:23 and Titus 1:5, elders were appointed for every local church (compare the expressions “appointed elders in every church” and “appoint elders in every city”)—not for every house church. Nevertheless, it appears that every local church of some size had several such ekklesiai<\/span> (“meetings”) going on within that locality.<\/p>\nThe church in Jerusalem must have had several home meetings (see Acts 2:46; 5:42; 8:3; 12:5, 12), as did the church in Rome (see Rom 16:3-5, 14-15 and comments below). A small local church may have had only one home gathering—as was probably the case with the church at Colosse (see Phlm 1:2 and comments below), but this would have been impossible for large local churches like those in Jerusalem, Rome, and Ephesus, in which there must have been several “house churches” (see 1 Cor 16:19-20 [1 Cor was written from Ephesus] and comments below). An examination of the passages that deal with the issue of the “house church” should affirm this. These passages are Romans 16:3-5, 14-15; 1 Corinthians 16:19-20; Colossians 4:15-16; and Philemon 1:1-2 (all quoted from the rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h4>Romans 16:3-5, 14-15<\/h4>\nIn the last chapter of Romans, Paul asked the believers in Rome, to whom he had written this epistle, to greet Priscilla and Aquila and the church that met in their home (16:3-5). The entire church in Rome could not have met in Priscilla and Aquila’s home, for the church was much too large to have assembled in a single home. Rather, the church in Priscilla and Aquila’s home must have been one among several such “house churches” in Rome. The following discussion should substantiate this position.<\/p>\nPaul’s Epistle to the Romans was addressed to “all God’s beloved in Rome” (1:7), not to “the church in Rome.” At the time of writing, Paul had not been to Rome—nor had any other apostle. The church was probably started there by Jewish Romans who had been converted during their visit to Jerusalem during Pentecost (Acts 2:10) and then returned to Rome. Since the church had not been started by an apostle, it could have been that there were no “ordained” elders in the church at Rome and that there were several gatherings of believers in various parts of Rome and its suburbs. Paul knew some of the saints in Rome (whom he addressed by name in the last chapter) and thus addressed an epistle to all the saints in that locality, instead of to the church in that locality—which was his usual practice (see 1 Cor 1:1; 2 Cor 1:1; 1 Thes 1:1; 2 Thes 1:1). Nonetheless, “all the saints in Rome” would comprise “the church in Rome” (cf. Phil 1:1, in which Paul addressed his epistle to all the saints in Philippi).<\/p>\nIn the final chapter of Romans, Paul asks all the believers in Rome (which equals the “local” church in Rome) to greet the church in Priscilla and Aquila’s house. Later in the chapter, Paul asks the church to greet Asyncritus, Phlegon, Hermas, Patrobas, Hermes, and the brothers with them; and then again he asks the church to greet Philologus, Julia, Nereus and his sister, Olympas, and all the saints with them (16:14-15). Evidently, Paul was identifying two other groups of believers who must have met together. (And perhaps Paul was referring to two more groups in 16:10-11, which in the Greek could mean the ones of Aristobulus’s and Narcissus’s households<\/em> or the ones of their fellowships.<\/em>) It seems that the church in Rome, like the church in Jerusalem and Ephesus, had several home ekklesiai<\/span> (meetings).<\/p>\nThe Epistle to the Romans was written around AD<\/span> 58. The Neronian persecution began around AD<\/span> 64. Secular historians such as Tacitus tell us that a vast multitude (ingens multitudo)<\/em> of Christians were tortured and killed during this persecution (Annals<\/em> 15.44). Seutonius (in his book Nero,<\/em> ch 16) said that the rapid increase of the Christians in Rome had made them unpopular. Indeed, at the time Paul penned the Epistle to the Romans he said their faith was known throughout the world (1:8), which indicates that the church in Rome had already made an impact on the Mediterranean world. When Paul came to Rome three years later (AD<\/span> 61), he came to a city that had a large church there already. From Romans 15:23, we know that the church had been in existence for many years even before Paul wrote his epistle to them. In short, the church in Rome was a large church around the time Paul wrote his epistle to them. The entire church could not have met in the home of Aquila and Priscilla, who would have had only a modest-sized dwelling (for they were tentmakers). Besides, Paul greeted over 25 individuals by name in chapter 16—and he had not yet even been to Rome!<\/p>\nThere must have been several ekklesiai<\/span> in Rome, i.e., several home churches all unified as the one local church in Rome. For example, the Christians in Rome apparently worshiped in numerous homes such as Priscilla and Aquila’s. Other churches in homes are mentioned in Colossians 4:15 and Philemon 1:2. Groups of Christians met in houses of prominent believers or in other available rooms (cf. Mt 26:16; Acts 12:12; 1 Cor 16:19; Col 4:15; Phlm 1:2). The church in Priscilla and Aquila’s house is the first of five groups of believers in Paul’s list, but the only one referred to definitely as a church (see Rom 16:5, 10-11, 14-15). Priscilla and Aquila opened their home for Christian meetings. The church mentioned there was obviously only a part of the total number of Christians in Rome. Verses 10-11 and 14-15 seem to refer to two other household churches in Rome. Apparently, there were at least three churches there, and probably more. Each house church could not have been a separate entity with a separate church government; rather, each house church must have been simply one home meeting of some of the saints in the one local church at Rome.<\/p>\n<h4>1 Corinthians 16:19-20<\/h4>\nIn this passage we again see Aquila and Priscilla and again discover that a church met in their house. According to Romans, their house church was, of course, in Rome. According to 1 Corinthians (written from Ephesus), their house church was in Ephesus. Many scholars think Aquila and Priscilla left Rome around AD<\/span> 49 at the time of Claudius’s edict expelling Jews from Rome. They very well could have already been Christians at this time. According to Acts 18, they joined Paul in Corinth (where they all worked together in their craft of tentmaking) and then went on with him to Ephesus, during the time (around AD<\/span> 51) the church in Ephesus was first established. Paul continued on with his second missionary journey, while Aquila and Priscilla remained in Ephesus. No doubt, the early church there first met in their home. Paul returned to Ephesus a few years later and remained there for two years (around AD<\/span> 53–54). During this time, Paul’s proclamation of the gospel went out from Ephesus (as a center) to all of Asia Minor (see Acts 19:8-10). As this was going on, the church in Ephesus grew (see vv 18-20).<\/p>\nIt was during these years that Paul wrote to the Corinthians, in which he sent greetings from the churches in Asia, from Aquila and Priscilla—and the church in their house, and from all the brothers (1 Cor 16:19-20). In giving this kind of greeting, it seems that Paul was sending greetings from (1) all the churches in Asia Minor, (2) the church in Ephesus (equivalent to “all the brothers”), and (3) those believers who gathered with Aquila and Priscilla in their home. It would be hard to imagine that all the saints in Ephesus met at Aquila and Priscilla’s home. The church probably began that way, but as it grew, so did the number of home meetings. From other portions of the NT (specifically 1 Timothy, which was written around AD<\/span> 64 by Paul to Timothy while Timothy was leading the church in Ephesus), we discover that there must have been several home meetings in Ephesus because there were so many saints there (see 1 Timothy 5–6, which reveal that there must have been a large number of saints in Ephesus—young men, young women, older men, widows, and so forth). At any rate, several saints must have hosted an ekklesia<\/span>,<\/em> a meeting, in their home. (Aquila and Priscilla left Ephesus around AD<\/span> 56\/57 and returned to Rome, where again they hosted a church in their home. Others in Ephesus would have to open their homes.) But each such ekklesia<\/span> did not have its own eldership; rather, all of the church in Ephesus was under one eldership—headed up by Timothy, Paul’s coworker.<\/p>\n<h4>Colossians 4:15-16<\/h4>\nIn this portion, we again read about a church existing in the home of one called Nymphas. In his final remarks to the church in Colosse, Paul asked the saints in Colosse to send his greetings to (1) the brothers that are in Laodicea, (2) Nymphas in particular, and (3) the church in Nymphas’s house. According to the structure of Colossians 4:15, it seems evident that the first greeting included all the believers in Laodicea (a neighboring church to Colosse), who would comprise the entire church in Laodicea (called “the church of the Laodiceans” in Col 4:16), and that the second and third greetings were to a specific individual (Nymphas) in the church in Laodicea and a church meeting in Nymphas’s house. This church meeting in Nymphas’s house would probably be one of several home meetings—all part of the one local church in Laodicea.<\/p>\nThere is a textual problem in this passage that could have some effect on the interpretation of it. Some manuscripts read “his house”; others read “her house”; still others read “their house.” Because it cannot be determined from the Greek text whether Nymphas was male or female, various scribes used different pronouns before “house.” Between the readings “her” and “his,” it is far more likely that the pronoun “her” was changed to “his” than vice versa. Some scholars say that “their” refers to “the brothers” at Laodicea. But that does not make sense if we understand that “the brothers in Laodicea” is equal to the church in Laodicea. How could the church in Laodicea have the church in their house? Other scholars indicate that the Greek word for “their” (<\/em>auton<\/span>)<\/em> refers to the ones with Nymphas—i.e., the members of his household. Whether the reading was “her house” or “their house,” a particular group of believers within the church of Laodicea met there. Their meeting could legitimately be called an ekklesia<\/span>—an assembling together.<\/p>\n<h4>Philemon 1:1-2<\/h4>\nThis is the last time in the NT we read about a church in a particular home. Paul wrote a short epistle to Philemon, an elder of the church in Colosse, on behalf of Onesimus, Philemon’s runaway slave converted by Paul to Christ. In his introduction to this short epistle, Paul sends his greetings to Philemon, Apphia, Archippus, and the church in Philemon’s house. It is important to note that Paul did not send greetings to all the saints in Colosse and then to the church in Philemon’s house (as is the pattern in 1 Cor 16:19-20 and Col 4:15); instead, he just sent greetings to Philemon and to the church in his house. Therefore, we can assume that the entire church in Colosse must have met at Philemon’s house.<\/p>\n<h4>Worship in the Home Meetings and Church Meetings<\/h4>\nWhen the church first began in Jerusalem, the believers met in homes for fellowship and worship. Acts 2:42-47 tells us that the early Christians met in homes to hear the apostles’ teachings and to celebrate Communion (which is called “the breaking of bread”). During such gatherings, the Christians often shared meals with one another in what was called a love feast (2 Pt 2:13; Jude 1:12). At these meetings, the Christians recited Scripture, sang hymns and psalms, and joyfully praised the Lord (see Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16-17). Christians also gathered together in homes to pray (Acts 12:12) and read the Word.<\/p>\nSmall groups of believers met in homes for worship quite regularly; in a city where there were several such ekklesiai<\/span>,<\/em> all the believers would gather together for special occasions. Scripture tells us that all the believers would come together to hear an epistle from the apostles read out loud (see Acts 15:30; Col 4:16), and we can surmise from the NT record that all the Christians in a city met together once a week on Sunday, which was called the Lord’s Day. First Corinthians provides several insights about how the early Christians worshiped together when all the believers in one city met together. We know that 1 Corinthians pertains to this larger gathering because in 11:20 Paul spoke of all the believers coming together in one place and in 14:23 he spoke of the whole church coming together in one place.<\/p>\nPaul used this epistle to correct the Corinthians’ behavior in the celebration of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:17-34) and in the exercising of spiritual gifts during church meetings (ch 14). Paul’s adjustments reveal his perceptions of a model Christian meeting, and his preceptions were probably developed from actual experience in other church meetings. Paul urged the Corinthians to celebrate the Lord’s Supper together in a manner that reflected Jesus’ institution of that meal. They were to remember the Lord and his death for them, and they were to partake of the bread and wine with all seriousness. At the same time, they were to be conscious of the fact that they were members of the same body of Christ—joined to one another, and also to Christ.<\/p>\nAccording to Paul’s presentation in chapter 14, this “body consciousness” should be evident in the way the believers worshiped together. One’s personal experience and liberty should not hinder the coordination of the body in worshiping God corporately. Thus, when the believers exercised their spiritual gifts—whether it be prophesying, speaking in tongues, providing interpretations of the tongues, or teaching—it should be done in good order and for the edification of the congregation, not personal edification. When all the church assembled together to worship God, it should be a display of spiritual unity.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Church.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CHURCH MEETINGS<\/h3>\nThe assembling together of the believers. In the NT, the Greek word ekklesia<\/span> (usually translated “church”) is used primarily in two ways: (1) to describe a meeting or an assembly, and (2) to designate the people who participate in such assembling together—whether they are actually assembled or not. The NT contains a few places that speak of a secular Greek assembly (Acts 19:32, 41); every other instance speaks of a Christian assembly. Sometimes the word ekklesia<\/span> is used to designate the actual meeting together of Christians. This is certainly what Paul intended in 1 Corinthians 14:19, 28, and 35, in that the expression en ekklesia<\/span> must mean “in a meeting” and not “in the church.” To translate this phrase “in the church” (as is done in most modern English versions) is misleading, for most readers will think it means “in the church building.” The NT never once names the place of assembly a “church.” Aside from the few instances where the word clearly means the actual meeting together of believers, ekklesia<\/span> most often is used as a descriptor for the believers who constitute a local church (such as the church in Corinth, the church in Philippi, and the church in Colosse) or all the believers (past, present, and future) who constitute the universal church, the complete body of Christ.<\/p>\nWhen reading the NT, Christians need to be aware of the various ways in which the word ekklesia<\/span> (“church”) is used. On the most basic level, the ekklesia<\/span> is any gathering of believers. On another level, the ekklesia<\/span> is an organized local entity—comprised of all the believers in any given locality, under one pluralistic eldership. On another level, the ekklesia<\/span> is the universal church whose constituents are all the believers who have ever been, are now existing, and will ever be. The word ekklesia<\/span> was used by the NT writers with these various aspects of meaning, though, at times, it is not possible to differentiate one from the other. Nevertheless, students of the NT could avoid some confusion if they used discrimination in their exegesis of the text. Some interpreters have taught that the smallest unit of the church is the local church, but the NT writers sometimes used the word “church” to indicate a small home gathering. Other interpreters confuse the local church with the universal church. But some things in the NT are addressed to a local church that do not necessarily apply to the whole church, and some great things are spoken of the universal church that could never be attained by any particular local group. The things Paul said about the church in the Epistle to the Ephesians (which was written as an encyclical for several churches and not just for the church in Ephesus) could never be attained by a local church. For example, what local church could attain to the fullness of the stature of Christ?<\/p>\nThere is much to be said about how interpreters have confused the local church with the universal church, but this article is devoted to clearing up the confusion about what constitutes the smallest unit of the church—the local church, or what could be called the house church or home gathering.<\/p>\nThe NT seems to present the fact that a particular local church (i.e., a church comprising all the believers in a given locality under one eldership) could and did have several ekklesiai<\/span>—“meetings” or “assemblies” (carried on in homes of the local Christians). Thus, the smallest unit to comprise a “church” was one of these home meetings. However, there is no indication in the NT that each of these home meetings had its own eldership or was a distinct entity separate from the other gatherings (<\/em>ekklesiai<\/span>)<\/em> in the same locality. According to Acts 14:23 and Titus 1:5, elders were appointed for every local church (compare the expressions “appointed elders in every church” and “appoint elders in every city”)—not for every house church. Nevertheless, it appears that every local church of some size had several such ekklesiai<\/span> (“meetings”) going on within that locality.<\/p>\nThe church in Jerusalem must have had several home meetings (see Acts 2:46; 5:42; 8:3; 12:5, 12), as did the church in Rome (see Rom 16:3-5, 14-15 and comments below). A small local church may have had only one home gathering—as was probably the case with the church at Colosse (see Phlm 1:2 and comments below), but this would have been impossible for large local churches like those in Jerusalem, Rome, and Ephesus, in which there must have been several “house churches” (see 1 Cor 16:19-20 [1 Cor was written from Ephesus] and comments below). An examination of the passages that deal with the issue of the “house church” should affirm this. These passages are Romans 16:3-5, 14-15; 1 Corinthians 16:19-20; Colossians 4:15-16; and Philemon 1:1-2 (all quoted from the rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h4>Romans 16:3-5, 14-15<\/h4>\nIn the last chapter of Romans, Paul asked the believers in Rome, to whom he had written this epistle, to greet Priscilla and Aquila and the church that met in their home (16:3-5). The entire church in Rome could not have met in Priscilla and Aquila’s home, for the church was much too large to have assembled in a single home. Rather, the church in Priscilla and Aquila’s home must have been one among several such “house churches” in Rome. The following discussion should substantiate this position.<\/p>\nPaul’s Epistle to the Romans was addressed to “all God’s beloved in Rome” (1:7), not to “the church in Rome.” At the time of writing, Paul had not been to Rome—nor had any other apostle. The church was probably started there by Jewish Romans who had been converted during their visit to Jerusalem during Pentecost (Acts 2:10) and then returned to Rome. Since the church had not been started by an apostle, it could have been that there were no “ordained” elders in the church at Rome and that there were several gatherings of believers in various parts of Rome and its suburbs. Paul knew some of the saints in Rome (whom he addressed by name in the last chapter) and thus addressed an epistle to all the saints in that locality, instead of to the church in that locality—which was his usual practice (see 1 Cor 1:1; 2 Cor 1:1; 1 Thes 1:1; 2 Thes 1:1). Nonetheless, “all the saints in Rome” would comprise “the church in Rome” (cf. Phil 1:1, in which Paul addressed his epistle to all the saints in Philippi).<\/p>\nIn the final chapter of Romans, Paul asks all the believers in Rome (which equals the “local” church in Rome) to greet the church in Priscilla and Aquila’s house. Later in the chapter, Paul asks the church to greet Asyncritus, Phlegon, Hermas, Patrobas, Hermes, and the brothers with them; and then again he asks the church to greet Philologus, Julia, Nereus and his sister, Olympas, and all the saints with them (16:14-15). Evidently, Paul was identifying two other groups of believers who must have met together. (And perhaps Paul was referring to two more groups in 16:10-11, which in the Greek could mean the ones of Aristobulus’s and Narcissus’s households<\/em> or the ones of their fellowships.<\/em>) It seems that the church in Rome, like the church in Jerusalem and Ephesus, had several home ekklesiai<\/span> (meetings).<\/p>\nThe Epistle to the Romans was written around AD<\/span> 58. The Neronian persecution began around AD<\/span> 64. Secular historians such as Tacitus tell us that a vast multitude (ingens multitudo)<\/em> of Christians were tortured and killed during this persecution (Annals<\/em> 15.44). Seutonius (in his book Nero,<\/em> ch 16) said that the rapid increase of the Christians in Rome had made them unpopular. Indeed, at the time Paul penned the Epistle to the Romans he said their faith was known throughout the world (1:8), which indicates that the church in Rome had already made an impact on the Mediterranean world. When Paul came to Rome three years later (AD<\/span> 61), he came to a city that had a large church there already. From Romans 15:23, we know that the church had been in existence for many years even before Paul wrote his epistle to them. In short, the church in Rome was a large church around the time Paul wrote his epistle to them. The entire church could not have met in the home of Aquila and Priscilla, who would have had only a modest-sized dwelling (for they were tentmakers). Besides, Paul greeted over 25 individuals by name in chapter 16—and he had not yet even been to Rome!<\/p>\nThere must have been several ekklesiai<\/span> in Rome, i.e., several home churches all unified as the one local church in Rome. For example, the Christians in Rome apparently worshiped in numerous homes such as Priscilla and Aquila’s. Other churches in homes are mentioned in Colossians 4:15 and Philemon 1:2. Groups of Christians met in houses of prominent believers or in other available rooms (cf. Mt 26:16; Acts 12:12; 1 Cor 16:19; Col 4:15; Phlm 1:2). The church in Priscilla and Aquila’s house is the first of five groups of believers in Paul’s list, but the only one referred to definitely as a church (see Rom 16:5, 10-11, 14-15). Priscilla and Aquila opened their home for Christian meetings. The church mentioned there was obviously only a part of the total number of Christians in Rome. Verses 10-11 and 14-15 seem to refer to two other household churches in Rome. Apparently, there were at least three churches there, and probably more. Each house church could not have been a separate entity with a separate church government; rather, each house church must have been simply one home meeting of some of the saints in the one local church at Rome.<\/p>\n<h4>1 Corinthians 16:19-20<\/h4>\nIn this passage we again see Aquila and Priscilla and again discover that a church met in their house. According to Romans, their house church was, of course, in Rome. According to 1 Corinthians (written from Ephesus), their house church was in Ephesus. Many scholars think Aquila and Priscilla left Rome around AD<\/span> 49 at the time of Claudius’s edict expelling Jews from Rome. They very well could have already been Christians at this time. According to Acts 18, they joined Paul in Corinth (where they all worked together in their craft of tentmaking) and then went on with him to Ephesus, during the time (around AD<\/span> 51) the church in Ephesus was first established. Paul continued on with his second missionary journey, while Aquila and Priscilla remained in Ephesus. No doubt, the early church there first met in their home. Paul returned to Ephesus a few years later and remained there for two years (around AD<\/span> 53–54). During this time, Paul’s proclamation of the gospel went out from Ephesus (as a center) to all of Asia Minor (see Acts 19:8-10). As this was going on, the church in Ephesus grew (see vv 18-20).<\/p>\nIt was during these years that Paul wrote to the Corinthians, in which he sent greetings from the churches in Asia, from Aquila and Priscilla—and the church in their house, and from all the brothers (1 Cor 16:19-20). In giving this kind of greeting, it seems that Paul was sending greetings from (1) all the churches in Asia Minor, (2) the church in Ephesus (equivalent to “all the brothers”), and (3) those believers who gathered with Aquila and Priscilla in their home. It would be hard to imagine that all the saints in Ephesus met at Aquila and Priscilla’s home. The church probably began that way, but as it grew, so did the number of home meetings. From other portions of the NT (specifically 1 Timothy, which was written around AD<\/span> 64 by Paul to Timothy while Timothy was leading the church in Ephesus), we discover that there must have been several home meetings in Ephesus because there were so many saints there (see 1 Timothy 5–6, which reveal that there must have been a large number of saints in Ephesus—young men, young women, older men, widows, and so forth). At any rate, several saints must have hosted an ekklesia<\/span>,<\/em> a meeting, in their home. (Aquila and Priscilla left Ephesus around AD<\/span> 56\/57 and returned to Rome, where again they hosted a church in their home. Others in Ephesus would have to open their homes.) But each such ekklesia<\/span> did not have its own eldership; rather, all of the church in Ephesus was under one eldership—headed up by Timothy, Paul’s coworker.<\/p>\n<h4>Colossians 4:15-16<\/h4>\nIn this portion, we again read about a church existing in the home of one called Nymphas. In his final remarks to the church in Colosse, Paul asked the saints in Colosse to send his greetings to (1) the brothers that are in Laodicea, (2) Nymphas in particular, and (3) the church in Nymphas’s house. According to the structure of Colossians 4:15, it seems evident that the first greeting included all the believers in Laodicea (a neighboring church to Colosse), who would comprise the entire church in Laodicea (called “the church of the Laodiceans” in Col 4:16), and that the second and third greetings were to a specific individual (Nymphas) in the church in Laodicea and a church meeting in Nymphas’s house. This church meeting in Nymphas’s house would probably be one of several home meetings—all part of the one local church in Laodicea.<\/p>\nThere is a textual problem in this passage that could have some effect on the interpretation of it. Some manuscripts read “his house”; others read “her house”; still others read “their house.” Because it cannot be determined from the Greek text whether Nymphas was male or female, various scribes used different pronouns before “house.” Between the readings “her” and “his,” it is far more likely that the pronoun “her” was changed to “his” than vice versa. Some scholars say that “their” refers to “the brothers” at Laodicea. But that does not make sense if we understand that “the brothers in Laodicea” is equal to the church in Laodicea. How could the church in Laodicea have the church in their house? Other scholars indicate that the Greek word for “their” (<\/em>auton<\/span>)<\/em> refers to the ones with Nymphas—i.e., the members of his household. Whether the reading was “her house” or “their house,” a particular group of believers within the church of Laodicea met there. Their meeting could legitimately be called an ekklesia<\/span>—an assembling together.<\/p>\n<h4>Philemon 1:1-2<\/h4>\nThis is the last time in the NT we read about a church in a particular home. Paul wrote a short epistle to Philemon, an elder of the church in Colosse, on behalf of Onesimus, Philemon’s runaway slave converted by Paul to Christ. In his introduction to this short epistle, Paul sends his greetings to Philemon, Apphia, Archippus, and the church in Philemon’s house. It is important to note that Paul did not send greetings to all the saints in Colosse and then to the church in Philemon’s house (as is the pattern in 1 Cor 16:19-20 and Col 4:15); instead, he just sent greetings to Philemon and to the church in his house. Therefore, we can assume that the entire church in Colosse must have met at Philemon’s house.<\/p>\n<h4>Worship in the Home Meetings and Church Meetings<\/h4>\nWhen the church first began in Jerusalem, the believers met in homes for fellowship and worship. Acts 2:42-47 tells us that the early Christians met in homes to hear the apostles’ teachings and to celebrate Communion (which is called “the breaking of bread”). During such gatherings, the Christians often shared meals with one another in what was called a love feast (2 Pt 2:13; Jude 1:12). At these meetings, the Christians recited Scripture, sang hymns and psalms, and joyfully praised the Lord (see Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16-17). Christians also gathered together in homes to pray (Acts 12:12) and read the Word.<\/p>\nSmall groups of believers met in homes for worship quite regularly; in a city where there were several such ekklesiai<\/span>,<\/em> all the believers would gather together for special occasions. Scripture tells us that all the believers would come together to hear an epistle from the apostles read out loud (see Acts 15:30; Col 4:16), and we can surmise from the NT record that all the Christians in a city met together once a week on Sunday, which was called the Lord’s Day. First Corinthians provides several insights about how the early Christians worshiped together when all the believers in one city met together. We know that 1 Corinthians pertains to this larger gathering because in 11:20 Paul spoke of all the believers coming together in one place and in 14:23 he spoke of the whole church coming together in one place.<\/p>\nPaul used this epistle to correct the Corinthians’ behavior in the celebration of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:17-34) and in the exercising of spiritual gifts during church meetings (ch 14). Paul’s adjustments reveal his perceptions of a model Christian meeting, and his preceptions were probably developed from actual experience in other church meetings. Paul urged the Corinthians to celebrate the Lord’s Supper together in a manner that reflected Jesus’ institution of that meal. They were to remember the Lord and his death for them, and they were to partake of the bread and wine with all seriousness. At the same time, they were to be conscious of the fact that they were members of the same body of Christ—joined to one another, and also to Christ.<\/p>\nAccording to Paul’s presentation in chapter 14, this “body consciousness” should be evident in the way the believers worshiped together. One’s personal experience and liberty should not hinder the coordination of the body in worshiping God corporately. Thus, when the believers exercised their spiritual gifts—whether it be prophesying, speaking in tongues, providing interpretations of the tongues, or teaching—it should be done in good order and for the edification of the congregation, not personal edification. When all the church assembled together to worship God, it should be a display of spiritual unity.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Church.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CHURCH MEETINGS The assembling together of the believers. In the NT, the Greek word ekklesia (usually translated “church”) is used primarily in two ways: (1) to describe a meeting or an assembly, and (2) to designate the people who participate in such assembling together—whether they are actually assembled or not. The NT contains a few places that speak of a secular Greek assembly (Acts 19:32, 41); every other instance speaks of a Christian assembly. Sometimes the word ekklesia is used to des...","summary_en":"CHURCH MEETINGS The assembling together of the believers. In the NT, the Greek word ekklesia (usually translated “church”) is used primarily in two ways: (1) to describe a meeting or an assembly, and (2) to designate the people who participate in such assembling together—whether they are actually assembled or not. The NT contains a few places that speak of a secular Greek assembly (Acts 19:32, 41); every other instance speaks of a Christian assembly. Sometimes the word ekklesia is used to des...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":7644,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"First Letter to the Corinthians","title_en":"First Letter to the Corinthians","content_ro":"<h3>CORINTHIANS, First Letter to the<\/h3>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date and Origin<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nThere is no doubt about who wrote 1 Corinthians, for all scholars agree that the apostle Paul wrote it on his third missionary journey while he was living in Ephesus. By this time Paul was a mature, middle-aged (perhaps 55 years old) missionary, fully seasoned from planting churches around a quarter of the Mediterranean world.<\/p>\nDate and Origin<\/p>\nPaul worked in Corinth from about AD<\/span> 50 to 52. After a brief stay in Jerusalem, he returned to his missionary work, this time at Ephesus (Acts 19), where he ministered for three years (AD<\/span> 53–55\/56). During this period, he wrote at least three letters to Corinth and made a visit as well. His first letter, often called “the previous letter,” is referred to in 1 Corinthians 5:9-11. We know from this reference that the letter was misunderstood, but we know little of its content, for it has been lost.<\/p>\nSometime in AD<\/span> 55, after hearing reports from Chloe’s household (1 Cor 1:11), who were probably members of Chloe’s house church, he dictated a second letter to Corinth, our 1 Corinthians. This was probably sent off in the hands of Stephanas, Fortunatus, and Achaicus (16:17). Paul would later write a third letter to Corinth, called “the letter of tears” (2 Cor 2:2-3), and then finally 2 Corinthians.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nCorinth was a seaport city, destroyed by the Romans in 146 BC<\/span> and rebuilt in 46 BC<\/span> by Julius Caesar. After 27 BC<\/span>, it was the Roman capital of Achaia, where the proconsul had his residence (Acts 18:12). The city itself was really three cities: the port of Cenchrea, about eight miles (13 kilometers) to the east, where ships from the Aegean would unload; the port of Lechaion, about a mile (1.6 kilometers) to the west on the Gulf of Corinth, where the ships would be reloaded, their goods having been transported in wagons over the isthmus and the ships on rollers; and the city itself on the high ground in between.<\/p>\nThe acropolis of the city, on top of the steep, high Acrocorinth, contained the temple of Aphrodite, where 1,000 female slaves were dedicated to the service of this goddess of love. This distinctive cult of Corinth was dedicated to the veneration of Aphrodite, goddess of love, beauty, and fertility, who is identified with the Roman Venus. Associated with such religious practices was a general moral degradation. Corinthian morals were notoriously corrupt, even when compared with pagan Rome. Down in the city was the synagogue (Acts 18:4); for while the city as a Roman colony was largely populated by Italians, it had attracted other peoples from the Mediterranean, among whom were the Jews.<\/p>\nPurpose and Teaching<\/p>\nThe main concern of Paul in 1 Corinthians was the unity of the church. There was a self-centeredness in Corinth that resulted in building cliques within the church, in flaunting knowledge and liberty in the face of others scandalized by it, and in selfish displays in the worship services.<\/p>\nTwo other major concerns also surface in the book. First, along with other pagan practices, the lax sexual ethics of Corinth had influenced the church; Paul needed to erect some barriers. Second, there was a problem in accepting the resurrection of the body; Paul realized that this issue had implications for the core of the faith and vigorously affirmed the resurrection.<\/p>\nBoth of these latter two areas, as well as aspects of the unity issue (particularly their concern with knowledge), have been identified by some scholars as Gnostic motifs, leading to the conclusion that Paul was opposing a Gnostic party in Corinth. Careful examination reveals, however, that while some of the elements floating in the Corinthian milieu would later contribute to the development of Gnosticism, it would be anachronistic to call them gnostic. While recognizing protognostic ideas in the Corinthian situation, it is important to keep interpretation within the first-century context.<\/p>\nThus, the focus of Paul’s concern was the church, its unity and purity. Paul was fighting to keep this church from disintegrating into a number of competing and bickering factions divided over moral and doctrinal issues. Furthermore, he wanted to keep the focus of the church on Jesus, the exalted Lord.<\/p>\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Greeting, 1:1-9<\/h5>\nPaul begins with a standard greeting, followed by his usual thanksgiving prayer. Two features stand out. First, the greeting associates Sosthenes with Paul. While we cannot be sure who Sosthenes was, he was surely well known to the Corinthians; probably he was the Sosthenes whom Acts 18:17 identifies as the ruler of the synagogue, following the conversion of Crispus.<\/p>\nSecond, Paul stresses the Corinthians’ abilities in speech, knowledge, and spiritual gifts. They had all of these, and these were genuine, but it was precisely these good things that they were abusing. Paul’s solution is not to suppress these gifts (indeed, he thanks God for them), but to place them in a new context.<\/p>\n<h5>Report from Chloe’s People, 1:10–4:21<\/h5>\nThe Corinthians had made Paul, Cephas (Peter), Apollos, and even Christ into party leaders. We are not sure what each of these groups stood for, but one might guess that the Pauline group stressed Paul’s slogans of liberty; the Petrine group, the need to hold to Jewish practices; and the Apollos group, the value of philosophical understanding and oratory. Whatever they stood for, Paul is appalled that it breaks their unity. His first response is to argue that his behavior was not calculated to build a following but to point to Christ. That is, he did not insist on personally baptizing converts; who performed these acts did not matter, since they were all baptized into Christ.<\/p>\nPaul immediately moves to the underlying issue, that of various persons wanting to show themselves better or wiser than others who did not have the insights of their party in the church. Their seeking for wisdom contradicts Paul’s preaching of the gospel.<\/p>\nFirst, the message of a crucified Christ (1:18) made no sense within the wisdom and values of either Jews or Greeks. It demanded a whole new way of looking on life—God’s way.<\/p>\nSecond, God had not chosen them on the basis of their status in society; quite the contrary, he had made their only status the equal status they received from him (1:26-31).<\/p>\nThird, their faith had not been based on Paul’s oratory but on the gifts of the Spirit that Paul had manifested (2:4), which had convinced them that God was acting in Paul. Thus, it was not argument that led them to God, but God’s Spirit. Therefore it was the Spirit, not human reasoning, that would continue to reveal God to them. Unless they became fools with respect to the world’s ways of reasoning, they would never be able to rethink life from the perspective of the Spirit, who gives true wisdom.<\/p>\nFourth, they were not acting on this spiritual level when they claimed Paul and others as party leaders; this activity demonstrates the evil impulse in human beings (“the flesh” or “fallen human nature”) at work since it elevates human servants rather than the God who works equally in each of them.<\/p>\nFifth, these servants were working together to build one “temple” for God based on the one foundation in Jesus Christ, that is, the church. God alone will judge how each Christian contributes to the work of building the church. But woe to the person who divides the church, for “if anyone destroys God’s temple, God will destroy him” (3:17, rsv<\/span>). (Note that here the temple imagery is used collectively; the church is the temple. In chapter 6 it will be used individually; each Christian is the temple.)<\/p>\nFinally, he points to their overrealized eschatology, for with their spiritual gifts (which were genuine) and vaunted wisdom (which was worldly) they claimed they were reigning with Christ (4:8-13). Paul, with ironic sarcasm, points out how different this claim is from the lifestyle of the apostles. The apostles lived like Jesus—a life of suffering, expecting exaltation later. The Corinthians were trying to have their exaltation now without crucifixion.<\/p>\nPaul closes this section with an admonition. He softens his words toward some who would be responsive, urging them to copy his lifestyle. The teacher was the message (vv 14-16). Timothy will also faithfully live the truth before them. Then he threatens the “arrogant” (v 18), pointing out that he will not challenge their words but their spiritual power if he comes.<\/p>\n<h5>The Report from the Corinthian Messengers, 5:1–6:20<\/h5>\nPaul now turns to three issues raised by oral reports from the messengers bearing the Corinthians’ letter to him.<\/p>\nThe first issue is that of church discipline (5:12-13). Paul cites a case of flagrant immorality—that of incest. This immorality was so clear (even pagans considered it immoral), that it was not a case of ignorance of Christian principles. Further, the church had taken no action but rather boasted in its tolerance, perhaps on the basis of a misunderstanding of Paul’s teaching on freedom from the law.<\/p>\nPaul presents three principles in this section: (1) the primary goal of church discipline is the repentance and restoration of the offender; (2) the secondary goal of church discipline is the protection of the church (5:6-8); and (3) the church is not to seek to judge or control the actions of evil persons in the world—they are God’s responsibility—but to discipline those within the church (vv 9-13). Paul will use these principles also in the following chapters (cf. 7:12-16).<\/p>\nThe second issue is that of lawsuits between Christians (6:1-11). The Corinthian society was as prone to litigation as our own, and Christians did not see anything wrong in suing each other. Paul was troubled. If Christians are to judge the world, they certainly should not bring the world in to judge issues within the church. Rather than put their cases before “those who are least esteemed by the church” (6:4, rsv<\/span>, i.e., pagan judges), they should decide the cases within the church.<\/p>\nPaul has an even better way than bypassing the pagan courts, and that is to simply suffer the wrong (1 Cor 6:7). Applying the teaching of Jesus quite literally (Mt 5:38-42), Paul argues that it would be best to allow themselves to be defrauded. Instead, the Corinthians are willing to step on their brothers in Christ to get what they feel are their rights. This raises the issue as to whether greed is not still in their hearts (1 Cor 6:9-11). While Paul accepts people who formerly did all sorts of evil (for Jesus has cleansed them), he makes it very clear that anyone presently practicing greed or immorality is not part of the kingdom, whatever their doctrinal commitments may be.<\/p>\nThe final issue in this section is that of casual sexual intercourse (6:12-20). In a world where virginity was important if a woman wished to be married and where slaves in the temple of Aphrodite were available as prostitutes, prostitution was the major form of casual sex. The libertine party used two slogans: “All things are lawful for me,” a saying that may well have been derived from Paul’s teaching, and “Food is meant for the stomach and the stomach for food”—that is, since the body works this way, it must be the Creator’s purpose. Paul qualifies rather than contradicts their slogans. Freedom is subordinate to other goals (6:12, 20). The body is not made to be used as we wish, but is to be dedicated to the Lord, as the doctrine of the resurrection demonstrates (vv 13-14).<\/p>\nFurthermore, sexual intercourse is an act of the whole person, unlike eating (Paul cites Gn 2:24; cf. Jesus in Mt 19:5). Therefore, this act takes a member (i.e., the person) from the body of Christ and makes him a unity with a prostitute (1 Cor 6:15-17). Thus immorality is unlike other sins that are external to the self, for it changes the self and thus defiles the body, the place where the Holy Spirit dwells. It disregards the fact that Christ has redeemed the body, and that the whole of the Christian belongs to God, not to the Christian.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Answers to the Corinthians, 7:1–16:4<\/h5>\nNow Paul turns to the Corinthians’ own issues, building on the answers he has already given to questions they did not ask.<\/p>\nThe first issue is that of marriage (7:1-24). The slogan of the ascetic party in Corinth (perhaps a reaction against the libertines of ch 6) was “It is good for a man not to touch a woman” (7:1, kjv<\/span>). The Corinthians applied this slogan to both married and unmarried, arguing that married Christians should abstain from sexual relations. Paul clarified the matter with three points. First, he said that this was totally unrealistic, for total abstinence would lead to immorality (vv 2, 7-9). Second, when people get married they no longer own their own bodies; their bodies belong to each other for their mutual benefit (vv 3-4). Sexual refusal denies a spouse what rightly belongs to him or her. Third, abstinence is allowed for limited periods by mutual agreement as a type of fast to help focus on Christ (v 5).<\/p>\nWhile Paul will address the issue of the unmarried more fully in 7:25-40, in a side remark he indicates that he is himself content to be unmarried. But since some do not have this gift, full sexual expression in marriage is far better than fighting passion (7:7-9). Once two Christians are married, divorce is unthinkable. A clear word of Christ proves this (Mt 5:31-32; Mk 10:11-12; Lk 16:18 and parallels), so there are no exceptions (Paul either does not know of the exception clause in Mt 19:9 or he understands it as referring to something like premarital unchastity discovered before the wedding, not to adultery after the wedding). Although in some cases a Christian couple must live separately, it is always with a view to reconciliation. The teaching of Jesus does not allow him to think of the marriage as ending (1 Cor 7:10-11).<\/p>\nBut what if the spouse is not a Christian? Paul applies his principles to a situation for which Jesus did not leave a clear word. First, since Jesus told Christians not to divorce, even in this situation the Christian may not initiate a divorce (7:12-13). Second, since Christians are not to control or judge non-Christians (6:12-13), the Christian does not need to continue the relationship if the non-Christian insists on a divorce (7:15). Third, far from defiling the Christian (as the relationship in 6:15 does), the Christian will make the relationship holy, with positive results for the children and the possible salvation of the spouse (7:14, 16). While this is no call to remain in situations of physical or sexual abuse, it is a call to remain faithful to a mixed marriage situation.<\/p>\nPaul does not believe that one normally needs to change one’s life situation to serve Christ (7:17-24). Therefore, normally each person should remain in that state of life in which he or she was when called to Christ. Paul’s examples show that he was thinking in terms of marriage or singleness, Jew (circumcision) or Gentile, slave or free, not in terms of situations that might be immoral in themselves. In the case of slaves, they can accept freedom if it becomes available, but it does not make an essential difference in their real state before God or their ability to serve Christ (vv 21-23).<\/p>\nThe second issue is that of the unmarried (7:25-40). Paul argues that single people and widows may marry—it is not wrong. Yet he advises them to remain single. Since all in this age is passing away, it would be good to stay single so as to avoid the extra suffering to which marriage exposes a person (vv 25-31). What is more, marriage always divides one’s attention between the Lord and the legitimate needs of the spouse. One must not abandon the spouse or ignore his or her needs in order to serve the Lord, but one can remain single so that the Lord can be the sole focus of life and devotion (vv 32-35). Finally, if one is in a situation in which marriage is expected, the person must make his own decision as to whether he should marry the woman for her sake (and perhaps that of the wider family) or whether he can and should simply care for her as a single person (vv 36-38). Paul closes this section by repeating his general principles (vv 39-40).<\/p>\nThe third issue Paul deals with is that of food that has been offered to idols (8:1–11:1). Most meat that was available in the marketplace came either from animals slaughtered as sacrifices in the temples or from groups of animals from which one was offered as a dedicatory sacrifice. To scrupulous Jews, all of this meat would be untouched. Furthermore, pagans invited Christians to feasts in their homes and to private feasts held in the precincts of pagan temples, where trade guilds also held feasts. Paul discusses these issues and uses them to teach wider principles of Christian conduct.<\/p>\nFirst, love, not knowledge, is the key to correct behavior (8:1-13). Some Corinthians felt superior because they were convinced that idols had no reality (there is only one God), and therefore any food offered to them was still fit to eat. Paul again accepts their slogans, but counters with the statement, “Knowledge puffs up, but love builds up” (v 1, niv<\/span>). God is not concerned with what we know or eat, but he is concerned with whether or not we love our fellow Christians. The concern is not that a fellow Christian might become enraged because one indulged, but that he or she might have a vulnerable conscience and indulge himself, even though he believed it wrong and thus in his own eyes apostasizes from the faith (i.e., rebels against Christ). Such leading astray is not love. It would be better never to eat meat than to lead a fellow Christian into sin.<\/p>\nSecond, he points out that one should subordinate one’s own interests to those of others, especially those of Christ and his gospel (9:1-23). Both the examples of the apostles, who expected the church to support them and their families (cf. Lk 10:5-7), and Scripture prove that Paul had the right to demand support from the Corinthians. This had not been his practice, for he had normally made tents to support his ministry, though he did accept gifts from other churches. Paul did this to prevent people from thinking he was peddling religion for profit (9:12) and for the personal satisfaction of doing more than he had to do (vv 16-17). This was part of Paul’s larger policy of subordinating his own personal preferences and interests to those of Christ and his gospel (vv 19-23).<\/p>\nThird, the bravado of the strong who demonstrate their liberty with disregard of fellow Christians is spiritually dangerous (9:24–10:22). It is not who begins but who completes the Christian life that counts; therefore, it is a life of discipline, not relaxed license (9:24-27). Israel in the wilderness presents an example of failure in this regard. They had “baptism” and “the Lord’s Supper” (10:2-4), just like the church, yet most of them did not make it to the Promised Land. The reason God destroyed them was simple: they turned to sin. Likewise, the Christian has to be careful not to be so proud about faith and freedom that he becomes careless about sin and falls from the faith (v 12). On the other hand, Christians need not be fearful, for the temptation is not more powerful than they are; God has provided a way of escape, if they will take it (v 13).<\/p>\nAnother link between the Israelites and the Corinthians pertains to partaking of a sacrificial meal (10:14-22). In the Lord’s Supper there is a sharing of the blood and body of Christ, just as real as Israel’s sacrifices on the altar. Food offered to idols is also a sharing, not with the supposed god, but with the real demon that is behind the idol. To try to share at both tables is to provoke God’s jealousy just as Israel did (v 22).<\/p>\nA summary of the discussion draws the three chapters together (10:23–11:1). Since the food is not changed by being offered to idols, and since all food really belongs to God, one may eat anything sold in the market—do not ask any questions (10:25-26). Likewise, the Christian may eat anything served at a dinner in the home of an unbeliever. However, if someone points out that the food was offered to idols, the Christian should pass it by, not because it would hurt him, but because it is an issue with the person who raised the question, and the Christian is concerned about the good of his neighbor (vv 27-30). In other words, follow Paul’s example as he patterns himself in turn after Christ, who served others rather than himself. Act so that God’s reputation and character shine through even in what one eats (v 31); try to offend no one but to benefit each person in moving him toward salvation (v 32).<\/p>\nThe fourth issue Paul deals with is that of order in church meetings (11:2–14:40). The Corinthians’ house churches had lively meetings, but rather than showing unity in Christ, they demonstrated selfishness. Paul had no desire to change what they did; he did want to change how they did it.<\/p>\nThe first problem in the meetings was the behavior of married women (11:1-16). The sign of marriage in that day was the wearing of a veil or distinctive hairstyle, as a ring is today. Women praying and delivering prophecies in church was no issue for Paul, but the women may have felt that this loosed them from their husbands (cf. Mk 12:25) and therefore was a reason to set aside their veils. Paul argues that husband and wife are intimately joined, just as humans are to God (1 Cor 11:3). Therefore as humans should not shame but glorify God, so the wife should act toward her husband. Thus, while Paul approves of ministry by women, he puts marriage first.<\/p>\nThe second problem in the meetings was that of making class distinctions (11:17-34). Until the weekly Lord’s Supper began to be turned into the sacrifice of the Mass in the third and fourth centuries, it was a full shared meal. Middle- and upper-class Christians could come earlier to the church gatherings and also provide better food and drink for themselves. Following the customs of pagan clubs, they had no scruples against starting early and feasting as befit their class, so long as at least simple food was provided for the slaves and peasants who could not come as early (v 21). This shamed the poorer Christians and made them feel class distinctions keenly (v 22). This, argues Paul, is not the Lord’s Supper but a sham (v 20).<\/p>\nPaul repeats the words of institution to point out that they all are participating in Christ’s body and blood (cf. 10:16-17), not their own meal. To do it in an unworthy manner, with divisions and class distinctions among them, is to profane his meal by failing to demonstrate the unity of his body, the church (11:29), and thus invite his judgment, which they were already experiencing. Instead, they should examine their own motives and truly gather as one to eat this common meal.<\/p>\nThe third problem in their meetings was the use of spiritual gifts (12:1–14:40). It is possible that some people in these house churches, under the influence of Gnostic ideas in which the spiritual is good and the material evil, and feeling inspired by a spirit, cried out, “Jesus [meaning the human Jesus as opposed to the spiritual Christ] be cursed.” It is not the Spirit of God saying this, argues Paul, for the Spirit in us cries the basic Christian confession, “Jesus is Lord.”<\/p>\nOthers in these churches were exalting their own particular gift, especially the gift of tongues, shouting down others or refusing to give them a turn. There is only one Spirit and he gives all the gifts, Paul argues (12:4-6). The Spirit manifests himself sovereignly in each Christian, not simply for the Christian’s own benefit, but for the good of all (v 7). Since it is the Spirit, not a given manifestation, that the Christian has, the gifts manifested could change from meeting to meeting.<\/p>\nThat same Spirit has made all Christians into one organic unity in Christ (12:12-13). Thus not only does the one Spirit give all the gifts—all are equally inspired—but all the gifts are equally needed for the proper functioning of the body of Christ (vv 14-26). No one can say that his lack of a given gift makes him less a part of the body; indeed, the less noticeable gifts may well be the more important. Thus, within the body of Christ, there are not only different manifestations of the Spirit through individuals in a given meeting, but different ministries or functions of individuals in the body (vv 27-31).<\/p>\nTherefore, it is not the demonstration of a particular gift that shows one’s spirituality, but how one demonstrates it—that is, whether one manifests it with love (13:1-13). Any gift exercised for selfish purposes may be a genuine gift of the Spirit, but it is worthless to the individual (vv 1-3). This is because love is the opposite of selfishness (vv 4-7). In fact, the gifts of the Spirit are only for the period between Jesus’ first coming and his second coming, when the kingdom of God will be perfectly revealed and the King will be present in person, and thus the intermediary gifts of the Spirit will be no longer necessary (vv 10, 12). It is not giftedness but faith and hope that will have a reward then, and love, which is the greatest, because it will continue as Christians live in perfect love with each other and with Jesus (v 13).<\/p>\nApplying this to Corinth, Paul argues that while one should desire all the gifts, love dictates that prophecy should be the gift of choice in the church meetings (14:1-25). The Corinthians had evidently been stressing tongues. Tongues without interpretation is of little value to anyone except to the speaker himself. It does not build anyone up; its confusion seems madness to outsiders. Outside the church meetings there is a role for tongues, both as a sign of judgment (v 21) and for private devotion (v 18), but inside, only with interpretation. Prophecy, however, both builds up and convicts, and thus is to be sought in the meetings.<\/p>\nIn the church meetings, then, both gifts and order are to prevail (14:26-40). All types of gifts are allowed expression with a goal of mutual edification, not selfish demonstration (v 26). Tongues speakers must have an interpreter; both they and prophets must speak in turn, with time being taken to evaluate the utterances after every few speakers (vv 27-33). Furthermore, the women, who were perhaps chatting in the service (perhaps due to habits learned in Jewish synagogues, where they were segregated and did not participate) are to cease their chattering, pay attention, and learn, asking questions at home if they do not understand (vv 34-36). In his concluding summary, Paul states that all should be done in an orderly manner (vv 37-40).<\/p>\nThe fifth issue Paul deals with is that of the resurrection of the dead (ch 15). Some of the problems mentioned earlier concerning loose morals (chs 5–6), ascetic denial, sexuality (ch 7), or feeling one was resurrected already (ch 11) point to the fact that some Corinthians did not believe in the resurrection of the body, though they apparently believed in the resurrection of Jesus and the immortality of the human soul.<\/p>\nPaul reaffirms that the resurrection of Jesus is an essential part of the gospel message (15:1-19). The unified voice of the church was that Jesus not only died but rose again and appeared to numerous witnesses (vv 3-11). If they were consistent in their antiresurrection argument, Christ could not have been raised. Yet if this were the case, the whole gospel message is false and all their hopes for salvation are in vain (vv 12-19).<\/p>\nSince Christ has been raised, Christians will also be raised because of their solidarity with him (15:20-28). As they had experienced the results of being in Adam, so now they will experience the results of being in Christ. But resurrection does not happen at once. There are progressive stages: (a) Christ was first; (b) Christians will be raised at his coming; (c) Christ must reign until he extends kingdom rule over the whole world, destroying all demonic powers (including death itself); and (d) then he will turn over the perfected kingdom to the Father (vv 23-28).<\/p>\nResurrection hope also explains Christian practices such as baptizing people on behalf of others who had died (probably people who had turned to Christ but had died before they could be baptized, 15:29), and willingness to risk death for Christ (vv 30-32).<\/p>\nPaul admits that there are intellectual problems involved, but these are solved when one realizes that resurrection includes both continuity and discontinuity (15:35-50). Just as seed and plant are the same and yet different, and just as many types of bodies exist, so it is with the resurrection. What was perishable, dishonorable, weak, and physical (i.e., in Adam) will be raised imperishable, glorious, powerful, and spiritual (i.e., in Christ). Indeed, it is only as Christians thus become like Christ, the heavenly man, that they can become part of God’s kingdom.<\/p>\nWith excitement Paul shares his real hope, that of transformation (15:51-58). At the coming of Christ the dead will be raised and transformed. But the living will also need transformation, and this will happen in a split second, making all of them impervious to death. Then they will truly know the victory already present in Jesus’ resurrection (vv 54-57). A concluding summary draws the practical conclusion that this teaching should give them assurance of a reward for anything done for Christ now (v 58).<\/p>\nThe sixth issue Paul deals with is that of the collection for the needy Jerusalem church (16:1-4). Because of famine in Judea in the 40s, the church there had become impoverished. Partly because of the need and partly to further the unity of the church, Paul took up a collection in some of his churches for the Judean church. He answers the Corinthians’ practical queries by stating that the collection should be made weekly according to ability, not all at once when Paul arrives (16:2). When he comes, he will send off the money with their own messengers. Paul remains vague about whether or not he will accompany them, allaying suspicions that somehow he plans to profit from it (cf. 2 Cor 8–9).<\/p>\n<h5>Final Remarks and Closing, 16:5-24<\/h5>\nHaving come to the end, Paul discusses his travel plans, including his intention for a lengthy visit whenever he leaves Ephesus (cf. 2 Cor 1). Timothy was either coming with the letter or else would arrive shortly after another mission; they were to respect him and help him return. Paul points out that he urged Apollos to visit Corinth, in case some suspect Paul is against him. A closing formal exhortation to firm faith and love leads into his final customary greetings. He praises the Corinthian messengers who had brought him their letter (16:15-18) and sends greetings from Aquila and Prisca (Priscilla), his comissionaries who had helped him found the church in Corinth (Acts 18:2-3, 18). Referring to the customary greeting in the church, he tells them to greet each other with a kiss on each cheek (16:20). Paul then takes the pen from the scribe, as was normal, and writes the closing exhortation—placing a curse on those who do not love Jesus, the common Aramaic expression used in the church “Come, O Lord” (Marana tha,<\/em> perhaps used to close services), and providing an assurance of his own love for them (vv 21-24).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; Corinth; Corinthians, Second Letter to the; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CORINTHIANS, First Letter to the<\/h3>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date and Origin<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nThere is no doubt about who wrote 1 Corinthians, for all scholars agree that the apostle Paul wrote it on his third missionary journey while he was living in Ephesus. By this time Paul was a mature, middle-aged (perhaps 55 years old) missionary, fully seasoned from planting churches around a quarter of the Mediterranean world.<\/p>\nDate and Origin<\/p>\nPaul worked in Corinth from about AD<\/span> 50 to 52. After a brief stay in Jerusalem, he returned to his missionary work, this time at Ephesus (Acts 19), where he ministered for three years (AD<\/span> 53–55\/56). During this period, he wrote at least three letters to Corinth and made a visit as well. His first letter, often called “the previous letter,” is referred to in 1 Corinthians 5:9-11. We know from this reference that the letter was misunderstood, but we know little of its content, for it has been lost.<\/p>\nSometime in AD<\/span> 55, after hearing reports from Chloe’s household (1 Cor 1:11), who were probably members of Chloe’s house church, he dictated a second letter to Corinth, our 1 Corinthians. This was probably sent off in the hands of Stephanas, Fortunatus, and Achaicus (16:17). Paul would later write a third letter to Corinth, called “the letter of tears” (2 Cor 2:2-3), and then finally 2 Corinthians.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nCorinth was a seaport city, destroyed by the Romans in 146 BC<\/span> and rebuilt in 46 BC<\/span> by Julius Caesar. After 27 BC<\/span>, it was the Roman capital of Achaia, where the proconsul had his residence (Acts 18:12). The city itself was really three cities: the port of Cenchrea, about eight miles (13 kilometers) to the east, where ships from the Aegean would unload; the port of Lechaion, about a mile (1.6 kilometers) to the west on the Gulf of Corinth, where the ships would be reloaded, their goods having been transported in wagons over the isthmus and the ships on rollers; and the city itself on the high ground in between.<\/p>\nThe acropolis of the city, on top of the steep, high Acrocorinth, contained the temple of Aphrodite, where 1,000 female slaves were dedicated to the service of this goddess of love. This distinctive cult of Corinth was dedicated to the veneration of Aphrodite, goddess of love, beauty, and fertility, who is identified with the Roman Venus. Associated with such religious practices was a general moral degradation. Corinthian morals were notoriously corrupt, even when compared with pagan Rome. Down in the city was the synagogue (Acts 18:4); for while the city as a Roman colony was largely populated by Italians, it had attracted other peoples from the Mediterranean, among whom were the Jews.<\/p>\nPurpose and Teaching<\/p>\nThe main concern of Paul in 1 Corinthians was the unity of the church. There was a self-centeredness in Corinth that resulted in building cliques within the church, in flaunting knowledge and liberty in the face of others scandalized by it, and in selfish displays in the worship services.<\/p>\nTwo other major concerns also surface in the book. First, along with other pagan practices, the lax sexual ethics of Corinth had influenced the church; Paul needed to erect some barriers. Second, there was a problem in accepting the resurrection of the body; Paul realized that this issue had implications for the core of the faith and vigorously affirmed the resurrection.<\/p>\nBoth of these latter two areas, as well as aspects of the unity issue (particularly their concern with knowledge), have been identified by some scholars as Gnostic motifs, leading to the conclusion that Paul was opposing a Gnostic party in Corinth. Careful examination reveals, however, that while some of the elements floating in the Corinthian milieu would later contribute to the development of Gnosticism, it would be anachronistic to call them gnostic. While recognizing protognostic ideas in the Corinthian situation, it is important to keep interpretation within the first-century context.<\/p>\nThus, the focus of Paul’s concern was the church, its unity and purity. Paul was fighting to keep this church from disintegrating into a number of competing and bickering factions divided over moral and doctrinal issues. Furthermore, he wanted to keep the focus of the church on Jesus, the exalted Lord.<\/p>\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Greeting, 1:1-9<\/h5>\nPaul begins with a standard greeting, followed by his usual thanksgiving prayer. Two features stand out. First, the greeting associates Sosthenes with Paul. While we cannot be sure who Sosthenes was, he was surely well known to the Corinthians; probably he was the Sosthenes whom Acts 18:17 identifies as the ruler of the synagogue, following the conversion of Crispus.<\/p>\nSecond, Paul stresses the Corinthians’ abilities in speech, knowledge, and spiritual gifts. They had all of these, and these were genuine, but it was precisely these good things that they were abusing. Paul’s solution is not to suppress these gifts (indeed, he thanks God for them), but to place them in a new context.<\/p>\n<h5>Report from Chloe’s People, 1:10–4:21<\/h5>\nThe Corinthians had made Paul, Cephas (Peter), Apollos, and even Christ into party leaders. We are not sure what each of these groups stood for, but one might guess that the Pauline group stressed Paul’s slogans of liberty; the Petrine group, the need to hold to Jewish practices; and the Apollos group, the value of philosophical understanding and oratory. Whatever they stood for, Paul is appalled that it breaks their unity. His first response is to argue that his behavior was not calculated to build a following but to point to Christ. That is, he did not insist on personally baptizing converts; who performed these acts did not matter, since they were all baptized into Christ.<\/p>\nPaul immediately moves to the underlying issue, that of various persons wanting to show themselves better or wiser than others who did not have the insights of their party in the church. Their seeking for wisdom contradicts Paul’s preaching of the gospel.<\/p>\nFirst, the message of a crucified Christ (1:18) made no sense within the wisdom and values of either Jews or Greeks. It demanded a whole new way of looking on life—God’s way.<\/p>\nSecond, God had not chosen them on the basis of their status in society; quite the contrary, he had made their only status the equal status they received from him (1:26-31).<\/p>\nThird, their faith had not been based on Paul’s oratory but on the gifts of the Spirit that Paul had manifested (2:4), which had convinced them that God was acting in Paul. Thus, it was not argument that led them to God, but God’s Spirit. Therefore it was the Spirit, not human reasoning, that would continue to reveal God to them. Unless they became fools with respect to the world’s ways of reasoning, they would never be able to rethink life from the perspective of the Spirit, who gives true wisdom.<\/p>\nFourth, they were not acting on this spiritual level when they claimed Paul and others as party leaders; this activity demonstrates the evil impulse in human beings (“the flesh” or “fallen human nature”) at work since it elevates human servants rather than the God who works equally in each of them.<\/p>\nFifth, these servants were working together to build one “temple” for God based on the one foundation in Jesus Christ, that is, the church. God alone will judge how each Christian contributes to the work of building the church. But woe to the person who divides the church, for “if anyone destroys God’s temple, God will destroy him” (3:17, rsv<\/span>). (Note that here the temple imagery is used collectively; the church is the temple. In chapter 6 it will be used individually; each Christian is the temple.)<\/p>\nFinally, he points to their overrealized eschatology, for with their spiritual gifts (which were genuine) and vaunted wisdom (which was worldly) they claimed they were reigning with Christ (4:8-13). Paul, with ironic sarcasm, points out how different this claim is from the lifestyle of the apostles. The apostles lived like Jesus—a life of suffering, expecting exaltation later. The Corinthians were trying to have their exaltation now without crucifixion.<\/p>\nPaul closes this section with an admonition. He softens his words toward some who would be responsive, urging them to copy his lifestyle. The teacher was the message (vv 14-16). Timothy will also faithfully live the truth before them. Then he threatens the “arrogant” (v 18), pointing out that he will not challenge their words but their spiritual power if he comes.<\/p>\n<h5>The Report from the Corinthian Messengers, 5:1–6:20<\/h5>\nPaul now turns to three issues raised by oral reports from the messengers bearing the Corinthians’ letter to him.<\/p>\nThe first issue is that of church discipline (5:12-13). Paul cites a case of flagrant immorality—that of incest. This immorality was so clear (even pagans considered it immoral), that it was not a case of ignorance of Christian principles. Further, the church had taken no action but rather boasted in its tolerance, perhaps on the basis of a misunderstanding of Paul’s teaching on freedom from the law.<\/p>\nPaul presents three principles in this section: (1) the primary goal of church discipline is the repentance and restoration of the offender; (2) the secondary goal of church discipline is the protection of the church (5:6-8); and (3) the church is not to seek to judge or control the actions of evil persons in the world—they are God’s responsibility—but to discipline those within the church (vv 9-13). Paul will use these principles also in the following chapters (cf. 7:12-16).<\/p>\nThe second issue is that of lawsuits between Christians (6:1-11). The Corinthian society was as prone to litigation as our own, and Christians did not see anything wrong in suing each other. Paul was troubled. If Christians are to judge the world, they certainly should not bring the world in to judge issues within the church. Rather than put their cases before “those who are least esteemed by the church” (6:4, rsv<\/span>, i.e., pagan judges), they should decide the cases within the church.<\/p>\nPaul has an even better way than bypassing the pagan courts, and that is to simply suffer the wrong (1 Cor 6:7). Applying the teaching of Jesus quite literally (Mt 5:38-42), Paul argues that it would be best to allow themselves to be defrauded. Instead, the Corinthians are willing to step on their brothers in Christ to get what they feel are their rights. This raises the issue as to whether greed is not still in their hearts (1 Cor 6:9-11). While Paul accepts people who formerly did all sorts of evil (for Jesus has cleansed them), he makes it very clear that anyone presently practicing greed or immorality is not part of the kingdom, whatever their doctrinal commitments may be.<\/p>\nThe final issue in this section is that of casual sexual intercourse (6:12-20). In a world where virginity was important if a woman wished to be married and where slaves in the temple of Aphrodite were available as prostitutes, prostitution was the major form of casual sex. The libertine party used two slogans: “All things are lawful for me,” a saying that may well have been derived from Paul’s teaching, and “Food is meant for the stomach and the stomach for food”—that is, since the body works this way, it must be the Creator’s purpose. Paul qualifies rather than contradicts their slogans. Freedom is subordinate to other goals (6:12, 20). The body is not made to be used as we wish, but is to be dedicated to the Lord, as the doctrine of the resurrection demonstrates (vv 13-14).<\/p>\nFurthermore, sexual intercourse is an act of the whole person, unlike eating (Paul cites Gn 2:24; cf. Jesus in Mt 19:5). Therefore, this act takes a member (i.e., the person) from the body of Christ and makes him a unity with a prostitute (1 Cor 6:15-17). Thus immorality is unlike other sins that are external to the self, for it changes the self and thus defiles the body, the place where the Holy Spirit dwells. It disregards the fact that Christ has redeemed the body, and that the whole of the Christian belongs to God, not to the Christian.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Answers to the Corinthians, 7:1–16:4<\/h5>\nNow Paul turns to the Corinthians’ own issues, building on the answers he has already given to questions they did not ask.<\/p>\nThe first issue is that of marriage (7:1-24). The slogan of the ascetic party in Corinth (perhaps a reaction against the libertines of ch 6) was “It is good for a man not to touch a woman” (7:1, kjv<\/span>). The Corinthians applied this slogan to both married and unmarried, arguing that married Christians should abstain from sexual relations. Paul clarified the matter with three points. First, he said that this was totally unrealistic, for total abstinence would lead to immorality (vv 2, 7-9). Second, when people get married they no longer own their own bodies; their bodies belong to each other for their mutual benefit (vv 3-4). Sexual refusal denies a spouse what rightly belongs to him or her. Third, abstinence is allowed for limited periods by mutual agreement as a type of fast to help focus on Christ (v 5).<\/p>\nWhile Paul will address the issue of the unmarried more fully in 7:25-40, in a side remark he indicates that he is himself content to be unmarried. But since some do not have this gift, full sexual expression in marriage is far better than fighting passion (7:7-9). Once two Christians are married, divorce is unthinkable. A clear word of Christ proves this (Mt 5:31-32; Mk 10:11-12; Lk 16:18 and parallels), so there are no exceptions (Paul either does not know of the exception clause in Mt 19:9 or he understands it as referring to something like premarital unchastity discovered before the wedding, not to adultery after the wedding). Although in some cases a Christian couple must live separately, it is always with a view to reconciliation. The teaching of Jesus does not allow him to think of the marriage as ending (1 Cor 7:10-11).<\/p>\nBut what if the spouse is not a Christian? Paul applies his principles to a situation for which Jesus did not leave a clear word. First, since Jesus told Christians not to divorce, even in this situation the Christian may not initiate a divorce (7:12-13). Second, since Christians are not to control or judge non-Christians (6:12-13), the Christian does not need to continue the relationship if the non-Christian insists on a divorce (7:15). Third, far from defiling the Christian (as the relationship in 6:15 does), the Christian will make the relationship holy, with positive results for the children and the possible salvation of the spouse (7:14, 16). While this is no call to remain in situations of physical or sexual abuse, it is a call to remain faithful to a mixed marriage situation.<\/p>\nPaul does not believe that one normally needs to change one’s life situation to serve Christ (7:17-24). Therefore, normally each person should remain in that state of life in which he or she was when called to Christ. Paul’s examples show that he was thinking in terms of marriage or singleness, Jew (circumcision) or Gentile, slave or free, not in terms of situations that might be immoral in themselves. In the case of slaves, they can accept freedom if it becomes available, but it does not make an essential difference in their real state before God or their ability to serve Christ (vv 21-23).<\/p>\nThe second issue is that of the unmarried (7:25-40). Paul argues that single people and widows may marry—it is not wrong. Yet he advises them to remain single. Since all in this age is passing away, it would be good to stay single so as to avoid the extra suffering to which marriage exposes a person (vv 25-31). What is more, marriage always divides one’s attention between the Lord and the legitimate needs of the spouse. One must not abandon the spouse or ignore his or her needs in order to serve the Lord, but one can remain single so that the Lord can be the sole focus of life and devotion (vv 32-35). Finally, if one is in a situation in which marriage is expected, the person must make his own decision as to whether he should marry the woman for her sake (and perhaps that of the wider family) or whether he can and should simply care for her as a single person (vv 36-38). Paul closes this section by repeating his general principles (vv 39-40).<\/p>\nThe third issue Paul deals with is that of food that has been offered to idols (8:1–11:1). Most meat that was available in the marketplace came either from animals slaughtered as sacrifices in the temples or from groups of animals from which one was offered as a dedicatory sacrifice. To scrupulous Jews, all of this meat would be untouched. Furthermore, pagans invited Christians to feasts in their homes and to private feasts held in the precincts of pagan temples, where trade guilds also held feasts. Paul discusses these issues and uses them to teach wider principles of Christian conduct.<\/p>\nFirst, love, not knowledge, is the key to correct behavior (8:1-13). Some Corinthians felt superior because they were convinced that idols had no reality (there is only one God), and therefore any food offered to them was still fit to eat. Paul again accepts their slogans, but counters with the statement, “Knowledge puffs up, but love builds up” (v 1, niv<\/span>). God is not concerned with what we know or eat, but he is concerned with whether or not we love our fellow Christians. The concern is not that a fellow Christian might become enraged because one indulged, but that he or she might have a vulnerable conscience and indulge himself, even though he believed it wrong and thus in his own eyes apostasizes from the faith (i.e., rebels against Christ). Such leading astray is not love. It would be better never to eat meat than to lead a fellow Christian into sin.<\/p>\nSecond, he points out that one should subordinate one’s own interests to those of others, especially those of Christ and his gospel (9:1-23). Both the examples of the apostles, who expected the church to support them and their families (cf. Lk 10:5-7), and Scripture prove that Paul had the right to demand support from the Corinthians. This had not been his practice, for he had normally made tents to support his ministry, though he did accept gifts from other churches. Paul did this to prevent people from thinking he was peddling religion for profit (9:12) and for the personal satisfaction of doing more than he had to do (vv 16-17). This was part of Paul’s larger policy of subordinating his own personal preferences and interests to those of Christ and his gospel (vv 19-23).<\/p>\nThird, the bravado of the strong who demonstrate their liberty with disregard of fellow Christians is spiritually dangerous (9:24–10:22). It is not who begins but who completes the Christian life that counts; therefore, it is a life of discipline, not relaxed license (9:24-27). Israel in the wilderness presents an example of failure in this regard. They had “baptism” and “the Lord’s Supper” (10:2-4), just like the church, yet most of them did not make it to the Promised Land. The reason God destroyed them was simple: they turned to sin. Likewise, the Christian has to be careful not to be so proud about faith and freedom that he becomes careless about sin and falls from the faith (v 12). On the other hand, Christians need not be fearful, for the temptation is not more powerful than they are; God has provided a way of escape, if they will take it (v 13).<\/p>\nAnother link between the Israelites and the Corinthians pertains to partaking of a sacrificial meal (10:14-22). In the Lord’s Supper there is a sharing of the blood and body of Christ, just as real as Israel’s sacrifices on the altar. Food offered to idols is also a sharing, not with the supposed god, but with the real demon that is behind the idol. To try to share at both tables is to provoke God’s jealousy just as Israel did (v 22).<\/p>\nA summary of the discussion draws the three chapters together (10:23–11:1). Since the food is not changed by being offered to idols, and since all food really belongs to God, one may eat anything sold in the market—do not ask any questions (10:25-26). Likewise, the Christian may eat anything served at a dinner in the home of an unbeliever. However, if someone points out that the food was offered to idols, the Christian should pass it by, not because it would hurt him, but because it is an issue with the person who raised the question, and the Christian is concerned about the good of his neighbor (vv 27-30). In other words, follow Paul’s example as he patterns himself in turn after Christ, who served others rather than himself. Act so that God’s reputation and character shine through even in what one eats (v 31); try to offend no one but to benefit each person in moving him toward salvation (v 32).<\/p>\nThe fourth issue Paul deals with is that of order in church meetings (11:2–14:40). The Corinthians’ house churches had lively meetings, but rather than showing unity in Christ, they demonstrated selfishness. Paul had no desire to change what they did; he did want to change how they did it.<\/p>\nThe first problem in the meetings was the behavior of married women (11:1-16). The sign of marriage in that day was the wearing of a veil or distinctive hairstyle, as a ring is today. Women praying and delivering prophecies in church was no issue for Paul, but the women may have felt that this loosed them from their husbands (cf. Mk 12:25) and therefore was a reason to set aside their veils. Paul argues that husband and wife are intimately joined, just as humans are to God (1 Cor 11:3). Therefore as humans should not shame but glorify God, so the wife should act toward her husband. Thus, while Paul approves of ministry by women, he puts marriage first.<\/p>\nThe second problem in the meetings was that of making class distinctions (11:17-34). Until the weekly Lord’s Supper began to be turned into the sacrifice of the Mass in the third and fourth centuries, it was a full shared meal. Middle- and upper-class Christians could come earlier to the church gatherings and also provide better food and drink for themselves. Following the customs of pagan clubs, they had no scruples against starting early and feasting as befit their class, so long as at least simple food was provided for the slaves and peasants who could not come as early (v 21). This shamed the poorer Christians and made them feel class distinctions keenly (v 22). This, argues Paul, is not the Lord’s Supper but a sham (v 20).<\/p>\nPaul repeats the words of institution to point out that they all are participating in Christ’s body and blood (cf. 10:16-17), not their own meal. To do it in an unworthy manner, with divisions and class distinctions among them, is to profane his meal by failing to demonstrate the unity of his body, the church (11:29), and thus invite his judgment, which they were already experiencing. Instead, they should examine their own motives and truly gather as one to eat this common meal.<\/p>\nThe third problem in their meetings was the use of spiritual gifts (12:1–14:40). It is possible that some people in these house churches, under the influence of Gnostic ideas in which the spiritual is good and the material evil, and feeling inspired by a spirit, cried out, “Jesus [meaning the human Jesus as opposed to the spiritual Christ] be cursed.” It is not the Spirit of God saying this, argues Paul, for the Spirit in us cries the basic Christian confession, “Jesus is Lord.”<\/p>\nOthers in these churches were exalting their own particular gift, especially the gift of tongues, shouting down others or refusing to give them a turn. There is only one Spirit and he gives all the gifts, Paul argues (12:4-6). The Spirit manifests himself sovereignly in each Christian, not simply for the Christian’s own benefit, but for the good of all (v 7). Since it is the Spirit, not a given manifestation, that the Christian has, the gifts manifested could change from meeting to meeting.<\/p>\nThat same Spirit has made all Christians into one organic unity in Christ (12:12-13). Thus not only does the one Spirit give all the gifts—all are equally inspired—but all the gifts are equally needed for the proper functioning of the body of Christ (vv 14-26). No one can say that his lack of a given gift makes him less a part of the body; indeed, the less noticeable gifts may well be the more important. Thus, within the body of Christ, there are not only different manifestations of the Spirit through individuals in a given meeting, but different ministries or functions of individuals in the body (vv 27-31).<\/p>\nTherefore, it is not the demonstration of a particular gift that shows one’s spirituality, but how one demonstrates it—that is, whether one manifests it with love (13:1-13). Any gift exercised for selfish purposes may be a genuine gift of the Spirit, but it is worthless to the individual (vv 1-3). This is because love is the opposite of selfishness (vv 4-7). In fact, the gifts of the Spirit are only for the period between Jesus’ first coming and his second coming, when the kingdom of God will be perfectly revealed and the King will be present in person, and thus the intermediary gifts of the Spirit will be no longer necessary (vv 10, 12). It is not giftedness but faith and hope that will have a reward then, and love, which is the greatest, because it will continue as Christians live in perfect love with each other and with Jesus (v 13).<\/p>\nApplying this to Corinth, Paul argues that while one should desire all the gifts, love dictates that prophecy should be the gift of choice in the church meetings (14:1-25). The Corinthians had evidently been stressing tongues. Tongues without interpretation is of little value to anyone except to the speaker himself. It does not build anyone up; its confusion seems madness to outsiders. Outside the church meetings there is a role for tongues, both as a sign of judgment (v 21) and for private devotion (v 18), but inside, only with interpretation. Prophecy, however, both builds up and convicts, and thus is to be sought in the meetings.<\/p>\nIn the church meetings, then, both gifts and order are to prevail (14:26-40). All types of gifts are allowed expression with a goal of mutual edification, not selfish demonstration (v 26). Tongues speakers must have an interpreter; both they and prophets must speak in turn, with time being taken to evaluate the utterances after every few speakers (vv 27-33). Furthermore, the women, who were perhaps chatting in the service (perhaps due to habits learned in Jewish synagogues, where they were segregated and did not participate) are to cease their chattering, pay attention, and learn, asking questions at home if they do not understand (vv 34-36). In his concluding summary, Paul states that all should be done in an orderly manner (vv 37-40).<\/p>\nThe fifth issue Paul deals with is that of the resurrection of the dead (ch 15). Some of the problems mentioned earlier concerning loose morals (chs 5–6), ascetic denial, sexuality (ch 7), or feeling one was resurrected already (ch 11) point to the fact that some Corinthians did not believe in the resurrection of the body, though they apparently believed in the resurrection of Jesus and the immortality of the human soul.<\/p>\nPaul reaffirms that the resurrection of Jesus is an essential part of the gospel message (15:1-19). The unified voice of the church was that Jesus not only died but rose again and appeared to numerous witnesses (vv 3-11). If they were consistent in their antiresurrection argument, Christ could not have been raised. Yet if this were the case, the whole gospel message is false and all their hopes for salvation are in vain (vv 12-19).<\/p>\nSince Christ has been raised, Christians will also be raised because of their solidarity with him (15:20-28). As they had experienced the results of being in Adam, so now they will experience the results of being in Christ. But resurrection does not happen at once. There are progressive stages: (a) Christ was first; (b) Christians will be raised at his coming; (c) Christ must reign until he extends kingdom rule over the whole world, destroying all demonic powers (including death itself); and (d) then he will turn over the perfected kingdom to the Father (vv 23-28).<\/p>\nResurrection hope also explains Christian practices such as baptizing people on behalf of others who had died (probably people who had turned to Christ but had died before they could be baptized, 15:29), and willingness to risk death for Christ (vv 30-32).<\/p>\nPaul admits that there are intellectual problems involved, but these are solved when one realizes that resurrection includes both continuity and discontinuity (15:35-50). Just as seed and plant are the same and yet different, and just as many types of bodies exist, so it is with the resurrection. What was perishable, dishonorable, weak, and physical (i.e., in Adam) will be raised imperishable, glorious, powerful, and spiritual (i.e., in Christ). Indeed, it is only as Christians thus become like Christ, the heavenly man, that they can become part of God’s kingdom.<\/p>\nWith excitement Paul shares his real hope, that of transformation (15:51-58). At the coming of Christ the dead will be raised and transformed. But the living will also need transformation, and this will happen in a split second, making all of them impervious to death. Then they will truly know the victory already present in Jesus’ resurrection (vv 54-57). A concluding summary draws the practical conclusion that this teaching should give them assurance of a reward for anything done for Christ now (v 58).<\/p>\nThe sixth issue Paul deals with is that of the collection for the needy Jerusalem church (16:1-4). Because of famine in Judea in the 40s, the church there had become impoverished. Partly because of the need and partly to further the unity of the church, Paul took up a collection in some of his churches for the Judean church. He answers the Corinthians’ practical queries by stating that the collection should be made weekly according to ability, not all at once when Paul arrives (16:2). When he comes, he will send off the money with their own messengers. Paul remains vague about whether or not he will accompany them, allaying suspicions that somehow he plans to profit from it (cf. 2 Cor 8–9).<\/p>\n<h5>Final Remarks and Closing, 16:5-24<\/h5>\nHaving come to the end, Paul discusses his travel plans, including his intention for a lengthy visit whenever he leaves Ephesus (cf. 2 Cor 1). Timothy was either coming with the letter or else would arrive shortly after another mission; they were to respect him and help him return. Paul points out that he urged Apollos to visit Corinth, in case some suspect Paul is against him. A closing formal exhortation to firm faith and love leads into his final customary greetings. He praises the Corinthian messengers who had brought him their letter (16:15-18) and sends greetings from Aquila and Prisca (Priscilla), his comissionaries who had helped him found the church in Corinth (Acts 18:2-3, 18). Referring to the customary greeting in the church, he tells them to greet each other with a kiss on each cheek (16:20). Paul then takes the pen from the scribe, as was normal, and writes the closing exhortation—placing a curse on those who do not love Jesus, the common Aramaic expression used in the church “Come, O Lord” (Marana tha,<\/em> perhaps used to close services), and providing an assurance of his own love for them (vv 21-24).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; Corinth; Corinthians, Second Letter to the; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CORINTHIANS, First Letter to the Preview • Author • Date and Origin • Background • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author There is no doubt about who wrote 1 Corinthians, for all scholars agree that the apostle Paul wrote it on his third missionary journey while he was living in Ephesus. By this time Paul was a mature, middle-aged (perhaps 55 years old) missionary, fully seasoned from planting churches around a quarter of the Mediterranean world. Date and Origin Paul worked in Corinth from abo...","summary_en":"CORINTHIANS, First Letter to the Preview • Author • Date and Origin • Background • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author There is no doubt about who wrote 1 Corinthians, for all scholars agree that the apostle Paul wrote it on his third missionary journey while he was living in Ephesus. By this time Paul was a mature, middle-aged (perhaps 55 years old) missionary, fully seasoned from planting churches around a quarter of the Mediterranean world. Date and Origin Paul worked in Corinth from abo...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":36278,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Spiritual Gifts","title_en":"Spiritual Gifts","content_ro":"<h3>SPIRITUAL GIFTS<\/h3>\nPhrase regularly used to translate two Greek words, charismata<\/span> and pneumatika<\/span> (the plural forms of charisma<\/span> and pneumatikon<\/span>). Both words are almost exclusively Pauline within the biblical writings; elsewhere in the NT, they appear only in 1 Peter 2:5 and 4:10. Other writers, of course, mention phenomena that fall within Paul’s definition of “spiritual gifts,” but for specific teaching on the subject, one must depend on Paul first and foremost.<\/p>\nBoth words are derived from more familiar words, charis<\/span> (grace) and pneuma<\/span> (spirit). Both have similar senses—charisma<\/span> meaning “expression of grace,” pneumatikon<\/span> meaning “expression of Spirit.” Their range of application, however, is somewhat different.<\/p>\nCharisma<\/span> denotes God’s saving action in Christ (Rom 5:15-16) and the gift of eternal life (6:23). More generally, in Romans 11:29 it probably refers to the series of gracious acts on behalf of Israel whereby God made Israel’s calling and election sure. In 2 Corinthians 1:11 it probably refers to a particular action of God that brought Paul deliverance from deadly peril. Otherwise, the reference seems to be to divine grace as mediated through individuals, with Paul presumably thinking of the sort of utterances and deeds that he illustrates in Romans 12:6-8 and 1 Corinthians 12:8-10 (so in Rom 1:11; 1 Cor 1:7; 7:7; 12:4-11, 28-30; similarly 1 Pt 4:10).<\/p>\nPneumatikon<\/span> has a wider range of usage. It is more properly an adjective and so describes various things (and people) as “spiritual,” as manifesting the Spirit, or as serving as the instrument of the Spirit. These include some particular word or act (Rom 1:11), the law (7:14), the manna, water from the rock, and the rock itself in the wilderness wanderings of Israel (1 Cor 10:3-4), the resurrection body (15:44-46), unspecified blessings “in the heavenly places” (Eph 1:3), particular insights into the divine will (Col 1:9), and songs in worship (Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). As a plural noun, it can be used of individuals (“the spiritual ones,” 1 Cor 2:13, 15; 14:37; Gal 6:1) or of things (“the spirituals,” “spiritual gifts,” Rom 15:27; 1 Cor 2:13; 9:11; 12:1; 14:1), even “spiritual powers in heaven” (Eph 6:12).<\/p>\nFrom this brief survey, a more precise definition of “spiritual gifts” can be made. Whatever thing or individual serves as an instrument of the Spirit or manifests the Spirit or embodies the Spirit is a spiritual gift (pneumatikon<\/span>). Whatever event, word, or action is a concrete expression of grace or serves as a means of grace is a spiritual gift (charisma<\/span>). Pneumatikon<\/span> is the more general word; charisma<\/span> is more specific. Moreover, charisma<\/span> is probably Paul’s own word (Rom 1:11; 12:6; 1 Cor 7:7; 12:4) in preference to the more ambiguous pneumatikon<\/span>,<\/em> which seems to have been popular with those causing difficulty for Paul in Corinth (1 Cor 2:13–3:4; 14:37; 15:44-46). Consequently, attention will focus in what follows on charisma<\/span>.<\/em> Not forgetting those passages where Paul uses this word in broader terms for the direct act of God (Rom 5:15, 16; 6:23; 11:29; 1 Cor 1:11), concentration will be on the passages where Paul speaks in more precise terms of particular manifestations of grace mediated through one individual to others—“spiritual gifts” in this the narrower sense of charisma<\/span>.<\/em><\/p>\nThe lists of charismata<\/span> (Rom 12; 1 Cor 12; Eph 4; 1 Pt 4) are the obvious starting point because they provide the clearest indications of what Paul would include within the range of spiritual gifts. For Paul (the one who gave Christianity the concept of charisma<\/span>), a spiritual gift is essentially an act of God’s Spirit, a concrete manifestation in word or deed of God’s grace through an individual for the benefit of others.<\/p>\nIn its basic sense, a spiritual gift is a specific act of God, and this remains true even when it is mediated through any individual. This means that no one can hope to manifest such a gift except in conscious openness to and dependence on God. By extension Paul can speak of individuals “having” or “possessing” certain spiritual gifts (Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 7:7; 12:3), but this is presumably just shorthand for their being so open to God’s grace that that grace regularly or constantly manifests itself through them in particular ways. Such language no more means that the charisma<\/span> is an ability at the individual’s command than does the similar talk of “having the Spirit” (Rom 8:9, 23). It is true, however, that in 1 Timothy 4:14 and 2 Timothy 1:6 this basic sense is beginning to be left behind.<\/p>\nA spiritual gift is any event, word, or action that embodies and expresses God’s grace. In this sense sacraments can be “means of grace” (though they are never called this in the NT), as are many other utterances and actions as well. In recognizing this, one can recognize too that the lists of gifts (e.g., Rom 12:6-8; 1 Cor 12:8-10) are neither definitive nor exhaustive, simply typical manifestations of the Spirit (or those with which they needed some advice). The degree of overlap between these various lists shows that Paul was not concerned to specify a precisely defined catalog; he simply selected a number of activities and utterances through which he saw the grace of God manifesting itself in his churches.<\/p>\n\nIt is important to grasp that Paul saw all Christians as charismatics. Whoever “has” the Spirit—that is, is open to and being led by the Spirit (Rom 8:9-14)—will inevitably manifest the grace of God in some way and should also be open to the Spirit’s power coming to expression in particular words and deeds within the community of the Spirit. For Paul, the church is the body of Christ. The functions of that body’s members are exemplified by the spiritual gifts (Rom 12:4-6; 1 Cor 12:14-30). Unless the individual is functioning charismatically, he is not functioning as a member of the body. The Spirit’s gifts are the living movements of Christ’s body. As the body is many different members functioning as one body, so the unity of the church grows out of the diverse functions (gifts) of its members. It follows that a spiritual gift is given primarily with the community in view. It is given “for the common good” (1 Cor 12:7). That is why a selfish, loveless clutching after charismata<\/span> is wrong and futile (13:1-3). A spiritual gift is never one’s to use as one wants for one’s own benefit (except perhaps glossolalia, but that is why Paul gives it lower value). It is given to one only in the sense that God chooses to act through one for others. More precisely, it is given only through one to the community, and one benefits only as the community benefits. The spiritual health and edification of the individual is inextricably bound up with the health and well-being of the whole body (12:14-26; Eph 4:16). See<\/em> Apostle, Apostleship; Miracle; Prophecy; Teacher; Tongues, Speaking in.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SPIRITUAL GIFTS<\/h3>\nPhrase regularly used to translate two Greek words, charismata<\/span> and pneumatika<\/span> (the plural forms of charisma<\/span> and pneumatikon<\/span>). Both words are almost exclusively Pauline within the biblical writings; elsewhere in the NT, they appear only in 1 Peter 2:5 and 4:10. Other writers, of course, mention phenomena that fall within Paul’s definition of “spiritual gifts,” but for specific teaching on the subject, one must depend on Paul first and foremost.<\/p>\nBoth words are derived from more familiar words, charis<\/span> (grace) and pneuma<\/span> (spirit). Both have similar senses—charisma<\/span> meaning “expression of grace,” pneumatikon<\/span> meaning “expression of Spirit.” Their range of application, however, is somewhat different.<\/p>\nCharisma<\/span> denotes God’s saving action in Christ (Rom 5:15-16) and the gift of eternal life (6:23). More generally, in Romans 11:29 it probably refers to the series of gracious acts on behalf of Israel whereby God made Israel’s calling and election sure. In 2 Corinthians 1:11 it probably refers to a particular action of God that brought Paul deliverance from deadly peril. Otherwise, the reference seems to be to divine grace as mediated through individuals, with Paul presumably thinking of the sort of utterances and deeds that he illustrates in Romans 12:6-8 and 1 Corinthians 12:8-10 (so in Rom 1:11; 1 Cor 1:7; 7:7; 12:4-11, 28-30; similarly 1 Pt 4:10).<\/p>\nPneumatikon<\/span> has a wider range of usage. It is more properly an adjective and so describes various things (and people) as “spiritual,” as manifesting the Spirit, or as serving as the instrument of the Spirit. These include some particular word or act (Rom 1:11), the law (7:14), the manna, water from the rock, and the rock itself in the wilderness wanderings of Israel (1 Cor 10:3-4), the resurrection body (15:44-46), unspecified blessings “in the heavenly places” (Eph 1:3), particular insights into the divine will (Col 1:9), and songs in worship (Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). As a plural noun, it can be used of individuals (“the spiritual ones,” 1 Cor 2:13, 15; 14:37; Gal 6:1) or of things (“the spirituals,” “spiritual gifts,” Rom 15:27; 1 Cor 2:13; 9:11; 12:1; 14:1), even “spiritual powers in heaven” (Eph 6:12).<\/p>\nFrom this brief survey, a more precise definition of “spiritual gifts” can be made. Whatever thing or individual serves as an instrument of the Spirit or manifests the Spirit or embodies the Spirit is a spiritual gift (pneumatikon<\/span>). Whatever event, word, or action is a concrete expression of grace or serves as a means of grace is a spiritual gift (charisma<\/span>). Pneumatikon<\/span> is the more general word; charisma<\/span> is more specific. Moreover, charisma<\/span> is probably Paul’s own word (Rom 1:11; 12:6; 1 Cor 7:7; 12:4) in preference to the more ambiguous pneumatikon<\/span>,<\/em> which seems to have been popular with those causing difficulty for Paul in Corinth (1 Cor 2:13–3:4; 14:37; 15:44-46). Consequently, attention will focus in what follows on charisma<\/span>.<\/em> Not forgetting those passages where Paul uses this word in broader terms for the direct act of God (Rom 5:15, 16; 6:23; 11:29; 1 Cor 1:11), concentration will be on the passages where Paul speaks in more precise terms of particular manifestations of grace mediated through one individual to others—“spiritual gifts” in this the narrower sense of charisma<\/span>.<\/em><\/p>\nThe lists of charismata<\/span> (Rom 12; 1 Cor 12; Eph 4; 1 Pt 4) are the obvious starting point because they provide the clearest indications of what Paul would include within the range of spiritual gifts. For Paul (the one who gave Christianity the concept of charisma<\/span>), a spiritual gift is essentially an act of God’s Spirit, a concrete manifestation in word or deed of God’s grace through an individual for the benefit of others.<\/p>\nIn its basic sense, a spiritual gift is a specific act of God, and this remains true even when it is mediated through any individual. This means that no one can hope to manifest such a gift except in conscious openness to and dependence on God. By extension Paul can speak of individuals “having” or “possessing” certain spiritual gifts (Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 7:7; 12:3), but this is presumably just shorthand for their being so open to God’s grace that that grace regularly or constantly manifests itself through them in particular ways. Such language no more means that the charisma<\/span> is an ability at the individual’s command than does the similar talk of “having the Spirit” (Rom 8:9, 23). It is true, however, that in 1 Timothy 4:14 and 2 Timothy 1:6 this basic sense is beginning to be left behind.<\/p>\nA spiritual gift is any event, word, or action that embodies and expresses God’s grace. In this sense sacraments can be “means of grace” (though they are never called this in the NT), as are many other utterances and actions as well. In recognizing this, one can recognize too that the lists of gifts (e.g., Rom 12:6-8; 1 Cor 12:8-10) are neither definitive nor exhaustive, simply typical manifestations of the Spirit (or those with which they needed some advice). The degree of overlap between these various lists shows that Paul was not concerned to specify a precisely defined catalog; he simply selected a number of activities and utterances through which he saw the grace of God manifesting itself in his churches.<\/p>\n\nIt is important to grasp that Paul saw all Christians as charismatics. Whoever “has” the Spirit—that is, is open to and being led by the Spirit (Rom 8:9-14)—will inevitably manifest the grace of God in some way and should also be open to the Spirit’s power coming to expression in particular words and deeds within the community of the Spirit. For Paul, the church is the body of Christ. The functions of that body’s members are exemplified by the spiritual gifts (Rom 12:4-6; 1 Cor 12:14-30). Unless the individual is functioning charismatically, he is not functioning as a member of the body. The Spirit’s gifts are the living movements of Christ’s body. As the body is many different members functioning as one body, so the unity of the church grows out of the diverse functions (gifts) of its members. It follows that a spiritual gift is given primarily with the community in view. It is given “for the common good” (1 Cor 12:7). That is why a selfish, loveless clutching after charismata<\/span> is wrong and futile (13:1-3). A spiritual gift is never one’s to use as one wants for one’s own benefit (except perhaps glossolalia, but that is why Paul gives it lower value). It is given to one only in the sense that God chooses to act through one for others. More precisely, it is given only through one to the community, and one benefits only as the community benefits. The spiritual health and edification of the individual is inextricably bound up with the health and well-being of the whole body (12:14-26; Eph 4:16). See<\/em> Apostle, Apostleship; Miracle; Prophecy; Teacher; Tongues, Speaking in.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SPIRITUAL GIFTS Phrase regularly used to translate two Greek words, charismata and pneumatika (the plural forms of charisma and pneumatikon). Both words are almost exclusively Pauline within the biblical writings; elsewhere in the NT, they appear only in 1 Peter 2:5 and 4:10. Other writers, of course, mention phenomena that fall within Paul’s definition of “spiritual gifts,” but for specific teaching on the subject, one must depend on Paul first and foremost. Both words are derived from more ...","summary_en":"SPIRITUAL GIFTS Phrase regularly used to translate two Greek words, charismata and pneumatika (the plural forms of charisma and pneumatikon). Both words are almost exclusively Pauline within the biblical writings; elsewhere in the NT, they appear only in 1 Peter 2:5 and 4:10. Other writers, of course, mention phenomena that fall within Paul’s definition of “spiritual gifts,” but for specific teaching on the subject, one must depend on Paul first and foremost. Both words are derived from more ...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37543,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Speaking in Tongues","title_en":"Speaking in Tongues","content_ro":"<h3>TONGUES, Speaking in<\/h3>\nSupernatural manifestation of speech in a language not known to the speaker; the Greek term is glossolalia<\/span>.<\/em><\/p>\nTongues-speaking was first manifested in the early church on the Day of Pentecost, when the Holy Spirit filled 120 Christians meeting together. They burst out in praise to God in a multitude of different languages. According to Acts 2:8-11, the audience of Jerusalem could understand them, since they were communicating the gospel in the hearers’ own languages. (Verses 9-11 list about 16 nations whose representatives in Jerusalem hear the disciples speaking in their own language.) In subsequent occurrences, when a group of people were baptized in the Holy Spirit, the book of Acts indicates that they spoke in tongues (10:46; 19:6). But not all spoke in tongues when they received the Spirit (see 8:15-17), so it wasn’t the<\/em> unique sign for having received the Holy Spirit. The Scripture teaches that all believers are baptized by the Spirit as they become integrated into the body of Christ, the church (1 Cor 12:13). The genuine evidence of the work of the Holy Spirit is the “fruit of the Spirit” as defined in Galatians 5:22-23.<\/p>\nIn the days of the early church, some Christians spoke in tongues and some didn’t. According to Paul, speaking in tongues, when practiced in the church meetings, required interpretation. If no one could give an interpretation, it was to be practiced as a private devotional exercise, for one’s own edification. As a means of private worship, the practice of glossolalia is tantamount to speaking to oneself and to God (1 Cor 14:28). However, under certain conditions formulated by Paul, glossolalia may become one of the spiritual gifts to be used in ministry to the church for the common good. In this case, the main concern is that the public use of glossolalia not be reduced to praying in tongues or speaking in tongues without interpretation.<\/p>\n In order to establish firmly the public practice of glossolalia as a ministry to the church and to prevent its abuse as a quest for personal fulfillment, Paul put forth a set of rules designed to control its corporate exercise (1 Cor 14:27-33):<\/p>\n1. A limit of one, two, or three persons is set for participation in tongues per worship session.<\/p>\n<li>2. The one, two, or three tongues-speakers are to make their contribution in sequence, “one at a time” or “in turn,” never simultaneously.<\/li>\n<li>3. Before a worshiper decides to speak in tongues, he or she is to secure an interpreter. Should no such person be available, he or she is to refrain from speaking in tongues.<\/li>\n<li>4. The person speaking in tongues should not be the one to provide the interpretation (1 Cor 12:10).<\/li>\n<li>5. If there are too many believers speaking in tongues and not enough interpreters, the former should pray, instead, for the power to interpret (1 Cor 14:13).<\/li>\n<li>6. When the contribution in tongues has been interpreted in intelligible language, it becomes a prophecy that needs to be evaluated by the recipients.<\/li>\n<li>7. The genuineness of the experience is to be tested by those who have the ability to distinguish between spirits (1 Cor 12:10) so that they can test everything, hold fast to what is good, and abstain from every form of evil.<\/li>\nPersons participating in worship should be in control of their conduct at all times. They may not appeal to ecstatic states to excuse disorderly conduct or infractions to the rules of worship. Disorder and confusion are not inspired by God, since he is a God of peace and unity.<\/p>\nThe gift of tongues is not to be desired or sought after. Only the “higher gifts” involving communication through directly intelligible speech are to be earnestly desired (1 Cor 12:31; 14:1, 5). However, should the gift of tongues be present, it should not be stifled, provided it can be used according to the rules and for the common good.<\/p>\nSee<\/em> Baptism of the Spirit; Spiritual Gifts.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TONGUES, Speaking in<\/h3>\nSupernatural manifestation of speech in a language not known to the speaker; the Greek term is glossolalia<\/span>.<\/em><\/p>\nTongues-speaking was first manifested in the early church on the Day of Pentecost, when the Holy Spirit filled 120 Christians meeting together. They burst out in praise to God in a multitude of different languages. According to Acts 2:8-11, the audience of Jerusalem could understand them, since they were communicating the gospel in the hearers’ own languages. (Verses 9-11 list about 16 nations whose representatives in Jerusalem hear the disciples speaking in their own language.) In subsequent occurrences, when a group of people were baptized in the Holy Spirit, the book of Acts indicates that they spoke in tongues (10:46; 19:6). But not all spoke in tongues when they received the Spirit (see 8:15-17), so it wasn’t the<\/em> unique sign for having received the Holy Spirit. The Scripture teaches that all believers are baptized by the Spirit as they become integrated into the body of Christ, the church (1 Cor 12:13). The genuine evidence of the work of the Holy Spirit is the “fruit of the Spirit” as defined in Galatians 5:22-23.<\/p>\nIn the days of the early church, some Christians spoke in tongues and some didn’t. According to Paul, speaking in tongues, when practiced in the church meetings, required interpretation. If no one could give an interpretation, it was to be practiced as a private devotional exercise, for one’s own edification. As a means of private worship, the practice of glossolalia is tantamount to speaking to oneself and to God (1 Cor 14:28). However, under certain conditions formulated by Paul, glossolalia may become one of the spiritual gifts to be used in ministry to the church for the common good. In this case, the main concern is that the public use of glossolalia not be reduced to praying in tongues or speaking in tongues without interpretation.<\/p>\n In order to establish firmly the public practice of glossolalia as a ministry to the church and to prevent its abuse as a quest for personal fulfillment, Paul put forth a set of rules designed to control its corporate exercise (1 Cor 14:27-33):<\/p>\n1. A limit of one, two, or three persons is set for participation in tongues per worship session.<\/p>\n<li>2. The one, two, or three tongues-speakers are to make their contribution in sequence, “one at a time” or “in turn,” never simultaneously.<\/li>\n<li>3. Before a worshiper decides to speak in tongues, he or she is to secure an interpreter. Should no such person be available, he or she is to refrain from speaking in tongues.<\/li>\n<li>4. The person speaking in tongues should not be the one to provide the interpretation (1 Cor 12:10).<\/li>\n<li>5. If there are too many believers speaking in tongues and not enough interpreters, the former should pray, instead, for the power to interpret (1 Cor 14:13).<\/li>\n<li>6. When the contribution in tongues has been interpreted in intelligible language, it becomes a prophecy that needs to be evaluated by the recipients.<\/li>\n<li>7. The genuineness of the experience is to be tested by those who have the ability to distinguish between spirits (1 Cor 12:10) so that they can test everything, hold fast to what is good, and abstain from every form of evil.<\/li>\nPersons participating in worship should be in control of their conduct at all times. They may not appeal to ecstatic states to excuse disorderly conduct or infractions to the rules of worship. Disorder and confusion are not inspired by God, since he is a God of peace and unity.<\/p>\nThe gift of tongues is not to be desired or sought after. Only the “higher gifts” involving communication through directly intelligible speech are to be earnestly desired (1 Cor 12:31; 14:1, 5). However, should the gift of tongues be present, it should not be stifled, provided it can be used according to the rules and for the common good.<\/p>\nSee<\/em> Baptism of the Spirit; Spiritual Gifts.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TONGUES, Speaking in Supernatural manifestation of speech in a language not known to the speaker; the Greek term is glossolalia. Tongues-speaking was first manifested in the early church on the Day of Pentecost, when the Holy Spirit filled 120 Christians meeting together. They burst out in praise to God in a multitude of different languages. According to Acts 2:8-11, the audience of Jerusalem could understand them, since they were communicating the gospel in the hearers’ own languages. (Verse...","summary_en":"TONGUES, Speaking in Supernatural manifestation of speech in a language not known to the speaker; the Greek term is glossolalia. Tongues-speaking was first manifested in the early church on the Day of Pentecost, when the Holy Spirit filled 120 Christians meeting together. They burst out in praise to God in a multitude of different languages. According to Acts 2:8-11, the audience of Jerusalem could understand them, since they were communicating the gospel in the hearers’ own languages. (Verse...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57673,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:1","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:1","content_ro":"14:1-25<\/strong> Having emphasized the supreme importance of love<\/em> (ch 13), Paul returns to the subject of spiritual gifts. Their relative value is defined by the benefit they give to others, which is characteristic of love (ch 13). In that light, Paul contrasts the over-valued gift of tongues with the more beneficial gift of prophecy.<\/p>","content_en":"14:1-25<\/strong> Having emphasized the supreme importance of love<\/em> (ch 13), Paul returns to the subject of spiritual gifts. Their relative value is defined by the benefit they give to others, which is characteristic of love (ch 13). In that light, Paul contrasts the over-valued gift of tongues with the more beneficial gift of prophecy.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:1-25 Having emphasized the supreme importance of love (ch 13), Paul returns to the subject of spiritual gifts. Their relative value is defined by the benefit they give to others, which is characteristic of love (ch 13). In that light, Paul contrasts the over-valued gift of tongues with the more beneficial gift of prophecy.","summary_en":"14:1-25 Having emphasized the supreme importance of love (ch 13), Paul returns to the subject of spiritual gifts. Their relative value is defined by the benefit they give to others, which is characteristic of love (ch 13). In that light, Paul contrasts the over-valued gift of tongues with the more beneficial gift of prophecy.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57674,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:1","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:1","content_ro":"14:1<\/strong> Of all the special abilities the Spirit gives<\/em> (see study note on 12:1–14:40), Paul encourages the Corinthians to seek the ability to prophesy<\/em> (see 12:10) because of its greater benefit to the church.<\/p>","content_en":"14:1<\/strong> Of all the special abilities the Spirit gives<\/em> (see study note on 12:1–14:40), Paul encourages the Corinthians to seek the ability to prophesy<\/em> (see 12:10) because of its greater benefit to the church.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:1 Of all the special abilities the Spirit gives (see study note on 12:1–14:40), Paul encourages the Corinthians to seek the ability to prophesy (see 12:10) because of its greater benefit to the church.","summary_en":"14:1 Of all the special abilities the Spirit gives (see study note on 12:1–14:40), Paul encourages the Corinthians to seek the ability to prophesy (see 12:10) because of its greater benefit to the church.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85299,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:1","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:1","content_ro":"14:1-25<\/strong> Having emphasized the supreme importance of love<\/em> (ch 13), Paul returns to the subject of spiritual gifts. Their relative value is defined by the benefit they give to others, which is characteristic of love (ch 13). In that light, Paul contrasts the over-valued gift of tongues with the more beneficial gift of prophecy.<\/p>","content_en":"14:1-25<\/strong> Having emphasized the supreme importance of love<\/em> (ch 13), Paul returns to the subject of spiritual gifts. Their relative value is defined by the benefit they give to others, which is characteristic of love (ch 13). In that light, Paul contrasts the over-valued gift of tongues with the more beneficial gift of prophecy.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:1-25 Having emphasized the supreme importance of love (ch 13), Paul returns to the subject of spiritual gifts. Their relative value is defined by the benefit they give to others, which is characteristic of love (ch 13). In that light, Paul contrasts the over-valued gift of tongues with the more beneficial gift of prophecy.","summary_en":"14:1-25 Having emphasized the supreme importance of love (ch 13), Paul returns to the subject of spiritual gifts. Their relative value is defined by the benefit they give to others, which is characteristic of love (ch 13). In that light, Paul contrasts the over-valued gift of tongues with the more beneficial gift of prophecy.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85300,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:1","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:1","content_ro":"14:1<\/strong> Of all the special abilities the Spirit gives<\/em> (see study note on 12:1–14:40), Paul encourages the Corinthians to seek the ability to prophesy<\/em> (see 12:10) because of its greater benefit to the church.<\/p>","content_en":"14:1<\/strong> Of all the special abilities the Spirit gives<\/em> (see study note on 12:1–14:40), Paul encourages the Corinthians to seek the ability to prophesy<\/em> (see 12:10) because of its greater benefit to the church.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:1 Of all the special abilities the Spirit gives (see study note on 12:1–14:40), Paul encourages the Corinthians to seek the ability to prophesy (see 12:10) because of its greater benefit to the church.","summary_en":"14:1 Of all the special abilities the Spirit gives (see study note on 12:1–14:40), Paul encourages the Corinthians to seek the ability to prophesy (see 12:10) because of its greater benefit to the church.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112925,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:1","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:1","content_ro":"14:1-25<\/strong> Having emphasized the supreme importance of love<\/em> (ch 13), Paul returns to the subject of spiritual gifts. Their relative value is defined by the benefit they give to others, which is characteristic of love (ch 13). In that light, Paul contrasts the over-valued gift of tongues with the more beneficial gift of prophecy.<\/p>","content_en":"14:1-25<\/strong> Having emphasized the supreme importance of love<\/em> (ch 13), Paul returns to the subject of spiritual gifts. Their relative value is defined by the benefit they give to others, which is characteristic of love (ch 13). In that light, Paul contrasts the over-valued gift of tongues with the more beneficial gift of prophecy.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:1-25 Having emphasized the supreme importance of love (ch 13), Paul returns to the subject of spiritual gifts. Their relative value is defined by the benefit they give to others, which is characteristic of love (ch 13). In that light, Paul contrasts the over-valued gift of tongues with the more beneficial gift of prophecy.","summary_en":"14:1-25 Having emphasized the supreme importance of love (ch 13), Paul returns to the subject of spiritual gifts. Their relative value is defined by the benefit they give to others, which is characteristic of love (ch 13). In that light, Paul contrasts the over-valued gift of tongues with the more beneficial gift of prophecy.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112926,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:1","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:1","content_ro":"14:1<\/strong> Of all the special abilities the Spirit gives<\/em> (see study note on 12:1–14:40), Paul encourages the Corinthians to seek the ability to prophesy<\/em> (see 12:10) because of its greater benefit to the church.<\/p>","content_en":"14:1<\/strong> Of all the special abilities the Spirit gives<\/em> (see study note on 12:1–14:40), Paul encourages the Corinthians to seek the ability to prophesy<\/em> (see 12:10) because of its greater benefit to the church.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:1 Of all the special abilities the Spirit gives (see study note on 12:1–14:40), Paul encourages the Corinthians to seek the ability to prophesy (see 12:10) because of its greater benefit to the church.","summary_en":"14:1 Of all the special abilities the Spirit gives (see study note on 12:1–14:40), Paul encourages the Corinthians to seek the ability to prophesy (see 12:10) because of its greater benefit to the church.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140551,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:1","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:1","content_ro":"14:1-25<\/strong> Having emphasized the supreme importance of love<\/em> (ch 13), Paul returns to the subject of spiritual gifts. Their relative value is defined by the benefit they give to others, which is characteristic of love (ch 13). In that light, Paul contrasts the over-valued gift of tongues with the more beneficial gift of prophecy.<\/p>","content_en":"14:1-25<\/strong> Having emphasized the supreme importance of love<\/em> (ch 13), Paul returns to the subject of spiritual gifts. Their relative value is defined by the benefit they give to others, which is characteristic of love (ch 13). In that light, Paul contrasts the over-valued gift of tongues with the more beneficial gift of prophecy.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:1-25 Having emphasized the supreme importance of love (ch 13), Paul returns to the subject of spiritual gifts. Their relative value is defined by the benefit they give to others, which is characteristic of love (ch 13). In that light, Paul contrasts the over-valued gift of tongues with the more beneficial gift of prophecy.","summary_en":"14:1-25 Having emphasized the supreme importance of love (ch 13), Paul returns to the subject of spiritual gifts. Their relative value is defined by the benefit they give to others, which is characteristic of love (ch 13). In that light, Paul contrasts the over-valued gift of tongues with the more beneficial gift of prophecy.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140552,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:1","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:1","content_ro":"14:1<\/strong> Of all the special abilities the Spirit gives<\/em> (see study note on 12:1–14:40), Paul encourages the Corinthians to seek the ability to prophesy<\/em> (see 12:10) because of its greater benefit to the church.<\/p>","content_en":"14:1<\/strong> Of all the special abilities the Spirit gives<\/em> (see study note on 12:1–14:40), Paul encourages the Corinthians to seek the ability to prophesy<\/em> (see 12:10) because of its greater benefit to the church.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:1 Of all the special abilities the Spirit gives (see study note on 12:1–14:40), Paul encourages the Corinthians to seek the ability to prophesy (see 12:10) because of its greater benefit to the church.","summary_en":"14:1 Of all the special abilities the Spirit gives (see study note on 12:1–14:40), Paul encourages the Corinthians to seek the ability to prophesy (see 12:10) because of its greater benefit to the church.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":61568,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Pure Worship","title_en":"Pure Worship","content_ro":"<h3>Pure Worship<\/h3>\nFrom the beginning of God’s relationship with Israel, he made provision for their worship of him to be pleasing to him (Exod 20–40; Lev 1–8). One of the Lord’s key purposes for his people is that they offer him pure worship.<\/p>\nWhen Solomon built the Temple as a permanent worship sanctuary, he took great care to erect “a Temple to honor the name of the Lord<\/span>” (1 Kgs 5:3-5). He built in accordance with the pattern he was given, placing the Ark in the inner sanctuary in the proper manner and dedicating the Temple to the Lord (8:1-11; see Deut 16:13-17). In all of this, Solomon kept the requirements laid down in the law (see, e.g., Exod 25:10-22), which were intended to keep Israel’s worship purely focused on the Lord and his word.<\/p>\nUnfortunately, people tend to worship according to their own inclinations rather than according to God’s instructions, and Israel was no different. In his later years, Solomon turned away from the Lord to other gods (1 Kgs 11:4-8). After Solomon’s death, Jeroboam established a competing, idolatrous religion in the northern kingdom, in clear violation of God’s law (14:9-10, 15-16). False worship characterized the northern kingdom throughout its history (e.g., 15:26; 16:13, 25-26, 30-33; 21:25-26). Meanwhile, in Judah, the southern kingdom, tolerance for local pagan altars became a persistent spiritual distraction (15:14; 22:43). Neither Judah nor Israel remained pure in their worship of the Lord.<\/p>\nThere is one God, and God’s people must worship only him (1 Kgs 8:23; see Deut 5:7, 9; 6:4; John 14:6; Acts 4:12). Our worship must come from a pure heart; we must remain completely faithful to the Lord in dedicated service to him (1 Kgs 15:14; 17:1; see Deut 10:12, 20; Ps 24:3-4; Matt 4:10; John 4:24). Our daily and weekly worship of God should have a sense of God’s presence, which will be a source of genuine joy (1 Kgs 8:56; cp. Ps 63:1-3; Phil 4:4). Just as Israel’s Temple was a sanctuary intended to attract all people (1 Kgs 8:41-43), believers, who are the temple of the living God (1 Cor 3:16-17), are to live so as to attract and motivate others to desire to know the Lord and worship him (Matt 5:16; Acts 2:40-47; 2 Tim 4:5; 1 Pet 2:12). Our whole lives should include daily worship of Christ, acknowledging him as Lord (1 Pet 3:15). And we must not let any idol take God’s place in our hearts (1 Jn 5:21).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 8:20; Exod 4:31; 25:10-22; Lev 1:1–8:36; Deut 5:7-9; 6:4-9; 10:12, 20; 16:13-17; 26:1-15; 1 Kgs 5:3-5; Pss 24:3-6; 51:1-19; Hos 6:6; 14:1-2; Mic 6:6-8; Matt 4:10; 5:16; 6:1-18; John 4:19-24; 5:23; 14:6; Acts 2:40-47; Rom 12:1-2; 1 Cor 3:16-17; 14:1-40; Phil 3:3; Heb 10:1-25; 1 Pet 3:15; 1 Jn 5:21; Rev 5:9-13; 15:3<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Pure Worship<\/h3>\nFrom the beginning of God’s relationship with Israel, he made provision for their worship of him to be pleasing to him (Exod 20–40; Lev 1–8). One of the Lord’s key purposes for his people is that they offer him pure worship.<\/p>\nWhen Solomon built the Temple as a permanent worship sanctuary, he took great care to erect “a Temple to honor the name of the Lord<\/span>” (1 Kgs 5:3-5). He built in accordance with the pattern he was given, placing the Ark in the inner sanctuary in the proper manner and dedicating the Temple to the Lord (8:1-11; see Deut 16:13-17). In all of this, Solomon kept the requirements laid down in the law (see, e.g., Exod 25:10-22), which were intended to keep Israel’s worship purely focused on the Lord and his word.<\/p>\nUnfortunately, people tend to worship according to their own inclinations rather than according to God’s instructions, and Israel was no different. In his later years, Solomon turned away from the Lord to other gods (1 Kgs 11:4-8). After Solomon’s death, Jeroboam established a competing, idolatrous religion in the northern kingdom, in clear violation of God’s law (14:9-10, 15-16). False worship characterized the northern kingdom throughout its history (e.g., 15:26; 16:13, 25-26, 30-33; 21:25-26). Meanwhile, in Judah, the southern kingdom, tolerance for local pagan altars became a persistent spiritual distraction (15:14; 22:43). Neither Judah nor Israel remained pure in their worship of the Lord.<\/p>\nThere is one God, and God’s people must worship only him (1 Kgs 8:23; see Deut 5:7, 9; 6:4; John 14:6; Acts 4:12). Our worship must come from a pure heart; we must remain completely faithful to the Lord in dedicated service to him (1 Kgs 15:14; 17:1; see Deut 10:12, 20; Ps 24:3-4; Matt 4:10; John 4:24). Our daily and weekly worship of God should have a sense of God’s presence, which will be a source of genuine joy (1 Kgs 8:56; cp. Ps 63:1-3; Phil 4:4). Just as Israel’s Temple was a sanctuary intended to attract all people (1 Kgs 8:41-43), believers, who are the temple of the living God (1 Cor 3:16-17), are to live so as to attract and motivate others to desire to know the Lord and worship him (Matt 5:16; Acts 2:40-47; 2 Tim 4:5; 1 Pet 2:12). Our whole lives should include daily worship of Christ, acknowledging him as Lord (1 Pet 3:15). And we must not let any idol take God’s place in our hearts (1 Jn 5:21).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 8:20; Exod 4:31; 25:10-22; Lev 1:1–8:36; Deut 5:7-9; 6:4-9; 10:12, 20; 16:13-17; 26:1-15; 1 Kgs 5:3-5; Pss 24:3-6; 51:1-19; Hos 6:6; 14:1-2; Mic 6:6-8; Matt 4:10; 5:16; 6:1-18; John 4:19-24; 5:23; 14:6; Acts 2:40-47; Rom 12:1-2; 1 Cor 3:16-17; 14:1-40; Phil 3:3; Heb 10:1-25; 1 Pet 3:15; 1 Jn 5:21; Rev 5:9-13; 15:3<\/p>","summary_ro":"Pure Worship From the beginning of God’s relationship with Israel, he made provision for their worship of him to be pleasing to him (Exod 20–40; Lev 1–8). One of the Lord’s key purposes for his people is that they offer him pure worship. When Solomon built the Temple as a permanent worship sanctuary, he took great care to erect “a Temple to honor the name of the Lord” (1 Kgs 5:3-5). He built in accordance with the pattern he was given, placing the Ark in the inner sanctuary in the proper mann...","summary_en":"Pure Worship From the beginning of God’s relationship with Israel, he made provision for their worship of him to be pleasing to him (Exod 20–40; Lev 1–8). One of the Lord’s key purposes for his people is that they offer him pure worship. When Solomon built the Temple as a permanent worship sanctuary, he took great care to erect “a Temple to honor the name of the Lord” (1 Kgs 5:3-5). He built in accordance with the pattern he was given, placing the Ark in the inner sanctuary in the proper mann...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":66622,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Gift of Prophecy","title_en":"The Gift of Prophecy","content_ro":"<h3>The Gift of Prophecy<\/h3>\nAs Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp<\/em> 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek 4:1–5:17) and predicting events to come (Acts 11:28; 21:10-11).<\/p>\nPhilip the Evangelist was the father of four young women who “had the gift of prophecy” (21:9). The apostle Paul also acknowledged the prophetic gift of some Christian women (1 Cor 11:5). In the Old Testament, most prophets were men, but several women are also described as prophets, for example, Miriam (Exod 15:20), Deborah (Judg 4:4), and Huldah (2 Kgs 22:14-20; 2 Chr 34:22-28). In the New Testament, the gift of prophecy is given to both men and women, and both young and old, as Peter signaled in his sermon at Pentecost (Acts 2:17-18).<\/p>\nAlthough prophecy sometimes involves foretelling the future (20:22-23; 21:10-11; see Rom 9:24-33; 1 Thes 4:13-17; 2 Thes 2:3-4), at its core prophecy is proclaiming God’s word by preaching, exhorting, and explaining the will of God (Acts 15:32; 19:6; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 14:3-4, 29-33; Rev 19:10). The gift of prophecy is clearly mentioned in 1 Corinthians and Ephesians as one of the gifts of the Holy Spirit and of Christ to the church (1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-13). It is to be used for the benefit of believers (1 Cor 14:22).<\/p>\nProphecy is always in need of testing (1 Thes 5:19-21), and the church is strongly warned against false prophets (1 Jn 4:1; see also Rev 2:20-23). When used faithfully and in submission to God’s word and his Spirit, courageous proclamation of God’s truth helps the church to determine what God’s will is and inspires God’s people to do it.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 15:20; Deut 13:1-5; Judg 4:4; 1 Kgs 11:29-32; 2 Kgs 22:14-20; Isa 20:2-6; 44:25; Jer 13:1-11; 23:25-32; Ezek 4:1-17; 13:2-9; Joel 2:28-32; Matt 7:15; 24:24; Acts 2:17-21; 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 19:6; 20:23; Acts 21:9-11; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 11:5; 12:4-11; 14:1-40; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Thes 5:19-21; 2 Pet 2:1; 1 Jn 4:1-3; Rev 2:20-23; 19:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Gift of Prophecy<\/h3>\nAs Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp<\/em> 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek 4:1–5:17) and predicting events to come (Acts 11:28; 21:10-11).<\/p>\nPhilip the Evangelist was the father of four young women who “had the gift of prophecy” (21:9). The apostle Paul also acknowledged the prophetic gift of some Christian women (1 Cor 11:5). In the Old Testament, most prophets were men, but several women are also described as prophets, for example, Miriam (Exod 15:20), Deborah (Judg 4:4), and Huldah (2 Kgs 22:14-20; 2 Chr 34:22-28). In the New Testament, the gift of prophecy is given to both men and women, and both young and old, as Peter signaled in his sermon at Pentecost (Acts 2:17-18).<\/p>\nAlthough prophecy sometimes involves foretelling the future (20:22-23; 21:10-11; see Rom 9:24-33; 1 Thes 4:13-17; 2 Thes 2:3-4), at its core prophecy is proclaiming God’s word by preaching, exhorting, and explaining the will of God (Acts 15:32; 19:6; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 14:3-4, 29-33; Rev 19:10). The gift of prophecy is clearly mentioned in 1 Corinthians and Ephesians as one of the gifts of the Holy Spirit and of Christ to the church (1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-13). It is to be used for the benefit of believers (1 Cor 14:22).<\/p>\nProphecy is always in need of testing (1 Thes 5:19-21), and the church is strongly warned against false prophets (1 Jn 4:1; see also Rev 2:20-23). When used faithfully and in submission to God’s word and his Spirit, courageous proclamation of God’s truth helps the church to determine what God’s will is and inspires God’s people to do it.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 15:20; Deut 13:1-5; Judg 4:4; 1 Kgs 11:29-32; 2 Kgs 22:14-20; Isa 20:2-6; 44:25; Jer 13:1-11; 23:25-32; Ezek 4:1-17; 13:2-9; Joel 2:28-32; Matt 7:15; 24:24; Acts 2:17-21; 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 19:6; 20:23; Acts 21:9-11; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 11:5; 12:4-11; 14:1-40; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Thes 5:19-21; 2 Pet 2:1; 1 Jn 4:1-3; Rev 2:20-23; 19:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Gift of Prophecy As Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek ...","summary_en":"The Gift of Prophecy As Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":67044,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Work","title_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Work","content_ro":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Work<\/h3>\nDifferent New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work.<\/p>\nAccording to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come into a saving relationship with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:19; Gal 3:2-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit brings new life in Christ. He affirms believers’ salvation (1 Cor 6:11; 2 Thes 2:13) and their identity as children of God (Rom 8:9, 14-17).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit gives Christians power over sin (Rom 8:1-4), power to live a fruitful life (Gal 5:22-23), and power for ministry (1 Cor 12:1-31). Believers are to be continuously “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Eph 5:18), and though they experience the conflict between the flesh and the Spirit, they can please God by yielding to the Spirit’s guidance and power (Gal 5:16-18).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit enables Christians to understand God’s thoughts and ways (1 Cor 2:9-16). He gives spiritual gifts to believers to help the church grow (12:1-31). The Spirit leads and empowers worship as believers use the gifts that the Spirit has given them (14:26-33, 39-40).<\/p>\nThe Spirit guarantees that believers will receive all the blessings that God has promised (2 Cor 1:21-22; 5:1-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit helps believers and prays for them in their human weakness (Rom 8:26-27). And the goal of the Spirit’s work is to make believers like Christ (Rom 8:28-29).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nJohn 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:29, 39; 9:31; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; Rom 8:1-4, 9, 14-17, 26-29; 1 Cor 2:9-16; 6:11, 19; 12:1-31; 14:1-33, 39-40; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 3:5; 5:16-18, 22-23; Eph 1:13-14; 5:18; 2 Thes 2:13; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Jn 2:20, 27<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Work<\/h3>\nDifferent New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work.<\/p>\nAccording to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come into a saving relationship with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:19; Gal 3:2-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit brings new life in Christ. He affirms believers’ salvation (1 Cor 6:11; 2 Thes 2:13) and their identity as children of God (Rom 8:9, 14-17).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit gives Christians power over sin (Rom 8:1-4), power to live a fruitful life (Gal 5:22-23), and power for ministry (1 Cor 12:1-31). Believers are to be continuously “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Eph 5:18), and though they experience the conflict between the flesh and the Spirit, they can please God by yielding to the Spirit’s guidance and power (Gal 5:16-18).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit enables Christians to understand God’s thoughts and ways (1 Cor 2:9-16). He gives spiritual gifts to believers to help the church grow (12:1-31). The Spirit leads and empowers worship as believers use the gifts that the Spirit has given them (14:26-33, 39-40).<\/p>\nThe Spirit guarantees that believers will receive all the blessings that God has promised (2 Cor 1:21-22; 5:1-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit helps believers and prays for them in their human weakness (Rom 8:26-27). And the goal of the Spirit’s work is to make believers like Christ (Rom 8:28-29).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nJohn 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:29, 39; 9:31; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; Rom 8:1-4, 9, 14-17, 26-29; 1 Cor 2:9-16; 6:11, 19; 12:1-31; 14:1-33, 39-40; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 3:5; 5:16-18, 22-23; Eph 1:13-14; 5:18; 2 Thes 2:13; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Jn 2:20, 27<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Work Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work. According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come i...","summary_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Work Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work. According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come i...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89194,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Pure Worship","title_en":"Pure Worship","content_ro":"<h3>Pure Worship<\/h3>\nFrom the beginning of God’s relationship with Israel, he made provision for their worship of him to be pleasing to him (Exod 20–40; Lev 1–8). One of the Lord’s key purposes for his people is that they offer him pure worship.<\/p>\nWhen Solomon built the Temple as a permanent worship sanctuary, he took great care to erect “a Temple to honor the name of the Lord<\/span>” (1 Kgs 5:3-5). He built in accordance with the pattern he was given, placing the Ark in the inner sanctuary in the proper manner and dedicating the Temple to the Lord (8:1-11; see Deut 16:13-17). In all of this, Solomon kept the requirements laid down in the law (see, e.g., Exod 25:10-22), which were intended to keep Israel’s worship purely focused on the Lord and his word.<\/p>\nUnfortunately, people tend to worship according to their own inclinations rather than according to God’s instructions, and Israel was no different. In his later years, Solomon turned away from the Lord to other gods (1 Kgs 11:4-8). After Solomon’s death, Jeroboam established a competing, idolatrous religion in the northern kingdom, in clear violation of God’s law (14:9-10, 15-16). False worship characterized the northern kingdom throughout its history (e.g., 15:26; 16:13, 25-26, 30-33; 21:25-26). Meanwhile, in Judah, the southern kingdom, tolerance for local pagan altars became a persistent spiritual distraction (15:14; 22:43). Neither Judah nor Israel remained pure in their worship of the Lord.<\/p>\nThere is one God, and God’s people must worship only him (1 Kgs 8:23; see Deut 5:7, 9; 6:4; John 14:6; Acts 4:12). Our worship must come from a pure heart; we must remain completely faithful to the Lord in dedicated service to him (1 Kgs 15:14; 17:1; see Deut 10:12, 20; Ps 24:3-4; Matt 4:10; John 4:24). Our daily and weekly worship of God should have a sense of God’s presence, which will be a source of genuine joy (1 Kgs 8:56; cp. Ps 63:1-3; Phil 4:4). Just as Israel’s Temple was a sanctuary intended to attract all people (1 Kgs 8:41-43), believers, who are the temple of the living God (1 Cor 3:16-17), are to live so as to attract and motivate others to desire to know the Lord and worship him (Matt 5:16; Acts 2:40-47; 2 Tim 4:5; 1 Pet 2:12). Our whole lives should include daily worship of Christ, acknowledging him as Lord (1 Pet 3:15). And we must not let any idol take God’s place in our hearts (1 Jn 5:21).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 8:20; Exod 4:31; 25:10-22; Lev 1:1–8:36; Deut 5:7-9; 6:4-9; 10:12, 20; 16:13-17; 26:1-15; 1 Kgs 5:3-5; Pss 24:3-6; 51:1-19; Hos 6:6; 14:1-2; Mic 6:6-8; Matt 4:10; 5:16; 6:1-18; John 4:19-24; 5:23; 14:6; Acts 2:40-47; Rom 12:1-2; 1 Cor 3:16-17; 14:1-40; Phil 3:3; Heb 10:1-25; 1 Pet 3:15; 1 Jn 5:21; Rev 5:9-13; 15:3<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Pure Worship<\/h3>\nFrom the beginning of God’s relationship with Israel, he made provision for their worship of him to be pleasing to him (Exod 20–40; Lev 1–8). One of the Lord’s key purposes for his people is that they offer him pure worship.<\/p>\nWhen Solomon built the Temple as a permanent worship sanctuary, he took great care to erect “a Temple to honor the name of the Lord<\/span>” (1 Kgs 5:3-5). He built in accordance with the pattern he was given, placing the Ark in the inner sanctuary in the proper manner and dedicating the Temple to the Lord (8:1-11; see Deut 16:13-17). In all of this, Solomon kept the requirements laid down in the law (see, e.g., Exod 25:10-22), which were intended to keep Israel’s worship purely focused on the Lord and his word.<\/p>\nUnfortunately, people tend to worship according to their own inclinations rather than according to God’s instructions, and Israel was no different. In his later years, Solomon turned away from the Lord to other gods (1 Kgs 11:4-8). After Solomon’s death, Jeroboam established a competing, idolatrous religion in the northern kingdom, in clear violation of God’s law (14:9-10, 15-16). False worship characterized the northern kingdom throughout its history (e.g., 15:26; 16:13, 25-26, 30-33; 21:25-26). Meanwhile, in Judah, the southern kingdom, tolerance for local pagan altars became a persistent spiritual distraction (15:14; 22:43). Neither Judah nor Israel remained pure in their worship of the Lord.<\/p>\nThere is one God, and God’s people must worship only him (1 Kgs 8:23; see Deut 5:7, 9; 6:4; John 14:6; Acts 4:12). Our worship must come from a pure heart; we must remain completely faithful to the Lord in dedicated service to him (1 Kgs 15:14; 17:1; see Deut 10:12, 20; Ps 24:3-4; Matt 4:10; John 4:24). Our daily and weekly worship of God should have a sense of God’s presence, which will be a source of genuine joy (1 Kgs 8:56; cp. Ps 63:1-3; Phil 4:4). Just as Israel’s Temple was a sanctuary intended to attract all people (1 Kgs 8:41-43), believers, who are the temple of the living God (1 Cor 3:16-17), are to live so as to attract and motivate others to desire to know the Lord and worship him (Matt 5:16; Acts 2:40-47; 2 Tim 4:5; 1 Pet 2:12). Our whole lives should include daily worship of Christ, acknowledging him as Lord (1 Pet 3:15). And we must not let any idol take God’s place in our hearts (1 Jn 5:21).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 8:20; Exod 4:31; 25:10-22; Lev 1:1–8:36; Deut 5:7-9; 6:4-9; 10:12, 20; 16:13-17; 26:1-15; 1 Kgs 5:3-5; Pss 24:3-6; 51:1-19; Hos 6:6; 14:1-2; Mic 6:6-8; Matt 4:10; 5:16; 6:1-18; John 4:19-24; 5:23; 14:6; Acts 2:40-47; Rom 12:1-2; 1 Cor 3:16-17; 14:1-40; Phil 3:3; Heb 10:1-25; 1 Pet 3:15; 1 Jn 5:21; Rev 5:9-13; 15:3<\/p>","summary_ro":"Pure Worship From the beginning of God’s relationship with Israel, he made provision for their worship of him to be pleasing to him (Exod 20–40; Lev 1–8). One of the Lord’s key purposes for his people is that they offer him pure worship. When Solomon built the Temple as a permanent worship sanctuary, he took great care to erect “a Temple to honor the name of the Lord” (1 Kgs 5:3-5). He built in accordance with the pattern he was given, placing the Ark in the inner sanctuary in the proper mann...","summary_en":"Pure Worship From the beginning of God’s relationship with Israel, he made provision for their worship of him to be pleasing to him (Exod 20–40; Lev 1–8). One of the Lord’s key purposes for his people is that they offer him pure worship. When Solomon built the Temple as a permanent worship sanctuary, he took great care to erect “a Temple to honor the name of the Lord” (1 Kgs 5:3-5). He built in accordance with the pattern he was given, placing the Ark in the inner sanctuary in the proper mann...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":94248,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Gift of Prophecy","title_en":"The Gift of Prophecy","content_ro":"<h3>The Gift of Prophecy<\/h3>\nAs Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp<\/em> 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek 4:1–5:17) and predicting events to come (Acts 11:28; 21:10-11).<\/p>\nPhilip the Evangelist was the father of four young women who “had the gift of prophecy” (21:9). The apostle Paul also acknowledged the prophetic gift of some Christian women (1 Cor 11:5). In the Old Testament, most prophets were men, but several women are also described as prophets, for example, Miriam (Exod 15:20), Deborah (Judg 4:4), and Huldah (2 Kgs 22:14-20; 2 Chr 34:22-28). In the New Testament, the gift of prophecy is given to both men and women, and both young and old, as Peter signaled in his sermon at Pentecost (Acts 2:17-18).<\/p>\nAlthough prophecy sometimes involves foretelling the future (20:22-23; 21:10-11; see Rom 9:24-33; 1 Thes 4:13-17; 2 Thes 2:3-4), at its core prophecy is proclaiming God’s word by preaching, exhorting, and explaining the will of God (Acts 15:32; 19:6; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 14:3-4, 29-33; Rev 19:10). The gift of prophecy is clearly mentioned in 1 Corinthians and Ephesians as one of the gifts of the Holy Spirit and of Christ to the church (1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-13). It is to be used for the benefit of believers (1 Cor 14:22).<\/p>\nProphecy is always in need of testing (1 Thes 5:19-21), and the church is strongly warned against false prophets (1 Jn 4:1; see also Rev 2:20-23). When used faithfully and in submission to God’s word and his Spirit, courageous proclamation of God’s truth helps the church to determine what God’s will is and inspires God’s people to do it.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 15:20; Deut 13:1-5; Judg 4:4; 1 Kgs 11:29-32; 2 Kgs 22:14-20; Isa 20:2-6; 44:25; Jer 13:1-11; 23:25-32; Ezek 4:1-17; 13:2-9; Joel 2:28-32; Matt 7:15; 24:24; Acts 2:17-21; 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 19:6; 20:23; Acts 21:9-11; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 11:5; 12:4-11; 14:1-40; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Thes 5:19-21; 2 Pet 2:1; 1 Jn 4:1-3; Rev 2:20-23; 19:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Gift of Prophecy<\/h3>\nAs Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp<\/em> 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek 4:1–5:17) and predicting events to come (Acts 11:28; 21:10-11).<\/p>\nPhilip the Evangelist was the father of four young women who “had the gift of prophecy” (21:9). The apostle Paul also acknowledged the prophetic gift of some Christian women (1 Cor 11:5). In the Old Testament, most prophets were men, but several women are also described as prophets, for example, Miriam (Exod 15:20), Deborah (Judg 4:4), and Huldah (2 Kgs 22:14-20; 2 Chr 34:22-28). In the New Testament, the gift of prophecy is given to both men and women, and both young and old, as Peter signaled in his sermon at Pentecost (Acts 2:17-18).<\/p>\nAlthough prophecy sometimes involves foretelling the future (20:22-23; 21:10-11; see Rom 9:24-33; 1 Thes 4:13-17; 2 Thes 2:3-4), at its core prophecy is proclaiming God’s word by preaching, exhorting, and explaining the will of God (Acts 15:32; 19:6; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 14:3-4, 29-33; Rev 19:10). The gift of prophecy is clearly mentioned in 1 Corinthians and Ephesians as one of the gifts of the Holy Spirit and of Christ to the church (1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-13). It is to be used for the benefit of believers (1 Cor 14:22).<\/p>\nProphecy is always in need of testing (1 Thes 5:19-21), and the church is strongly warned against false prophets (1 Jn 4:1; see also Rev 2:20-23). When used faithfully and in submission to God’s word and his Spirit, courageous proclamation of God’s truth helps the church to determine what God’s will is and inspires God’s people to do it.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 15:20; Deut 13:1-5; Judg 4:4; 1 Kgs 11:29-32; 2 Kgs 22:14-20; Isa 20:2-6; 44:25; Jer 13:1-11; 23:25-32; Ezek 4:1-17; 13:2-9; Joel 2:28-32; Matt 7:15; 24:24; Acts 2:17-21; 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 19:6; 20:23; Acts 21:9-11; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 11:5; 12:4-11; 14:1-40; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Thes 5:19-21; 2 Pet 2:1; 1 Jn 4:1-3; Rev 2:20-23; 19:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Gift of Prophecy As Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek ...","summary_en":"The Gift of Prophecy As Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":94670,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Work","title_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Work","content_ro":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Work<\/h3>\nDifferent New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work.<\/p>\nAccording to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come into a saving relationship with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:19; Gal 3:2-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit brings new life in Christ. He affirms believers’ salvation (1 Cor 6:11; 2 Thes 2:13) and their identity as children of God (Rom 8:9, 14-17).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit gives Christians power over sin (Rom 8:1-4), power to live a fruitful life (Gal 5:22-23), and power for ministry (1 Cor 12:1-31). Believers are to be continuously “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Eph 5:18), and though they experience the conflict between the flesh and the Spirit, they can please God by yielding to the Spirit’s guidance and power (Gal 5:16-18).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit enables Christians to understand God’s thoughts and ways (1 Cor 2:9-16). He gives spiritual gifts to believers to help the church grow (12:1-31). The Spirit leads and empowers worship as believers use the gifts that the Spirit has given them (14:26-33, 39-40).<\/p>\nThe Spirit guarantees that believers will receive all the blessings that God has promised (2 Cor 1:21-22; 5:1-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit helps believers and prays for them in their human weakness (Rom 8:26-27). And the goal of the Spirit’s work is to make believers like Christ (Rom 8:28-29).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nJohn 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:29, 39; 9:31; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; Rom 8:1-4, 9, 14-17, 26-29; 1 Cor 2:9-16; 6:11, 19; 12:1-31; 14:1-33, 39-40; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 3:5; 5:16-18, 22-23; Eph 1:13-14; 5:18; 2 Thes 2:13; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Jn 2:20, 27<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Work<\/h3>\nDifferent New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work.<\/p>\nAccording to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come into a saving relationship with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:19; Gal 3:2-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit brings new life in Christ. He affirms believers’ salvation (1 Cor 6:11; 2 Thes 2:13) and their identity as children of God (Rom 8:9, 14-17).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit gives Christians power over sin (Rom 8:1-4), power to live a fruitful life (Gal 5:22-23), and power for ministry (1 Cor 12:1-31). Believers are to be continuously “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Eph 5:18), and though they experience the conflict between the flesh and the Spirit, they can please God by yielding to the Spirit’s guidance and power (Gal 5:16-18).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit enables Christians to understand God’s thoughts and ways (1 Cor 2:9-16). He gives spiritual gifts to believers to help the church grow (12:1-31). The Spirit leads and empowers worship as believers use the gifts that the Spirit has given them (14:26-33, 39-40).<\/p>\nThe Spirit guarantees that believers will receive all the blessings that God has promised (2 Cor 1:21-22; 5:1-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit helps believers and prays for them in their human weakness (Rom 8:26-27). And the goal of the Spirit’s work is to make believers like Christ (Rom 8:28-29).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nJohn 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:29, 39; 9:31; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; Rom 8:1-4, 9, 14-17, 26-29; 1 Cor 2:9-16; 6:11, 19; 12:1-31; 14:1-33, 39-40; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 3:5; 5:16-18, 22-23; Eph 1:13-14; 5:18; 2 Thes 2:13; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Jn 2:20, 27<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Work Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work. According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come i...","summary_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Work Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work. According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come i...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":116820,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Pure Worship","title_en":"Pure Worship","content_ro":"<h3>Pure Worship<\/h3>\nFrom the beginning of God’s relationship with Israel, he made provision for their worship of him to be pleasing to him (Exod 20–40; Lev 1–8). One of the Lord’s key purposes for his people is that they offer him pure worship.<\/p>\nWhen Solomon built the Temple as a permanent worship sanctuary, he took great care to erect “a Temple to honor the name of the Lord<\/span>” (1 Kgs 5:3-5). He built in accordance with the pattern he was given, placing the Ark in the inner sanctuary in the proper manner and dedicating the Temple to the Lord (8:1-11; see Deut 16:13-17). In all of this, Solomon kept the requirements laid down in the law (see, e.g., Exod 25:10-22), which were intended to keep Israel’s worship purely focused on the Lord and his word.<\/p>\nUnfortunately, people tend to worship according to their own inclinations rather than according to God’s instructions, and Israel was no different. In his later years, Solomon turned away from the Lord to other gods (1 Kgs 11:4-8). After Solomon’s death, Jeroboam established a competing, idolatrous religion in the northern kingdom, in clear violation of God’s law (14:9-10, 15-16). False worship characterized the northern kingdom throughout its history (e.g., 15:26; 16:13, 25-26, 30-33; 21:25-26). Meanwhile, in Judah, the southern kingdom, tolerance for local pagan altars became a persistent spiritual distraction (15:14; 22:43). Neither Judah nor Israel remained pure in their worship of the Lord.<\/p>\nThere is one God, and God’s people must worship only him (1 Kgs 8:23; see Deut 5:7, 9; 6:4; John 14:6; Acts 4:12). Our worship must come from a pure heart; we must remain completely faithful to the Lord in dedicated service to him (1 Kgs 15:14; 17:1; see Deut 10:12, 20; Ps 24:3-4; Matt 4:10; John 4:24). Our daily and weekly worship of God should have a sense of God’s presence, which will be a source of genuine joy (1 Kgs 8:56; cp. Ps 63:1-3; Phil 4:4). Just as Israel’s Temple was a sanctuary intended to attract all people (1 Kgs 8:41-43), believers, who are the temple of the living God (1 Cor 3:16-17), are to live so as to attract and motivate others to desire to know the Lord and worship him (Matt 5:16; Acts 2:40-47; 2 Tim 4:5; 1 Pet 2:12). Our whole lives should include daily worship of Christ, acknowledging him as Lord (1 Pet 3:15). And we must not let any idol take God’s place in our hearts (1 Jn 5:21).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 8:20; Exod 4:31; 25:10-22; Lev 1:1–8:36; Deut 5:7-9; 6:4-9; 10:12, 20; 16:13-17; 26:1-15; 1 Kgs 5:3-5; Pss 24:3-6; 51:1-19; Hos 6:6; 14:1-2; Mic 6:6-8; Matt 4:10; 5:16; 6:1-18; John 4:19-24; 5:23; 14:6; Acts 2:40-47; Rom 12:1-2; 1 Cor 3:16-17; 14:1-40; Phil 3:3; Heb 10:1-25; 1 Pet 3:15; 1 Jn 5:21; Rev 5:9-13; 15:3<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Pure Worship<\/h3>\nFrom the beginning of God’s relationship with Israel, he made provision for their worship of him to be pleasing to him (Exod 20–40; Lev 1–8). One of the Lord’s key purposes for his people is that they offer him pure worship.<\/p>\nWhen Solomon built the Temple as a permanent worship sanctuary, he took great care to erect “a Temple to honor the name of the Lord<\/span>” (1 Kgs 5:3-5). He built in accordance with the pattern he was given, placing the Ark in the inner sanctuary in the proper manner and dedicating the Temple to the Lord (8:1-11; see Deut 16:13-17). In all of this, Solomon kept the requirements laid down in the law (see, e.g., Exod 25:10-22), which were intended to keep Israel’s worship purely focused on the Lord and his word.<\/p>\nUnfortunately, people tend to worship according to their own inclinations rather than according to God’s instructions, and Israel was no different. In his later years, Solomon turned away from the Lord to other gods (1 Kgs 11:4-8). After Solomon’s death, Jeroboam established a competing, idolatrous religion in the northern kingdom, in clear violation of God’s law (14:9-10, 15-16). False worship characterized the northern kingdom throughout its history (e.g., 15:26; 16:13, 25-26, 30-33; 21:25-26). Meanwhile, in Judah, the southern kingdom, tolerance for local pagan altars became a persistent spiritual distraction (15:14; 22:43). Neither Judah nor Israel remained pure in their worship of the Lord.<\/p>\nThere is one God, and God’s people must worship only him (1 Kgs 8:23; see Deut 5:7, 9; 6:4; John 14:6; Acts 4:12). Our worship must come from a pure heart; we must remain completely faithful to the Lord in dedicated service to him (1 Kgs 15:14; 17:1; see Deut 10:12, 20; Ps 24:3-4; Matt 4:10; John 4:24). Our daily and weekly worship of God should have a sense of God’s presence, which will be a source of genuine joy (1 Kgs 8:56; cp. Ps 63:1-3; Phil 4:4). Just as Israel’s Temple was a sanctuary intended to attract all people (1 Kgs 8:41-43), believers, who are the temple of the living God (1 Cor 3:16-17), are to live so as to attract and motivate others to desire to know the Lord and worship him (Matt 5:16; Acts 2:40-47; 2 Tim 4:5; 1 Pet 2:12). Our whole lives should include daily worship of Christ, acknowledging him as Lord (1 Pet 3:15). And we must not let any idol take God’s place in our hearts (1 Jn 5:21).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 8:20; Exod 4:31; 25:10-22; Lev 1:1–8:36; Deut 5:7-9; 6:4-9; 10:12, 20; 16:13-17; 26:1-15; 1 Kgs 5:3-5; Pss 24:3-6; 51:1-19; Hos 6:6; 14:1-2; Mic 6:6-8; Matt 4:10; 5:16; 6:1-18; John 4:19-24; 5:23; 14:6; Acts 2:40-47; Rom 12:1-2; 1 Cor 3:16-17; 14:1-40; Phil 3:3; Heb 10:1-25; 1 Pet 3:15; 1 Jn 5:21; Rev 5:9-13; 15:3<\/p>","summary_ro":"Pure Worship From the beginning of God’s relationship with Israel, he made provision for their worship of him to be pleasing to him (Exod 20–40; Lev 1–8). One of the Lord’s key purposes for his people is that they offer him pure worship. When Solomon built the Temple as a permanent worship sanctuary, he took great care to erect “a Temple to honor the name of the Lord” (1 Kgs 5:3-5). He built in accordance with the pattern he was given, placing the Ark in the inner sanctuary in the proper mann...","summary_en":"Pure Worship From the beginning of God’s relationship with Israel, he made provision for their worship of him to be pleasing to him (Exod 20–40; Lev 1–8). One of the Lord’s key purposes for his people is that they offer him pure worship. When Solomon built the Temple as a permanent worship sanctuary, he took great care to erect “a Temple to honor the name of the Lord” (1 Kgs 5:3-5). He built in accordance with the pattern he was given, placing the Ark in the inner sanctuary in the proper mann...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":121874,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Gift of Prophecy","title_en":"The Gift of Prophecy","content_ro":"<h3>The Gift of Prophecy<\/h3>\nAs Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp<\/em> 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek 4:1–5:17) and predicting events to come (Acts 11:28; 21:10-11).<\/p>\nPhilip the Evangelist was the father of four young women who “had the gift of prophecy” (21:9). The apostle Paul also acknowledged the prophetic gift of some Christian women (1 Cor 11:5). In the Old Testament, most prophets were men, but several women are also described as prophets, for example, Miriam (Exod 15:20), Deborah (Judg 4:4), and Huldah (2 Kgs 22:14-20; 2 Chr 34:22-28). In the New Testament, the gift of prophecy is given to both men and women, and both young and old, as Peter signaled in his sermon at Pentecost (Acts 2:17-18).<\/p>\nAlthough prophecy sometimes involves foretelling the future (20:22-23; 21:10-11; see Rom 9:24-33; 1 Thes 4:13-17; 2 Thes 2:3-4), at its core prophecy is proclaiming God’s word by preaching, exhorting, and explaining the will of God (Acts 15:32; 19:6; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 14:3-4, 29-33; Rev 19:10). The gift of prophecy is clearly mentioned in 1 Corinthians and Ephesians as one of the gifts of the Holy Spirit and of Christ to the church (1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-13). It is to be used for the benefit of believers (1 Cor 14:22).<\/p>\nProphecy is always in need of testing (1 Thes 5:19-21), and the church is strongly warned against false prophets (1 Jn 4:1; see also Rev 2:20-23). When used faithfully and in submission to God’s word and his Spirit, courageous proclamation of God’s truth helps the church to determine what God’s will is and inspires God’s people to do it.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 15:20; Deut 13:1-5; Judg 4:4; 1 Kgs 11:29-32; 2 Kgs 22:14-20; Isa 20:2-6; 44:25; Jer 13:1-11; 23:25-32; Ezek 4:1-17; 13:2-9; Joel 2:28-32; Matt 7:15; 24:24; Acts 2:17-21; 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 19:6; 20:23; Acts 21:9-11; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 11:5; 12:4-11; 14:1-40; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Thes 5:19-21; 2 Pet 2:1; 1 Jn 4:1-3; Rev 2:20-23; 19:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Gift of Prophecy<\/h3>\nAs Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp<\/em> 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek 4:1–5:17) and predicting events to come (Acts 11:28; 21:10-11).<\/p>\nPhilip the Evangelist was the father of four young women who “had the gift of prophecy” (21:9). The apostle Paul also acknowledged the prophetic gift of some Christian women (1 Cor 11:5). In the Old Testament, most prophets were men, but several women are also described as prophets, for example, Miriam (Exod 15:20), Deborah (Judg 4:4), and Huldah (2 Kgs 22:14-20; 2 Chr 34:22-28). In the New Testament, the gift of prophecy is given to both men and women, and both young and old, as Peter signaled in his sermon at Pentecost (Acts 2:17-18).<\/p>\nAlthough prophecy sometimes involves foretelling the future (20:22-23; 21:10-11; see Rom 9:24-33; 1 Thes 4:13-17; 2 Thes 2:3-4), at its core prophecy is proclaiming God’s word by preaching, exhorting, and explaining the will of God (Acts 15:32; 19:6; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 14:3-4, 29-33; Rev 19:10). The gift of prophecy is clearly mentioned in 1 Corinthians and Ephesians as one of the gifts of the Holy Spirit and of Christ to the church (1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-13). It is to be used for the benefit of believers (1 Cor 14:22).<\/p>\nProphecy is always in need of testing (1 Thes 5:19-21), and the church is strongly warned against false prophets (1 Jn 4:1; see also Rev 2:20-23). When used faithfully and in submission to God’s word and his Spirit, courageous proclamation of God’s truth helps the church to determine what God’s will is and inspires God’s people to do it.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 15:20; Deut 13:1-5; Judg 4:4; 1 Kgs 11:29-32; 2 Kgs 22:14-20; Isa 20:2-6; 44:25; Jer 13:1-11; 23:25-32; Ezek 4:1-17; 13:2-9; Joel 2:28-32; Matt 7:15; 24:24; Acts 2:17-21; 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 19:6; 20:23; Acts 21:9-11; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 11:5; 12:4-11; 14:1-40; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Thes 5:19-21; 2 Pet 2:1; 1 Jn 4:1-3; Rev 2:20-23; 19:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Gift of Prophecy As Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek ...","summary_en":"The Gift of Prophecy As Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":122296,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Work","title_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Work","content_ro":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Work<\/h3>\nDifferent New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work.<\/p>\nAccording to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come into a saving relationship with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:19; Gal 3:2-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit brings new life in Christ. He affirms believers’ salvation (1 Cor 6:11; 2 Thes 2:13) and their identity as children of God (Rom 8:9, 14-17).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit gives Christians power over sin (Rom 8:1-4), power to live a fruitful life (Gal 5:22-23), and power for ministry (1 Cor 12:1-31). Believers are to be continuously “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Eph 5:18), and though they experience the conflict between the flesh and the Spirit, they can please God by yielding to the Spirit’s guidance and power (Gal 5:16-18).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit enables Christians to understand God’s thoughts and ways (1 Cor 2:9-16). He gives spiritual gifts to believers to help the church grow (12:1-31). The Spirit leads and empowers worship as believers use the gifts that the Spirit has given them (14:26-33, 39-40).<\/p>\nThe Spirit guarantees that believers will receive all the blessings that God has promised (2 Cor 1:21-22; 5:1-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit helps believers and prays for them in their human weakness (Rom 8:26-27). And the goal of the Spirit’s work is to make believers like Christ (Rom 8:28-29).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nJohn 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:29, 39; 9:31; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; Rom 8:1-4, 9, 14-17, 26-29; 1 Cor 2:9-16; 6:11, 19; 12:1-31; 14:1-33, 39-40; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 3:5; 5:16-18, 22-23; Eph 1:13-14; 5:18; 2 Thes 2:13; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Jn 2:20, 27<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Work<\/h3>\nDifferent New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work.<\/p>\nAccording to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come into a saving relationship with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:19; Gal 3:2-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit brings new life in Christ. He affirms believers’ salvation (1 Cor 6:11; 2 Thes 2:13) and their identity as children of God (Rom 8:9, 14-17).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit gives Christians power over sin (Rom 8:1-4), power to live a fruitful life (Gal 5:22-23), and power for ministry (1 Cor 12:1-31). Believers are to be continuously “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Eph 5:18), and though they experience the conflict between the flesh and the Spirit, they can please God by yielding to the Spirit’s guidance and power (Gal 5:16-18).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit enables Christians to understand God’s thoughts and ways (1 Cor 2:9-16). He gives spiritual gifts to believers to help the church grow (12:1-31). The Spirit leads and empowers worship as believers use the gifts that the Spirit has given them (14:26-33, 39-40).<\/p>\nThe Spirit guarantees that believers will receive all the blessings that God has promised (2 Cor 1:21-22; 5:1-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit helps believers and prays for them in their human weakness (Rom 8:26-27). And the goal of the Spirit’s work is to make believers like Christ (Rom 8:28-29).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nJohn 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:29, 39; 9:31; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; Rom 8:1-4, 9, 14-17, 26-29; 1 Cor 2:9-16; 6:11, 19; 12:1-31; 14:1-33, 39-40; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 3:5; 5:16-18, 22-23; Eph 1:13-14; 5:18; 2 Thes 2:13; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Jn 2:20, 27<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Work Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work. According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come i...","summary_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Work Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work. According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come i...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":144446,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Pure Worship","title_en":"Pure Worship","content_ro":"<h3>Pure Worship<\/h3>\nFrom the beginning of God’s relationship with Israel, he made provision for their worship of him to be pleasing to him (Exod 20–40; Lev 1–8). One of the Lord’s key purposes for his people is that they offer him pure worship.<\/p>\nWhen Solomon built the Temple as a permanent worship sanctuary, he took great care to erect “a Temple to honor the name of the Lord<\/span>” (1 Kgs 5:3-5). He built in accordance with the pattern he was given, placing the Ark in the inner sanctuary in the proper manner and dedicating the Temple to the Lord (8:1-11; see Deut 16:13-17). In all of this, Solomon kept the requirements laid down in the law (see, e.g., Exod 25:10-22), which were intended to keep Israel’s worship purely focused on the Lord and his word.<\/p>\nUnfortunately, people tend to worship according to their own inclinations rather than according to God’s instructions, and Israel was no different. In his later years, Solomon turned away from the Lord to other gods (1 Kgs 11:4-8). After Solomon’s death, Jeroboam established a competing, idolatrous religion in the northern kingdom, in clear violation of God’s law (14:9-10, 15-16). False worship characterized the northern kingdom throughout its history (e.g., 15:26; 16:13, 25-26, 30-33; 21:25-26). Meanwhile, in Judah, the southern kingdom, tolerance for local pagan altars became a persistent spiritual distraction (15:14; 22:43). Neither Judah nor Israel remained pure in their worship of the Lord.<\/p>\nThere is one God, and God’s people must worship only him (1 Kgs 8:23; see Deut 5:7, 9; 6:4; John 14:6; Acts 4:12). Our worship must come from a pure heart; we must remain completely faithful to the Lord in dedicated service to him (1 Kgs 15:14; 17:1; see Deut 10:12, 20; Ps 24:3-4; Matt 4:10; John 4:24). Our daily and weekly worship of God should have a sense of God’s presence, which will be a source of genuine joy (1 Kgs 8:56; cp. Ps 63:1-3; Phil 4:4). Just as Israel’s Temple was a sanctuary intended to attract all people (1 Kgs 8:41-43), believers, who are the temple of the living God (1 Cor 3:16-17), are to live so as to attract and motivate others to desire to know the Lord and worship him (Matt 5:16; Acts 2:40-47; 2 Tim 4:5; 1 Pet 2:12). Our whole lives should include daily worship of Christ, acknowledging him as Lord (1 Pet 3:15). And we must not let any idol take God’s place in our hearts (1 Jn 5:21).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 8:20; Exod 4:31; 25:10-22; Lev 1:1–8:36; Deut 5:7-9; 6:4-9; 10:12, 20; 16:13-17; 26:1-15; 1 Kgs 5:3-5; Pss 24:3-6; 51:1-19; Hos 6:6; 14:1-2; Mic 6:6-8; Matt 4:10; 5:16; 6:1-18; John 4:19-24; 5:23; 14:6; Acts 2:40-47; Rom 12:1-2; 1 Cor 3:16-17; 14:1-40; Phil 3:3; Heb 10:1-25; 1 Pet 3:15; 1 Jn 5:21; Rev 5:9-13; 15:3<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Pure Worship<\/h3>\nFrom the beginning of God’s relationship with Israel, he made provision for their worship of him to be pleasing to him (Exod 20–40; Lev 1–8). One of the Lord’s key purposes for his people is that they offer him pure worship.<\/p>\nWhen Solomon built the Temple as a permanent worship sanctuary, he took great care to erect “a Temple to honor the name of the Lord<\/span>” (1 Kgs 5:3-5). He built in accordance with the pattern he was given, placing the Ark in the inner sanctuary in the proper manner and dedicating the Temple to the Lord (8:1-11; see Deut 16:13-17). In all of this, Solomon kept the requirements laid down in the law (see, e.g., Exod 25:10-22), which were intended to keep Israel’s worship purely focused on the Lord and his word.<\/p>\nUnfortunately, people tend to worship according to their own inclinations rather than according to God’s instructions, and Israel was no different. In his later years, Solomon turned away from the Lord to other gods (1 Kgs 11:4-8). After Solomon’s death, Jeroboam established a competing, idolatrous religion in the northern kingdom, in clear violation of God’s law (14:9-10, 15-16). False worship characterized the northern kingdom throughout its history (e.g., 15:26; 16:13, 25-26, 30-33; 21:25-26). Meanwhile, in Judah, the southern kingdom, tolerance for local pagan altars became a persistent spiritual distraction (15:14; 22:43). Neither Judah nor Israel remained pure in their worship of the Lord.<\/p>\nThere is one God, and God’s people must worship only him (1 Kgs 8:23; see Deut 5:7, 9; 6:4; John 14:6; Acts 4:12). Our worship must come from a pure heart; we must remain completely faithful to the Lord in dedicated service to him (1 Kgs 15:14; 17:1; see Deut 10:12, 20; Ps 24:3-4; Matt 4:10; John 4:24). Our daily and weekly worship of God should have a sense of God’s presence, which will be a source of genuine joy (1 Kgs 8:56; cp. Ps 63:1-3; Phil 4:4). Just as Israel’s Temple was a sanctuary intended to attract all people (1 Kgs 8:41-43), believers, who are the temple of the living God (1 Cor 3:16-17), are to live so as to attract and motivate others to desire to know the Lord and worship him (Matt 5:16; Acts 2:40-47; 2 Tim 4:5; 1 Pet 2:12). Our whole lives should include daily worship of Christ, acknowledging him as Lord (1 Pet 3:15). And we must not let any idol take God’s place in our hearts (1 Jn 5:21).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 8:20; Exod 4:31; 25:10-22; Lev 1:1–8:36; Deut 5:7-9; 6:4-9; 10:12, 20; 16:13-17; 26:1-15; 1 Kgs 5:3-5; Pss 24:3-6; 51:1-19; Hos 6:6; 14:1-2; Mic 6:6-8; Matt 4:10; 5:16; 6:1-18; John 4:19-24; 5:23; 14:6; Acts 2:40-47; Rom 12:1-2; 1 Cor 3:16-17; 14:1-40; Phil 3:3; Heb 10:1-25; 1 Pet 3:15; 1 Jn 5:21; Rev 5:9-13; 15:3<\/p>","summary_ro":"Pure Worship From the beginning of God’s relationship with Israel, he made provision for their worship of him to be pleasing to him (Exod 20–40; Lev 1–8). One of the Lord’s key purposes for his people is that they offer him pure worship. When Solomon built the Temple as a permanent worship sanctuary, he took great care to erect “a Temple to honor the name of the Lord” (1 Kgs 5:3-5). He built in accordance with the pattern he was given, placing the Ark in the inner sanctuary in the proper mann...","summary_en":"Pure Worship From the beginning of God’s relationship with Israel, he made provision for their worship of him to be pleasing to him (Exod 20–40; Lev 1–8). One of the Lord’s key purposes for his people is that they offer him pure worship. When Solomon built the Temple as a permanent worship sanctuary, he took great care to erect “a Temple to honor the name of the Lord” (1 Kgs 5:3-5). He built in accordance with the pattern he was given, placing the Ark in the inner sanctuary in the proper mann...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":149500,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Gift of Prophecy","title_en":"The Gift of Prophecy","content_ro":"<h3>The Gift of Prophecy<\/h3>\nAs Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp<\/em> 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek 4:1–5:17) and predicting events to come (Acts 11:28; 21:10-11).<\/p>\nPhilip the Evangelist was the father of four young women who “had the gift of prophecy” (21:9). The apostle Paul also acknowledged the prophetic gift of some Christian women (1 Cor 11:5). In the Old Testament, most prophets were men, but several women are also described as prophets, for example, Miriam (Exod 15:20), Deborah (Judg 4:4), and Huldah (2 Kgs 22:14-20; 2 Chr 34:22-28). In the New Testament, the gift of prophecy is given to both men and women, and both young and old, as Peter signaled in his sermon at Pentecost (Acts 2:17-18).<\/p>\nAlthough prophecy sometimes involves foretelling the future (20:22-23; 21:10-11; see Rom 9:24-33; 1 Thes 4:13-17; 2 Thes 2:3-4), at its core prophecy is proclaiming God’s word by preaching, exhorting, and explaining the will of God (Acts 15:32; 19:6; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 14:3-4, 29-33; Rev 19:10). The gift of prophecy is clearly mentioned in 1 Corinthians and Ephesians as one of the gifts of the Holy Spirit and of Christ to the church (1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-13). It is to be used for the benefit of believers (1 Cor 14:22).<\/p>\nProphecy is always in need of testing (1 Thes 5:19-21), and the church is strongly warned against false prophets (1 Jn 4:1; see also Rev 2:20-23). When used faithfully and in submission to God’s word and his Spirit, courageous proclamation of God’s truth helps the church to determine what God’s will is and inspires God’s people to do it.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 15:20; Deut 13:1-5; Judg 4:4; 1 Kgs 11:29-32; 2 Kgs 22:14-20; Isa 20:2-6; 44:25; Jer 13:1-11; 23:25-32; Ezek 4:1-17; 13:2-9; Joel 2:28-32; Matt 7:15; 24:24; Acts 2:17-21; 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 19:6; 20:23; Acts 21:9-11; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 11:5; 12:4-11; 14:1-40; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Thes 5:19-21; 2 Pet 2:1; 1 Jn 4:1-3; Rev 2:20-23; 19:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Gift of Prophecy<\/h3>\nAs Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp<\/em> 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek 4:1–5:17) and predicting events to come (Acts 11:28; 21:10-11).<\/p>\nPhilip the Evangelist was the father of four young women who “had the gift of prophecy” (21:9). The apostle Paul also acknowledged the prophetic gift of some Christian women (1 Cor 11:5). In the Old Testament, most prophets were men, but several women are also described as prophets, for example, Miriam (Exod 15:20), Deborah (Judg 4:4), and Huldah (2 Kgs 22:14-20; 2 Chr 34:22-28). In the New Testament, the gift of prophecy is given to both men and women, and both young and old, as Peter signaled in his sermon at Pentecost (Acts 2:17-18).<\/p>\nAlthough prophecy sometimes involves foretelling the future (20:22-23; 21:10-11; see Rom 9:24-33; 1 Thes 4:13-17; 2 Thes 2:3-4), at its core prophecy is proclaiming God’s word by preaching, exhorting, and explaining the will of God (Acts 15:32; 19:6; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 14:3-4, 29-33; Rev 19:10). The gift of prophecy is clearly mentioned in 1 Corinthians and Ephesians as one of the gifts of the Holy Spirit and of Christ to the church (1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-13). It is to be used for the benefit of believers (1 Cor 14:22).<\/p>\nProphecy is always in need of testing (1 Thes 5:19-21), and the church is strongly warned against false prophets (1 Jn 4:1; see also Rev 2:20-23). When used faithfully and in submission to God’s word and his Spirit, courageous proclamation of God’s truth helps the church to determine what God’s will is and inspires God’s people to do it.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 15:20; Deut 13:1-5; Judg 4:4; 1 Kgs 11:29-32; 2 Kgs 22:14-20; Isa 20:2-6; 44:25; Jer 13:1-11; 23:25-32; Ezek 4:1-17; 13:2-9; Joel 2:28-32; Matt 7:15; 24:24; Acts 2:17-21; 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 19:6; 20:23; Acts 21:9-11; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 11:5; 12:4-11; 14:1-40; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Thes 5:19-21; 2 Pet 2:1; 1 Jn 4:1-3; Rev 2:20-23; 19:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Gift of Prophecy As Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek ...","summary_en":"The Gift of Prophecy As Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":149922,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Work","title_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Work","content_ro":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Work<\/h3>\nDifferent New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work.<\/p>\nAccording to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come into a saving relationship with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:19; Gal 3:2-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit brings new life in Christ. He affirms believers’ salvation (1 Cor 6:11; 2 Thes 2:13) and their identity as children of God (Rom 8:9, 14-17).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit gives Christians power over sin (Rom 8:1-4), power to live a fruitful life (Gal 5:22-23), and power for ministry (1 Cor 12:1-31). Believers are to be continuously “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Eph 5:18), and though they experience the conflict between the flesh and the Spirit, they can please God by yielding to the Spirit’s guidance and power (Gal 5:16-18).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit enables Christians to understand God’s thoughts and ways (1 Cor 2:9-16). He gives spiritual gifts to believers to help the church grow (12:1-31). The Spirit leads and empowers worship as believers use the gifts that the Spirit has given them (14:26-33, 39-40).<\/p>\nThe Spirit guarantees that believers will receive all the blessings that God has promised (2 Cor 1:21-22; 5:1-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit helps believers and prays for them in their human weakness (Rom 8:26-27). And the goal of the Spirit’s work is to make believers like Christ (Rom 8:28-29).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nJohn 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:29, 39; 9:31; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; Rom 8:1-4, 9, 14-17, 26-29; 1 Cor 2:9-16; 6:11, 19; 12:1-31; 14:1-33, 39-40; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 3:5; 5:16-18, 22-23; Eph 1:13-14; 5:18; 2 Thes 2:13; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Jn 2:20, 27<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Work<\/h3>\nDifferent New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work.<\/p>\nAccording to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come into a saving relationship with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:19; Gal 3:2-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit brings new life in Christ. He affirms believers’ salvation (1 Cor 6:11; 2 Thes 2:13) and their identity as children of God (Rom 8:9, 14-17).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit gives Christians power over sin (Rom 8:1-4), power to live a fruitful life (Gal 5:22-23), and power for ministry (1 Cor 12:1-31). Believers are to be continuously “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Eph 5:18), and though they experience the conflict between the flesh and the Spirit, they can please God by yielding to the Spirit’s guidance and power (Gal 5:16-18).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit enables Christians to understand God’s thoughts and ways (1 Cor 2:9-16). He gives spiritual gifts to believers to help the church grow (12:1-31). The Spirit leads and empowers worship as believers use the gifts that the Spirit has given them (14:26-33, 39-40).<\/p>\nThe Spirit guarantees that believers will receive all the blessings that God has promised (2 Cor 1:21-22; 5:1-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit helps believers and prays for them in their human weakness (Rom 8:26-27). And the goal of the Spirit’s work is to make believers like Christ (Rom 8:28-29).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nJohn 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:29, 39; 9:31; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; Rom 8:1-4, 9, 14-17, 26-29; 1 Cor 2:9-16; 6:11, 19; 12:1-31; 14:1-33, 39-40; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 3:5; 5:16-18, 22-23; Eph 1:13-14; 5:18; 2 Thes 2:13; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Jn 2:20, 27<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Work Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work. According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come i...","summary_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Work Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work. According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come i...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"2":[{"id":26754,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Mystery","title_en":"Mystery","content_ro":"<h3>MYSTERY<\/h3>\nCounsel, or secret plan, that God shares only with his people. In most biblical passages it relates to the wise counsel of God in his guidance of history to its destiny. The most specific and significant application of the concept of mystery is to the plan of God regarding the death of Christ. It does not refer to a secret that God is unwilling to tell or to something so obscure that it could not be understood even if told.<\/p>\nThe passages in which its theological meaning is most clearly seen (among over 30 occurrences in Scripture) are Daniel 3:18-28; 4:6 (Septuagint); Matthew 13:11; Mark 4:11; Luke 8:10; Romans 11:25; 16:25; 1 Corinthians 2:7; 4:1; 15:51; Ephesians 1:9; 3:3-6, 9-12; Colossians 1:26-29; 2:2; 2 Thessalonians 2:7; 1 Timothy 3:9, 16; Revelation 1:20; 10:7; 17:5-18.<\/p>\nIn the passages in Daniel, the emphasis is on the revelation that God gave Daniel concerning the content and meaning of King Nebuchadnezzar’s dream about the future. It is important to note here that the dream was about what God was going to do. No wise man, enchanter, magician or diviner could explain it, but “there is a God in heaven who reveals mysteries” (Dn 2:28).<\/p>\nScholarly studies in recent years have determined that similar themes are found in other Jewish writings, including the Dead Sea Scrolls. The stress is on the decisions God has made about the future, especially the end time. The world wrestles with such matters as the problem of evil (i.e., Why, if God is both good and powerful, do people still suffer?). The believer identifies with these problems but knows that God has his providential plans and that one day he will make all things clear. The way God will bring vindication for those who are wronged in this world and judgment to those who do wrong is part of the content of the “mystery” and was a major emphasis in the writings around the time of Christ. God controls the affairs of the universe. The nations will eventually fulfill his purposes.<\/p>\nMatthew 13:11, Mark 4:11, and Luke 8:10 are part of the parables of the kingdom. The kingdom itself is related to the final climactic work of God in history. This is seen in some of the imagery of the parables, such as the harvest, which symbolizes future judgment. Therefore, the word “mystery” is appropriate and significant here. In the immediate context Jesus is explaining why he uses parables. They both vividly illustrate truth and conceal truth from those who are not receptive to it. Therefore, the word “mystery” (plural in Mt and Lk) describes the inner meaning of Jesus’ teaching about the kingdom. Those who accept the message will know its meaning; those who do not will lose not only the meaning but apparently also the opportunity to hear and respond to the message of salvation (Mt 13:12-15).<\/p>\nAnother aspect of this passage lies in the unasked question as to why, if the Messiah has come, evil still persists in the world. The servants in one of the parables wanted to pull up the weeds, symbolizing evil or evil persons, but were told to allow them to grow until the time of harvest—that is, the judgment (Mt 13:24-30). The persistence of evil in the world and the way God will eventually deal with it is one of the “mysteries.”<\/p>\nRomans 11:25 occurs in a large section (chs 9–11) that deals with the people of Israel and their future. Once again, the issue concerns a present problem and its future resolution. In this case the problem is the unbelief of Israel. The hardening of Israel during the present time is called a “mystery” (Rom 11:25). God’s purposes will not be thwarted, however, “and so all Israel will be saved” (v 26). This emphasis on the purposes of God is closely intertwined with the concept of the “mystery” and is basic to this entire passage.<\/p>\nRomans 16:25 is broader in its scope, connecting the “revelation of the mystery hidden for long ages past” with Paul’s “gospel and the proclamation of Jesus Christ.” Here the focus is more closely on the meaning of the death of Christ.<\/p>\nGod’s “secret wisdom” is mentioned in 1 Corinthians 2:7. The context is the message of the cross that Paul preaches. This message is foolishness to those who consider themselves wise but are lost, and it is the “foolishness” of what is preached that brings salvation to believers (1:18-25). Paul does not attempt to proclaim worldly “wisdom,” but he does declare a “message of wisdom” to those who are spiritually mature (2:6). To these he speaks the “secret wisdom,” or literally, “wisdom in a secret” (v 7). This passage clearly connects the basic concept of “mystery” as the counsel of God with the death of Christ as the means of salvation. It also connects mystery with the process of history (“the rulers of this age”) and with the sweep of God’s purposes from OT times into the future. Verse 10 emphasizes the fact that God has indeed revealed these mysteries to us.<\/p>\nIn 1 Corinthians 4:1 Paul again speaks from the context of a contrast between God’s wisdom and that of the world (3:18-23). He speaks not only of secret things or mysteries but also introduces the concept of stewardship. He has been entrusted with the revelation of God’s mystery and must be faithful in his ministry of declaring it. This theme will reappear in Ephesians 3:2-6.<\/p>\nPaul returns to the relationship of mystery and the end time in 1 Corinthians 15:51. The earlier passage (2:9-16) showed that human knowledge cannot possibly anticipate what God has planned, but God has revealed this mystery to believers. A major aspect of this revealed mystery is the way in which the faithful will be brought into the presence of God: “Lo! I tell you a mystery. We shall not all sleep, but we shall all be changed, in a moment, in the twinkling of an eye, at the last trumpet” (15:51-52, rsv<\/span>). The other references to mystery in 1 Corinthians occur in the broad context of chapters 12–14 dealing with spiritual gifts, which include receiving divine revelation, so the term “mysteries” in 13:2 and 14:2 is appropriate.<\/p>\nEphesians opens with a series of statements about God’s purpose in history, culminating in the universal headship of Christ (Eph 1:10). These statements include such terms as “chose,” “destined,” “will,” “purpose,” “plan,” and “counsel.” This is clearly the range of ideas associated with the word “mystery” in ancient Jewish writings, and these ideas shed light on Paul’s use of the summary expression: “For he has made known to us . . . the mystery of his will” (v 9, rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\nPart of God’s purpose was to form a body of believers, reconciled to himself and to each other through the cross (Eph 2:14-18). In this body, Jewish and Gentile believers have been made members together of one body and sharers together in the promise in Christ Jesus, a new phase of God’s revealed plan, which Paul here calls a “mystery” (3:6). As noted above, Paul himself has a responsibility to minister the truth of this “mystery” faithfully (3:2-5; cf. 1 Cor 4:1-5).<\/p>\nColossians continues to show Paul’s sense of responsibility regarding this “mystery,” which is now identified with the “word of God” (Col 1:25-29). Once again there is the idea of the span of history linked with the mystery that is known only by revelation: “the mystery that has been kept hidden for ages and generations, but is now disclosed to the saints” (v 26). As in Ephesians, the church is the locus for the working out of God’s mystery, “which is Christ in you, the hope of glory” (v 27). This Christ is proclaimed in wisdom, so that believers may reach mature completion in him (v 28). The Colossian believers are asked to pray for Paul as he preaches this “mystery” (4:3).<\/p>\nIt is made clear in 1 Timothy 3:16 that the “mystery of godliness” includes the basic elements associated with the “mystery,” such as its manifestation in the world and ultimate vindication. However, this grand plan of God does not unfold without opposition. In connection with the coming of the end time, Paul again mentions a mystery. This time it is a dark mystery, called the “secret power of lawlessness” (2 Thes 2:7). A similar evil force, “Babylon the Great, the Mother of Prostitutes,” is introduced in the book of Revelation with the word “mystery” (Rv 17:5). Perhaps the idea is that there are forces counter to God whose workings are also impossible for humans to understand. God’s truth and power will, however, prevail over these, as he brings his own mystery, his wise counsel, to fulfillment.<\/p>\nRevelation 10:6-7 declares this fulfillment. The ages of waiting in perplexity, of enduring evil, are over, as the angel announces, “There will be no more delay!” The time has finally come when “the mystery of God will be accomplished.” Note the dynamic quality of the mystery in this context. It is not just static truth but something that can be “accomplished.” This great climax to history is in accord with God’s previous revelation “to his servants, the prophets.” The mystery, then, is God’s wise counsel, which both guides history and is revealed in its culmination. It expresses God’s answer to the problem of evil and the vain opposition by evil powers. It declares the meaning of the central event in history, the death of Christ, and reveals the results of the resurrection in the ultimate transformation of all believers at the coming of Christ.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MYSTERY<\/h3>\nCounsel, or secret plan, that God shares only with his people. In most biblical passages it relates to the wise counsel of God in his guidance of history to its destiny. The most specific and significant application of the concept of mystery is to the plan of God regarding the death of Christ. It does not refer to a secret that God is unwilling to tell or to something so obscure that it could not be understood even if told.<\/p>\nThe passages in which its theological meaning is most clearly seen (among over 30 occurrences in Scripture) are Daniel 3:18-28; 4:6 (Septuagint); Matthew 13:11; Mark 4:11; Luke 8:10; Romans 11:25; 16:25; 1 Corinthians 2:7; 4:1; 15:51; Ephesians 1:9; 3:3-6, 9-12; Colossians 1:26-29; 2:2; 2 Thessalonians 2:7; 1 Timothy 3:9, 16; Revelation 1:20; 10:7; 17:5-18.<\/p>\nIn the passages in Daniel, the emphasis is on the revelation that God gave Daniel concerning the content and meaning of King Nebuchadnezzar’s dream about the future. It is important to note here that the dream was about what God was going to do. No wise man, enchanter, magician or diviner could explain it, but “there is a God in heaven who reveals mysteries” (Dn 2:28).<\/p>\nScholarly studies in recent years have determined that similar themes are found in other Jewish writings, including the Dead Sea Scrolls. The stress is on the decisions God has made about the future, especially the end time. The world wrestles with such matters as the problem of evil (i.e., Why, if God is both good and powerful, do people still suffer?). The believer identifies with these problems but knows that God has his providential plans and that one day he will make all things clear. The way God will bring vindication for those who are wronged in this world and judgment to those who do wrong is part of the content of the “mystery” and was a major emphasis in the writings around the time of Christ. God controls the affairs of the universe. The nations will eventually fulfill his purposes.<\/p>\nMatthew 13:11, Mark 4:11, and Luke 8:10 are part of the parables of the kingdom. The kingdom itself is related to the final climactic work of God in history. This is seen in some of the imagery of the parables, such as the harvest, which symbolizes future judgment. Therefore, the word “mystery” is appropriate and significant here. In the immediate context Jesus is explaining why he uses parables. They both vividly illustrate truth and conceal truth from those who are not receptive to it. Therefore, the word “mystery” (plural in Mt and Lk) describes the inner meaning of Jesus’ teaching about the kingdom. Those who accept the message will know its meaning; those who do not will lose not only the meaning but apparently also the opportunity to hear and respond to the message of salvation (Mt 13:12-15).<\/p>\nAnother aspect of this passage lies in the unasked question as to why, if the Messiah has come, evil still persists in the world. The servants in one of the parables wanted to pull up the weeds, symbolizing evil or evil persons, but were told to allow them to grow until the time of harvest—that is, the judgment (Mt 13:24-30). The persistence of evil in the world and the way God will eventually deal with it is one of the “mysteries.”<\/p>\nRomans 11:25 occurs in a large section (chs 9–11) that deals with the people of Israel and their future. Once again, the issue concerns a present problem and its future resolution. In this case the problem is the unbelief of Israel. The hardening of Israel during the present time is called a “mystery” (Rom 11:25). God’s purposes will not be thwarted, however, “and so all Israel will be saved” (v 26). This emphasis on the purposes of God is closely intertwined with the concept of the “mystery” and is basic to this entire passage.<\/p>\nRomans 16:25 is broader in its scope, connecting the “revelation of the mystery hidden for long ages past” with Paul’s “gospel and the proclamation of Jesus Christ.” Here the focus is more closely on the meaning of the death of Christ.<\/p>\nGod’s “secret wisdom” is mentioned in 1 Corinthians 2:7. The context is the message of the cross that Paul preaches. This message is foolishness to those who consider themselves wise but are lost, and it is the “foolishness” of what is preached that brings salvation to believers (1:18-25). Paul does not attempt to proclaim worldly “wisdom,” but he does declare a “message of wisdom” to those who are spiritually mature (2:6). To these he speaks the “secret wisdom,” or literally, “wisdom in a secret” (v 7). This passage clearly connects the basic concept of “mystery” as the counsel of God with the death of Christ as the means of salvation. It also connects mystery with the process of history (“the rulers of this age”) and with the sweep of God’s purposes from OT times into the future. Verse 10 emphasizes the fact that God has indeed revealed these mysteries to us.<\/p>\nIn 1 Corinthians 4:1 Paul again speaks from the context of a contrast between God’s wisdom and that of the world (3:18-23). He speaks not only of secret things or mysteries but also introduces the concept of stewardship. He has been entrusted with the revelation of God’s mystery and must be faithful in his ministry of declaring it. This theme will reappear in Ephesians 3:2-6.<\/p>\nPaul returns to the relationship of mystery and the end time in 1 Corinthians 15:51. The earlier passage (2:9-16) showed that human knowledge cannot possibly anticipate what God has planned, but God has revealed this mystery to believers. A major aspect of this revealed mystery is the way in which the faithful will be brought into the presence of God: “Lo! I tell you a mystery. We shall not all sleep, but we shall all be changed, in a moment, in the twinkling of an eye, at the last trumpet” (15:51-52, rsv<\/span>). The other references to mystery in 1 Corinthians occur in the broad context of chapters 12–14 dealing with spiritual gifts, which include receiving divine revelation, so the term “mysteries” in 13:2 and 14:2 is appropriate.<\/p>\nEphesians opens with a series of statements about God’s purpose in history, culminating in the universal headship of Christ (Eph 1:10). These statements include such terms as “chose,” “destined,” “will,” “purpose,” “plan,” and “counsel.” This is clearly the range of ideas associated with the word “mystery” in ancient Jewish writings, and these ideas shed light on Paul’s use of the summary expression: “For he has made known to us . . . the mystery of his will” (v 9, rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\nPart of God’s purpose was to form a body of believers, reconciled to himself and to each other through the cross (Eph 2:14-18). In this body, Jewish and Gentile believers have been made members together of one body and sharers together in the promise in Christ Jesus, a new phase of God’s revealed plan, which Paul here calls a “mystery” (3:6). As noted above, Paul himself has a responsibility to minister the truth of this “mystery” faithfully (3:2-5; cf. 1 Cor 4:1-5).<\/p>\nColossians continues to show Paul’s sense of responsibility regarding this “mystery,” which is now identified with the “word of God” (Col 1:25-29). Once again there is the idea of the span of history linked with the mystery that is known only by revelation: “the mystery that has been kept hidden for ages and generations, but is now disclosed to the saints” (v 26). As in Ephesians, the church is the locus for the working out of God’s mystery, “which is Christ in you, the hope of glory” (v 27). This Christ is proclaimed in wisdom, so that believers may reach mature completion in him (v 28). The Colossian believers are asked to pray for Paul as he preaches this “mystery” (4:3).<\/p>\nIt is made clear in 1 Timothy 3:16 that the “mystery of godliness” includes the basic elements associated with the “mystery,” such as its manifestation in the world and ultimate vindication. However, this grand plan of God does not unfold without opposition. In connection with the coming of the end time, Paul again mentions a mystery. This time it is a dark mystery, called the “secret power of lawlessness” (2 Thes 2:7). A similar evil force, “Babylon the Great, the Mother of Prostitutes,” is introduced in the book of Revelation with the word “mystery” (Rv 17:5). Perhaps the idea is that there are forces counter to God whose workings are also impossible for humans to understand. God’s truth and power will, however, prevail over these, as he brings his own mystery, his wise counsel, to fulfillment.<\/p>\nRevelation 10:6-7 declares this fulfillment. The ages of waiting in perplexity, of enduring evil, are over, as the angel announces, “There will be no more delay!” The time has finally come when “the mystery of God will be accomplished.” Note the dynamic quality of the mystery in this context. It is not just static truth but something that can be “accomplished.” This great climax to history is in accord with God’s previous revelation “to his servants, the prophets.” The mystery, then, is God’s wise counsel, which both guides history and is revealed in its culmination. It expresses God’s answer to the problem of evil and the vain opposition by evil powers. It declares the meaning of the central event in history, the death of Christ, and reveals the results of the resurrection in the ultimate transformation of all believers at the coming of Christ.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MYSTERY Counsel, or secret plan, that God shares only with his people. In most biblical passages it relates to the wise counsel of God in his guidance of history to its destiny. The most specific and significant application of the concept of mystery is to the plan of God regarding the death of Christ. It does not refer to a secret that God is unwilling to tell or to something so obscure that it could not be understood even if told. The passages in which its theological meaning is most clearly...","summary_en":"MYSTERY Counsel, or secret plan, that God shares only with his people. In most biblical passages it relates to the wise counsel of God in his guidance of history to its destiny. The most specific and significant application of the concept of mystery is to the plan of God regarding the death of Christ. It does not refer to a secret that God is unwilling to tell or to something so obscure that it could not be understood even if told. The passages in which its theological meaning is most clearly...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57675,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:2","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:2","content_ro":"14:2-4<\/strong> The problem with the gift of speaking in tongues<\/em> is that hearers cannot readily understand<\/em> the message; the gift of prophecy<\/em>,<\/em> however, is immediately intelligible and beneficial as a word from God that strengthens . . . encourages . . . and comforts<\/em> those who hear.<\/p>","content_en":"14:2-4<\/strong> The problem with the gift of speaking in tongues<\/em> is that hearers cannot readily understand<\/em> the message; the gift of prophecy<\/em>,<\/em> however, is immediately intelligible and beneficial as a word from God that strengthens . . . encourages . . . and comforts<\/em> those who hear.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:2-4 The problem with the gift of speaking in tongues is that hearers cannot readily understand the message; the gift of prophecy, however, is immediately intelligible and beneficial as a word from God that strengthens . . . encourages . . . and comforts those who hear.","summary_en":"14:2-4 The problem with the gift of speaking in tongues is that hearers cannot readily understand the message; the gift of prophecy, however, is immediately intelligible and beneficial as a word from God that strengthens . . . encourages . . . and comforts those who hear.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85301,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:2","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:2","content_ro":"14:2-4<\/strong> The problem with the gift of speaking in tongues<\/em> is that hearers cannot readily understand<\/em> the message; the gift of prophecy<\/em>,<\/em> however, is immediately intelligible and beneficial as a word from God that strengthens . . . encourages . . . and comforts<\/em> those who hear.<\/p>","content_en":"14:2-4<\/strong> The problem with the gift of speaking in tongues<\/em> is that hearers cannot readily understand<\/em> the message; the gift of prophecy<\/em>,<\/em> however, is immediately intelligible and beneficial as a word from God that strengthens . . . encourages . . . and comforts<\/em> those who hear.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:2-4 The problem with the gift of speaking in tongues is that hearers cannot readily understand the message; the gift of prophecy, however, is immediately intelligible and beneficial as a word from God that strengthens . . . encourages . . . and comforts those who hear.","summary_en":"14:2-4 The problem with the gift of speaking in tongues is that hearers cannot readily understand the message; the gift of prophecy, however, is immediately intelligible and beneficial as a word from God that strengthens . . . encourages . . . and comforts those who hear.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112927,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:2","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:2","content_ro":"14:2-4<\/strong> The problem with the gift of speaking in tongues<\/em> is that hearers cannot readily understand<\/em> the message; the gift of prophecy<\/em>,<\/em> however, is immediately intelligible and beneficial as a word from God that strengthens . . . encourages . . . and comforts<\/em> those who hear.<\/p>","content_en":"14:2-4<\/strong> The problem with the gift of speaking in tongues<\/em> is that hearers cannot readily understand<\/em> the message; the gift of prophecy<\/em>,<\/em> however, is immediately intelligible and beneficial as a word from God that strengthens . . . encourages . . . and comforts<\/em> those who hear.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:2-4 The problem with the gift of speaking in tongues is that hearers cannot readily understand the message; the gift of prophecy, however, is immediately intelligible and beneficial as a word from God that strengthens . . . encourages . . . and comforts those who hear.","summary_en":"14:2-4 The problem with the gift of speaking in tongues is that hearers cannot readily understand the message; the gift of prophecy, however, is immediately intelligible and beneficial as a word from God that strengthens . . . encourages . . . and comforts those who hear.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140553,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:2","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:2","content_ro":"14:2-4<\/strong> The problem with the gift of speaking in tongues<\/em> is that hearers cannot readily understand<\/em> the message; the gift of prophecy<\/em>,<\/em> however, is immediately intelligible and beneficial as a word from God that strengthens . . . encourages . . . and comforts<\/em> those who hear.<\/p>","content_en":"14:2-4<\/strong> The problem with the gift of speaking in tongues<\/em> is that hearers cannot readily understand<\/em> the message; the gift of prophecy<\/em>,<\/em> however, is immediately intelligible and beneficial as a word from God that strengthens . . . encourages . . . and comforts<\/em> those who hear.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:2-4 The problem with the gift of speaking in tongues is that hearers cannot readily understand the message; the gift of prophecy, however, is immediately intelligible and beneficial as a word from God that strengthens . . . encourages . . . and comforts those who hear.","summary_en":"14:2-4 The problem with the gift of speaking in tongues is that hearers cannot readily understand the message; the gift of prophecy, however, is immediately intelligible and beneficial as a word from God that strengthens . . . encourages . . . and comforts those who hear.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"3":[{"id":11387,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Exhortation*","title_en":"Exhortation*","content_ro":"<h3>EXHORTATION*<\/h3>\nTranslation of a Greek word literally meaning “a calling of someone alongside to help.” Its primary meaning in the NT is the urging of someone to do something—particularly some ethical course of action. In some contexts, the same Greek word may also include the idea of comforting and consoling. The given context will determine which meaning to use.<\/p>\nA passage that most clearly illustrates “exhortation” in the sense of inciting or spurring people on to action is Luke 3:7-18. John the Baptist exhorts his Jewish hearers to bring forth fruits in keeping with repentance, to stop resting on descent from Abraham as protection from punishment for sin, and to share clothing and food. He exhorted tax gatherers to collect no more money than they had a right to take, and soldiers not to take money from anyone by force, not to accuse anyone falsely, and to be content with their wages.<\/p>\nThe ability to exhort is said to be a spiritual gift that God has given to some in the church for the benefit of the whole (Rom 12:8). In addition, exhortation is one of the results of a proper use of the gift of prophecy, as seen in 1 Corinthians 14:3, 31. It was also one of the responsibilities that Paul commanded of Timothy: “Give attention to the public reading of Scripture, to exhortation and teaching” (1 Tm 4:13, nasb<\/span>). The writer to the Hebrews also refers to an exhortation addressed to the readers lest they regard lightly the discipline of the Lord or “faint” when they are reproved (Heb 12:5, kjv<\/span>).<\/p>\nIn 2 Corinthians 1:3-7 the Greek word for exhortation is used in the sense of consolation or encouragement. The context is one in which serious suffering for Christ is evident. Paul said that God encourages us in our times of testing so that we may be able to do the same for those experiencing similar trials. Acts 15:31 refers to the encouragement and consolation that came to the church at Antioch when the decree of the Jerusalem Council was read in their hearing. They had been fearful that the Judaizers might have their way and that Christians would be required to become circumcised in order to be saved. Another clear illustration of this word meaning “comfort” is in 1 Thessalonians 4:18, where Paul instructs the believers that those who die in Christ will not miss out on the blessings of the day of Christ; he then exhorts them to “comfort one another with these words.” See<\/em> Spiritual Gifts.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EXHORTATION*<\/h3>\nTranslation of a Greek word literally meaning “a calling of someone alongside to help.” Its primary meaning in the NT is the urging of someone to do something—particularly some ethical course of action. In some contexts, the same Greek word may also include the idea of comforting and consoling. The given context will determine which meaning to use.<\/p>\nA passage that most clearly illustrates “exhortation” in the sense of inciting or spurring people on to action is Luke 3:7-18. John the Baptist exhorts his Jewish hearers to bring forth fruits in keeping with repentance, to stop resting on descent from Abraham as protection from punishment for sin, and to share clothing and food. He exhorted tax gatherers to collect no more money than they had a right to take, and soldiers not to take money from anyone by force, not to accuse anyone falsely, and to be content with their wages.<\/p>\nThe ability to exhort is said to be a spiritual gift that God has given to some in the church for the benefit of the whole (Rom 12:8). In addition, exhortation is one of the results of a proper use of the gift of prophecy, as seen in 1 Corinthians 14:3, 31. It was also one of the responsibilities that Paul commanded of Timothy: “Give attention to the public reading of Scripture, to exhortation and teaching” (1 Tm 4:13, nasb<\/span>). The writer to the Hebrews also refers to an exhortation addressed to the readers lest they regard lightly the discipline of the Lord or “faint” when they are reproved (Heb 12:5, kjv<\/span>).<\/p>\nIn 2 Corinthians 1:3-7 the Greek word for exhortation is used in the sense of consolation or encouragement. The context is one in which serious suffering for Christ is evident. Paul said that God encourages us in our times of testing so that we may be able to do the same for those experiencing similar trials. Acts 15:31 refers to the encouragement and consolation that came to the church at Antioch when the decree of the Jerusalem Council was read in their hearing. They had been fearful that the Judaizers might have their way and that Christians would be required to become circumcised in order to be saved. Another clear illustration of this word meaning “comfort” is in 1 Thessalonians 4:18, where Paul instructs the believers that those who die in Christ will not miss out on the blessings of the day of Christ; he then exhorts them to “comfort one another with these words.” See<\/em> Spiritual Gifts.<\/p>","summary_ro":"EXHORTATION* Translation of a Greek word literally meaning “a calling of someone alongside to help.” Its primary meaning in the NT is the urging of someone to do something—particularly some ethical course of action. In some contexts, the same Greek word may also include the idea of comforting and consoling. The given context will determine which meaning to use. A passage that most clearly illustrates “exhortation” in the sense of inciting or spurring people on to action is Luke 3:7-18. John t...","summary_en":"EXHORTATION* Translation of a Greek word literally meaning “a calling of someone alongside to help.” Its primary meaning in the NT is the urging of someone to do something—particularly some ethical course of action. In some contexts, the same Greek word may also include the idea of comforting and consoling. The given context will determine which meaning to use. A passage that most clearly illustrates “exhortation” in the sense of inciting or spurring people on to action is Luke 3:7-18. John t...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":31649,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Prophecy","title_en":"Prophecy","content_ro":"<h3>PROPHECY<\/h3>\nTerm, along with its English cognates (“prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”), derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Prophecy in the Old Testament<\/p>\n• Types of Old Testament Prophets<\/p>\n• The Message of the Prophets<\/p>\n• Prophecy in the New Testament<\/p>\n• The Role of the Christian Prophet<\/p>\nProphecy in the Old Testament<\/p>\nOne of the clearest and most significant statements on the nature of prophetic inspiration in the OT is found in Numbers 12:6-8: “The Lord<\/span> said to them, ‘Now listen to me! Even with prophets, I the Lord<\/span> communicate by visions and dreams. But that is not how I communicate with my servant Moses. He is entrusted with my entire house. I speak to him face to face, directly and not in riddles! He sees the Lord<\/span> as he is’ ” (nlt<\/span>). Several important insights into the nature of prophetic inspiration are found in this passage: (1) The prophetic gift of Moses was unique in that he alone received revelations directly from God. (2) Ordinarily, prophetic revelation was received through the medium of a dream or a vision. (3) The meaning of prophetic revelation is not always completely clear; prophecy is sometimes ambiguous.<\/p>\nFurther insight into the nature of prophetic revelation is found in Deuteronomy 18:18: “I [God] will raise up for them a prophet like you [Moses] from among their brethren; and I will put my words in his mouth, and he shall speak to them all that I command him” (rsv<\/span>). While this passage is of interest because Jesus was identified as “the prophet like Moses” who came in fulfillment of this prediction (Acts 3:22; 7:37), the more immediate historical reference is to the succession of prophets that guided Israel from Joshua to Malachi. The phrase “I will put my words in his mouth” refers to the process of divine inspiration and is reminiscent of the common OT prophetic formula “the word of the Lord came to [such and such a prophet]” (for examples, see 1 Sm 15:10; 2 Sm 24:11; 1 Kgs 19:9; Jon 1:1; Hg 1:1; 2:1, 20; Zec 7:1, 8; 8:1). A true prophet is one who speaks (or repeats) all that God has told him.<\/p>\n<h5>Modes of Prophetic Inspiration<\/h5>\nDreams were a commonly recognized mode of inspiration throughout the ancient world, though they were more highly regarded in Greece than in ancient Israel. Revelatory dreams in the Bible fall into two major categories: (1) dreams whose meaning is self-evident, and (2) symbolic dreams that usually require the expertise of an interpreter of dreams. Both types normally involve both visual and auditory elements. In those dreams whose meaning is self-evident, normally a supernatural being (God or an angel) appears to the dreamer and speaks to him or her in a straightforward manner.<\/p>\nMore frequently, revelatory dreams have symbolic elements that require interpretation. The two great dream interpreters of the OT are Joseph and Daniel; the latter is clearly a prophet. The two symbolic dreams that Joseph himself dreamed (Gn 37:5-11) had sufficiently self-evident meaning so that his brothers and father were able to interpret them immediately. More complex were the dreams of the butler and baker (40:1-19) and of Pharaoh (41:1-36), which Joseph was able to interpret with the help of God. Similarly, Daniel was enabled to interpret the dreams of Nebuchadnezzar (Dn 2:25-45; 4:4-27). The skill in interpreting such dreams was attributed by both Joseph and Daniel to God (Gn 40:8; 41:16, 25; Dn 2:27-30; cf. 4:9). While dreams are used almost interchangeably with visions in referring to modes of prophetic inspiration (Jl 2:28), dreams do not occupy a significant part in the prophetic revelations of any of the OT prophets, with the exception of Daniel.<\/p>\nOne of the most characteristic modes of prophetic inspiration was the vision (Nm 12:6; 24:4, 16; Hos 12:10). The revelatory visions experienced by the prophets were not limited to visual phenomena alone but also included the auditory dimension as well. In Isaiah 1:1, the author describes his entire prophetic book as a “vision”: “These visions concerning Judah and Jerusalem came to Isaiah son of Amoz during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah—all kings of Judah” (nlt<\/span>). Yet in the very next verse, Isaiah says, “Hear, O heavens! Listen, O earth! This is what the Lord<\/span> says.” Again, in Amos 1:1, “The words<\/em> of Amos, who was among the shepherds of Tekoa, which he saw<\/em> concerning Israel” (rsv<\/span>, emphasis added).<\/p>\n<h5>Manifestations of Prophetic Inspiration<\/h5>\nAll prophecy, whether biblical or not, presupposes that the prophet either possessed or was possessed by a personal supernatural power. The external behavioral manifestations of this possession can exhibit great variety.<\/p>\nThe prophetic phenomenon generally designated “ecstatic” prophecy appears to have existed in Canaan prior to the arrival of the Hebrew tribes in the 13th century BC<\/span>. The first reference to ecstatic prophecy in Israel occurs in 1 Samuel 10:5-13 (11th century BC<\/span>), and it persisted at least till the sixth century BC<\/span> (Jer 29:26).<\/p>\nThe ecstatic prophet achieves a trancelike state by self-induced means. The most common devices used to achieve a state of ecstasy were musical instruments, such as the harp, tambourine, flute, and lyre (1 Sm 10:5). Among the prophets of Baal, self-flagellation was another means of inducing ecstasy (1 Kgs 18:28-29).<\/p>\nThis kind of prophetic ecstasy was usually practiced by groups of prophets (1 Sm 10:5), and such ecstasy was contagious. When Saul met a band of such prophets, the Spirit of God came upon him and he, too, began to prophesy (vv 10-13), a phenomenon that occurred repeatedly to various messengers sent by Saul on a later occasion (19:20-22). At that time Saul again prophesied, and his ecstatic behavior is described in 1 Samuel 19:24. When Elisha was asked to prophesy for King Jehoram of Israel, he first requested a minstrel. When the minstrel played, the power of the Lord came upon him (2 Kgs 3:15).<\/p>\nTypes of Old Testament Prophets<\/p>\nThere are two basic types of prophetic commission in the OT. One type is that of a narrative call by God to a particular individual whose objections to the call are gradually overcome in a dialogue between himself and God. The classic example of this type of prophetic commission is found in Jeremiah 1:4-8:<\/p>\nThe Lord<\/span> gave me a message. He said, “I knew you before I formed you in your mother’s womb. Before you were born I set you apart and appointed you as my spokesman to the world.”<\/p>\n<blockquote>“O Sovereign Lord<\/span>,” I said, “I can’t speak for you! I’m too young!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote>“Don’t say that,” the Lord<\/span> replied, “for you must go wherever I send you and say whatever I tell you. And don’t be afraid of the people, for I will be with you and take care of you. I, the Lord<\/span>, have spoken!” (nlt<\/span>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\nSimilar prophetic commissions including such dialogues are associated with the calls of Moses (Ex 3:1–4:17) and Gideon (Jgs 6:11-17).<\/p>\nThe second major form of prophetic commission is the “throne vision.” An outstanding example is Isaiah 6:1-8:<\/p>\nIn the year King Uzziah died, I saw the Lord. He was sitting on a lofty throne, and the train of his robe filled the Temple. . . .<\/p>\n<blockquote>Then I said, “My destruction is sealed, for I am a sinful man and a member of a sinful race. Yet I have seen the King, the Lord<\/span> Almighty!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote>Then one of the seraphim flew over to the altar, and he picked up a burning coal with a pair of tongs. He touched my lips with it and said, “See, this coal has touched your lips. Now your guilt is removed, and your sins are forgiven.”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote>Then I heard the Lord asking, “Whom should I send as a messenger to my people? Who will go for us?”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote>And I said, “Lord, I’ll go! Send me.” (nlt<\/span>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\nHere we have an account of the visionary presence of a prophet in the heavenly council; in this case, however, the prophet participates in the deliberations and thereby receives a prophetic commission. Though few prophets have left accounts of their divine commissions, most of them appear to have been conscious of having been “sent” by God (Is 48:16; Hos 8:1; Am 7:14-15). According to Jeremiah, false prophets did not receive such divine commissions (Jer 23:21, 32; 28:15).<\/p>\nThe Message of the Prophets<\/p>\n<h5>The Form of the Message<\/h5>\nThe most common introductory formula for prophetic oracles in the OT is the phrase “Thus says the Lord,” which occurs hundreds of times in prophetic contexts. This formula clearly implies that the pronouncement so introduced is not the word of the prophet who utters the oracle but of the God of Israel who delivered his word to his prophet. The use of this formula also reiterates the prophet’s sense of divine commission. In oracles introduced in this manner, God speaks in the first person. In fact, virtually all Israelite prophetic utterance is formulated as the direct speech of the God of Israel.<\/p>\nThe prophets used many literary forms in which to express their oracles. Two of the more widely used forms of prophetic speech are the judgment speech and the oracle of salvation. The judgment speech is composed of at least two central elements: the speech of rebuke or invective, and the pronouncement of judgment (see 2 Kgs 1:3-4). The second common prophetic speech form is the oracle of salvation (see Is 41:8-13). Other fixed forms of prophetic speech include the prophecy of salvation (43:14-21), the proclamation of salvation (41:17-20; 42:14-17; 43:16-21; 49:7-12), and the woe oracle (Is 5:8-10; 10:1-4; Am 5:18-24; 6:1-7; Mi 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<h5>The Content of the Message<\/h5>\nThe common adage that OT prophets were not “foretellers” but “forthtellers” is not strictly correct. All of the prophets predict the future. Such prediction, however, is based not on human curiosity of what the future will hold but rather is rooted in the future consequences of past or present violations of the covenant, or on a future act of deliverance that will provide hope for a discouraged people. Most of the prophetic speeches that have been preserved in the OT were originally delivered as public proclamations or sermons. Most of these prophetic proclamations were evoked by the iniquity and apostasy of Israel. Hosea and Jeremiah condemned Israel because she had broken the covenant (Jer 11:2-3; Hos 8:1).<\/p>\nThe prophets are frequently associated with social justice and social reform, and these elements were unquestionably an important dimension of their message. Amos denounced the rich who afflicted the poor (Am 2:6-8; 4:1; 5:11; 8:4-6). He railed against sexual immorality (2:6-8) and against those who take bribes (5:12). Hosea provided a list of prevalent vices, including lying, killing, stealing, adultery, and idolatry (Hos 4:2). Idolatry was a particular target for his denunciations (8:5; 11:2). The background for such heated denunciations of Israel’s behavior is God’s unquenchable love for Israel (Is 43:4; Jer 31:3; Hos 3:1; 11:1-4; 14:4; Mal 1:2), which is inseparable from his election of Israel (Is 43:1; Jer 33:24; Ez 20:5; Hos 3).<\/p>\nThe prophets were concerned not only with the transgressions of Israel and the historical judgment that would inevitably follow but also with the achievement of a final future time of bliss. The message of many of the prophets is thoroughly eschatological (i.e., pertaining to the end times). One such eschatological concept is that of the Day of the Lord. The concept of the Day of the Lord first appears in Amos, where the emphasis lies on the disaster that will befall Israel on that day. Amos’s emphasis on disaster notwithstanding, the Day of the Lord is a conception that had both salvific as well as judgmental overtones for Israel. While the disaster that will occur in the Day of the Lord can be viewed in terms of a literal historical fulfillment in the tragic events of 722 BC<\/span> (the fall of Samaria) and 586 BC<\/span> (the fall of Judah), there are nevertheless features of these predictions that transcend historical fulfillment and reach toward eschatological fulfillment.<\/p>\nSince the Israelite conception of “salvation” was largely temporal in its dimensions, it included such blessings as length of life, fruitfulness of the womb and field, peace and victory over one’s enemies, the abundance of water, and so on. In harmony with this conception of salvation, the future age is conceived in precisely those terms, as in Amos 9:13-15.<\/p>\nThe prophets pictured a time when David himself, or someone very much like him, would return and inaugurate a golden era reminiscent of the great Davidic and Solomonic period. The covenant of God with David was not a conditional covenant but rather one that was absolutely inviolable (2 Sm 7:4-17; Ps 89; Jer 33:19-22), and it was with this knowledge that the prophets could look forward confidently to a restoration of David’s throne (Jer 17:24-26; 23:5-6; 33:14-15).<\/p>\n\nProphecy in the New Testament<\/p>\nIn contrast to the few self-proclaimed prophets of the intertestamental period, early Christianity began with a flurry of prophetic activity that lasted well into the second century AD<\/span>. Jesus, his disciples and followers, and the early Christians were convinced that the times in which they lived were times in which OT prophecy was being fulfilled (Mk 1:14-15; Acts 2:16-21; Rom 16:25-27; 1 Cor 10:11). Yet this era was not only one of fulfillment but also one of the renewal of the prophetic gift.<\/p>\n<h5>John the Baptist<\/h5>\nJohn the Baptist is remembered in the NT primarily as the forerunner of Jesus whose coming was predicted by Malachi (Mal 4:5-6). Yet, in his own right, John proclaimed the imminent judgment of God with a flair of denunciation and rebuke reminiscent of the OT prophets. John’s costume, consisting of a hairy cloak and a leather girdle (Mk 1:6), was reminiscent of the typical garb of OT prophets (1 Kgs 19:19; 2 Kgs 1:8; 2:13-14; Zec 13:4). John was regarded as a prophet by people everywhere (Mt 14:5; 17:10-13; Mk 9:11-13; 11:32; Lk 1:76; 7:26). Luke reports, in a style similar to the OT prophetic narratives, that “the word of God came to John” (Lk 3:2). Two short prophetic speeches have been preserved in Matthew 3:7-10 (cf. Lk 3:7-9) and Mark 1:7-8 (cf. Mt 3:11-12; Lk 3:15-18). In the first speech, John denounced those of his generation who had transgressed the covenant law and exhorted them to change their manner of life. In the second speech, John predicted the coming of the Mighty One, Jesus (Mt 3:11; Mk 1:7; Lk 3:16; Jn 1:15, 27, 30; Acts 13:25). John’s style, however, was not precisely that of the OT prophets. His pronouncements were made on his own authority; never did he use formulas such as “thus says the Lord,” or present his prophetic utterances as if they were speeches made by God. Yet, in spite of these differences, John is appropriately regarded as the last representative of the OT prophetic tradition (Mt 11:13; Lk 16:16).<\/p>\n<h5>Jesus of Nazareth<\/h5>\nJesus was popularly regarded as a prophet (Mt 16:14; 21:10-11; Mk 6:14-15; 8:28; Lk 7:16, 39; 9:8, 19; Jn 6:14; 7:40, 52). This assessment was based as much on the mighty deeds Jesus performed as on his prophetic speeches and predictions. Though Jesus nowhere claimed prophetic status directly, that claim is implicit in Mark 6:4: “A prophet is honored everywhere except in his own hometown” (cf. Mt 13:57; Lk 4:24). It is implicit as well in Luke 13:33: “Yes, today, tomorrow, and the next day I must proceed on my way. For it wouldn’t do for a prophet of God to be killed except in Jerusalem!” (nlt<\/span>). In Acts, Jesus is regarded as “the prophet like Moses” predicted in Deuteronomy 18:18 (Acts 3:22; 7:37). Matthew presents Jesus as the New Moses, but he does not particularly emphasize his prophetic role. John, however, like Luke, emphasizes Jesus’ role as the prophet (Jn 4:19; 6:14-15; 7:40).<\/p>\nWhile the Gospels and Acts reflect the notion that Jesus was a prophet, they also emphasize the fact that he was much more than a prophet. Nevertheless, the notion of prophetism was sufficiently important in early Judaism that Jesus’ recognition as a prophet is very significant. There are 12 solid reasons for regarding Jesus as a prophet in the OT tradition: (1) The sovereign authority of Jesus’ teaching (Mk 1:27), a feature underlined by his use of the introductory formula “(Amen) I say to you,” which is reminiscent of the formula “thus says the Lord” used by the OT prophets. (2) The poetic character of many of Jesus’ sayings is unlike contemporary rabbinic teaching but is similar to the poetic rhetoric of the OT prophets. (3) Jesus experienced visions (Lk 10:18) like the ancient prophets. (4) Jesus, like the prophets, made many predictions (Mt 23:38; Mk 13:2; 14:58; Lk 13:35; etc.). (5) Like the OT prophets, Jesus performed symbolic acts (such as the cleansing of the temple, the entry into Jerusalem, and the Last Supper). (6) Jesus, like the prophets, when necessary, rejected the formal observance of religious ritual and emphasized the moral and spiritual dimensions of obedience to God. (7) Jesus announced the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God—an eschatological proclamation similar to those made by the prophets. (8) Like the OT prophets, Jesus functioned as a preacher of repentance. (9) Jesus, like many of the prophets, was conscious of a special calling of God (Mt 15:24; Mk 8:31; 9:37; 14:36; Lk 4:18-26). (10) Jesus, like the prophets, received divine revelation through intimate communion with God (Mt 11:27; Lk 10:22). (11) Like the prophets, Jesus represented God; to obey him was to obey God, to reject him was to reject God (Mk 9:37; cf. Ez 33:30-33). (12) Like the prophets, Jesus was conscious of a mission to all Israel (Mt 15:24; 19:28; Lk 22:30).<\/p>\nAmong the many prophetic predictions of Jesus are the following:<\/p>\n1. Predictions of the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God (Mt 10:7-8, 23; 23:39; Mk 1:15; 9:1; 13:28-29)<\/p>\n<li>2. Predictions of the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple (Mt 23:37-39; 24:2; 26:61; 27:40; Mk 13:2; 14:58; 15:29; Lk 13:34-35; 21:6; Jn 2:19-21)<\/li>\n<li>3. Predictions of the coming of the Son of Man (Mt 10:23, 32-33; 12:40; 13:40-41; 16:27; 24:27, 37-39; Mk 8:38; 13:26-27; 14:62; Lk 9:26; 11:30; 12:8-9; 17:24, 26)<\/li>\n<li>4. Predictions of the end of the age. The longest prophetic section in the Gospels is the eschatological discourse of Jesus in Mark 13:1-32 (cf. Mt 24:1-36; Lk 21:5-33), in which a number of predictions concerning the destruction of Jerusalem and the end of the age are woven into a lengthy discourse to the disciples.<\/li>\n<h5>Prophecy as a Gift for the Believers<\/h5>\nThe beginning of prophetic activity in early Christianity, according to Acts, coincided with the outpouring of the Holy Spirit upon the earliest Christians on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:1-21). Peter’s sermon on the Day of Pentecost indicates that the outpouring of the Spirit fulfilled Joel’s prophecy (Acts 2:4, 17-21; cf. Jl 2:28-32). Further, since the Spirit had been poured out upon all early Christians (that Spirit being a Spirit of prophecy), all are actual or potential prophets.<\/p>\nAccording to 1 Corinthians 12:28 (see also Rom 12:6; Eph 4:11), God has appointed in the church first apostles, second prophets, and third teachers. The names of several early Christian prophets have been preserved. These include Agabus (Acts 11:27-28; 21:10-11); Judas and Silas (15:32); Barnabas, Simeon Niger, Lucius of Cyrene, Manaen, and Paul (13:1); and the four virgin daughters of Philip the evangelist (21:8-9). John, the author of Revelation, was certainly a prophet (Rv 1:3; 22:9, 18), though he never directly assumed that title.<\/p>\nThe Role of the Christian Prophet<\/p>\nChristian prophets were leaders in early Christian communities (1 Cor 12:28; Eph 4:11), who exercised their gift in church gatherings (Acts 13:1-3; 11:27-28; 1 Cor 12–14; Rv 1:10). Since the Spirit of God was particularly active in Christian worship, prophecy was a major means whereby God communicated with his people. Prophets, like apostles and teachers, did not hold offices in local communities like bishops, elders, and deacons. Rather, they were chosen, not by individual congregations, but by divine commission and so were honored and accepted in all local communities.<\/p>\nEarly Christian prophets were both itinerant and settled, though itinerant prophets seem to have been more prevalent in Syria-Palestine and Asia Minor than in the European churches.<\/p>\n<h5>The Function of Prophecy<\/h5>\nAccording to Paul, the central purpose of prophecy (as of all other spiritual gifts) is that of building up or edifying the church. According to 1 Corinthians 14:3, “one who prophesies is helping others grow in the Lord, encouraging and comforting them” (nlt<\/span>). Again, in 1 Corinthians 14:4, Paul states that the “one who speaks a word of prophecy strengthens the entire church.” Paul discussed the subject of spiritual gifts, particularly tongues speaking and prophecy, because the Corinthians had placed an excessive emphasis on speaking in tongues. Paul did not object to speaking in tongues (1 Cor 14:18, 39), but he did point out that, since it was generally incomprehensible, the church could not be edified by it. Prophecy, which consisted of comprehensible speech inspired by the Spirit, contributed to the mutual edification, encouragement, and consolation of all present (1 Cor 14:20-25, 39).<\/p>\n<h5>The Content of Christian Prophecy<\/h5>\nWe know only a little about the content of prophecies uttered in the first-century church. Prophetic utterance occasionally provided divine guidance in making important decisions in early Christianity. Through a prophetic utterance, Paul and Barnabas were selected for a particular mission (Acts 13:1-3; cf. 1 Tm 1:18; 4:14). Probably through prophetic utterance, Paul and Timothy were forbidden to preach the gospel in Asia (Acts 16:6), and they were similarly forbidden by the Spirit of Jesus to go into Bithynia (v 7). Perhaps the most frequent use of prophecy is the prediction of the future. Agabus predicted a universal famine (11:28) and the imminent arrest of Paul (21:11). Other prophets had also predicted his impending imprisonment (20:23). The prophecies contained in the Revelation of John are all oriented toward the future events that will gradually unfold in the last days. Yet the purpose of John’s elaborate prophecy is not to satisfy the curiosity of his audience but rather to comfort and encourage them in the midst of persecution.<\/p>\n<h5>The Form of Christian Prophecy<\/h5>\nUnlike the prophets of the OT, Christian prophets did not always present their message in the form of a direct speech from God or Jesus. There are few, if any, formal indicators of the presence of prophetic speech in early Christian literature. The book of Revelation is one notable exception.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Dreams; Oracle; Promise; Prophet, Prophetess; Prophets, False; Visions.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PROPHECY<\/h3>\nTerm, along with its English cognates (“prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”), derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Prophecy in the Old Testament<\/p>\n• Types of Old Testament Prophets<\/p>\n• The Message of the Prophets<\/p>\n• Prophecy in the New Testament<\/p>\n• The Role of the Christian Prophet<\/p>\nProphecy in the Old Testament<\/p>\nOne of the clearest and most significant statements on the nature of prophetic inspiration in the OT is found in Numbers 12:6-8: “The Lord<\/span> said to them, ‘Now listen to me! Even with prophets, I the Lord<\/span> communicate by visions and dreams. But that is not how I communicate with my servant Moses. He is entrusted with my entire house. I speak to him face to face, directly and not in riddles! He sees the Lord<\/span> as he is’ ” (nlt<\/span>). Several important insights into the nature of prophetic inspiration are found in this passage: (1) The prophetic gift of Moses was unique in that he alone received revelations directly from God. (2) Ordinarily, prophetic revelation was received through the medium of a dream or a vision. (3) The meaning of prophetic revelation is not always completely clear; prophecy is sometimes ambiguous.<\/p>\nFurther insight into the nature of prophetic revelation is found in Deuteronomy 18:18: “I [God] will raise up for them a prophet like you [Moses] from among their brethren; and I will put my words in his mouth, and he shall speak to them all that I command him” (rsv<\/span>). While this passage is of interest because Jesus was identified as “the prophet like Moses” who came in fulfillment of this prediction (Acts 3:22; 7:37), the more immediate historical reference is to the succession of prophets that guided Israel from Joshua to Malachi. The phrase “I will put my words in his mouth” refers to the process of divine inspiration and is reminiscent of the common OT prophetic formula “the word of the Lord came to [such and such a prophet]” (for examples, see 1 Sm 15:10; 2 Sm 24:11; 1 Kgs 19:9; Jon 1:1; Hg 1:1; 2:1, 20; Zec 7:1, 8; 8:1). A true prophet is one who speaks (or repeats) all that God has told him.<\/p>\n<h5>Modes of Prophetic Inspiration<\/h5>\nDreams were a commonly recognized mode of inspiration throughout the ancient world, though they were more highly regarded in Greece than in ancient Israel. Revelatory dreams in the Bible fall into two major categories: (1) dreams whose meaning is self-evident, and (2) symbolic dreams that usually require the expertise of an interpreter of dreams. Both types normally involve both visual and auditory elements. In those dreams whose meaning is self-evident, normally a supernatural being (God or an angel) appears to the dreamer and speaks to him or her in a straightforward manner.<\/p>\nMore frequently, revelatory dreams have symbolic elements that require interpretation. The two great dream interpreters of the OT are Joseph and Daniel; the latter is clearly a prophet. The two symbolic dreams that Joseph himself dreamed (Gn 37:5-11) had sufficiently self-evident meaning so that his brothers and father were able to interpret them immediately. More complex were the dreams of the butler and baker (40:1-19) and of Pharaoh (41:1-36), which Joseph was able to interpret with the help of God. Similarly, Daniel was enabled to interpret the dreams of Nebuchadnezzar (Dn 2:25-45; 4:4-27). The skill in interpreting such dreams was attributed by both Joseph and Daniel to God (Gn 40:8; 41:16, 25; Dn 2:27-30; cf. 4:9). While dreams are used almost interchangeably with visions in referring to modes of prophetic inspiration (Jl 2:28), dreams do not occupy a significant part in the prophetic revelations of any of the OT prophets, with the exception of Daniel.<\/p>\nOne of the most characteristic modes of prophetic inspiration was the vision (Nm 12:6; 24:4, 16; Hos 12:10). The revelatory visions experienced by the prophets were not limited to visual phenomena alone but also included the auditory dimension as well. In Isaiah 1:1, the author describes his entire prophetic book as a “vision”: “These visions concerning Judah and Jerusalem came to Isaiah son of Amoz during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah—all kings of Judah” (nlt<\/span>). Yet in the very next verse, Isaiah says, “Hear, O heavens! Listen, O earth! This is what the Lord<\/span> says.” Again, in Amos 1:1, “The words<\/em> of Amos, who was among the shepherds of Tekoa, which he saw<\/em> concerning Israel” (rsv<\/span>, emphasis added).<\/p>\n<h5>Manifestations of Prophetic Inspiration<\/h5>\nAll prophecy, whether biblical or not, presupposes that the prophet either possessed or was possessed by a personal supernatural power. The external behavioral manifestations of this possession can exhibit great variety.<\/p>\nThe prophetic phenomenon generally designated “ecstatic” prophecy appears to have existed in Canaan prior to the arrival of the Hebrew tribes in the 13th century BC<\/span>. The first reference to ecstatic prophecy in Israel occurs in 1 Samuel 10:5-13 (11th century BC<\/span>), and it persisted at least till the sixth century BC<\/span> (Jer 29:26).<\/p>\nThe ecstatic prophet achieves a trancelike state by self-induced means. The most common devices used to achieve a state of ecstasy were musical instruments, such as the harp, tambourine, flute, and lyre (1 Sm 10:5). Among the prophets of Baal, self-flagellation was another means of inducing ecstasy (1 Kgs 18:28-29).<\/p>\nThis kind of prophetic ecstasy was usually practiced by groups of prophets (1 Sm 10:5), and such ecstasy was contagious. When Saul met a band of such prophets, the Spirit of God came upon him and he, too, began to prophesy (vv 10-13), a phenomenon that occurred repeatedly to various messengers sent by Saul on a later occasion (19:20-22). At that time Saul again prophesied, and his ecstatic behavior is described in 1 Samuel 19:24. When Elisha was asked to prophesy for King Jehoram of Israel, he first requested a minstrel. When the minstrel played, the power of the Lord came upon him (2 Kgs 3:15).<\/p>\nTypes of Old Testament Prophets<\/p>\nThere are two basic types of prophetic commission in the OT. One type is that of a narrative call by God to a particular individual whose objections to the call are gradually overcome in a dialogue between himself and God. The classic example of this type of prophetic commission is found in Jeremiah 1:4-8:<\/p>\nThe Lord<\/span> gave me a message. He said, “I knew you before I formed you in your mother’s womb. Before you were born I set you apart and appointed you as my spokesman to the world.”<\/p>\n<blockquote>“O Sovereign Lord<\/span>,” I said, “I can’t speak for you! I’m too young!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote>“Don’t say that,” the Lord<\/span> replied, “for you must go wherever I send you and say whatever I tell you. And don’t be afraid of the people, for I will be with you and take care of you. I, the Lord<\/span>, have spoken!” (nlt<\/span>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\nSimilar prophetic commissions including such dialogues are associated with the calls of Moses (Ex 3:1–4:17) and Gideon (Jgs 6:11-17).<\/p>\nThe second major form of prophetic commission is the “throne vision.” An outstanding example is Isaiah 6:1-8:<\/p>\nIn the year King Uzziah died, I saw the Lord. He was sitting on a lofty throne, and the train of his robe filled the Temple. . . .<\/p>\n<blockquote>Then I said, “My destruction is sealed, for I am a sinful man and a member of a sinful race. Yet I have seen the King, the Lord<\/span> Almighty!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote>Then one of the seraphim flew over to the altar, and he picked up a burning coal with a pair of tongs. He touched my lips with it and said, “See, this coal has touched your lips. Now your guilt is removed, and your sins are forgiven.”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote>Then I heard the Lord asking, “Whom should I send as a messenger to my people? Who will go for us?”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote>And I said, “Lord, I’ll go! Send me.” (nlt<\/span>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\nHere we have an account of the visionary presence of a prophet in the heavenly council; in this case, however, the prophet participates in the deliberations and thereby receives a prophetic commission. Though few prophets have left accounts of their divine commissions, most of them appear to have been conscious of having been “sent” by God (Is 48:16; Hos 8:1; Am 7:14-15). According to Jeremiah, false prophets did not receive such divine commissions (Jer 23:21, 32; 28:15).<\/p>\nThe Message of the Prophets<\/p>\n<h5>The Form of the Message<\/h5>\nThe most common introductory formula for prophetic oracles in the OT is the phrase “Thus says the Lord,” which occurs hundreds of times in prophetic contexts. This formula clearly implies that the pronouncement so introduced is not the word of the prophet who utters the oracle but of the God of Israel who delivered his word to his prophet. The use of this formula also reiterates the prophet’s sense of divine commission. In oracles introduced in this manner, God speaks in the first person. In fact, virtually all Israelite prophetic utterance is formulated as the direct speech of the God of Israel.<\/p>\nThe prophets used many literary forms in which to express their oracles. Two of the more widely used forms of prophetic speech are the judgment speech and the oracle of salvation. The judgment speech is composed of at least two central elements: the speech of rebuke or invective, and the pronouncement of judgment (see 2 Kgs 1:3-4). The second common prophetic speech form is the oracle of salvation (see Is 41:8-13). Other fixed forms of prophetic speech include the prophecy of salvation (43:14-21), the proclamation of salvation (41:17-20; 42:14-17; 43:16-21; 49:7-12), and the woe oracle (Is 5:8-10; 10:1-4; Am 5:18-24; 6:1-7; Mi 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<h5>The Content of the Message<\/h5>\nThe common adage that OT prophets were not “foretellers” but “forthtellers” is not strictly correct. All of the prophets predict the future. Such prediction, however, is based not on human curiosity of what the future will hold but rather is rooted in the future consequences of past or present violations of the covenant, or on a future act of deliverance that will provide hope for a discouraged people. Most of the prophetic speeches that have been preserved in the OT were originally delivered as public proclamations or sermons. Most of these prophetic proclamations were evoked by the iniquity and apostasy of Israel. Hosea and Jeremiah condemned Israel because she had broken the covenant (Jer 11:2-3; Hos 8:1).<\/p>\nThe prophets are frequently associated with social justice and social reform, and these elements were unquestionably an important dimension of their message. Amos denounced the rich who afflicted the poor (Am 2:6-8; 4:1; 5:11; 8:4-6). He railed against sexual immorality (2:6-8) and against those who take bribes (5:12). Hosea provided a list of prevalent vices, including lying, killing, stealing, adultery, and idolatry (Hos 4:2). Idolatry was a particular target for his denunciations (8:5; 11:2). The background for such heated denunciations of Israel’s behavior is God’s unquenchable love for Israel (Is 43:4; Jer 31:3; Hos 3:1; 11:1-4; 14:4; Mal 1:2), which is inseparable from his election of Israel (Is 43:1; Jer 33:24; Ez 20:5; Hos 3).<\/p>\nThe prophets were concerned not only with the transgressions of Israel and the historical judgment that would inevitably follow but also with the achievement of a final future time of bliss. The message of many of the prophets is thoroughly eschatological (i.e., pertaining to the end times). One such eschatological concept is that of the Day of the Lord. The concept of the Day of the Lord first appears in Amos, where the emphasis lies on the disaster that will befall Israel on that day. Amos’s emphasis on disaster notwithstanding, the Day of the Lord is a conception that had both salvific as well as judgmental overtones for Israel. While the disaster that will occur in the Day of the Lord can be viewed in terms of a literal historical fulfillment in the tragic events of 722 BC<\/span> (the fall of Samaria) and 586 BC<\/span> (the fall of Judah), there are nevertheless features of these predictions that transcend historical fulfillment and reach toward eschatological fulfillment.<\/p>\nSince the Israelite conception of “salvation” was largely temporal in its dimensions, it included such blessings as length of life, fruitfulness of the womb and field, peace and victory over one’s enemies, the abundance of water, and so on. In harmony with this conception of salvation, the future age is conceived in precisely those terms, as in Amos 9:13-15.<\/p>\nThe prophets pictured a time when David himself, or someone very much like him, would return and inaugurate a golden era reminiscent of the great Davidic and Solomonic period. The covenant of God with David was not a conditional covenant but rather one that was absolutely inviolable (2 Sm 7:4-17; Ps 89; Jer 33:19-22), and it was with this knowledge that the prophets could look forward confidently to a restoration of David’s throne (Jer 17:24-26; 23:5-6; 33:14-15).<\/p>\n\nProphecy in the New Testament<\/p>\nIn contrast to the few self-proclaimed prophets of the intertestamental period, early Christianity began with a flurry of prophetic activity that lasted well into the second century AD<\/span>. Jesus, his disciples and followers, and the early Christians were convinced that the times in which they lived were times in which OT prophecy was being fulfilled (Mk 1:14-15; Acts 2:16-21; Rom 16:25-27; 1 Cor 10:11). Yet this era was not only one of fulfillment but also one of the renewal of the prophetic gift.<\/p>\n<h5>John the Baptist<\/h5>\nJohn the Baptist is remembered in the NT primarily as the forerunner of Jesus whose coming was predicted by Malachi (Mal 4:5-6). Yet, in his own right, John proclaimed the imminent judgment of God with a flair of denunciation and rebuke reminiscent of the OT prophets. John’s costume, consisting of a hairy cloak and a leather girdle (Mk 1:6), was reminiscent of the typical garb of OT prophets (1 Kgs 19:19; 2 Kgs 1:8; 2:13-14; Zec 13:4). John was regarded as a prophet by people everywhere (Mt 14:5; 17:10-13; Mk 9:11-13; 11:32; Lk 1:76; 7:26). Luke reports, in a style similar to the OT prophetic narratives, that “the word of God came to John” (Lk 3:2). Two short prophetic speeches have been preserved in Matthew 3:7-10 (cf. Lk 3:7-9) and Mark 1:7-8 (cf. Mt 3:11-12; Lk 3:15-18). In the first speech, John denounced those of his generation who had transgressed the covenant law and exhorted them to change their manner of life. In the second speech, John predicted the coming of the Mighty One, Jesus (Mt 3:11; Mk 1:7; Lk 3:16; Jn 1:15, 27, 30; Acts 13:25). John’s style, however, was not precisely that of the OT prophets. His pronouncements were made on his own authority; never did he use formulas such as “thus says the Lord,” or present his prophetic utterances as if they were speeches made by God. Yet, in spite of these differences, John is appropriately regarded as the last representative of the OT prophetic tradition (Mt 11:13; Lk 16:16).<\/p>\n<h5>Jesus of Nazareth<\/h5>\nJesus was popularly regarded as a prophet (Mt 16:14; 21:10-11; Mk 6:14-15; 8:28; Lk 7:16, 39; 9:8, 19; Jn 6:14; 7:40, 52). This assessment was based as much on the mighty deeds Jesus performed as on his prophetic speeches and predictions. Though Jesus nowhere claimed prophetic status directly, that claim is implicit in Mark 6:4: “A prophet is honored everywhere except in his own hometown” (cf. Mt 13:57; Lk 4:24). It is implicit as well in Luke 13:33: “Yes, today, tomorrow, and the next day I must proceed on my way. For it wouldn’t do for a prophet of God to be killed except in Jerusalem!” (nlt<\/span>). In Acts, Jesus is regarded as “the prophet like Moses” predicted in Deuteronomy 18:18 (Acts 3:22; 7:37). Matthew presents Jesus as the New Moses, but he does not particularly emphasize his prophetic role. John, however, like Luke, emphasizes Jesus’ role as the prophet (Jn 4:19; 6:14-15; 7:40).<\/p>\nWhile the Gospels and Acts reflect the notion that Jesus was a prophet, they also emphasize the fact that he was much more than a prophet. Nevertheless, the notion of prophetism was sufficiently important in early Judaism that Jesus’ recognition as a prophet is very significant. There are 12 solid reasons for regarding Jesus as a prophet in the OT tradition: (1) The sovereign authority of Jesus’ teaching (Mk 1:27), a feature underlined by his use of the introductory formula “(Amen) I say to you,” which is reminiscent of the formula “thus says the Lord” used by the OT prophets. (2) The poetic character of many of Jesus’ sayings is unlike contemporary rabbinic teaching but is similar to the poetic rhetoric of the OT prophets. (3) Jesus experienced visions (Lk 10:18) like the ancient prophets. (4) Jesus, like the prophets, made many predictions (Mt 23:38; Mk 13:2; 14:58; Lk 13:35; etc.). (5) Like the OT prophets, Jesus performed symbolic acts (such as the cleansing of the temple, the entry into Jerusalem, and the Last Supper). (6) Jesus, like the prophets, when necessary, rejected the formal observance of religious ritual and emphasized the moral and spiritual dimensions of obedience to God. (7) Jesus announced the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God—an eschatological proclamation similar to those made by the prophets. (8) Like the OT prophets, Jesus functioned as a preacher of repentance. (9) Jesus, like many of the prophets, was conscious of a special calling of God (Mt 15:24; Mk 8:31; 9:37; 14:36; Lk 4:18-26). (10) Jesus, like the prophets, received divine revelation through intimate communion with God (Mt 11:27; Lk 10:22). (11) Like the prophets, Jesus represented God; to obey him was to obey God, to reject him was to reject God (Mk 9:37; cf. Ez 33:30-33). (12) Like the prophets, Jesus was conscious of a mission to all Israel (Mt 15:24; 19:28; Lk 22:30).<\/p>\nAmong the many prophetic predictions of Jesus are the following:<\/p>\n1. Predictions of the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God (Mt 10:7-8, 23; 23:39; Mk 1:15; 9:1; 13:28-29)<\/p>\n<li>2. Predictions of the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple (Mt 23:37-39; 24:2; 26:61; 27:40; Mk 13:2; 14:58; 15:29; Lk 13:34-35; 21:6; Jn 2:19-21)<\/li>\n<li>3. Predictions of the coming of the Son of Man (Mt 10:23, 32-33; 12:40; 13:40-41; 16:27; 24:27, 37-39; Mk 8:38; 13:26-27; 14:62; Lk 9:26; 11:30; 12:8-9; 17:24, 26)<\/li>\n<li>4. Predictions of the end of the age. The longest prophetic section in the Gospels is the eschatological discourse of Jesus in Mark 13:1-32 (cf. Mt 24:1-36; Lk 21:5-33), in which a number of predictions concerning the destruction of Jerusalem and the end of the age are woven into a lengthy discourse to the disciples.<\/li>\n<h5>Prophecy as a Gift for the Believers<\/h5>\nThe beginning of prophetic activity in early Christianity, according to Acts, coincided with the outpouring of the Holy Spirit upon the earliest Christians on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:1-21). Peter’s sermon on the Day of Pentecost indicates that the outpouring of the Spirit fulfilled Joel’s prophecy (Acts 2:4, 17-21; cf. Jl 2:28-32). Further, since the Spirit had been poured out upon all early Christians (that Spirit being a Spirit of prophecy), all are actual or potential prophets.<\/p>\nAccording to 1 Corinthians 12:28 (see also Rom 12:6; Eph 4:11), God has appointed in the church first apostles, second prophets, and third teachers. The names of several early Christian prophets have been preserved. These include Agabus (Acts 11:27-28; 21:10-11); Judas and Silas (15:32); Barnabas, Simeon Niger, Lucius of Cyrene, Manaen, and Paul (13:1); and the four virgin daughters of Philip the evangelist (21:8-9). John, the author of Revelation, was certainly a prophet (Rv 1:3; 22:9, 18), though he never directly assumed that title.<\/p>\nThe Role of the Christian Prophet<\/p>\nChristian prophets were leaders in early Christian communities (1 Cor 12:28; Eph 4:11), who exercised their gift in church gatherings (Acts 13:1-3; 11:27-28; 1 Cor 12–14; Rv 1:10). Since the Spirit of God was particularly active in Christian worship, prophecy was a major means whereby God communicated with his people. Prophets, like apostles and teachers, did not hold offices in local communities like bishops, elders, and deacons. Rather, they were chosen, not by individual congregations, but by divine commission and so were honored and accepted in all local communities.<\/p>\nEarly Christian prophets were both itinerant and settled, though itinerant prophets seem to have been more prevalent in Syria-Palestine and Asia Minor than in the European churches.<\/p>\n<h5>The Function of Prophecy<\/h5>\nAccording to Paul, the central purpose of prophecy (as of all other spiritual gifts) is that of building up or edifying the church. According to 1 Corinthians 14:3, “one who prophesies is helping others grow in the Lord, encouraging and comforting them” (nlt<\/span>). Again, in 1 Corinthians 14:4, Paul states that the “one who speaks a word of prophecy strengthens the entire church.” Paul discussed the subject of spiritual gifts, particularly tongues speaking and prophecy, because the Corinthians had placed an excessive emphasis on speaking in tongues. Paul did not object to speaking in tongues (1 Cor 14:18, 39), but he did point out that, since it was generally incomprehensible, the church could not be edified by it. Prophecy, which consisted of comprehensible speech inspired by the Spirit, contributed to the mutual edification, encouragement, and consolation of all present (1 Cor 14:20-25, 39).<\/p>\n<h5>The Content of Christian Prophecy<\/h5>\nWe know only a little about the content of prophecies uttered in the first-century church. Prophetic utterance occasionally provided divine guidance in making important decisions in early Christianity. Through a prophetic utterance, Paul and Barnabas were selected for a particular mission (Acts 13:1-3; cf. 1 Tm 1:18; 4:14). Probably through prophetic utterance, Paul and Timothy were forbidden to preach the gospel in Asia (Acts 16:6), and they were similarly forbidden by the Spirit of Jesus to go into Bithynia (v 7). Perhaps the most frequent use of prophecy is the prediction of the future. Agabus predicted a universal famine (11:28) and the imminent arrest of Paul (21:11). Other prophets had also predicted his impending imprisonment (20:23). The prophecies contained in the Revelation of John are all oriented toward the future events that will gradually unfold in the last days. Yet the purpose of John’s elaborate prophecy is not to satisfy the curiosity of his audience but rather to comfort and encourage them in the midst of persecution.<\/p>\n<h5>The Form of Christian Prophecy<\/h5>\nUnlike the prophets of the OT, Christian prophets did not always present their message in the form of a direct speech from God or Jesus. There are few, if any, formal indicators of the presence of prophetic speech in early Christian literature. The book of Revelation is one notable exception.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Dreams; Oracle; Promise; Prophet, Prophetess; Prophets, False; Visions.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PROPHECY Term, along with its English cognates (“prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”), derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration. Preview • Prophecy in the Old Testament • Types of Old Testament Prophets • The Message of the Prophets • Prophecy in the ...","summary_en":"PROPHECY Term, along with its English cognates (“prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”), derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration. Preview • Prophecy in the Old Testament • Types of Old Testament Prophets • The Message of the Prophets • Prophecy in the ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":66606,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Gift of Prophecy","title_en":"The Gift of Prophecy","content_ro":"<h3>The Gift of Prophecy<\/h3>\nAs Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp<\/em> 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek 4:1–5:17) and predicting events to come (Acts 11:28; 21:10-11).<\/p>\nPhilip the Evangelist was the father of four young women who “had the gift of prophecy” (21:9). The apostle Paul also acknowledged the prophetic gift of some Christian women (1 Cor 11:5). In the Old Testament, most prophets were men, but several women are also described as prophets, for example, Miriam (Exod 15:20), Deborah (Judg 4:4), and Huldah (2 Kgs 22:14-20; 2 Chr 34:22-28). In the New Testament, the gift of prophecy is given to both men and women, and both young and old, as Peter signaled in his sermon at Pentecost (Acts 2:17-18).<\/p>\nAlthough prophecy sometimes involves foretelling the future (20:22-23; 21:10-11; see Rom 9:24-33; 1 Thes 4:13-17; 2 Thes 2:3-4), at its core prophecy is proclaiming God’s word by preaching, exhorting, and explaining the will of God (Acts 15:32; 19:6; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 14:3-4, 29-33; Rev 19:10). The gift of prophecy is clearly mentioned in 1 Corinthians and Ephesians as one of the gifts of the Holy Spirit and of Christ to the church (1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-13). It is to be used for the benefit of believers (1 Cor 14:22).<\/p>\nProphecy is always in need of testing (1 Thes 5:19-21), and the church is strongly warned against false prophets (1 Jn 4:1; see also Rev 2:20-23). When used faithfully and in submission to God’s word and his Spirit, courageous proclamation of God’s truth helps the church to determine what God’s will is and inspires God’s people to do it.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 15:20; Deut 13:1-5; Judg 4:4; 1 Kgs 11:29-32; 2 Kgs 22:14-20; Isa 20:2-6; 44:25; Jer 13:1-11; 23:25-32; Ezek 4:1-17; 13:2-9; Joel 2:28-32; Matt 7:15; 24:24; Acts 2:17-21; 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 19:6; 20:23; Acts 21:9-11; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 11:5; 12:4-11; 14:1-40; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Thes 5:19-21; 2 Pet 2:1; 1 Jn 4:1-3; Rev 2:20-23; 19:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Gift of Prophecy<\/h3>\nAs Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp<\/em> 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek 4:1–5:17) and predicting events to come (Acts 11:28; 21:10-11).<\/p>\nPhilip the Evangelist was the father of four young women who “had the gift of prophecy” (21:9). The apostle Paul also acknowledged the prophetic gift of some Christian women (1 Cor 11:5). In the Old Testament, most prophets were men, but several women are also described as prophets, for example, Miriam (Exod 15:20), Deborah (Judg 4:4), and Huldah (2 Kgs 22:14-20; 2 Chr 34:22-28). In the New Testament, the gift of prophecy is given to both men and women, and both young and old, as Peter signaled in his sermon at Pentecost (Acts 2:17-18).<\/p>\nAlthough prophecy sometimes involves foretelling the future (20:22-23; 21:10-11; see Rom 9:24-33; 1 Thes 4:13-17; 2 Thes 2:3-4), at its core prophecy is proclaiming God’s word by preaching, exhorting, and explaining the will of God (Acts 15:32; 19:6; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 14:3-4, 29-33; Rev 19:10). The gift of prophecy is clearly mentioned in 1 Corinthians and Ephesians as one of the gifts of the Holy Spirit and of Christ to the church (1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-13). It is to be used for the benefit of believers (1 Cor 14:22).<\/p>\nProphecy is always in need of testing (1 Thes 5:19-21), and the church is strongly warned against false prophets (1 Jn 4:1; see also Rev 2:20-23). When used faithfully and in submission to God’s word and his Spirit, courageous proclamation of God’s truth helps the church to determine what God’s will is and inspires God’s people to do it.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 15:20; Deut 13:1-5; Judg 4:4; 1 Kgs 11:29-32; 2 Kgs 22:14-20; Isa 20:2-6; 44:25; Jer 13:1-11; 23:25-32; Ezek 4:1-17; 13:2-9; Joel 2:28-32; Matt 7:15; 24:24; Acts 2:17-21; 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 19:6; 20:23; Acts 21:9-11; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 11:5; 12:4-11; 14:1-40; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Thes 5:19-21; 2 Pet 2:1; 1 Jn 4:1-3; Rev 2:20-23; 19:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Gift of Prophecy As Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek ...","summary_en":"The Gift of Prophecy As Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":94232,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Gift of Prophecy","title_en":"The Gift of Prophecy","content_ro":"<h3>The Gift of Prophecy<\/h3>\nAs Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp<\/em> 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek 4:1–5:17) and predicting events to come (Acts 11:28; 21:10-11).<\/p>\nPhilip the Evangelist was the father of four young women who “had the gift of prophecy” (21:9). The apostle Paul also acknowledged the prophetic gift of some Christian women (1 Cor 11:5). In the Old Testament, most prophets were men, but several women are also described as prophets, for example, Miriam (Exod 15:20), Deborah (Judg 4:4), and Huldah (2 Kgs 22:14-20; 2 Chr 34:22-28). In the New Testament, the gift of prophecy is given to both men and women, and both young and old, as Peter signaled in his sermon at Pentecost (Acts 2:17-18).<\/p>\nAlthough prophecy sometimes involves foretelling the future (20:22-23; 21:10-11; see Rom 9:24-33; 1 Thes 4:13-17; 2 Thes 2:3-4), at its core prophecy is proclaiming God’s word by preaching, exhorting, and explaining the will of God (Acts 15:32; 19:6; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 14:3-4, 29-33; Rev 19:10). The gift of prophecy is clearly mentioned in 1 Corinthians and Ephesians as one of the gifts of the Holy Spirit and of Christ to the church (1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-13). It is to be used for the benefit of believers (1 Cor 14:22).<\/p>\nProphecy is always in need of testing (1 Thes 5:19-21), and the church is strongly warned against false prophets (1 Jn 4:1; see also Rev 2:20-23). When used faithfully and in submission to God’s word and his Spirit, courageous proclamation of God’s truth helps the church to determine what God’s will is and inspires God’s people to do it.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 15:20; Deut 13:1-5; Judg 4:4; 1 Kgs 11:29-32; 2 Kgs 22:14-20; Isa 20:2-6; 44:25; Jer 13:1-11; 23:25-32; Ezek 4:1-17; 13:2-9; Joel 2:28-32; Matt 7:15; 24:24; Acts 2:17-21; 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 19:6; 20:23; Acts 21:9-11; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 11:5; 12:4-11; 14:1-40; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Thes 5:19-21; 2 Pet 2:1; 1 Jn 4:1-3; Rev 2:20-23; 19:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Gift of Prophecy<\/h3>\nAs Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp<\/em> 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek 4:1–5:17) and predicting events to come (Acts 11:28; 21:10-11).<\/p>\nPhilip the Evangelist was the father of four young women who “had the gift of prophecy” (21:9). The apostle Paul also acknowledged the prophetic gift of some Christian women (1 Cor 11:5). In the Old Testament, most prophets were men, but several women are also described as prophets, for example, Miriam (Exod 15:20), Deborah (Judg 4:4), and Huldah (2 Kgs 22:14-20; 2 Chr 34:22-28). In the New Testament, the gift of prophecy is given to both men and women, and both young and old, as Peter signaled in his sermon at Pentecost (Acts 2:17-18).<\/p>\nAlthough prophecy sometimes involves foretelling the future (20:22-23; 21:10-11; see Rom 9:24-33; 1 Thes 4:13-17; 2 Thes 2:3-4), at its core prophecy is proclaiming God’s word by preaching, exhorting, and explaining the will of God (Acts 15:32; 19:6; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 14:3-4, 29-33; Rev 19:10). The gift of prophecy is clearly mentioned in 1 Corinthians and Ephesians as one of the gifts of the Holy Spirit and of Christ to the church (1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-13). It is to be used for the benefit of believers (1 Cor 14:22).<\/p>\nProphecy is always in need of testing (1 Thes 5:19-21), and the church is strongly warned against false prophets (1 Jn 4:1; see also Rev 2:20-23). When used faithfully and in submission to God’s word and his Spirit, courageous proclamation of God’s truth helps the church to determine what God’s will is and inspires God’s people to do it.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 15:20; Deut 13:1-5; Judg 4:4; 1 Kgs 11:29-32; 2 Kgs 22:14-20; Isa 20:2-6; 44:25; Jer 13:1-11; 23:25-32; Ezek 4:1-17; 13:2-9; Joel 2:28-32; Matt 7:15; 24:24; Acts 2:17-21; 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 19:6; 20:23; Acts 21:9-11; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 11:5; 12:4-11; 14:1-40; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Thes 5:19-21; 2 Pet 2:1; 1 Jn 4:1-3; Rev 2:20-23; 19:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Gift of Prophecy As Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek ...","summary_en":"The Gift of Prophecy As Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":121858,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Gift of Prophecy","title_en":"The Gift of Prophecy","content_ro":"<h3>The Gift of Prophecy<\/h3>\nAs Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp<\/em> 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek 4:1–5:17) and predicting events to come (Acts 11:28; 21:10-11).<\/p>\nPhilip the Evangelist was the father of four young women who “had the gift of prophecy” (21:9). The apostle Paul also acknowledged the prophetic gift of some Christian women (1 Cor 11:5). In the Old Testament, most prophets were men, but several women are also described as prophets, for example, Miriam (Exod 15:20), Deborah (Judg 4:4), and Huldah (2 Kgs 22:14-20; 2 Chr 34:22-28). In the New Testament, the gift of prophecy is given to both men and women, and both young and old, as Peter signaled in his sermon at Pentecost (Acts 2:17-18).<\/p>\nAlthough prophecy sometimes involves foretelling the future (20:22-23; 21:10-11; see Rom 9:24-33; 1 Thes 4:13-17; 2 Thes 2:3-4), at its core prophecy is proclaiming God’s word by preaching, exhorting, and explaining the will of God (Acts 15:32; 19:6; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 14:3-4, 29-33; Rev 19:10). The gift of prophecy is clearly mentioned in 1 Corinthians and Ephesians as one of the gifts of the Holy Spirit and of Christ to the church (1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-13). It is to be used for the benefit of believers (1 Cor 14:22).<\/p>\nProphecy is always in need of testing (1 Thes 5:19-21), and the church is strongly warned against false prophets (1 Jn 4:1; see also Rev 2:20-23). When used faithfully and in submission to God’s word and his Spirit, courageous proclamation of God’s truth helps the church to determine what God’s will is and inspires God’s people to do it.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 15:20; Deut 13:1-5; Judg 4:4; 1 Kgs 11:29-32; 2 Kgs 22:14-20; Isa 20:2-6; 44:25; Jer 13:1-11; 23:25-32; Ezek 4:1-17; 13:2-9; Joel 2:28-32; Matt 7:15; 24:24; Acts 2:17-21; 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 19:6; 20:23; Acts 21:9-11; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 11:5; 12:4-11; 14:1-40; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Thes 5:19-21; 2 Pet 2:1; 1 Jn 4:1-3; Rev 2:20-23; 19:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Gift of Prophecy<\/h3>\nAs Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp<\/em> 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek 4:1–5:17) and predicting events to come (Acts 11:28; 21:10-11).<\/p>\nPhilip the Evangelist was the father of four young women who “had the gift of prophecy” (21:9). The apostle Paul also acknowledged the prophetic gift of some Christian women (1 Cor 11:5). In the Old Testament, most prophets were men, but several women are also described as prophets, for example, Miriam (Exod 15:20), Deborah (Judg 4:4), and Huldah (2 Kgs 22:14-20; 2 Chr 34:22-28). In the New Testament, the gift of prophecy is given to both men and women, and both young and old, as Peter signaled in his sermon at Pentecost (Acts 2:17-18).<\/p>\nAlthough prophecy sometimes involves foretelling the future (20:22-23; 21:10-11; see Rom 9:24-33; 1 Thes 4:13-17; 2 Thes 2:3-4), at its core prophecy is proclaiming God’s word by preaching, exhorting, and explaining the will of God (Acts 15:32; 19:6; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 14:3-4, 29-33; Rev 19:10). The gift of prophecy is clearly mentioned in 1 Corinthians and Ephesians as one of the gifts of the Holy Spirit and of Christ to the church (1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-13). It is to be used for the benefit of believers (1 Cor 14:22).<\/p>\nProphecy is always in need of testing (1 Thes 5:19-21), and the church is strongly warned against false prophets (1 Jn 4:1; see also Rev 2:20-23). When used faithfully and in submission to God’s word and his Spirit, courageous proclamation of God’s truth helps the church to determine what God’s will is and inspires God’s people to do it.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 15:20; Deut 13:1-5; Judg 4:4; 1 Kgs 11:29-32; 2 Kgs 22:14-20; Isa 20:2-6; 44:25; Jer 13:1-11; 23:25-32; Ezek 4:1-17; 13:2-9; Joel 2:28-32; Matt 7:15; 24:24; Acts 2:17-21; 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 19:6; 20:23; Acts 21:9-11; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 11:5; 12:4-11; 14:1-40; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Thes 5:19-21; 2 Pet 2:1; 1 Jn 4:1-3; Rev 2:20-23; 19:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Gift of Prophecy As Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek ...","summary_en":"The Gift of Prophecy As Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":149484,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Gift of Prophecy","title_en":"The Gift of Prophecy","content_ro":"<h3>The Gift of Prophecy<\/h3>\nAs Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp<\/em> 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek 4:1–5:17) and predicting events to come (Acts 11:28; 21:10-11).<\/p>\nPhilip the Evangelist was the father of four young women who “had the gift of prophecy” (21:9). The apostle Paul also acknowledged the prophetic gift of some Christian women (1 Cor 11:5). In the Old Testament, most prophets were men, but several women are also described as prophets, for example, Miriam (Exod 15:20), Deborah (Judg 4:4), and Huldah (2 Kgs 22:14-20; 2 Chr 34:22-28). In the New Testament, the gift of prophecy is given to both men and women, and both young and old, as Peter signaled in his sermon at Pentecost (Acts 2:17-18).<\/p>\nAlthough prophecy sometimes involves foretelling the future (20:22-23; 21:10-11; see Rom 9:24-33; 1 Thes 4:13-17; 2 Thes 2:3-4), at its core prophecy is proclaiming God’s word by preaching, exhorting, and explaining the will of God (Acts 15:32; 19:6; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 14:3-4, 29-33; Rev 19:10). The gift of prophecy is clearly mentioned in 1 Corinthians and Ephesians as one of the gifts of the Holy Spirit and of Christ to the church (1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-13). It is to be used for the benefit of believers (1 Cor 14:22).<\/p>\nProphecy is always in need of testing (1 Thes 5:19-21), and the church is strongly warned against false prophets (1 Jn 4:1; see also Rev 2:20-23). When used faithfully and in submission to God’s word and his Spirit, courageous proclamation of God’s truth helps the church to determine what God’s will is and inspires God’s people to do it.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 15:20; Deut 13:1-5; Judg 4:4; 1 Kgs 11:29-32; 2 Kgs 22:14-20; Isa 20:2-6; 44:25; Jer 13:1-11; 23:25-32; Ezek 4:1-17; 13:2-9; Joel 2:28-32; Matt 7:15; 24:24; Acts 2:17-21; 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 19:6; 20:23; Acts 21:9-11; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 11:5; 12:4-11; 14:1-40; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Thes 5:19-21; 2 Pet 2:1; 1 Jn 4:1-3; Rev 2:20-23; 19:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Gift of Prophecy<\/h3>\nAs Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp<\/em> 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek 4:1–5:17) and predicting events to come (Acts 11:28; 21:10-11).<\/p>\nPhilip the Evangelist was the father of four young women who “had the gift of prophecy” (21:9). The apostle Paul also acknowledged the prophetic gift of some Christian women (1 Cor 11:5). In the Old Testament, most prophets were men, but several women are also described as prophets, for example, Miriam (Exod 15:20), Deborah (Judg 4:4), and Huldah (2 Kgs 22:14-20; 2 Chr 34:22-28). In the New Testament, the gift of prophecy is given to both men and women, and both young and old, as Peter signaled in his sermon at Pentecost (Acts 2:17-18).<\/p>\nAlthough prophecy sometimes involves foretelling the future (20:22-23; 21:10-11; see Rom 9:24-33; 1 Thes 4:13-17; 2 Thes 2:3-4), at its core prophecy is proclaiming God’s word by preaching, exhorting, and explaining the will of God (Acts 15:32; 19:6; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 14:3-4, 29-33; Rev 19:10). The gift of prophecy is clearly mentioned in 1 Corinthians and Ephesians as one of the gifts of the Holy Spirit and of Christ to the church (1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-13). It is to be used for the benefit of believers (1 Cor 14:22).<\/p>\nProphecy is always in need of testing (1 Thes 5:19-21), and the church is strongly warned against false prophets (1 Jn 4:1; see also Rev 2:20-23). When used faithfully and in submission to God’s word and his Spirit, courageous proclamation of God’s truth helps the church to determine what God’s will is and inspires God’s people to do it.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 15:20; Deut 13:1-5; Judg 4:4; 1 Kgs 11:29-32; 2 Kgs 22:14-20; Isa 20:2-6; 44:25; Jer 13:1-11; 23:25-32; Ezek 4:1-17; 13:2-9; Joel 2:28-32; Matt 7:15; 24:24; Acts 2:17-21; 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 19:6; 20:23; Acts 21:9-11; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 11:5; 12:4-11; 14:1-40; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Thes 5:19-21; 2 Pet 2:1; 1 Jn 4:1-3; Rev 2:20-23; 19:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Gift of Prophecy As Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek ...","summary_en":"The Gift of Prophecy As Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"4":[{"id":31650,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Prophecy","title_en":"Prophecy","content_ro":"<h3>PROPHECY<\/h3>\nTerm, along with its English cognates (“prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”), derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Prophecy in the Old Testament<\/p>\n• Types of Old Testament Prophets<\/p>\n• The Message of the Prophets<\/p>\n• Prophecy in the New Testament<\/p>\n• The Role of the Christian Prophet<\/p>\nProphecy in the Old Testament<\/p>\nOne of the clearest and most significant statements on the nature of prophetic inspiration in the OT is found in Numbers 12:6-8: “The Lord<\/span> said to them, ‘Now listen to me! Even with prophets, I the Lord<\/span> communicate by visions and dreams. But that is not how I communicate with my servant Moses. He is entrusted with my entire house. I speak to him face to face, directly and not in riddles! He sees the Lord<\/span> as he is’ ” (nlt<\/span>). Several important insights into the nature of prophetic inspiration are found in this passage: (1) The prophetic gift of Moses was unique in that he alone received revelations directly from God. (2) Ordinarily, prophetic revelation was received through the medium of a dream or a vision. (3) The meaning of prophetic revelation is not always completely clear; prophecy is sometimes ambiguous.<\/p>\nFurther insight into the nature of prophetic revelation is found in Deuteronomy 18:18: “I [God] will raise up for them a prophet like you [Moses] from among their brethren; and I will put my words in his mouth, and he shall speak to them all that I command him” (rsv<\/span>). While this passage is of interest because Jesus was identified as “the prophet like Moses” who came in fulfillment of this prediction (Acts 3:22; 7:37), the more immediate historical reference is to the succession of prophets that guided Israel from Joshua to Malachi. The phrase “I will put my words in his mouth” refers to the process of divine inspiration and is reminiscent of the common OT prophetic formula “the word of the Lord came to [such and such a prophet]” (for examples, see 1 Sm 15:10; 2 Sm 24:11; 1 Kgs 19:9; Jon 1:1; Hg 1:1; 2:1, 20; Zec 7:1, 8; 8:1). A true prophet is one who speaks (or repeats) all that God has told him.<\/p>\n<h5>Modes of Prophetic Inspiration<\/h5>\nDreams were a commonly recognized mode of inspiration throughout the ancient world, though they were more highly regarded in Greece than in ancient Israel. Revelatory dreams in the Bible fall into two major categories: (1) dreams whose meaning is self-evident, and (2) symbolic dreams that usually require the expertise of an interpreter of dreams. Both types normally involve both visual and auditory elements. In those dreams whose meaning is self-evident, normally a supernatural being (God or an angel) appears to the dreamer and speaks to him or her in a straightforward manner.<\/p>\nMore frequently, revelatory dreams have symbolic elements that require interpretation. The two great dream interpreters of the OT are Joseph and Daniel; the latter is clearly a prophet. The two symbolic dreams that Joseph himself dreamed (Gn 37:5-11) had sufficiently self-evident meaning so that his brothers and father were able to interpret them immediately. More complex were the dreams of the butler and baker (40:1-19) and of Pharaoh (41:1-36), which Joseph was able to interpret with the help of God. Similarly, Daniel was enabled to interpret the dreams of Nebuchadnezzar (Dn 2:25-45; 4:4-27). The skill in interpreting such dreams was attributed by both Joseph and Daniel to God (Gn 40:8; 41:16, 25; Dn 2:27-30; cf. 4:9). While dreams are used almost interchangeably with visions in referring to modes of prophetic inspiration (Jl 2:28), dreams do not occupy a significant part in the prophetic revelations of any of the OT prophets, with the exception of Daniel.<\/p>\nOne of the most characteristic modes of prophetic inspiration was the vision (Nm 12:6; 24:4, 16; Hos 12:10). The revelatory visions experienced by the prophets were not limited to visual phenomena alone but also included the auditory dimension as well. In Isaiah 1:1, the author describes his entire prophetic book as a “vision”: “These visions concerning Judah and Jerusalem came to Isaiah son of Amoz during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah—all kings of Judah” (nlt<\/span>). Yet in the very next verse, Isaiah says, “Hear, O heavens! Listen, O earth! This is what the Lord<\/span> says.” Again, in Amos 1:1, “The words<\/em> of Amos, who was among the shepherds of Tekoa, which he saw<\/em> concerning Israel” (rsv<\/span>, emphasis added).<\/p>\n<h5>Manifestations of Prophetic Inspiration<\/h5>\nAll prophecy, whether biblical or not, presupposes that the prophet either possessed or was possessed by a personal supernatural power. The external behavioral manifestations of this possession can exhibit great variety.<\/p>\nThe prophetic phenomenon generally designated “ecstatic” prophecy appears to have existed in Canaan prior to the arrival of the Hebrew tribes in the 13th century BC<\/span>. The first reference to ecstatic prophecy in Israel occurs in 1 Samuel 10:5-13 (11th century BC<\/span>), and it persisted at least till the sixth century BC<\/span> (Jer 29:26).<\/p>\nThe ecstatic prophet achieves a trancelike state by self-induced means. The most common devices used to achieve a state of ecstasy were musical instruments, such as the harp, tambourine, flute, and lyre (1 Sm 10:5). Among the prophets of Baal, self-flagellation was another means of inducing ecstasy (1 Kgs 18:28-29).<\/p>\nThis kind of prophetic ecstasy was usually practiced by groups of prophets (1 Sm 10:5), and such ecstasy was contagious. When Saul met a band of such prophets, the Spirit of God came upon him and he, too, began to prophesy (vv 10-13), a phenomenon that occurred repeatedly to various messengers sent by Saul on a later occasion (19:20-22). At that time Saul again prophesied, and his ecstatic behavior is described in 1 Samuel 19:24. When Elisha was asked to prophesy for King Jehoram of Israel, he first requested a minstrel. When the minstrel played, the power of the Lord came upon him (2 Kgs 3:15).<\/p>\nTypes of Old Testament Prophets<\/p>\nThere are two basic types of prophetic commission in the OT. One type is that of a narrative call by God to a particular individual whose objections to the call are gradually overcome in a dialogue between himself and God. The classic example of this type of prophetic commission is found in Jeremiah 1:4-8:<\/p>\nThe Lord<\/span> gave me a message. He said, “I knew you before I formed you in your mother’s womb. Before you were born I set you apart and appointed you as my spokesman to the world.”<\/p>\n<blockquote>“O Sovereign Lord<\/span>,” I said, “I can’t speak for you! I’m too young!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote>“Don’t say that,” the Lord<\/span> replied, “for you must go wherever I send you and say whatever I tell you. And don’t be afraid of the people, for I will be with you and take care of you. I, the Lord<\/span>, have spoken!” (nlt<\/span>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\nSimilar prophetic commissions including such dialogues are associated with the calls of Moses (Ex 3:1–4:17) and Gideon (Jgs 6:11-17).<\/p>\nThe second major form of prophetic commission is the “throne vision.” An outstanding example is Isaiah 6:1-8:<\/p>\nIn the year King Uzziah died, I saw the Lord. He was sitting on a lofty throne, and the train of his robe filled the Temple. . . .<\/p>\n<blockquote>Then I said, “My destruction is sealed, for I am a sinful man and a member of a sinful race. Yet I have seen the King, the Lord<\/span> Almighty!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote>Then one of the seraphim flew over to the altar, and he picked up a burning coal with a pair of tongs. He touched my lips with it and said, “See, this coal has touched your lips. Now your guilt is removed, and your sins are forgiven.”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote>Then I heard the Lord asking, “Whom should I send as a messenger to my people? Who will go for us?”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote>And I said, “Lord, I’ll go! Send me.” (nlt<\/span>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\nHere we have an account of the visionary presence of a prophet in the heavenly council; in this case, however, the prophet participates in the deliberations and thereby receives a prophetic commission. Though few prophets have left accounts of their divine commissions, most of them appear to have been conscious of having been “sent” by God (Is 48:16; Hos 8:1; Am 7:14-15). According to Jeremiah, false prophets did not receive such divine commissions (Jer 23:21, 32; 28:15).<\/p>\nThe Message of the Prophets<\/p>\n<h5>The Form of the Message<\/h5>\nThe most common introductory formula for prophetic oracles in the OT is the phrase “Thus says the Lord,” which occurs hundreds of times in prophetic contexts. This formula clearly implies that the pronouncement so introduced is not the word of the prophet who utters the oracle but of the God of Israel who delivered his word to his prophet. The use of this formula also reiterates the prophet’s sense of divine commission. In oracles introduced in this manner, God speaks in the first person. In fact, virtually all Israelite prophetic utterance is formulated as the direct speech of the God of Israel.<\/p>\nThe prophets used many literary forms in which to express their oracles. Two of the more widely used forms of prophetic speech are the judgment speech and the oracle of salvation. The judgment speech is composed of at least two central elements: the speech of rebuke or invective, and the pronouncement of judgment (see 2 Kgs 1:3-4). The second common prophetic speech form is the oracle of salvation (see Is 41:8-13). Other fixed forms of prophetic speech include the prophecy of salvation (43:14-21), the proclamation of salvation (41:17-20; 42:14-17; 43:16-21; 49:7-12), and the woe oracle (Is 5:8-10; 10:1-4; Am 5:18-24; 6:1-7; Mi 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<h5>The Content of the Message<\/h5>\nThe common adage that OT prophets were not “foretellers” but “forthtellers” is not strictly correct. All of the prophets predict the future. Such prediction, however, is based not on human curiosity of what the future will hold but rather is rooted in the future consequences of past or present violations of the covenant, or on a future act of deliverance that will provide hope for a discouraged people. Most of the prophetic speeches that have been preserved in the OT were originally delivered as public proclamations or sermons. Most of these prophetic proclamations were evoked by the iniquity and apostasy of Israel. Hosea and Jeremiah condemned Israel because she had broken the covenant (Jer 11:2-3; Hos 8:1).<\/p>\nThe prophets are frequently associated with social justice and social reform, and these elements were unquestionably an important dimension of their message. Amos denounced the rich who afflicted the poor (Am 2:6-8; 4:1; 5:11; 8:4-6). He railed against sexual immorality (2:6-8) and against those who take bribes (5:12). Hosea provided a list of prevalent vices, including lying, killing, stealing, adultery, and idolatry (Hos 4:2). Idolatry was a particular target for his denunciations (8:5; 11:2). The background for such heated denunciations of Israel’s behavior is God’s unquenchable love for Israel (Is 43:4; Jer 31:3; Hos 3:1; 11:1-4; 14:4; Mal 1:2), which is inseparable from his election of Israel (Is 43:1; Jer 33:24; Ez 20:5; Hos 3).<\/p>\nThe prophets were concerned not only with the transgressions of Israel and the historical judgment that would inevitably follow but also with the achievement of a final future time of bliss. The message of many of the prophets is thoroughly eschatological (i.e., pertaining to the end times). One such eschatological concept is that of the Day of the Lord. The concept of the Day of the Lord first appears in Amos, where the emphasis lies on the disaster that will befall Israel on that day. Amos’s emphasis on disaster notwithstanding, the Day of the Lord is a conception that had both salvific as well as judgmental overtones for Israel. While the disaster that will occur in the Day of the Lord can be viewed in terms of a literal historical fulfillment in the tragic events of 722 BC<\/span> (the fall of Samaria) and 586 BC<\/span> (the fall of Judah), there are nevertheless features of these predictions that transcend historical fulfillment and reach toward eschatological fulfillment.<\/p>\nSince the Israelite conception of “salvation” was largely temporal in its dimensions, it included such blessings as length of life, fruitfulness of the womb and field, peace and victory over one’s enemies, the abundance of water, and so on. In harmony with this conception of salvation, the future age is conceived in precisely those terms, as in Amos 9:13-15.<\/p>\nThe prophets pictured a time when David himself, or someone very much like him, would return and inaugurate a golden era reminiscent of the great Davidic and Solomonic period. The covenant of God with David was not a conditional covenant but rather one that was absolutely inviolable (2 Sm 7:4-17; Ps 89; Jer 33:19-22), and it was with this knowledge that the prophets could look forward confidently to a restoration of David’s throne (Jer 17:24-26; 23:5-6; 33:14-15).<\/p>\n\nProphecy in the New Testament<\/p>\nIn contrast to the few self-proclaimed prophets of the intertestamental period, early Christianity began with a flurry of prophetic activity that lasted well into the second century AD<\/span>. Jesus, his disciples and followers, and the early Christians were convinced that the times in which they lived were times in which OT prophecy was being fulfilled (Mk 1:14-15; Acts 2:16-21; Rom 16:25-27; 1 Cor 10:11). Yet this era was not only one of fulfillment but also one of the renewal of the prophetic gift.<\/p>\n<h5>John the Baptist<\/h5>\nJohn the Baptist is remembered in the NT primarily as the forerunner of Jesus whose coming was predicted by Malachi (Mal 4:5-6). Yet, in his own right, John proclaimed the imminent judgment of God with a flair of denunciation and rebuke reminiscent of the OT prophets. John’s costume, consisting of a hairy cloak and a leather girdle (Mk 1:6), was reminiscent of the typical garb of OT prophets (1 Kgs 19:19; 2 Kgs 1:8; 2:13-14; Zec 13:4). John was regarded as a prophet by people everywhere (Mt 14:5; 17:10-13; Mk 9:11-13; 11:32; Lk 1:76; 7:26). Luke reports, in a style similar to the OT prophetic narratives, that “the word of God came to John” (Lk 3:2). Two short prophetic speeches have been preserved in Matthew 3:7-10 (cf. Lk 3:7-9) and Mark 1:7-8 (cf. Mt 3:11-12; Lk 3:15-18). In the first speech, John denounced those of his generation who had transgressed the covenant law and exhorted them to change their manner of life. In the second speech, John predicted the coming of the Mighty One, Jesus (Mt 3:11; Mk 1:7; Lk 3:16; Jn 1:15, 27, 30; Acts 13:25). John’s style, however, was not precisely that of the OT prophets. His pronouncements were made on his own authority; never did he use formulas such as “thus says the Lord,” or present his prophetic utterances as if they were speeches made by God. Yet, in spite of these differences, John is appropriately regarded as the last representative of the OT prophetic tradition (Mt 11:13; Lk 16:16).<\/p>\n<h5>Jesus of Nazareth<\/h5>\nJesus was popularly regarded as a prophet (Mt 16:14; 21:10-11; Mk 6:14-15; 8:28; Lk 7:16, 39; 9:8, 19; Jn 6:14; 7:40, 52). This assessment was based as much on the mighty deeds Jesus performed as on his prophetic speeches and predictions. Though Jesus nowhere claimed prophetic status directly, that claim is implicit in Mark 6:4: “A prophet is honored everywhere except in his own hometown” (cf. Mt 13:57; Lk 4:24). It is implicit as well in Luke 13:33: “Yes, today, tomorrow, and the next day I must proceed on my way. For it wouldn’t do for a prophet of God to be killed except in Jerusalem!” (nlt<\/span>). In Acts, Jesus is regarded as “the prophet like Moses” predicted in Deuteronomy 18:18 (Acts 3:22; 7:37). Matthew presents Jesus as the New Moses, but he does not particularly emphasize his prophetic role. John, however, like Luke, emphasizes Jesus’ role as the prophet (Jn 4:19; 6:14-15; 7:40).<\/p>\nWhile the Gospels and Acts reflect the notion that Jesus was a prophet, they also emphasize the fact that he was much more than a prophet. Nevertheless, the notion of prophetism was sufficiently important in early Judaism that Jesus’ recognition as a prophet is very significant. There are 12 solid reasons for regarding Jesus as a prophet in the OT tradition: (1) The sovereign authority of Jesus’ teaching (Mk 1:27), a feature underlined by his use of the introductory formula “(Amen) I say to you,” which is reminiscent of the formula “thus says the Lord” used by the OT prophets. (2) The poetic character of many of Jesus’ sayings is unlike contemporary rabbinic teaching but is similar to the poetic rhetoric of the OT prophets. (3) Jesus experienced visions (Lk 10:18) like the ancient prophets. (4) Jesus, like the prophets, made many predictions (Mt 23:38; Mk 13:2; 14:58; Lk 13:35; etc.). (5) Like the OT prophets, Jesus performed symbolic acts (such as the cleansing of the temple, the entry into Jerusalem, and the Last Supper). (6) Jesus, like the prophets, when necessary, rejected the formal observance of religious ritual and emphasized the moral and spiritual dimensions of obedience to God. (7) Jesus announced the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God—an eschatological proclamation similar to those made by the prophets. (8) Like the OT prophets, Jesus functioned as a preacher of repentance. (9) Jesus, like many of the prophets, was conscious of a special calling of God (Mt 15:24; Mk 8:31; 9:37; 14:36; Lk 4:18-26). (10) Jesus, like the prophets, received divine revelation through intimate communion with God (Mt 11:27; Lk 10:22). (11) Like the prophets, Jesus represented God; to obey him was to obey God, to reject him was to reject God (Mk 9:37; cf. Ez 33:30-33). (12) Like the prophets, Jesus was conscious of a mission to all Israel (Mt 15:24; 19:28; Lk 22:30).<\/p>\nAmong the many prophetic predictions of Jesus are the following:<\/p>\n1. Predictions of the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God (Mt 10:7-8, 23; 23:39; Mk 1:15; 9:1; 13:28-29)<\/p>\n<li>2. Predictions of the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple (Mt 23:37-39; 24:2; 26:61; 27:40; Mk 13:2; 14:58; 15:29; Lk 13:34-35; 21:6; Jn 2:19-21)<\/li>\n<li>3. Predictions of the coming of the Son of Man (Mt 10:23, 32-33; 12:40; 13:40-41; 16:27; 24:27, 37-39; Mk 8:38; 13:26-27; 14:62; Lk 9:26; 11:30; 12:8-9; 17:24, 26)<\/li>\n<li>4. Predictions of the end of the age. The longest prophetic section in the Gospels is the eschatological discourse of Jesus in Mark 13:1-32 (cf. Mt 24:1-36; Lk 21:5-33), in which a number of predictions concerning the destruction of Jerusalem and the end of the age are woven into a lengthy discourse to the disciples.<\/li>\n<h5>Prophecy as a Gift for the Believers<\/h5>\nThe beginning of prophetic activity in early Christianity, according to Acts, coincided with the outpouring of the Holy Spirit upon the earliest Christians on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:1-21). Peter’s sermon on the Day of Pentecost indicates that the outpouring of the Spirit fulfilled Joel’s prophecy (Acts 2:4, 17-21; cf. Jl 2:28-32). Further, since the Spirit had been poured out upon all early Christians (that Spirit being a Spirit of prophecy), all are actual or potential prophets.<\/p>\nAccording to 1 Corinthians 12:28 (see also Rom 12:6; Eph 4:11), God has appointed in the church first apostles, second prophets, and third teachers. The names of several early Christian prophets have been preserved. These include Agabus (Acts 11:27-28; 21:10-11); Judas and Silas (15:32); Barnabas, Simeon Niger, Lucius of Cyrene, Manaen, and Paul (13:1); and the four virgin daughters of Philip the evangelist (21:8-9). John, the author of Revelation, was certainly a prophet (Rv 1:3; 22:9, 18), though he never directly assumed that title.<\/p>\nThe Role of the Christian Prophet<\/p>\nChristian prophets were leaders in early Christian communities (1 Cor 12:28; Eph 4:11), who exercised their gift in church gatherings (Acts 13:1-3; 11:27-28; 1 Cor 12–14; Rv 1:10). Since the Spirit of God was particularly active in Christian worship, prophecy was a major means whereby God communicated with his people. Prophets, like apostles and teachers, did not hold offices in local communities like bishops, elders, and deacons. Rather, they were chosen, not by individual congregations, but by divine commission and so were honored and accepted in all local communities.<\/p>\nEarly Christian prophets were both itinerant and settled, though itinerant prophets seem to have been more prevalent in Syria-Palestine and Asia Minor than in the European churches.<\/p>\n<h5>The Function of Prophecy<\/h5>\nAccording to Paul, the central purpose of prophecy (as of all other spiritual gifts) is that of building up or edifying the church. According to 1 Corinthians 14:3, “one who prophesies is helping others grow in the Lord, encouraging and comforting them” (nlt<\/span>). Again, in 1 Corinthians 14:4, Paul states that the “one who speaks a word of prophecy strengthens the entire church.” Paul discussed the subject of spiritual gifts, particularly tongues speaking and prophecy, because the Corinthians had placed an excessive emphasis on speaking in tongues. Paul did not object to speaking in tongues (1 Cor 14:18, 39), but he did point out that, since it was generally incomprehensible, the church could not be edified by it. Prophecy, which consisted of comprehensible speech inspired by the Spirit, contributed to the mutual edification, encouragement, and consolation of all present (1 Cor 14:20-25, 39).<\/p>\n<h5>The Content of Christian Prophecy<\/h5>\nWe know only a little about the content of prophecies uttered in the first-century church. Prophetic utterance occasionally provided divine guidance in making important decisions in early Christianity. Through a prophetic utterance, Paul and Barnabas were selected for a particular mission (Acts 13:1-3; cf. 1 Tm 1:18; 4:14). Probably through prophetic utterance, Paul and Timothy were forbidden to preach the gospel in Asia (Acts 16:6), and they were similarly forbidden by the Spirit of Jesus to go into Bithynia (v 7). Perhaps the most frequent use of prophecy is the prediction of the future. Agabus predicted a universal famine (11:28) and the imminent arrest of Paul (21:11). Other prophets had also predicted his impending imprisonment (20:23). The prophecies contained in the Revelation of John are all oriented toward the future events that will gradually unfold in the last days. Yet the purpose of John’s elaborate prophecy is not to satisfy the curiosity of his audience but rather to comfort and encourage them in the midst of persecution.<\/p>\n<h5>The Form of Christian Prophecy<\/h5>\nUnlike the prophets of the OT, Christian prophets did not always present their message in the form of a direct speech from God or Jesus. There are few, if any, formal indicators of the presence of prophetic speech in early Christian literature. The book of Revelation is one notable exception.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Dreams; Oracle; Promise; Prophet, Prophetess; Prophets, False; Visions.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PROPHECY<\/h3>\nTerm, along with its English cognates (“prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”), derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Prophecy in the Old Testament<\/p>\n• Types of Old Testament Prophets<\/p>\n• The Message of the Prophets<\/p>\n• Prophecy in the New Testament<\/p>\n• The Role of the Christian Prophet<\/p>\nProphecy in the Old Testament<\/p>\nOne of the clearest and most significant statements on the nature of prophetic inspiration in the OT is found in Numbers 12:6-8: “The Lord<\/span> said to them, ‘Now listen to me! Even with prophets, I the Lord<\/span> communicate by visions and dreams. But that is not how I communicate with my servant Moses. He is entrusted with my entire house. I speak to him face to face, directly and not in riddles! He sees the Lord<\/span> as he is’ ” (nlt<\/span>). Several important insights into the nature of prophetic inspiration are found in this passage: (1) The prophetic gift of Moses was unique in that he alone received revelations directly from God. (2) Ordinarily, prophetic revelation was received through the medium of a dream or a vision. (3) The meaning of prophetic revelation is not always completely clear; prophecy is sometimes ambiguous.<\/p>\nFurther insight into the nature of prophetic revelation is found in Deuteronomy 18:18: “I [God] will raise up for them a prophet like you [Moses] from among their brethren; and I will put my words in his mouth, and he shall speak to them all that I command him” (rsv<\/span>). While this passage is of interest because Jesus was identified as “the prophet like Moses” who came in fulfillment of this prediction (Acts 3:22; 7:37), the more immediate historical reference is to the succession of prophets that guided Israel from Joshua to Malachi. The phrase “I will put my words in his mouth” refers to the process of divine inspiration and is reminiscent of the common OT prophetic formula “the word of the Lord came to [such and such a prophet]” (for examples, see 1 Sm 15:10; 2 Sm 24:11; 1 Kgs 19:9; Jon 1:1; Hg 1:1; 2:1, 20; Zec 7:1, 8; 8:1). A true prophet is one who speaks (or repeats) all that God has told him.<\/p>\n<h5>Modes of Prophetic Inspiration<\/h5>\nDreams were a commonly recognized mode of inspiration throughout the ancient world, though they were more highly regarded in Greece than in ancient Israel. Revelatory dreams in the Bible fall into two major categories: (1) dreams whose meaning is self-evident, and (2) symbolic dreams that usually require the expertise of an interpreter of dreams. Both types normally involve both visual and auditory elements. In those dreams whose meaning is self-evident, normally a supernatural being (God or an angel) appears to the dreamer and speaks to him or her in a straightforward manner.<\/p>\nMore frequently, revelatory dreams have symbolic elements that require interpretation. The two great dream interpreters of the OT are Joseph and Daniel; the latter is clearly a prophet. The two symbolic dreams that Joseph himself dreamed (Gn 37:5-11) had sufficiently self-evident meaning so that his brothers and father were able to interpret them immediately. More complex were the dreams of the butler and baker (40:1-19) and of Pharaoh (41:1-36), which Joseph was able to interpret with the help of God. Similarly, Daniel was enabled to interpret the dreams of Nebuchadnezzar (Dn 2:25-45; 4:4-27). The skill in interpreting such dreams was attributed by both Joseph and Daniel to God (Gn 40:8; 41:16, 25; Dn 2:27-30; cf. 4:9). While dreams are used almost interchangeably with visions in referring to modes of prophetic inspiration (Jl 2:28), dreams do not occupy a significant part in the prophetic revelations of any of the OT prophets, with the exception of Daniel.<\/p>\nOne of the most characteristic modes of prophetic inspiration was the vision (Nm 12:6; 24:4, 16; Hos 12:10). The revelatory visions experienced by the prophets were not limited to visual phenomena alone but also included the auditory dimension as well. In Isaiah 1:1, the author describes his entire prophetic book as a “vision”: “These visions concerning Judah and Jerusalem came to Isaiah son of Amoz during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah—all kings of Judah” (nlt<\/span>). Yet in the very next verse, Isaiah says, “Hear, O heavens! Listen, O earth! This is what the Lord<\/span> says.” Again, in Amos 1:1, “The words<\/em> of Amos, who was among the shepherds of Tekoa, which he saw<\/em> concerning Israel” (rsv<\/span>, emphasis added).<\/p>\n<h5>Manifestations of Prophetic Inspiration<\/h5>\nAll prophecy, whether biblical or not, presupposes that the prophet either possessed or was possessed by a personal supernatural power. The external behavioral manifestations of this possession can exhibit great variety.<\/p>\nThe prophetic phenomenon generally designated “ecstatic” prophecy appears to have existed in Canaan prior to the arrival of the Hebrew tribes in the 13th century BC<\/span>. The first reference to ecstatic prophecy in Israel occurs in 1 Samuel 10:5-13 (11th century BC<\/span>), and it persisted at least till the sixth century BC<\/span> (Jer 29:26).<\/p>\nThe ecstatic prophet achieves a trancelike state by self-induced means. The most common devices used to achieve a state of ecstasy were musical instruments, such as the harp, tambourine, flute, and lyre (1 Sm 10:5). Among the prophets of Baal, self-flagellation was another means of inducing ecstasy (1 Kgs 18:28-29).<\/p>\nThis kind of prophetic ecstasy was usually practiced by groups of prophets (1 Sm 10:5), and such ecstasy was contagious. When Saul met a band of such prophets, the Spirit of God came upon him and he, too, began to prophesy (vv 10-13), a phenomenon that occurred repeatedly to various messengers sent by Saul on a later occasion (19:20-22). At that time Saul again prophesied, and his ecstatic behavior is described in 1 Samuel 19:24. When Elisha was asked to prophesy for King Jehoram of Israel, he first requested a minstrel. When the minstrel played, the power of the Lord came upon him (2 Kgs 3:15).<\/p>\nTypes of Old Testament Prophets<\/p>\nThere are two basic types of prophetic commission in the OT. One type is that of a narrative call by God to a particular individual whose objections to the call are gradually overcome in a dialogue between himself and God. The classic example of this type of prophetic commission is found in Jeremiah 1:4-8:<\/p>\nThe Lord<\/span> gave me a message. He said, “I knew you before I formed you in your mother’s womb. Before you were born I set you apart and appointed you as my spokesman to the world.”<\/p>\n<blockquote>“O Sovereign Lord<\/span>,” I said, “I can’t speak for you! I’m too young!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote>“Don’t say that,” the Lord<\/span> replied, “for you must go wherever I send you and say whatever I tell you. And don’t be afraid of the people, for I will be with you and take care of you. I, the Lord<\/span>, have spoken!” (nlt<\/span>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\nSimilar prophetic commissions including such dialogues are associated with the calls of Moses (Ex 3:1–4:17) and Gideon (Jgs 6:11-17).<\/p>\nThe second major form of prophetic commission is the “throne vision.” An outstanding example is Isaiah 6:1-8:<\/p>\nIn the year King Uzziah died, I saw the Lord. He was sitting on a lofty throne, and the train of his robe filled the Temple. . . .<\/p>\n<blockquote>Then I said, “My destruction is sealed, for I am a sinful man and a member of a sinful race. Yet I have seen the King, the Lord<\/span> Almighty!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote>Then one of the seraphim flew over to the altar, and he picked up a burning coal with a pair of tongs. He touched my lips with it and said, “See, this coal has touched your lips. Now your guilt is removed, and your sins are forgiven.”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote>Then I heard the Lord asking, “Whom should I send as a messenger to my people? Who will go for us?”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote>And I said, “Lord, I’ll go! Send me.” (nlt<\/span>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\nHere we have an account of the visionary presence of a prophet in the heavenly council; in this case, however, the prophet participates in the deliberations and thereby receives a prophetic commission. Though few prophets have left accounts of their divine commissions, most of them appear to have been conscious of having been “sent” by God (Is 48:16; Hos 8:1; Am 7:14-15). According to Jeremiah, false prophets did not receive such divine commissions (Jer 23:21, 32; 28:15).<\/p>\nThe Message of the Prophets<\/p>\n<h5>The Form of the Message<\/h5>\nThe most common introductory formula for prophetic oracles in the OT is the phrase “Thus says the Lord,” which occurs hundreds of times in prophetic contexts. This formula clearly implies that the pronouncement so introduced is not the word of the prophet who utters the oracle but of the God of Israel who delivered his word to his prophet. The use of this formula also reiterates the prophet’s sense of divine commission. In oracles introduced in this manner, God speaks in the first person. In fact, virtually all Israelite prophetic utterance is formulated as the direct speech of the God of Israel.<\/p>\nThe prophets used many literary forms in which to express their oracles. Two of the more widely used forms of prophetic speech are the judgment speech and the oracle of salvation. The judgment speech is composed of at least two central elements: the speech of rebuke or invective, and the pronouncement of judgment (see 2 Kgs 1:3-4). The second common prophetic speech form is the oracle of salvation (see Is 41:8-13). Other fixed forms of prophetic speech include the prophecy of salvation (43:14-21), the proclamation of salvation (41:17-20; 42:14-17; 43:16-21; 49:7-12), and the woe oracle (Is 5:8-10; 10:1-4; Am 5:18-24; 6:1-7; Mi 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<h5>The Content of the Message<\/h5>\nThe common adage that OT prophets were not “foretellers” but “forthtellers” is not strictly correct. All of the prophets predict the future. Such prediction, however, is based not on human curiosity of what the future will hold but rather is rooted in the future consequences of past or present violations of the covenant, or on a future act of deliverance that will provide hope for a discouraged people. Most of the prophetic speeches that have been preserved in the OT were originally delivered as public proclamations or sermons. Most of these prophetic proclamations were evoked by the iniquity and apostasy of Israel. Hosea and Jeremiah condemned Israel because she had broken the covenant (Jer 11:2-3; Hos 8:1).<\/p>\nThe prophets are frequently associated with social justice and social reform, and these elements were unquestionably an important dimension of their message. Amos denounced the rich who afflicted the poor (Am 2:6-8; 4:1; 5:11; 8:4-6). He railed against sexual immorality (2:6-8) and against those who take bribes (5:12). Hosea provided a list of prevalent vices, including lying, killing, stealing, adultery, and idolatry (Hos 4:2). Idolatry was a particular target for his denunciations (8:5; 11:2). The background for such heated denunciations of Israel’s behavior is God’s unquenchable love for Israel (Is 43:4; Jer 31:3; Hos 3:1; 11:1-4; 14:4; Mal 1:2), which is inseparable from his election of Israel (Is 43:1; Jer 33:24; Ez 20:5; Hos 3).<\/p>\nThe prophets were concerned not only with the transgressions of Israel and the historical judgment that would inevitably follow but also with the achievement of a final future time of bliss. The message of many of the prophets is thoroughly eschatological (i.e., pertaining to the end times). One such eschatological concept is that of the Day of the Lord. The concept of the Day of the Lord first appears in Amos, where the emphasis lies on the disaster that will befall Israel on that day. Amos’s emphasis on disaster notwithstanding, the Day of the Lord is a conception that had both salvific as well as judgmental overtones for Israel. While the disaster that will occur in the Day of the Lord can be viewed in terms of a literal historical fulfillment in the tragic events of 722 BC<\/span> (the fall of Samaria) and 586 BC<\/span> (the fall of Judah), there are nevertheless features of these predictions that transcend historical fulfillment and reach toward eschatological fulfillment.<\/p>\nSince the Israelite conception of “salvation” was largely temporal in its dimensions, it included such blessings as length of life, fruitfulness of the womb and field, peace and victory over one’s enemies, the abundance of water, and so on. In harmony with this conception of salvation, the future age is conceived in precisely those terms, as in Amos 9:13-15.<\/p>\nThe prophets pictured a time when David himself, or someone very much like him, would return and inaugurate a golden era reminiscent of the great Davidic and Solomonic period. The covenant of God with David was not a conditional covenant but rather one that was absolutely inviolable (2 Sm 7:4-17; Ps 89; Jer 33:19-22), and it was with this knowledge that the prophets could look forward confidently to a restoration of David’s throne (Jer 17:24-26; 23:5-6; 33:14-15).<\/p>\n\nProphecy in the New Testament<\/p>\nIn contrast to the few self-proclaimed prophets of the intertestamental period, early Christianity began with a flurry of prophetic activity that lasted well into the second century AD<\/span>. Jesus, his disciples and followers, and the early Christians were convinced that the times in which they lived were times in which OT prophecy was being fulfilled (Mk 1:14-15; Acts 2:16-21; Rom 16:25-27; 1 Cor 10:11). Yet this era was not only one of fulfillment but also one of the renewal of the prophetic gift.<\/p>\n<h5>John the Baptist<\/h5>\nJohn the Baptist is remembered in the NT primarily as the forerunner of Jesus whose coming was predicted by Malachi (Mal 4:5-6). Yet, in his own right, John proclaimed the imminent judgment of God with a flair of denunciation and rebuke reminiscent of the OT prophets. John’s costume, consisting of a hairy cloak and a leather girdle (Mk 1:6), was reminiscent of the typical garb of OT prophets (1 Kgs 19:19; 2 Kgs 1:8; 2:13-14; Zec 13:4). John was regarded as a prophet by people everywhere (Mt 14:5; 17:10-13; Mk 9:11-13; 11:32; Lk 1:76; 7:26). Luke reports, in a style similar to the OT prophetic narratives, that “the word of God came to John” (Lk 3:2). Two short prophetic speeches have been preserved in Matthew 3:7-10 (cf. Lk 3:7-9) and Mark 1:7-8 (cf. Mt 3:11-12; Lk 3:15-18). In the first speech, John denounced those of his generation who had transgressed the covenant law and exhorted them to change their manner of life. In the second speech, John predicted the coming of the Mighty One, Jesus (Mt 3:11; Mk 1:7; Lk 3:16; Jn 1:15, 27, 30; Acts 13:25). John’s style, however, was not precisely that of the OT prophets. His pronouncements were made on his own authority; never did he use formulas such as “thus says the Lord,” or present his prophetic utterances as if they were speeches made by God. Yet, in spite of these differences, John is appropriately regarded as the last representative of the OT prophetic tradition (Mt 11:13; Lk 16:16).<\/p>\n<h5>Jesus of Nazareth<\/h5>\nJesus was popularly regarded as a prophet (Mt 16:14; 21:10-11; Mk 6:14-15; 8:28; Lk 7:16, 39; 9:8, 19; Jn 6:14; 7:40, 52). This assessment was based as much on the mighty deeds Jesus performed as on his prophetic speeches and predictions. Though Jesus nowhere claimed prophetic status directly, that claim is implicit in Mark 6:4: “A prophet is honored everywhere except in his own hometown” (cf. Mt 13:57; Lk 4:24). It is implicit as well in Luke 13:33: “Yes, today, tomorrow, and the next day I must proceed on my way. For it wouldn’t do for a prophet of God to be killed except in Jerusalem!” (nlt<\/span>). In Acts, Jesus is regarded as “the prophet like Moses” predicted in Deuteronomy 18:18 (Acts 3:22; 7:37). Matthew presents Jesus as the New Moses, but he does not particularly emphasize his prophetic role. John, however, like Luke, emphasizes Jesus’ role as the prophet (Jn 4:19; 6:14-15; 7:40).<\/p>\nWhile the Gospels and Acts reflect the notion that Jesus was a prophet, they also emphasize the fact that he was much more than a prophet. Nevertheless, the notion of prophetism was sufficiently important in early Judaism that Jesus’ recognition as a prophet is very significant. There are 12 solid reasons for regarding Jesus as a prophet in the OT tradition: (1) The sovereign authority of Jesus’ teaching (Mk 1:27), a feature underlined by his use of the introductory formula “(Amen) I say to you,” which is reminiscent of the formula “thus says the Lord” used by the OT prophets. (2) The poetic character of many of Jesus’ sayings is unlike contemporary rabbinic teaching but is similar to the poetic rhetoric of the OT prophets. (3) Jesus experienced visions (Lk 10:18) like the ancient prophets. (4) Jesus, like the prophets, made many predictions (Mt 23:38; Mk 13:2; 14:58; Lk 13:35; etc.). (5) Like the OT prophets, Jesus performed symbolic acts (such as the cleansing of the temple, the entry into Jerusalem, and the Last Supper). (6) Jesus, like the prophets, when necessary, rejected the formal observance of religious ritual and emphasized the moral and spiritual dimensions of obedience to God. (7) Jesus announced the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God—an eschatological proclamation similar to those made by the prophets. (8) Like the OT prophets, Jesus functioned as a preacher of repentance. (9) Jesus, like many of the prophets, was conscious of a special calling of God (Mt 15:24; Mk 8:31; 9:37; 14:36; Lk 4:18-26). (10) Jesus, like the prophets, received divine revelation through intimate communion with God (Mt 11:27; Lk 10:22). (11) Like the prophets, Jesus represented God; to obey him was to obey God, to reject him was to reject God (Mk 9:37; cf. Ez 33:30-33). (12) Like the prophets, Jesus was conscious of a mission to all Israel (Mt 15:24; 19:28; Lk 22:30).<\/p>\nAmong the many prophetic predictions of Jesus are the following:<\/p>\n1. Predictions of the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God (Mt 10:7-8, 23; 23:39; Mk 1:15; 9:1; 13:28-29)<\/p>\n<li>2. Predictions of the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple (Mt 23:37-39; 24:2; 26:61; 27:40; Mk 13:2; 14:58; 15:29; Lk 13:34-35; 21:6; Jn 2:19-21)<\/li>\n<li>3. Predictions of the coming of the Son of Man (Mt 10:23, 32-33; 12:40; 13:40-41; 16:27; 24:27, 37-39; Mk 8:38; 13:26-27; 14:62; Lk 9:26; 11:30; 12:8-9; 17:24, 26)<\/li>\n<li>4. Predictions of the end of the age. The longest prophetic section in the Gospels is the eschatological discourse of Jesus in Mark 13:1-32 (cf. Mt 24:1-36; Lk 21:5-33), in which a number of predictions concerning the destruction of Jerusalem and the end of the age are woven into a lengthy discourse to the disciples.<\/li>\n<h5>Prophecy as a Gift for the Believers<\/h5>\nThe beginning of prophetic activity in early Christianity, according to Acts, coincided with the outpouring of the Holy Spirit upon the earliest Christians on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:1-21). Peter’s sermon on the Day of Pentecost indicates that the outpouring of the Spirit fulfilled Joel’s prophecy (Acts 2:4, 17-21; cf. Jl 2:28-32). Further, since the Spirit had been poured out upon all early Christians (that Spirit being a Spirit of prophecy), all are actual or potential prophets.<\/p>\nAccording to 1 Corinthians 12:28 (see also Rom 12:6; Eph 4:11), God has appointed in the church first apostles, second prophets, and third teachers. The names of several early Christian prophets have been preserved. These include Agabus (Acts 11:27-28; 21:10-11); Judas and Silas (15:32); Barnabas, Simeon Niger, Lucius of Cyrene, Manaen, and Paul (13:1); and the four virgin daughters of Philip the evangelist (21:8-9). John, the author of Revelation, was certainly a prophet (Rv 1:3; 22:9, 18), though he never directly assumed that title.<\/p>\nThe Role of the Christian Prophet<\/p>\nChristian prophets were leaders in early Christian communities (1 Cor 12:28; Eph 4:11), who exercised their gift in church gatherings (Acts 13:1-3; 11:27-28; 1 Cor 12–14; Rv 1:10). Since the Spirit of God was particularly active in Christian worship, prophecy was a major means whereby God communicated with his people. Prophets, like apostles and teachers, did not hold offices in local communities like bishops, elders, and deacons. Rather, they were chosen, not by individual congregations, but by divine commission and so were honored and accepted in all local communities.<\/p>\nEarly Christian prophets were both itinerant and settled, though itinerant prophets seem to have been more prevalent in Syria-Palestine and Asia Minor than in the European churches.<\/p>\n<h5>The Function of Prophecy<\/h5>\nAccording to Paul, the central purpose of prophecy (as of all other spiritual gifts) is that of building up or edifying the church. According to 1 Corinthians 14:3, “one who prophesies is helping others grow in the Lord, encouraging and comforting them” (nlt<\/span>). Again, in 1 Corinthians 14:4, Paul states that the “one who speaks a word of prophecy strengthens the entire church.” Paul discussed the subject of spiritual gifts, particularly tongues speaking and prophecy, because the Corinthians had placed an excessive emphasis on speaking in tongues. Paul did not object to speaking in tongues (1 Cor 14:18, 39), but he did point out that, since it was generally incomprehensible, the church could not be edified by it. Prophecy, which consisted of comprehensible speech inspired by the Spirit, contributed to the mutual edification, encouragement, and consolation of all present (1 Cor 14:20-25, 39).<\/p>\n<h5>The Content of Christian Prophecy<\/h5>\nWe know only a little about the content of prophecies uttered in the first-century church. Prophetic utterance occasionally provided divine guidance in making important decisions in early Christianity. Through a prophetic utterance, Paul and Barnabas were selected for a particular mission (Acts 13:1-3; cf. 1 Tm 1:18; 4:14). Probably through prophetic utterance, Paul and Timothy were forbidden to preach the gospel in Asia (Acts 16:6), and they were similarly forbidden by the Spirit of Jesus to go into Bithynia (v 7). Perhaps the most frequent use of prophecy is the prediction of the future. Agabus predicted a universal famine (11:28) and the imminent arrest of Paul (21:11). Other prophets had also predicted his impending imprisonment (20:23). The prophecies contained in the Revelation of John are all oriented toward the future events that will gradually unfold in the last days. Yet the purpose of John’s elaborate prophecy is not to satisfy the curiosity of his audience but rather to comfort and encourage them in the midst of persecution.<\/p>\n<h5>The Form of Christian Prophecy<\/h5>\nUnlike the prophets of the OT, Christian prophets did not always present their message in the form of a direct speech from God or Jesus. There are few, if any, formal indicators of the presence of prophetic speech in early Christian literature. The book of Revelation is one notable exception.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Dreams; Oracle; Promise; Prophet, Prophetess; Prophets, False; Visions.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PROPHECY Term, along with its English cognates (“prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”), derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration. Preview • Prophecy in the Old Testament • Types of Old Testament Prophets • The Message of the Prophets • Prophecy in the ...","summary_en":"PROPHECY Term, along with its English cognates (“prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”), derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration. Preview • Prophecy in the Old Testament • Types of Old Testament Prophets • The Message of the Prophets • Prophecy in the ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57676,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:4","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:4","content_ro":"14:4<\/strong> The primary purpose of spiritual gifts is not self-edification, but the strengthening of the entire church<\/em> (see 12:7; cp. 8:1; 14:12).<\/p>","content_en":"14:4<\/strong> The primary purpose of spiritual gifts is not self-edification, but the strengthening of the entire church<\/em> (see 12:7; cp. 8:1; 14:12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:4 The primary purpose of spiritual gifts is not self-edification, but the strengthening of the entire church (see 12:7; cp. 8:1; 14:12).","summary_en":"14:4 The primary purpose of spiritual gifts is not self-edification, but the strengthening of the entire church (see 12:7; cp. 8:1; 14:12).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85302,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:4","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:4","content_ro":"14:4<\/strong> The primary purpose of spiritual gifts is not self-edification, but the strengthening of the entire church<\/em> (see 12:7; cp. 8:1; 14:12).<\/p>","content_en":"14:4<\/strong> The primary purpose of spiritual gifts is not self-edification, but the strengthening of the entire church<\/em> (see 12:7; cp. 8:1; 14:12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:4 The primary purpose of spiritual gifts is not self-edification, but the strengthening of the entire church (see 12:7; cp. 8:1; 14:12).","summary_en":"14:4 The primary purpose of spiritual gifts is not self-edification, but the strengthening of the entire church (see 12:7; cp. 8:1; 14:12).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112928,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:4","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:4","content_ro":"14:4<\/strong> The primary purpose of spiritual gifts is not self-edification, but the strengthening of the entire church<\/em> (see 12:7; cp. 8:1; 14:12).<\/p>","content_en":"14:4<\/strong> The primary purpose of spiritual gifts is not self-edification, but the strengthening of the entire church<\/em> (see 12:7; cp. 8:1; 14:12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:4 The primary purpose of spiritual gifts is not self-edification, but the strengthening of the entire church (see 12:7; cp. 8:1; 14:12).","summary_en":"14:4 The primary purpose of spiritual gifts is not self-edification, but the strengthening of the entire church (see 12:7; cp. 8:1; 14:12).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140554,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:4","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:4","content_ro":"14:4<\/strong> The primary purpose of spiritual gifts is not self-edification, but the strengthening of the entire church<\/em> (see 12:7; cp. 8:1; 14:12).<\/p>","content_en":"14:4<\/strong> The primary purpose of spiritual gifts is not self-edification, but the strengthening of the entire church<\/em> (see 12:7; cp. 8:1; 14:12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:4 The primary purpose of spiritual gifts is not self-edification, but the strengthening of the entire church (see 12:7; cp. 8:1; 14:12).","summary_en":"14:4 The primary purpose of spiritual gifts is not self-edification, but the strengthening of the entire church (see 12:7; cp. 8:1; 14:12).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"6":[{"id":36186,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Spirit of God","title_en":"Spirit of God","content_ro":"<h3>SPIRIT OF GOD<\/h3>\nDescription of God in action, God in motion. The word “spirit” (Hebrew, ruach<\/span>;<\/em> Greek, pneuma<\/span>) is the word used from ancient times to describe and explain the experience of divine power working in, upon, and around people.<\/p>\nIn the Old Testament<\/p>\nThere are three basic meanings evident in the use of “spirit” from the earliest Hebrew writings: It was a wind from God, it was the breath of life, and it was a spirit of ecstasy.<\/p>\nFirst, it was a wind from God (the same Hebrew word translated “Spirit” in Gn 1:2) that caused the waters of the Flood to subside (8:1). A wind from God blew locusts over Egypt (Ex 10:13) and quail over the camp of Israel. The blast of his nostrils separated the waters of the Red Sea at the exodus (14:21).<\/p>\nSecond, it was the breath of God that made man a living being (Gn 2:7). It is one of the earliest perceptions of Hebrew faith that humans live only because of the stirring of the divine breath or spirit within them (Gn 6:3; Jb 33:4; 34:14-15; Ps 104:29-30). Later, a clearer distinction was drawn between divine Spirit and human spirit, and between spirit and soul, but at the earliest stage these were all more or less perceived to be synonymous manifestations of the same divine power, the source of all life—animal as well as human (Gn 7:15, 22; see Eccl 3:19-21).<\/p>\nThird, there were occasions when this divine power seemed to overtake and possess an individual fully, so that his or her words or actions far transcended those of normal behavior. Such a person was clearly marked as an agent of God’s purpose and given respect. This was apparently how leaders were recognized in the premonarchy period—Othniel (Jgs 3:10), Gideon (6:34), Jephthah (11:29), and the first king, Saul (1 Sm 11:6), as well. So, too, the earliest prophets were those whose inspiration came in ecstasy (1 Sm 19:20-24).<\/p>\nIn the earlier stages of Hebrew thought, ecstatic experience was seen as the direct effect of divine power. This was true even when the ecstasy was recognized as evil in character, as in the case of Saul’s seizure by the Spirit (1 Sm 16:14-16). A spirit from God could be for evil as well as for good (see Jgs 9:23; 1 Kgs 22:19-23).<\/p>\n<h5>In the Writings of the Prophets<\/h5>\nFor Isaiah, the spirit was that which characterized God and distinguished him and his actions from human affairs (Is 31:3). Later, the adjective “holy” appeared as that which distinguished the Spirit of God from any other spirit, human or divine (Ps 51:11; Is 63:10-11).<\/p>\nThe problem of false prophecy emphasized the danger of assuming that every message delivered in ecstasy was the word of the Lord. Thus, tests of prophecy evaluated the content of the message delivered or the character of the prophet’s life, not the degree or quality of inspiration (see Dt 13:1-5; 18:22; Jer 23:14; Mi 3:5). This sense of a need to discriminate between true and false inspiration and to distinguish the word of God from the merely ecstatic oracle may help to explain the otherwise puzzling reluctance of the major eighth- and seventh-century BC<\/span> prophets to attribute their inspiration to the Spirit.<\/p>\n<h5>In the Exilic and Postexilic Writings<\/h5>\nIn exilic and postexilic literature, the role of the Spirit is narrowed to two major functions: that of the prophetic Spirit and that of the Spirit of the age to come.<\/p>\nThe later prophets again spoke of the Spirit in explicit terms as the inspirer of prophecy (see Ez 3:1-4, 22-24; Hg 2:5; Zec 4:6). As they looked back to the preexilic period, these prophets freely attributed the inspiration of “the former prophets” to the Spirit as well (Zec 7:12).<\/p>\nThis tendency to exalt the Spirit’s role as the inspirer of prophecy became steadily stronger in the period between the OT and NT, until in rabbinic Judaism the Spirit was almost exclusively the inspirer of the prophetic writings now regarded as Scripture.<\/p>\nThe other understanding of the Spirit’s role during exilic and postexilic times was that the Spirit would be the manifestation of the power of God in the age to come. That eschatological hope of divine power effecting a final cleansing and a renewed creation is rooted principally in Isaiah’s prophecies (Is 4:4; 32:15; 44:3-4). Isaiah speaks of one anointed by the Spirit to accomplish complete and final salvation (11:2; 42:1; 61:1). Elsewhere, the same longing is expressed in terms of the Spirit being freely dispensed to all Israel (Ez 39:29; Jl 2:28-29; Zec 12:10) in the new covenant (Jer 31:31-34; Ez 36:26-27).<\/p>\nIn the period prior to Jesus, the understanding of the Spirit as the Spirit of prophecy and as the Spirit of the age to come had developed into the widespread dogma that the Spirit was no longer to be experienced in the present. The Spirit had been known in the past as the inspirer of prophetic writings, but after Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi, the Spirit had withdrawn (1 Macc 4:44-46; 9:27; 2 Bar 85:1-3; see also Ps 74:9; Zec 13:2-6). The Spirit would be known again in the age of the Messiah, but in the interim the Spirit was absent from Israel. Even the great Hillel (learned Jewish leader and teacher, 60? BC<\/span>–AD<\/span> 20?), a near contemporary of Jesus, had not received the Spirit—though if anyone was worthy of the Spirit, it was he. There is a tradition that at a meeting of Hillel and other wise men, a voice from heaven said, “Among those here present is one who would have deserved the Holy Spirit to rest upon him, if his time had been worthy of it.” The wise men all looked at Hillel.<\/p>\nThe consequence of this accepted dearth of the Spirit was that the Spirit in effect became subordinated to the law. The Spirit was the inspirer of the law, but since the Spirit could no longer be experienced directly, the law became the sole voice of the Spirit. It was this increasing dominance of the law and its authoritative interpreters that provided the background for the mission of Jesus and the initial spread of Christianity.<\/p>\nIn the New Testament<\/p>\nIf we are to understand the NT’s teaching on the Spirit, we must recognize both its continuity and discontinuity with the OT. At many points NT usage cannot be fully understood except against the background of OT concepts or passages. For example, the ambiguity of John 3:8 (“wind,” “Spirit”), 2 Thessalonians 2:8 (“breath”), and Revelation 11:11 (“breath of life”) takes us back to the basic Hebrew meanings of “spirit.” Acts 8:39 and Revelation 17:3 and 21:10 reflect the same conception of the Spirit that we find in 1 Kings 18:12, 2 Kings 2:16, and Ezekiel 3:14. The NT writers generally share the rabbinic view that Scripture has the authority of the Spirit behind it (see Mk 12:36; Acts 28:25; Heb 3:7; 2 Pt 1:21). The principal continuity is that the NT brings the fulfillment of what the OT writers looked forward to. At the same time, Christianity is not simply fulfilled Judaism. Jesus’ coming and his giving of his Spirit to live within his believers marks off the new faith as something new and distinct.<\/p>\n<h5>The Spirit of the New Age<\/h5>\nThe most striking feature of Jesus’ ministry and of the message of the earliest Christians was their conviction and proclamation that the blessings of the new age were already present, that the eschatological Spirit had already been poured out. With the exception of the Essenes at Qumran, no other group or individual within the Jewish religion of that time had dared to make such a bold claim. The prophets and the rabbis looked for a messianic age yet to come, and the apocalyptic writers warned of its imminent arrival, but none thought of it as already present. Even John the Baptist spoke only of one about to come and of the Spirit’s operation in the imminent future (Mk 1:8). But for Jesus and first-century Christians, the longed for hope was a living reality, and the claim carried with it the exciting sense of being in “the last days.” Without some recognition of that eschatological dimension of the Christians’ faith and life, we cannot understand this teaching on, and experience of, the Spirit.<\/p>\nJesus clearly thought of his teachings and healings as fulfillment of the prophetic hope (Mt 12:41-42; 13:16-17; Lk 17:20-21). In particular, he saw himself as the one anointed by the Spirit to provide salvation (Mt 5:3-6; 11:5; Lk 4:17-19). So, too, Jesus understood his exorcisms as the effect of the power of God and as manifestations of the end-time rule of God (Mt 12:27-28; Mk 3:22-26). The Gospel writers, especially Luke, emphasize the eschatological character of Jesus’ life and ministry by stressing the role of the Spirit in his birth (Mt 1:18; Lk 1:35, 41, 67; 2:25-27), his baptism (Mk 1:9-10; Acts 10:38), and his ministry (Mt 4:1; 12:18; Mk 1:12; Lk 4:1, 14; 10:21; Jn 3:34).<\/p>\nThe Christian church began with the in-breathing of the Holy Spirit on the day of Christ’s resurrection (Jn 20:22), followed by the outpouring of the Spirit at Pentecost “in the last days.” The overwhelming experience of vision and inspired utterance was taken as proof positive that the new age prophesied by Joel had now arrived (Acts 2:2-5, 17-18). Similarly, in Hebrews the gift of the Spirit is spoken of as “the powers of the age to come” (Heb 6:4-5). More striking still is Paul’s understanding of the Spirit as the guarantee of God’s complete salvation (2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Eph 1:13-14), and as the first installment of the believer’s inheritance of God’s kingdom (Rom 8:15-17; 1 Cor 6:9-11; 15:42-50; Gal 4:6-7; 5:16-18, 21-23; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit is here again thought of as the power of the age to come, as that power (which will characterize God’s rule at the end of time) already shaping and transforming the lives of believers.<\/p>\nFor Paul, this means also that the gift of the Spirit is but the beginning of a lifelong process that will not end until the believer’s whole person is brought under the Spirit’s power (Rom 8:11, 23; 1 Cor 15:44-49; 2 Cor 3:18; 5:1-5). It also means that the present experience of faith is one of lifelong tension between what God has already begun to bring about in the believer’s life and what has not yet been brought under God’s grace (Phil 1:6). It is this tension between life “in the Spirit” and life “in the flesh” (see Gal 2:20) that comes to poignant expression in Romans 7:24 and 2 Corinthians 5:2-4.<\/p>\n<h5>The Spirit of New Life<\/h5>\nSince the Spirit is the mark of the new age, it is not surprising that the NT writers understood the gift of the Spirit to be that which brings an individual into the new age. John the Baptist described the way the coming one would baptize with the Holy Spirit and with fire (Mt 3:11). According to Acts 1:5 and 11:16, this imagery was taken up by Jesus, and the promise is seen as fulfilled at Pentecost—the outpouring of the Spirit here being understood as the risen Christ’s action in drawing his disciples into the new age (Acts 2:17, 33).<\/p>\nIt seems to be one of Luke’s aims in the book of Acts to highlight the central importance of the gift of the Spirit in conversion-initiation—it is that decisive “gift of the Holy Spirit” that makes one a Christian (Acts 2:38-39). People could have been followers of Jesus on earth, but it was only when they received the gift of the Spirit that they could be said to have “believed in the Lord Jesus Christ” (11:16-17). When the Spirit’s presence was manifested in and upon a person’s life, that was recognized by Peter as proof enough that God had accepted that person, even though he or she had not yet made any formal profession of faith or been baptized (10:44-48; 11:15-18; 15:7-9). So too Apollos, already aglow with the Spirit (18:25), even though his knowledge of “the way of God” was slightly defective (vv 24-26), apparently was not required to supplement his “baptism of John” with Christian baptism. However, the 12 so-called disciples at Ephesus proved by their very ignorance of the Spirit that they were not yet disciples of the Lord Jesus (19:1-6). Paul asked these 12 men, “Did you receive the Holy Spirit when you believed?” (19:2).<\/p>\nThis accords with Paul’s emphasis in his letters. Belief and reception of the Spirit go together: to receive the Spirit is to begin the Christian life (Gal 3:2-3); to be baptized in the Spirit is to become a member of the body of Christ (1 Cor 12:13); to “have the Spirit of Christ” is to belong to Christ (Rom 8:9-11); to receive the Spirit is tantamount to becoming a child of God (Rom 8:14-17; Gal 4:6-7). The Spirit so characterizes the new age and the life of the new age that only the gift of the Spirit can bring a person into the new age to experience the life of the new age. For the Spirit is distinctively and peculiarly the life-giver; the Spirit indeed is<\/em> the life of the new age (Rom 8:2, 6, 10; 1 Cor 15:45; 2 Cor 3:6; Gal 5:25).<\/p>\nIn just the same way in John’s writings, the Spirit is characteristically the life-giving Spirit (Jn 6:63), the power from above, the seed of divine life that brings about the new birth (Jn 3:3-8; 1 Jn 3:9), and a river of living water that brings life when one believes in Christ (Jn 7:37-39; so also 4:10, 14). Or again, reception of the Spirit in John 20:22 is depicted as a new creation analogous to Genesis 2:7. Consequently, in 1 John 3:24 and 4:13, possession and experience of the Spirit count as one of the “tests of life” listed in that letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Manifestations of the Spirit<\/h5>\nIt will be clear from what has already been said that when the first Christians, like the ancient Hebrews, spoke of the Spirit, they were thinking of experiences of divine power. In the NT, as in the OT, “Spirit” is the word used to explain the experience of new life and vitality (see above), of liberation from legalism (e.g., Rom 8:2; 2 Cor 3:17), of spiritual refreshing and renewal (cf. e.g., Is 32:15; Ez 39:29 with Jn 7:37-39; Rom 5:5; 1 Cor 12:13; 1 Tm 3:5-6). It is important to realize how wide a range of experiences were attributed to the Spirit: ecstatic experiences (Acts 2:24; 10:43-47; 19:6; cf. 10:10; 22:17—“in ecstasy”; 2 Cor 12:1-4; Rv 1:10), emotional experiences (e.g., love—Rom 5:5; joy—Acts 13:52; 1 Thes 1:6; see also Gal 5:22; Phil 2:1-2), experiences of illumination (2 Cor 3:14-17; Eph 1:17-18; Heb 6:4-5; 1 Jn 2:20-21), and experiences issuing in moral transformation (1 Cor 6:9-11). Likewise, when Paul speaks of spiritual gifts, called charismata<\/span> (acts or words that bring divine grace to concrete expression), he evidently has a wide range of actual events in mind: inspired speech (1 Cor 12:8-10; 1 Thes 1:5), miracles and healings (1 Cor 12:9; Gal 3:5; cf. Heb 2:4), and various acts of service and help, of counsel and administration, and of aid and mercy (Rom 12:7-8; 1 Cor 12:28).<\/p>\nIn talking thus of the Spirit in terms of experience, we should not overemphasize particular experiences or manifestations, as though earliest Christianity consisted of a sequence of mountaintop experiences or spiritual highs. There clearly were such experiences, indeed a wide range of experiences, but no one experience is singled out to be sought by all (except prophecy). There is no distinctively second (or third) experience of the Spirit in the NT, and Paul warned against overvaluing particular manifestations of the Spirit (1 Cor 14:6-19; 2 Cor 12:1-10; cf. Mk 8:11-13). Where particular experiences are valued, it is as manifestations of a more sustained experience, particular expressions of an underlying relationship (cf. Acts 6:3-5; 11:24—“full of the Spirit”; Eph 5:18). What we are in touch with here is the vigor of the experiential dimension of earliest Christianity. If the Spirit is the breath of the new life in Christ (cf. Ez 37:9-10, 14; Jn 20:22; 1 Cor 15:45), then presumably the analogy extends further, and the experience of the Spirit is like the experience of breathing: one is not conscious of it all the time, but if one is not conscious of it, at least sometimes, something is wrong.<\/p>\n<h5>The Fellowship of the Spirit<\/h5>\nIt was out of this shared experience of the Spirit that the earliest Christian community grew and developed, for this is what “the fellowship [koinonia<\/span>] of the Spirit” properly means: common participation in the same Spirit (Phil 2:1; cf. Acts 2:42; 1 Cor 1:4-9). It was the gift of the Spirit that brought those in Samaria, Caesarea, and elsewhere effectively into the community of the Spirit (Act 8, 10). So also, it was the experience of the one Spirit that provided the unifying bond in the churches of Paul’s mission (1 Cor 12:13; Eph 4:3-4; Phil 2:1-2). Here we see the real importance of the divine manifestations of the Spirit for Paul: it is out of the diversity of these particular manifestations that the body of Christ grows in unity (Rom 12:4-8; 1 Cor 12:12-17; Eph 4:4-16).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SPIRIT OF GOD<\/h3>\nDescription of God in action, God in motion. The word “spirit” (Hebrew, ruach<\/span>;<\/em> Greek, pneuma<\/span>) is the word used from ancient times to describe and explain the experience of divine power working in, upon, and around people.<\/p>\nIn the Old Testament<\/p>\nThere are three basic meanings evident in the use of “spirit” from the earliest Hebrew writings: It was a wind from God, it was the breath of life, and it was a spirit of ecstasy.<\/p>\nFirst, it was a wind from God (the same Hebrew word translated “Spirit” in Gn 1:2) that caused the waters of the Flood to subside (8:1). A wind from God blew locusts over Egypt (Ex 10:13) and quail over the camp of Israel. The blast of his nostrils separated the waters of the Red Sea at the exodus (14:21).<\/p>\nSecond, it was the breath of God that made man a living being (Gn 2:7). It is one of the earliest perceptions of Hebrew faith that humans live only because of the stirring of the divine breath or spirit within them (Gn 6:3; Jb 33:4; 34:14-15; Ps 104:29-30). Later, a clearer distinction was drawn between divine Spirit and human spirit, and between spirit and soul, but at the earliest stage these were all more or less perceived to be synonymous manifestations of the same divine power, the source of all life—animal as well as human (Gn 7:15, 22; see Eccl 3:19-21).<\/p>\nThird, there were occasions when this divine power seemed to overtake and possess an individual fully, so that his or her words or actions far transcended those of normal behavior. Such a person was clearly marked as an agent of God’s purpose and given respect. This was apparently how leaders were recognized in the premonarchy period—Othniel (Jgs 3:10), Gideon (6:34), Jephthah (11:29), and the first king, Saul (1 Sm 11:6), as well. So, too, the earliest prophets were those whose inspiration came in ecstasy (1 Sm 19:20-24).<\/p>\nIn the earlier stages of Hebrew thought, ecstatic experience was seen as the direct effect of divine power. This was true even when the ecstasy was recognized as evil in character, as in the case of Saul’s seizure by the Spirit (1 Sm 16:14-16). A spirit from God could be for evil as well as for good (see Jgs 9:23; 1 Kgs 22:19-23).<\/p>\n<h5>In the Writings of the Prophets<\/h5>\nFor Isaiah, the spirit was that which characterized God and distinguished him and his actions from human affairs (Is 31:3). Later, the adjective “holy” appeared as that which distinguished the Spirit of God from any other spirit, human or divine (Ps 51:11; Is 63:10-11).<\/p>\nThe problem of false prophecy emphasized the danger of assuming that every message delivered in ecstasy was the word of the Lord. Thus, tests of prophecy evaluated the content of the message delivered or the character of the prophet’s life, not the degree or quality of inspiration (see Dt 13:1-5; 18:22; Jer 23:14; Mi 3:5). This sense of a need to discriminate between true and false inspiration and to distinguish the word of God from the merely ecstatic oracle may help to explain the otherwise puzzling reluctance of the major eighth- and seventh-century BC<\/span> prophets to attribute their inspiration to the Spirit.<\/p>\n<h5>In the Exilic and Postexilic Writings<\/h5>\nIn exilic and postexilic literature, the role of the Spirit is narrowed to two major functions: that of the prophetic Spirit and that of the Spirit of the age to come.<\/p>\nThe later prophets again spoke of the Spirit in explicit terms as the inspirer of prophecy (see Ez 3:1-4, 22-24; Hg 2:5; Zec 4:6). As they looked back to the preexilic period, these prophets freely attributed the inspiration of “the former prophets” to the Spirit as well (Zec 7:12).<\/p>\nThis tendency to exalt the Spirit’s role as the inspirer of prophecy became steadily stronger in the period between the OT and NT, until in rabbinic Judaism the Spirit was almost exclusively the inspirer of the prophetic writings now regarded as Scripture.<\/p>\nThe other understanding of the Spirit’s role during exilic and postexilic times was that the Spirit would be the manifestation of the power of God in the age to come. That eschatological hope of divine power effecting a final cleansing and a renewed creation is rooted principally in Isaiah’s prophecies (Is 4:4; 32:15; 44:3-4). Isaiah speaks of one anointed by the Spirit to accomplish complete and final salvation (11:2; 42:1; 61:1). Elsewhere, the same longing is expressed in terms of the Spirit being freely dispensed to all Israel (Ez 39:29; Jl 2:28-29; Zec 12:10) in the new covenant (Jer 31:31-34; Ez 36:26-27).<\/p>\nIn the period prior to Jesus, the understanding of the Spirit as the Spirit of prophecy and as the Spirit of the age to come had developed into the widespread dogma that the Spirit was no longer to be experienced in the present. The Spirit had been known in the past as the inspirer of prophetic writings, but after Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi, the Spirit had withdrawn (1 Macc 4:44-46; 9:27; 2 Bar 85:1-3; see also Ps 74:9; Zec 13:2-6). The Spirit would be known again in the age of the Messiah, but in the interim the Spirit was absent from Israel. Even the great Hillel (learned Jewish leader and teacher, 60? BC<\/span>–AD<\/span> 20?), a near contemporary of Jesus, had not received the Spirit—though if anyone was worthy of the Spirit, it was he. There is a tradition that at a meeting of Hillel and other wise men, a voice from heaven said, “Among those here present is one who would have deserved the Holy Spirit to rest upon him, if his time had been worthy of it.” The wise men all looked at Hillel.<\/p>\nThe consequence of this accepted dearth of the Spirit was that the Spirit in effect became subordinated to the law. The Spirit was the inspirer of the law, but since the Spirit could no longer be experienced directly, the law became the sole voice of the Spirit. It was this increasing dominance of the law and its authoritative interpreters that provided the background for the mission of Jesus and the initial spread of Christianity.<\/p>\nIn the New Testament<\/p>\nIf we are to understand the NT’s teaching on the Spirit, we must recognize both its continuity and discontinuity with the OT. At many points NT usage cannot be fully understood except against the background of OT concepts or passages. For example, the ambiguity of John 3:8 (“wind,” “Spirit”), 2 Thessalonians 2:8 (“breath”), and Revelation 11:11 (“breath of life”) takes us back to the basic Hebrew meanings of “spirit.” Acts 8:39 and Revelation 17:3 and 21:10 reflect the same conception of the Spirit that we find in 1 Kings 18:12, 2 Kings 2:16, and Ezekiel 3:14. The NT writers generally share the rabbinic view that Scripture has the authority of the Spirit behind it (see Mk 12:36; Acts 28:25; Heb 3:7; 2 Pt 1:21). The principal continuity is that the NT brings the fulfillment of what the OT writers looked forward to. At the same time, Christianity is not simply fulfilled Judaism. Jesus’ coming and his giving of his Spirit to live within his believers marks off the new faith as something new and distinct.<\/p>\n<h5>The Spirit of the New Age<\/h5>\nThe most striking feature of Jesus’ ministry and of the message of the earliest Christians was their conviction and proclamation that the blessings of the new age were already present, that the eschatological Spirit had already been poured out. With the exception of the Essenes at Qumran, no other group or individual within the Jewish religion of that time had dared to make such a bold claim. The prophets and the rabbis looked for a messianic age yet to come, and the apocalyptic writers warned of its imminent arrival, but none thought of it as already present. Even John the Baptist spoke only of one about to come and of the Spirit’s operation in the imminent future (Mk 1:8). But for Jesus and first-century Christians, the longed for hope was a living reality, and the claim carried with it the exciting sense of being in “the last days.” Without some recognition of that eschatological dimension of the Christians’ faith and life, we cannot understand this teaching on, and experience of, the Spirit.<\/p>\nJesus clearly thought of his teachings and healings as fulfillment of the prophetic hope (Mt 12:41-42; 13:16-17; Lk 17:20-21). In particular, he saw himself as the one anointed by the Spirit to provide salvation (Mt 5:3-6; 11:5; Lk 4:17-19). So, too, Jesus understood his exorcisms as the effect of the power of God and as manifestations of the end-time rule of God (Mt 12:27-28; Mk 3:22-26). The Gospel writers, especially Luke, emphasize the eschatological character of Jesus’ life and ministry by stressing the role of the Spirit in his birth (Mt 1:18; Lk 1:35, 41, 67; 2:25-27), his baptism (Mk 1:9-10; Acts 10:38), and his ministry (Mt 4:1; 12:18; Mk 1:12; Lk 4:1, 14; 10:21; Jn 3:34).<\/p>\nThe Christian church began with the in-breathing of the Holy Spirit on the day of Christ’s resurrection (Jn 20:22), followed by the outpouring of the Spirit at Pentecost “in the last days.” The overwhelming experience of vision and inspired utterance was taken as proof positive that the new age prophesied by Joel had now arrived (Acts 2:2-5, 17-18). Similarly, in Hebrews the gift of the Spirit is spoken of as “the powers of the age to come” (Heb 6:4-5). More striking still is Paul’s understanding of the Spirit as the guarantee of God’s complete salvation (2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Eph 1:13-14), and as the first installment of the believer’s inheritance of God’s kingdom (Rom 8:15-17; 1 Cor 6:9-11; 15:42-50; Gal 4:6-7; 5:16-18, 21-23; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit is here again thought of as the power of the age to come, as that power (which will characterize God’s rule at the end of time) already shaping and transforming the lives of believers.<\/p>\nFor Paul, this means also that the gift of the Spirit is but the beginning of a lifelong process that will not end until the believer’s whole person is brought under the Spirit’s power (Rom 8:11, 23; 1 Cor 15:44-49; 2 Cor 3:18; 5:1-5). It also means that the present experience of faith is one of lifelong tension between what God has already begun to bring about in the believer’s life and what has not yet been brought under God’s grace (Phil 1:6). It is this tension between life “in the Spirit” and life “in the flesh” (see Gal 2:20) that comes to poignant expression in Romans 7:24 and 2 Corinthians 5:2-4.<\/p>\n<h5>The Spirit of New Life<\/h5>\nSince the Spirit is the mark of the new age, it is not surprising that the NT writers understood the gift of the Spirit to be that which brings an individual into the new age. John the Baptist described the way the coming one would baptize with the Holy Spirit and with fire (Mt 3:11). According to Acts 1:5 and 11:16, this imagery was taken up by Jesus, and the promise is seen as fulfilled at Pentecost—the outpouring of the Spirit here being understood as the risen Christ’s action in drawing his disciples into the new age (Acts 2:17, 33).<\/p>\nIt seems to be one of Luke’s aims in the book of Acts to highlight the central importance of the gift of the Spirit in conversion-initiation—it is that decisive “gift of the Holy Spirit” that makes one a Christian (Acts 2:38-39). People could have been followers of Jesus on earth, but it was only when they received the gift of the Spirit that they could be said to have “believed in the Lord Jesus Christ” (11:16-17). When the Spirit’s presence was manifested in and upon a person’s life, that was recognized by Peter as proof enough that God had accepted that person, even though he or she had not yet made any formal profession of faith or been baptized (10:44-48; 11:15-18; 15:7-9). So too Apollos, already aglow with the Spirit (18:25), even though his knowledge of “the way of God” was slightly defective (vv 24-26), apparently was not required to supplement his “baptism of John” with Christian baptism. However, the 12 so-called disciples at Ephesus proved by their very ignorance of the Spirit that they were not yet disciples of the Lord Jesus (19:1-6). Paul asked these 12 men, “Did you receive the Holy Spirit when you believed?” (19:2).<\/p>\nThis accords with Paul’s emphasis in his letters. Belief and reception of the Spirit go together: to receive the Spirit is to begin the Christian life (Gal 3:2-3); to be baptized in the Spirit is to become a member of the body of Christ (1 Cor 12:13); to “have the Spirit of Christ” is to belong to Christ (Rom 8:9-11); to receive the Spirit is tantamount to becoming a child of God (Rom 8:14-17; Gal 4:6-7). The Spirit so characterizes the new age and the life of the new age that only the gift of the Spirit can bring a person into the new age to experience the life of the new age. For the Spirit is distinctively and peculiarly the life-giver; the Spirit indeed is<\/em> the life of the new age (Rom 8:2, 6, 10; 1 Cor 15:45; 2 Cor 3:6; Gal 5:25).<\/p>\nIn just the same way in John’s writings, the Spirit is characteristically the life-giving Spirit (Jn 6:63), the power from above, the seed of divine life that brings about the new birth (Jn 3:3-8; 1 Jn 3:9), and a river of living water that brings life when one believes in Christ (Jn 7:37-39; so also 4:10, 14). Or again, reception of the Spirit in John 20:22 is depicted as a new creation analogous to Genesis 2:7. Consequently, in 1 John 3:24 and 4:13, possession and experience of the Spirit count as one of the “tests of life” listed in that letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Manifestations of the Spirit<\/h5>\nIt will be clear from what has already been said that when the first Christians, like the ancient Hebrews, spoke of the Spirit, they were thinking of experiences of divine power. In the NT, as in the OT, “Spirit” is the word used to explain the experience of new life and vitality (see above), of liberation from legalism (e.g., Rom 8:2; 2 Cor 3:17), of spiritual refreshing and renewal (cf. e.g., Is 32:15; Ez 39:29 with Jn 7:37-39; Rom 5:5; 1 Cor 12:13; 1 Tm 3:5-6). It is important to realize how wide a range of experiences were attributed to the Spirit: ecstatic experiences (Acts 2:24; 10:43-47; 19:6; cf. 10:10; 22:17—“in ecstasy”; 2 Cor 12:1-4; Rv 1:10), emotional experiences (e.g., love—Rom 5:5; joy—Acts 13:52; 1 Thes 1:6; see also Gal 5:22; Phil 2:1-2), experiences of illumination (2 Cor 3:14-17; Eph 1:17-18; Heb 6:4-5; 1 Jn 2:20-21), and experiences issuing in moral transformation (1 Cor 6:9-11). Likewise, when Paul speaks of spiritual gifts, called charismata<\/span> (acts or words that bring divine grace to concrete expression), he evidently has a wide range of actual events in mind: inspired speech (1 Cor 12:8-10; 1 Thes 1:5), miracles and healings (1 Cor 12:9; Gal 3:5; cf. Heb 2:4), and various acts of service and help, of counsel and administration, and of aid and mercy (Rom 12:7-8; 1 Cor 12:28).<\/p>\nIn talking thus of the Spirit in terms of experience, we should not overemphasize particular experiences or manifestations, as though earliest Christianity consisted of a sequence of mountaintop experiences or spiritual highs. There clearly were such experiences, indeed a wide range of experiences, but no one experience is singled out to be sought by all (except prophecy). There is no distinctively second (or third) experience of the Spirit in the NT, and Paul warned against overvaluing particular manifestations of the Spirit (1 Cor 14:6-19; 2 Cor 12:1-10; cf. Mk 8:11-13). Where particular experiences are valued, it is as manifestations of a more sustained experience, particular expressions of an underlying relationship (cf. Acts 6:3-5; 11:24—“full of the Spirit”; Eph 5:18). What we are in touch with here is the vigor of the experiential dimension of earliest Christianity. If the Spirit is the breath of the new life in Christ (cf. Ez 37:9-10, 14; Jn 20:22; 1 Cor 15:45), then presumably the analogy extends further, and the experience of the Spirit is like the experience of breathing: one is not conscious of it all the time, but if one is not conscious of it, at least sometimes, something is wrong.<\/p>\n<h5>The Fellowship of the Spirit<\/h5>\nIt was out of this shared experience of the Spirit that the earliest Christian community grew and developed, for this is what “the fellowship [koinonia<\/span>] of the Spirit” properly means: common participation in the same Spirit (Phil 2:1; cf. Acts 2:42; 1 Cor 1:4-9). It was the gift of the Spirit that brought those in Samaria, Caesarea, and elsewhere effectively into the community of the Spirit (Act 8, 10). So also, it was the experience of the one Spirit that provided the unifying bond in the churches of Paul’s mission (1 Cor 12:13; Eph 4:3-4; Phil 2:1-2). Here we see the real importance of the divine manifestations of the Spirit for Paul: it is out of the diversity of these particular manifestations that the body of Christ grows in unity (Rom 12:4-8; 1 Cor 12:12-17; Eph 4:4-16).<\/p>","summary_ro":"SPIRIT OF GOD Description of God in action, God in motion. The word “spirit” (Hebrew, ruach; Greek, pneuma) is the word used from ancient times to describe and explain the experience of divine power working in, upon, and around people. In the Old Testament There are three basic meanings evident in the use of “spirit” from the earliest Hebrew writings: It was a wind from God, it was the breath of life, and it was a spirit of ecstasy. First, it was a wind from God (the same Hebrew word translat...","summary_en":"SPIRIT OF GOD Description of God in action, God in motion. The word “spirit” (Hebrew, ruach; Greek, pneuma) is the word used from ancient times to describe and explain the experience of divine power working in, upon, and around people. In the Old Testament There are three basic meanings evident in the use of “spirit” from the earliest Hebrew writings: It was a wind from God, it was the breath of life, and it was a spirit of ecstasy. First, it was a wind from God (the same Hebrew word translat...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"7":[{"id":26637,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Music","title_en":"Music","content_ro":"<h3>MUSIC<\/h3>\nA natural human expression that probably began with speech-singing and developed into songs, which were then accompanied by instruments. Music as we know it has become quite complex, a luxury and entertainment; music in antiquity, however, was a functional expression of daily life, work, and worship.<\/p>\nThe phrase “sing to the Lord,” common to the OT (Ex 15:21; 1 Chr 16:9; Pss 68:32; 96:1-2; Is 42:10; Jer 20:13), was not unique to the Jewish nation. All religions draw on the natural human impulse to sing. The injunction “sing to the Lord” was a signal for the people to pour out their praise in song.<\/p>\nThe Bible, however, is limited in its treatment of music in ancient Israel. Since there was no written musical notation, the primary record of songs sung by the Hebrews is the collection of texts, particularly the psalms, and a few enigmatic musical instructions. The biblical writers were writing a history not of their culture but of their relationship with God; hence, their comments about music are not critical. Also, the biblical documents cover a long span of history and are grouped according to category rather than in chronological order, thus making it difficult to order the development of musical style with precision. Finally, there is the problem of understanding the biblical descriptions of music and its performance. Only in this century have scholars been able to interpret the information provided in the Bible in terms of Eastern music systems.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Music in the Old Testament<\/p>\n• Music in the Psalms<\/p>\n• Music in the New Testament<\/p>\nMusic in the Old Testament<\/p>\nThe first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first musician—the inventor of the harp and flute” (Gn 4:21, nlt<\/span>). The importance of this description of a musician so early in history lies in the equality Jubal is given with his brothers Jabal, the herdsman, and Tubal-cain, the smith. Music making is recognized among the earliest professions of nomadic peoples. The name Jubal is believed to be a derivative from the Hebrew word for “ram.” The ram’s horn (<\/em>shophar<\/span>)<\/em> was an early instrument of the Jewish people and was significant in signaling important events.<\/p>\nFor the most part, the music described in early biblical history was of a functional nature. Music gained special significance as it became an important part of temple worship. Many of the descriptions of music making in ancient Israel, before David’s time, are quite utilitarian. There are accounts of music at times of farewell (Gn 31:27), at times of rejoicing and feasting (Ex 32:17-18; Is 5:12; 24:8-9), at military victories (2 Chr 20:27-28), and for work (Nm 21:17, the song of the well diggers; Is 16:10; Jer 48:33). Most of this music was probably rather crude and primitive in nature, especially the music associated with military advances, which was meant to terrify the enemy (Jgs 7:17-20). The music and dancing that greeted Moses as he descended from the mountain was described as if it sounded like “war in the camp” (Ex 32:17-18).<\/p>\nIn the early history of the Jewish people, women played an important part in the performance of music. The image of women dancing and singing for joy accompanied by percussion instruments is repeated several times: Miriam led the women in a hymn of thanksgiving after the deliverance from the Red Sea (Ex 15); Jephthah’s daughter welcomed her father in his victory (Jgs 11:34); Deborah joined with Barak in singing a song of victory (Jgs 5); and women hailed David after his defeat of the Philistines (1 Sm 18:6-7). There is little mention of women as musicians following the establishment of the temple in Jerusalem, but there are a few allusions to the fact that women did participate in singing and dancing. The account of the return from exile in Babylon includes both male and female singers (Neh 7:67), confirming that women still took part in musical performance.<\/p>\nAs Jerusalem became the religious center of the Hebrew people (950–850 BC<\/span>), the role of the professional musician became more important. The women’s songs became insignificant compared to the pomp and ceremony associated with the temple and the royal court. While the Levitical singers took most of the musical responsibility at the temple, the development of antiphonal singing allowed the people to join in on responses in the singing of psalms.<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Style and Use<\/h5>\nThe Jewish people seem to have been especially musical. Of course, they were influenced by other ancient cultures, but there is evidence that they were in demand as musicians by other peoples. According to an Assyrian document, King Hezekiah gave as tribute to King Sennacherib many male and female Jewish musicians. The Babylonians demanded that the captive Jews sing to them and entertain them (cf. Ps 137:3).<\/p>\nSince the OT’s purpose was to narrate the relationship between the Jewish nation and God, most of the references to music deal with its function in worship. However, evidence reveals that there was also a large body of secular musical literature. There may have been guilds of poets and singers early in Jewish history. The kinds of songs recorded in the early part of the OT represent a folklike poetry. The song of thanksgiving to the Lord by Moses and the people of Israel after their escape at the Red Sea is a stirring national song. Many descriptions of the biblical writers reflect the spirit of bardic song. This would be logical, as these stories were meant to be passed on. Marching songs (2 Chr 20:27-28), and songs of triumph (Jgs 5) also indicate a secular body of music.<\/p>\n<h5>Music in Worship<\/h5>\nThe singers and musicians for the temple worship were chosen from the tribe of Levi. King David assembled the Levites for a census, and out of the total of 38,000 men over the age of 30, 4,000 were chosen as musicians. These 4,000 were subsequently given specific jobs. “David and the chiefs of the service also set apart for the service certain of the sons of Asaph, and of Heman, and of Jeduthun, who should prophesy with lyres, with harps, and with cymbals. . . . The number of them along with their brethren, who were trained in singing to the Lord<\/span>, all who were skilful, was two hundred and eighty-eight” (1 Chr 25:1, 7, rsv<\/span>). The singers were further divided into 24 groups of 12 singers, who rotated in participating in the weekday, Sabbath, and high holy day services.<\/p>\nAccording to a later source, there were minimum and maximum numbers of singers and instrumentalists required at each service. The minimum number of singers was twelve, the maximum was unlimited. There had to be in attendance at least two harps but no more than six, at least two flutes but no more than twelve, a minimum of two trumpets with no maximum, and a minimum of nine lyres with no maximum. There was only one player with a pair of cymbals.<\/p>\nA singer was admitted to the Levitical choir at the age of thirty following a five-year apprenticeship (1 Chr 23:3). Five years is a relatively short time considering the amount of material these singers had to memorize (for there was no notation) and the liturgical ritual they had to master; it is speculated that they actually were in training from childhood. The Levites lived in villages outside the city wall and may have been actively involved in the musical education of their children (Neh 12:29). The Levites performed other duties connected with the sacred service, but the singers were excused from all other duties because they were on duty day and night (1 Chr 9:33). Their skills were an important part of the temple worship, and they were able to devote their entire life to the development of their musical ability. A singer served in the choir for 20 years, from age 30 to 50, and the music was of a high quality due to strict discipline and continuous practice and performance.<\/p>\nFrom the beginning of Jewish formal worship connected with the tabernacle, music and sound was important. In Exodus 28:34-35 the descriptions of Aaron’s robe include bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. The first liturgical music mentioned in the OT is found in 2 Samuel 6 in the descriptions of the transfer of the ark: David and the Israelites sang, played instruments, and danced to the glory of the Lord. This music bore little resemblance to the stately ceremony described later in Solomon’s temple. In 2 Chronicles 7:6, David is given recognition for inventing the musical instruments used in the temple. In the postexilic era Levitical singers are mentioned as the descendants of Asaph, the “singing master” appointed by David (Ezr 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22-23). From passages such as these, we have a definite indication that liturgical music and organization stemmed from David’s time.<\/p>\nThe ceremonies in the Jewish temple were organized around the sacrifice. Singing formed an integral part of the sacrificial service and was necessary to validate the sacrificial action. There were special musical settings for each sacrifice; thus the daily burnt, expiatory, and laudatory offerings and libations had individual liturgies. Particular psalms became associated with certain sacrifices as well as with certain days of the week. The psalm of the day was intoned as the high priest started to pour out the drink offering. The psalm was divided into three sections, each signaled by the blowing of the trumpets, on which signal the people would prostrate themselves. This is the only time the trumpets were used together with the other instruments in orchestral fashion on solemn occasions (2 Chr 5:12-13).<\/p>\nMusic in the Psalms<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Psalm Titles<\/h5>\nThe collection of 150 lyric poems known as the book of Psalms contains the most information on music making in ancient Israel. The Psalter contains not only religious songs but also songs that have their roots in secular or popular songs, such as work songs, love songs, and wedding songs. The majority are songs of praise, thanksgiving, prayer, and repentance. There are also historic odes that relate great national events—for example, Psalm 30, “a song at the dedication of the temple,” and Psalm 137, which portrays the sufferings of the Jews in captivity.<\/p>\nThe psalms were an important part of all the services of the temple; the Psalter became the liturgical hymnal of the Israelites. Worship included an appointed psalm for each day of the week. On the first day of the week, Psalm 24 was sung in remembrance of the first day of creation, Psalm 48 was sung on the second day, Psalm 82 on the third, Psalm 94 on the fourth, Psalm 81 on the fifth, Psalm 93 on the sixth, and Psalm 92 on the Sabbath. After the sacrificial offerings, Psalm 105:1-5 was sung at the morning service and Psalm 96 at the evening service. The Hallel psalms (Pss 113–118, 120–136, 146–148) were sung during the offering of the paschal lamb at the Passover feast.<\/p>\nWhile most of the liturgical music was performed by Levites, texts of the psalms suggest that there was also congregational participation. The forms of music found both in synagogal and ecclesiastical chant had their source in the forms of the poetic text of the psalms. The simplest is the plain psalmody sung by one person (e.g., Pss 3–5, 46). In responsorial psalmody the soloist is answered by the choir (e.g., Ps 67:1-2; the soloist sang verse 1 and the choir answered with verse 2). Antiphonal psalmody involves two groups singing alternately (e.g., Ps 103:20-22). The congregation would chant a refrain such as appears in Psalm 80: “Restore us, O God; let thy face shine, that we may be saved!” recurs throughout the psalm (rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\nEven though the synagogue had no altar for sacrifice, psalm singing retained an important place. After the Romans destroyed the temple, the worship heritage of the Jews could have been lost if the customs, including musical customs, had not become an integral part of synagogue worship.<\/p>\nThe most enigmatic part of the psalms is the headings that are not part of the poetic text. The first question is whether these should even be considered as superscripts. Greek, Latin, Hebrew, and other ancient languages were written in such a way that the text ran together without any break between chapters or paragraphs. This means that the verses, and even the division of the psalms themselves, were partially determined by copyists, chiefly the Masoretes. There is some question as to which psalms the extrapoetic texts actually belong with; they may actually be subscripts instead of superscripts. Sumerian and Babylonian poetry had information such as the name of the author, the musical instrument used for accompaniment, the tune, the purpose, and such listed at the end of the poem. Hence, some of the headings may actually be endings.<\/p>\nThe indications at the beginning of a psalm fall into three categories. They are either musical terms giving direction for the actual performance, musical cues designating the tune to which the psalm would be sung, or comments indicating the function of the psalm. These terms have been interpreted in various ways.<\/p>\nOriginally, these headings may have been marginal notes for the choir leaders. Realizing that these terms were not related to the psalm text proper, early biblical scribes may not have been overly careful with their placement in the text, which may explain some of the discrepancies among the early manuscripts—why certain words are left out in some and why terms assigned to only a few psalms may originally have been indicated on more of them.<\/p>\nAll but 50 of the psalms contain a proper name in the heading. These names possibly indicate the author; other commentators, interpreting the preposition appearing before the names to mean “for,” think the names are a dedication. Thus the title would be “A Psalm for David,” not “A Psalm of David.” This may be the case with the names of Asaph, Heman, Ethan, and especially the sons of Korah, where it would make better sense for the psalm to be written for rather than by the family. Seventy-three psalms have David’s name in the heading, hence the common reference to the Psalter as the Psalms of David. Twelve include the name of Asaph, eleven the children of Korah, two Solomon, and one each contains Moses, Heman, and Ethan.<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Terms in the Psalm Titles<\/h5>\nNumerous musical terms are included in the superscriptions to cue the kind of instrumental accompaniment, mood, and style of performance for the psalm.<\/p>\nAlamoth<\/span> is one of the most controversial terms found in the psalm headings. It appears at the beginning of Psalm 46 and also in 1 Chronicles 15:20. One meaning for the Hebrew word is “maiden,” and musicologists interpret this as an instruction that the psalm should be sung in the range of the female singing voice. The reference in Chronicles is to harps in the range of women’s voices. This interpretation does not seem to fit Psalm 46, but if we look at the preceding psalm and read the term as a subscript, it becomes logical. Psalm 45 is a song of love, actually a nuptial ode; it would be natural for women to sing the second half (vv 10-17). While there is little mention of women singing in the temple, there is speculation that young boys in training may have sung along with the Levitical singers. Also this may be a case where the term appears only once in the modern text but may have been used more often in the original. Another possible meaning for Alamoth<\/span> is “flutes,” perhaps describing the kind of musical accompaniment for the performance of the psalm.<\/p>\nGittith<\/span> is a term found in the superscriptions of Psalms 8, 81, and 84. It may be a musical cue, indicating a mood for the performance of these psalms, but a more common explanation is that it is a collective term for the stringed instruments that would have accompanied them.<\/p>\nMahalath<\/span> has been left in its original Hebrew form by early translators and is found in the headings of Psalms 53 and 88. It may have roots in the Hebrew mahaleh<\/span> “sickness” or mahot<\/span> “dance,” though neither of these words can be related to the psalm texts. Another explanation is a musical one. Mahalath<\/span> may come from the word halal<\/span> meaning “to pierce,” implying that the psalm was to be accompanied with pipes.<\/p>\nMaskil<\/span> (kjv<\/span> “Maschil”) appears in the headings of 13 psalms (Pss 32, 42, 44–45, 52–55, 74, 78, 88–89, 142). The term is probably derived from the verb sakal<\/span>,<\/em> “to have insight or comprehension,” but there is no agreement among commentators. By looking at the psalms themselves, their didactic nature and the structure of stanzas and refrains, musicologists conclude the term represents a song of praise, possibly sung by a soloist with participation by the choir.<\/p>\nMenazzeah<\/span> appears in the heading of 55 psalms. It appears 52 times in the first three books of Psalms (Pss 1–89), not at all in book four (Pss 90–106), and 3 times in book five (Pss 107–150). The most common modern translations are “to the Choirmaster” (rsv<\/span>), “to the choir director” (nasb<\/span>, nlt<\/span>), “to the director of music” (niv<\/span>), “to the chief Musician” (kjv<\/span>, nkjv<\/span>). The word is derived from the Hebrew verb nazzah<\/span>,<\/em> appearing in 1 Chronicles 23:4 and Ezra 3:8-9 in the sense of “administering.” In 1 Chronicles 15:21 the word is found in relation to leading or directing song in the temple. Menazzeah<\/span> relates to the choirmaster and represents the singer chosen to lead the music who probably was involved in rehearsing and instructing. It is now assumed that menazzeah<\/span> indicates the psalm was to be sung partially or entirely by a soloist. This is evidenced by the change in some texts from “I” where the soloist sang, to “we” where the choir or congregation sang. Psalm 5 is an example of a text divided for solo and choral singing: verses 1-3 solo; verses 4-6 choral; verses 7-8 solo; verses 9-10 choral; and verses 11-12 end the psalm with the combined soloist and choir.<\/p>\nMiktam<\/span> (kjv<\/span> “Michtam”) is another term that has no clear musical meaning, due mainly to the fact that its etymology is unknown. It occurs in Psalms 16 and 56–60, all of which have a character of lamentation or supplication. In a musical sense, it probably meant that a certain well-known tune was to be selected as the melody of the psalm.<\/p>\nMizmor<\/span> (Hebrew, meaning a song sung to instrumental accompaniment) is found nowhere else in the Bible; it is included in the superscriptions of 57 psalms. It probably indicated a song accompanied by melodic instruments as opposed to a dance song accompanied by rhythmic instruments.<\/p>\nNeginah<\/span> appears in the superscriptions of Psalms 4, 6, 54–55, 61, 67, and 76. The term neginah<\/span> and its plural neginoth<\/span> are found in Psalm 77:7, Lamentations 5:14, Isaiah 38:20, and Habakkuk 3:19. Neginah<\/span>,<\/em> from the Hebrew root naggen<\/span>,<\/em> “to touch the strings,” instructs that stringed instruments accompany the singing.<\/p>\nNehiloth<\/span> is found only in the introduction to Psalm 5 (kjv<\/span>). The origin of the word is problematic. It could come from the verb nahal<\/span>,<\/em> “to possess or inherit,” or more feasibly from halal<\/span>,<\/em> meaning “to pierce.” The latter implies the idea of a pierced instrument (the flute or pipe) to be used for accompaniment.<\/p>\nSheminith<\/span> appears in Psalms 6 and 12 and also in 1 Chronicles 15:21. The Hebrew word means literally “over the eighth.” Some scholars feel it had something to do with an octave, but the Hebrew musical language probably did not include a musical unit divided into eight parts. Other scholars interpret sheminith<\/span> as meaning an eight-stringed instrument. A more logical interpretation comes from examining its use in 1 Chronicles. In 15:20 the instructions are for musicians to play the harps according to alamoth<\/span> and in verse 21 to play the lyres according to sheminith<\/span>.<\/em> Here the terms alamoth<\/span> and sheminith<\/span> seem to be used in opposition. If alamoth<\/span> implies a register of the female voice, then sheminith<\/span> would imply a lower register. Thus, it may have been an instruction to use a lower pitched instrument for accompaniment.<\/p>\n<h5>Psalm Varieties in the Titles<\/h5>\nSome of the notes in the psalm headings are indications of the type or variety of psalm.<\/p>\nHazkir<\/span> is found in the headings of Psalms 38 and 70. According to the Targum, this is an indication that the psalm was sung at the sacrificial rite called askara<\/span> and is translated “for a memorial offering.”<\/p>\nLammed<\/span> appears in the superscription of Psalm 60 in the phrase le-lammed<\/span>,<\/em> translated “to teach.” According to tradition, this was a psalm, though undoubtedly not the only one, taught to young people as part of their education. This is another example of a term that may have been omitted from other psalms in later versions of the Psalter.<\/p>\nShiggaion<\/span> is in the heading of Psalm 7 and also in Habakkuk 3:1. The word probably comes from the Hebrew verb shagah<\/span>,<\/em> “to wander,” but may also be connected with the Assyrian liturgical term shigu<\/span>,<\/em> which represented a plaintive song in several stanzas. Biblical scholars have assumed shiggaion<\/span>,<\/em> plural shigionoth<\/span>,<\/em> was a lament or penitential song.<\/p>\nShir<\/span> is the simplest word for “song” and was probably used in the headings at an early stage of the Psalter; it is usually found with mizmor<\/span> (13 times). Fifteen psalms have this heading. It was probably the term for a specific type of praise song, usually performed by the choir.<\/p>\nShir Hamaalot<\/span> and Shir Lamaalot<\/span> occur in the headings of Psalms 120–134, which are often referred to as the Psalms of Ascent (kjv<\/span> “Psalms of Degrees”). Most explanations offered relate to the fact that the temple was situated on high ground. Often these 15 psalms are associated with the 15 steps leading from the Court of the Women to the Court of the Israelites. But most contemporary scholars believe the idea of “going up” referred to the pilgrims’ journey to Jerusalem to worship at the temple. These psalms are short, with popular appeal, making them appropriate for singing during the journey.<\/p>\nShir Hanukkat Habayit<\/span> is found only in the heading of Psalm 30. This phrase tells that the psalm was to be used for the dedication or rededication of the house of God.<\/p>\nShir-yedidot<\/span> appears only in Psalm 45. It refers to a love song that was probably sung at wedding ceremonies.<\/p>\nTefillah<\/span> is a common term for “prayer” and appears in the headings of Psalms 17, 86, 90, 102, and 142, and also in Habakkuk 3:1. The word probably refers to a specific form of poetic prayer.<\/p>\nSelah<\/span> is one of the most frequently used, but most enigmatic, terms found in the book of Psalms. It occurs in 39 psalms, appearing a total of 71 times in the Psalter—67 times within the text and 4 times at the end of a psalm. It is most frequent in the first three books. In the first book selah<\/span> appears in 9 psalms; in the second book, 17 psalms; in the third book, 11 psalms. In the fourth book it is not found at all and in the fifth book in only two psalms. Thirty-one of these psalms also include the term menazzeah<\/span> in their superscriptions, which implies that they were sung by a soloist and choir. Most commonly, selah<\/span> is interpreted as a signal for a break in the singing and possibly for an instrumental interlude. It never appears at the beginning of a psalm but only in the middle of the text or at the end. The regularity of its appearance within a psalm is not consistent, and in only a few instances do these divisions break the psalm into equal sections. Because of the random placement of the term, some scholars believe that, like the headings, selah<\/span> was not always carefully copied into the text. It may have been a note appearing only in the texts of the musicians, which would explain this inconsistency. An explanation of selah<\/span> is found in the Talmudic tradition: “Ben Azra clashed the cymbal and the Levites broke forth into singing. When they reached a break in the singing they blew upon the trumpets and the people prostrated themselves; at every break there was a blowing of the trumpet and at every blowing of the trumpet a prostration. This was the rite of the daily whole offering in the service of the House of our God.” Selah<\/span>,<\/em> then, would be an instruction for the musicians that the singing was to cease and the instrumentalists were to play.<\/p>\nThe term higgaion selah<\/span> appears once, in Psalm 9:16. The word higgaiaon<\/span> comes from the root hagah<\/span>,<\/em> “to murmur, to growl, to produce a low sound.” This may have been an instruction for the interlude to be more subdued than a normal selah<\/span>.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>Ancient Melodies in the Titles<\/h5>\nMany psalms contain headings that are not direct musical references but are cue words to suggest well-known tunes. They probably refer either to names or the first words of popular secular songs (<\/em>makams<\/span>)<\/em> whose melodic patterns were used in singing the psalm. Many biblical scholars have tried to find hidden meaning in these headings, but most musicologists believe these are simply references or introductions to melodies.<\/p>\nAijeleth Shahar<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 22 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “according to The Hind of the Dawn” (rsv<\/span>), and “To the tune of ‘The Doe of the Morning’ ” (niv<\/span>), “To the tune ‘Doe of the Dawn’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nAl-taschith<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalms 57–59 and 75 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Do Not Destroy!’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nJonath-elem-rechokim<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 56 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “according to The Dove on Far-off Terebinths” (rsv<\/span>), and “To the tune ‘Dove on Distant Oaks’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nMahalath Leannoth<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 88, is translated “To the tune ‘The Suffering of Affliction’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nMuthlabben<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 9, is translated “To the tune ‘Death of the Son’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nShoshannim<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalms 45 and 69 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Lilies’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nShoshannim-Eduth<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 80 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Lilies of the Covenant’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nShushan-eduth<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 60, is translated “To the tune ‘Lily of the Testimony’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThese melody types appear only in the first three books of the Psalter, and this may imply that these popular makams<\/span> had fallen into disuse by the time the final books of the Psalter were written. Other makam<\/span>-types had probably become popular, and the authors, realizing the relatively short life of a popular tune, did not include them in the headings of the Psalms but left the choice up to the performer.<\/p>\nMusic in the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>First-Century Influences<\/h5>\n<h6>The Synagogue<\/h6>\nBy the time of Christ, the synagogue had become the chief place of worship for the Jewish people. It began as a place for study of the law but gradually became the center of worship for Jews unable to attend the temple. The liturgical service of the temple could not be duplicated in the synagogue as there was no sacrificial rite, and the music could not be exactly reproduced as there were no trained Levitical singers. Scholars do not agree about the amount of continuity between the music of the temple and the music of the synagogue, but there is evidence that certain musical practices did remain constant between the two places of worship.<\/p>\nInformation on the customs and rituals of the synagogue come from Talmudic writings. The musical elements of worship in the synagogue were the chanting of Scripture, psalmody, and spiritual songs. The choral singing of the temple was replaced by a single cantor. The cantor was a layman who, according to tradition, had to have the following qualifications: “He had to be well educated, gifted with a sweet voice, of humble personality, recognized by the community, conversant with Scripture and all the prayers; he must not be a rich man, for his prayers should come from his heart.” His most important job was the cantillation of the Law and the Prophets. A series of accents and punctuations, forerunners of actual musical notation, were indications for the cantor in the musical interpretation of the Scripture.<\/p>\nPsalm singing was gradually transplanted from the temple to the synagogue, which in turn influenced the early Christian church. Gregorian psalm tones have their roots in Hebrew psalmody.<\/p>\n<h6>Greek and Roman Cultures<\/h6>\nWhile both the temple and the synagogue were familiar to the early Christians (Acts 2:46-47; 3:1; 5:42; 9:20; 18:4; etc.), the Greek and Roman cultures also played a major part in shaping the young church. Hellenistic influences by the time of Christ had long been felt in the Middle East, and while it was strongly opposed by some Jewish leaders, the Greek arts had permeated Jewish culture. Greek philosophers considered music a cathartic force that could lead humans into metaphysical knowledge. This understanding led to the belief that music had a moral substance that could influence people to either good or evil. If this philosophy had totally encompassed Judeo-Christian thought, certainly Paul would have encouraged the use of music in the spread of the gospel. However, Paul’s omission of this theory implies that the Judeo-Christian world at that time had rejected the Greek ideal, at least in part.<\/p>\nWhile the Jewish rabbis considered music an art form for the praise of God, and while the Greek philosophers thought of it as a powerful moral force in creation, the Romans considered music mainly as entertainment. The music of the Roman games was neither religious nor philosophic and, from the accounts of witnesses, it was not technically exceptional. In the Roman Empire musicians were given a lower status and looked on as mere entertainers. One reason the early church did not include instrumental music in their worship was in reaction to the debased secular use of instruments by the Romans.<\/p>\n<h5>In the New Testament Writings<\/h5>\nOne of the few mentions of instruments in the NT is the use of flutes at a wake (Mt 9:23). As in the OT, music is associated with feasting and merrymaking (e.g., the return of the prodigal son, Lk 15:25). Five passages mention music metaphorically (Mt 6:2; 11:17; Lk 7:32; 1 Cor 13:1; 14:7-8). The most well known of these is Paul’s celebration of love in 1 Corinthians 13. The denunciation of the gong and cymbals must be understood in light of the attitude of the early Christians toward the music of the Pharisees. Here the signal instruments of the temple were used to represent pompous display of religious pietism.<\/p>\n\nMost references to music are found in the eschatological visions and prophetic passages scattered throughout the NT—most frequently in the book of Revelation (also Mt 24:31; 1 Cor 15:52; 1 Thes 4:16; Heb 12:19). Many of these descriptions have a direct association with musical references in the OT (e.g., the use of harps and trumpets and the singing of the Hallelujah). But the value of many of the passages in Revelation comes from their literary style. These doxological and psalmlike passages were probably spontaneous “spiritual songs” composed by the young church (e.g., Rv 5:9-10).<\/p>\nThe passages that mention religious or liturgical music are often more conceptual than literal. Two parallel passages describing the Last Supper (Mt 26:30; Mk 14:26) mention that Christ and his disciples sang a hymn. This is the only direct account of Jesus singing, but it is probable that when he read in the synagogue he did so in the accepted vocal style (Lk 4:16-20). There is much controversy surrounding the actual events at the Last Supper, but we can assume that the hymn sung was a traditional Jewish hymn, probably associated with the Passover.<\/p>\nFrom the account in Acts 16:25 we know that Paul and Silas sang hymns while in jail. Paul gives instruction for music making in 1 Corinthians 14:15, 26 in terms of a balance between rationalism and emotion. And, as with all the gifts of the Spirit, Paul asks that singing be done for edification.<\/p>\nIn two similar passages (Eph 5:19; Col 3:16) Paul groups together three musical terms—psalms, hymns, and spiritual songs. The singing of psalms was an obvious carryover from the synagogue, and we can assume that the early Christian psalm singing followed the Jewish style. The term for “hymns” probably refers to poetic texts, possibly modeled after the psalms, but in praise of Christ. “Spiritual songs” may refer to a spontaneous, ecstatic form of musical prayer, possibly wordless (perhaps related to glossolalia), in a style that was popular in mystical Judaism. These outbursts of song were probably melismatic (sung on one tone) and are perhaps the forerunners of the later Alleluia chant.<\/p>\n<h5>Hymnody in the New Testament<\/h5>\nIt can be assumed that the early Christians composed hymns in praise of Christ. Logically, most of the hymns found in the NT are based on Hebrew poetic psalm forms, but there is Greek and Latin influence also. The hymns from the Gospel of Luke have become well-known canticles adopted by the church: the Magnificat (Lk 1:46-55), the Benedictus (1:68-79), the Gloria (2:14) and the Nunc Dimittis (2:29-32). While patterned after the psalms of the OT, these hymns are full of confidence in the salvation of Christ and in his imminent return. Other Christological hymns found in the NT include the prologue to the Gospel of John, Ephesians 2:14-16, Philippians 2:6-11, Colossians 1:15-20, 1 Timothy 3:16, Hebrews 1:3, and 1 Peter 3:18-22.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MUSIC<\/h3>\nA natural human expression that probably began with speech-singing and developed into songs, which were then accompanied by instruments. Music as we know it has become quite complex, a luxury and entertainment; music in antiquity, however, was a functional expression of daily life, work, and worship.<\/p>\nThe phrase “sing to the Lord,” common to the OT (Ex 15:21; 1 Chr 16:9; Pss 68:32; 96:1-2; Is 42:10; Jer 20:13), was not unique to the Jewish nation. All religions draw on the natural human impulse to sing. The injunction “sing to the Lord” was a signal for the people to pour out their praise in song.<\/p>\nThe Bible, however, is limited in its treatment of music in ancient Israel. Since there was no written musical notation, the primary record of songs sung by the Hebrews is the collection of texts, particularly the psalms, and a few enigmatic musical instructions. The biblical writers were writing a history not of their culture but of their relationship with God; hence, their comments about music are not critical. Also, the biblical documents cover a long span of history and are grouped according to category rather than in chronological order, thus making it difficult to order the development of musical style with precision. Finally, there is the problem of understanding the biblical descriptions of music and its performance. Only in this century have scholars been able to interpret the information provided in the Bible in terms of Eastern music systems.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Music in the Old Testament<\/p>\n• Music in the Psalms<\/p>\n• Music in the New Testament<\/p>\nMusic in the Old Testament<\/p>\nThe first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first musician—the inventor of the harp and flute” (Gn 4:21, nlt<\/span>). The importance of this description of a musician so early in history lies in the equality Jubal is given with his brothers Jabal, the herdsman, and Tubal-cain, the smith. Music making is recognized among the earliest professions of nomadic peoples. The name Jubal is believed to be a derivative from the Hebrew word for “ram.” The ram’s horn (<\/em>shophar<\/span>)<\/em> was an early instrument of the Jewish people and was significant in signaling important events.<\/p>\nFor the most part, the music described in early biblical history was of a functional nature. Music gained special significance as it became an important part of temple worship. Many of the descriptions of music making in ancient Israel, before David’s time, are quite utilitarian. There are accounts of music at times of farewell (Gn 31:27), at times of rejoicing and feasting (Ex 32:17-18; Is 5:12; 24:8-9), at military victories (2 Chr 20:27-28), and for work (Nm 21:17, the song of the well diggers; Is 16:10; Jer 48:33). Most of this music was probably rather crude and primitive in nature, especially the music associated with military advances, which was meant to terrify the enemy (Jgs 7:17-20). The music and dancing that greeted Moses as he descended from the mountain was described as if it sounded like “war in the camp” (Ex 32:17-18).<\/p>\nIn the early history of the Jewish people, women played an important part in the performance of music. The image of women dancing and singing for joy accompanied by percussion instruments is repeated several times: Miriam led the women in a hymn of thanksgiving after the deliverance from the Red Sea (Ex 15); Jephthah’s daughter welcomed her father in his victory (Jgs 11:34); Deborah joined with Barak in singing a song of victory (Jgs 5); and women hailed David after his defeat of the Philistines (1 Sm 18:6-7). There is little mention of women as musicians following the establishment of the temple in Jerusalem, but there are a few allusions to the fact that women did participate in singing and dancing. The account of the return from exile in Babylon includes both male and female singers (Neh 7:67), confirming that women still took part in musical performance.<\/p>\nAs Jerusalem became the religious center of the Hebrew people (950–850 BC<\/span>), the role of the professional musician became more important. The women’s songs became insignificant compared to the pomp and ceremony associated with the temple and the royal court. While the Levitical singers took most of the musical responsibility at the temple, the development of antiphonal singing allowed the people to join in on responses in the singing of psalms.<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Style and Use<\/h5>\nThe Jewish people seem to have been especially musical. Of course, they were influenced by other ancient cultures, but there is evidence that they were in demand as musicians by other peoples. According to an Assyrian document, King Hezekiah gave as tribute to King Sennacherib many male and female Jewish musicians. The Babylonians demanded that the captive Jews sing to them and entertain them (cf. Ps 137:3).<\/p>\nSince the OT’s purpose was to narrate the relationship between the Jewish nation and God, most of the references to music deal with its function in worship. However, evidence reveals that there was also a large body of secular musical literature. There may have been guilds of poets and singers early in Jewish history. The kinds of songs recorded in the early part of the OT represent a folklike poetry. The song of thanksgiving to the Lord by Moses and the people of Israel after their escape at the Red Sea is a stirring national song. Many descriptions of the biblical writers reflect the spirit of bardic song. This would be logical, as these stories were meant to be passed on. Marching songs (2 Chr 20:27-28), and songs of triumph (Jgs 5) also indicate a secular body of music.<\/p>\n<h5>Music in Worship<\/h5>\nThe singers and musicians for the temple worship were chosen from the tribe of Levi. King David assembled the Levites for a census, and out of the total of 38,000 men over the age of 30, 4,000 were chosen as musicians. These 4,000 were subsequently given specific jobs. “David and the chiefs of the service also set apart for the service certain of the sons of Asaph, and of Heman, and of Jeduthun, who should prophesy with lyres, with harps, and with cymbals. . . . The number of them along with their brethren, who were trained in singing to the Lord<\/span>, all who were skilful, was two hundred and eighty-eight” (1 Chr 25:1, 7, rsv<\/span>). The singers were further divided into 24 groups of 12 singers, who rotated in participating in the weekday, Sabbath, and high holy day services.<\/p>\nAccording to a later source, there were minimum and maximum numbers of singers and instrumentalists required at each service. The minimum number of singers was twelve, the maximum was unlimited. There had to be in attendance at least two harps but no more than six, at least two flutes but no more than twelve, a minimum of two trumpets with no maximum, and a minimum of nine lyres with no maximum. There was only one player with a pair of cymbals.<\/p>\nA singer was admitted to the Levitical choir at the age of thirty following a five-year apprenticeship (1 Chr 23:3). Five years is a relatively short time considering the amount of material these singers had to memorize (for there was no notation) and the liturgical ritual they had to master; it is speculated that they actually were in training from childhood. The Levites lived in villages outside the city wall and may have been actively involved in the musical education of their children (Neh 12:29). The Levites performed other duties connected with the sacred service, but the singers were excused from all other duties because they were on duty day and night (1 Chr 9:33). Their skills were an important part of the temple worship, and they were able to devote their entire life to the development of their musical ability. A singer served in the choir for 20 years, from age 30 to 50, and the music was of a high quality due to strict discipline and continuous practice and performance.<\/p>\nFrom the beginning of Jewish formal worship connected with the tabernacle, music and sound was important. In Exodus 28:34-35 the descriptions of Aaron’s robe include bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. The first liturgical music mentioned in the OT is found in 2 Samuel 6 in the descriptions of the transfer of the ark: David and the Israelites sang, played instruments, and danced to the glory of the Lord. This music bore little resemblance to the stately ceremony described later in Solomon’s temple. In 2 Chronicles 7:6, David is given recognition for inventing the musical instruments used in the temple. In the postexilic era Levitical singers are mentioned as the descendants of Asaph, the “singing master” appointed by David (Ezr 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22-23). From passages such as these, we have a definite indication that liturgical music and organization stemmed from David’s time.<\/p>\nThe ceremonies in the Jewish temple were organized around the sacrifice. Singing formed an integral part of the sacrificial service and was necessary to validate the sacrificial action. There were special musical settings for each sacrifice; thus the daily burnt, expiatory, and laudatory offerings and libations had individual liturgies. Particular psalms became associated with certain sacrifices as well as with certain days of the week. The psalm of the day was intoned as the high priest started to pour out the drink offering. The psalm was divided into three sections, each signaled by the blowing of the trumpets, on which signal the people would prostrate themselves. This is the only time the trumpets were used together with the other instruments in orchestral fashion on solemn occasions (2 Chr 5:12-13).<\/p>\nMusic in the Psalms<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Psalm Titles<\/h5>\nThe collection of 150 lyric poems known as the book of Psalms contains the most information on music making in ancient Israel. The Psalter contains not only religious songs but also songs that have their roots in secular or popular songs, such as work songs, love songs, and wedding songs. The majority are songs of praise, thanksgiving, prayer, and repentance. There are also historic odes that relate great national events—for example, Psalm 30, “a song at the dedication of the temple,” and Psalm 137, which portrays the sufferings of the Jews in captivity.<\/p>\nThe psalms were an important part of all the services of the temple; the Psalter became the liturgical hymnal of the Israelites. Worship included an appointed psalm for each day of the week. On the first day of the week, Psalm 24 was sung in remembrance of the first day of creation, Psalm 48 was sung on the second day, Psalm 82 on the third, Psalm 94 on the fourth, Psalm 81 on the fifth, Psalm 93 on the sixth, and Psalm 92 on the Sabbath. After the sacrificial offerings, Psalm 105:1-5 was sung at the morning service and Psalm 96 at the evening service. The Hallel psalms (Pss 113–118, 120–136, 146–148) were sung during the offering of the paschal lamb at the Passover feast.<\/p>\nWhile most of the liturgical music was performed by Levites, texts of the psalms suggest that there was also congregational participation. The forms of music found both in synagogal and ecclesiastical chant had their source in the forms of the poetic text of the psalms. The simplest is the plain psalmody sung by one person (e.g., Pss 3–5, 46). In responsorial psalmody the soloist is answered by the choir (e.g., Ps 67:1-2; the soloist sang verse 1 and the choir answered with verse 2). Antiphonal psalmody involves two groups singing alternately (e.g., Ps 103:20-22). The congregation would chant a refrain such as appears in Psalm 80: “Restore us, O God; let thy face shine, that we may be saved!” recurs throughout the psalm (rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\nEven though the synagogue had no altar for sacrifice, psalm singing retained an important place. After the Romans destroyed the temple, the worship heritage of the Jews could have been lost if the customs, including musical customs, had not become an integral part of synagogue worship.<\/p>\nThe most enigmatic part of the psalms is the headings that are not part of the poetic text. The first question is whether these should even be considered as superscripts. Greek, Latin, Hebrew, and other ancient languages were written in such a way that the text ran together without any break between chapters or paragraphs. This means that the verses, and even the division of the psalms themselves, were partially determined by copyists, chiefly the Masoretes. There is some question as to which psalms the extrapoetic texts actually belong with; they may actually be subscripts instead of superscripts. Sumerian and Babylonian poetry had information such as the name of the author, the musical instrument used for accompaniment, the tune, the purpose, and such listed at the end of the poem. Hence, some of the headings may actually be endings.<\/p>\nThe indications at the beginning of a psalm fall into three categories. They are either musical terms giving direction for the actual performance, musical cues designating the tune to which the psalm would be sung, or comments indicating the function of the psalm. These terms have been interpreted in various ways.<\/p>\nOriginally, these headings may have been marginal notes for the choir leaders. Realizing that these terms were not related to the psalm text proper, early biblical scribes may not have been overly careful with their placement in the text, which may explain some of the discrepancies among the early manuscripts—why certain words are left out in some and why terms assigned to only a few psalms may originally have been indicated on more of them.<\/p>\nAll but 50 of the psalms contain a proper name in the heading. These names possibly indicate the author; other commentators, interpreting the preposition appearing before the names to mean “for,” think the names are a dedication. Thus the title would be “A Psalm for David,” not “A Psalm of David.” This may be the case with the names of Asaph, Heman, Ethan, and especially the sons of Korah, where it would make better sense for the psalm to be written for rather than by the family. Seventy-three psalms have David’s name in the heading, hence the common reference to the Psalter as the Psalms of David. Twelve include the name of Asaph, eleven the children of Korah, two Solomon, and one each contains Moses, Heman, and Ethan.<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Terms in the Psalm Titles<\/h5>\nNumerous musical terms are included in the superscriptions to cue the kind of instrumental accompaniment, mood, and style of performance for the psalm.<\/p>\nAlamoth<\/span> is one of the most controversial terms found in the psalm headings. It appears at the beginning of Psalm 46 and also in 1 Chronicles 15:20. One meaning for the Hebrew word is “maiden,” and musicologists interpret this as an instruction that the psalm should be sung in the range of the female singing voice. The reference in Chronicles is to harps in the range of women’s voices. This interpretation does not seem to fit Psalm 46, but if we look at the preceding psalm and read the term as a subscript, it becomes logical. Psalm 45 is a song of love, actually a nuptial ode; it would be natural for women to sing the second half (vv 10-17). While there is little mention of women singing in the temple, there is speculation that young boys in training may have sung along with the Levitical singers. Also this may be a case where the term appears only once in the modern text but may have been used more often in the original. Another possible meaning for Alamoth<\/span> is “flutes,” perhaps describing the kind of musical accompaniment for the performance of the psalm.<\/p>\nGittith<\/span> is a term found in the superscriptions of Psalms 8, 81, and 84. It may be a musical cue, indicating a mood for the performance of these psalms, but a more common explanation is that it is a collective term for the stringed instruments that would have accompanied them.<\/p>\nMahalath<\/span> has been left in its original Hebrew form by early translators and is found in the headings of Psalms 53 and 88. It may have roots in the Hebrew mahaleh<\/span> “sickness” or mahot<\/span> “dance,” though neither of these words can be related to the psalm texts. Another explanation is a musical one. Mahalath<\/span> may come from the word halal<\/span> meaning “to pierce,” implying that the psalm was to be accompanied with pipes.<\/p>\nMaskil<\/span> (kjv<\/span> “Maschil”) appears in the headings of 13 psalms (Pss 32, 42, 44–45, 52–55, 74, 78, 88–89, 142). The term is probably derived from the verb sakal<\/span>,<\/em> “to have insight or comprehension,” but there is no agreement among commentators. By looking at the psalms themselves, their didactic nature and the structure of stanzas and refrains, musicologists conclude the term represents a song of praise, possibly sung by a soloist with participation by the choir.<\/p>\nMenazzeah<\/span> appears in the heading of 55 psalms. It appears 52 times in the first three books of Psalms (Pss 1–89), not at all in book four (Pss 90–106), and 3 times in book five (Pss 107–150). The most common modern translations are “to the Choirmaster” (rsv<\/span>), “to the choir director” (nasb<\/span>, nlt<\/span>), “to the director of music” (niv<\/span>), “to the chief Musician” (kjv<\/span>, nkjv<\/span>). The word is derived from the Hebrew verb nazzah<\/span>,<\/em> appearing in 1 Chronicles 23:4 and Ezra 3:8-9 in the sense of “administering.” In 1 Chronicles 15:21 the word is found in relation to leading or directing song in the temple. Menazzeah<\/span> relates to the choirmaster and represents the singer chosen to lead the music who probably was involved in rehearsing and instructing. It is now assumed that menazzeah<\/span> indicates the psalm was to be sung partially or entirely by a soloist. This is evidenced by the change in some texts from “I” where the soloist sang, to “we” where the choir or congregation sang. Psalm 5 is an example of a text divided for solo and choral singing: verses 1-3 solo; verses 4-6 choral; verses 7-8 solo; verses 9-10 choral; and verses 11-12 end the psalm with the combined soloist and choir.<\/p>\nMiktam<\/span> (kjv<\/span> “Michtam”) is another term that has no clear musical meaning, due mainly to the fact that its etymology is unknown. It occurs in Psalms 16 and 56–60, all of which have a character of lamentation or supplication. In a musical sense, it probably meant that a certain well-known tune was to be selected as the melody of the psalm.<\/p>\nMizmor<\/span> (Hebrew, meaning a song sung to instrumental accompaniment) is found nowhere else in the Bible; it is included in the superscriptions of 57 psalms. It probably indicated a song accompanied by melodic instruments as opposed to a dance song accompanied by rhythmic instruments.<\/p>\nNeginah<\/span> appears in the superscriptions of Psalms 4, 6, 54–55, 61, 67, and 76. The term neginah<\/span> and its plural neginoth<\/span> are found in Psalm 77:7, Lamentations 5:14, Isaiah 38:20, and Habakkuk 3:19. Neginah<\/span>,<\/em> from the Hebrew root naggen<\/span>,<\/em> “to touch the strings,” instructs that stringed instruments accompany the singing.<\/p>\nNehiloth<\/span> is found only in the introduction to Psalm 5 (kjv<\/span>). The origin of the word is problematic. It could come from the verb nahal<\/span>,<\/em> “to possess or inherit,” or more feasibly from halal<\/span>,<\/em> meaning “to pierce.” The latter implies the idea of a pierced instrument (the flute or pipe) to be used for accompaniment.<\/p>\nSheminith<\/span> appears in Psalms 6 and 12 and also in 1 Chronicles 15:21. The Hebrew word means literally “over the eighth.” Some scholars feel it had something to do with an octave, but the Hebrew musical language probably did not include a musical unit divided into eight parts. Other scholars interpret sheminith<\/span> as meaning an eight-stringed instrument. A more logical interpretation comes from examining its use in 1 Chronicles. In 15:20 the instructions are for musicians to play the harps according to alamoth<\/span> and in verse 21 to play the lyres according to sheminith<\/span>.<\/em> Here the terms alamoth<\/span> and sheminith<\/span> seem to be used in opposition. If alamoth<\/span> implies a register of the female voice, then sheminith<\/span> would imply a lower register. Thus, it may have been an instruction to use a lower pitched instrument for accompaniment.<\/p>\n<h5>Psalm Varieties in the Titles<\/h5>\nSome of the notes in the psalm headings are indications of the type or variety of psalm.<\/p>\nHazkir<\/span> is found in the headings of Psalms 38 and 70. According to the Targum, this is an indication that the psalm was sung at the sacrificial rite called askara<\/span> and is translated “for a memorial offering.”<\/p>\nLammed<\/span> appears in the superscription of Psalm 60 in the phrase le-lammed<\/span>,<\/em> translated “to teach.” According to tradition, this was a psalm, though undoubtedly not the only one, taught to young people as part of their education. This is another example of a term that may have been omitted from other psalms in later versions of the Psalter.<\/p>\nShiggaion<\/span> is in the heading of Psalm 7 and also in Habakkuk 3:1. The word probably comes from the Hebrew verb shagah<\/span>,<\/em> “to wander,” but may also be connected with the Assyrian liturgical term shigu<\/span>,<\/em> which represented a plaintive song in several stanzas. Biblical scholars have assumed shiggaion<\/span>,<\/em> plural shigionoth<\/span>,<\/em> was a lament or penitential song.<\/p>\nShir<\/span> is the simplest word for “song” and was probably used in the headings at an early stage of the Psalter; it is usually found with mizmor<\/span> (13 times). Fifteen psalms have this heading. It was probably the term for a specific type of praise song, usually performed by the choir.<\/p>\nShir Hamaalot<\/span> and Shir Lamaalot<\/span> occur in the headings of Psalms 120–134, which are often referred to as the Psalms of Ascent (kjv<\/span> “Psalms of Degrees”). Most explanations offered relate to the fact that the temple was situated on high ground. Often these 15 psalms are associated with the 15 steps leading from the Court of the Women to the Court of the Israelites. But most contemporary scholars believe the idea of “going up” referred to the pilgrims’ journey to Jerusalem to worship at the temple. These psalms are short, with popular appeal, making them appropriate for singing during the journey.<\/p>\nShir Hanukkat Habayit<\/span> is found only in the heading of Psalm 30. This phrase tells that the psalm was to be used for the dedication or rededication of the house of God.<\/p>\nShir-yedidot<\/span> appears only in Psalm 45. It refers to a love song that was probably sung at wedding ceremonies.<\/p>\nTefillah<\/span> is a common term for “prayer” and appears in the headings of Psalms 17, 86, 90, 102, and 142, and also in Habakkuk 3:1. The word probably refers to a specific form of poetic prayer.<\/p>\nSelah<\/span> is one of the most frequently used, but most enigmatic, terms found in the book of Psalms. It occurs in 39 psalms, appearing a total of 71 times in the Psalter—67 times within the text and 4 times at the end of a psalm. It is most frequent in the first three books. In the first book selah<\/span> appears in 9 psalms; in the second book, 17 psalms; in the third book, 11 psalms. In the fourth book it is not found at all and in the fifth book in only two psalms. Thirty-one of these psalms also include the term menazzeah<\/span> in their superscriptions, which implies that they were sung by a soloist and choir. Most commonly, selah<\/span> is interpreted as a signal for a break in the singing and possibly for an instrumental interlude. It never appears at the beginning of a psalm but only in the middle of the text or at the end. The regularity of its appearance within a psalm is not consistent, and in only a few instances do these divisions break the psalm into equal sections. Because of the random placement of the term, some scholars believe that, like the headings, selah<\/span> was not always carefully copied into the text. It may have been a note appearing only in the texts of the musicians, which would explain this inconsistency. An explanation of selah<\/span> is found in the Talmudic tradition: “Ben Azra clashed the cymbal and the Levites broke forth into singing. When they reached a break in the singing they blew upon the trumpets and the people prostrated themselves; at every break there was a blowing of the trumpet and at every blowing of the trumpet a prostration. This was the rite of the daily whole offering in the service of the House of our God.” Selah<\/span>,<\/em> then, would be an instruction for the musicians that the singing was to cease and the instrumentalists were to play.<\/p>\nThe term higgaion selah<\/span> appears once, in Psalm 9:16. The word higgaiaon<\/span> comes from the root hagah<\/span>,<\/em> “to murmur, to growl, to produce a low sound.” This may have been an instruction for the interlude to be more subdued than a normal selah<\/span>.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>Ancient Melodies in the Titles<\/h5>\nMany psalms contain headings that are not direct musical references but are cue words to suggest well-known tunes. They probably refer either to names or the first words of popular secular songs (<\/em>makams<\/span>)<\/em> whose melodic patterns were used in singing the psalm. Many biblical scholars have tried to find hidden meaning in these headings, but most musicologists believe these are simply references or introductions to melodies.<\/p>\nAijeleth Shahar<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 22 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “according to The Hind of the Dawn” (rsv<\/span>), and “To the tune of ‘The Doe of the Morning’ ” (niv<\/span>), “To the tune ‘Doe of the Dawn’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nAl-taschith<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalms 57–59 and 75 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Do Not Destroy!’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nJonath-elem-rechokim<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 56 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “according to The Dove on Far-off Terebinths” (rsv<\/span>), and “To the tune ‘Dove on Distant Oaks’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nMahalath Leannoth<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 88, is translated “To the tune ‘The Suffering of Affliction’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nMuthlabben<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 9, is translated “To the tune ‘Death of the Son’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nShoshannim<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalms 45 and 69 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Lilies’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nShoshannim-Eduth<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 80 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Lilies of the Covenant’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nShushan-eduth<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 60, is translated “To the tune ‘Lily of the Testimony’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThese melody types appear only in the first three books of the Psalter, and this may imply that these popular makams<\/span> had fallen into disuse by the time the final books of the Psalter were written. Other makam<\/span>-types had probably become popular, and the authors, realizing the relatively short life of a popular tune, did not include them in the headings of the Psalms but left the choice up to the performer.<\/p>\nMusic in the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>First-Century Influences<\/h5>\n<h6>The Synagogue<\/h6>\nBy the time of Christ, the synagogue had become the chief place of worship for the Jewish people. It began as a place for study of the law but gradually became the center of worship for Jews unable to attend the temple. The liturgical service of the temple could not be duplicated in the synagogue as there was no sacrificial rite, and the music could not be exactly reproduced as there were no trained Levitical singers. Scholars do not agree about the amount of continuity between the music of the temple and the music of the synagogue, but there is evidence that certain musical practices did remain constant between the two places of worship.<\/p>\nInformation on the customs and rituals of the synagogue come from Talmudic writings. The musical elements of worship in the synagogue were the chanting of Scripture, psalmody, and spiritual songs. The choral singing of the temple was replaced by a single cantor. The cantor was a layman who, according to tradition, had to have the following qualifications: “He had to be well educated, gifted with a sweet voice, of humble personality, recognized by the community, conversant with Scripture and all the prayers; he must not be a rich man, for his prayers should come from his heart.” His most important job was the cantillation of the Law and the Prophets. A series of accents and punctuations, forerunners of actual musical notation, were indications for the cantor in the musical interpretation of the Scripture.<\/p>\nPsalm singing was gradually transplanted from the temple to the synagogue, which in turn influenced the early Christian church. Gregorian psalm tones have their roots in Hebrew psalmody.<\/p>\n<h6>Greek and Roman Cultures<\/h6>\nWhile both the temple and the synagogue were familiar to the early Christians (Acts 2:46-47; 3:1; 5:42; 9:20; 18:4; etc.), the Greek and Roman cultures also played a major part in shaping the young church. Hellenistic influences by the time of Christ had long been felt in the Middle East, and while it was strongly opposed by some Jewish leaders, the Greek arts had permeated Jewish culture. Greek philosophers considered music a cathartic force that could lead humans into metaphysical knowledge. This understanding led to the belief that music had a moral substance that could influence people to either good or evil. If this philosophy had totally encompassed Judeo-Christian thought, certainly Paul would have encouraged the use of music in the spread of the gospel. However, Paul’s omission of this theory implies that the Judeo-Christian world at that time had rejected the Greek ideal, at least in part.<\/p>\nWhile the Jewish rabbis considered music an art form for the praise of God, and while the Greek philosophers thought of it as a powerful moral force in creation, the Romans considered music mainly as entertainment. The music of the Roman games was neither religious nor philosophic and, from the accounts of witnesses, it was not technically exceptional. In the Roman Empire musicians were given a lower status and looked on as mere entertainers. One reason the early church did not include instrumental music in their worship was in reaction to the debased secular use of instruments by the Romans.<\/p>\n<h5>In the New Testament Writings<\/h5>\nOne of the few mentions of instruments in the NT is the use of flutes at a wake (Mt 9:23). As in the OT, music is associated with feasting and merrymaking (e.g., the return of the prodigal son, Lk 15:25). Five passages mention music metaphorically (Mt 6:2; 11:17; Lk 7:32; 1 Cor 13:1; 14:7-8). The most well known of these is Paul’s celebration of love in 1 Corinthians 13. The denunciation of the gong and cymbals must be understood in light of the attitude of the early Christians toward the music of the Pharisees. Here the signal instruments of the temple were used to represent pompous display of religious pietism.<\/p>\n\nMost references to music are found in the eschatological visions and prophetic passages scattered throughout the NT—most frequently in the book of Revelation (also Mt 24:31; 1 Cor 15:52; 1 Thes 4:16; Heb 12:19). Many of these descriptions have a direct association with musical references in the OT (e.g., the use of harps and trumpets and the singing of the Hallelujah). But the value of many of the passages in Revelation comes from their literary style. These doxological and psalmlike passages were probably spontaneous “spiritual songs” composed by the young church (e.g., Rv 5:9-10).<\/p>\nThe passages that mention religious or liturgical music are often more conceptual than literal. Two parallel passages describing the Last Supper (Mt 26:30; Mk 14:26) mention that Christ and his disciples sang a hymn. This is the only direct account of Jesus singing, but it is probable that when he read in the synagogue he did so in the accepted vocal style (Lk 4:16-20). There is much controversy surrounding the actual events at the Last Supper, but we can assume that the hymn sung was a traditional Jewish hymn, probably associated with the Passover.<\/p>\nFrom the account in Acts 16:25 we know that Paul and Silas sang hymns while in jail. Paul gives instruction for music making in 1 Corinthians 14:15, 26 in terms of a balance between rationalism and emotion. And, as with all the gifts of the Spirit, Paul asks that singing be done for edification.<\/p>\nIn two similar passages (Eph 5:19; Col 3:16) Paul groups together three musical terms—psalms, hymns, and spiritual songs. The singing of psalms was an obvious carryover from the synagogue, and we can assume that the early Christian psalm singing followed the Jewish style. The term for “hymns” probably refers to poetic texts, possibly modeled after the psalms, but in praise of Christ. “Spiritual songs” may refer to a spontaneous, ecstatic form of musical prayer, possibly wordless (perhaps related to glossolalia), in a style that was popular in mystical Judaism. These outbursts of song were probably melismatic (sung on one tone) and are perhaps the forerunners of the later Alleluia chant.<\/p>\n<h5>Hymnody in the New Testament<\/h5>\nIt can be assumed that the early Christians composed hymns in praise of Christ. Logically, most of the hymns found in the NT are based on Hebrew poetic psalm forms, but there is Greek and Latin influence also. The hymns from the Gospel of Luke have become well-known canticles adopted by the church: the Magnificat (Lk 1:46-55), the Benedictus (1:68-79), the Gloria (2:14) and the Nunc Dimittis (2:29-32). While patterned after the psalms of the OT, these hymns are full of confidence in the salvation of Christ and in his imminent return. Other Christological hymns found in the NT include the prologue to the Gospel of John, Ephesians 2:14-16, Philippians 2:6-11, Colossians 1:15-20, 1 Timothy 3:16, Hebrews 1:3, and 1 Peter 3:18-22.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MUSIC A natural human expression that probably began with speech-singing and developed into songs, which were then accompanied by instruments. Music as we know it has become quite complex, a luxury and entertainment; music in antiquity, however, was a functional expression of daily life, work, and worship. The phrase “sing to the Lord,” common to the OT (Ex 15:21; 1 Chr 16:9; Pss 68:32; 96:1-2; Is 42:10; Jer 20:13), was not unique to the Jewish nation. All religions draw on the natural human ...","summary_en":"MUSIC A natural human expression that probably began with speech-singing and developed into songs, which were then accompanied by instruments. Music as we know it has become quite complex, a luxury and entertainment; music in antiquity, however, was a functional expression of daily life, work, and worship. The phrase “sing to the Lord,” common to the OT (Ex 15:21; 1 Chr 16:9; Pss 68:32; 96:1-2; Is 42:10; Jer 20:13), was not unique to the Jewish nation. All religions draw on the natural human ...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26676,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Musical Instruments","title_en":"Musical Instruments","content_ro":"<h3>MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS<\/h3>\nStringed, wind, and percussion instruments used to make music.<\/p>\nIn contrast to the detailed accounts of liturgical music in the OT, the descriptions of the musical instruments themselves are rather sparse. Because of the injunction of the second commandment, interpreted by the Hebrews as discouraging pictorial representations, there are few drawings of Hebrew instruments. In addition to the instruments used in the temple, the book of Daniel lists six instruments played in King Nebuchadnezzar’s court.<\/p>\nThe ancient Hebrews made certain distinctions among the instruments, not on musical but on ethical grounds. Some instruments were considered “unclean” and were not allowed in temple worship.<\/p>\nStringed Instruments<\/p>\nThe stringed instruments were favored by the Jewish people. In many ancient civilizations the strings were considered the most masculine and noble (e.g., David playing the lyre); the Jews considered them the most suitable for accompaniment in the temple service. The term minim<\/span> is used in Psalm 150:4 to designate the entire family of stringed instruments used in the praise of God.<\/p>\n\nAsor<\/span> appears three times in the book of Psalms (Pss 33:2; 92:3; 144:9). Although the word derives from a Hebrew root meaning “ten,” the actual description of the instrument remains unclear. The most common theory identifies it with the Phoenician zither having ten strings; it is perhaps the lute.<\/p>\nKathros<\/span> was a stringed instrument included in the list of those played at Nebuchadnezzar’s court and was probably a kind of lyre (Dn 3:5, 7, 10, 15).<\/p>\nKinnor<\/span> is the most frequently mentioned instrument in the Bible, found in 42 places. It is often called David’s harp and is the most beloved instrument of the Jewish people. We can say with reasonable certainty that it was a lyre and not a harp. The strings, the number of which is not clear, were made of sheep tripe and the sounding box was at the bottom of the instrument. It is not certain whether it was played with a plectrum or with bare hands, but the specific comment that David “played it with his hand” (1 Sm 16:23, rsv<\/span>) may have implied that this was not the common practice. The biblical descriptions of the sound of the kinnor<\/span> include “pleasant” and “sweet” (Ps 81:2). The kinnor<\/span> was played mainly in worship but also in celebrations (Is 5:12), for state occasions (1 Sm 10:5; 2 Sm 6:5), and by shepherds (1 Sm 16:16).<\/p>\n\nNebel<\/span> was another stringed instrument (literally meaning “skin” or “skin bottle”) mentioned 27 times in Scripture. Its shape was probably similar to a bottle, with the belly-shaped sounding box on the bottom. It definitely belongs to the family of harps (2 Sm 6:5; 1 Kgs 10:12; Neh 12:27; Ps 57:8; Am 5:23) and may have been influenced by similar Egyptian instruments. The nebel<\/span> was probably played without a plectrum and was a larger and louder instrument than the kinnor<\/span>.<\/em> It is translated as “harp” in most modern English translations, compared to the kjv<\/span> (“psaltery,” or “viol”).<\/p>\nPsantrin<\/span> or pesanterin<\/span> was a Greek instrument, mentioned in the description of King Nebuchadnezzar’s orchestra. It may have resembled a dulcimer, having strings played with hammers (Dn 3:5-15).<\/p>\nSabcha<\/span> or sabbeka<\/span>,<\/em> identical with the Greek sambyke<\/span> and the Roman sambuca,<\/em> was a stringed instrument (rsv<\/span> “trigon,” kjv<\/span> “sackbut”) played in the Babylonian court. It was a triangle with four strings, having a high and harsh tone (Dn 3:5-15).<\/p>\n\nWind Instruments<\/p>\nThe wind instruments can be divided into two groups: pipes and horns.<\/p>\n\nHalil<\/span> is mentioned only six times in the Bible but was referred to frequently by postbiblical writers. This kind of piped instrument was similar to the Greek aulos<\/span> (Mt 9:23; 1 Cor 14:7; Rv 18:22), a primitive oboe, rendered “flute” in many translations. The root word halal<\/span> means “to pierce,” thus the meaning “hollow tube.” The early pipes were made from reedlike plants. The halil<\/span> had a double-reed mouthpiece and probably produced a shrill and penetrating sound. It was connected with joyful events such as banquets (Is 5:12) and prophetic frenzies (1 Sm 10:5), but its tone was also associated with wailing and mourning (Jer 48:36).<\/p>\nHatzotzrot<\/span> was a sort of trumpet. Modern scholars have more information about this horn than many of its ancient Hebrew counterparts. The triumphal arch built by Titus in Rome includes depictions of the captured implements of the temple, among which are two trumpets. The form of these horns may have been influenced by the Israelites’ knowledge of Egyptian trumpets. Similar instruments were also known in Assyria, in the Hittite Empire, and in Greece. Moses was commanded to make two silver trumpets (Nm 10:2); playing these instruments became the exclusive privilege of the descendants of Aaron. These trumpets were made of silver or gold, about a yard (.9 meter) long, but narrow, with a pronounced bell. The descendants of the hatzotzrot<\/span> are the herald trumpets. Numbers 10:10 says the trumpets were used “for a memorial before . . . God.” Trumpets and horns were used to signal the gathering of the congregation to the tent of meeting, to sound alarm, to alert the camps to move forward, and to announce when war was at hand. The hatzotzrot<\/span> became an important part of the temple service. There were at least two trumpets in the daily services, but at high holidays the number could be increased indefinitely (1 Chr 15:28; 2 Chr 15:14; Ps 98:6; Dn 3:5-15; Hos 5:8).<\/p>\n\nMashroqita<\/span>,<\/em> considered by modern scholars to be a Pan’s pipe similar to the Greek syrinx<\/span>,<\/em> is included in the list of orchestral instruments of King Nebuchadnezzar’s court (Dn 3:5, 7, 10, 15).<\/p>\nShophar<\/span> is mentioned in the Bible 72 times, more than any other Hebrew instrument. It is the only instrument of ancient Israel that survives in its original form and is still used in Jewish liturgy. The early shophar<\/span> was curved like a ram’s horn, but the later form was straight with a bend near the bell of the horn. There is some question whether any of the hornlike instruments can actually be considered musical instruments. The shophar<\/span> could produce two, maybe three tones, and was used for giving signals, not for playing music. It was used in such religious ceremonies as the transfer of the ark (2 Sm 6:15; 1 Chr 15:28), the renewal of the covenant by King Asa (2 Chr 15:14), thanksgiving to God (Ps 98:6; 150:3), and was blown at the new moon and the beginning of the jubilee year. Its secular use included such royal occasions as Absalom’s accession to the throne (2 Sm 15:10), Solomon’s anointing as king (1 Kgs 1:34), and Jehu’s accession to the throne (2 Kgs 9:13).<\/p>\nSumponia<\/span> is an uncertain term included in Daniel 3. Many commentators have interpreted it as a bagpipe (rsv<\/span>), but musicologists strongly argue that at the time of King Nebuchadnezzar there was no such instrument. It has been suggested that sumponia<\/span> was not a musical instrument at all but signified the playing of the entire ensemble. This could come from the Greek root sym<\/span>phonia<\/span>,<\/em> meaning “sounding together.” The word is also found in Luke 15:25, where it is translated as “music.”<\/p>\nUgab<\/span>,<\/em> a flutelike instrument, is mentioned in Scripture four times (Gn 4:21; Jb 21:12; 30:31; Ps 150:4; kjv<\/span> mistranslates it as “organ”). It is only in Psalm 150 that the ugab<\/span> is connected with a sacred occasion.<\/p>\nPercussion Instruments<\/p>\nMost of the accounts of percussion instruments are found in the early history of the Hebrew people. They were gradually eliminated from the temple orchestra, perhaps because of their association with idolatrous practices.<\/p>\nMena anim<\/span> was a loud metal rattle, constructed with a frame carrying loose rings. It is included in a list of instruments in 2 Samuel 6:5 (rsv<\/span> “castanet”; kjv<\/span> mistranslates as “cornet”). It was likely a form of the sistrum,<\/em> an Egyptian instrument.<\/p>\nPamonim<\/span> were the bells attached to the lower hem of the priest’s garment, described in Exodus 28:33-34 and 39:25-26. They were not loud but indicated the position of the high priest as he entered the sanctuary.<\/p>\nShalishim<\/span>,<\/em> often translated as sistrum<\/em> or timbrel,<\/em> is a kind of rattle. It is not clear whether this term actually refers to a musical instrument. It appears in 1 Samuel 18:6 as part of the reception of King Saul and David after the battle with the Philistines.<\/p>\nToph<\/span> or tof<\/span> was an instrument used mainly by women, but there are some indications that men might have played it as well (1 Sm 10:5; kjv<\/span> “tabret”; 2 Sm 6:5; 1 Chr 13:8). The mention of this kind of hand drum appears 15 times in the Bible. A wooden or metal hoop was covered with the skin of a ram or wild goat and was played with the hand. It is not clear whether the toph<\/span> had skin on just one side or two. Some commentators have described it as a tambourine or timbrel but there is no indication that it included jangles. The toph<\/span> was used in merrymaking and was rather loud (Ex 15:20; Ps 81:2).<\/p>\nZelzelim<\/span> or meziltayim<\/span> were cymbals. Both of these words come from the Hebrew root zala<\/span>,<\/em> meaning “to resound” or “to tingle,” and the noun forms represent the instrument known as the cymbal. Sometimes these terms are wrongly translated as “castanets.” These were the only percussion instruments included in the temple music and were always referred to in a dual form, suggesting a pair of cymbals, but played by one man. Cymbals made of metal were known to most ancient cultures. They appear for the first time in the Bible when the ark was transferred to Jerusalem (2 Sm 6:5; 1 Chr 13:8). Later they were played in the temple by the leaders of the Levitical singers (1 Chr 15:19). The function of the cymbals was less musical than liturgical, being used as signals for the singing to begin and between the sections of the psalms. Two different kinds of cymbals are mentioned in Psalm 150, but their difference is not clear, probably involving either size or material.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS<\/h3>\nStringed, wind, and percussion instruments used to make music.<\/p>\nIn contrast to the detailed accounts of liturgical music in the OT, the descriptions of the musical instruments themselves are rather sparse. Because of the injunction of the second commandment, interpreted by the Hebrews as discouraging pictorial representations, there are few drawings of Hebrew instruments. In addition to the instruments used in the temple, the book of Daniel lists six instruments played in King Nebuchadnezzar’s court.<\/p>\nThe ancient Hebrews made certain distinctions among the instruments, not on musical but on ethical grounds. Some instruments were considered “unclean” and were not allowed in temple worship.<\/p>\nStringed Instruments<\/p>\nThe stringed instruments were favored by the Jewish people. In many ancient civilizations the strings were considered the most masculine and noble (e.g., David playing the lyre); the Jews considered them the most suitable for accompaniment in the temple service. The term minim<\/span> is used in Psalm 150:4 to designate the entire family of stringed instruments used in the praise of God.<\/p>\n\nAsor<\/span> appears three times in the book of Psalms (Pss 33:2; 92:3; 144:9). Although the word derives from a Hebrew root meaning “ten,” the actual description of the instrument remains unclear. The most common theory identifies it with the Phoenician zither having ten strings; it is perhaps the lute.<\/p>\nKathros<\/span> was a stringed instrument included in the list of those played at Nebuchadnezzar’s court and was probably a kind of lyre (Dn 3:5, 7, 10, 15).<\/p>\nKinnor<\/span> is the most frequently mentioned instrument in the Bible, found in 42 places. It is often called David’s harp and is the most beloved instrument of the Jewish people. We can say with reasonable certainty that it was a lyre and not a harp. The strings, the number of which is not clear, were made of sheep tripe and the sounding box was at the bottom of the instrument. It is not certain whether it was played with a plectrum or with bare hands, but the specific comment that David “played it with his hand” (1 Sm 16:23, rsv<\/span>) may have implied that this was not the common practice. The biblical descriptions of the sound of the kinnor<\/span> include “pleasant” and “sweet” (Ps 81:2). The kinnor<\/span> was played mainly in worship but also in celebrations (Is 5:12), for state occasions (1 Sm 10:5; 2 Sm 6:5), and by shepherds (1 Sm 16:16).<\/p>\n\nNebel<\/span> was another stringed instrument (literally meaning “skin” or “skin bottle”) mentioned 27 times in Scripture. Its shape was probably similar to a bottle, with the belly-shaped sounding box on the bottom. It definitely belongs to the family of harps (2 Sm 6:5; 1 Kgs 10:12; Neh 12:27; Ps 57:8; Am 5:23) and may have been influenced by similar Egyptian instruments. The nebel<\/span> was probably played without a plectrum and was a larger and louder instrument than the kinnor<\/span>.<\/em> It is translated as “harp” in most modern English translations, compared to the kjv<\/span> (“psaltery,” or “viol”).<\/p>\nPsantrin<\/span> or pesanterin<\/span> was a Greek instrument, mentioned in the description of King Nebuchadnezzar’s orchestra. It may have resembled a dulcimer, having strings played with hammers (Dn 3:5-15).<\/p>\nSabcha<\/span> or sabbeka<\/span>,<\/em> identical with the Greek sambyke<\/span> and the Roman sambuca,<\/em> was a stringed instrument (rsv<\/span> “trigon,” kjv<\/span> “sackbut”) played in the Babylonian court. It was a triangle with four strings, having a high and harsh tone (Dn 3:5-15).<\/p>\n\nWind Instruments<\/p>\nThe wind instruments can be divided into two groups: pipes and horns.<\/p>\n\nHalil<\/span> is mentioned only six times in the Bible but was referred to frequently by postbiblical writers. This kind of piped instrument was similar to the Greek aulos<\/span> (Mt 9:23; 1 Cor 14:7; Rv 18:22), a primitive oboe, rendered “flute” in many translations. The root word halal<\/span> means “to pierce,” thus the meaning “hollow tube.” The early pipes were made from reedlike plants. The halil<\/span> had a double-reed mouthpiece and probably produced a shrill and penetrating sound. It was connected with joyful events such as banquets (Is 5:12) and prophetic frenzies (1 Sm 10:5), but its tone was also associated with wailing and mourning (Jer 48:36).<\/p>\nHatzotzrot<\/span> was a sort of trumpet. Modern scholars have more information about this horn than many of its ancient Hebrew counterparts. The triumphal arch built by Titus in Rome includes depictions of the captured implements of the temple, among which are two trumpets. The form of these horns may have been influenced by the Israelites’ knowledge of Egyptian trumpets. Similar instruments were also known in Assyria, in the Hittite Empire, and in Greece. Moses was commanded to make two silver trumpets (Nm 10:2); playing these instruments became the exclusive privilege of the descendants of Aaron. These trumpets were made of silver or gold, about a yard (.9 meter) long, but narrow, with a pronounced bell. The descendants of the hatzotzrot<\/span> are the herald trumpets. Numbers 10:10 says the trumpets were used “for a memorial before . . . God.” Trumpets and horns were used to signal the gathering of the congregation to the tent of meeting, to sound alarm, to alert the camps to move forward, and to announce when war was at hand. The hatzotzrot<\/span> became an important part of the temple service. There were at least two trumpets in the daily services, but at high holidays the number could be increased indefinitely (1 Chr 15:28; 2 Chr 15:14; Ps 98:6; Dn 3:5-15; Hos 5:8).<\/p>\n\nMashroqita<\/span>,<\/em> considered by modern scholars to be a Pan’s pipe similar to the Greek syrinx<\/span>,<\/em> is included in the list of orchestral instruments of King Nebuchadnezzar’s court (Dn 3:5, 7, 10, 15).<\/p>\nShophar<\/span> is mentioned in the Bible 72 times, more than any other Hebrew instrument. It is the only instrument of ancient Israel that survives in its original form and is still used in Jewish liturgy. The early shophar<\/span> was curved like a ram’s horn, but the later form was straight with a bend near the bell of the horn. There is some question whether any of the hornlike instruments can actually be considered musical instruments. The shophar<\/span> could produce two, maybe three tones, and was used for giving signals, not for playing music. It was used in such religious ceremonies as the transfer of the ark (2 Sm 6:15; 1 Chr 15:28), the renewal of the covenant by King Asa (2 Chr 15:14), thanksgiving to God (Ps 98:6; 150:3), and was blown at the new moon and the beginning of the jubilee year. Its secular use included such royal occasions as Absalom’s accession to the throne (2 Sm 15:10), Solomon’s anointing as king (1 Kgs 1:34), and Jehu’s accession to the throne (2 Kgs 9:13).<\/p>\nSumponia<\/span> is an uncertain term included in Daniel 3. Many commentators have interpreted it as a bagpipe (rsv<\/span>), but musicologists strongly argue that at the time of King Nebuchadnezzar there was no such instrument. It has been suggested that sumponia<\/span> was not a musical instrument at all but signified the playing of the entire ensemble. This could come from the Greek root sym<\/span>phonia<\/span>,<\/em> meaning “sounding together.” The word is also found in Luke 15:25, where it is translated as “music.”<\/p>\nUgab<\/span>,<\/em> a flutelike instrument, is mentioned in Scripture four times (Gn 4:21; Jb 21:12; 30:31; Ps 150:4; kjv<\/span> mistranslates it as “organ”). It is only in Psalm 150 that the ugab<\/span> is connected with a sacred occasion.<\/p>\nPercussion Instruments<\/p>\nMost of the accounts of percussion instruments are found in the early history of the Hebrew people. They were gradually eliminated from the temple orchestra, perhaps because of their association with idolatrous practices.<\/p>\nMena anim<\/span> was a loud metal rattle, constructed with a frame carrying loose rings. It is included in a list of instruments in 2 Samuel 6:5 (rsv<\/span> “castanet”; kjv<\/span> mistranslates as “cornet”). It was likely a form of the sistrum,<\/em> an Egyptian instrument.<\/p>\nPamonim<\/span> were the bells attached to the lower hem of the priest’s garment, described in Exodus 28:33-34 and 39:25-26. They were not loud but indicated the position of the high priest as he entered the sanctuary.<\/p>\nShalishim<\/span>,<\/em> often translated as sistrum<\/em> or timbrel,<\/em> is a kind of rattle. It is not clear whether this term actually refers to a musical instrument. It appears in 1 Samuel 18:6 as part of the reception of King Saul and David after the battle with the Philistines.<\/p>\nToph<\/span> or tof<\/span> was an instrument used mainly by women, but there are some indications that men might have played it as well (1 Sm 10:5; kjv<\/span> “tabret”; 2 Sm 6:5; 1 Chr 13:8). The mention of this kind of hand drum appears 15 times in the Bible. A wooden or metal hoop was covered with the skin of a ram or wild goat and was played with the hand. It is not clear whether the toph<\/span> had skin on just one side or two. Some commentators have described it as a tambourine or timbrel but there is no indication that it included jangles. The toph<\/span> was used in merrymaking and was rather loud (Ex 15:20; Ps 81:2).<\/p>\nZelzelim<\/span> or meziltayim<\/span> were cymbals. Both of these words come from the Hebrew root zala<\/span>,<\/em> meaning “to resound” or “to tingle,” and the noun forms represent the instrument known as the cymbal. Sometimes these terms are wrongly translated as “castanets.” These were the only percussion instruments included in the temple music and were always referred to in a dual form, suggesting a pair of cymbals, but played by one man. Cymbals made of metal were known to most ancient cultures. They appear for the first time in the Bible when the ark was transferred to Jerusalem (2 Sm 6:5; 1 Chr 13:8). Later they were played in the temple by the leaders of the Levitical singers (1 Chr 15:19). The function of the cymbals was less musical than liturgical, being used as signals for the singing to begin and between the sections of the psalms. Two different kinds of cymbals are mentioned in Psalm 150, but their difference is not clear, probably involving either size or material.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS Stringed, wind, and percussion instruments used to make music. In contrast to the detailed accounts of liturgical music in the OT, the descriptions of the musical instruments themselves are rather sparse. Because of the injunction of the second commandment, interpreted by the Hebrews as discouraging pictorial representations, there are few drawings of Hebrew instruments. In addition to the instruments used in the temple, the book of Daniel lists six instruments played in K...","summary_en":"MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS Stringed, wind, and percussion instruments used to make music. In contrast to the detailed accounts of liturgical music in the OT, the descriptions of the musical instruments themselves are rather sparse. Because of the injunction of the second commandment, interpreted by the Hebrews as discouraging pictorial representations, there are few drawings of Hebrew instruments. In addition to the instruments used in the temple, the book of Daniel lists six instruments played in K...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57677,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:7","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:7","content_ro":"14:7-12<\/strong> A message needs to be clearly intelligible if it is to communicate effectively.<\/p>","content_en":"14:7-12<\/strong> A message needs to be clearly intelligible if it is to communicate effectively.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:7-12 A message needs to be clearly intelligible if it is to communicate effectively.","summary_en":"14:7-12 A message needs to be clearly intelligible if it is to communicate effectively.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85303,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:7","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:7","content_ro":"14:7-12<\/strong> A message needs to be clearly intelligible if it is to communicate effectively.<\/p>","content_en":"14:7-12<\/strong> A message needs to be clearly intelligible if it is to communicate effectively.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:7-12 A message needs to be clearly intelligible if it is to communicate effectively.","summary_en":"14:7-12 A message needs to be clearly intelligible if it is to communicate effectively.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112929,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:7","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:7","content_ro":"14:7-12<\/strong> A message needs to be clearly intelligible if it is to communicate effectively.<\/p>","content_en":"14:7-12<\/strong> A message needs to be clearly intelligible if it is to communicate effectively.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:7-12 A message needs to be clearly intelligible if it is to communicate effectively.","summary_en":"14:7-12 A message needs to be clearly intelligible if it is to communicate effectively.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140555,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:7","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:7","content_ro":"14:7-12<\/strong> A message needs to be clearly intelligible if it is to communicate effectively.<\/p>","content_en":"14:7-12<\/strong> A message needs to be clearly intelligible if it is to communicate effectively.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:7-12 A message needs to be clearly intelligible if it is to communicate effectively.","summary_en":"14:7-12 A message needs to be clearly intelligible if it is to communicate effectively.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"11":[{"id":3806,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Barbarian*","title_en":"Barbarian*","content_ro":"<h3>BARBARIAN*<\/h3>\nForeigner, especially a person from a culture regarded as primitive or uncivilized. The Greek word barbaros<\/span>,<\/em> translated “barbarian” (kjv<\/span>), originated as a repeated nonsense syllable, “bar-bar<\/em>,<\/em>” in imitation of the strange sound of a foreign language. The Greeks, viewing themselves as the only truly cultured people in the world, tended to refer to everything non-Greek as barbarian. The Romans adopted Greek culture, considered themselves equals of the Greeks, and regarded other languages, customs, and people as barbarian.<\/p>\nThe NT use of the word illustrates its several shades of meaning. The relationship to language is evident in a statement about speaking in tongues through the Holy Spirit (1 Cor 14:11). The apostle Paul said that if a Christian’s spiritual language were not understood, the person speaking would be a barbarian to Paul and vice versa. Luke’s account of Paul’s shipwreck on Malta refers to barbarous people and barbarians (kjv<\/span>, Acts 28:2-4). Obviously, nothing derogatory was intended, since the kindness of the natives was being described. Elsewhere, Paul used the word in the usual Greek-Roman manner, saying he was indebted both to the Greeks and to the barbarians (Rom 1:14). In a profound statement that the gospel of Jesus Christ is for everyone Paul said, “Here there cannot be Greek and Jew, circumcised and uncircumcised, barbarian, Scythian, slave, free man, but Christ is all, and in all” (Col 3:11, rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BARBARIAN*<\/h3>\nForeigner, especially a person from a culture regarded as primitive or uncivilized. The Greek word barbaros<\/span>,<\/em> translated “barbarian” (kjv<\/span>), originated as a repeated nonsense syllable, “bar-bar<\/em>,<\/em>” in imitation of the strange sound of a foreign language. The Greeks, viewing themselves as the only truly cultured people in the world, tended to refer to everything non-Greek as barbarian. The Romans adopted Greek culture, considered themselves equals of the Greeks, and regarded other languages, customs, and people as barbarian.<\/p>\nThe NT use of the word illustrates its several shades of meaning. The relationship to language is evident in a statement about speaking in tongues through the Holy Spirit (1 Cor 14:11). The apostle Paul said that if a Christian’s spiritual language were not understood, the person speaking would be a barbarian to Paul and vice versa. Luke’s account of Paul’s shipwreck on Malta refers to barbarous people and barbarians (kjv<\/span>, Acts 28:2-4). Obviously, nothing derogatory was intended, since the kindness of the natives was being described. Elsewhere, Paul used the word in the usual Greek-Roman manner, saying he was indebted both to the Greeks and to the barbarians (Rom 1:14). In a profound statement that the gospel of Jesus Christ is for everyone Paul said, “Here there cannot be Greek and Jew, circumcised and uncircumcised, barbarian, Scythian, slave, free man, but Christ is all, and in all” (Col 3:11, rsv<\/span>).<\/p>","summary_ro":"BARBARIAN* Foreigner, especially a person from a culture regarded as primitive or uncivilized. The Greek word barbaros, translated “barbarian” (kjv), originated as a repeated nonsense syllable, “bar-bar,” in imitation of the strange sound of a foreign language. The Greeks, viewing themselves as the only truly cultured people in the world, tended to refer to everything non-Greek as barbarian. The Romans adopted Greek culture, considered themselves equals of the Greeks, and regarded other langu...","summary_en":"BARBARIAN* Foreigner, especially a person from a culture regarded as primitive or uncivilized. The Greek word barbaros, translated “barbarian” (kjv), originated as a repeated nonsense syllable, “bar-bar,” in imitation of the strange sound of a foreign language. The Greeks, viewing themselves as the only truly cultured people in the world, tended to refer to everything non-Greek as barbarian. The Romans adopted Greek culture, considered themselves equals of the Greeks, and regarded other langu...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"12":[{"id":38944,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Zealot","title_en":"Zealot","content_ro":"<h3>ZEALOT<\/h3>\nTerm used for the second Simon among the Twelve to distinguish him from Simon Peter (Lk 6:15; Acts 1:13). Matthew (Mt 10:4) and Mark (Mk 3:18) use “Cananaean”—Greek and Aramaic equivalents for “zealous defender, enthusiast, one eager to acquire, fanatic” (from root words meaning “burn with zeal, or jealousy; desire eagerly”; Ex 34:14; 2 Macc 4:2). In this general sense, Christ showed zeal for God’s house. Some were “zealots” for spiritual gifts, good works, goodness, and the law, as Paul was for the tradition of the fathers and for God (Jn 2:17; Acts 21:20; 22:3; 1 Cor 14:12; Gal 1:14; Ti 2:14). So, Simon was distinguished from Peter and the others by his religious zeal.<\/p>\nBy the time Luke wrote, the title “Zealot” had become attached especially to a militant, anti-Roman, revolutionary faction, equally religious and political in motivation. This party may have been founded in AD<\/span> 6, following the death of Herod the Great, by Judas the Galilean and Zadduk the Pharisee. The movement was rooted in Maccabean resistance to foreign rule and infiltration (1 Macc 2:15-28). Zealot opposition to Roman rule was rooted in zeal for the Torah and for God the only King. The Zealot regarded himself as an agent of divine judgment and redemption, resolutely and fearlessly contending against idolatry, apostasy, and collaboration. The Zealots thought that the Messiah would become their leader.<\/p>\nAs hostility between Rome and Judea sharpened, the religious motivation was channeled by nationalist feeling into a “holy war.” Whereas the Maccabees had been forced to take arms in self-defense, the Zealots became increasingly militaristic. Josephus (Antiquities<\/em> 18.1.1-6; War<\/em> 4.3.9), with some prejudice, calls them brigands and robbers. Their Latin name was sicarii,<\/em> assassins, but supporters would call them patriotic guerrillas. They reached preeminence in the revolt against Rome (AD<\/span> 66–70). Their last refuge and stronghold, at Masada, was overcome in AD<\/span> 73, when the surviving 960 committed suicide.<\/p>\nSimon probably was, or had been, a member of this movement’s earlier phase, around AD<\/span> 30. It is less probable that Judas Iscariot (possibly Sicarius) and the “sons of thunder” (Mk 3:17) were. Judas the Galilean (Acts 5:37-38), and even Paul (21:38), were considered Zealots.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> First Jewish Revolt; Judaism.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ZEALOT<\/h3>\nTerm used for the second Simon among the Twelve to distinguish him from Simon Peter (Lk 6:15; Acts 1:13). Matthew (Mt 10:4) and Mark (Mk 3:18) use “Cananaean”—Greek and Aramaic equivalents for “zealous defender, enthusiast, one eager to acquire, fanatic” (from root words meaning “burn with zeal, or jealousy; desire eagerly”; Ex 34:14; 2 Macc 4:2). In this general sense, Christ showed zeal for God’s house. Some were “zealots” for spiritual gifts, good works, goodness, and the law, as Paul was for the tradition of the fathers and for God (Jn 2:17; Acts 21:20; 22:3; 1 Cor 14:12; Gal 1:14; Ti 2:14). So, Simon was distinguished from Peter and the others by his religious zeal.<\/p>\nBy the time Luke wrote, the title “Zealot” had become attached especially to a militant, anti-Roman, revolutionary faction, equally religious and political in motivation. This party may have been founded in AD<\/span> 6, following the death of Herod the Great, by Judas the Galilean and Zadduk the Pharisee. The movement was rooted in Maccabean resistance to foreign rule and infiltration (1 Macc 2:15-28). Zealot opposition to Roman rule was rooted in zeal for the Torah and for God the only King. The Zealot regarded himself as an agent of divine judgment and redemption, resolutely and fearlessly contending against idolatry, apostasy, and collaboration. The Zealots thought that the Messiah would become their leader.<\/p>\nAs hostility between Rome and Judea sharpened, the religious motivation was channeled by nationalist feeling into a “holy war.” Whereas the Maccabees had been forced to take arms in self-defense, the Zealots became increasingly militaristic. Josephus (Antiquities<\/em> 18.1.1-6; War<\/em> 4.3.9), with some prejudice, calls them brigands and robbers. Their Latin name was sicarii,<\/em> assassins, but supporters would call them patriotic guerrillas. They reached preeminence in the revolt against Rome (AD<\/span> 66–70). Their last refuge and stronghold, at Masada, was overcome in AD<\/span> 73, when the surviving 960 committed suicide.<\/p>\nSimon probably was, or had been, a member of this movement’s earlier phase, around AD<\/span> 30. It is less probable that Judas Iscariot (possibly Sicarius) and the “sons of thunder” (Mk 3:17) were. Judas the Galilean (Acts 5:37-38), and even Paul (21:38), were considered Zealots.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> First Jewish Revolt; Judaism.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ZEALOT Term used for the second Simon among the Twelve to distinguish him from Simon Peter (Lk 6:15; Acts 1:13). Matthew (Mt 10:4) and Mark (Mk 3:18) use “Cananaean”—Greek and Aramaic equivalents for “zealous defender, enthusiast, one eager to acquire, fanatic” (from root words meaning “burn with zeal, or jealousy; desire eagerly”; Ex 34:14; 2 Macc 4:2). In this general sense, Christ showed zeal for God’s house. Some were “zealots” for spiritual gifts, good works, goodness, and the law, as Pa...","summary_en":"ZEALOT Term used for the second Simon among the Twelve to distinguish him from Simon Peter (Lk 6:15; Acts 1:13). Matthew (Mt 10:4) and Mark (Mk 3:18) use “Cananaean”—Greek and Aramaic equivalents for “zealous defender, enthusiast, one eager to acquire, fanatic” (from root words meaning “burn with zeal, or jealousy; desire eagerly”; Ex 34:14; 2 Macc 4:2). In this general sense, Christ showed zeal for God’s house. Some were “zealots” for spiritual gifts, good works, goodness, and the law, as Pa...","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57678,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:12","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:12","content_ro":"14:12<\/strong> Special abilities<\/em> from the Spirit<\/em> are given to strengthen the whole church<\/em> (see 12:7; 14:4; cp. Eph 4:15-16).<\/p>","content_en":"14:12<\/strong> Special abilities<\/em> from the Spirit<\/em> are given to strengthen the whole church<\/em> (see 12:7; 14:4; cp. Eph 4:15-16).<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:12 Special abilities from the Spirit are given to strengthen the whole church (see 12:7; 14:4; cp. Eph 4:15-16).","summary_en":"14:12 Special abilities from the Spirit are given to strengthen the whole church (see 12:7; 14:4; cp. Eph 4:15-16).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85304,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:12","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:12","content_ro":"14:12<\/strong> Special abilities<\/em> from the Spirit<\/em> are given to strengthen the whole church<\/em> (see 12:7; 14:4; cp. Eph 4:15-16).<\/p>","content_en":"14:12<\/strong> Special abilities<\/em> from the Spirit<\/em> are given to strengthen the whole church<\/em> (see 12:7; 14:4; cp. Eph 4:15-16).<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:12 Special abilities from the Spirit are given to strengthen the whole church (see 12:7; 14:4; cp. Eph 4:15-16).","summary_en":"14:12 Special abilities from the Spirit are given to strengthen the whole church (see 12:7; 14:4; cp. Eph 4:15-16).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112930,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:12","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:12","content_ro":"14:12<\/strong> Special abilities<\/em> from the Spirit<\/em> are given to strengthen the whole church<\/em> (see 12:7; 14:4; cp. Eph 4:15-16).<\/p>","content_en":"14:12<\/strong> Special abilities<\/em> from the Spirit<\/em> are given to strengthen the whole church<\/em> (see 12:7; 14:4; cp. Eph 4:15-16).<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:12 Special abilities from the Spirit are given to strengthen the whole church (see 12:7; 14:4; cp. Eph 4:15-16).","summary_en":"14:12 Special abilities from the Spirit are given to strengthen the whole church (see 12:7; 14:4; cp. Eph 4:15-16).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140556,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:12","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:12","content_ro":"14:12<\/strong> Special abilities<\/em> from the Spirit<\/em> are given to strengthen the whole church<\/em> (see 12:7; 14:4; cp. Eph 4:15-16).<\/p>","content_en":"14:12<\/strong> Special abilities<\/em> from the Spirit<\/em> are given to strengthen the whole church<\/em> (see 12:7; 14:4; cp. Eph 4:15-16).<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:12 Special abilities from the Spirit are given to strengthen the whole church (see 12:7; 14:4; cp. Eph 4:15-16).","summary_en":"14:12 Special abilities from the Spirit are given to strengthen the whole church (see 12:7; 14:4; cp. Eph 4:15-16).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"13":[{"id":37541,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Speaking in Tongues","title_en":"Speaking in Tongues","content_ro":"<h3>TONGUES, Speaking in<\/h3>\nSupernatural manifestation of speech in a language not known to the speaker; the Greek term is glossolalia<\/span>.<\/em><\/p>\nTongues-speaking was first manifested in the early church on the Day of Pentecost, when the Holy Spirit filled 120 Christians meeting together. They burst out in praise to God in a multitude of different languages. According to Acts 2:8-11, the audience of Jerusalem could understand them, since they were communicating the gospel in the hearers’ own languages. (Verses 9-11 list about 16 nations whose representatives in Jerusalem hear the disciples speaking in their own language.) In subsequent occurrences, when a group of people were baptized in the Holy Spirit, the book of Acts indicates that they spoke in tongues (10:46; 19:6). But not all spoke in tongues when they received the Spirit (see 8:15-17), so it wasn’t the<\/em> unique sign for having received the Holy Spirit. The Scripture teaches that all believers are baptized by the Spirit as they become integrated into the body of Christ, the church (1 Cor 12:13). The genuine evidence of the work of the Holy Spirit is the “fruit of the Spirit” as defined in Galatians 5:22-23.<\/p>\nIn the days of the early church, some Christians spoke in tongues and some didn’t. According to Paul, speaking in tongues, when practiced in the church meetings, required interpretation. If no one could give an interpretation, it was to be practiced as a private devotional exercise, for one’s own edification. As a means of private worship, the practice of glossolalia is tantamount to speaking to oneself and to God (1 Cor 14:28). However, under certain conditions formulated by Paul, glossolalia may become one of the spiritual gifts to be used in ministry to the church for the common good. In this case, the main concern is that the public use of glossolalia not be reduced to praying in tongues or speaking in tongues without interpretation.<\/p>\n In order to establish firmly the public practice of glossolalia as a ministry to the church and to prevent its abuse as a quest for personal fulfillment, Paul put forth a set of rules designed to control its corporate exercise (1 Cor 14:27-33):<\/p>\n1. A limit of one, two, or three persons is set for participation in tongues per worship session.<\/p>\n<li>2. The one, two, or three tongues-speakers are to make their contribution in sequence, “one at a time” or “in turn,” never simultaneously.<\/li>\n<li>3. Before a worshiper decides to speak in tongues, he or she is to secure an interpreter. Should no such person be available, he or she is to refrain from speaking in tongues.<\/li>\n<li>4. The person speaking in tongues should not be the one to provide the interpretation (1 Cor 12:10).<\/li>\n<li>5. If there are too many believers speaking in tongues and not enough interpreters, the former should pray, instead, for the power to interpret (1 Cor 14:13).<\/li>\n<li>6. When the contribution in tongues has been interpreted in intelligible language, it becomes a prophecy that needs to be evaluated by the recipients.<\/li>\n<li>7. The genuineness of the experience is to be tested by those who have the ability to distinguish between spirits (1 Cor 12:10) so that they can test everything, hold fast to what is good, and abstain from every form of evil.<\/li>\nPersons participating in worship should be in control of their conduct at all times. They may not appeal to ecstatic states to excuse disorderly conduct or infractions to the rules of worship. Disorder and confusion are not inspired by God, since he is a God of peace and unity.<\/p>\nThe gift of tongues is not to be desired or sought after. Only the “higher gifts” involving communication through directly intelligible speech are to be earnestly desired (1 Cor 12:31; 14:1, 5). However, should the gift of tongues be present, it should not be stifled, provided it can be used according to the rules and for the common good.<\/p>\nSee<\/em> Baptism of the Spirit; Spiritual Gifts.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TONGUES, Speaking in<\/h3>\nSupernatural manifestation of speech in a language not known to the speaker; the Greek term is glossolalia<\/span>.<\/em><\/p>\nTongues-speaking was first manifested in the early church on the Day of Pentecost, when the Holy Spirit filled 120 Christians meeting together. They burst out in praise to God in a multitude of different languages. According to Acts 2:8-11, the audience of Jerusalem could understand them, since they were communicating the gospel in the hearers’ own languages. (Verses 9-11 list about 16 nations whose representatives in Jerusalem hear the disciples speaking in their own language.) In subsequent occurrences, when a group of people were baptized in the Holy Spirit, the book of Acts indicates that they spoke in tongues (10:46; 19:6). But not all spoke in tongues when they received the Spirit (see 8:15-17), so it wasn’t the<\/em> unique sign for having received the Holy Spirit. The Scripture teaches that all believers are baptized by the Spirit as they become integrated into the body of Christ, the church (1 Cor 12:13). The genuine evidence of the work of the Holy Spirit is the “fruit of the Spirit” as defined in Galatians 5:22-23.<\/p>\nIn the days of the early church, some Christians spoke in tongues and some didn’t. According to Paul, speaking in tongues, when practiced in the church meetings, required interpretation. If no one could give an interpretation, it was to be practiced as a private devotional exercise, for one’s own edification. As a means of private worship, the practice of glossolalia is tantamount to speaking to oneself and to God (1 Cor 14:28). However, under certain conditions formulated by Paul, glossolalia may become one of the spiritual gifts to be used in ministry to the church for the common good. In this case, the main concern is that the public use of glossolalia not be reduced to praying in tongues or speaking in tongues without interpretation.<\/p>\n In order to establish firmly the public practice of glossolalia as a ministry to the church and to prevent its abuse as a quest for personal fulfillment, Paul put forth a set of rules designed to control its corporate exercise (1 Cor 14:27-33):<\/p>\n1. A limit of one, two, or three persons is set for participation in tongues per worship session.<\/p>\n<li>2. The one, two, or three tongues-speakers are to make their contribution in sequence, “one at a time” or “in turn,” never simultaneously.<\/li>\n<li>3. Before a worshiper decides to speak in tongues, he or she is to secure an interpreter. Should no such person be available, he or she is to refrain from speaking in tongues.<\/li>\n<li>4. The person speaking in tongues should not be the one to provide the interpretation (1 Cor 12:10).<\/li>\n<li>5. If there are too many believers speaking in tongues and not enough interpreters, the former should pray, instead, for the power to interpret (1 Cor 14:13).<\/li>\n<li>6. When the contribution in tongues has been interpreted in intelligible language, it becomes a prophecy that needs to be evaluated by the recipients.<\/li>\n<li>7. The genuineness of the experience is to be tested by those who have the ability to distinguish between spirits (1 Cor 12:10) so that they can test everything, hold fast to what is good, and abstain from every form of evil.<\/li>\nPersons participating in worship should be in control of their conduct at all times. They may not appeal to ecstatic states to excuse disorderly conduct or infractions to the rules of worship. Disorder and confusion are not inspired by God, since he is a God of peace and unity.<\/p>\nThe gift of tongues is not to be desired or sought after. Only the “higher gifts” involving communication through directly intelligible speech are to be earnestly desired (1 Cor 12:31; 14:1, 5). However, should the gift of tongues be present, it should not be stifled, provided it can be used according to the rules and for the common good.<\/p>\nSee<\/em> Baptism of the Spirit; Spiritual Gifts.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TONGUES, Speaking in Supernatural manifestation of speech in a language not known to the speaker; the Greek term is glossolalia. Tongues-speaking was first manifested in the early church on the Day of Pentecost, when the Holy Spirit filled 120 Christians meeting together. They burst out in praise to God in a multitude of different languages. According to Acts 2:8-11, the audience of Jerusalem could understand them, since they were communicating the gospel in the hearers’ own languages. (Verse...","summary_en":"TONGUES, Speaking in Supernatural manifestation of speech in a language not known to the speaker; the Greek term is glossolalia. Tongues-speaking was first manifested in the early church on the Day of Pentecost, when the Holy Spirit filled 120 Christians meeting together. They burst out in praise to God in a multitude of different languages. According to Acts 2:8-11, the audience of Jerusalem could understand them, since they were communicating the gospel in the hearers’ own languages. (Verse...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57679,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:13","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:13","content_ro":"14:13<\/strong> Paul does not forbid speaking in tongues<\/em> (see 14:39), but the ability to interpret<\/em> is crucial, especially in public worship (see 14:27-28).<\/p>","content_en":"14:13<\/strong> Paul does not forbid speaking in tongues<\/em> (see 14:39), but the ability to interpret<\/em> is crucial, especially in public worship (see 14:27-28).<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:13 Paul does not forbid speaking in tongues (see 14:39), but the ability to interpret is crucial, especially in public worship (see 14:27-28).","summary_en":"14:13 Paul does not forbid speaking in tongues (see 14:39), but the ability to interpret is crucial, especially in public worship (see 14:27-28).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85305,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:13","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:13","content_ro":"14:13<\/strong> Paul does not forbid speaking in tongues<\/em> (see 14:39), but the ability to interpret<\/em> is crucial, especially in public worship (see 14:27-28).<\/p>","content_en":"14:13<\/strong> Paul does not forbid speaking in tongues<\/em> (see 14:39), but the ability to interpret<\/em> is crucial, especially in public worship (see 14:27-28).<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:13 Paul does not forbid speaking in tongues (see 14:39), but the ability to interpret is crucial, especially in public worship (see 14:27-28).","summary_en":"14:13 Paul does not forbid speaking in tongues (see 14:39), but the ability to interpret is crucial, especially in public worship (see 14:27-28).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112931,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:13","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:13","content_ro":"14:13<\/strong> Paul does not forbid speaking in tongues<\/em> (see 14:39), but the ability to interpret<\/em> is crucial, especially in public worship (see 14:27-28).<\/p>","content_en":"14:13<\/strong> Paul does not forbid speaking in tongues<\/em> (see 14:39), but the ability to interpret<\/em> is crucial, especially in public worship (see 14:27-28).<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:13 Paul does not forbid speaking in tongues (see 14:39), but the ability to interpret is crucial, especially in public worship (see 14:27-28).","summary_en":"14:13 Paul does not forbid speaking in tongues (see 14:39), but the ability to interpret is crucial, especially in public worship (see 14:27-28).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140557,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:13","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:13","content_ro":"14:13<\/strong> Paul does not forbid speaking in tongues<\/em> (see 14:39), but the ability to interpret<\/em> is crucial, especially in public worship (see 14:27-28).<\/p>","content_en":"14:13<\/strong> Paul does not forbid speaking in tongues<\/em> (see 14:39), but the ability to interpret<\/em> is crucial, especially in public worship (see 14:27-28).<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:13 Paul does not forbid speaking in tongues (see 14:39), but the ability to interpret is crucial, especially in public worship (see 14:27-28).","summary_en":"14:13 Paul does not forbid speaking in tongues (see 14:39), but the ability to interpret is crucial, especially in public worship (see 14:27-28).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"14":[{"id":25780,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Mind","title_en":"Mind","content_ro":"<h3>MIND<\/h3>\nOne’s intellectual processes in a narrow sense or, more broadly, the sum total of a person’s mental and moral state of being. To the Hebrew way of thinking, there is no distinctive terminology for the concept of the mind. To the Greek world, the mind plays a very important role in the understanding of humans.<\/p>\nSince in the OT there was no separate word that could be used for the human mind, translators of the English versions have supplied other words (“soul,” “spirit,” or “heart”), as the context dictates. Thus, precise distinctions among these terms are hard to define. A person is a soul, having a spirit and a heart. Any of these terms may represent the mind. This means that the widely held distinction between the mind as the seat of thinking and the heart as the seat of feeling is alien to the meanings these terms carry in the OT.<\/p>\nWhile the “mind” denotes a person’s thoughts, the prominent idea of “mind” in the OT is that it denotes the heart (1 Sm 2:35; Ez 11:5; 20:32). The heart is often intended to include the entire inner person and thus often relates especially to the mind. In these instances it relates primarily to the functions of will and memory (Is 46:8; 65:17; Jer 3:16).<\/p>\nThe basic patterns of Hebrew reasoning continue in the Gospel accounts. The conception of mind appears quite rarely. When used, it is mostly in connection with the heart—for example, the imaginations of the heart (Lk 1:51). The only other occurrences of the word “mind” come in the statement of the great commandment: “You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your strength, and with all your mind” (cf. Mt 22:37; Mk 12:30; Lk 10:27). The Gospel writers are unanimous in their agreement that Jesus added “with all your mind” to Deuteronomy 6:5. In Mark, however, the questioner repeats the command of Jesus but with a word for “understanding” in place of the word for “mind” (Mk 12:33).<\/p>\nWith the writings of Paul, one moves into the Greek world. Paul understood the mind as distinct from the spirit of man. It possesses the ability to understand and to reason (1 Cor 14:14-19); it is the seat of intelligence. In other places, “mind” is used in a broader sense that includes the entire mental and moral process or state of being of a human (Rom 12:2; Eph 4:23). A human’s actions flow from the inclinations of his or her mind. Whether a person is good or evil depends on the state of the mind.<\/p>\nThe state of a person depends upon what or who controls the mind. Romans 8:6-7 speaks of a person’s mind being controlled either by the flesh or by the Spirit. The person whose mind is controlled by the flesh is evil. The mind controlled by the Spirit leads to good. Other passages refer to the inclination of a person’s mind being controlled by the god of this world (2 Cor 4:4). People whose minds are controlled by the “god of this world” will have their minds darkened and will not be able to understand the world as it really is (3:14). It is as a veil over one’s understanding. But the Lord can open people’s minds. For example, Jesus opened the minds of the disciples who walked the Emmaus road with him so that they might understand the Scriptures (Lk 24:45).<\/p>\nFor Paul, the action of conversion is considered to be a “renewing of the mind” (Rom 12:2; Eph 4:23). In both cases, the process is one whereby God takes control of the mind of a person through the Holy Spirit and leads the thoughts of that person into proper channels. Thus, the renewed person is given power to make proper value judgments. Such people have new minds with which to make spiritual discernments (1 Cor 2:15-16).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Man; Heart; Soul.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MIND<\/h3>\nOne’s intellectual processes in a narrow sense or, more broadly, the sum total of a person’s mental and moral state of being. To the Hebrew way of thinking, there is no distinctive terminology for the concept of the mind. To the Greek world, the mind plays a very important role in the understanding of humans.<\/p>\nSince in the OT there was no separate word that could be used for the human mind, translators of the English versions have supplied other words (“soul,” “spirit,” or “heart”), as the context dictates. Thus, precise distinctions among these terms are hard to define. A person is a soul, having a spirit and a heart. Any of these terms may represent the mind. This means that the widely held distinction between the mind as the seat of thinking and the heart as the seat of feeling is alien to the meanings these terms carry in the OT.<\/p>\nWhile the “mind” denotes a person’s thoughts, the prominent idea of “mind” in the OT is that it denotes the heart (1 Sm 2:35; Ez 11:5; 20:32). The heart is often intended to include the entire inner person and thus often relates especially to the mind. In these instances it relates primarily to the functions of will and memory (Is 46:8; 65:17; Jer 3:16).<\/p>\nThe basic patterns of Hebrew reasoning continue in the Gospel accounts. The conception of mind appears quite rarely. When used, it is mostly in connection with the heart—for example, the imaginations of the heart (Lk 1:51). The only other occurrences of the word “mind” come in the statement of the great commandment: “You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your strength, and with all your mind” (cf. Mt 22:37; Mk 12:30; Lk 10:27). The Gospel writers are unanimous in their agreement that Jesus added “with all your mind” to Deuteronomy 6:5. In Mark, however, the questioner repeats the command of Jesus but with a word for “understanding” in place of the word for “mind” (Mk 12:33).<\/p>\nWith the writings of Paul, one moves into the Greek world. Paul understood the mind as distinct from the spirit of man. It possesses the ability to understand and to reason (1 Cor 14:14-19); it is the seat of intelligence. In other places, “mind” is used in a broader sense that includes the entire mental and moral process or state of being of a human (Rom 12:2; Eph 4:23). A human’s actions flow from the inclinations of his or her mind. Whether a person is good or evil depends on the state of the mind.<\/p>\nThe state of a person depends upon what or who controls the mind. Romans 8:6-7 speaks of a person’s mind being controlled either by the flesh or by the Spirit. The person whose mind is controlled by the flesh is evil. The mind controlled by the Spirit leads to good. Other passages refer to the inclination of a person’s mind being controlled by the god of this world (2 Cor 4:4). People whose minds are controlled by the “god of this world” will have their minds darkened and will not be able to understand the world as it really is (3:14). It is as a veil over one’s understanding. But the Lord can open people’s minds. For example, Jesus opened the minds of the disciples who walked the Emmaus road with him so that they might understand the Scriptures (Lk 24:45).<\/p>\nFor Paul, the action of conversion is considered to be a “renewing of the mind” (Rom 12:2; Eph 4:23). In both cases, the process is one whereby God takes control of the mind of a person through the Holy Spirit and leads the thoughts of that person into proper channels. Thus, the renewed person is given power to make proper value judgments. Such people have new minds with which to make spiritual discernments (1 Cor 2:15-16).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Man; Heart; Soul.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MIND One’s intellectual processes in a narrow sense or, more broadly, the sum total of a person’s mental and moral state of being. To the Hebrew way of thinking, there is no distinctive terminology for the concept of the mind. To the Greek world, the mind plays a very important role in the understanding of humans. Since in the OT there was no separate word that could be used for the human mind, translators of the English versions have supplied other words (“soul,” “spirit,” or “heart”), as th...","summary_en":"MIND One’s intellectual processes in a narrow sense or, more broadly, the sum total of a person’s mental and moral state of being. To the Hebrew way of thinking, there is no distinctive terminology for the concept of the mind. To the Greek world, the mind plays a very important role in the understanding of humans. Since in the OT there was no separate word that could be used for the human mind, translators of the English versions have supplied other words (“soul,” “spirit,” or “heart”), as th...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57680,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:14","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:14","content_ro":"14:14<\/strong> Speaking in tongues engages the spirit<\/em> of the speaker (because the Holy Spirit is speaking through the person) but not his mind (because the message is not rationally intelligible).<\/p>","content_en":"14:14<\/strong> Speaking in tongues engages the spirit<\/em> of the speaker (because the Holy Spirit is speaking through the person) but not his mind (because the message is not rationally intelligible).<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:14 Speaking in tongues engages the spirit of the speaker (because the Holy Spirit is speaking through the person) but not his mind (because the message is not rationally intelligible).","summary_en":"14:14 Speaking in tongues engages the spirit of the speaker (because the Holy Spirit is speaking through the person) but not his mind (because the message is not rationally intelligible).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85306,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:14","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:14","content_ro":"14:14<\/strong> Speaking in tongues engages the spirit<\/em> of the speaker (because the Holy Spirit is speaking through the person) but not his mind (because the message is not rationally intelligible).<\/p>","content_en":"14:14<\/strong> Speaking in tongues engages the spirit<\/em> of the speaker (because the Holy Spirit is speaking through the person) but not his mind (because the message is not rationally intelligible).<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:14 Speaking in tongues engages the spirit of the speaker (because the Holy Spirit is speaking through the person) but not his mind (because the message is not rationally intelligible).","summary_en":"14:14 Speaking in tongues engages the spirit of the speaker (because the Holy Spirit is speaking through the person) but not his mind (because the message is not rationally intelligible).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112932,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:14","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:14","content_ro":"14:14<\/strong> Speaking in tongues engages the spirit<\/em> of the speaker (because the Holy Spirit is speaking through the person) but not his mind (because the message is not rationally intelligible).<\/p>","content_en":"14:14<\/strong> Speaking in tongues engages the spirit<\/em> of the speaker (because the Holy Spirit is speaking through the person) but not his mind (because the message is not rationally intelligible).<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:14 Speaking in tongues engages the spirit of the speaker (because the Holy Spirit is speaking through the person) but not his mind (because the message is not rationally intelligible).","summary_en":"14:14 Speaking in tongues engages the spirit of the speaker (because the Holy Spirit is speaking through the person) but not his mind (because the message is not rationally intelligible).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140558,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:14","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:14","content_ro":"14:14<\/strong> Speaking in tongues engages the spirit<\/em> of the speaker (because the Holy Spirit is speaking through the person) but not his mind (because the message is not rationally intelligible).<\/p>","content_en":"14:14<\/strong> Speaking in tongues engages the spirit<\/em> of the speaker (because the Holy Spirit is speaking through the person) but not his mind (because the message is not rationally intelligible).<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:14 Speaking in tongues engages the spirit of the speaker (because the Holy Spirit is speaking through the person) but not his mind (because the message is not rationally intelligible).","summary_en":"14:14 Speaking in tongues engages the spirit of the speaker (because the Holy Spirit is speaking through the person) but not his mind (because the message is not rationally intelligible).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"15":[{"id":26647,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Music","title_en":"Music","content_ro":"<h3>MUSIC<\/h3>\nA natural human expression that probably began with speech-singing and developed into songs, which were then accompanied by instruments. Music as we know it has become quite complex, a luxury and entertainment; music in antiquity, however, was a functional expression of daily life, work, and worship.<\/p>\nThe phrase “sing to the Lord,” common to the OT (Ex 15:21; 1 Chr 16:9; Pss 68:32; 96:1-2; Is 42:10; Jer 20:13), was not unique to the Jewish nation. All religions draw on the natural human impulse to sing. The injunction “sing to the Lord” was a signal for the people to pour out their praise in song.<\/p>\nThe Bible, however, is limited in its treatment of music in ancient Israel. Since there was no written musical notation, the primary record of songs sung by the Hebrews is the collection of texts, particularly the psalms, and a few enigmatic musical instructions. The biblical writers were writing a history not of their culture but of their relationship with God; hence, their comments about music are not critical. Also, the biblical documents cover a long span of history and are grouped according to category rather than in chronological order, thus making it difficult to order the development of musical style with precision. Finally, there is the problem of understanding the biblical descriptions of music and its performance. Only in this century have scholars been able to interpret the information provided in the Bible in terms of Eastern music systems.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Music in the Old Testament<\/p>\n• Music in the Psalms<\/p>\n• Music in the New Testament<\/p>\nMusic in the Old Testament<\/p>\nThe first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first musician—the inventor of the harp and flute” (Gn 4:21, nlt<\/span>). The importance of this description of a musician so early in history lies in the equality Jubal is given with his brothers Jabal, the herdsman, and Tubal-cain, the smith. Music making is recognized among the earliest professions of nomadic peoples. The name Jubal is believed to be a derivative from the Hebrew word for “ram.” The ram’s horn (<\/em>shophar<\/span>)<\/em> was an early instrument of the Jewish people and was significant in signaling important events.<\/p>\nFor the most part, the music described in early biblical history was of a functional nature. Music gained special significance as it became an important part of temple worship. Many of the descriptions of music making in ancient Israel, before David’s time, are quite utilitarian. There are accounts of music at times of farewell (Gn 31:27), at times of rejoicing and feasting (Ex 32:17-18; Is 5:12; 24:8-9), at military victories (2 Chr 20:27-28), and for work (Nm 21:17, the song of the well diggers; Is 16:10; Jer 48:33). Most of this music was probably rather crude and primitive in nature, especially the music associated with military advances, which was meant to terrify the enemy (Jgs 7:17-20). The music and dancing that greeted Moses as he descended from the mountain was described as if it sounded like “war in the camp” (Ex 32:17-18).<\/p>\nIn the early history of the Jewish people, women played an important part in the performance of music. The image of women dancing and singing for joy accompanied by percussion instruments is repeated several times: Miriam led the women in a hymn of thanksgiving after the deliverance from the Red Sea (Ex 15); Jephthah’s daughter welcomed her father in his victory (Jgs 11:34); Deborah joined with Barak in singing a song of victory (Jgs 5); and women hailed David after his defeat of the Philistines (1 Sm 18:6-7). There is little mention of women as musicians following the establishment of the temple in Jerusalem, but there are a few allusions to the fact that women did participate in singing and dancing. The account of the return from exile in Babylon includes both male and female singers (Neh 7:67), confirming that women still took part in musical performance.<\/p>\nAs Jerusalem became the religious center of the Hebrew people (950–850 BC<\/span>), the role of the professional musician became more important. The women’s songs became insignificant compared to the pomp and ceremony associated with the temple and the royal court. While the Levitical singers took most of the musical responsibility at the temple, the development of antiphonal singing allowed the people to join in on responses in the singing of psalms.<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Style and Use<\/h5>\nThe Jewish people seem to have been especially musical. Of course, they were influenced by other ancient cultures, but there is evidence that they were in demand as musicians by other peoples. According to an Assyrian document, King Hezekiah gave as tribute to King Sennacherib many male and female Jewish musicians. The Babylonians demanded that the captive Jews sing to them and entertain them (cf. Ps 137:3).<\/p>\nSince the OT’s purpose was to narrate the relationship between the Jewish nation and God, most of the references to music deal with its function in worship. However, evidence reveals that there was also a large body of secular musical literature. There may have been guilds of poets and singers early in Jewish history. The kinds of songs recorded in the early part of the OT represent a folklike poetry. The song of thanksgiving to the Lord by Moses and the people of Israel after their escape at the Red Sea is a stirring national song. Many descriptions of the biblical writers reflect the spirit of bardic song. This would be logical, as these stories were meant to be passed on. Marching songs (2 Chr 20:27-28), and songs of triumph (Jgs 5) also indicate a secular body of music.<\/p>\n<h5>Music in Worship<\/h5>\nThe singers and musicians for the temple worship were chosen from the tribe of Levi. King David assembled the Levites for a census, and out of the total of 38,000 men over the age of 30, 4,000 were chosen as musicians. These 4,000 were subsequently given specific jobs. “David and the chiefs of the service also set apart for the service certain of the sons of Asaph, and of Heman, and of Jeduthun, who should prophesy with lyres, with harps, and with cymbals. . . . The number of them along with their brethren, who were trained in singing to the Lord<\/span>, all who were skilful, was two hundred and eighty-eight” (1 Chr 25:1, 7, rsv<\/span>). The singers were further divided into 24 groups of 12 singers, who rotated in participating in the weekday, Sabbath, and high holy day services.<\/p>\nAccording to a later source, there were minimum and maximum numbers of singers and instrumentalists required at each service. The minimum number of singers was twelve, the maximum was unlimited. There had to be in attendance at least two harps but no more than six, at least two flutes but no more than twelve, a minimum of two trumpets with no maximum, and a minimum of nine lyres with no maximum. There was only one player with a pair of cymbals.<\/p>\nA singer was admitted to the Levitical choir at the age of thirty following a five-year apprenticeship (1 Chr 23:3). Five years is a relatively short time considering the amount of material these singers had to memorize (for there was no notation) and the liturgical ritual they had to master; it is speculated that they actually were in training from childhood. The Levites lived in villages outside the city wall and may have been actively involved in the musical education of their children (Neh 12:29). The Levites performed other duties connected with the sacred service, but the singers were excused from all other duties because they were on duty day and night (1 Chr 9:33). Their skills were an important part of the temple worship, and they were able to devote their entire life to the development of their musical ability. A singer served in the choir for 20 years, from age 30 to 50, and the music was of a high quality due to strict discipline and continuous practice and performance.<\/p>\nFrom the beginning of Jewish formal worship connected with the tabernacle, music and sound was important. In Exodus 28:34-35 the descriptions of Aaron’s robe include bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. The first liturgical music mentioned in the OT is found in 2 Samuel 6 in the descriptions of the transfer of the ark: David and the Israelites sang, played instruments, and danced to the glory of the Lord. This music bore little resemblance to the stately ceremony described later in Solomon’s temple. In 2 Chronicles 7:6, David is given recognition for inventing the musical instruments used in the temple. In the postexilic era Levitical singers are mentioned as the descendants of Asaph, the “singing master” appointed by David (Ezr 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22-23). From passages such as these, we have a definite indication that liturgical music and organization stemmed from David’s time.<\/p>\nThe ceremonies in the Jewish temple were organized around the sacrifice. Singing formed an integral part of the sacrificial service and was necessary to validate the sacrificial action. There were special musical settings for each sacrifice; thus the daily burnt, expiatory, and laudatory offerings and libations had individual liturgies. Particular psalms became associated with certain sacrifices as well as with certain days of the week. The psalm of the day was intoned as the high priest started to pour out the drink offering. The psalm was divided into three sections, each signaled by the blowing of the trumpets, on which signal the people would prostrate themselves. This is the only time the trumpets were used together with the other instruments in orchestral fashion on solemn occasions (2 Chr 5:12-13).<\/p>\nMusic in the Psalms<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Psalm Titles<\/h5>\nThe collection of 150 lyric poems known as the book of Psalms contains the most information on music making in ancient Israel. The Psalter contains not only religious songs but also songs that have their roots in secular or popular songs, such as work songs, love songs, and wedding songs. The majority are songs of praise, thanksgiving, prayer, and repentance. There are also historic odes that relate great national events—for example, Psalm 30, “a song at the dedication of the temple,” and Psalm 137, which portrays the sufferings of the Jews in captivity.<\/p>\nThe psalms were an important part of all the services of the temple; the Psalter became the liturgical hymnal of the Israelites. Worship included an appointed psalm for each day of the week. On the first day of the week, Psalm 24 was sung in remembrance of the first day of creation, Psalm 48 was sung on the second day, Psalm 82 on the third, Psalm 94 on the fourth, Psalm 81 on the fifth, Psalm 93 on the sixth, and Psalm 92 on the Sabbath. After the sacrificial offerings, Psalm 105:1-5 was sung at the morning service and Psalm 96 at the evening service. The Hallel psalms (Pss 113–118, 120–136, 146–148) were sung during the offering of the paschal lamb at the Passover feast.<\/p>\nWhile most of the liturgical music was performed by Levites, texts of the psalms suggest that there was also congregational participation. The forms of music found both in synagogal and ecclesiastical chant had their source in the forms of the poetic text of the psalms. The simplest is the plain psalmody sung by one person (e.g., Pss 3–5, 46). In responsorial psalmody the soloist is answered by the choir (e.g., Ps 67:1-2; the soloist sang verse 1 and the choir answered with verse 2). Antiphonal psalmody involves two groups singing alternately (e.g., Ps 103:20-22). The congregation would chant a refrain such as appears in Psalm 80: “Restore us, O God; let thy face shine, that we may be saved!” recurs throughout the psalm (rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\nEven though the synagogue had no altar for sacrifice, psalm singing retained an important place. After the Romans destroyed the temple, the worship heritage of the Jews could have been lost if the customs, including musical customs, had not become an integral part of synagogue worship.<\/p>\nThe most enigmatic part of the psalms is the headings that are not part of the poetic text. The first question is whether these should even be considered as superscripts. Greek, Latin, Hebrew, and other ancient languages were written in such a way that the text ran together without any break between chapters or paragraphs. This means that the verses, and even the division of the psalms themselves, were partially determined by copyists, chiefly the Masoretes. There is some question as to which psalms the extrapoetic texts actually belong with; they may actually be subscripts instead of superscripts. Sumerian and Babylonian poetry had information such as the name of the author, the musical instrument used for accompaniment, the tune, the purpose, and such listed at the end of the poem. Hence, some of the headings may actually be endings.<\/p>\nThe indications at the beginning of a psalm fall into three categories. They are either musical terms giving direction for the actual performance, musical cues designating the tune to which the psalm would be sung, or comments indicating the function of the psalm. These terms have been interpreted in various ways.<\/p>\nOriginally, these headings may have been marginal notes for the choir leaders. Realizing that these terms were not related to the psalm text proper, early biblical scribes may not have been overly careful with their placement in the text, which may explain some of the discrepancies among the early manuscripts—why certain words are left out in some and why terms assigned to only a few psalms may originally have been indicated on more of them.<\/p>\nAll but 50 of the psalms contain a proper name in the heading. These names possibly indicate the author; other commentators, interpreting the preposition appearing before the names to mean “for,” think the names are a dedication. Thus the title would be “A Psalm for David,” not “A Psalm of David.” This may be the case with the names of Asaph, Heman, Ethan, and especially the sons of Korah, where it would make better sense for the psalm to be written for rather than by the family. Seventy-three psalms have David’s name in the heading, hence the common reference to the Psalter as the Psalms of David. Twelve include the name of Asaph, eleven the children of Korah, two Solomon, and one each contains Moses, Heman, and Ethan.<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Terms in the Psalm Titles<\/h5>\nNumerous musical terms are included in the superscriptions to cue the kind of instrumental accompaniment, mood, and style of performance for the psalm.<\/p>\nAlamoth<\/span> is one of the most controversial terms found in the psalm headings. It appears at the beginning of Psalm 46 and also in 1 Chronicles 15:20. One meaning for the Hebrew word is “maiden,” and musicologists interpret this as an instruction that the psalm should be sung in the range of the female singing voice. The reference in Chronicles is to harps in the range of women’s voices. This interpretation does not seem to fit Psalm 46, but if we look at the preceding psalm and read the term as a subscript, it becomes logical. Psalm 45 is a song of love, actually a nuptial ode; it would be natural for women to sing the second half (vv 10-17). While there is little mention of women singing in the temple, there is speculation that young boys in training may have sung along with the Levitical singers. Also this may be a case where the term appears only once in the modern text but may have been used more often in the original. Another possible meaning for Alamoth<\/span> is “flutes,” perhaps describing the kind of musical accompaniment for the performance of the psalm.<\/p>\nGittith<\/span> is a term found in the superscriptions of Psalms 8, 81, and 84. It may be a musical cue, indicating a mood for the performance of these psalms, but a more common explanation is that it is a collective term for the stringed instruments that would have accompanied them.<\/p>\nMahalath<\/span> has been left in its original Hebrew form by early translators and is found in the headings of Psalms 53 and 88. It may have roots in the Hebrew mahaleh<\/span> “sickness” or mahot<\/span> “dance,” though neither of these words can be related to the psalm texts. Another explanation is a musical one. Mahalath<\/span> may come from the word halal<\/span> meaning “to pierce,” implying that the psalm was to be accompanied with pipes.<\/p>\nMaskil<\/span> (kjv<\/span> “Maschil”) appears in the headings of 13 psalms (Pss 32, 42, 44–45, 52–55, 74, 78, 88–89, 142). The term is probably derived from the verb sakal<\/span>,<\/em> “to have insight or comprehension,” but there is no agreement among commentators. By looking at the psalms themselves, their didactic nature and the structure of stanzas and refrains, musicologists conclude the term represents a song of praise, possibly sung by a soloist with participation by the choir.<\/p>\nMenazzeah<\/span> appears in the heading of 55 psalms. It appears 52 times in the first three books of Psalms (Pss 1–89), not at all in book four (Pss 90–106), and 3 times in book five (Pss 107–150). The most common modern translations are “to the Choirmaster” (rsv<\/span>), “to the choir director” (nasb<\/span>, nlt<\/span>), “to the director of music” (niv<\/span>), “to the chief Musician” (kjv<\/span>, nkjv<\/span>). The word is derived from the Hebrew verb nazzah<\/span>,<\/em> appearing in 1 Chronicles 23:4 and Ezra 3:8-9 in the sense of “administering.” In 1 Chronicles 15:21 the word is found in relation to leading or directing song in the temple. Menazzeah<\/span> relates to the choirmaster and represents the singer chosen to lead the music who probably was involved in rehearsing and instructing. It is now assumed that menazzeah<\/span> indicates the psalm was to be sung partially or entirely by a soloist. This is evidenced by the change in some texts from “I” where the soloist sang, to “we” where the choir or congregation sang. Psalm 5 is an example of a text divided for solo and choral singing: verses 1-3 solo; verses 4-6 choral; verses 7-8 solo; verses 9-10 choral; and verses 11-12 end the psalm with the combined soloist and choir.<\/p>\nMiktam<\/span> (kjv<\/span> “Michtam”) is another term that has no clear musical meaning, due mainly to the fact that its etymology is unknown. It occurs in Psalms 16 and 56–60, all of which have a character of lamentation or supplication. In a musical sense, it probably meant that a certain well-known tune was to be selected as the melody of the psalm.<\/p>\nMizmor<\/span> (Hebrew, meaning a song sung to instrumental accompaniment) is found nowhere else in the Bible; it is included in the superscriptions of 57 psalms. It probably indicated a song accompanied by melodic instruments as opposed to a dance song accompanied by rhythmic instruments.<\/p>\nNeginah<\/span> appears in the superscriptions of Psalms 4, 6, 54–55, 61, 67, and 76. The term neginah<\/span> and its plural neginoth<\/span> are found in Psalm 77:7, Lamentations 5:14, Isaiah 38:20, and Habakkuk 3:19. Neginah<\/span>,<\/em> from the Hebrew root naggen<\/span>,<\/em> “to touch the strings,” instructs that stringed instruments accompany the singing.<\/p>\nNehiloth<\/span> is found only in the introduction to Psalm 5 (kjv<\/span>). The origin of the word is problematic. It could come from the verb nahal<\/span>,<\/em> “to possess or inherit,” or more feasibly from halal<\/span>,<\/em> meaning “to pierce.” The latter implies the idea of a pierced instrument (the flute or pipe) to be used for accompaniment.<\/p>\nSheminith<\/span> appears in Psalms 6 and 12 and also in 1 Chronicles 15:21. The Hebrew word means literally “over the eighth.” Some scholars feel it had something to do with an octave, but the Hebrew musical language probably did not include a musical unit divided into eight parts. Other scholars interpret sheminith<\/span> as meaning an eight-stringed instrument. A more logical interpretation comes from examining its use in 1 Chronicles. In 15:20 the instructions are for musicians to play the harps according to alamoth<\/span> and in verse 21 to play the lyres according to sheminith<\/span>.<\/em> Here the terms alamoth<\/span> and sheminith<\/span> seem to be used in opposition. If alamoth<\/span> implies a register of the female voice, then sheminith<\/span> would imply a lower register. Thus, it may have been an instruction to use a lower pitched instrument for accompaniment.<\/p>\n<h5>Psalm Varieties in the Titles<\/h5>\nSome of the notes in the psalm headings are indications of the type or variety of psalm.<\/p>\nHazkir<\/span> is found in the headings of Psalms 38 and 70. According to the Targum, this is an indication that the psalm was sung at the sacrificial rite called askara<\/span> and is translated “for a memorial offering.”<\/p>\nLammed<\/span> appears in the superscription of Psalm 60 in the phrase le-lammed<\/span>,<\/em> translated “to teach.” According to tradition, this was a psalm, though undoubtedly not the only one, taught to young people as part of their education. This is another example of a term that may have been omitted from other psalms in later versions of the Psalter.<\/p>\nShiggaion<\/span> is in the heading of Psalm 7 and also in Habakkuk 3:1. The word probably comes from the Hebrew verb shagah<\/span>,<\/em> “to wander,” but may also be connected with the Assyrian liturgical term shigu<\/span>,<\/em> which represented a plaintive song in several stanzas. Biblical scholars have assumed shiggaion<\/span>,<\/em> plural shigionoth<\/span>,<\/em> was a lament or penitential song.<\/p>\nShir<\/span> is the simplest word for “song” and was probably used in the headings at an early stage of the Psalter; it is usually found with mizmor<\/span> (13 times). Fifteen psalms have this heading. It was probably the term for a specific type of praise song, usually performed by the choir.<\/p>\nShir Hamaalot<\/span> and Shir Lamaalot<\/span> occur in the headings of Psalms 120–134, which are often referred to as the Psalms of Ascent (kjv<\/span> “Psalms of Degrees”). Most explanations offered relate to the fact that the temple was situated on high ground. Often these 15 psalms are associated with the 15 steps leading from the Court of the Women to the Court of the Israelites. But most contemporary scholars believe the idea of “going up” referred to the pilgrims’ journey to Jerusalem to worship at the temple. These psalms are short, with popular appeal, making them appropriate for singing during the journey.<\/p>\nShir Hanukkat Habayit<\/span> is found only in the heading of Psalm 30. This phrase tells that the psalm was to be used for the dedication or rededication of the house of God.<\/p>\nShir-yedidot<\/span> appears only in Psalm 45. It refers to a love song that was probably sung at wedding ceremonies.<\/p>\nTefillah<\/span> is a common term for “prayer” and appears in the headings of Psalms 17, 86, 90, 102, and 142, and also in Habakkuk 3:1. The word probably refers to a specific form of poetic prayer.<\/p>\nSelah<\/span> is one of the most frequently used, but most enigmatic, terms found in the book of Psalms. It occurs in 39 psalms, appearing a total of 71 times in the Psalter—67 times within the text and 4 times at the end of a psalm. It is most frequent in the first three books. In the first book selah<\/span> appears in 9 psalms; in the second book, 17 psalms; in the third book, 11 psalms. In the fourth book it is not found at all and in the fifth book in only two psalms. Thirty-one of these psalms also include the term menazzeah<\/span> in their superscriptions, which implies that they were sung by a soloist and choir. Most commonly, selah<\/span> is interpreted as a signal for a break in the singing and possibly for an instrumental interlude. It never appears at the beginning of a psalm but only in the middle of the text or at the end. The regularity of its appearance within a psalm is not consistent, and in only a few instances do these divisions break the psalm into equal sections. Because of the random placement of the term, some scholars believe that, like the headings, selah<\/span> was not always carefully copied into the text. It may have been a note appearing only in the texts of the musicians, which would explain this inconsistency. An explanation of selah<\/span> is found in the Talmudic tradition: “Ben Azra clashed the cymbal and the Levites broke forth into singing. When they reached a break in the singing they blew upon the trumpets and the people prostrated themselves; at every break there was a blowing of the trumpet and at every blowing of the trumpet a prostration. This was the rite of the daily whole offering in the service of the House of our God.” Selah<\/span>,<\/em> then, would be an instruction for the musicians that the singing was to cease and the instrumentalists were to play.<\/p>\nThe term higgaion selah<\/span> appears once, in Psalm 9:16. The word higgaiaon<\/span> comes from the root hagah<\/span>,<\/em> “to murmur, to growl, to produce a low sound.” This may have been an instruction for the interlude to be more subdued than a normal selah<\/span>.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>Ancient Melodies in the Titles<\/h5>\nMany psalms contain headings that are not direct musical references but are cue words to suggest well-known tunes. They probably refer either to names or the first words of popular secular songs (<\/em>makams<\/span>)<\/em> whose melodic patterns were used in singing the psalm. Many biblical scholars have tried to find hidden meaning in these headings, but most musicologists believe these are simply references or introductions to melodies.<\/p>\nAijeleth Shahar<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 22 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “according to The Hind of the Dawn” (rsv<\/span>), and “To the tune of ‘The Doe of the Morning’ ” (niv<\/span>), “To the tune ‘Doe of the Dawn’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nAl-taschith<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalms 57–59 and 75 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Do Not Destroy!’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nJonath-elem-rechokim<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 56 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “according to The Dove on Far-off Terebinths” (rsv<\/span>), and “To the tune ‘Dove on Distant Oaks’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nMahalath Leannoth<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 88, is translated “To the tune ‘The Suffering of Affliction’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nMuthlabben<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 9, is translated “To the tune ‘Death of the Son’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nShoshannim<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalms 45 and 69 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Lilies’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nShoshannim-Eduth<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 80 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Lilies of the Covenant’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nShushan-eduth<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 60, is translated “To the tune ‘Lily of the Testimony’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThese melody types appear only in the first three books of the Psalter, and this may imply that these popular makams<\/span> had fallen into disuse by the time the final books of the Psalter were written. Other makam<\/span>-types had probably become popular, and the authors, realizing the relatively short life of a popular tune, did not include them in the headings of the Psalms but left the choice up to the performer.<\/p>\nMusic in the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>First-Century Influences<\/h5>\n<h6>The Synagogue<\/h6>\nBy the time of Christ, the synagogue had become the chief place of worship for the Jewish people. It began as a place for study of the law but gradually became the center of worship for Jews unable to attend the temple. The liturgical service of the temple could not be duplicated in the synagogue as there was no sacrificial rite, and the music could not be exactly reproduced as there were no trained Levitical singers. Scholars do not agree about the amount of continuity between the music of the temple and the music of the synagogue, but there is evidence that certain musical practices did remain constant between the two places of worship.<\/p>\nInformation on the customs and rituals of the synagogue come from Talmudic writings. The musical elements of worship in the synagogue were the chanting of Scripture, psalmody, and spiritual songs. The choral singing of the temple was replaced by a single cantor. The cantor was a layman who, according to tradition, had to have the following qualifications: “He had to be well educated, gifted with a sweet voice, of humble personality, recognized by the community, conversant with Scripture and all the prayers; he must not be a rich man, for his prayers should come from his heart.” His most important job was the cantillation of the Law and the Prophets. A series of accents and punctuations, forerunners of actual musical notation, were indications for the cantor in the musical interpretation of the Scripture.<\/p>\nPsalm singing was gradually transplanted from the temple to the synagogue, which in turn influenced the early Christian church. Gregorian psalm tones have their roots in Hebrew psalmody.<\/p>\n<h6>Greek and Roman Cultures<\/h6>\nWhile both the temple and the synagogue were familiar to the early Christians (Acts 2:46-47; 3:1; 5:42; 9:20; 18:4; etc.), the Greek and Roman cultures also played a major part in shaping the young church. Hellenistic influences by the time of Christ had long been felt in the Middle East, and while it was strongly opposed by some Jewish leaders, the Greek arts had permeated Jewish culture. Greek philosophers considered music a cathartic force that could lead humans into metaphysical knowledge. This understanding led to the belief that music had a moral substance that could influence people to either good or evil. If this philosophy had totally encompassed Judeo-Christian thought, certainly Paul would have encouraged the use of music in the spread of the gospel. However, Paul’s omission of this theory implies that the Judeo-Christian world at that time had rejected the Greek ideal, at least in part.<\/p>\nWhile the Jewish rabbis considered music an art form for the praise of God, and while the Greek philosophers thought of it as a powerful moral force in creation, the Romans considered music mainly as entertainment. The music of the Roman games was neither religious nor philosophic and, from the accounts of witnesses, it was not technically exceptional. In the Roman Empire musicians were given a lower status and looked on as mere entertainers. One reason the early church did not include instrumental music in their worship was in reaction to the debased secular use of instruments by the Romans.<\/p>\n<h5>In the New Testament Writings<\/h5>\nOne of the few mentions of instruments in the NT is the use of flutes at a wake (Mt 9:23). As in the OT, music is associated with feasting and merrymaking (e.g., the return of the prodigal son, Lk 15:25). Five passages mention music metaphorically (Mt 6:2; 11:17; Lk 7:32; 1 Cor 13:1; 14:7-8). The most well known of these is Paul’s celebration of love in 1 Corinthians 13. The denunciation of the gong and cymbals must be understood in light of the attitude of the early Christians toward the music of the Pharisees. Here the signal instruments of the temple were used to represent pompous display of religious pietism.<\/p>\n\nMost references to music are found in the eschatological visions and prophetic passages scattered throughout the NT—most frequently in the book of Revelation (also Mt 24:31; 1 Cor 15:52; 1 Thes 4:16; Heb 12:19). Many of these descriptions have a direct association with musical references in the OT (e.g., the use of harps and trumpets and the singing of the Hallelujah). But the value of many of the passages in Revelation comes from their literary style. These doxological and psalmlike passages were probably spontaneous “spiritual songs” composed by the young church (e.g., Rv 5:9-10).<\/p>\nThe passages that mention religious or liturgical music are often more conceptual than literal. Two parallel passages describing the Last Supper (Mt 26:30; Mk 14:26) mention that Christ and his disciples sang a hymn. This is the only direct account of Jesus singing, but it is probable that when he read in the synagogue he did so in the accepted vocal style (Lk 4:16-20). There is much controversy surrounding the actual events at the Last Supper, but we can assume that the hymn sung was a traditional Jewish hymn, probably associated with the Passover.<\/p>\nFrom the account in Acts 16:25 we know that Paul and Silas sang hymns while in jail. Paul gives instruction for music making in 1 Corinthians 14:15, 26 in terms of a balance between rationalism and emotion. And, as with all the gifts of the Spirit, Paul asks that singing be done for edification.<\/p>\nIn two similar passages (Eph 5:19; Col 3:16) Paul groups together three musical terms—psalms, hymns, and spiritual songs. The singing of psalms was an obvious carryover from the synagogue, and we can assume that the early Christian psalm singing followed the Jewish style. The term for “hymns” probably refers to poetic texts, possibly modeled after the psalms, but in praise of Christ. “Spiritual songs” may refer to a spontaneous, ecstatic form of musical prayer, possibly wordless (perhaps related to glossolalia), in a style that was popular in mystical Judaism. These outbursts of song were probably melismatic (sung on one tone) and are perhaps the forerunners of the later Alleluia chant.<\/p>\n<h5>Hymnody in the New Testament<\/h5>\nIt can be assumed that the early Christians composed hymns in praise of Christ. Logically, most of the hymns found in the NT are based on Hebrew poetic psalm forms, but there is Greek and Latin influence also. The hymns from the Gospel of Luke have become well-known canticles adopted by the church: the Magnificat (Lk 1:46-55), the Benedictus (1:68-79), the Gloria (2:14) and the Nunc Dimittis (2:29-32). While patterned after the psalms of the OT, these hymns are full of confidence in the salvation of Christ and in his imminent return. Other Christological hymns found in the NT include the prologue to the Gospel of John, Ephesians 2:14-16, Philippians 2:6-11, Colossians 1:15-20, 1 Timothy 3:16, Hebrews 1:3, and 1 Peter 3:18-22.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MUSIC<\/h3>\nA natural human expression that probably began with speech-singing and developed into songs, which were then accompanied by instruments. Music as we know it has become quite complex, a luxury and entertainment; music in antiquity, however, was a functional expression of daily life, work, and worship.<\/p>\nThe phrase “sing to the Lord,” common to the OT (Ex 15:21; 1 Chr 16:9; Pss 68:32; 96:1-2; Is 42:10; Jer 20:13), was not unique to the Jewish nation. All religions draw on the natural human impulse to sing. The injunction “sing to the Lord” was a signal for the people to pour out their praise in song.<\/p>\nThe Bible, however, is limited in its treatment of music in ancient Israel. Since there was no written musical notation, the primary record of songs sung by the Hebrews is the collection of texts, particularly the psalms, and a few enigmatic musical instructions. The biblical writers were writing a history not of their culture but of their relationship with God; hence, their comments about music are not critical. Also, the biblical documents cover a long span of history and are grouped according to category rather than in chronological order, thus making it difficult to order the development of musical style with precision. Finally, there is the problem of understanding the biblical descriptions of music and its performance. Only in this century have scholars been able to interpret the information provided in the Bible in terms of Eastern music systems.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Music in the Old Testament<\/p>\n• Music in the Psalms<\/p>\n• Music in the New Testament<\/p>\nMusic in the Old Testament<\/p>\nThe first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first musician—the inventor of the harp and flute” (Gn 4:21, nlt<\/span>). The importance of this description of a musician so early in history lies in the equality Jubal is given with his brothers Jabal, the herdsman, and Tubal-cain, the smith. Music making is recognized among the earliest professions of nomadic peoples. The name Jubal is believed to be a derivative from the Hebrew word for “ram.” The ram’s horn (<\/em>shophar<\/span>)<\/em> was an early instrument of the Jewish people and was significant in signaling important events.<\/p>\nFor the most part, the music described in early biblical history was of a functional nature. Music gained special significance as it became an important part of temple worship. Many of the descriptions of music making in ancient Israel, before David’s time, are quite utilitarian. There are accounts of music at times of farewell (Gn 31:27), at times of rejoicing and feasting (Ex 32:17-18; Is 5:12; 24:8-9), at military victories (2 Chr 20:27-28), and for work (Nm 21:17, the song of the well diggers; Is 16:10; Jer 48:33). Most of this music was probably rather crude and primitive in nature, especially the music associated with military advances, which was meant to terrify the enemy (Jgs 7:17-20). The music and dancing that greeted Moses as he descended from the mountain was described as if it sounded like “war in the camp” (Ex 32:17-18).<\/p>\nIn the early history of the Jewish people, women played an important part in the performance of music. The image of women dancing and singing for joy accompanied by percussion instruments is repeated several times: Miriam led the women in a hymn of thanksgiving after the deliverance from the Red Sea (Ex 15); Jephthah’s daughter welcomed her father in his victory (Jgs 11:34); Deborah joined with Barak in singing a song of victory (Jgs 5); and women hailed David after his defeat of the Philistines (1 Sm 18:6-7). There is little mention of women as musicians following the establishment of the temple in Jerusalem, but there are a few allusions to the fact that women did participate in singing and dancing. The account of the return from exile in Babylon includes both male and female singers (Neh 7:67), confirming that women still took part in musical performance.<\/p>\nAs Jerusalem became the religious center of the Hebrew people (950–850 BC<\/span>), the role of the professional musician became more important. The women’s songs became insignificant compared to the pomp and ceremony associated with the temple and the royal court. While the Levitical singers took most of the musical responsibility at the temple, the development of antiphonal singing allowed the people to join in on responses in the singing of psalms.<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Style and Use<\/h5>\nThe Jewish people seem to have been especially musical. Of course, they were influenced by other ancient cultures, but there is evidence that they were in demand as musicians by other peoples. According to an Assyrian document, King Hezekiah gave as tribute to King Sennacherib many male and female Jewish musicians. The Babylonians demanded that the captive Jews sing to them and entertain them (cf. Ps 137:3).<\/p>\nSince the OT’s purpose was to narrate the relationship between the Jewish nation and God, most of the references to music deal with its function in worship. However, evidence reveals that there was also a large body of secular musical literature. There may have been guilds of poets and singers early in Jewish history. The kinds of songs recorded in the early part of the OT represent a folklike poetry. The song of thanksgiving to the Lord by Moses and the people of Israel after their escape at the Red Sea is a stirring national song. Many descriptions of the biblical writers reflect the spirit of bardic song. This would be logical, as these stories were meant to be passed on. Marching songs (2 Chr 20:27-28), and songs of triumph (Jgs 5) also indicate a secular body of music.<\/p>\n<h5>Music in Worship<\/h5>\nThe singers and musicians for the temple worship were chosen from the tribe of Levi. King David assembled the Levites for a census, and out of the total of 38,000 men over the age of 30, 4,000 were chosen as musicians. These 4,000 were subsequently given specific jobs. “David and the chiefs of the service also set apart for the service certain of the sons of Asaph, and of Heman, and of Jeduthun, who should prophesy with lyres, with harps, and with cymbals. . . . The number of them along with their brethren, who were trained in singing to the Lord<\/span>, all who were skilful, was two hundred and eighty-eight” (1 Chr 25:1, 7, rsv<\/span>). The singers were further divided into 24 groups of 12 singers, who rotated in participating in the weekday, Sabbath, and high holy day services.<\/p>\nAccording to a later source, there were minimum and maximum numbers of singers and instrumentalists required at each service. The minimum number of singers was twelve, the maximum was unlimited. There had to be in attendance at least two harps but no more than six, at least two flutes but no more than twelve, a minimum of two trumpets with no maximum, and a minimum of nine lyres with no maximum. There was only one player with a pair of cymbals.<\/p>\nA singer was admitted to the Levitical choir at the age of thirty following a five-year apprenticeship (1 Chr 23:3). Five years is a relatively short time considering the amount of material these singers had to memorize (for there was no notation) and the liturgical ritual they had to master; it is speculated that they actually were in training from childhood. The Levites lived in villages outside the city wall and may have been actively involved in the musical education of their children (Neh 12:29). The Levites performed other duties connected with the sacred service, but the singers were excused from all other duties because they were on duty day and night (1 Chr 9:33). Their skills were an important part of the temple worship, and they were able to devote their entire life to the development of their musical ability. A singer served in the choir for 20 years, from age 30 to 50, and the music was of a high quality due to strict discipline and continuous practice and performance.<\/p>\nFrom the beginning of Jewish formal worship connected with the tabernacle, music and sound was important. In Exodus 28:34-35 the descriptions of Aaron’s robe include bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. The first liturgical music mentioned in the OT is found in 2 Samuel 6 in the descriptions of the transfer of the ark: David and the Israelites sang, played instruments, and danced to the glory of the Lord. This music bore little resemblance to the stately ceremony described later in Solomon’s temple. In 2 Chronicles 7:6, David is given recognition for inventing the musical instruments used in the temple. In the postexilic era Levitical singers are mentioned as the descendants of Asaph, the “singing master” appointed by David (Ezr 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22-23). From passages such as these, we have a definite indication that liturgical music and organization stemmed from David’s time.<\/p>\nThe ceremonies in the Jewish temple were organized around the sacrifice. Singing formed an integral part of the sacrificial service and was necessary to validate the sacrificial action. There were special musical settings for each sacrifice; thus the daily burnt, expiatory, and laudatory offerings and libations had individual liturgies. Particular psalms became associated with certain sacrifices as well as with certain days of the week. The psalm of the day was intoned as the high priest started to pour out the drink offering. The psalm was divided into three sections, each signaled by the blowing of the trumpets, on which signal the people would prostrate themselves. This is the only time the trumpets were used together with the other instruments in orchestral fashion on solemn occasions (2 Chr 5:12-13).<\/p>\nMusic in the Psalms<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Psalm Titles<\/h5>\nThe collection of 150 lyric poems known as the book of Psalms contains the most information on music making in ancient Israel. The Psalter contains not only religious songs but also songs that have their roots in secular or popular songs, such as work songs, love songs, and wedding songs. The majority are songs of praise, thanksgiving, prayer, and repentance. There are also historic odes that relate great national events—for example, Psalm 30, “a song at the dedication of the temple,” and Psalm 137, which portrays the sufferings of the Jews in captivity.<\/p>\nThe psalms were an important part of all the services of the temple; the Psalter became the liturgical hymnal of the Israelites. Worship included an appointed psalm for each day of the week. On the first day of the week, Psalm 24 was sung in remembrance of the first day of creation, Psalm 48 was sung on the second day, Psalm 82 on the third, Psalm 94 on the fourth, Psalm 81 on the fifth, Psalm 93 on the sixth, and Psalm 92 on the Sabbath. After the sacrificial offerings, Psalm 105:1-5 was sung at the morning service and Psalm 96 at the evening service. The Hallel psalms (Pss 113–118, 120–136, 146–148) were sung during the offering of the paschal lamb at the Passover feast.<\/p>\nWhile most of the liturgical music was performed by Levites, texts of the psalms suggest that there was also congregational participation. The forms of music found both in synagogal and ecclesiastical chant had their source in the forms of the poetic text of the psalms. The simplest is the plain psalmody sung by one person (e.g., Pss 3–5, 46). In responsorial psalmody the soloist is answered by the choir (e.g., Ps 67:1-2; the soloist sang verse 1 and the choir answered with verse 2). Antiphonal psalmody involves two groups singing alternately (e.g., Ps 103:20-22). The congregation would chant a refrain such as appears in Psalm 80: “Restore us, O God; let thy face shine, that we may be saved!” recurs throughout the psalm (rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\nEven though the synagogue had no altar for sacrifice, psalm singing retained an important place. After the Romans destroyed the temple, the worship heritage of the Jews could have been lost if the customs, including musical customs, had not become an integral part of synagogue worship.<\/p>\nThe most enigmatic part of the psalms is the headings that are not part of the poetic text. The first question is whether these should even be considered as superscripts. Greek, Latin, Hebrew, and other ancient languages were written in such a way that the text ran together without any break between chapters or paragraphs. This means that the verses, and even the division of the psalms themselves, were partially determined by copyists, chiefly the Masoretes. There is some question as to which psalms the extrapoetic texts actually belong with; they may actually be subscripts instead of superscripts. Sumerian and Babylonian poetry had information such as the name of the author, the musical instrument used for accompaniment, the tune, the purpose, and such listed at the end of the poem. Hence, some of the headings may actually be endings.<\/p>\nThe indications at the beginning of a psalm fall into three categories. They are either musical terms giving direction for the actual performance, musical cues designating the tune to which the psalm would be sung, or comments indicating the function of the psalm. These terms have been interpreted in various ways.<\/p>\nOriginally, these headings may have been marginal notes for the choir leaders. Realizing that these terms were not related to the psalm text proper, early biblical scribes may not have been overly careful with their placement in the text, which may explain some of the discrepancies among the early manuscripts—why certain words are left out in some and why terms assigned to only a few psalms may originally have been indicated on more of them.<\/p>\nAll but 50 of the psalms contain a proper name in the heading. These names possibly indicate the author; other commentators, interpreting the preposition appearing before the names to mean “for,” think the names are a dedication. Thus the title would be “A Psalm for David,” not “A Psalm of David.” This may be the case with the names of Asaph, Heman, Ethan, and especially the sons of Korah, where it would make better sense for the psalm to be written for rather than by the family. Seventy-three psalms have David’s name in the heading, hence the common reference to the Psalter as the Psalms of David. Twelve include the name of Asaph, eleven the children of Korah, two Solomon, and one each contains Moses, Heman, and Ethan.<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Terms in the Psalm Titles<\/h5>\nNumerous musical terms are included in the superscriptions to cue the kind of instrumental accompaniment, mood, and style of performance for the psalm.<\/p>\nAlamoth<\/span> is one of the most controversial terms found in the psalm headings. It appears at the beginning of Psalm 46 and also in 1 Chronicles 15:20. One meaning for the Hebrew word is “maiden,” and musicologists interpret this as an instruction that the psalm should be sung in the range of the female singing voice. The reference in Chronicles is to harps in the range of women’s voices. This interpretation does not seem to fit Psalm 46, but if we look at the preceding psalm and read the term as a subscript, it becomes logical. Psalm 45 is a song of love, actually a nuptial ode; it would be natural for women to sing the second half (vv 10-17). While there is little mention of women singing in the temple, there is speculation that young boys in training may have sung along with the Levitical singers. Also this may be a case where the term appears only once in the modern text but may have been used more often in the original. Another possible meaning for Alamoth<\/span> is “flutes,” perhaps describing the kind of musical accompaniment for the performance of the psalm.<\/p>\nGittith<\/span> is a term found in the superscriptions of Psalms 8, 81, and 84. It may be a musical cue, indicating a mood for the performance of these psalms, but a more common explanation is that it is a collective term for the stringed instruments that would have accompanied them.<\/p>\nMahalath<\/span> has been left in its original Hebrew form by early translators and is found in the headings of Psalms 53 and 88. It may have roots in the Hebrew mahaleh<\/span> “sickness” or mahot<\/span> “dance,” though neither of these words can be related to the psalm texts. Another explanation is a musical one. Mahalath<\/span> may come from the word halal<\/span> meaning “to pierce,” implying that the psalm was to be accompanied with pipes.<\/p>\nMaskil<\/span> (kjv<\/span> “Maschil”) appears in the headings of 13 psalms (Pss 32, 42, 44–45, 52–55, 74, 78, 88–89, 142). The term is probably derived from the verb sakal<\/span>,<\/em> “to have insight or comprehension,” but there is no agreement among commentators. By looking at the psalms themselves, their didactic nature and the structure of stanzas and refrains, musicologists conclude the term represents a song of praise, possibly sung by a soloist with participation by the choir.<\/p>\nMenazzeah<\/span> appears in the heading of 55 psalms. It appears 52 times in the first three books of Psalms (Pss 1–89), not at all in book four (Pss 90–106), and 3 times in book five (Pss 107–150). The most common modern translations are “to the Choirmaster” (rsv<\/span>), “to the choir director” (nasb<\/span>, nlt<\/span>), “to the director of music” (niv<\/span>), “to the chief Musician” (kjv<\/span>, nkjv<\/span>). The word is derived from the Hebrew verb nazzah<\/span>,<\/em> appearing in 1 Chronicles 23:4 and Ezra 3:8-9 in the sense of “administering.” In 1 Chronicles 15:21 the word is found in relation to leading or directing song in the temple. Menazzeah<\/span> relates to the choirmaster and represents the singer chosen to lead the music who probably was involved in rehearsing and instructing. It is now assumed that menazzeah<\/span> indicates the psalm was to be sung partially or entirely by a soloist. This is evidenced by the change in some texts from “I” where the soloist sang, to “we” where the choir or congregation sang. Psalm 5 is an example of a text divided for solo and choral singing: verses 1-3 solo; verses 4-6 choral; verses 7-8 solo; verses 9-10 choral; and verses 11-12 end the psalm with the combined soloist and choir.<\/p>\nMiktam<\/span> (kjv<\/span> “Michtam”) is another term that has no clear musical meaning, due mainly to the fact that its etymology is unknown. It occurs in Psalms 16 and 56–60, all of which have a character of lamentation or supplication. In a musical sense, it probably meant that a certain well-known tune was to be selected as the melody of the psalm.<\/p>\nMizmor<\/span> (Hebrew, meaning a song sung to instrumental accompaniment) is found nowhere else in the Bible; it is included in the superscriptions of 57 psalms. It probably indicated a song accompanied by melodic instruments as opposed to a dance song accompanied by rhythmic instruments.<\/p>\nNeginah<\/span> appears in the superscriptions of Psalms 4, 6, 54–55, 61, 67, and 76. The term neginah<\/span> and its plural neginoth<\/span> are found in Psalm 77:7, Lamentations 5:14, Isaiah 38:20, and Habakkuk 3:19. Neginah<\/span>,<\/em> from the Hebrew root naggen<\/span>,<\/em> “to touch the strings,” instructs that stringed instruments accompany the singing.<\/p>\nNehiloth<\/span> is found only in the introduction to Psalm 5 (kjv<\/span>). The origin of the word is problematic. It could come from the verb nahal<\/span>,<\/em> “to possess or inherit,” or more feasibly from halal<\/span>,<\/em> meaning “to pierce.” The latter implies the idea of a pierced instrument (the flute or pipe) to be used for accompaniment.<\/p>\nSheminith<\/span> appears in Psalms 6 and 12 and also in 1 Chronicles 15:21. The Hebrew word means literally “over the eighth.” Some scholars feel it had something to do with an octave, but the Hebrew musical language probably did not include a musical unit divided into eight parts. Other scholars interpret sheminith<\/span> as meaning an eight-stringed instrument. A more logical interpretation comes from examining its use in 1 Chronicles. In 15:20 the instructions are for musicians to play the harps according to alamoth<\/span> and in verse 21 to play the lyres according to sheminith<\/span>.<\/em> Here the terms alamoth<\/span> and sheminith<\/span> seem to be used in opposition. If alamoth<\/span> implies a register of the female voice, then sheminith<\/span> would imply a lower register. Thus, it may have been an instruction to use a lower pitched instrument for accompaniment.<\/p>\n<h5>Psalm Varieties in the Titles<\/h5>\nSome of the notes in the psalm headings are indications of the type or variety of psalm.<\/p>\nHazkir<\/span> is found in the headings of Psalms 38 and 70. According to the Targum, this is an indication that the psalm was sung at the sacrificial rite called askara<\/span> and is translated “for a memorial offering.”<\/p>\nLammed<\/span> appears in the superscription of Psalm 60 in the phrase le-lammed<\/span>,<\/em> translated “to teach.” According to tradition, this was a psalm, though undoubtedly not the only one, taught to young people as part of their education. This is another example of a term that may have been omitted from other psalms in later versions of the Psalter.<\/p>\nShiggaion<\/span> is in the heading of Psalm 7 and also in Habakkuk 3:1. The word probably comes from the Hebrew verb shagah<\/span>,<\/em> “to wander,” but may also be connected with the Assyrian liturgical term shigu<\/span>,<\/em> which represented a plaintive song in several stanzas. Biblical scholars have assumed shiggaion<\/span>,<\/em> plural shigionoth<\/span>,<\/em> was a lament or penitential song.<\/p>\nShir<\/span> is the simplest word for “song” and was probably used in the headings at an early stage of the Psalter; it is usually found with mizmor<\/span> (13 times). Fifteen psalms have this heading. It was probably the term for a specific type of praise song, usually performed by the choir.<\/p>\nShir Hamaalot<\/span> and Shir Lamaalot<\/span> occur in the headings of Psalms 120–134, which are often referred to as the Psalms of Ascent (kjv<\/span> “Psalms of Degrees”). Most explanations offered relate to the fact that the temple was situated on high ground. Often these 15 psalms are associated with the 15 steps leading from the Court of the Women to the Court of the Israelites. But most contemporary scholars believe the idea of “going up” referred to the pilgrims’ journey to Jerusalem to worship at the temple. These psalms are short, with popular appeal, making them appropriate for singing during the journey.<\/p>\nShir Hanukkat Habayit<\/span> is found only in the heading of Psalm 30. This phrase tells that the psalm was to be used for the dedication or rededication of the house of God.<\/p>\nShir-yedidot<\/span> appears only in Psalm 45. It refers to a love song that was probably sung at wedding ceremonies.<\/p>\nTefillah<\/span> is a common term for “prayer” and appears in the headings of Psalms 17, 86, 90, 102, and 142, and also in Habakkuk 3:1. The word probably refers to a specific form of poetic prayer.<\/p>\nSelah<\/span> is one of the most frequently used, but most enigmatic, terms found in the book of Psalms. It occurs in 39 psalms, appearing a total of 71 times in the Psalter—67 times within the text and 4 times at the end of a psalm. It is most frequent in the first three books. In the first book selah<\/span> appears in 9 psalms; in the second book, 17 psalms; in the third book, 11 psalms. In the fourth book it is not found at all and in the fifth book in only two psalms. Thirty-one of these psalms also include the term menazzeah<\/span> in their superscriptions, which implies that they were sung by a soloist and choir. Most commonly, selah<\/span> is interpreted as a signal for a break in the singing and possibly for an instrumental interlude. It never appears at the beginning of a psalm but only in the middle of the text or at the end. The regularity of its appearance within a psalm is not consistent, and in only a few instances do these divisions break the psalm into equal sections. Because of the random placement of the term, some scholars believe that, like the headings, selah<\/span> was not always carefully copied into the text. It may have been a note appearing only in the texts of the musicians, which would explain this inconsistency. An explanation of selah<\/span> is found in the Talmudic tradition: “Ben Azra clashed the cymbal and the Levites broke forth into singing. When they reached a break in the singing they blew upon the trumpets and the people prostrated themselves; at every break there was a blowing of the trumpet and at every blowing of the trumpet a prostration. This was the rite of the daily whole offering in the service of the House of our God.” Selah<\/span>,<\/em> then, would be an instruction for the musicians that the singing was to cease and the instrumentalists were to play.<\/p>\nThe term higgaion selah<\/span> appears once, in Psalm 9:16. The word higgaiaon<\/span> comes from the root hagah<\/span>,<\/em> “to murmur, to growl, to produce a low sound.” This may have been an instruction for the interlude to be more subdued than a normal selah<\/span>.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>Ancient Melodies in the Titles<\/h5>\nMany psalms contain headings that are not direct musical references but are cue words to suggest well-known tunes. They probably refer either to names or the first words of popular secular songs (<\/em>makams<\/span>)<\/em> whose melodic patterns were used in singing the psalm. Many biblical scholars have tried to find hidden meaning in these headings, but most musicologists believe these are simply references or introductions to melodies.<\/p>\nAijeleth Shahar<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 22 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “according to The Hind of the Dawn” (rsv<\/span>), and “To the tune of ‘The Doe of the Morning’ ” (niv<\/span>), “To the tune ‘Doe of the Dawn’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nAl-taschith<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalms 57–59 and 75 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Do Not Destroy!’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nJonath-elem-rechokim<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 56 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “according to The Dove on Far-off Terebinths” (rsv<\/span>), and “To the tune ‘Dove on Distant Oaks’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nMahalath Leannoth<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 88, is translated “To the tune ‘The Suffering of Affliction’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nMuthlabben<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 9, is translated “To the tune ‘Death of the Son’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nShoshannim<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalms 45 and 69 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Lilies’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nShoshannim-Eduth<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 80 (kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Lilies of the Covenant’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nShushan-eduth<\/span>,<\/em> in Psalm 60, is translated “To the tune ‘Lily of the Testimony’ ” (nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\nThese melody types appear only in the first three books of the Psalter, and this may imply that these popular makams<\/span> had fallen into disuse by the time the final books of the Psalter were written. Other makam<\/span>-types had probably become popular, and the authors, realizing the relatively short life of a popular tune, did not include them in the headings of the Psalms but left the choice up to the performer.<\/p>\nMusic in the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>First-Century Influences<\/h5>\n<h6>The Synagogue<\/h6>\nBy the time of Christ, the synagogue had become the chief place of worship for the Jewish people. It began as a place for study of the law but gradually became the center of worship for Jews unable to attend the temple. The liturgical service of the temple could not be duplicated in the synagogue as there was no sacrificial rite, and the music could not be exactly reproduced as there were no trained Levitical singers. Scholars do not agree about the amount of continuity between the music of the temple and the music of the synagogue, but there is evidence that certain musical practices did remain constant between the two places of worship.<\/p>\nInformation on the customs and rituals of the synagogue come from Talmudic writings. The musical elements of worship in the synagogue were the chanting of Scripture, psalmody, and spiritual songs. The choral singing of the temple was replaced by a single cantor. The cantor was a layman who, according to tradition, had to have the following qualifications: “He had to be well educated, gifted with a sweet voice, of humble personality, recognized by the community, conversant with Scripture and all the prayers; he must not be a rich man, for his prayers should come from his heart.” His most important job was the cantillation of the Law and the Prophets. A series of accents and punctuations, forerunners of actual musical notation, were indications for the cantor in the musical interpretation of the Scripture.<\/p>\nPsalm singing was gradually transplanted from the temple to the synagogue, which in turn influenced the early Christian church. Gregorian psalm tones have their roots in Hebrew psalmody.<\/p>\n<h6>Greek and Roman Cultures<\/h6>\nWhile both the temple and the synagogue were familiar to the early Christians (Acts 2:46-47; 3:1; 5:42; 9:20; 18:4; etc.), the Greek and Roman cultures also played a major part in shaping the young church. Hellenistic influences by the time of Christ had long been felt in the Middle East, and while it was strongly opposed by some Jewish leaders, the Greek arts had permeated Jewish culture. Greek philosophers considered music a cathartic force that could lead humans into metaphysical knowledge. This understanding led to the belief that music had a moral substance that could influence people to either good or evil. If this philosophy had totally encompassed Judeo-Christian thought, certainly Paul would have encouraged the use of music in the spread of the gospel. However, Paul’s omission of this theory implies that the Judeo-Christian world at that time had rejected the Greek ideal, at least in part.<\/p>\nWhile the Jewish rabbis considered music an art form for the praise of God, and while the Greek philosophers thought of it as a powerful moral force in creation, the Romans considered music mainly as entertainment. The music of the Roman games was neither religious nor philosophic and, from the accounts of witnesses, it was not technically exceptional. In the Roman Empire musicians were given a lower status and looked on as mere entertainers. One reason the early church did not include instrumental music in their worship was in reaction to the debased secular use of instruments by the Romans.<\/p>\n<h5>In the New Testament Writings<\/h5>\nOne of the few mentions of instruments in the NT is the use of flutes at a wake (Mt 9:23). As in the OT, music is associated with feasting and merrymaking (e.g., the return of the prodigal son, Lk 15:25). Five passages mention music metaphorically (Mt 6:2; 11:17; Lk 7:32; 1 Cor 13:1; 14:7-8). The most well known of these is Paul’s celebration of love in 1 Corinthians 13. The denunciation of the gong and cymbals must be understood in light of the attitude of the early Christians toward the music of the Pharisees. Here the signal instruments of the temple were used to represent pompous display of religious pietism.<\/p>\n\nMost references to music are found in the eschatological visions and prophetic passages scattered throughout the NT—most frequently in the book of Revelation (also Mt 24:31; 1 Cor 15:52; 1 Thes 4:16; Heb 12:19). Many of these descriptions have a direct association with musical references in the OT (e.g., the use of harps and trumpets and the singing of the Hallelujah). But the value of many of the passages in Revelation comes from their literary style. These doxological and psalmlike passages were probably spontaneous “spiritual songs” composed by the young church (e.g., Rv 5:9-10).<\/p>\nThe passages that mention religious or liturgical music are often more conceptual than literal. Two parallel passages describing the Last Supper (Mt 26:30; Mk 14:26) mention that Christ and his disciples sang a hymn. This is the only direct account of Jesus singing, but it is probable that when he read in the synagogue he did so in the accepted vocal style (Lk 4:16-20). There is much controversy surrounding the actual events at the Last Supper, but we can assume that the hymn sung was a traditional Jewish hymn, probably associated with the Passover.<\/p>\nFrom the account in Acts 16:25 we know that Paul and Silas sang hymns while in jail. Paul gives instruction for music making in 1 Corinthians 14:15, 26 in terms of a balance between rationalism and emotion. And, as with all the gifts of the Spirit, Paul asks that singing be done for edification.<\/p>\nIn two similar passages (Eph 5:19; Col 3:16) Paul groups together three musical terms—psalms, hymns, and spiritual songs. The singing of psalms was an obvious carryover from the synagogue, and we can assume that the early Christian psalm singing followed the Jewish style. The term for “hymns” probably refers to poetic texts, possibly modeled after the psalms, but in praise of Christ. “Spiritual songs” may refer to a spontaneous, ecstatic form of musical prayer, possibly wordless (perhaps related to glossolalia), in a style that was popular in mystical Judaism. These outbursts of song were probably melismatic (sung on one tone) and are perhaps the forerunners of the later Alleluia chant.<\/p>\n<h5>Hymnody in the New Testament<\/h5>\nIt can be assumed that the early Christians composed hymns in praise of Christ. Logically, most of the hymns found in the NT are based on Hebrew poetic psalm forms, but there is Greek and Latin influence also. The hymns from the Gospel of Luke have become well-known canticles adopted by the church: the Magnificat (Lk 1:46-55), the Benedictus (1:68-79), the Gloria (2:14) and the Nunc Dimittis (2:29-32). While patterned after the psalms of the OT, these hymns are full of confidence in the salvation of Christ and in his imminent return. Other Christological hymns found in the NT include the prologue to the Gospel of John, Ephesians 2:14-16, Philippians 2:6-11, Colossians 1:15-20, 1 Timothy 3:16, Hebrews 1:3, and 1 Peter 3:18-22.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MUSIC A natural human expression that probably began with speech-singing and developed into songs, which were then accompanied by instruments. Music as we know it has become quite complex, a luxury and entertainment; music in antiquity, however, was a functional expression of daily life, work, and worship. The phrase “sing to the Lord,” common to the OT (Ex 15:21; 1 Chr 16:9; Pss 68:32; 96:1-2; Is 42:10; Jer 20:13), was not unique to the Jewish nation. All religions draw on the natural human ...","summary_en":"MUSIC A natural human expression that probably began with speech-singing and developed into songs, which were then accompanied by instruments. Music as we know it has become quite complex, a luxury and entertainment; music in antiquity, however, was a functional expression of daily life, work, and worship. The phrase “sing to the Lord,” common to the OT (Ex 15:21; 1 Chr 16:9; Pss 68:32; 96:1-2; Is 42:10; Jer 20:13), was not unique to the Jewish nation. All religions draw on the natural human ...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57681,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:15","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:15","content_ro":"14:15-17<\/strong> It is preferable both to worship in the spirit<\/em> and to use words I understand<\/em> in worship and ministry because public worship should always bless both God and others. Speaking in tongues without interpretation, though it gives glory to God and edification to the speaker (14:4), fails to benefit others who are present. • praise God along with you<\/em> (literally say “amen” to your thanksgiving<\/em>): Amen<\/em> was the traditional congregational response to a prayer.<\/p>","content_en":"14:15-17<\/strong> It is preferable both to worship in the spirit<\/em> and to use words I understand<\/em> in worship and ministry because public worship should always bless both God and others. Speaking in tongues without interpretation, though it gives glory to God and edification to the speaker (14:4), fails to benefit others who are present. • praise God along with you<\/em> (literally say “amen” to your thanksgiving<\/em>): Amen<\/em> was the traditional congregational response to a prayer.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:15-17 It is preferable both to worship in the spirit and to use words I understand in worship and ministry because public worship should always bless both God and others. Speaking in tongues without interpretation, though it gives glory to God and edification to the speaker (14:4), fails to benefit others who are present. • praise God along with you (literally say “amen” to your thanksgiving): Amen was the traditional congregational response to a prayer.","summary_en":"14:15-17 It is preferable both to worship in the spirit and to use words I understand in worship and ministry because public worship should always bless both God and others. Speaking in tongues without interpretation, though it gives glory to God and edification to the speaker (14:4), fails to benefit others who are present. • praise God along with you (literally say “amen” to your thanksgiving): Amen was the traditional congregational response to a prayer.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85307,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:15","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:15","content_ro":"14:15-17<\/strong> It is preferable both to worship in the spirit<\/em> and to use words I understand<\/em> in worship and ministry because public worship should always bless both God and others. Speaking in tongues without interpretation, though it gives glory to God and edification to the speaker (14:4), fails to benefit others who are present. • praise God along with you<\/em> (literally say “amen” to your thanksgiving<\/em>): Amen<\/em> was the traditional congregational response to a prayer.<\/p>","content_en":"14:15-17<\/strong> It is preferable both to worship in the spirit<\/em> and to use words I understand<\/em> in worship and ministry because public worship should always bless both God and others. Speaking in tongues without interpretation, though it gives glory to God and edification to the speaker (14:4), fails to benefit others who are present. • praise God along with you<\/em> (literally say “amen” to your thanksgiving<\/em>): Amen<\/em> was the traditional congregational response to a prayer.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:15-17 It is preferable both to worship in the spirit and to use words I understand in worship and ministry because public worship should always bless both God and others. Speaking in tongues without interpretation, though it gives glory to God and edification to the speaker (14:4), fails to benefit others who are present. • praise God along with you (literally say “amen” to your thanksgiving): Amen was the traditional congregational response to a prayer.","summary_en":"14:15-17 It is preferable both to worship in the spirit and to use words I understand in worship and ministry because public worship should always bless both God and others. Speaking in tongues without interpretation, though it gives glory to God and edification to the speaker (14:4), fails to benefit others who are present. • praise God along with you (literally say “amen” to your thanksgiving): Amen was the traditional congregational response to a prayer.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112933,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:15","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:15","content_ro":"14:15-17<\/strong> It is preferable both to worship in the spirit<\/em> and to use words I understand<\/em> in worship and ministry because public worship should always bless both God and others. Speaking in tongues without interpretation, though it gives glory to God and edification to the speaker (14:4), fails to benefit others who are present. • praise God along with you<\/em> (literally say “amen” to your thanksgiving<\/em>): Amen<\/em> was the traditional congregational response to a prayer.<\/p>","content_en":"14:15-17<\/strong> It is preferable both to worship in the spirit<\/em> and to use words I understand<\/em> in worship and ministry because public worship should always bless both God and others. Speaking in tongues without interpretation, though it gives glory to God and edification to the speaker (14:4), fails to benefit others who are present. • praise God along with you<\/em> (literally say “amen” to your thanksgiving<\/em>): Amen<\/em> was the traditional congregational response to a prayer.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:15-17 It is preferable both to worship in the spirit and to use words I understand in worship and ministry because public worship should always bless both God and others. Speaking in tongues without interpretation, though it gives glory to God and edification to the speaker (14:4), fails to benefit others who are present. • praise God along with you (literally say “amen” to your thanksgiving): Amen was the traditional congregational response to a prayer.","summary_en":"14:15-17 It is preferable both to worship in the spirit and to use words I understand in worship and ministry because public worship should always bless both God and others. Speaking in tongues without interpretation, though it gives glory to God and edification to the speaker (14:4), fails to benefit others who are present. • praise God along with you (literally say “amen” to your thanksgiving): Amen was the traditional congregational response to a prayer.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140559,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:15","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:15","content_ro":"14:15-17<\/strong> It is preferable both to worship in the spirit<\/em> and to use words I understand<\/em> in worship and ministry because public worship should always bless both God and others. Speaking in tongues without interpretation, though it gives glory to God and edification to the speaker (14:4), fails to benefit others who are present. • praise God along with you<\/em> (literally say “amen” to your thanksgiving<\/em>): Amen<\/em> was the traditional congregational response to a prayer.<\/p>","content_en":"14:15-17<\/strong> It is preferable both to worship in the spirit<\/em> and to use words I understand<\/em> in worship and ministry because public worship should always bless both God and others. Speaking in tongues without interpretation, though it gives glory to God and edification to the speaker (14:4), fails to benefit others who are present. • praise God along with you<\/em> (literally say “amen” to your thanksgiving<\/em>): Amen<\/em> was the traditional congregational response to a prayer.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:15-17 It is preferable both to worship in the spirit and to use words I understand in worship and ministry because public worship should always bless both God and others. Speaking in tongues without interpretation, though it gives glory to God and edification to the speaker (14:4), fails to benefit others who are present. • praise God along with you (literally say “amen” to your thanksgiving): Amen was the traditional congregational response to a prayer.","summary_en":"14:15-17 It is preferable both to worship in the spirit and to use words I understand in worship and ministry because public worship should always bless both God and others. Speaking in tongues without interpretation, though it gives glory to God and edification to the speaker (14:4), fails to benefit others who are present. • praise God along with you (literally say “amen” to your thanksgiving): Amen was the traditional congregational response to a prayer.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"16":[{"id":1284,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Amen","title_en":"Amen","content_ro":"<h3>AMEN<\/h3>\nHebrew word meaning “so it is” or “let it be,” derived from a verb meaning “to be firm or sure.” Some translations of the Bible always retain the Hebrew word amen<\/span> in the text. Others translate it by an expression such as “truly” or “I tell you the truth,” or sometimes omit it altogether. Because of its use in the OT, “amen” was also used in Christian worship and religious writings, including the Greek NT.<\/p>\n“Amen” has much more significance than merely being the last word in a prayer. In fact, that practice is not evidenced in the Bible and was not especially frequent in ancient times. In the nearly 30 times it is used in the OT, “amen” almost always occurs as a response to what has preceded. The significance of the response is that with it the people adopted what had just been said as if it were their own. For example, in Deuteronomy 27:15-26 (where “amen” appears 12 times) the people responded with “amen” after each statement of a curse directed toward those who disobey God. Similarly, “amen” is used as a response after statements of promise (Jer 11:5) or of praise and thanksgiving (1 Chr 16:36), and as a conclusion to the first four of the five “books” of Psalms (Pss 41:13; 72:19; 89:52; 106:48). The only exceptions in the OT are two occurrences in Isaiah 65:16. There, the phrase “the God of amen” (or “the God of truth”) stresses that God is the one who is “firm”; that is, he is completely trustworthy and faithfully fulfills his promises.<\/p>\nThe use of “amen” as a response to a preceding statement is continued in the NT epistles and book of Revelation. It appears after doxologies (Eph 3:21), benedictions (Gal 6:18), the giving of thanks (1 Cor 14:16), prophecy (Rv 1:7), and statements of praise (Rv 7:12). From 1 Corinthians 14:16 it is clear that a response of “amen” after a statement of thanks was a means for worshipers to participate by showing agreement with what had been said.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>AMEN<\/h3>\nHebrew word meaning “so it is” or “let it be,” derived from a verb meaning “to be firm or sure.” Some translations of the Bible always retain the Hebrew word amen<\/span> in the text. Others translate it by an expression such as “truly” or “I tell you the truth,” or sometimes omit it altogether. Because of its use in the OT, “amen” was also used in Christian worship and religious writings, including the Greek NT.<\/p>\n“Amen” has much more significance than merely being the last word in a prayer. In fact, that practice is not evidenced in the Bible and was not especially frequent in ancient times. In the nearly 30 times it is used in the OT, “amen” almost always occurs as a response to what has preceded. The significance of the response is that with it the people adopted what had just been said as if it were their own. For example, in Deuteronomy 27:15-26 (where “amen” appears 12 times) the people responded with “amen” after each statement of a curse directed toward those who disobey God. Similarly, “amen” is used as a response after statements of promise (Jer 11:5) or of praise and thanksgiving (1 Chr 16:36), and as a conclusion to the first four of the five “books” of Psalms (Pss 41:13; 72:19; 89:52; 106:48). The only exceptions in the OT are two occurrences in Isaiah 65:16. There, the phrase “the God of amen” (or “the God of truth”) stresses that God is the one who is “firm”; that is, he is completely trustworthy and faithfully fulfills his promises.<\/p>\nThe use of “amen” as a response to a preceding statement is continued in the NT epistles and book of Revelation. It appears after doxologies (Eph 3:21), benedictions (Gal 6:18), the giving of thanks (1 Cor 14:16), prophecy (Rv 1:7), and statements of praise (Rv 7:12). From 1 Corinthians 14:16 it is clear that a response of “amen” after a statement of thanks was a means for worshipers to participate by showing agreement with what had been said.<\/p>","summary_ro":"AMEN Hebrew word meaning “so it is” or “let it be,” derived from a verb meaning “to be firm or sure.” Some translations of the Bible always retain the Hebrew word amen in the text. Others translate it by an expression such as “truly” or “I tell you the truth,” or sometimes omit it altogether. Because of its use in the OT, “amen” was also used in Christian worship and religious writings, including the Greek NT. “Amen” has much more significance than merely being the last word in a prayer. In f...","summary_en":"AMEN Hebrew word meaning “so it is” or “let it be,” derived from a verb meaning “to be firm or sure.” Some translations of the Bible always retain the Hebrew word amen in the text. Others translate it by an expression such as “truly” or “I tell you the truth,” or sometimes omit it altogether. Because of its use in the OT, “amen” was also used in Christian worship and religious writings, including the Greek NT. “Amen” has much more significance than merely being the last word in a prayer. In f...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"18":[{"id":7646,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"First Letter to the Corinthians","title_en":"First Letter to the Corinthians","content_ro":"<h3>CORINTHIANS, First Letter to the<\/h3>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date and Origin<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nThere is no doubt about who wrote 1 Corinthians, for all scholars agree that the apostle Paul wrote it on his third missionary journey while he was living in Ephesus. By this time Paul was a mature, middle-aged (perhaps 55 years old) missionary, fully seasoned from planting churches around a quarter of the Mediterranean world.<\/p>\nDate and Origin<\/p>\nPaul worked in Corinth from about AD<\/span> 50 to 52. After a brief stay in Jerusalem, he returned to his missionary work, this time at Ephesus (Acts 19), where he ministered for three years (AD<\/span> 53–55\/56). During this period, he wrote at least three letters to Corinth and made a visit as well. His first letter, often called “the previous letter,” is referred to in 1 Corinthians 5:9-11. We know from this reference that the letter was misunderstood, but we know little of its content, for it has been lost.<\/p>\nSometime in AD<\/span> 55, after hearing reports from Chloe’s household (1 Cor 1:11), who were probably members of Chloe’s house church, he dictated a second letter to Corinth, our 1 Corinthians. This was probably sent off in the hands of Stephanas, Fortunatus, and Achaicus (16:17). Paul would later write a third letter to Corinth, called “the letter of tears” (2 Cor 2:2-3), and then finally 2 Corinthians.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nCorinth was a seaport city, destroyed by the Romans in 146 BC<\/span> and rebuilt in 46 BC<\/span> by Julius Caesar. After 27 BC<\/span>, it was the Roman capital of Achaia, where the proconsul had his residence (Acts 18:12). The city itself was really three cities: the port of Cenchrea, about eight miles (13 kilometers) to the east, where ships from the Aegean would unload; the port of Lechaion, about a mile (1.6 kilometers) to the west on the Gulf of Corinth, where the ships would be reloaded, their goods having been transported in wagons over the isthmus and the ships on rollers; and the city itself on the high ground in between.<\/p>\nThe acropolis of the city, on top of the steep, high Acrocorinth, contained the temple of Aphrodite, where 1,000 female slaves were dedicated to the service of this goddess of love. This distinctive cult of Corinth was dedicated to the veneration of Aphrodite, goddess of love, beauty, and fertility, who is identified with the Roman Venus. Associated with such religious practices was a general moral degradation. Corinthian morals were notoriously corrupt, even when compared with pagan Rome. Down in the city was the synagogue (Acts 18:4); for while the city as a Roman colony was largely populated by Italians, it had attracted other peoples from the Mediterranean, among whom were the Jews.<\/p>\nPurpose and Teaching<\/p>\nThe main concern of Paul in 1 Corinthians was the unity of the church. There was a self-centeredness in Corinth that resulted in building cliques within the church, in flaunting knowledge and liberty in the face of others scandalized by it, and in selfish displays in the worship services.<\/p>\nTwo other major concerns also surface in the book. First, along with other pagan practices, the lax sexual ethics of Corinth had influenced the church; Paul needed to erect some barriers. Second, there was a problem in accepting the resurrection of the body; Paul realized that this issue had implications for the core of the faith and vigorously affirmed the resurrection.<\/p>\nBoth of these latter two areas, as well as aspects of the unity issue (particularly their concern with knowledge), have been identified by some scholars as Gnostic motifs, leading to the conclusion that Paul was opposing a Gnostic party in Corinth. Careful examination reveals, however, that while some of the elements floating in the Corinthian milieu would later contribute to the development of Gnosticism, it would be anachronistic to call them gnostic. While recognizing protognostic ideas in the Corinthian situation, it is important to keep interpretation within the first-century context.<\/p>\nThus, the focus of Paul’s concern was the church, its unity and purity. Paul was fighting to keep this church from disintegrating into a number of competing and bickering factions divided over moral and doctrinal issues. Furthermore, he wanted to keep the focus of the church on Jesus, the exalted Lord.<\/p>\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Greeting, 1:1-9<\/h5>\nPaul begins with a standard greeting, followed by his usual thanksgiving prayer. Two features stand out. First, the greeting associates Sosthenes with Paul. While we cannot be sure who Sosthenes was, he was surely well known to the Corinthians; probably he was the Sosthenes whom Acts 18:17 identifies as the ruler of the synagogue, following the conversion of Crispus.<\/p>\nSecond, Paul stresses the Corinthians’ abilities in speech, knowledge, and spiritual gifts. They had all of these, and these were genuine, but it was precisely these good things that they were abusing. Paul’s solution is not to suppress these gifts (indeed, he thanks God for them), but to place them in a new context.<\/p>\n<h5>Report from Chloe’s People, 1:10–4:21<\/h5>\nThe Corinthians had made Paul, Cephas (Peter), Apollos, and even Christ into party leaders. We are not sure what each of these groups stood for, but one might guess that the Pauline group stressed Paul’s slogans of liberty; the Petrine group, the need to hold to Jewish practices; and the Apollos group, the value of philosophical understanding and oratory. Whatever they stood for, Paul is appalled that it breaks their unity. His first response is to argue that his behavior was not calculated to build a following but to point to Christ. That is, he did not insist on personally baptizing converts; who performed these acts did not matter, since they were all baptized into Christ.<\/p>\nPaul immediately moves to the underlying issue, that of various persons wanting to show themselves better or wiser than others who did not have the insights of their party in the church. Their seeking for wisdom contradicts Paul’s preaching of the gospel.<\/p>\nFirst, the message of a crucified Christ (1:18) made no sense within the wisdom and values of either Jews or Greeks. It demanded a whole new way of looking on life—God’s way.<\/p>\nSecond, God had not chosen them on the basis of their status in society; quite the contrary, he had made their only status the equal status they received from him (1:26-31).<\/p>\nThird, their faith had not been based on Paul’s oratory but on the gifts of the Spirit that Paul had manifested (2:4), which had convinced them that God was acting in Paul. Thus, it was not argument that led them to God, but God’s Spirit. Therefore it was the Spirit, not human reasoning, that would continue to reveal God to them. Unless they became fools with respect to the world’s ways of reasoning, they would never be able to rethink life from the perspective of the Spirit, who gives true wisdom.<\/p>\nFourth, they were not acting on this spiritual level when they claimed Paul and others as party leaders; this activity demonstrates the evil impulse in human beings (“the flesh” or “fallen human nature”) at work since it elevates human servants rather than the God who works equally in each of them.<\/p>\nFifth, these servants were working together to build one “temple” for God based on the one foundation in Jesus Christ, that is, the church. God alone will judge how each Christian contributes to the work of building the church. But woe to the person who divides the church, for “if anyone destroys God’s temple, God will destroy him” (3:17, rsv<\/span>). (Note that here the temple imagery is used collectively; the church is the temple. In chapter 6 it will be used individually; each Christian is the temple.)<\/p>\nFinally, he points to their overrealized eschatology, for with their spiritual gifts (which were genuine) and vaunted wisdom (which was worldly) they claimed they were reigning with Christ (4:8-13). Paul, with ironic sarcasm, points out how different this claim is from the lifestyle of the apostles. The apostles lived like Jesus—a life of suffering, expecting exaltation later. The Corinthians were trying to have their exaltation now without crucifixion.<\/p>\nPaul closes this section with an admonition. He softens his words toward some who would be responsive, urging them to copy his lifestyle. The teacher was the message (vv 14-16). Timothy will also faithfully live the truth before them. Then he threatens the “arrogant” (v 18), pointing out that he will not challenge their words but their spiritual power if he comes.<\/p>\n<h5>The Report from the Corinthian Messengers, 5:1–6:20<\/h5>\nPaul now turns to three issues raised by oral reports from the messengers bearing the Corinthians’ letter to him.<\/p>\nThe first issue is that of church discipline (5:12-13). Paul cites a case of flagrant immorality—that of incest. This immorality was so clear (even pagans considered it immoral), that it was not a case of ignorance of Christian principles. Further, the church had taken no action but rather boasted in its tolerance, perhaps on the basis of a misunderstanding of Paul’s teaching on freedom from the law.<\/p>\nPaul presents three principles in this section: (1) the primary goal of church discipline is the repentance and restoration of the offender; (2) the secondary goal of church discipline is the protection of the church (5:6-8); and (3) the church is not to seek to judge or control the actions of evil persons in the world—they are God’s responsibility—but to discipline those within the church (vv 9-13). Paul will use these principles also in the following chapters (cf. 7:12-16).<\/p>\nThe second issue is that of lawsuits between Christians (6:1-11). The Corinthian society was as prone to litigation as our own, and Christians did not see anything wrong in suing each other. Paul was troubled. If Christians are to judge the world, they certainly should not bring the world in to judge issues within the church. Rather than put their cases before “those who are least esteemed by the church” (6:4, rsv<\/span>, i.e., pagan judges), they should decide the cases within the church.<\/p>\nPaul has an even better way than bypassing the pagan courts, and that is to simply suffer the wrong (1 Cor 6:7). Applying the teaching of Jesus quite literally (Mt 5:38-42), Paul argues that it would be best to allow themselves to be defrauded. Instead, the Corinthians are willing to step on their brothers in Christ to get what they feel are their rights. This raises the issue as to whether greed is not still in their hearts (1 Cor 6:9-11). While Paul accepts people who formerly did all sorts of evil (for Jesus has cleansed them), he makes it very clear that anyone presently practicing greed or immorality is not part of the kingdom, whatever their doctrinal commitments may be.<\/p>\nThe final issue in this section is that of casual sexual intercourse (6:12-20). In a world where virginity was important if a woman wished to be married and where slaves in the temple of Aphrodite were available as prostitutes, prostitution was the major form of casual sex. The libertine party used two slogans: “All things are lawful for me,” a saying that may well have been derived from Paul’s teaching, and “Food is meant for the stomach and the stomach for food”—that is, since the body works this way, it must be the Creator’s purpose. Paul qualifies rather than contradicts their slogans. Freedom is subordinate to other goals (6:12, 20). The body is not made to be used as we wish, but is to be dedicated to the Lord, as the doctrine of the resurrection demonstrates (vv 13-14).<\/p>\nFurthermore, sexual intercourse is an act of the whole person, unlike eating (Paul cites Gn 2:24; cf. Jesus in Mt 19:5). Therefore, this act takes a member (i.e., the person) from the body of Christ and makes him a unity with a prostitute (1 Cor 6:15-17). Thus immorality is unlike other sins that are external to the self, for it changes the self and thus defiles the body, the place where the Holy Spirit dwells. It disregards the fact that Christ has redeemed the body, and that the whole of the Christian belongs to God, not to the Christian.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Answers to the Corinthians, 7:1–16:4<\/h5>\nNow Paul turns to the Corinthians’ own issues, building on the answers he has already given to questions they did not ask.<\/p>\nThe first issue is that of marriage (7:1-24). The slogan of the ascetic party in Corinth (perhaps a reaction against the libertines of ch 6) was “It is good for a man not to touch a woman” (7:1, kjv<\/span>). The Corinthians applied this slogan to both married and unmarried, arguing that married Christians should abstain from sexual relations. Paul clarified the matter with three points. First, he said that this was totally unrealistic, for total abstinence would lead to immorality (vv 2, 7-9). Second, when people get married they no longer own their own bodies; their bodies belong to each other for their mutual benefit (vv 3-4). Sexual refusal denies a spouse what rightly belongs to him or her. Third, abstinence is allowed for limited periods by mutual agreement as a type of fast to help focus on Christ (v 5).<\/p>\nWhile Paul will address the issue of the unmarried more fully in 7:25-40, in a side remark he indicates that he is himself content to be unmarried. But since some do not have this gift, full sexual expression in marriage is far better than fighting passion (7:7-9). Once two Christians are married, divorce is unthinkable. A clear word of Christ proves this (Mt 5:31-32; Mk 10:11-12; Lk 16:18 and parallels), so there are no exceptions (Paul either does not know of the exception clause in Mt 19:9 or he understands it as referring to something like premarital unchastity discovered before the wedding, not to adultery after the wedding). Although in some cases a Christian couple must live separately, it is always with a view to reconciliation. The teaching of Jesus does not allow him to think of the marriage as ending (1 Cor 7:10-11).<\/p>\nBut what if the spouse is not a Christian? Paul applies his principles to a situation for which Jesus did not leave a clear word. First, since Jesus told Christians not to divorce, even in this situation the Christian may not initiate a divorce (7:12-13). Second, since Christians are not to control or judge non-Christians (6:12-13), the Christian does not need to continue the relationship if the non-Christian insists on a divorce (7:15). Third, far from defiling the Christian (as the relationship in 6:15 does), the Christian will make the relationship holy, with positive results for the children and the possible salvation of the spouse (7:14, 16). While this is no call to remain in situations of physical or sexual abuse, it is a call to remain faithful to a mixed marriage situation.<\/p>\nPaul does not believe that one normally needs to change one’s life situation to serve Christ (7:17-24). Therefore, normally each person should remain in that state of life in which he or she was when called to Christ. Paul’s examples show that he was thinking in terms of marriage or singleness, Jew (circumcision) or Gentile, slave or free, not in terms of situations that might be immoral in themselves. In the case of slaves, they can accept freedom if it becomes available, but it does not make an essential difference in their real state before God or their ability to serve Christ (vv 21-23).<\/p>\nThe second issue is that of the unmarried (7:25-40). Paul argues that single people and widows may marry—it is not wrong. Yet he advises them to remain single. Since all in this age is passing away, it would be good to stay single so as to avoid the extra suffering to which marriage exposes a person (vv 25-31). What is more, marriage always divides one’s attention between the Lord and the legitimate needs of the spouse. One must not abandon the spouse or ignore his or her needs in order to serve the Lord, but one can remain single so that the Lord can be the sole focus of life and devotion (vv 32-35). Finally, if one is in a situation in which marriage is expected, the person must make his own decision as to whether he should marry the woman for her sake (and perhaps that of the wider family) or whether he can and should simply care for her as a single person (vv 36-38). Paul closes this section by repeating his general principles (vv 39-40).<\/p>\nThe third issue Paul deals with is that of food that has been offered to idols (8:1–11:1). Most meat that was available in the marketplace came either from animals slaughtered as sacrifices in the temples or from groups of animals from which one was offered as a dedicatory sacrifice. To scrupulous Jews, all of this meat would be untouched. Furthermore, pagans invited Christians to feasts in their homes and to private feasts held in the precincts of pagan temples, where trade guilds also held feasts. Paul discusses these issues and uses them to teach wider principles of Christian conduct.<\/p>\nFirst, love, not knowledge, is the key to correct behavior (8:1-13). Some Corinthians felt superior because they were convinced that idols had no reality (there is only one God), and therefore any food offered to them was still fit to eat. Paul again accepts their slogans, but counters with the statement, “Knowledge puffs up, but love builds up” (v 1, niv<\/span>). God is not concerned with what we know or eat, but he is concerned with whether or not we love our fellow Christians. The concern is not that a fellow Christian might become enraged because one indulged, but that he or she might have a vulnerable conscience and indulge himself, even though he believed it wrong and thus in his own eyes apostasizes from the faith (i.e., rebels against Christ). Such leading astray is not love. It would be better never to eat meat than to lead a fellow Christian into sin.<\/p>\nSecond, he points out that one should subordinate one’s own interests to those of others, especially those of Christ and his gospel (9:1-23). Both the examples of the apostles, who expected the church to support them and their families (cf. Lk 10:5-7), and Scripture prove that Paul had the right to demand support from the Corinthians. This had not been his practice, for he had normally made tents to support his ministry, though he did accept gifts from other churches. Paul did this to prevent people from thinking he was peddling religion for profit (9:12) and for the personal satisfaction of doing more than he had to do (vv 16-17). This was part of Paul’s larger policy of subordinating his own personal preferences and interests to those of Christ and his gospel (vv 19-23).<\/p>\nThird, the bravado of the strong who demonstrate their liberty with disregard of fellow Christians is spiritually dangerous (9:24–10:22). It is not who begins but who completes the Christian life that counts; therefore, it is a life of discipline, not relaxed license (9:24-27). Israel in the wilderness presents an example of failure in this regard. They had “baptism” and “the Lord’s Supper” (10:2-4), just like the church, yet most of them did not make it to the Promised Land. The reason God destroyed them was simple: they turned to sin. Likewise, the Christian has to be careful not to be so proud about faith and freedom that he becomes careless about sin and falls from the faith (v 12). On the other hand, Christians need not be fearful, for the temptation is not more powerful than they are; God has provided a way of escape, if they will take it (v 13).<\/p>\nAnother link between the Israelites and the Corinthians pertains to partaking of a sacrificial meal (10:14-22). In the Lord’s Supper there is a sharing of the blood and body of Christ, just as real as Israel’s sacrifices on the altar. Food offered to idols is also a sharing, not with the supposed god, but with the real demon that is behind the idol. To try to share at both tables is to provoke God’s jealousy just as Israel did (v 22).<\/p>\nA summary of the discussion draws the three chapters together (10:23–11:1). Since the food is not changed by being offered to idols, and since all food really belongs to God, one may eat anything sold in the market—do not ask any questions (10:25-26). Likewise, the Christian may eat anything served at a dinner in the home of an unbeliever. However, if someone points out that the food was offered to idols, the Christian should pass it by, not because it would hurt him, but because it is an issue with the person who raised the question, and the Christian is concerned about the good of his neighbor (vv 27-30). In other words, follow Paul’s example as he patterns himself in turn after Christ, who served others rather than himself. Act so that God’s reputation and character shine through even in what one eats (v 31); try to offend no one but to benefit each person in moving him toward salvation (v 32).<\/p>\nThe fourth issue Paul deals with is that of order in church meetings (11:2–14:40). The Corinthians’ house churches had lively meetings, but rather than showing unity in Christ, they demonstrated selfishness. Paul had no desire to change what they did; he did want to change how they did it.<\/p>\nThe first problem in the meetings was the behavior of married women (11:1-16). The sign of marriage in that day was the wearing of a veil or distinctive hairstyle, as a ring is today. Women praying and delivering prophecies in church was no issue for Paul, but the women may have felt that this loosed them from their husbands (cf. Mk 12:25) and therefore was a reason to set aside their veils. Paul argues that husband and wife are intimately joined, just as humans are to God (1 Cor 11:3). Therefore as humans should not shame but glorify God, so the wife should act toward her husband. Thus, while Paul approves of ministry by women, he puts marriage first.<\/p>\nThe second problem in the meetings was that of making class distinctions (11:17-34). Until the weekly Lord’s Supper began to be turned into the sacrifice of the Mass in the third and fourth centuries, it was a full shared meal. Middle- and upper-class Christians could come earlier to the church gatherings and also provide better food and drink for themselves. Following the customs of pagan clubs, they had no scruples against starting early and feasting as befit their class, so long as at least simple food was provided for the slaves and peasants who could not come as early (v 21). This shamed the poorer Christians and made them feel class distinctions keenly (v 22). This, argues Paul, is not the Lord’s Supper but a sham (v 20).<\/p>\nPaul repeats the words of institution to point out that they all are participating in Christ’s body and blood (cf. 10:16-17), not their own meal. To do it in an unworthy manner, with divisions and class distinctions among them, is to profane his meal by failing to demonstrate the unity of his body, the church (11:29), and thus invite his judgment, which they were already experiencing. Instead, they should examine their own motives and truly gather as one to eat this common meal.<\/p>\nThe third problem in their meetings was the use of spiritual gifts (12:1–14:40). It is possible that some people in these house churches, under the influence of Gnostic ideas in which the spiritual is good and the material evil, and feeling inspired by a spirit, cried out, “Jesus [meaning the human Jesus as opposed to the spiritual Christ] be cursed.” It is not the Spirit of God saying this, argues Paul, for the Spirit in us cries the basic Christian confession, “Jesus is Lord.”<\/p>\nOthers in these churches were exalting their own particular gift, especially the gift of tongues, shouting down others or refusing to give them a turn. There is only one Spirit and he gives all the gifts, Paul argues (12:4-6). The Spirit manifests himself sovereignly in each Christian, not simply for the Christian’s own benefit, but for the good of all (v 7). Since it is the Spirit, not a given manifestation, that the Christian has, the gifts manifested could change from meeting to meeting.<\/p>\nThat same Spirit has made all Christians into one organic unity in Christ (12:12-13). Thus not only does the one Spirit give all the gifts—all are equally inspired—but all the gifts are equally needed for the proper functioning of the body of Christ (vv 14-26). No one can say that his lack of a given gift makes him less a part of the body; indeed, the less noticeable gifts may well be the more important. Thus, within the body of Christ, there are not only different manifestations of the Spirit through individuals in a given meeting, but different ministries or functions of individuals in the body (vv 27-31).<\/p>\nTherefore, it is not the demonstration of a particular gift that shows one’s spirituality, but how one demonstrates it—that is, whether one manifests it with love (13:1-13). Any gift exercised for selfish purposes may be a genuine gift of the Spirit, but it is worthless to the individual (vv 1-3). This is because love is the opposite of selfishness (vv 4-7). In fact, the gifts of the Spirit are only for the period between Jesus’ first coming and his second coming, when the kingdom of God will be perfectly revealed and the King will be present in person, and thus the intermediary gifts of the Spirit will be no longer necessary (vv 10, 12). It is not giftedness but faith and hope that will have a reward then, and love, which is the greatest, because it will continue as Christians live in perfect love with each other and with Jesus (v 13).<\/p>\nApplying this to Corinth, Paul argues that while one should desire all the gifts, love dictates that prophecy should be the gift of choice in the church meetings (14:1-25). The Corinthians had evidently been stressing tongues. Tongues without interpretation is of little value to anyone except to the speaker himself. It does not build anyone up; its confusion seems madness to outsiders. Outside the church meetings there is a role for tongues, both as a sign of judgment (v 21) and for private devotion (v 18), but inside, only with interpretation. Prophecy, however, both builds up and convicts, and thus is to be sought in the meetings.<\/p>\nIn the church meetings, then, both gifts and order are to prevail (14:26-40). All types of gifts are allowed expression with a goal of mutual edification, not selfish demonstration (v 26). Tongues speakers must have an interpreter; both they and prophets must speak in turn, with time being taken to evaluate the utterances after every few speakers (vv 27-33). Furthermore, the women, who were perhaps chatting in the service (perhaps due to habits learned in Jewish synagogues, where they were segregated and did not participate) are to cease their chattering, pay attention, and learn, asking questions at home if they do not understand (vv 34-36). In his concluding summary, Paul states that all should be done in an orderly manner (vv 37-40).<\/p>\nThe fifth issue Paul deals with is that of the resurrection of the dead (ch 15). Some of the problems mentioned earlier concerning loose morals (chs 5–6), ascetic denial, sexuality (ch 7), or feeling one was resurrected already (ch 11) point to the fact that some Corinthians did not believe in the resurrection of the body, though they apparently believed in the resurrection of Jesus and the immortality of the human soul.<\/p>\nPaul reaffirms that the resurrection of Jesus is an essential part of the gospel message (15:1-19). The unified voice of the church was that Jesus not only died but rose again and appeared to numerous witnesses (vv 3-11). If they were consistent in their antiresurrection argument, Christ could not have been raised. Yet if this were the case, the whole gospel message is false and all their hopes for salvation are in vain (vv 12-19).<\/p>\nSince Christ has been raised, Christians will also be raised because of their solidarity with him (15:20-28). As they had experienced the results of being in Adam, so now they will experience the results of being in Christ. But resurrection does not happen at once. There are progressive stages: (a) Christ was first; (b) Christians will be raised at his coming; (c) Christ must reign until he extends kingdom rule over the whole world, destroying all demonic powers (including death itself); and (d) then he will turn over the perfected kingdom to the Father (vv 23-28).<\/p>\nResurrection hope also explains Christian practices such as baptizing people on behalf of others who had died (probably people who had turned to Christ but had died before they could be baptized, 15:29), and willingness to risk death for Christ (vv 30-32).<\/p>\nPaul admits that there are intellectual problems involved, but these are solved when one realizes that resurrection includes both continuity and discontinuity (15:35-50). Just as seed and plant are the same and yet different, and just as many types of bodies exist, so it is with the resurrection. What was perishable, dishonorable, weak, and physical (i.e., in Adam) will be raised imperishable, glorious, powerful, and spiritual (i.e., in Christ). Indeed, it is only as Christians thus become like Christ, the heavenly man, that they can become part of God’s kingdom.<\/p>\nWith excitement Paul shares his real hope, that of transformation (15:51-58). At the coming of Christ the dead will be raised and transformed. But the living will also need transformation, and this will happen in a split second, making all of them impervious to death. Then they will truly know the victory already present in Jesus’ resurrection (vv 54-57). A concluding summary draws the practical conclusion that this teaching should give them assurance of a reward for anything done for Christ now (v 58).<\/p>\nThe sixth issue Paul deals with is that of the collection for the needy Jerusalem church (16:1-4). Because of famine in Judea in the 40s, the church there had become impoverished. Partly because of the need and partly to further the unity of the church, Paul took up a collection in some of his churches for the Judean church. He answers the Corinthians’ practical queries by stating that the collection should be made weekly according to ability, not all at once when Paul arrives (16:2). When he comes, he will send off the money with their own messengers. Paul remains vague about whether or not he will accompany them, allaying suspicions that somehow he plans to profit from it (cf. 2 Cor 8–9).<\/p>\n<h5>Final Remarks and Closing, 16:5-24<\/h5>\nHaving come to the end, Paul discusses his travel plans, including his intention for a lengthy visit whenever he leaves Ephesus (cf. 2 Cor 1). Timothy was either coming with the letter or else would arrive shortly after another mission; they were to respect him and help him return. Paul points out that he urged Apollos to visit Corinth, in case some suspect Paul is against him. A closing formal exhortation to firm faith and love leads into his final customary greetings. He praises the Corinthian messengers who had brought him their letter (16:15-18) and sends greetings from Aquila and Prisca (Priscilla), his comissionaries who had helped him found the church in Corinth (Acts 18:2-3, 18). Referring to the customary greeting in the church, he tells them to greet each other with a kiss on each cheek (16:20). Paul then takes the pen from the scribe, as was normal, and writes the closing exhortation—placing a curse on those who do not love Jesus, the common Aramaic expression used in the church “Come, O Lord” (Marana tha,<\/em> perhaps used to close services), and providing an assurance of his own love for them (vv 21-24).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; Corinth; Corinthians, Second Letter to the; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CORINTHIANS, First Letter to the<\/h3>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date and Origin<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nThere is no doubt about who wrote 1 Corinthians, for all scholars agree that the apostle Paul wrote it on his third missionary journey while he was living in Ephesus. By this time Paul was a mature, middle-aged (perhaps 55 years old) missionary, fully seasoned from planting churches around a quarter of the Mediterranean world.<\/p>\nDate and Origin<\/p>\nPaul worked in Corinth from about AD<\/span> 50 to 52. After a brief stay in Jerusalem, he returned to his missionary work, this time at Ephesus (Acts 19), where he ministered for three years (AD<\/span> 53–55\/56). During this period, he wrote at least three letters to Corinth and made a visit as well. His first letter, often called “the previous letter,” is referred to in 1 Corinthians 5:9-11. We know from this reference that the letter was misunderstood, but we know little of its content, for it has been lost.<\/p>\nSometime in AD<\/span> 55, after hearing reports from Chloe’s household (1 Cor 1:11), who were probably members of Chloe’s house church, he dictated a second letter to Corinth, our 1 Corinthians. This was probably sent off in the hands of Stephanas, Fortunatus, and Achaicus (16:17). Paul would later write a third letter to Corinth, called “the letter of tears” (2 Cor 2:2-3), and then finally 2 Corinthians.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nCorinth was a seaport city, destroyed by the Romans in 146 BC<\/span> and rebuilt in 46 BC<\/span> by Julius Caesar. After 27 BC<\/span>, it was the Roman capital of Achaia, where the proconsul had his residence (Acts 18:12). The city itself was really three cities: the port of Cenchrea, about eight miles (13 kilometers) to the east, where ships from the Aegean would unload; the port of Lechaion, about a mile (1.6 kilometers) to the west on the Gulf of Corinth, where the ships would be reloaded, their goods having been transported in wagons over the isthmus and the ships on rollers; and the city itself on the high ground in between.<\/p>\nThe acropolis of the city, on top of the steep, high Acrocorinth, contained the temple of Aphrodite, where 1,000 female slaves were dedicated to the service of this goddess of love. This distinctive cult of Corinth was dedicated to the veneration of Aphrodite, goddess of love, beauty, and fertility, who is identified with the Roman Venus. Associated with such religious practices was a general moral degradation. Corinthian morals were notoriously corrupt, even when compared with pagan Rome. Down in the city was the synagogue (Acts 18:4); for while the city as a Roman colony was largely populated by Italians, it had attracted other peoples from the Mediterranean, among whom were the Jews.<\/p>\nPurpose and Teaching<\/p>\nThe main concern of Paul in 1 Corinthians was the unity of the church. There was a self-centeredness in Corinth that resulted in building cliques within the church, in flaunting knowledge and liberty in the face of others scandalized by it, and in selfish displays in the worship services.<\/p>\nTwo other major concerns also surface in the book. First, along with other pagan practices, the lax sexual ethics of Corinth had influenced the church; Paul needed to erect some barriers. Second, there was a problem in accepting the resurrection of the body; Paul realized that this issue had implications for the core of the faith and vigorously affirmed the resurrection.<\/p>\nBoth of these latter two areas, as well as aspects of the unity issue (particularly their concern with knowledge), have been identified by some scholars as Gnostic motifs, leading to the conclusion that Paul was opposing a Gnostic party in Corinth. Careful examination reveals, however, that while some of the elements floating in the Corinthian milieu would later contribute to the development of Gnosticism, it would be anachronistic to call them gnostic. While recognizing protognostic ideas in the Corinthian situation, it is important to keep interpretation within the first-century context.<\/p>\nThus, the focus of Paul’s concern was the church, its unity and purity. Paul was fighting to keep this church from disintegrating into a number of competing and bickering factions divided over moral and doctrinal issues. Furthermore, he wanted to keep the focus of the church on Jesus, the exalted Lord.<\/p>\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Greeting, 1:1-9<\/h5>\nPaul begins with a standard greeting, followed by his usual thanksgiving prayer. Two features stand out. First, the greeting associates Sosthenes with Paul. While we cannot be sure who Sosthenes was, he was surely well known to the Corinthians; probably he was the Sosthenes whom Acts 18:17 identifies as the ruler of the synagogue, following the conversion of Crispus.<\/p>\nSecond, Paul stresses the Corinthians’ abilities in speech, knowledge, and spiritual gifts. They had all of these, and these were genuine, but it was precisely these good things that they were abusing. Paul’s solution is not to suppress these gifts (indeed, he thanks God for them), but to place them in a new context.<\/p>\n<h5>Report from Chloe’s People, 1:10–4:21<\/h5>\nThe Corinthians had made Paul, Cephas (Peter), Apollos, and even Christ into party leaders. We are not sure what each of these groups stood for, but one might guess that the Pauline group stressed Paul’s slogans of liberty; the Petrine group, the need to hold to Jewish practices; and the Apollos group, the value of philosophical understanding and oratory. Whatever they stood for, Paul is appalled that it breaks their unity. His first response is to argue that his behavior was not calculated to build a following but to point to Christ. That is, he did not insist on personally baptizing converts; who performed these acts did not matter, since they were all baptized into Christ.<\/p>\nPaul immediately moves to the underlying issue, that of various persons wanting to show themselves better or wiser than others who did not have the insights of their party in the church. Their seeking for wisdom contradicts Paul’s preaching of the gospel.<\/p>\nFirst, the message of a crucified Christ (1:18) made no sense within the wisdom and values of either Jews or Greeks. It demanded a whole new way of looking on life—God’s way.<\/p>\nSecond, God had not chosen them on the basis of their status in society; quite the contrary, he had made their only status the equal status they received from him (1:26-31).<\/p>\nThird, their faith had not been based on Paul’s oratory but on the gifts of the Spirit that Paul had manifested (2:4), which had convinced them that God was acting in Paul. Thus, it was not argument that led them to God, but God’s Spirit. Therefore it was the Spirit, not human reasoning, that would continue to reveal God to them. Unless they became fools with respect to the world’s ways of reasoning, they would never be able to rethink life from the perspective of the Spirit, who gives true wisdom.<\/p>\nFourth, they were not acting on this spiritual level when they claimed Paul and others as party leaders; this activity demonstrates the evil impulse in human beings (“the flesh” or “fallen human nature”) at work since it elevates human servants rather than the God who works equally in each of them.<\/p>\nFifth, these servants were working together to build one “temple” for God based on the one foundation in Jesus Christ, that is, the church. God alone will judge how each Christian contributes to the work of building the church. But woe to the person who divides the church, for “if anyone destroys God’s temple, God will destroy him” (3:17, rsv<\/span>). (Note that here the temple imagery is used collectively; the church is the temple. In chapter 6 it will be used individually; each Christian is the temple.)<\/p>\nFinally, he points to their overrealized eschatology, for with their spiritual gifts (which were genuine) and vaunted wisdom (which was worldly) they claimed they were reigning with Christ (4:8-13). Paul, with ironic sarcasm, points out how different this claim is from the lifestyle of the apostles. The apostles lived like Jesus—a life of suffering, expecting exaltation later. The Corinthians were trying to have their exaltation now without crucifixion.<\/p>\nPaul closes this section with an admonition. He softens his words toward some who would be responsive, urging them to copy his lifestyle. The teacher was the message (vv 14-16). Timothy will also faithfully live the truth before them. Then he threatens the “arrogant” (v 18), pointing out that he will not challenge their words but their spiritual power if he comes.<\/p>\n<h5>The Report from the Corinthian Messengers, 5:1–6:20<\/h5>\nPaul now turns to three issues raised by oral reports from the messengers bearing the Corinthians’ letter to him.<\/p>\nThe first issue is that of church discipline (5:12-13). Paul cites a case of flagrant immorality—that of incest. This immorality was so clear (even pagans considered it immoral), that it was not a case of ignorance of Christian principles. Further, the church had taken no action but rather boasted in its tolerance, perhaps on the basis of a misunderstanding of Paul’s teaching on freedom from the law.<\/p>\nPaul presents three principles in this section: (1) the primary goal of church discipline is the repentance and restoration of the offender; (2) the secondary goal of church discipline is the protection of the church (5:6-8); and (3) the church is not to seek to judge or control the actions of evil persons in the world—they are God’s responsibility—but to discipline those within the church (vv 9-13). Paul will use these principles also in the following chapters (cf. 7:12-16).<\/p>\nThe second issue is that of lawsuits between Christians (6:1-11). The Corinthian society was as prone to litigation as our own, and Christians did not see anything wrong in suing each other. Paul was troubled. If Christians are to judge the world, they certainly should not bring the world in to judge issues within the church. Rather than put their cases before “those who are least esteemed by the church” (6:4, rsv<\/span>, i.e., pagan judges), they should decide the cases within the church.<\/p>\nPaul has an even better way than bypassing the pagan courts, and that is to simply suffer the wrong (1 Cor 6:7). Applying the teaching of Jesus quite literally (Mt 5:38-42), Paul argues that it would be best to allow themselves to be defrauded. Instead, the Corinthians are willing to step on their brothers in Christ to get what they feel are their rights. This raises the issue as to whether greed is not still in their hearts (1 Cor 6:9-11). While Paul accepts people who formerly did all sorts of evil (for Jesus has cleansed them), he makes it very clear that anyone presently practicing greed or immorality is not part of the kingdom, whatever their doctrinal commitments may be.<\/p>\nThe final issue in this section is that of casual sexual intercourse (6:12-20). In a world where virginity was important if a woman wished to be married and where slaves in the temple of Aphrodite were available as prostitutes, prostitution was the major form of casual sex. The libertine party used two slogans: “All things are lawful for me,” a saying that may well have been derived from Paul’s teaching, and “Food is meant for the stomach and the stomach for food”—that is, since the body works this way, it must be the Creator’s purpose. Paul qualifies rather than contradicts their slogans. Freedom is subordinate to other goals (6:12, 20). The body is not made to be used as we wish, but is to be dedicated to the Lord, as the doctrine of the resurrection demonstrates (vv 13-14).<\/p>\nFurthermore, sexual intercourse is an act of the whole person, unlike eating (Paul cites Gn 2:24; cf. Jesus in Mt 19:5). Therefore, this act takes a member (i.e., the person) from the body of Christ and makes him a unity with a prostitute (1 Cor 6:15-17). Thus immorality is unlike other sins that are external to the self, for it changes the self and thus defiles the body, the place where the Holy Spirit dwells. It disregards the fact that Christ has redeemed the body, and that the whole of the Christian belongs to God, not to the Christian.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Answers to the Corinthians, 7:1–16:4<\/h5>\nNow Paul turns to the Corinthians’ own issues, building on the answers he has already given to questions they did not ask.<\/p>\nThe first issue is that of marriage (7:1-24). The slogan of the ascetic party in Corinth (perhaps a reaction against the libertines of ch 6) was “It is good for a man not to touch a woman” (7:1, kjv<\/span>). The Corinthians applied this slogan to both married and unmarried, arguing that married Christians should abstain from sexual relations. Paul clarified the matter with three points. First, he said that this was totally unrealistic, for total abstinence would lead to immorality (vv 2, 7-9). Second, when people get married they no longer own their own bodies; their bodies belong to each other for their mutual benefit (vv 3-4). Sexual refusal denies a spouse what rightly belongs to him or her. Third, abstinence is allowed for limited periods by mutual agreement as a type of fast to help focus on Christ (v 5).<\/p>\nWhile Paul will address the issue of the unmarried more fully in 7:25-40, in a side remark he indicates that he is himself content to be unmarried. But since some do not have this gift, full sexual expression in marriage is far better than fighting passion (7:7-9). Once two Christians are married, divorce is unthinkable. A clear word of Christ proves this (Mt 5:31-32; Mk 10:11-12; Lk 16:18 and parallels), so there are no exceptions (Paul either does not know of the exception clause in Mt 19:9 or he understands it as referring to something like premarital unchastity discovered before the wedding, not to adultery after the wedding). Although in some cases a Christian couple must live separately, it is always with a view to reconciliation. The teaching of Jesus does not allow him to think of the marriage as ending (1 Cor 7:10-11).<\/p>\nBut what if the spouse is not a Christian? Paul applies his principles to a situation for which Jesus did not leave a clear word. First, since Jesus told Christians not to divorce, even in this situation the Christian may not initiate a divorce (7:12-13). Second, since Christians are not to control or judge non-Christians (6:12-13), the Christian does not need to continue the relationship if the non-Christian insists on a divorce (7:15). Third, far from defiling the Christian (as the relationship in 6:15 does), the Christian will make the relationship holy, with positive results for the children and the possible salvation of the spouse (7:14, 16). While this is no call to remain in situations of physical or sexual abuse, it is a call to remain faithful to a mixed marriage situation.<\/p>\nPaul does not believe that one normally needs to change one’s life situation to serve Christ (7:17-24). Therefore, normally each person should remain in that state of life in which he or she was when called to Christ. Paul’s examples show that he was thinking in terms of marriage or singleness, Jew (circumcision) or Gentile, slave or free, not in terms of situations that might be immoral in themselves. In the case of slaves, they can accept freedom if it becomes available, but it does not make an essential difference in their real state before God or their ability to serve Christ (vv 21-23).<\/p>\nThe second issue is that of the unmarried (7:25-40). Paul argues that single people and widows may marry—it is not wrong. Yet he advises them to remain single. Since all in this age is passing away, it would be good to stay single so as to avoid the extra suffering to which marriage exposes a person (vv 25-31). What is more, marriage always divides one’s attention between the Lord and the legitimate needs of the spouse. One must not abandon the spouse or ignore his or her needs in order to serve the Lord, but one can remain single so that the Lord can be the sole focus of life and devotion (vv 32-35). Finally, if one is in a situation in which marriage is expected, the person must make his own decision as to whether he should marry the woman for her sake (and perhaps that of the wider family) or whether he can and should simply care for her as a single person (vv 36-38). Paul closes this section by repeating his general principles (vv 39-40).<\/p>\nThe third issue Paul deals with is that of food that has been offered to idols (8:1–11:1). Most meat that was available in the marketplace came either from animals slaughtered as sacrifices in the temples or from groups of animals from which one was offered as a dedicatory sacrifice. To scrupulous Jews, all of this meat would be untouched. Furthermore, pagans invited Christians to feasts in their homes and to private feasts held in the precincts of pagan temples, where trade guilds also held feasts. Paul discusses these issues and uses them to teach wider principles of Christian conduct.<\/p>\nFirst, love, not knowledge, is the key to correct behavior (8:1-13). Some Corinthians felt superior because they were convinced that idols had no reality (there is only one God), and therefore any food offered to them was still fit to eat. Paul again accepts their slogans, but counters with the statement, “Knowledge puffs up, but love builds up” (v 1, niv<\/span>). God is not concerned with what we know or eat, but he is concerned with whether or not we love our fellow Christians. The concern is not that a fellow Christian might become enraged because one indulged, but that he or she might have a vulnerable conscience and indulge himself, even though he believed it wrong and thus in his own eyes apostasizes from the faith (i.e., rebels against Christ). Such leading astray is not love. It would be better never to eat meat than to lead a fellow Christian into sin.<\/p>\nSecond, he points out that one should subordinate one’s own interests to those of others, especially those of Christ and his gospel (9:1-23). Both the examples of the apostles, who expected the church to support them and their families (cf. Lk 10:5-7), and Scripture prove that Paul had the right to demand support from the Corinthians. This had not been his practice, for he had normally made tents to support his ministry, though he did accept gifts from other churches. Paul did this to prevent people from thinking he was peddling religion for profit (9:12) and for the personal satisfaction of doing more than he had to do (vv 16-17). This was part of Paul’s larger policy of subordinating his own personal preferences and interests to those of Christ and his gospel (vv 19-23).<\/p>\nThird, the bravado of the strong who demonstrate their liberty with disregard of fellow Christians is spiritually dangerous (9:24–10:22). It is not who begins but who completes the Christian life that counts; therefore, it is a life of discipline, not relaxed license (9:24-27). Israel in the wilderness presents an example of failure in this regard. They had “baptism” and “the Lord’s Supper” (10:2-4), just like the church, yet most of them did not make it to the Promised Land. The reason God destroyed them was simple: they turned to sin. Likewise, the Christian has to be careful not to be so proud about faith and freedom that he becomes careless about sin and falls from the faith (v 12). On the other hand, Christians need not be fearful, for the temptation is not more powerful than they are; God has provided a way of escape, if they will take it (v 13).<\/p>\nAnother link between the Israelites and the Corinthians pertains to partaking of a sacrificial meal (10:14-22). In the Lord’s Supper there is a sharing of the blood and body of Christ, just as real as Israel’s sacrifices on the altar. Food offered to idols is also a sharing, not with the supposed god, but with the real demon that is behind the idol. To try to share at both tables is to provoke God’s jealousy just as Israel did (v 22).<\/p>\nA summary of the discussion draws the three chapters together (10:23–11:1). Since the food is not changed by being offered to idols, and since all food really belongs to God, one may eat anything sold in the market—do not ask any questions (10:25-26). Likewise, the Christian may eat anything served at a dinner in the home of an unbeliever. However, if someone points out that the food was offered to idols, the Christian should pass it by, not because it would hurt him, but because it is an issue with the person who raised the question, and the Christian is concerned about the good of his neighbor (vv 27-30). In other words, follow Paul’s example as he patterns himself in turn after Christ, who served others rather than himself. Act so that God’s reputation and character shine through even in what one eats (v 31); try to offend no one but to benefit each person in moving him toward salvation (v 32).<\/p>\nThe fourth issue Paul deals with is that of order in church meetings (11:2–14:40). The Corinthians’ house churches had lively meetings, but rather than showing unity in Christ, they demonstrated selfishness. Paul had no desire to change what they did; he did want to change how they did it.<\/p>\nThe first problem in the meetings was the behavior of married women (11:1-16). The sign of marriage in that day was the wearing of a veil or distinctive hairstyle, as a ring is today. Women praying and delivering prophecies in church was no issue for Paul, but the women may have felt that this loosed them from their husbands (cf. Mk 12:25) and therefore was a reason to set aside their veils. Paul argues that husband and wife are intimately joined, just as humans are to God (1 Cor 11:3). Therefore as humans should not shame but glorify God, so the wife should act toward her husband. Thus, while Paul approves of ministry by women, he puts marriage first.<\/p>\nThe second problem in the meetings was that of making class distinctions (11:17-34). Until the weekly Lord’s Supper began to be turned into the sacrifice of the Mass in the third and fourth centuries, it was a full shared meal. Middle- and upper-class Christians could come earlier to the church gatherings and also provide better food and drink for themselves. Following the customs of pagan clubs, they had no scruples against starting early and feasting as befit their class, so long as at least simple food was provided for the slaves and peasants who could not come as early (v 21). This shamed the poorer Christians and made them feel class distinctions keenly (v 22). This, argues Paul, is not the Lord’s Supper but a sham (v 20).<\/p>\nPaul repeats the words of institution to point out that they all are participating in Christ’s body and blood (cf. 10:16-17), not their own meal. To do it in an unworthy manner, with divisions and class distinctions among them, is to profane his meal by failing to demonstrate the unity of his body, the church (11:29), and thus invite his judgment, which they were already experiencing. Instead, they should examine their own motives and truly gather as one to eat this common meal.<\/p>\nThe third problem in their meetings was the use of spiritual gifts (12:1–14:40). It is possible that some people in these house churches, under the influence of Gnostic ideas in which the spiritual is good and the material evil, and feeling inspired by a spirit, cried out, “Jesus [meaning the human Jesus as opposed to the spiritual Christ] be cursed.” It is not the Spirit of God saying this, argues Paul, for the Spirit in us cries the basic Christian confession, “Jesus is Lord.”<\/p>\nOthers in these churches were exalting their own particular gift, especially the gift of tongues, shouting down others or refusing to give them a turn. There is only one Spirit and he gives all the gifts, Paul argues (12:4-6). The Spirit manifests himself sovereignly in each Christian, not simply for the Christian’s own benefit, but for the good of all (v 7). Since it is the Spirit, not a given manifestation, that the Christian has, the gifts manifested could change from meeting to meeting.<\/p>\nThat same Spirit has made all Christians into one organic unity in Christ (12:12-13). Thus not only does the one Spirit give all the gifts—all are equally inspired—but all the gifts are equally needed for the proper functioning of the body of Christ (vv 14-26). No one can say that his lack of a given gift makes him less a part of the body; indeed, the less noticeable gifts may well be the more important. Thus, within the body of Christ, there are not only different manifestations of the Spirit through individuals in a given meeting, but different ministries or functions of individuals in the body (vv 27-31).<\/p>\nTherefore, it is not the demonstration of a particular gift that shows one’s spirituality, but how one demonstrates it—that is, whether one manifests it with love (13:1-13). Any gift exercised for selfish purposes may be a genuine gift of the Spirit, but it is worthless to the individual (vv 1-3). This is because love is the opposite of selfishness (vv 4-7). In fact, the gifts of the Spirit are only for the period between Jesus’ first coming and his second coming, when the kingdom of God will be perfectly revealed and the King will be present in person, and thus the intermediary gifts of the Spirit will be no longer necessary (vv 10, 12). It is not giftedness but faith and hope that will have a reward then, and love, which is the greatest, because it will continue as Christians live in perfect love with each other and with Jesus (v 13).<\/p>\nApplying this to Corinth, Paul argues that while one should desire all the gifts, love dictates that prophecy should be the gift of choice in the church meetings (14:1-25). The Corinthians had evidently been stressing tongues. Tongues without interpretation is of little value to anyone except to the speaker himself. It does not build anyone up; its confusion seems madness to outsiders. Outside the church meetings there is a role for tongues, both as a sign of judgment (v 21) and for private devotion (v 18), but inside, only with interpretation. Prophecy, however, both builds up and convicts, and thus is to be sought in the meetings.<\/p>\nIn the church meetings, then, both gifts and order are to prevail (14:26-40). All types of gifts are allowed expression with a goal of mutual edification, not selfish demonstration (v 26). Tongues speakers must have an interpreter; both they and prophets must speak in turn, with time being taken to evaluate the utterances after every few speakers (vv 27-33). Furthermore, the women, who were perhaps chatting in the service (perhaps due to habits learned in Jewish synagogues, where they were segregated and did not participate) are to cease their chattering, pay attention, and learn, asking questions at home if they do not understand (vv 34-36). In his concluding summary, Paul states that all should be done in an orderly manner (vv 37-40).<\/p>\nThe fifth issue Paul deals with is that of the resurrection of the dead (ch 15). Some of the problems mentioned earlier concerning loose morals (chs 5–6), ascetic denial, sexuality (ch 7), or feeling one was resurrected already (ch 11) point to the fact that some Corinthians did not believe in the resurrection of the body, though they apparently believed in the resurrection of Jesus and the immortality of the human soul.<\/p>\nPaul reaffirms that the resurrection of Jesus is an essential part of the gospel message (15:1-19). The unified voice of the church was that Jesus not only died but rose again and appeared to numerous witnesses (vv 3-11). If they were consistent in their antiresurrection argument, Christ could not have been raised. Yet if this were the case, the whole gospel message is false and all their hopes for salvation are in vain (vv 12-19).<\/p>\nSince Christ has been raised, Christians will also be raised because of their solidarity with him (15:20-28). As they had experienced the results of being in Adam, so now they will experience the results of being in Christ. But resurrection does not happen at once. There are progressive stages: (a) Christ was first; (b) Christians will be raised at his coming; (c) Christ must reign until he extends kingdom rule over the whole world, destroying all demonic powers (including death itself); and (d) then he will turn over the perfected kingdom to the Father (vv 23-28).<\/p>\nResurrection hope also explains Christian practices such as baptizing people on behalf of others who had died (probably people who had turned to Christ but had died before they could be baptized, 15:29), and willingness to risk death for Christ (vv 30-32).<\/p>\nPaul admits that there are intellectual problems involved, but these are solved when one realizes that resurrection includes both continuity and discontinuity (15:35-50). Just as seed and plant are the same and yet different, and just as many types of bodies exist, so it is with the resurrection. What was perishable, dishonorable, weak, and physical (i.e., in Adam) will be raised imperishable, glorious, powerful, and spiritual (i.e., in Christ). Indeed, it is only as Christians thus become like Christ, the heavenly man, that they can become part of God’s kingdom.<\/p>\nWith excitement Paul shares his real hope, that of transformation (15:51-58). At the coming of Christ the dead will be raised and transformed. But the living will also need transformation, and this will happen in a split second, making all of them impervious to death. Then they will truly know the victory already present in Jesus’ resurrection (vv 54-57). A concluding summary draws the practical conclusion that this teaching should give them assurance of a reward for anything done for Christ now (v 58).<\/p>\nThe sixth issue Paul deals with is that of the collection for the needy Jerusalem church (16:1-4). Because of famine in Judea in the 40s, the church there had become impoverished. Partly because of the need and partly to further the unity of the church, Paul took up a collection in some of his churches for the Judean church. He answers the Corinthians’ practical queries by stating that the collection should be made weekly according to ability, not all at once when Paul arrives (16:2). When he comes, he will send off the money with their own messengers. Paul remains vague about whether or not he will accompany them, allaying suspicions that somehow he plans to profit from it (cf. 2 Cor 8–9).<\/p>\n<h5>Final Remarks and Closing, 16:5-24<\/h5>\nHaving come to the end, Paul discusses his travel plans, including his intention for a lengthy visit whenever he leaves Ephesus (cf. 2 Cor 1). Timothy was either coming with the letter or else would arrive shortly after another mission; they were to respect him and help him return. Paul points out that he urged Apollos to visit Corinth, in case some suspect Paul is against him. A closing formal exhortation to firm faith and love leads into his final customary greetings. He praises the Corinthian messengers who had brought him their letter (16:15-18) and sends greetings from Aquila and Prisca (Priscilla), his comissionaries who had helped him found the church in Corinth (Acts 18:2-3, 18). Referring to the customary greeting in the church, he tells them to greet each other with a kiss on each cheek (16:20). Paul then takes the pen from the scribe, as was normal, and writes the closing exhortation—placing a curse on those who do not love Jesus, the common Aramaic expression used in the church “Come, O Lord” (Marana tha,<\/em> perhaps used to close services), and providing an assurance of his own love for them (vv 21-24).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; Corinth; Corinthians, Second Letter to the; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CORINTHIANS, First Letter to the Preview • Author • Date and Origin • Background • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author There is no doubt about who wrote 1 Corinthians, for all scholars agree that the apostle Paul wrote it on his third missionary journey while he was living in Ephesus. By this time Paul was a mature, middle-aged (perhaps 55 years old) missionary, fully seasoned from planting churches around a quarter of the Mediterranean world. Date and Origin Paul worked in Corinth from abo...","summary_en":"CORINTHIANS, First Letter to the Preview • Author • Date and Origin • Background • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author There is no doubt about who wrote 1 Corinthians, for all scholars agree that the apostle Paul wrote it on his third missionary journey while he was living in Ephesus. By this time Paul was a mature, middle-aged (perhaps 55 years old) missionary, fully seasoned from planting churches around a quarter of the Mediterranean world. Date and Origin Paul worked in Corinth from abo...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":14782,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gratitude","title_en":"Gratitude","content_ro":"<h3>GRATITUDE<\/h3>\nNatural expression of thanks in response to blessings, protection, or love. In the Judeo-Christian tradition, gratitude is not a tool used to manipulate the will of God. It is never coerced or fabricated in one’s mind; rather, gratitude is a joyful commitment of one’s personality to God.<\/p>\nIn the OT, gratitude to God was the only condition in which life could be enjoyed. For Jews, every aspect of creation provided evidence of God’s lordship over all life. The Hebrew people thanked him for the magnificence of the universe (Pss 19:1-4; 33:6-9; 104:1-24). When they received good news, they thanked God for his goodness and great deeds (1 Chr 16:8-12). When they received bad news, they also gave thanks, trusting that he was a just God (Jb 1:21).<\/p>\nThese same sentiments are found in later Jewish writings such as the Talmud. The people of Israel thanked God for his faithfulness to covenant promises: (1) for deliverance from enemies (Pss 18:17; 30:1; 44:1-8) and from death (Ps 30:8-12; Is 38:18-20; (2) for forgiveness of sin (Pss 32:5; 99:8; 103:3; Is 12:1); (3) for answers to prayer (Pss 28:6; 66:19); (4) for compassion toward the afflicted and oppressed (Pss 34:2; 72:12); (5) for executing justice (Dt 32:4; Ps 99:4); and (6) for continuing guidance (Ps 32:8; Is 30:20-21).<\/p>\nGratitude was such a vital part of Israel’s religion that it pervaded most ceremonies and customs. Thank offerings acknowledged blessings from God (Lv 7:12-13; 22:29; Ps 50:14). Shouts of joy (Ps 42:4), songs of praise (Pss 145:7; 149:1), and music and dance (Ps 150:3-5) all added to the spirit of thanksgiving in worship. Feasts and festivals were celebrated in remembrance of God’s steadfast love throughout their history (Dt 16:9-15; 2 Chr 30:21-22). King David appointed Levitical priests to offer God thanks (1 Chr 16:4). This custom was carried on by the kings Solomon (2 Chr 5:12-13) and Hezekiah (2 Chr 31:2) and by those who returned from the exile (Neh 11:17; 12:24, 27).<\/p>\nIn the NT, the object of thanksgiving is the love of God expressed in the redemptive work of Christ. The apostle Paul thanked God for that gift of grace (1 Cor 1:4; 2 Cor 9:15) and the ability to preach the gospel (2 Cor 2:14; 1 Tm 1:12). Paul thankfully participated in the spiritual gifts (1 Cor 14:18). Gratitude for love and faith among believers pervades his letters (Rom 6:17; Eph 1:15-16; Phil 1:3-5; Col 1:3-4; 1 Thes 1:2-3).<\/p>\nBecause the expression of gratitude is tied so closely to the response of faith, Paul encouraged believers to give thanks in all things (Rom 14:6; 1 Thes 5:18). He commanded Christians to pray with thanksgiving (Phil 4:6; Col 4:2) in the name of Christ, who has made all thanksgiving possible (Eph 5:20). In his teaching on how to celebrate the Lord’s Supper, Paul specified that Christians should give thanks, just as the Lord “had given thanks” (1 Cor 11:24).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GRATITUDE<\/h3>\nNatural expression of thanks in response to blessings, protection, or love. In the Judeo-Christian tradition, gratitude is not a tool used to manipulate the will of God. It is never coerced or fabricated in one’s mind; rather, gratitude is a joyful commitment of one’s personality to God.<\/p>\nIn the OT, gratitude to God was the only condition in which life could be enjoyed. For Jews, every aspect of creation provided evidence of God’s lordship over all life. The Hebrew people thanked him for the magnificence of the universe (Pss 19:1-4; 33:6-9; 104:1-24). When they received good news, they thanked God for his goodness and great deeds (1 Chr 16:8-12). When they received bad news, they also gave thanks, trusting that he was a just God (Jb 1:21).<\/p>\nThese same sentiments are found in later Jewish writings such as the Talmud. The people of Israel thanked God for his faithfulness to covenant promises: (1) for deliverance from enemies (Pss 18:17; 30:1; 44:1-8) and from death (Ps 30:8-12; Is 38:18-20; (2) for forgiveness of sin (Pss 32:5; 99:8; 103:3; Is 12:1); (3) for answers to prayer (Pss 28:6; 66:19); (4) for compassion toward the afflicted and oppressed (Pss 34:2; 72:12); (5) for executing justice (Dt 32:4; Ps 99:4); and (6) for continuing guidance (Ps 32:8; Is 30:20-21).<\/p>\nGratitude was such a vital part of Israel’s religion that it pervaded most ceremonies and customs. Thank offerings acknowledged blessings from God (Lv 7:12-13; 22:29; Ps 50:14). Shouts of joy (Ps 42:4), songs of praise (Pss 145:7; 149:1), and music and dance (Ps 150:3-5) all added to the spirit of thanksgiving in worship. Feasts and festivals were celebrated in remembrance of God’s steadfast love throughout their history (Dt 16:9-15; 2 Chr 30:21-22). King David appointed Levitical priests to offer God thanks (1 Chr 16:4). This custom was carried on by the kings Solomon (2 Chr 5:12-13) and Hezekiah (2 Chr 31:2) and by those who returned from the exile (Neh 11:17; 12:24, 27).<\/p>\nIn the NT, the object of thanksgiving is the love of God expressed in the redemptive work of Christ. The apostle Paul thanked God for that gift of grace (1 Cor 1:4; 2 Cor 9:15) and the ability to preach the gospel (2 Cor 2:14; 1 Tm 1:12). Paul thankfully participated in the spiritual gifts (1 Cor 14:18). Gratitude for love and faith among believers pervades his letters (Rom 6:17; Eph 1:15-16; Phil 1:3-5; Col 1:3-4; 1 Thes 1:2-3).<\/p>\nBecause the expression of gratitude is tied so closely to the response of faith, Paul encouraged believers to give thanks in all things (Rom 14:6; 1 Thes 5:18). He commanded Christians to pray with thanksgiving (Phil 4:6; Col 4:2) in the name of Christ, who has made all thanksgiving possible (Eph 5:20). In his teaching on how to celebrate the Lord’s Supper, Paul specified that Christians should give thanks, just as the Lord “had given thanks” (1 Cor 11:24).<\/p>","summary_ro":"GRATITUDE Natural expression of thanks in response to blessings, protection, or love. In the Judeo-Christian tradition, gratitude is not a tool used to manipulate the will of God. It is never coerced or fabricated in one’s mind; rather, gratitude is a joyful commitment of one’s personality to God. In the OT, gratitude to God was the only condition in which life could be enjoyed. For Jews, every aspect of creation provided evidence of God’s lordship over all life. The Hebrew people thanked him...","summary_en":"GRATITUDE Natural expression of thanks in response to blessings, protection, or love. In the Judeo-Christian tradition, gratitude is not a tool used to manipulate the will of God. It is never coerced or fabricated in one’s mind; rather, gratitude is a joyful commitment of one’s personality to God. In the OT, gratitude to God was the only condition in which life could be enjoyed. For Jews, every aspect of creation provided evidence of God’s lordship over all life. The Hebrew people thanked him...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":31651,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Prophecy","title_en":"Prophecy","content_ro":"<h3>PROPHECY<\/h3>\nTerm, along with its English cognates (“prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”), derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Prophecy in the Old Testament<\/p>\n• Types of Old Testament Prophets<\/p>\n• The Message of the Prophets<\/p>\n• Prophecy in the New Testament<\/p>\n• The Role of the Christian Prophet<\/p>\nProphecy in the Old Testament<\/p>\nOne of the clearest and most significant statements on the nature of prophetic inspiration in the OT is found in Numbers 12:6-8: “The Lord<\/span> said to them, ‘Now listen to me! Even with prophets, I the Lord<\/span> communicate by visions and dreams. But that is not how I communicate with my servant Moses. He is entrusted with my entire house. I speak to him face to face, directly and not in riddles! He sees the Lord<\/span> as he is’ ” (nlt<\/span>). Several important insights into the nature of prophetic inspiration are found in this passage: (1) The prophetic gift of Moses was unique in that he alone received revelations directly from God. (2) Ordinarily, prophetic revelation was received through the medium of a dream or a vision. (3) The meaning of prophetic revelation is not always completely clear; prophecy is sometimes ambiguous.<\/p>\nFurther insight into the nature of prophetic revelation is found in Deuteronomy 18:18: “I [God] will raise up for them a prophet like you [Moses] from among their brethren; and I will put my words in his mouth, and he shall speak to them all that I command him” (rsv<\/span>). While this passage is of interest because Jesus was identified as “the prophet like Moses” who came in fulfillment of this prediction (Acts 3:22; 7:37), the more immediate historical reference is to the succession of prophets that guided Israel from Joshua to Malachi. The phrase “I will put my words in his mouth” refers to the process of divine inspiration and is reminiscent of the common OT prophetic formula “the word of the Lord came to [such and such a prophet]” (for examples, see 1 Sm 15:10; 2 Sm 24:11; 1 Kgs 19:9; Jon 1:1; Hg 1:1; 2:1, 20; Zec 7:1, 8; 8:1). A true prophet is one who speaks (or repeats) all that God has told him.<\/p>\n<h5>Modes of Prophetic Inspiration<\/h5>\nDreams were a commonly recognized mode of inspiration throughout the ancient world, though they were more highly regarded in Greece than in ancient Israel. Revelatory dreams in the Bible fall into two major categories: (1) dreams whose meaning is self-evident, and (2) symbolic dreams that usually require the expertise of an interpreter of dreams. Both types normally involve both visual and auditory elements. In those dreams whose meaning is self-evident, normally a supernatural being (God or an angel) appears to the dreamer and speaks to him or her in a straightforward manner.<\/p>\nMore frequently, revelatory dreams have symbolic elements that require interpretation. The two great dream interpreters of the OT are Joseph and Daniel; the latter is clearly a prophet. The two symbolic dreams that Joseph himself dreamed (Gn 37:5-11) had sufficiently self-evident meaning so that his brothers and father were able to interpret them immediately. More complex were the dreams of the butler and baker (40:1-19) and of Pharaoh (41:1-36), which Joseph was able to interpret with the help of God. Similarly, Daniel was enabled to interpret the dreams of Nebuchadnezzar (Dn 2:25-45; 4:4-27). The skill in interpreting such dreams was attributed by both Joseph and Daniel to God (Gn 40:8; 41:16, 25; Dn 2:27-30; cf. 4:9). While dreams are used almost interchangeably with visions in referring to modes of prophetic inspiration (Jl 2:28), dreams do not occupy a significant part in the prophetic revelations of any of the OT prophets, with the exception of Daniel.<\/p>\nOne of the most characteristic modes of prophetic inspiration was the vision (Nm 12:6; 24:4, 16; Hos 12:10). The revelatory visions experienced by the prophets were not limited to visual phenomena alone but also included the auditory dimension as well. In Isaiah 1:1, the author describes his entire prophetic book as a “vision”: “These visions concerning Judah and Jerusalem came to Isaiah son of Amoz during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah—all kings of Judah” (nlt<\/span>). Yet in the very next verse, Isaiah says, “Hear, O heavens! Listen, O earth! This is what the Lord<\/span> says.” Again, in Amos 1:1, “The words<\/em> of Amos, who was among the shepherds of Tekoa, which he saw<\/em> concerning Israel” (rsv<\/span>, emphasis added).<\/p>\n<h5>Manifestations of Prophetic Inspiration<\/h5>\nAll prophecy, whether biblical or not, presupposes that the prophet either possessed or was possessed by a personal supernatural power. The external behavioral manifestations of this possession can exhibit great variety.<\/p>\nThe prophetic phenomenon generally designated “ecstatic” prophecy appears to have existed in Canaan prior to the arrival of the Hebrew tribes in the 13th century BC<\/span>. The first reference to ecstatic prophecy in Israel occurs in 1 Samuel 10:5-13 (11th century BC<\/span>), and it persisted at least till the sixth century BC<\/span> (Jer 29:26).<\/p>\nThe ecstatic prophet achieves a trancelike state by self-induced means. The most common devices used to achieve a state of ecstasy were musical instruments, such as the harp, tambourine, flute, and lyre (1 Sm 10:5). Among the prophets of Baal, self-flagellation was another means of inducing ecstasy (1 Kgs 18:28-29).<\/p>\nThis kind of prophetic ecstasy was usually practiced by groups of prophets (1 Sm 10:5), and such ecstasy was contagious. When Saul met a band of such prophets, the Spirit of God came upon him and he, too, began to prophesy (vv 10-13), a phenomenon that occurred repeatedly to various messengers sent by Saul on a later occasion (19:20-22). At that time Saul again prophesied, and his ecstatic behavior is described in 1 Samuel 19:24. When Elisha was asked to prophesy for King Jehoram of Israel, he first requested a minstrel. When the minstrel played, the power of the Lord came upon him (2 Kgs 3:15).<\/p>\nTypes of Old Testament Prophets<\/p>\nThere are two basic types of prophetic commission in the OT. One type is that of a narrative call by God to a particular individual whose objections to the call are gradually overcome in a dialogue between himself and God. The classic example of this type of prophetic commission is found in Jeremiah 1:4-8:<\/p>\nThe Lord<\/span> gave me a message. He said, “I knew you before I formed you in your mother’s womb. Before you were born I set you apart and appointed you as my spokesman to the world.”<\/p>\n<blockquote>“O Sovereign Lord<\/span>,” I said, “I can’t speak for you! I’m too young!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote>“Don’t say that,” the Lord<\/span> replied, “for you must go wherever I send you and say whatever I tell you. And don’t be afraid of the people, for I will be with you and take care of you. I, the Lord<\/span>, have spoken!” (nlt<\/span>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\nSimilar prophetic commissions including such dialogues are associated with the calls of Moses (Ex 3:1–4:17) and Gideon (Jgs 6:11-17).<\/p>\nThe second major form of prophetic commission is the “throne vision.” An outstanding example is Isaiah 6:1-8:<\/p>\nIn the year King Uzziah died, I saw the Lord. He was sitting on a lofty throne, and the train of his robe filled the Temple. . . .<\/p>\n<blockquote>Then I said, “My destruction is sealed, for I am a sinful man and a member of a sinful race. Yet I have seen the King, the Lord<\/span> Almighty!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote>Then one of the seraphim flew over to the altar, and he picked up a burning coal with a pair of tongs. He touched my lips with it and said, “See, this coal has touched your lips. Now your guilt is removed, and your sins are forgiven.”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote>Then I heard the Lord asking, “Whom should I send as a messenger to my people? Who will go for us?”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote>And I said, “Lord, I’ll go! Send me.” (nlt<\/span>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\nHere we have an account of the visionary presence of a prophet in the heavenly council; in this case, however, the prophet participates in the deliberations and thereby receives a prophetic commission. Though few prophets have left accounts of their divine commissions, most of them appear to have been conscious of having been “sent” by God (Is 48:16; Hos 8:1; Am 7:14-15). According to Jeremiah, false prophets did not receive such divine commissions (Jer 23:21, 32; 28:15).<\/p>\nThe Message of the Prophets<\/p>\n<h5>The Form of the Message<\/h5>\nThe most common introductory formula for prophetic oracles in the OT is the phrase “Thus says the Lord,” which occurs hundreds of times in prophetic contexts. This formula clearly implies that the pronouncement so introduced is not the word of the prophet who utters the oracle but of the God of Israel who delivered his word to his prophet. The use of this formula also reiterates the prophet’s sense of divine commission. In oracles introduced in this manner, God speaks in the first person. In fact, virtually all Israelite prophetic utterance is formulated as the direct speech of the God of Israel.<\/p>\nThe prophets used many literary forms in which to express their oracles. Two of the more widely used forms of prophetic speech are the judgment speech and the oracle of salvation. The judgment speech is composed of at least two central elements: the speech of rebuke or invective, and the pronouncement of judgment (see 2 Kgs 1:3-4). The second common prophetic speech form is the oracle of salvation (see Is 41:8-13). Other fixed forms of prophetic speech include the prophecy of salvation (43:14-21), the proclamation of salvation (41:17-20; 42:14-17; 43:16-21; 49:7-12), and the woe oracle (Is 5:8-10; 10:1-4; Am 5:18-24; 6:1-7; Mi 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<h5>The Content of the Message<\/h5>\nThe common adage that OT prophets were not “foretellers” but “forthtellers” is not strictly correct. All of the prophets predict the future. Such prediction, however, is based not on human curiosity of what the future will hold but rather is rooted in the future consequences of past or present violations of the covenant, or on a future act of deliverance that will provide hope for a discouraged people. Most of the prophetic speeches that have been preserved in the OT were originally delivered as public proclamations or sermons. Most of these prophetic proclamations were evoked by the iniquity and apostasy of Israel. Hosea and Jeremiah condemned Israel because she had broken the covenant (Jer 11:2-3; Hos 8:1).<\/p>\nThe prophets are frequently associated with social justice and social reform, and these elements were unquestionably an important dimension of their message. Amos denounced the rich who afflicted the poor (Am 2:6-8; 4:1; 5:11; 8:4-6). He railed against sexual immorality (2:6-8) and against those who take bribes (5:12). Hosea provided a list of prevalent vices, including lying, killing, stealing, adultery, and idolatry (Hos 4:2). Idolatry was a particular target for his denunciations (8:5; 11:2). The background for such heated denunciations of Israel’s behavior is God’s unquenchable love for Israel (Is 43:4; Jer 31:3; Hos 3:1; 11:1-4; 14:4; Mal 1:2), which is inseparable from his election of Israel (Is 43:1; Jer 33:24; Ez 20:5; Hos 3).<\/p>\nThe prophets were concerned not only with the transgressions of Israel and the historical judgment that would inevitably follow but also with the achievement of a final future time of bliss. The message of many of the prophets is thoroughly eschatological (i.e., pertaining to the end times). One such eschatological concept is that of the Day of the Lord. The concept of the Day of the Lord first appears in Amos, where the emphasis lies on the disaster that will befall Israel on that day. Amos’s emphasis on disaster notwithstanding, the Day of the Lord is a conception that had both salvific as well as judgmental overtones for Israel. While the disaster that will occur in the Day of the Lord can be viewed in terms of a literal historical fulfillment in the tragic events of 722 BC<\/span> (the fall of Samaria) and 586 BC<\/span> (the fall of Judah), there are nevertheless features of these predictions that transcend historical fulfillment and reach toward eschatological fulfillment.<\/p>\nSince the Israelite conception of “salvation” was largely temporal in its dimensions, it included such blessings as length of life, fruitfulness of the womb and field, peace and victory over one’s enemies, the abundance of water, and so on. In harmony with this conception of salvation, the future age is conceived in precisely those terms, as in Amos 9:13-15.<\/p>\nThe prophets pictured a time when David himself, or someone very much like him, would return and inaugurate a golden era reminiscent of the great Davidic and Solomonic period. The covenant of God with David was not a conditional covenant but rather one that was absolutely inviolable (2 Sm 7:4-17; Ps 89; Jer 33:19-22), and it was with this knowledge that the prophets could look forward confidently to a restoration of David’s throne (Jer 17:24-26; 23:5-6; 33:14-15).<\/p>\n\nProphecy in the New Testament<\/p>\nIn contrast to the few self-proclaimed prophets of the intertestamental period, early Christianity began with a flurry of prophetic activity that lasted well into the second century AD<\/span>. Jesus, his disciples and followers, and the early Christians were convinced that the times in which they lived were times in which OT prophecy was being fulfilled (Mk 1:14-15; Acts 2:16-21; Rom 16:25-27; 1 Cor 10:11). Yet this era was not only one of fulfillment but also one of the renewal of the prophetic gift.<\/p>\n<h5>John the Baptist<\/h5>\nJohn the Baptist is remembered in the NT primarily as the forerunner of Jesus whose coming was predicted by Malachi (Mal 4:5-6). Yet, in his own right, John proclaimed the imminent judgment of God with a flair of denunciation and rebuke reminiscent of the OT prophets. John’s costume, consisting of a hairy cloak and a leather girdle (Mk 1:6), was reminiscent of the typical garb of OT prophets (1 Kgs 19:19; 2 Kgs 1:8; 2:13-14; Zec 13:4). John was regarded as a prophet by people everywhere (Mt 14:5; 17:10-13; Mk 9:11-13; 11:32; Lk 1:76; 7:26). Luke reports, in a style similar to the OT prophetic narratives, that “the word of God came to John” (Lk 3:2). Two short prophetic speeches have been preserved in Matthew 3:7-10 (cf. Lk 3:7-9) and Mark 1:7-8 (cf. Mt 3:11-12; Lk 3:15-18). In the first speech, John denounced those of his generation who had transgressed the covenant law and exhorted them to change their manner of life. In the second speech, John predicted the coming of the Mighty One, Jesus (Mt 3:11; Mk 1:7; Lk 3:16; Jn 1:15, 27, 30; Acts 13:25). John’s style, however, was not precisely that of the OT prophets. His pronouncements were made on his own authority; never did he use formulas such as “thus says the Lord,” or present his prophetic utterances as if they were speeches made by God. Yet, in spite of these differences, John is appropriately regarded as the last representative of the OT prophetic tradition (Mt 11:13; Lk 16:16).<\/p>\n<h5>Jesus of Nazareth<\/h5>\nJesus was popularly regarded as a prophet (Mt 16:14; 21:10-11; Mk 6:14-15; 8:28; Lk 7:16, 39; 9:8, 19; Jn 6:14; 7:40, 52). This assessment was based as much on the mighty deeds Jesus performed as on his prophetic speeches and predictions. Though Jesus nowhere claimed prophetic status directly, that claim is implicit in Mark 6:4: “A prophet is honored everywhere except in his own hometown” (cf. Mt 13:57; Lk 4:24). It is implicit as well in Luke 13:33: “Yes, today, tomorrow, and the next day I must proceed on my way. For it wouldn’t do for a prophet of God to be killed except in Jerusalem!” (nlt<\/span>). In Acts, Jesus is regarded as “the prophet like Moses” predicted in Deuteronomy 18:18 (Acts 3:22; 7:37). Matthew presents Jesus as the New Moses, but he does not particularly emphasize his prophetic role. John, however, like Luke, emphasizes Jesus’ role as the prophet (Jn 4:19; 6:14-15; 7:40).<\/p>\nWhile the Gospels and Acts reflect the notion that Jesus was a prophet, they also emphasize the fact that he was much more than a prophet. Nevertheless, the notion of prophetism was sufficiently important in early Judaism that Jesus’ recognition as a prophet is very significant. There are 12 solid reasons for regarding Jesus as a prophet in the OT tradition: (1) The sovereign authority of Jesus’ teaching (Mk 1:27), a feature underlined by his use of the introductory formula “(Amen) I say to you,” which is reminiscent of the formula “thus says the Lord” used by the OT prophets. (2) The poetic character of many of Jesus’ sayings is unlike contemporary rabbinic teaching but is similar to the poetic rhetoric of the OT prophets. (3) Jesus experienced visions (Lk 10:18) like the ancient prophets. (4) Jesus, like the prophets, made many predictions (Mt 23:38; Mk 13:2; 14:58; Lk 13:35; etc.). (5) Like the OT prophets, Jesus performed symbolic acts (such as the cleansing of the temple, the entry into Jerusalem, and the Last Supper). (6) Jesus, like the prophets, when necessary, rejected the formal observance of religious ritual and emphasized the moral and spiritual dimensions of obedience to God. (7) Jesus announced the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God—an eschatological proclamation similar to those made by the prophets. (8) Like the OT prophets, Jesus functioned as a preacher of repentance. (9) Jesus, like many of the prophets, was conscious of a special calling of God (Mt 15:24; Mk 8:31; 9:37; 14:36; Lk 4:18-26). (10) Jesus, like the prophets, received divine revelation through intimate communion with God (Mt 11:27; Lk 10:22). (11) Like the prophets, Jesus represented God; to obey him was to obey God, to reject him was to reject God (Mk 9:37; cf. Ez 33:30-33). (12) Like the prophets, Jesus was conscious of a mission to all Israel (Mt 15:24; 19:28; Lk 22:30).<\/p>\nAmong the many prophetic predictions of Jesus are the following:<\/p>\n1. Predictions of the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God (Mt 10:7-8, 23; 23:39; Mk 1:15; 9:1; 13:28-29)<\/p>\n<li>2. Predictions of the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple (Mt 23:37-39; 24:2; 26:61; 27:40; Mk 13:2; 14:58; 15:29; Lk 13:34-35; 21:6; Jn 2:19-21)<\/li>\n<li>3. Predictions of the coming of the Son of Man (Mt 10:23, 32-33; 12:40; 13:40-41; 16:27; 24:27, 37-39; Mk 8:38; 13:26-27; 14:62; Lk 9:26; 11:30; 12:8-9; 17:24, 26)<\/li>\n<li>4. Predictions of the end of the age. The longest prophetic section in the Gospels is the eschatological discourse of Jesus in Mark 13:1-32 (cf. Mt 24:1-36; Lk 21:5-33), in which a number of predictions concerning the destruction of Jerusalem and the end of the age are woven into a lengthy discourse to the disciples.<\/li>\n<h5>Prophecy as a Gift for the Believers<\/h5>\nThe beginning of prophetic activity in early Christianity, according to Acts, coincided with the outpouring of the Holy Spirit upon the earliest Christians on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:1-21). Peter’s sermon on the Day of Pentecost indicates that the outpouring of the Spirit fulfilled Joel’s prophecy (Acts 2:4, 17-21; cf. Jl 2:28-32). Further, since the Spirit had been poured out upon all early Christians (that Spirit being a Spirit of prophecy), all are actual or potential prophets.<\/p>\nAccording to 1 Corinthians 12:28 (see also Rom 12:6; Eph 4:11), God has appointed in the church first apostles, second prophets, and third teachers. The names of several early Christian prophets have been preserved. These include Agabus (Acts 11:27-28; 21:10-11); Judas and Silas (15:32); Barnabas, Simeon Niger, Lucius of Cyrene, Manaen, and Paul (13:1); and the four virgin daughters of Philip the evangelist (21:8-9). John, the author of Revelation, was certainly a prophet (Rv 1:3; 22:9, 18), though he never directly assumed that title.<\/p>\nThe Role of the Christian Prophet<\/p>\nChristian prophets were leaders in early Christian communities (1 Cor 12:28; Eph 4:11), who exercised their gift in church gatherings (Acts 13:1-3; 11:27-28; 1 Cor 12–14; Rv 1:10). Since the Spirit of God was particularly active in Christian worship, prophecy was a major means whereby God communicated with his people. Prophets, like apostles and teachers, did not hold offices in local communities like bishops, elders, and deacons. Rather, they were chosen, not by individual congregations, but by divine commission and so were honored and accepted in all local communities.<\/p>\nEarly Christian prophets were both itinerant and settled, though itinerant prophets seem to have been more prevalent in Syria-Palestine and Asia Minor than in the European churches.<\/p>\n<h5>The Function of Prophecy<\/h5>\nAccording to Paul, the central purpose of prophecy (as of all other spiritual gifts) is that of building up or edifying the church. According to 1 Corinthians 14:3, “one who prophesies is helping others grow in the Lord, encouraging and comforting them” (nlt<\/span>). Again, in 1 Corinthians 14:4, Paul states that the “one who speaks a word of prophecy strengthens the entire church.” Paul discussed the subject of spiritual gifts, particularly tongues speaking and prophecy, because the Corinthians had placed an excessive emphasis on speaking in tongues. Paul did not object to speaking in tongues (1 Cor 14:18, 39), but he did point out that, since it was generally incomprehensible, the church could not be edified by it. Prophecy, which consisted of comprehensible speech inspired by the Spirit, contributed to the mutual edification, encouragement, and consolation of all present (1 Cor 14:20-25, 39).<\/p>\n<h5>The Content of Christian Prophecy<\/h5>\nWe know only a little about the content of prophecies uttered in the first-century church. Prophetic utterance occasionally provided divine guidance in making important decisions in early Christianity. Through a prophetic utterance, Paul and Barnabas were selected for a particular mission (Acts 13:1-3; cf. 1 Tm 1:18; 4:14). Probably through prophetic utterance, Paul and Timothy were forbidden to preach the gospel in Asia (Acts 16:6), and they were similarly forbidden by the Spirit of Jesus to go into Bithynia (v 7). Perhaps the most frequent use of prophecy is the prediction of the future. Agabus predicted a universal famine (11:28) and the imminent arrest of Paul (21:11). Other prophets had also predicted his impending imprisonment (20:23). The prophecies contained in the Revelation of John are all oriented toward the future events that will gradually unfold in the last days. Yet the purpose of John’s elaborate prophecy is not to satisfy the curiosity of his audience but rather to comfort and encourage them in the midst of persecution.<\/p>\n<h5>The Form of Christian Prophecy<\/h5>\nUnlike the prophets of the OT, Christian prophets did not always present their message in the form of a direct speech from God or Jesus. There are few, if any, formal indicators of the presence of prophetic speech in early Christian literature. The book of Revelation is one notable exception.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Dreams; Oracle; Promise; Prophet, Prophetess; Prophets, False; Visions.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PROPHECY<\/h3>\nTerm, along with its English cognates (“prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”), derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Prophecy in the Old Testament<\/p>\n• Types of Old Testament Prophets<\/p>\n• The Message of the Prophets<\/p>\n• Prophecy in the New Testament<\/p>\n• The Role of the Christian Prophet<\/p>\nProphecy in the Old Testament<\/p>\nOne of the clearest and most significant statements on the nature of prophetic inspiration in the OT is found in Numbers 12:6-8: “The Lord<\/span> said to them, ‘Now listen to me! Even with prophets, I the Lord<\/span> communicate by visions and dreams. But that is not how I communicate with my servant Moses. He is entrusted with my entire house. I speak to him face to face, directly and not in riddles! He sees the Lord<\/span> as he is’ ” (nlt<\/span>). Several important insights into the nature of prophetic inspiration are found in this passage: (1) The prophetic gift of Moses was unique in that he alone received revelations directly from God. (2) Ordinarily, prophetic revelation was received through the medium of a dream or a vision. (3) The meaning of prophetic revelation is not always completely clear; prophecy is sometimes ambiguous.<\/p>\nFurther insight into the nature of prophetic revelation is found in Deuteronomy 18:18: “I [God] will raise up for them a prophet like you [Moses] from among their brethren; and I will put my words in his mouth, and he shall speak to them all that I command him” (rsv<\/span>). While this passage is of interest because Jesus was identified as “the prophet like Moses” who came in fulfillment of this prediction (Acts 3:22; 7:37), the more immediate historical reference is to the succession of prophets that guided Israel from Joshua to Malachi. The phrase “I will put my words in his mouth” refers to the process of divine inspiration and is reminiscent of the common OT prophetic formula “the word of the Lord came to [such and such a prophet]” (for examples, see 1 Sm 15:10; 2 Sm 24:11; 1 Kgs 19:9; Jon 1:1; Hg 1:1; 2:1, 20; Zec 7:1, 8; 8:1). A true prophet is one who speaks (or repeats) all that God has told him.<\/p>\n<h5>Modes of Prophetic Inspiration<\/h5>\nDreams were a commonly recognized mode of inspiration throughout the ancient world, though they were more highly regarded in Greece than in ancient Israel. Revelatory dreams in the Bible fall into two major categories: (1) dreams whose meaning is self-evident, and (2) symbolic dreams that usually require the expertise of an interpreter of dreams. Both types normally involve both visual and auditory elements. In those dreams whose meaning is self-evident, normally a supernatural being (God or an angel) appears to the dreamer and speaks to him or her in a straightforward manner.<\/p>\nMore frequently, revelatory dreams have symbolic elements that require interpretation. The two great dream interpreters of the OT are Joseph and Daniel; the latter is clearly a prophet. The two symbolic dreams that Joseph himself dreamed (Gn 37:5-11) had sufficiently self-evident meaning so that his brothers and father were able to interpret them immediately. More complex were the dreams of the butler and baker (40:1-19) and of Pharaoh (41:1-36), which Joseph was able to interpret with the help of God. Similarly, Daniel was enabled to interpret the dreams of Nebuchadnezzar (Dn 2:25-45; 4:4-27). The skill in interpreting such dreams was attributed by both Joseph and Daniel to God (Gn 40:8; 41:16, 25; Dn 2:27-30; cf. 4:9). While dreams are used almost interchangeably with visions in referring to modes of prophetic inspiration (Jl 2:28), dreams do not occupy a significant part in the prophetic revelations of any of the OT prophets, with the exception of Daniel.<\/p>\nOne of the most characteristic modes of prophetic inspiration was the vision (Nm 12:6; 24:4, 16; Hos 12:10). The revelatory visions experienced by the prophets were not limited to visual phenomena alone but also included the auditory dimension as well. In Isaiah 1:1, the author describes his entire prophetic book as a “vision”: “These visions concerning Judah and Jerusalem came to Isaiah son of Amoz during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah—all kings of Judah” (nlt<\/span>). Yet in the very next verse, Isaiah says, “Hear, O heavens! Listen, O earth! This is what the Lord<\/span> says.” Again, in Amos 1:1, “The words<\/em> of Amos, who was among the shepherds of Tekoa, which he saw<\/em> concerning Israel” (rsv<\/span>, emphasis added).<\/p>\n<h5>Manifestations of Prophetic Inspiration<\/h5>\nAll prophecy, whether biblical or not, presupposes that the prophet either possessed or was possessed by a personal supernatural power. The external behavioral manifestations of this possession can exhibit great variety.<\/p>\nThe prophetic phenomenon generally designated “ecstatic” prophecy appears to have existed in Canaan prior to the arrival of the Hebrew tribes in the 13th century BC<\/span>. The first reference to ecstatic prophecy in Israel occurs in 1 Samuel 10:5-13 (11th century BC<\/span>), and it persisted at least till the sixth century BC<\/span> (Jer 29:26).<\/p>\nThe ecstatic prophet achieves a trancelike state by self-induced means. The most common devices used to achieve a state of ecstasy were musical instruments, such as the harp, tambourine, flute, and lyre (1 Sm 10:5). Among the prophets of Baal, self-flagellation was another means of inducing ecstasy (1 Kgs 18:28-29).<\/p>\nThis kind of prophetic ecstasy was usually practiced by groups of prophets (1 Sm 10:5), and such ecstasy was contagious. When Saul met a band of such prophets, the Spirit of God came upon him and he, too, began to prophesy (vv 10-13), a phenomenon that occurred repeatedly to various messengers sent by Saul on a later occasion (19:20-22). At that time Saul again prophesied, and his ecstatic behavior is described in 1 Samuel 19:24. When Elisha was asked to prophesy for King Jehoram of Israel, he first requested a minstrel. When the minstrel played, the power of the Lord came upon him (2 Kgs 3:15).<\/p>\nTypes of Old Testament Prophets<\/p>\nThere are two basic types of prophetic commission in the OT. One type is that of a narrative call by God to a particular individual whose objections to the call are gradually overcome in a dialogue between himself and God. The classic example of this type of prophetic commission is found in Jeremiah 1:4-8:<\/p>\nThe Lord<\/span> gave me a message. He said, “I knew you before I formed you in your mother’s womb. Before you were born I set you apart and appointed you as my spokesman to the world.”<\/p>\n<blockquote>“O Sovereign Lord<\/span>,” I said, “I can’t speak for you! I’m too young!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote>“Don’t say that,” the Lord<\/span> replied, “for you must go wherever I send you and say whatever I tell you. And don’t be afraid of the people, for I will be with you and take care of you. I, the Lord<\/span>, have spoken!” (nlt<\/span>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\nSimilar prophetic commissions including such dialogues are associated with the calls of Moses (Ex 3:1–4:17) and Gideon (Jgs 6:11-17).<\/p>\nThe second major form of prophetic commission is the “throne vision.” An outstanding example is Isaiah 6:1-8:<\/p>\nIn the year King Uzziah died, I saw the Lord. He was sitting on a lofty throne, and the train of his robe filled the Temple. . . .<\/p>\n<blockquote>Then I said, “My destruction is sealed, for I am a sinful man and a member of a sinful race. Yet I have seen the King, the Lord<\/span> Almighty!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote>Then one of the seraphim flew over to the altar, and he picked up a burning coal with a pair of tongs. He touched my lips with it and said, “See, this coal has touched your lips. Now your guilt is removed, and your sins are forgiven.”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote>Then I heard the Lord asking, “Whom should I send as a messenger to my people? Who will go for us?”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote>And I said, “Lord, I’ll go! Send me.” (nlt<\/span>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\nHere we have an account of the visionary presence of a prophet in the heavenly council; in this case, however, the prophet participates in the deliberations and thereby receives a prophetic commission. Though few prophets have left accounts of their divine commissions, most of them appear to have been conscious of having been “sent” by God (Is 48:16; Hos 8:1; Am 7:14-15). According to Jeremiah, false prophets did not receive such divine commissions (Jer 23:21, 32; 28:15).<\/p>\nThe Message of the Prophets<\/p>\n<h5>The Form of the Message<\/h5>\nThe most common introductory formula for prophetic oracles in the OT is the phrase “Thus says the Lord,” which occurs hundreds of times in prophetic contexts. This formula clearly implies that the pronouncement so introduced is not the word of the prophet who utters the oracle but of the God of Israel who delivered his word to his prophet. The use of this formula also reiterates the prophet’s sense of divine commission. In oracles introduced in this manner, God speaks in the first person. In fact, virtually all Israelite prophetic utterance is formulated as the direct speech of the God of Israel.<\/p>\nThe prophets used many literary forms in which to express their oracles. Two of the more widely used forms of prophetic speech are the judgment speech and the oracle of salvation. The judgment speech is composed of at least two central elements: the speech of rebuke or invective, and the pronouncement of judgment (see 2 Kgs 1:3-4). The second common prophetic speech form is the oracle of salvation (see Is 41:8-13). Other fixed forms of prophetic speech include the prophecy of salvation (43:14-21), the proclamation of salvation (41:17-20; 42:14-17; 43:16-21; 49:7-12), and the woe oracle (Is 5:8-10; 10:1-4; Am 5:18-24; 6:1-7; Mi 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<h5>The Content of the Message<\/h5>\nThe common adage that OT prophets were not “foretellers” but “forthtellers” is not strictly correct. All of the prophets predict the future. Such prediction, however, is based not on human curiosity of what the future will hold but rather is rooted in the future consequences of past or present violations of the covenant, or on a future act of deliverance that will provide hope for a discouraged people. Most of the prophetic speeches that have been preserved in the OT were originally delivered as public proclamations or sermons. Most of these prophetic proclamations were evoked by the iniquity and apostasy of Israel. Hosea and Jeremiah condemned Israel because she had broken the covenant (Jer 11:2-3; Hos 8:1).<\/p>\nThe prophets are frequently associated with social justice and social reform, and these elements were unquestionably an important dimension of their message. Amos denounced the rich who afflicted the poor (Am 2:6-8; 4:1; 5:11; 8:4-6). He railed against sexual immorality (2:6-8) and against those who take bribes (5:12). Hosea provided a list of prevalent vices, including lying, killing, stealing, adultery, and idolatry (Hos 4:2). Idolatry was a particular target for his denunciations (8:5; 11:2). The background for such heated denunciations of Israel’s behavior is God’s unquenchable love for Israel (Is 43:4; Jer 31:3; Hos 3:1; 11:1-4; 14:4; Mal 1:2), which is inseparable from his election of Israel (Is 43:1; Jer 33:24; Ez 20:5; Hos 3).<\/p>\nThe prophets were concerned not only with the transgressions of Israel and the historical judgment that would inevitably follow but also with the achievement of a final future time of bliss. The message of many of the prophets is thoroughly eschatological (i.e., pertaining to the end times). One such eschatological concept is that of the Day of the Lord. The concept of the Day of the Lord first appears in Amos, where the emphasis lies on the disaster that will befall Israel on that day. Amos’s emphasis on disaster notwithstanding, the Day of the Lord is a conception that had both salvific as well as judgmental overtones for Israel. While the disaster that will occur in the Day of the Lord can be viewed in terms of a literal historical fulfillment in the tragic events of 722 BC<\/span> (the fall of Samaria) and 586 BC<\/span> (the fall of Judah), there are nevertheless features of these predictions that transcend historical fulfillment and reach toward eschatological fulfillment.<\/p>\nSince the Israelite conception of “salvation” was largely temporal in its dimensions, it included such blessings as length of life, fruitfulness of the womb and field, peace and victory over one’s enemies, the abundance of water, and so on. In harmony with this conception of salvation, the future age is conceived in precisely those terms, as in Amos 9:13-15.<\/p>\nThe prophets pictured a time when David himself, or someone very much like him, would return and inaugurate a golden era reminiscent of the great Davidic and Solomonic period. The covenant of God with David was not a conditional covenant but rather one that was absolutely inviolable (2 Sm 7:4-17; Ps 89; Jer 33:19-22), and it was with this knowledge that the prophets could look forward confidently to a restoration of David’s throne (Jer 17:24-26; 23:5-6; 33:14-15).<\/p>\n\nProphecy in the New Testament<\/p>\nIn contrast to the few self-proclaimed prophets of the intertestamental period, early Christianity began with a flurry of prophetic activity that lasted well into the second century AD<\/span>. Jesus, his disciples and followers, and the early Christians were convinced that the times in which they lived were times in which OT prophecy was being fulfilled (Mk 1:14-15; Acts 2:16-21; Rom 16:25-27; 1 Cor 10:11). Yet this era was not only one of fulfillment but also one of the renewal of the prophetic gift.<\/p>\n<h5>John the Baptist<\/h5>\nJohn the Baptist is remembered in the NT primarily as the forerunner of Jesus whose coming was predicted by Malachi (Mal 4:5-6). Yet, in his own right, John proclaimed the imminent judgment of God with a flair of denunciation and rebuke reminiscent of the OT prophets. John’s costume, consisting of a hairy cloak and a leather girdle (Mk 1:6), was reminiscent of the typical garb of OT prophets (1 Kgs 19:19; 2 Kgs 1:8; 2:13-14; Zec 13:4). John was regarded as a prophet by people everywhere (Mt 14:5; 17:10-13; Mk 9:11-13; 11:32; Lk 1:76; 7:26). Luke reports, in a style similar to the OT prophetic narratives, that “the word of God came to John” (Lk 3:2). Two short prophetic speeches have been preserved in Matthew 3:7-10 (cf. Lk 3:7-9) and Mark 1:7-8 (cf. Mt 3:11-12; Lk 3:15-18). In the first speech, John denounced those of his generation who had transgressed the covenant law and exhorted them to change their manner of life. In the second speech, John predicted the coming of the Mighty One, Jesus (Mt 3:11; Mk 1:7; Lk 3:16; Jn 1:15, 27, 30; Acts 13:25). John’s style, however, was not precisely that of the OT prophets. His pronouncements were made on his own authority; never did he use formulas such as “thus says the Lord,” or present his prophetic utterances as if they were speeches made by God. Yet, in spite of these differences, John is appropriately regarded as the last representative of the OT prophetic tradition (Mt 11:13; Lk 16:16).<\/p>\n<h5>Jesus of Nazareth<\/h5>\nJesus was popularly regarded as a prophet (Mt 16:14; 21:10-11; Mk 6:14-15; 8:28; Lk 7:16, 39; 9:8, 19; Jn 6:14; 7:40, 52). This assessment was based as much on the mighty deeds Jesus performed as on his prophetic speeches and predictions. Though Jesus nowhere claimed prophetic status directly, that claim is implicit in Mark 6:4: “A prophet is honored everywhere except in his own hometown” (cf. Mt 13:57; Lk 4:24). It is implicit as well in Luke 13:33: “Yes, today, tomorrow, and the next day I must proceed on my way. For it wouldn’t do for a prophet of God to be killed except in Jerusalem!” (nlt<\/span>). In Acts, Jesus is regarded as “the prophet like Moses” predicted in Deuteronomy 18:18 (Acts 3:22; 7:37). Matthew presents Jesus as the New Moses, but he does not particularly emphasize his prophetic role. John, however, like Luke, emphasizes Jesus’ role as the prophet (Jn 4:19; 6:14-15; 7:40).<\/p>\nWhile the Gospels and Acts reflect the notion that Jesus was a prophet, they also emphasize the fact that he was much more than a prophet. Nevertheless, the notion of prophetism was sufficiently important in early Judaism that Jesus’ recognition as a prophet is very significant. There are 12 solid reasons for regarding Jesus as a prophet in the OT tradition: (1) The sovereign authority of Jesus’ teaching (Mk 1:27), a feature underlined by his use of the introductory formula “(Amen) I say to you,” which is reminiscent of the formula “thus says the Lord” used by the OT prophets. (2) The poetic character of many of Jesus’ sayings is unlike contemporary rabbinic teaching but is similar to the poetic rhetoric of the OT prophets. (3) Jesus experienced visions (Lk 10:18) like the ancient prophets. (4) Jesus, like the prophets, made many predictions (Mt 23:38; Mk 13:2; 14:58; Lk 13:35; etc.). (5) Like the OT prophets, Jesus performed symbolic acts (such as the cleansing of the temple, the entry into Jerusalem, and the Last Supper). (6) Jesus, like the prophets, when necessary, rejected the formal observance of religious ritual and emphasized the moral and spiritual dimensions of obedience to God. (7) Jesus announced the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God—an eschatological proclamation similar to those made by the prophets. (8) Like the OT prophets, Jesus functioned as a preacher of repentance. (9) Jesus, like many of the prophets, was conscious of a special calling of God (Mt 15:24; Mk 8:31; 9:37; 14:36; Lk 4:18-26). (10) Jesus, like the prophets, received divine revelation through intimate communion with God (Mt 11:27; Lk 10:22). (11) Like the prophets, Jesus represented God; to obey him was to obey God, to reject him was to reject God (Mk 9:37; cf. Ez 33:30-33). (12) Like the prophets, Jesus was conscious of a mission to all Israel (Mt 15:24; 19:28; Lk 22:30).<\/p>\nAmong the many prophetic predictions of Jesus are the following:<\/p>\n1. Predictions of the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God (Mt 10:7-8, 23; 23:39; Mk 1:15; 9:1; 13:28-29)<\/p>\n<li>2. Predictions of the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple (Mt 23:37-39; 24:2; 26:61; 27:40; Mk 13:2; 14:58; 15:29; Lk 13:34-35; 21:6; Jn 2:19-21)<\/li>\n<li>3. Predictions of the coming of the Son of Man (Mt 10:23, 32-33; 12:40; 13:40-41; 16:27; 24:27, 37-39; Mk 8:38; 13:26-27; 14:62; Lk 9:26; 11:30; 12:8-9; 17:24, 26)<\/li>\n<li>4. Predictions of the end of the age. The longest prophetic section in the Gospels is the eschatological discourse of Jesus in Mark 13:1-32 (cf. Mt 24:1-36; Lk 21:5-33), in which a number of predictions concerning the destruction of Jerusalem and the end of the age are woven into a lengthy discourse to the disciples.<\/li>\n<h5>Prophecy as a Gift for the Believers<\/h5>\nThe beginning of prophetic activity in early Christianity, according to Acts, coincided with the outpouring of the Holy Spirit upon the earliest Christians on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:1-21). Peter’s sermon on the Day of Pentecost indicates that the outpouring of the Spirit fulfilled Joel’s prophecy (Acts 2:4, 17-21; cf. Jl 2:28-32). Further, since the Spirit had been poured out upon all early Christians (that Spirit being a Spirit of prophecy), all are actual or potential prophets.<\/p>\nAccording to 1 Corinthians 12:28 (see also Rom 12:6; Eph 4:11), God has appointed in the church first apostles, second prophets, and third teachers. The names of several early Christian prophets have been preserved. These include Agabus (Acts 11:27-28; 21:10-11); Judas and Silas (15:32); Barnabas, Simeon Niger, Lucius of Cyrene, Manaen, and Paul (13:1); and the four virgin daughters of Philip the evangelist (21:8-9). John, the author of Revelation, was certainly a prophet (Rv 1:3; 22:9, 18), though he never directly assumed that title.<\/p>\nThe Role of the Christian Prophet<\/p>\nChristian prophets were leaders in early Christian communities (1 Cor 12:28; Eph 4:11), who exercised their gift in church gatherings (Acts 13:1-3; 11:27-28; 1 Cor 12–14; Rv 1:10). Since the Spirit of God was particularly active in Christian worship, prophecy was a major means whereby God communicated with his people. Prophets, like apostles and teachers, did not hold offices in local communities like bishops, elders, and deacons. Rather, they were chosen, not by individual congregations, but by divine commission and so were honored and accepted in all local communities.<\/p>\nEarly Christian prophets were both itinerant and settled, though itinerant prophets seem to have been more prevalent in Syria-Palestine and Asia Minor than in the European churches.<\/p>\n<h5>The Function of Prophecy<\/h5>\nAccording to Paul, the central purpose of prophecy (as of all other spiritual gifts) is that of building up or edifying the church. According to 1 Corinthians 14:3, “one who prophesies is helping others grow in the Lord, encouraging and comforting them” (nlt<\/span>). Again, in 1 Corinthians 14:4, Paul states that the “one who speaks a word of prophecy strengthens the entire church.” Paul discussed the subject of spiritual gifts, particularly tongues speaking and prophecy, because the Corinthians had placed an excessive emphasis on speaking in tongues. Paul did not object to speaking in tongues (1 Cor 14:18, 39), but he did point out that, since it was generally incomprehensible, the church could not be edified by it. Prophecy, which consisted of comprehensible speech inspired by the Spirit, contributed to the mutual edification, encouragement, and consolation of all present (1 Cor 14:20-25, 39).<\/p>\n<h5>The Content of Christian Prophecy<\/h5>\nWe know only a little about the content of prophecies uttered in the first-century church. Prophetic utterance occasionally provided divine guidance in making important decisions in early Christianity. Through a prophetic utterance, Paul and Barnabas were selected for a particular mission (Acts 13:1-3; cf. 1 Tm 1:18; 4:14). Probably through prophetic utterance, Paul and Timothy were forbidden to preach the gospel in Asia (Acts 16:6), and they were similarly forbidden by the Spirit of Jesus to go into Bithynia (v 7). Perhaps the most frequent use of prophecy is the prediction of the future. Agabus predicted a universal famine (11:28) and the imminent arrest of Paul (21:11). Other prophets had also predicted his impending imprisonment (20:23). The prophecies contained in the Revelation of John are all oriented toward the future events that will gradually unfold in the last days. Yet the purpose of John’s elaborate prophecy is not to satisfy the curiosity of his audience but rather to comfort and encourage them in the midst of persecution.<\/p>\n<h5>The Form of Christian Prophecy<\/h5>\nUnlike the prophets of the OT, Christian prophets did not always present their message in the form of a direct speech from God or Jesus. There are few, if any, formal indicators of the presence of prophetic speech in early Christian literature. The book of Revelation is one notable exception.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Dreams; Oracle; Promise; Prophet, Prophetess; Prophets, False; Visions.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PROPHECY Term, along with its English cognates (“prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”), derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration. Preview • Prophecy in the Old Testament • Types of Old Testament Prophets • The Message of the Prophets • Prophecy in the ...","summary_en":"PROPHECY Term, along with its English cognates (“prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”), derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration. Preview • Prophecy in the Old Testament • Types of Old Testament Prophets • The Message of the Prophets • Prophecy in the ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57682,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:18","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:18","content_ro":"14:18-19<\/strong> Paul affirmed the personal value of speaking in tongues<\/em>,<\/em> but speaking in a church meeting<\/em> should help others<\/em>,<\/em> not only the speaker.<\/p>","content_en":"14:18-19<\/strong> Paul affirmed the personal value of speaking in tongues<\/em>,<\/em> but speaking in a church meeting<\/em> should help others<\/em>,<\/em> not only the speaker.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:18-19 Paul affirmed the personal value of speaking in tongues, but speaking in a church meeting should help others, not only the speaker.","summary_en":"14:18-19 Paul affirmed the personal value of speaking in tongues, but speaking in a church meeting should help others, not only the speaker.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85308,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:18","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:18","content_ro":"14:18-19<\/strong> Paul affirmed the personal value of speaking in tongues<\/em>,<\/em> but speaking in a church meeting<\/em> should help others<\/em>,<\/em> not only the speaker.<\/p>","content_en":"14:18-19<\/strong> Paul affirmed the personal value of speaking in tongues<\/em>,<\/em> but speaking in a church meeting<\/em> should help others<\/em>,<\/em> not only the speaker.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:18-19 Paul affirmed the personal value of speaking in tongues, but speaking in a church meeting should help others, not only the speaker.","summary_en":"14:18-19 Paul affirmed the personal value of speaking in tongues, but speaking in a church meeting should help others, not only the speaker.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112934,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:18","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:18","content_ro":"14:18-19<\/strong> Paul affirmed the personal value of speaking in tongues<\/em>,<\/em> but speaking in a church meeting<\/em> should help others<\/em>,<\/em> not only the speaker.<\/p>","content_en":"14:18-19<\/strong> Paul affirmed the personal value of speaking in tongues<\/em>,<\/em> but speaking in a church meeting<\/em> should help others<\/em>,<\/em> not only the speaker.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:18-19 Paul affirmed the personal value of speaking in tongues, but speaking in a church meeting should help others, not only the speaker.","summary_en":"14:18-19 Paul affirmed the personal value of speaking in tongues, but speaking in a church meeting should help others, not only the speaker.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140560,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:18","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:18","content_ro":"14:18-19<\/strong> Paul affirmed the personal value of speaking in tongues<\/em>,<\/em> but speaking in a church meeting<\/em> should help others<\/em>,<\/em> not only the speaker.<\/p>","content_en":"14:18-19<\/strong> Paul affirmed the personal value of speaking in tongues<\/em>,<\/em> but speaking in a church meeting<\/em> should help others<\/em>,<\/em> not only the speaker.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:18-19 Paul affirmed the personal value of speaking in tongues, but speaking in a church meeting should help others, not only the speaker.","summary_en":"14:18-19 Paul affirmed the personal value of speaking in tongues, but speaking in a church meeting should help others, not only the speaker.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"19":[{"id":6593,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Church Meetings","title_en":"Church Meetings","content_ro":"<h3>CHURCH MEETINGS<\/h3>\nThe assembling together of the believers. In the NT, the Greek word ekklesia<\/span> (usually translated “church”) is used primarily in two ways: (1) to describe a meeting or an assembly, and (2) to designate the people who participate in such assembling together—whether they are actually assembled or not. The NT contains a few places that speak of a secular Greek assembly (Acts 19:32, 41); every other instance speaks of a Christian assembly. Sometimes the word ekklesia<\/span> is used to designate the actual meeting together of Christians. This is certainly what Paul intended in 1 Corinthians 14:19, 28, and 35, in that the expression en ekklesia<\/span> must mean “in a meeting” and not “in the church.” To translate this phrase “in the church” (as is done in most modern English versions) is misleading, for most readers will think it means “in the church building.” The NT never once names the place of assembly a “church.” Aside from the few instances where the word clearly means the actual meeting together of believers, ekklesia<\/span> most often is used as a descriptor for the believers who constitute a local church (such as the church in Corinth, the church in Philippi, and the church in Colosse) or all the believers (past, present, and future) who constitute the universal church, the complete body of Christ.<\/p>\nWhen reading the NT, Christians need to be aware of the various ways in which the word ekklesia<\/span> (“church”) is used. On the most basic level, the ekklesia<\/span> is any gathering of believers. On another level, the ekklesia<\/span> is an organized local entity—comprised of all the believers in any given locality, under one pluralistic eldership. On another level, the ekklesia<\/span> is the universal church whose constituents are all the believers who have ever been, are now existing, and will ever be. The word ekklesia<\/span> was used by the NT writers with these various aspects of meaning, though, at times, it is not possible to differentiate one from the other. Nevertheless, students of the NT could avoid some confusion if they used discrimination in their exegesis of the text. Some interpreters have taught that the smallest unit of the church is the local church, but the NT writers sometimes used the word “church” to indicate a small home gathering. Other interpreters confuse the local church with the universal church. But some things in the NT are addressed to a local church that do not necessarily apply to the whole church, and some great things are spoken of the universal church that could never be attained by any particular local group. The things Paul said about the church in the Epistle to the Ephesians (which was written as an encyclical for several churches and not just for the church in Ephesus) could never be attained by a local church. For example, what local church could attain to the fullness of the stature of Christ?<\/p>\nThere is much to be said about how interpreters have confused the local church with the universal church, but this article is devoted to clearing up the confusion about what constitutes the smallest unit of the church—the local church, or what could be called the house church or home gathering.<\/p>\nThe NT seems to present the fact that a particular local church (i.e., a church comprising all the believers in a given locality under one eldership) could and did have several ekklesiai<\/span>—“meetings” or “assemblies” (carried on in homes of the local Christians). Thus, the smallest unit to comprise a “church” was one of these home meetings. However, there is no indication in the NT that each of these home meetings had its own eldership or was a distinct entity separate from the other gatherings (<\/em>ekklesiai<\/span>)<\/em> in the same locality. According to Acts 14:23 and Titus 1:5, elders were appointed for every local church (compare the expressions “appointed elders in every church” and “appoint elders in every city”)—not for every house church. Nevertheless, it appears that every local church of some size had several such ekklesiai<\/span> (“meetings”) going on within that locality.<\/p>\nThe church in Jerusalem must have had several home meetings (see Acts 2:46; 5:42; 8:3; 12:5, 12), as did the church in Rome (see Rom 16:3-5, 14-15 and comments below). A small local church may have had only one home gathering—as was probably the case with the church at Colosse (see Phlm 1:2 and comments below), but this would have been impossible for large local churches like those in Jerusalem, Rome, and Ephesus, in which there must have been several “house churches” (see 1 Cor 16:19-20 [1 Cor was written from Ephesus] and comments below). An examination of the passages that deal with the issue of the “house church” should affirm this. These passages are Romans 16:3-5, 14-15; 1 Corinthians 16:19-20; Colossians 4:15-16; and Philemon 1:1-2 (all quoted from the rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h4>Romans 16:3-5, 14-15<\/h4>\nIn the last chapter of Romans, Paul asked the believers in Rome, to whom he had written this epistle, to greet Priscilla and Aquila and the church that met in their home (16:3-5). The entire church in Rome could not have met in Priscilla and Aquila’s home, for the church was much too large to have assembled in a single home. Rather, the church in Priscilla and Aquila’s home must have been one among several such “house churches” in Rome. The following discussion should substantiate this position.<\/p>\nPaul’s Epistle to the Romans was addressed to “all God’s beloved in Rome” (1:7), not to “the church in Rome.” At the time of writing, Paul had not been to Rome—nor had any other apostle. The church was probably started there by Jewish Romans who had been converted during their visit to Jerusalem during Pentecost (Acts 2:10) and then returned to Rome. Since the church had not been started by an apostle, it could have been that there were no “ordained” elders in the church at Rome and that there were several gatherings of believers in various parts of Rome and its suburbs. Paul knew some of the saints in Rome (whom he addressed by name in the last chapter) and thus addressed an epistle to all the saints in that locality, instead of to the church in that locality—which was his usual practice (see 1 Cor 1:1; 2 Cor 1:1; 1 Thes 1:1; 2 Thes 1:1). Nonetheless, “all the saints in Rome” would comprise “the church in Rome” (cf. Phil 1:1, in which Paul addressed his epistle to all the saints in Philippi).<\/p>\nIn the final chapter of Romans, Paul asks all the believers in Rome (which equals the “local” church in Rome) to greet the church in Priscilla and Aquila’s house. Later in the chapter, Paul asks the church to greet Asyncritus, Phlegon, Hermas, Patrobas, Hermes, and the brothers with them; and then again he asks the church to greet Philologus, Julia, Nereus and his sister, Olympas, and all the saints with them (16:14-15). Evidently, Paul was identifying two other groups of believers who must have met together. (And perhaps Paul was referring to two more groups in 16:10-11, which in the Greek could mean the ones of Aristobulus’s and Narcissus’s households<\/em> or the ones of their fellowships.<\/em>) It seems that the church in Rome, like the church in Jerusalem and Ephesus, had several home ekklesiai<\/span> (meetings).<\/p>\nThe Epistle to the Romans was written around AD<\/span> 58. The Neronian persecution began around AD<\/span> 64. Secular historians such as Tacitus tell us that a vast multitude (ingens multitudo)<\/em> of Christians were tortured and killed during this persecution (Annals<\/em> 15.44). Seutonius (in his book Nero,<\/em> ch 16) said that the rapid increase of the Christians in Rome had made them unpopular. Indeed, at the time Paul penned the Epistle to the Romans he said their faith was known throughout the world (1:8), which indicates that the church in Rome had already made an impact on the Mediterranean world. When Paul came to Rome three years later (AD<\/span> 61), he came to a city that had a large church there already. From Romans 15:23, we know that the church had been in existence for many years even before Paul wrote his epistle to them. In short, the church in Rome was a large church around the time Paul wrote his epistle to them. The entire church could not have met in the home of Aquila and Priscilla, who would have had only a modest-sized dwelling (for they were tentmakers). Besides, Paul greeted over 25 individuals by name in chapter 16—and he had not yet even been to Rome!<\/p>\nThere must have been several ekklesiai<\/span> in Rome, i.e., several home churches all unified as the one local church in Rome. For example, the Christians in Rome apparently worshiped in numerous homes such as Priscilla and Aquila’s. Other churches in homes are mentioned in Colossians 4:15 and Philemon 1:2. Groups of Christians met in houses of prominent believers or in other available rooms (cf. Mt 26:16; Acts 12:12; 1 Cor 16:19; Col 4:15; Phlm 1:2). The church in Priscilla and Aquila’s house is the first of five groups of believers in Paul’s list, but the only one referred to definitely as a church (see Rom 16:5, 10-11, 14-15). Priscilla and Aquila opened their home for Christian meetings. The church mentioned there was obviously only a part of the total number of Christians in Rome. Verses 10-11 and 14-15 seem to refer to two other household churches in Rome. Apparently, there were at least three churches there, and probably more. Each house church could not have been a separate entity with a separate church government; rather, each house church must have been simply one home meeting of some of the saints in the one local church at Rome.<\/p>\n<h4>1 Corinthians 16:19-20<\/h4>\nIn this passage we again see Aquila and Priscilla and again discover that a church met in their house. According to Romans, their house church was, of course, in Rome. According to 1 Corinthians (written from Ephesus), their house church was in Ephesus. Many scholars think Aquila and Priscilla left Rome around AD<\/span> 49 at the time of Claudius’s edict expelling Jews from Rome. They very well could have already been Christians at this time. According to Acts 18, they joined Paul in Corinth (where they all worked together in their craft of tentmaking) and then went on with him to Ephesus, during the time (around AD<\/span> 51) the church in Ephesus was first established. Paul continued on with his second missionary journey, while Aquila and Priscilla remained in Ephesus. No doubt, the early church there first met in their home. Paul returned to Ephesus a few years later and remained there for two years (around AD<\/span> 53–54). During this time, Paul’s proclamation of the gospel went out from Ephesus (as a center) to all of Asia Minor (see Acts 19:8-10). As this was going on, the church in Ephesus grew (see vv 18-20).<\/p>\nIt was during these years that Paul wrote to the Corinthians, in which he sent greetings from the churches in Asia, from Aquila and Priscilla—and the church in their house, and from all the brothers (1 Cor 16:19-20). In giving this kind of greeting, it seems that Paul was sending greetings from (1) all the churches in Asia Minor, (2) the church in Ephesus (equivalent to “all the brothers”), and (3) those believers who gathered with Aquila and Priscilla in their home. It would be hard to imagine that all the saints in Ephesus met at Aquila and Priscilla’s home. The church probably began that way, but as it grew, so did the number of home meetings. From other portions of the NT (specifically 1 Timothy, which was written around AD<\/span> 64 by Paul to Timothy while Timothy was leading the church in Ephesus), we discover that there must have been several home meetings in Ephesus because there were so many saints there (see 1 Timothy 5–6, which reveal that there must have been a large number of saints in Ephesus—young men, young women, older men, widows, and so forth). At any rate, several saints must have hosted an ekklesia<\/span>,<\/em> a meeting, in their home. (Aquila and Priscilla left Ephesus around AD<\/span> 56\/57 and returned to Rome, where again they hosted a church in their home. Others in Ephesus would have to open their homes.) But each such ekklesia<\/span> did not have its own eldership; rather, all of the church in Ephesus was under one eldership—headed up by Timothy, Paul’s coworker.<\/p>\n<h4>Colossians 4:15-16<\/h4>\nIn this portion, we again read about a church existing in the home of one called Nymphas. In his final remarks to the church in Colosse, Paul asked the saints in Colosse to send his greetings to (1) the brothers that are in Laodicea, (2) Nymphas in particular, and (3) the church in Nymphas’s house. According to the structure of Colossians 4:15, it seems evident that the first greeting included all the believers in Laodicea (a neighboring church to Colosse), who would comprise the entire church in Laodicea (called “the church of the Laodiceans” in Col 4:16), and that the second and third greetings were to a specific individual (Nymphas) in the church in Laodicea and a church meeting in Nymphas’s house. This church meeting in Nymphas’s house would probably be one of several home meetings—all part of the one local church in Laodicea.<\/p>\nThere is a textual problem in this passage that could have some effect on the interpretation of it. Some manuscripts read “his house”; others read “her house”; still others read “their house.” Because it cannot be determined from the Greek text whether Nymphas was male or female, various scribes used different pronouns before “house.” Between the readings “her” and “his,” it is far more likely that the pronoun “her” was changed to “his” than vice versa. Some scholars say that “their” refers to “the brothers” at Laodicea. But that does not make sense if we understand that “the brothers in Laodicea” is equal to the church in Laodicea. How could the church in Laodicea have the church in their house? Other scholars indicate that the Greek word for “their” (<\/em>auton<\/span>)<\/em> refers to the ones with Nymphas—i.e., the members of his household. Whether the reading was “her house” or “their house,” a particular group of believers within the church of Laodicea met there. Their meeting could legitimately be called an ekklesia<\/span>—an assembling together.<\/p>\n<h4>Philemon 1:1-2<\/h4>\nThis is the last time in the NT we read about a church in a particular home. Paul wrote a short epistle to Philemon, an elder of the church in Colosse, on behalf of Onesimus, Philemon’s runaway slave converted by Paul to Christ. In his introduction to this short epistle, Paul sends his greetings to Philemon, Apphia, Archippus, and the church in Philemon’s house. It is important to note that Paul did not send greetings to all the saints in Colosse and then to the church in Philemon’s house (as is the pattern in 1 Cor 16:19-20 and Col 4:15); instead, he just sent greetings to Philemon and to the church in his house. Therefore, we can assume that the entire church in Colosse must have met at Philemon’s house.<\/p>\n<h4>Worship in the Home Meetings and Church Meetings<\/h4>\nWhen the church first began in Jerusalem, the believers met in homes for fellowship and worship. Acts 2:42-47 tells us that the early Christians met in homes to hear the apostles’ teachings and to celebrate Communion (which is called “the breaking of bread”). During such gatherings, the Christians often shared meals with one another in what was called a love feast (2 Pt 2:13; Jude 1:12). At these meetings, the Christians recited Scripture, sang hymns and psalms, and joyfully praised the Lord (see Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16-17). Christians also gathered together in homes to pray (Acts 12:12) and read the Word.<\/p>\nSmall groups of believers met in homes for worship quite regularly; in a city where there were several such ekklesiai<\/span>,<\/em> all the believers would gather together for special occasions. Scripture tells us that all the believers would come together to hear an epistle from the apostles read out loud (see Acts 15:30; Col 4:16), and we can surmise from the NT record that all the Christians in a city met together once a week on Sunday, which was called the Lord’s Day. First Corinthians provides several insights about how the early Christians worshiped together when all the believers in one city met together. We know that 1 Corinthians pertains to this larger gathering because in 11:20 Paul spoke of all the believers coming together in one place and in 14:23 he spoke of the whole church coming together in one place.<\/p>\nPaul used this epistle to correct the Corinthians’ behavior in the celebration of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:17-34) and in the exercising of spiritual gifts during church meetings (ch 14). Paul’s adjustments reveal his perceptions of a model Christian meeting, and his preceptions were probably developed from actual experience in other church meetings. Paul urged the Corinthians to celebrate the Lord’s Supper together in a manner that reflected Jesus’ institution of that meal. They were to remember the Lord and his death for them, and they were to partake of the bread and wine with all seriousness. At the same time, they were to be conscious of the fact that they were members of the same body of Christ—joined to one another, and also to Christ.<\/p>\nAccording to Paul’s presentation in chapter 14, this “body consciousness” should be evident in the way the believers worshiped together. One’s personal experience and liberty should not hinder the coordination of the body in worshiping God corporately. Thus, when the believers exercised their spiritual gifts—whether it be prophesying, speaking in tongues, providing interpretations of the tongues, or teaching—it should be done in good order and for the edification of the congregation, not personal edification. When all the church assembled together to worship God, it should be a display of spiritual unity.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Church.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CHURCH MEETINGS<\/h3>\nThe assembling together of the believers. In the NT, the Greek word ekklesia<\/span> (usually translated “church”) is used primarily in two ways: (1) to describe a meeting or an assembly, and (2) to designate the people who participate in such assembling together—whether they are actually assembled or not. The NT contains a few places that speak of a secular Greek assembly (Acts 19:32, 41); every other instance speaks of a Christian assembly. Sometimes the word ekklesia<\/span> is used to designate the actual meeting together of Christians. This is certainly what Paul intended in 1 Corinthians 14:19, 28, and 35, in that the expression en ekklesia<\/span> must mean “in a meeting” and not “in the church.” To translate this phrase “in the church” (as is done in most modern English versions) is misleading, for most readers will think it means “in the church building.” The NT never once names the place of assembly a “church.” Aside from the few instances where the word clearly means the actual meeting together of believers, ekklesia<\/span> most often is used as a descriptor for the believers who constitute a local church (such as the church in Corinth, the church in Philippi, and the church in Colosse) or all the believers (past, present, and future) who constitute the universal church, the complete body of Christ.<\/p>\nWhen reading the NT, Christians need to be aware of the various ways in which the word ekklesia<\/span> (“church”) is used. On the most basic level, the ekklesia<\/span> is any gathering of believers. On another level, the ekklesia<\/span> is an organized local entity—comprised of all the believers in any given locality, under one pluralistic eldership. On another level, the ekklesia<\/span> is the universal church whose constituents are all the believers who have ever been, are now existing, and will ever be. The word ekklesia<\/span> was used by the NT writers with these various aspects of meaning, though, at times, it is not possible to differentiate one from the other. Nevertheless, students of the NT could avoid some confusion if they used discrimination in their exegesis of the text. Some interpreters have taught that the smallest unit of the church is the local church, but the NT writers sometimes used the word “church” to indicate a small home gathering. Other interpreters confuse the local church with the universal church. But some things in the NT are addressed to a local church that do not necessarily apply to the whole church, and some great things are spoken of the universal church that could never be attained by any particular local group. The things Paul said about the church in the Epistle to the Ephesians (which was written as an encyclical for several churches and not just for the church in Ephesus) could never be attained by a local church. For example, what local church could attain to the fullness of the stature of Christ?<\/p>\nThere is much to be said about how interpreters have confused the local church with the universal church, but this article is devoted to clearing up the confusion about what constitutes the smallest unit of the church—the local church, or what could be called the house church or home gathering.<\/p>\nThe NT seems to present the fact that a particular local church (i.e., a church comprising all the believers in a given locality under one eldership) could and did have several ekklesiai<\/span>—“meetings” or “assemblies” (carried on in homes of the local Christians). Thus, the smallest unit to comprise a “church” was one of these home meetings. However, there is no indication in the NT that each of these home meetings had its own eldership or was a distinct entity separate from the other gatherings (<\/em>ekklesiai<\/span>)<\/em> in the same locality. According to Acts 14:23 and Titus 1:5, elders were appointed for every local church (compare the expressions “appointed elders in every church” and “appoint elders in every city”)—not for every house church. Nevertheless, it appears that every local church of some size had several such ekklesiai<\/span> (“meetings”) going on within that locality.<\/p>\nThe church in Jerusalem must have had several home meetings (see Acts 2:46; 5:42; 8:3; 12:5, 12), as did the church in Rome (see Rom 16:3-5, 14-15 and comments below). A small local church may have had only one home gathering—as was probably the case with the church at Colosse (see Phlm 1:2 and comments below), but this would have been impossible for large local churches like those in Jerusalem, Rome, and Ephesus, in which there must have been several “house churches” (see 1 Cor 16:19-20 [1 Cor was written from Ephesus] and comments below). An examination of the passages that deal with the issue of the “house church” should affirm this. These passages are Romans 16:3-5, 14-15; 1 Corinthians 16:19-20; Colossians 4:15-16; and Philemon 1:1-2 (all quoted from the rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h4>Romans 16:3-5, 14-15<\/h4>\nIn the last chapter of Romans, Paul asked the believers in Rome, to whom he had written this epistle, to greet Priscilla and Aquila and the church that met in their home (16:3-5). The entire church in Rome could not have met in Priscilla and Aquila’s home, for the church was much too large to have assembled in a single home. Rather, the church in Priscilla and Aquila’s home must have been one among several such “house churches” in Rome. The following discussion should substantiate this position.<\/p>\nPaul’s Epistle to the Romans was addressed to “all God’s beloved in Rome” (1:7), not to “the church in Rome.” At the time of writing, Paul had not been to Rome—nor had any other apostle. The church was probably started there by Jewish Romans who had been converted during their visit to Jerusalem during Pentecost (Acts 2:10) and then returned to Rome. Since the church had not been started by an apostle, it could have been that there were no “ordained” elders in the church at Rome and that there were several gatherings of believers in various parts of Rome and its suburbs. Paul knew some of the saints in Rome (whom he addressed by name in the last chapter) and thus addressed an epistle to all the saints in that locality, instead of to the church in that locality—which was his usual practice (see 1 Cor 1:1; 2 Cor 1:1; 1 Thes 1:1; 2 Thes 1:1). Nonetheless, “all the saints in Rome” would comprise “the church in Rome” (cf. Phil 1:1, in which Paul addressed his epistle to all the saints in Philippi).<\/p>\nIn the final chapter of Romans, Paul asks all the believers in Rome (which equals the “local” church in Rome) to greet the church in Priscilla and Aquila’s house. Later in the chapter, Paul asks the church to greet Asyncritus, Phlegon, Hermas, Patrobas, Hermes, and the brothers with them; and then again he asks the church to greet Philologus, Julia, Nereus and his sister, Olympas, and all the saints with them (16:14-15). Evidently, Paul was identifying two other groups of believers who must have met together. (And perhaps Paul was referring to two more groups in 16:10-11, which in the Greek could mean the ones of Aristobulus’s and Narcissus’s households<\/em> or the ones of their fellowships.<\/em>) It seems that the church in Rome, like the church in Jerusalem and Ephesus, had several home ekklesiai<\/span> (meetings).<\/p>\nThe Epistle to the Romans was written around AD<\/span> 58. The Neronian persecution began around AD<\/span> 64. Secular historians such as Tacitus tell us that a vast multitude (ingens multitudo)<\/em> of Christians were tortured and killed during this persecution (Annals<\/em> 15.44). Seutonius (in his book Nero,<\/em> ch 16) said that the rapid increase of the Christians in Rome had made them unpopular. Indeed, at the time Paul penned the Epistle to the Romans he said their faith was known throughout the world (1:8), which indicates that the church in Rome had already made an impact on the Mediterranean world. When Paul came to Rome three years later (AD<\/span> 61), he came to a city that had a large church there already. From Romans 15:23, we know that the church had been in existence for many years even before Paul wrote his epistle to them. In short, the church in Rome was a large church around the time Paul wrote his epistle to them. The entire church could not have met in the home of Aquila and Priscilla, who would have had only a modest-sized dwelling (for they were tentmakers). Besides, Paul greeted over 25 individuals by name in chapter 16—and he had not yet even been to Rome!<\/p>\nThere must have been several ekklesiai<\/span> in Rome, i.e., several home churches all unified as the one local church in Rome. For example, the Christians in Rome apparently worshiped in numerous homes such as Priscilla and Aquila’s. Other churches in homes are mentioned in Colossians 4:15 and Philemon 1:2. Groups of Christians met in houses of prominent believers or in other available rooms (cf. Mt 26:16; Acts 12:12; 1 Cor 16:19; Col 4:15; Phlm 1:2). The church in Priscilla and Aquila’s house is the first of five groups of believers in Paul’s list, but the only one referred to definitely as a church (see Rom 16:5, 10-11, 14-15). Priscilla and Aquila opened their home for Christian meetings. The church mentioned there was obviously only a part of the total number of Christians in Rome. Verses 10-11 and 14-15 seem to refer to two other household churches in Rome. Apparently, there were at least three churches there, and probably more. Each house church could not have been a separate entity with a separate church government; rather, each house church must have been simply one home meeting of some of the saints in the one local church at Rome.<\/p>\n<h4>1 Corinthians 16:19-20<\/h4>\nIn this passage we again see Aquila and Priscilla and again discover that a church met in their house. According to Romans, their house church was, of course, in Rome. According to 1 Corinthians (written from Ephesus), their house church was in Ephesus. Many scholars think Aquila and Priscilla left Rome around AD<\/span> 49 at the time of Claudius’s edict expelling Jews from Rome. They very well could have already been Christians at this time. According to Acts 18, they joined Paul in Corinth (where they all worked together in their craft of tentmaking) and then went on with him to Ephesus, during the time (around AD<\/span> 51) the church in Ephesus was first established. Paul continued on with his second missionary journey, while Aquila and Priscilla remained in Ephesus. No doubt, the early church there first met in their home. Paul returned to Ephesus a few years later and remained there for two years (around AD<\/span> 53–54). During this time, Paul’s proclamation of the gospel went out from Ephesus (as a center) to all of Asia Minor (see Acts 19:8-10). As this was going on, the church in Ephesus grew (see vv 18-20).<\/p>\nIt was during these years that Paul wrote to the Corinthians, in which he sent greetings from the churches in Asia, from Aquila and Priscilla—and the church in their house, and from all the brothers (1 Cor 16:19-20). In giving this kind of greeting, it seems that Paul was sending greetings from (1) all the churches in Asia Minor, (2) the church in Ephesus (equivalent to “all the brothers”), and (3) those believers who gathered with Aquila and Priscilla in their home. It would be hard to imagine that all the saints in Ephesus met at Aquila and Priscilla’s home. The church probably began that way, but as it grew, so did the number of home meetings. From other portions of the NT (specifically 1 Timothy, which was written around AD<\/span> 64 by Paul to Timothy while Timothy was leading the church in Ephesus), we discover that there must have been several home meetings in Ephesus because there were so many saints there (see 1 Timothy 5–6, which reveal that there must have been a large number of saints in Ephesus—young men, young women, older men, widows, and so forth). At any rate, several saints must have hosted an ekklesia<\/span>,<\/em> a meeting, in their home. (Aquila and Priscilla left Ephesus around AD<\/span> 56\/57 and returned to Rome, where again they hosted a church in their home. Others in Ephesus would have to open their homes.) But each such ekklesia<\/span> did not have its own eldership; rather, all of the church in Ephesus was under one eldership—headed up by Timothy, Paul’s coworker.<\/p>\n<h4>Colossians 4:15-16<\/h4>\nIn this portion, we again read about a church existing in the home of one called Nymphas. In his final remarks to the church in Colosse, Paul asked the saints in Colosse to send his greetings to (1) the brothers that are in Laodicea, (2) Nymphas in particular, and (3) the church in Nymphas’s house. According to the structure of Colossians 4:15, it seems evident that the first greeting included all the believers in Laodicea (a neighboring church to Colosse), who would comprise the entire church in Laodicea (called “the church of the Laodiceans” in Col 4:16), and that the second and third greetings were to a specific individual (Nymphas) in the church in Laodicea and a church meeting in Nymphas’s house. This church meeting in Nymphas’s house would probably be one of several home meetings—all part of the one local church in Laodicea.<\/p>\nThere is a textual problem in this passage that could have some effect on the interpretation of it. Some manuscripts read “his house”; others read “her house”; still others read “their house.” Because it cannot be determined from the Greek text whether Nymphas was male or female, various scribes used different pronouns before “house.” Between the readings “her” and “his,” it is far more likely that the pronoun “her” was changed to “his” than vice versa. Some scholars say that “their” refers to “the brothers” at Laodicea. But that does not make sense if we understand that “the brothers in Laodicea” is equal to the church in Laodicea. How could the church in Laodicea have the church in their house? Other scholars indicate that the Greek word for “their” (<\/em>auton<\/span>)<\/em> refers to the ones with Nymphas—i.e., the members of his household. Whether the reading was “her house” or “their house,” a particular group of believers within the church of Laodicea met there. Their meeting could legitimately be called an ekklesia<\/span>—an assembling together.<\/p>\n<h4>Philemon 1:1-2<\/h4>\nThis is the last time in the NT we read about a church in a particular home. Paul wrote a short epistle to Philemon, an elder of the church in Colosse, on behalf of Onesimus, Philemon’s runaway slave converted by Paul to Christ. In his introduction to this short epistle, Paul sends his greetings to Philemon, Apphia, Archippus, and the church in Philemon’s house. It is important to note that Paul did not send greetings to all the saints in Colosse and then to the church in Philemon’s house (as is the pattern in 1 Cor 16:19-20 and Col 4:15); instead, he just sent greetings to Philemon and to the church in his house. Therefore, we can assume that the entire church in Colosse must have met at Philemon’s house.<\/p>\n<h4>Worship in the Home Meetings and Church Meetings<\/h4>\nWhen the church first began in Jerusalem, the believers met in homes for fellowship and worship. Acts 2:42-47 tells us that the early Christians met in homes to hear the apostles’ teachings and to celebrate Communion (which is called “the breaking of bread”). During such gatherings, the Christians often shared meals with one another in what was called a love feast (2 Pt 2:13; Jude 1:12). At these meetings, the Christians recited Scripture, sang hymns and psalms, and joyfully praised the Lord (see Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16-17). Christians also gathered together in homes to pray (Acts 12:12) and read the Word.<\/p>\nSmall groups of believers met in homes for worship quite regularly; in a city where there were several such ekklesiai<\/span>,<\/em> all the believers would gather together for special occasions. Scripture tells us that all the believers would come together to hear an epistle from the apostles read out loud (see Acts 15:30; Col 4:16), and we can surmise from the NT record that all the Christians in a city met together once a week on Sunday, which was called the Lord’s Day. First Corinthians provides several insights about how the early Christians worshiped together when all the believers in one city met together. We know that 1 Corinthians pertains to this larger gathering because in 11:20 Paul spoke of all the believers coming together in one place and in 14:23 he spoke of the whole church coming together in one place.<\/p>\nPaul used this epistle to correct the Corinthians’ behavior in the celebration of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:17-34) and in the exercising of spiritual gifts during church meetings (ch 14). Paul’s adjustments reveal his perceptions of a model Christian meeting, and his preceptions were probably developed from actual experience in other church meetings. Paul urged the Corinthians to celebrate the Lord’s Supper together in a manner that reflected Jesus’ institution of that meal. They were to remember the Lord and his death for them, and they were to partake of the bread and wine with all seriousness. At the same time, they were to be conscious of the fact that they were members of the same body of Christ—joined to one another, and also to Christ.<\/p>\nAccording to Paul’s presentation in chapter 14, this “body consciousness” should be evident in the way the believers worshiped together. One’s personal experience and liberty should not hinder the coordination of the body in worshiping God corporately. Thus, when the believers exercised their spiritual gifts—whether it be prophesying, speaking in tongues, providing interpretations of the tongues, or teaching—it should be done in good order and for the edification of the congregation, not personal edification. When all the church assembled together to worship God, it should be a display of spiritual unity.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Church.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CHURCH MEETINGS The assembling together of the believers. In the NT, the Greek word ekklesia (usually translated “church”) is used primarily in two ways: (1) to describe a meeting or an assembly, and (2) to designate the people who participate in such assembling together—whether they are actually assembled or not. The NT contains a few places that speak of a secular Greek assembly (Acts 19:32, 41); every other instance speaks of a Christian assembly. Sometimes the word ekklesia is used to des...","summary_en":"CHURCH MEETINGS The assembling together of the believers. In the NT, the Greek word ekklesia (usually translated “church”) is used primarily in two ways: (1) to describe a meeting or an assembly, and (2) to designate the people who participate in such assembling together—whether they are actually assembled or not. The NT contains a few places that speak of a secular Greek assembly (Acts 19:32, 41); every other instance speaks of a Christian assembly. Sometimes the word ekklesia is used to des...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"20":[{"id":31652,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Prophecy","title_en":"Prophecy","content_ro":"<h3>PROPHECY<\/h3>\nTerm, along with its English cognates (“prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”), derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Prophecy in the Old Testament<\/p>\n• Types of Old Testament Prophets<\/p>\n• The Message of the Prophets<\/p>\n• Prophecy in the New Testament<\/p>\n• The Role of the Christian Prophet<\/p>\nProphecy in the Old Testament<\/p>\nOne of the clearest and most significant statements on the nature of prophetic inspiration in the OT is found in Numbers 12:6-8: “The Lord<\/span> said to them, ‘Now listen to me! Even with prophets, I the Lord<\/span> communicate by visions and dreams. But that is not how I communicate with my servant Moses. He is entrusted with my entire house. I speak to him face to face, directly and not in riddles! He sees the Lord<\/span> as he is’ ” (nlt<\/span>). Several important insights into the nature of prophetic inspiration are found in this passage: (1) The prophetic gift of Moses was unique in that he alone received revelations directly from God. (2) Ordinarily, prophetic revelation was received through the medium of a dream or a vision. (3) The meaning of prophetic revelation is not always completely clear; prophecy is sometimes ambiguous.<\/p>\nFurther insight into the nature of prophetic revelation is found in Deuteronomy 18:18: “I [God] will raise up for them a prophet like you [Moses] from among their brethren; and I will put my words in his mouth, and he shall speak to them all that I command him” (rsv<\/span>). While this passage is of interest because Jesus was identified as “the prophet like Moses” who came in fulfillment of this prediction (Acts 3:22; 7:37), the more immediate historical reference is to the succession of prophets that guided Israel from Joshua to Malachi. The phrase “I will put my words in his mouth” refers to the process of divine inspiration and is reminiscent of the common OT prophetic formula “the word of the Lord came to [such and such a prophet]” (for examples, see 1 Sm 15:10; 2 Sm 24:11; 1 Kgs 19:9; Jon 1:1; Hg 1:1; 2:1, 20; Zec 7:1, 8; 8:1). A true prophet is one who speaks (or repeats) all that God has told him.<\/p>\n<h5>Modes of Prophetic Inspiration<\/h5>\nDreams were a commonly recognized mode of inspiration throughout the ancient world, though they were more highly regarded in Greece than in ancient Israel. Revelatory dreams in the Bible fall into two major categories: (1) dreams whose meaning is self-evident, and (2) symbolic dreams that usually require the expertise of an interpreter of dreams. Both types normally involve both visual and auditory elements. In those dreams whose meaning is self-evident, normally a supernatural being (God or an angel) appears to the dreamer and speaks to him or her in a straightforward manner.<\/p>\nMore frequently, revelatory dreams have symbolic elements that require interpretation. The two great dream interpreters of the OT are Joseph and Daniel; the latter is clearly a prophet. The two symbolic dreams that Joseph himself dreamed (Gn 37:5-11) had sufficiently self-evident meaning so that his brothers and father were able to interpret them immediately. More complex were the dreams of the butler and baker (40:1-19) and of Pharaoh (41:1-36), which Joseph was able to interpret with the help of God. Similarly, Daniel was enabled to interpret the dreams of Nebuchadnezzar (Dn 2:25-45; 4:4-27). The skill in interpreting such dreams was attributed by both Joseph and Daniel to God (Gn 40:8; 41:16, 25; Dn 2:27-30; cf. 4:9). While dreams are used almost interchangeably with visions in referring to modes of prophetic inspiration (Jl 2:28), dreams do not occupy a significant part in the prophetic revelations of any of the OT prophets, with the exception of Daniel.<\/p>\nOne of the most characteristic modes of prophetic inspiration was the vision (Nm 12:6; 24:4, 16; Hos 12:10). The revelatory visions experienced by the prophets were not limited to visual phenomena alone but also included the auditory dimension as well. In Isaiah 1:1, the author describes his entire prophetic book as a “vision”: “These visions concerning Judah and Jerusalem came to Isaiah son of Amoz during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah—all kings of Judah” (nlt<\/span>). Yet in the very next verse, Isaiah says, “Hear, O heavens! Listen, O earth! This is what the Lord<\/span> says.” Again, in Amos 1:1, “The words<\/em> of Amos, who was among the shepherds of Tekoa, which he saw<\/em> concerning Israel” (rsv<\/span>, emphasis added).<\/p>\n<h5>Manifestations of Prophetic Inspiration<\/h5>\nAll prophecy, whether biblical or not, presupposes that the prophet either possessed or was possessed by a personal supernatural power. The external behavioral manifestations of this possession can exhibit great variety.<\/p>\nThe prophetic phenomenon generally designated “ecstatic” prophecy appears to have existed in Canaan prior to the arrival of the Hebrew tribes in the 13th century BC<\/span>. The first reference to ecstatic prophecy in Israel occurs in 1 Samuel 10:5-13 (11th century BC<\/span>), and it persisted at least till the sixth century BC<\/span> (Jer 29:26).<\/p>\nThe ecstatic prophet achieves a trancelike state by self-induced means. The most common devices used to achieve a state of ecstasy were musical instruments, such as the harp, tambourine, flute, and lyre (1 Sm 10:5). Among the prophets of Baal, self-flagellation was another means of inducing ecstasy (1 Kgs 18:28-29).<\/p>\nThis kind of prophetic ecstasy was usually practiced by groups of prophets (1 Sm 10:5), and such ecstasy was contagious. When Saul met a band of such prophets, the Spirit of God came upon him and he, too, began to prophesy (vv 10-13), a phenomenon that occurred repeatedly to various messengers sent by Saul on a later occasion (19:20-22). At that time Saul again prophesied, and his ecstatic behavior is described in 1 Samuel 19:24. When Elisha was asked to prophesy for King Jehoram of Israel, he first requested a minstrel. When the minstrel played, the power of the Lord came upon him (2 Kgs 3:15).<\/p>\nTypes of Old Testament Prophets<\/p>\nThere are two basic types of prophetic commission in the OT. One type is that of a narrative call by God to a particular individual whose objections to the call are gradually overcome in a dialogue between himself and God. The classic example of this type of prophetic commission is found in Jeremiah 1:4-8:<\/p>\nThe Lord<\/span> gave me a message. He said, “I knew you before I formed you in your mother’s womb. Before you were born I set you apart and appointed you as my spokesman to the world.”<\/p>\n<blockquote>“O Sovereign Lord<\/span>,” I said, “I can’t speak for you! I’m too young!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote>“Don’t say that,” the Lord<\/span> replied, “for you must go wherever I send you and say whatever I tell you. And don’t be afraid of the people, for I will be with you and take care of you. I, the Lord<\/span>, have spoken!” (nlt<\/span>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\nSimilar prophetic commissions including such dialogues are associated with the calls of Moses (Ex 3:1–4:17) and Gideon (Jgs 6:11-17).<\/p>\nThe second major form of prophetic commission is the “throne vision.” An outstanding example is Isaiah 6:1-8:<\/p>\nIn the year King Uzziah died, I saw the Lord. He was sitting on a lofty throne, and the train of his robe filled the Temple. . . .<\/p>\n<blockquote>Then I said, “My destruction is sealed, for I am a sinful man and a member of a sinful race. Yet I have seen the King, the Lord<\/span> Almighty!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote>Then one of the seraphim flew over to the altar, and he picked up a burning coal with a pair of tongs. He touched my lips with it and said, “See, this coal has touched your lips. Now your guilt is removed, and your sins are forgiven.”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote>Then I heard the Lord asking, “Whom should I send as a messenger to my people? Who will go for us?”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote>And I said, “Lord, I’ll go! Send me.” (nlt<\/span>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\nHere we have an account of the visionary presence of a prophet in the heavenly council; in this case, however, the prophet participates in the deliberations and thereby receives a prophetic commission. Though few prophets have left accounts of their divine commissions, most of them appear to have been conscious of having been “sent” by God (Is 48:16; Hos 8:1; Am 7:14-15). According to Jeremiah, false prophets did not receive such divine commissions (Jer 23:21, 32; 28:15).<\/p>\nThe Message of the Prophets<\/p>\n<h5>The Form of the Message<\/h5>\nThe most common introductory formula for prophetic oracles in the OT is the phrase “Thus says the Lord,” which occurs hundreds of times in prophetic contexts. This formula clearly implies that the pronouncement so introduced is not the word of the prophet who utters the oracle but of the God of Israel who delivered his word to his prophet. The use of this formula also reiterates the prophet’s sense of divine commission. In oracles introduced in this manner, God speaks in the first person. In fact, virtually all Israelite prophetic utterance is formulated as the direct speech of the God of Israel.<\/p>\nThe prophets used many literary forms in which to express their oracles. Two of the more widely used forms of prophetic speech are the judgment speech and the oracle of salvation. The judgment speech is composed of at least two central elements: the speech of rebuke or invective, and the pronouncement of judgment (see 2 Kgs 1:3-4). The second common prophetic speech form is the oracle of salvation (see Is 41:8-13). Other fixed forms of prophetic speech include the prophecy of salvation (43:14-21), the proclamation of salvation (41:17-20; 42:14-17; 43:16-21; 49:7-12), and the woe oracle (Is 5:8-10; 10:1-4; Am 5:18-24; 6:1-7; Mi 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<h5>The Content of the Message<\/h5>\nThe common adage that OT prophets were not “foretellers” but “forthtellers” is not strictly correct. All of the prophets predict the future. Such prediction, however, is based not on human curiosity of what the future will hold but rather is rooted in the future consequences of past or present violations of the covenant, or on a future act of deliverance that will provide hope for a discouraged people. Most of the prophetic speeches that have been preserved in the OT were originally delivered as public proclamations or sermons. Most of these prophetic proclamations were evoked by the iniquity and apostasy of Israel. Hosea and Jeremiah condemned Israel because she had broken the covenant (Jer 11:2-3; Hos 8:1).<\/p>\nThe prophets are frequently associated with social justice and social reform, and these elements were unquestionably an important dimension of their message. Amos denounced the rich who afflicted the poor (Am 2:6-8; 4:1; 5:11; 8:4-6). He railed against sexual immorality (2:6-8) and against those who take bribes (5:12). Hosea provided a list of prevalent vices, including lying, killing, stealing, adultery, and idolatry (Hos 4:2). Idolatry was a particular target for his denunciations (8:5; 11:2). The background for such heated denunciations of Israel’s behavior is God’s unquenchable love for Israel (Is 43:4; Jer 31:3; Hos 3:1; 11:1-4; 14:4; Mal 1:2), which is inseparable from his election of Israel (Is 43:1; Jer 33:24; Ez 20:5; Hos 3).<\/p>\nThe prophets were concerned not only with the transgressions of Israel and the historical judgment that would inevitably follow but also with the achievement of a final future time of bliss. The message of many of the prophets is thoroughly eschatological (i.e., pertaining to the end times). One such eschatological concept is that of the Day of the Lord. The concept of the Day of the Lord first appears in Amos, where the emphasis lies on the disaster that will befall Israel on that day. Amos’s emphasis on disaster notwithstanding, the Day of the Lord is a conception that had both salvific as well as judgmental overtones for Israel. While the disaster that will occur in the Day of the Lord can be viewed in terms of a literal historical fulfillment in the tragic events of 722 BC<\/span> (the fall of Samaria) and 586 BC<\/span> (the fall of Judah), there are nevertheless features of these predictions that transcend historical fulfillment and reach toward eschatological fulfillment.<\/p>\nSince the Israelite conception of “salvation” was largely temporal in its dimensions, it included such blessings as length of life, fruitfulness of the womb and field, peace and victory over one’s enemies, the abundance of water, and so on. In harmony with this conception of salvation, the future age is conceived in precisely those terms, as in Amos 9:13-15.<\/p>\nThe prophets pictured a time when David himself, or someone very much like him, would return and inaugurate a golden era reminiscent of the great Davidic and Solomonic period. The covenant of God with David was not a conditional covenant but rather one that was absolutely inviolable (2 Sm 7:4-17; Ps 89; Jer 33:19-22), and it was with this knowledge that the prophets could look forward confidently to a restoration of David’s throne (Jer 17:24-26; 23:5-6; 33:14-15).<\/p>\n\nProphecy in the New Testament<\/p>\nIn contrast to the few self-proclaimed prophets of the intertestamental period, early Christianity began with a flurry of prophetic activity that lasted well into the second century AD<\/span>. Jesus, his disciples and followers, and the early Christians were convinced that the times in which they lived were times in which OT prophecy was being fulfilled (Mk 1:14-15; Acts 2:16-21; Rom 16:25-27; 1 Cor 10:11). Yet this era was not only one of fulfillment but also one of the renewal of the prophetic gift.<\/p>\n<h5>John the Baptist<\/h5>\nJohn the Baptist is remembered in the NT primarily as the forerunner of Jesus whose coming was predicted by Malachi (Mal 4:5-6). Yet, in his own right, John proclaimed the imminent judgment of God with a flair of denunciation and rebuke reminiscent of the OT prophets. John’s costume, consisting of a hairy cloak and a leather girdle (Mk 1:6), was reminiscent of the typical garb of OT prophets (1 Kgs 19:19; 2 Kgs 1:8; 2:13-14; Zec 13:4). John was regarded as a prophet by people everywhere (Mt 14:5; 17:10-13; Mk 9:11-13; 11:32; Lk 1:76; 7:26). Luke reports, in a style similar to the OT prophetic narratives, that “the word of God came to John” (Lk 3:2). Two short prophetic speeches have been preserved in Matthew 3:7-10 (cf. Lk 3:7-9) and Mark 1:7-8 (cf. Mt 3:11-12; Lk 3:15-18). In the first speech, John denounced those of his generation who had transgressed the covenant law and exhorted them to change their manner of life. In the second speech, John predicted the coming of the Mighty One, Jesus (Mt 3:11; Mk 1:7; Lk 3:16; Jn 1:15, 27, 30; Acts 13:25). John’s style, however, was not precisely that of the OT prophets. His pronouncements were made on his own authority; never did he use formulas such as “thus says the Lord,” or present his prophetic utterances as if they were speeches made by God. Yet, in spite of these differences, John is appropriately regarded as the last representative of the OT prophetic tradition (Mt 11:13; Lk 16:16).<\/p>\n<h5>Jesus of Nazareth<\/h5>\nJesus was popularly regarded as a prophet (Mt 16:14; 21:10-11; Mk 6:14-15; 8:28; Lk 7:16, 39; 9:8, 19; Jn 6:14; 7:40, 52). This assessment was based as much on the mighty deeds Jesus performed as on his prophetic speeches and predictions. Though Jesus nowhere claimed prophetic status directly, that claim is implicit in Mark 6:4: “A prophet is honored everywhere except in his own hometown” (cf. Mt 13:57; Lk 4:24). It is implicit as well in Luke 13:33: “Yes, today, tomorrow, and the next day I must proceed on my way. For it wouldn’t do for a prophet of God to be killed except in Jerusalem!” (nlt<\/span>). In Acts, Jesus is regarded as “the prophet like Moses” predicted in Deuteronomy 18:18 (Acts 3:22; 7:37). Matthew presents Jesus as the New Moses, but he does not particularly emphasize his prophetic role. John, however, like Luke, emphasizes Jesus’ role as the prophet (Jn 4:19; 6:14-15; 7:40).<\/p>\nWhile the Gospels and Acts reflect the notion that Jesus was a prophet, they also emphasize the fact that he was much more than a prophet. Nevertheless, the notion of prophetism was sufficiently important in early Judaism that Jesus’ recognition as a prophet is very significant. There are 12 solid reasons for regarding Jesus as a prophet in the OT tradition: (1) The sovereign authority of Jesus’ teaching (Mk 1:27), a feature underlined by his use of the introductory formula “(Amen) I say to you,” which is reminiscent of the formula “thus says the Lord” used by the OT prophets. (2) The poetic character of many of Jesus’ sayings is unlike contemporary rabbinic teaching but is similar to the poetic rhetoric of the OT prophets. (3) Jesus experienced visions (Lk 10:18) like the ancient prophets. (4) Jesus, like the prophets, made many predictions (Mt 23:38; Mk 13:2; 14:58; Lk 13:35; etc.). (5) Like the OT prophets, Jesus performed symbolic acts (such as the cleansing of the temple, the entry into Jerusalem, and the Last Supper). (6) Jesus, like the prophets, when necessary, rejected the formal observance of religious ritual and emphasized the moral and spiritual dimensions of obedience to God. (7) Jesus announced the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God—an eschatological proclamation similar to those made by the prophets. (8) Like the OT prophets, Jesus functioned as a preacher of repentance. (9) Jesus, like many of the prophets, was conscious of a special calling of God (Mt 15:24; Mk 8:31; 9:37; 14:36; Lk 4:18-26). (10) Jesus, like the prophets, received divine revelation through intimate communion with God (Mt 11:27; Lk 10:22). (11) Like the prophets, Jesus represented God; to obey him was to obey God, to reject him was to reject God (Mk 9:37; cf. Ez 33:30-33). (12) Like the prophets, Jesus was conscious of a mission to all Israel (Mt 15:24; 19:28; Lk 22:30).<\/p>\nAmong the many prophetic predictions of Jesus are the following:<\/p>\n1. Predictions of the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God (Mt 10:7-8, 23; 23:39; Mk 1:15; 9:1; 13:28-29)<\/p>\n<li>2. Predictions of the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple (Mt 23:37-39; 24:2; 26:61; 27:40; Mk 13:2; 14:58; 15:29; Lk 13:34-35; 21:6; Jn 2:19-21)<\/li>\n<li>3. Predictions of the coming of the Son of Man (Mt 10:23, 32-33; 12:40; 13:40-41; 16:27; 24:27, 37-39; Mk 8:38; 13:26-27; 14:62; Lk 9:26; 11:30; 12:8-9; 17:24, 26)<\/li>\n<li>4. Predictions of the end of the age. The longest prophetic section in the Gospels is the eschatological discourse of Jesus in Mark 13:1-32 (cf. Mt 24:1-36; Lk 21:5-33), in which a number of predictions concerning the destruction of Jerusalem and the end of the age are woven into a lengthy discourse to the disciples.<\/li>\n<h5>Prophecy as a Gift for the Believers<\/h5>\nThe beginning of prophetic activity in early Christianity, according to Acts, coincided with the outpouring of the Holy Spirit upon the earliest Christians on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:1-21). Peter’s sermon on the Day of Pentecost indicates that the outpouring of the Spirit fulfilled Joel’s prophecy (Acts 2:4, 17-21; cf. Jl 2:28-32). Further, since the Spirit had been poured out upon all early Christians (that Spirit being a Spirit of prophecy), all are actual or potential prophets.<\/p>\nAccording to 1 Corinthians 12:28 (see also Rom 12:6; Eph 4:11), God has appointed in the church first apostles, second prophets, and third teachers. The names of several early Christian prophets have been preserved. These include Agabus (Acts 11:27-28; 21:10-11); Judas and Silas (15:32); Barnabas, Simeon Niger, Lucius of Cyrene, Manaen, and Paul (13:1); and the four virgin daughters of Philip the evangelist (21:8-9). John, the author of Revelation, was certainly a prophet (Rv 1:3; 22:9, 18), though he never directly assumed that title.<\/p>\nThe Role of the Christian Prophet<\/p>\nChristian prophets were leaders in early Christian communities (1 Cor 12:28; Eph 4:11), who exercised their gift in church gatherings (Acts 13:1-3; 11:27-28; 1 Cor 12–14; Rv 1:10). Since the Spirit of God was particularly active in Christian worship, prophecy was a major means whereby God communicated with his people. Prophets, like apostles and teachers, did not hold offices in local communities like bishops, elders, and deacons. Rather, they were chosen, not by individual congregations, but by divine commission and so were honored and accepted in all local communities.<\/p>\nEarly Christian prophets were both itinerant and settled, though itinerant prophets seem to have been more prevalent in Syria-Palestine and Asia Minor than in the European churches.<\/p>\n<h5>The Function of Prophecy<\/h5>\nAccording to Paul, the central purpose of prophecy (as of all other spiritual gifts) is that of building up or edifying the church. According to 1 Corinthians 14:3, “one who prophesies is helping others grow in the Lord, encouraging and comforting them” (nlt<\/span>). Again, in 1 Corinthians 14:4, Paul states that the “one who speaks a word of prophecy strengthens the entire church.” Paul discussed the subject of spiritual gifts, particularly tongues speaking and prophecy, because the Corinthians had placed an excessive emphasis on speaking in tongues. Paul did not object to speaking in tongues (1 Cor 14:18, 39), but he did point out that, since it was generally incomprehensible, the church could not be edified by it. Prophecy, which consisted of comprehensible speech inspired by the Spirit, contributed to the mutual edification, encouragement, and consolation of all present (1 Cor 14:20-25, 39).<\/p>\n<h5>The Content of Christian Prophecy<\/h5>\nWe know only a little about the content of prophecies uttered in the first-century church. Prophetic utterance occasionally provided divine guidance in making important decisions in early Christianity. Through a prophetic utterance, Paul and Barnabas were selected for a particular mission (Acts 13:1-3; cf. 1 Tm 1:18; 4:14). Probably through prophetic utterance, Paul and Timothy were forbidden to preach the gospel in Asia (Acts 16:6), and they were similarly forbidden by the Spirit of Jesus to go into Bithynia (v 7). Perhaps the most frequent use of prophecy is the prediction of the future. Agabus predicted a universal famine (11:28) and the imminent arrest of Paul (21:11). Other prophets had also predicted his impending imprisonment (20:23). The prophecies contained in the Revelation of John are all oriented toward the future events that will gradually unfold in the last days. Yet the purpose of John’s elaborate prophecy is not to satisfy the curiosity of his audience but rather to comfort and encourage them in the midst of persecution.<\/p>\n<h5>The Form of Christian Prophecy<\/h5>\nUnlike the prophets of the OT, Christian prophets did not always present their message in the form of a direct speech from God or Jesus. There are few, if any, formal indicators of the presence of prophetic speech in early Christian literature. The book of Revelation is one notable exception.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Dreams; Oracle; Promise; Prophet, Prophetess; Prophets, False; Visions.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PROPHECY<\/h3>\nTerm, along with its English cognates (“prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”), derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration.<\/p>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Prophecy in the Old Testament<\/p>\n• Types of Old Testament Prophets<\/p>\n• The Message of the Prophets<\/p>\n• Prophecy in the New Testament<\/p>\n• The Role of the Christian Prophet<\/p>\nProphecy in the Old Testament<\/p>\nOne of the clearest and most significant statements on the nature of prophetic inspiration in the OT is found in Numbers 12:6-8: “The Lord<\/span> said to them, ‘Now listen to me! Even with prophets, I the Lord<\/span> communicate by visions and dreams. But that is not how I communicate with my servant Moses. He is entrusted with my entire house. I speak to him face to face, directly and not in riddles! He sees the Lord<\/span> as he is’ ” (nlt<\/span>). Several important insights into the nature of prophetic inspiration are found in this passage: (1) The prophetic gift of Moses was unique in that he alone received revelations directly from God. (2) Ordinarily, prophetic revelation was received through the medium of a dream or a vision. (3) The meaning of prophetic revelation is not always completely clear; prophecy is sometimes ambiguous.<\/p>\nFurther insight into the nature of prophetic revelation is found in Deuteronomy 18:18: “I [God] will raise up for them a prophet like you [Moses] from among their brethren; and I will put my words in his mouth, and he shall speak to them all that I command him” (rsv<\/span>). While this passage is of interest because Jesus was identified as “the prophet like Moses” who came in fulfillment of this prediction (Acts 3:22; 7:37), the more immediate historical reference is to the succession of prophets that guided Israel from Joshua to Malachi. The phrase “I will put my words in his mouth” refers to the process of divine inspiration and is reminiscent of the common OT prophetic formula “the word of the Lord came to [such and such a prophet]” (for examples, see 1 Sm 15:10; 2 Sm 24:11; 1 Kgs 19:9; Jon 1:1; Hg 1:1; 2:1, 20; Zec 7:1, 8; 8:1). A true prophet is one who speaks (or repeats) all that God has told him.<\/p>\n<h5>Modes of Prophetic Inspiration<\/h5>\nDreams were a commonly recognized mode of inspiration throughout the ancient world, though they were more highly regarded in Greece than in ancient Israel. Revelatory dreams in the Bible fall into two major categories: (1) dreams whose meaning is self-evident, and (2) symbolic dreams that usually require the expertise of an interpreter of dreams. Both types normally involve both visual and auditory elements. In those dreams whose meaning is self-evident, normally a supernatural being (God or an angel) appears to the dreamer and speaks to him or her in a straightforward manner.<\/p>\nMore frequently, revelatory dreams have symbolic elements that require interpretation. The two great dream interpreters of the OT are Joseph and Daniel; the latter is clearly a prophet. The two symbolic dreams that Joseph himself dreamed (Gn 37:5-11) had sufficiently self-evident meaning so that his brothers and father were able to interpret them immediately. More complex were the dreams of the butler and baker (40:1-19) and of Pharaoh (41:1-36), which Joseph was able to interpret with the help of God. Similarly, Daniel was enabled to interpret the dreams of Nebuchadnezzar (Dn 2:25-45; 4:4-27). The skill in interpreting such dreams was attributed by both Joseph and Daniel to God (Gn 40:8; 41:16, 25; Dn 2:27-30; cf. 4:9). While dreams are used almost interchangeably with visions in referring to modes of prophetic inspiration (Jl 2:28), dreams do not occupy a significant part in the prophetic revelations of any of the OT prophets, with the exception of Daniel.<\/p>\nOne of the most characteristic modes of prophetic inspiration was the vision (Nm 12:6; 24:4, 16; Hos 12:10). The revelatory visions experienced by the prophets were not limited to visual phenomena alone but also included the auditory dimension as well. In Isaiah 1:1, the author describes his entire prophetic book as a “vision”: “These visions concerning Judah and Jerusalem came to Isaiah son of Amoz during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah—all kings of Judah” (nlt<\/span>). Yet in the very next verse, Isaiah says, “Hear, O heavens! Listen, O earth! This is what the Lord<\/span> says.” Again, in Amos 1:1, “The words<\/em> of Amos, who was among the shepherds of Tekoa, which he saw<\/em> concerning Israel” (rsv<\/span>, emphasis added).<\/p>\n<h5>Manifestations of Prophetic Inspiration<\/h5>\nAll prophecy, whether biblical or not, presupposes that the prophet either possessed or was possessed by a personal supernatural power. The external behavioral manifestations of this possession can exhibit great variety.<\/p>\nThe prophetic phenomenon generally designated “ecstatic” prophecy appears to have existed in Canaan prior to the arrival of the Hebrew tribes in the 13th century BC<\/span>. The first reference to ecstatic prophecy in Israel occurs in 1 Samuel 10:5-13 (11th century BC<\/span>), and it persisted at least till the sixth century BC<\/span> (Jer 29:26).<\/p>\nThe ecstatic prophet achieves a trancelike state by self-induced means. The most common devices used to achieve a state of ecstasy were musical instruments, such as the harp, tambourine, flute, and lyre (1 Sm 10:5). Among the prophets of Baal, self-flagellation was another means of inducing ecstasy (1 Kgs 18:28-29).<\/p>\nThis kind of prophetic ecstasy was usually practiced by groups of prophets (1 Sm 10:5), and such ecstasy was contagious. When Saul met a band of such prophets, the Spirit of God came upon him and he, too, began to prophesy (vv 10-13), a phenomenon that occurred repeatedly to various messengers sent by Saul on a later occasion (19:20-22). At that time Saul again prophesied, and his ecstatic behavior is described in 1 Samuel 19:24. When Elisha was asked to prophesy for King Jehoram of Israel, he first requested a minstrel. When the minstrel played, the power of the Lord came upon him (2 Kgs 3:15).<\/p>\nTypes of Old Testament Prophets<\/p>\nThere are two basic types of prophetic commission in the OT. One type is that of a narrative call by God to a particular individual whose objections to the call are gradually overcome in a dialogue between himself and God. The classic example of this type of prophetic commission is found in Jeremiah 1:4-8:<\/p>\nThe Lord<\/span> gave me a message. He said, “I knew you before I formed you in your mother’s womb. Before you were born I set you apart and appointed you as my spokesman to the world.”<\/p>\n<blockquote>“O Sovereign Lord<\/span>,” I said, “I can’t speak for you! I’m too young!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote>“Don’t say that,” the Lord<\/span> replied, “for you must go wherever I send you and say whatever I tell you. And don’t be afraid of the people, for I will be with you and take care of you. I, the Lord<\/span>, have spoken!” (nlt<\/span>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\nSimilar prophetic commissions including such dialogues are associated with the calls of Moses (Ex 3:1–4:17) and Gideon (Jgs 6:11-17).<\/p>\nThe second major form of prophetic commission is the “throne vision.” An outstanding example is Isaiah 6:1-8:<\/p>\nIn the year King Uzziah died, I saw the Lord. He was sitting on a lofty throne, and the train of his robe filled the Temple. . . .<\/p>\n<blockquote>Then I said, “My destruction is sealed, for I am a sinful man and a member of a sinful race. Yet I have seen the King, the Lord<\/span> Almighty!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote>Then one of the seraphim flew over to the altar, and he picked up a burning coal with a pair of tongs. He touched my lips with it and said, “See, this coal has touched your lips. Now your guilt is removed, and your sins are forgiven.”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote>Then I heard the Lord asking, “Whom should I send as a messenger to my people? Who will go for us?”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote>And I said, “Lord, I’ll go! Send me.” (nlt<\/span>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\nHere we have an account of the visionary presence of a prophet in the heavenly council; in this case, however, the prophet participates in the deliberations and thereby receives a prophetic commission. Though few prophets have left accounts of their divine commissions, most of them appear to have been conscious of having been “sent” by God (Is 48:16; Hos 8:1; Am 7:14-15). According to Jeremiah, false prophets did not receive such divine commissions (Jer 23:21, 32; 28:15).<\/p>\nThe Message of the Prophets<\/p>\n<h5>The Form of the Message<\/h5>\nThe most common introductory formula for prophetic oracles in the OT is the phrase “Thus says the Lord,” which occurs hundreds of times in prophetic contexts. This formula clearly implies that the pronouncement so introduced is not the word of the prophet who utters the oracle but of the God of Israel who delivered his word to his prophet. The use of this formula also reiterates the prophet’s sense of divine commission. In oracles introduced in this manner, God speaks in the first person. In fact, virtually all Israelite prophetic utterance is formulated as the direct speech of the God of Israel.<\/p>\nThe prophets used many literary forms in which to express their oracles. Two of the more widely used forms of prophetic speech are the judgment speech and the oracle of salvation. The judgment speech is composed of at least two central elements: the speech of rebuke or invective, and the pronouncement of judgment (see 2 Kgs 1:3-4). The second common prophetic speech form is the oracle of salvation (see Is 41:8-13). Other fixed forms of prophetic speech include the prophecy of salvation (43:14-21), the proclamation of salvation (41:17-20; 42:14-17; 43:16-21; 49:7-12), and the woe oracle (Is 5:8-10; 10:1-4; Am 5:18-24; 6:1-7; Mi 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<h5>The Content of the Message<\/h5>\nThe common adage that OT prophets were not “foretellers” but “forthtellers” is not strictly correct. All of the prophets predict the future. Such prediction, however, is based not on human curiosity of what the future will hold but rather is rooted in the future consequences of past or present violations of the covenant, or on a future act of deliverance that will provide hope for a discouraged people. Most of the prophetic speeches that have been preserved in the OT were originally delivered as public proclamations or sermons. Most of these prophetic proclamations were evoked by the iniquity and apostasy of Israel. Hosea and Jeremiah condemned Israel because she had broken the covenant (Jer 11:2-3; Hos 8:1).<\/p>\nThe prophets are frequently associated with social justice and social reform, and these elements were unquestionably an important dimension of their message. Amos denounced the rich who afflicted the poor (Am 2:6-8; 4:1; 5:11; 8:4-6). He railed against sexual immorality (2:6-8) and against those who take bribes (5:12). Hosea provided a list of prevalent vices, including lying, killing, stealing, adultery, and idolatry (Hos 4:2). Idolatry was a particular target for his denunciations (8:5; 11:2). The background for such heated denunciations of Israel’s behavior is God’s unquenchable love for Israel (Is 43:4; Jer 31:3; Hos 3:1; 11:1-4; 14:4; Mal 1:2), which is inseparable from his election of Israel (Is 43:1; Jer 33:24; Ez 20:5; Hos 3).<\/p>\nThe prophets were concerned not only with the transgressions of Israel and the historical judgment that would inevitably follow but also with the achievement of a final future time of bliss. The message of many of the prophets is thoroughly eschatological (i.e., pertaining to the end times). One such eschatological concept is that of the Day of the Lord. The concept of the Day of the Lord first appears in Amos, where the emphasis lies on the disaster that will befall Israel on that day. Amos’s emphasis on disaster notwithstanding, the Day of the Lord is a conception that had both salvific as well as judgmental overtones for Israel. While the disaster that will occur in the Day of the Lord can be viewed in terms of a literal historical fulfillment in the tragic events of 722 BC<\/span> (the fall of Samaria) and 586 BC<\/span> (the fall of Judah), there are nevertheless features of these predictions that transcend historical fulfillment and reach toward eschatological fulfillment.<\/p>\nSince the Israelite conception of “salvation” was largely temporal in its dimensions, it included such blessings as length of life, fruitfulness of the womb and field, peace and victory over one’s enemies, the abundance of water, and so on. In harmony with this conception of salvation, the future age is conceived in precisely those terms, as in Amos 9:13-15.<\/p>\nThe prophets pictured a time when David himself, or someone very much like him, would return and inaugurate a golden era reminiscent of the great Davidic and Solomonic period. The covenant of God with David was not a conditional covenant but rather one that was absolutely inviolable (2 Sm 7:4-17; Ps 89; Jer 33:19-22), and it was with this knowledge that the prophets could look forward confidently to a restoration of David’s throne (Jer 17:24-26; 23:5-6; 33:14-15).<\/p>\n\nProphecy in the New Testament<\/p>\nIn contrast to the few self-proclaimed prophets of the intertestamental period, early Christianity began with a flurry of prophetic activity that lasted well into the second century AD<\/span>. Jesus, his disciples and followers, and the early Christians were convinced that the times in which they lived were times in which OT prophecy was being fulfilled (Mk 1:14-15; Acts 2:16-21; Rom 16:25-27; 1 Cor 10:11). Yet this era was not only one of fulfillment but also one of the renewal of the prophetic gift.<\/p>\n<h5>John the Baptist<\/h5>\nJohn the Baptist is remembered in the NT primarily as the forerunner of Jesus whose coming was predicted by Malachi (Mal 4:5-6). Yet, in his own right, John proclaimed the imminent judgment of God with a flair of denunciation and rebuke reminiscent of the OT prophets. John’s costume, consisting of a hairy cloak and a leather girdle (Mk 1:6), was reminiscent of the typical garb of OT prophets (1 Kgs 19:19; 2 Kgs 1:8; 2:13-14; Zec 13:4). John was regarded as a prophet by people everywhere (Mt 14:5; 17:10-13; Mk 9:11-13; 11:32; Lk 1:76; 7:26). Luke reports, in a style similar to the OT prophetic narratives, that “the word of God came to John” (Lk 3:2). Two short prophetic speeches have been preserved in Matthew 3:7-10 (cf. Lk 3:7-9) and Mark 1:7-8 (cf. Mt 3:11-12; Lk 3:15-18). In the first speech, John denounced those of his generation who had transgressed the covenant law and exhorted them to change their manner of life. In the second speech, John predicted the coming of the Mighty One, Jesus (Mt 3:11; Mk 1:7; Lk 3:16; Jn 1:15, 27, 30; Acts 13:25). John’s style, however, was not precisely that of the OT prophets. His pronouncements were made on his own authority; never did he use formulas such as “thus says the Lord,” or present his prophetic utterances as if they were speeches made by God. Yet, in spite of these differences, John is appropriately regarded as the last representative of the OT prophetic tradition (Mt 11:13; Lk 16:16).<\/p>\n<h5>Jesus of Nazareth<\/h5>\nJesus was popularly regarded as a prophet (Mt 16:14; 21:10-11; Mk 6:14-15; 8:28; Lk 7:16, 39; 9:8, 19; Jn 6:14; 7:40, 52). This assessment was based as much on the mighty deeds Jesus performed as on his prophetic speeches and predictions. Though Jesus nowhere claimed prophetic status directly, that claim is implicit in Mark 6:4: “A prophet is honored everywhere except in his own hometown” (cf. Mt 13:57; Lk 4:24). It is implicit as well in Luke 13:33: “Yes, today, tomorrow, and the next day I must proceed on my way. For it wouldn’t do for a prophet of God to be killed except in Jerusalem!” (nlt<\/span>). In Acts, Jesus is regarded as “the prophet like Moses” predicted in Deuteronomy 18:18 (Acts 3:22; 7:37). Matthew presents Jesus as the New Moses, but he does not particularly emphasize his prophetic role. John, however, like Luke, emphasizes Jesus’ role as the prophet (Jn 4:19; 6:14-15; 7:40).<\/p>\nWhile the Gospels and Acts reflect the notion that Jesus was a prophet, they also emphasize the fact that he was much more than a prophet. Nevertheless, the notion of prophetism was sufficiently important in early Judaism that Jesus’ recognition as a prophet is very significant. There are 12 solid reasons for regarding Jesus as a prophet in the OT tradition: (1) The sovereign authority of Jesus’ teaching (Mk 1:27), a feature underlined by his use of the introductory formula “(Amen) I say to you,” which is reminiscent of the formula “thus says the Lord” used by the OT prophets. (2) The poetic character of many of Jesus’ sayings is unlike contemporary rabbinic teaching but is similar to the poetic rhetoric of the OT prophets. (3) Jesus experienced visions (Lk 10:18) like the ancient prophets. (4) Jesus, like the prophets, made many predictions (Mt 23:38; Mk 13:2; 14:58; Lk 13:35; etc.). (5) Like the OT prophets, Jesus performed symbolic acts (such as the cleansing of the temple, the entry into Jerusalem, and the Last Supper). (6) Jesus, like the prophets, when necessary, rejected the formal observance of religious ritual and emphasized the moral and spiritual dimensions of obedience to God. (7) Jesus announced the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God—an eschatological proclamation similar to those made by the prophets. (8) Like the OT prophets, Jesus functioned as a preacher of repentance. (9) Jesus, like many of the prophets, was conscious of a special calling of God (Mt 15:24; Mk 8:31; 9:37; 14:36; Lk 4:18-26). (10) Jesus, like the prophets, received divine revelation through intimate communion with God (Mt 11:27; Lk 10:22). (11) Like the prophets, Jesus represented God; to obey him was to obey God, to reject him was to reject God (Mk 9:37; cf. Ez 33:30-33). (12) Like the prophets, Jesus was conscious of a mission to all Israel (Mt 15:24; 19:28; Lk 22:30).<\/p>\nAmong the many prophetic predictions of Jesus are the following:<\/p>\n1. Predictions of the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God (Mt 10:7-8, 23; 23:39; Mk 1:15; 9:1; 13:28-29)<\/p>\n<li>2. Predictions of the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple (Mt 23:37-39; 24:2; 26:61; 27:40; Mk 13:2; 14:58; 15:29; Lk 13:34-35; 21:6; Jn 2:19-21)<\/li>\n<li>3. Predictions of the coming of the Son of Man (Mt 10:23, 32-33; 12:40; 13:40-41; 16:27; 24:27, 37-39; Mk 8:38; 13:26-27; 14:62; Lk 9:26; 11:30; 12:8-9; 17:24, 26)<\/li>\n<li>4. Predictions of the end of the age. The longest prophetic section in the Gospels is the eschatological discourse of Jesus in Mark 13:1-32 (cf. Mt 24:1-36; Lk 21:5-33), in which a number of predictions concerning the destruction of Jerusalem and the end of the age are woven into a lengthy discourse to the disciples.<\/li>\n<h5>Prophecy as a Gift for the Believers<\/h5>\nThe beginning of prophetic activity in early Christianity, according to Acts, coincided with the outpouring of the Holy Spirit upon the earliest Christians on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:1-21). Peter’s sermon on the Day of Pentecost indicates that the outpouring of the Spirit fulfilled Joel’s prophecy (Acts 2:4, 17-21; cf. Jl 2:28-32). Further, since the Spirit had been poured out upon all early Christians (that Spirit being a Spirit of prophecy), all are actual or potential prophets.<\/p>\nAccording to 1 Corinthians 12:28 (see also Rom 12:6; Eph 4:11), God has appointed in the church first apostles, second prophets, and third teachers. The names of several early Christian prophets have been preserved. These include Agabus (Acts 11:27-28; 21:10-11); Judas and Silas (15:32); Barnabas, Simeon Niger, Lucius of Cyrene, Manaen, and Paul (13:1); and the four virgin daughters of Philip the evangelist (21:8-9). John, the author of Revelation, was certainly a prophet (Rv 1:3; 22:9, 18), though he never directly assumed that title.<\/p>\nThe Role of the Christian Prophet<\/p>\nChristian prophets were leaders in early Christian communities (1 Cor 12:28; Eph 4:11), who exercised their gift in church gatherings (Acts 13:1-3; 11:27-28; 1 Cor 12–14; Rv 1:10). Since the Spirit of God was particularly active in Christian worship, prophecy was a major means whereby God communicated with his people. Prophets, like apostles and teachers, did not hold offices in local communities like bishops, elders, and deacons. Rather, they were chosen, not by individual congregations, but by divine commission and so were honored and accepted in all local communities.<\/p>\nEarly Christian prophets were both itinerant and settled, though itinerant prophets seem to have been more prevalent in Syria-Palestine and Asia Minor than in the European churches.<\/p>\n<h5>The Function of Prophecy<\/h5>\nAccording to Paul, the central purpose of prophecy (as of all other spiritual gifts) is that of building up or edifying the church. According to 1 Corinthians 14:3, “one who prophesies is helping others grow in the Lord, encouraging and comforting them” (nlt<\/span>). Again, in 1 Corinthians 14:4, Paul states that the “one who speaks a word of prophecy strengthens the entire church.” Paul discussed the subject of spiritual gifts, particularly tongues speaking and prophecy, because the Corinthians had placed an excessive emphasis on speaking in tongues. Paul did not object to speaking in tongues (1 Cor 14:18, 39), but he did point out that, since it was generally incomprehensible, the church could not be edified by it. Prophecy, which consisted of comprehensible speech inspired by the Spirit, contributed to the mutual edification, encouragement, and consolation of all present (1 Cor 14:20-25, 39).<\/p>\n<h5>The Content of Christian Prophecy<\/h5>\nWe know only a little about the content of prophecies uttered in the first-century church. Prophetic utterance occasionally provided divine guidance in making important decisions in early Christianity. Through a prophetic utterance, Paul and Barnabas were selected for a particular mission (Acts 13:1-3; cf. 1 Tm 1:18; 4:14). Probably through prophetic utterance, Paul and Timothy were forbidden to preach the gospel in Asia (Acts 16:6), and they were similarly forbidden by the Spirit of Jesus to go into Bithynia (v 7). Perhaps the most frequent use of prophecy is the prediction of the future. Agabus predicted a universal famine (11:28) and the imminent arrest of Paul (21:11). Other prophets had also predicted his impending imprisonment (20:23). The prophecies contained in the Revelation of John are all oriented toward the future events that will gradually unfold in the last days. Yet the purpose of John’s elaborate prophecy is not to satisfy the curiosity of his audience but rather to comfort and encourage them in the midst of persecution.<\/p>\n<h5>The Form of Christian Prophecy<\/h5>\nUnlike the prophets of the OT, Christian prophets did not always present their message in the form of a direct speech from God or Jesus. There are few, if any, formal indicators of the presence of prophetic speech in early Christian literature. The book of Revelation is one notable exception.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Dreams; Oracle; Promise; Prophet, Prophetess; Prophets, False; Visions.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PROPHECY Term, along with its English cognates (“prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”), derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration. Preview • Prophecy in the Old Testament • Types of Old Testament Prophets • The Message of the Prophets • Prophecy in the ...","summary_en":"PROPHECY Term, along with its English cognates (“prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”), derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration. Preview • Prophecy in the Old Testament • Types of Old Testament Prophets • The Message of the Prophets • Prophecy in the ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57683,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:20","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:20","content_ro":"14:20<\/strong> To be mature in understanding<\/em> such matters<\/em>,<\/em> one must consider the purpose of spiritual gifts and not treat them as ends in themselves for one’s own enjoyment.<\/p>","content_en":"14:20<\/strong> To be mature in understanding<\/em> such matters<\/em>,<\/em> one must consider the purpose of spiritual gifts and not treat them as ends in themselves for one’s own enjoyment.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:20 To be mature in understanding such matters, one must consider the purpose of spiritual gifts and not treat them as ends in themselves for one’s own enjoyment.","summary_en":"14:20 To be mature in understanding such matters, one must consider the purpose of spiritual gifts and not treat them as ends in themselves for one’s own enjoyment.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85309,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:20","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:20","content_ro":"14:20<\/strong> To be mature in understanding<\/em> such matters<\/em>,<\/em> one must consider the purpose of spiritual gifts and not treat them as ends in themselves for one’s own enjoyment.<\/p>","content_en":"14:20<\/strong> To be mature in understanding<\/em> such matters<\/em>,<\/em> one must consider the purpose of spiritual gifts and not treat them as ends in themselves for one’s own enjoyment.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:20 To be mature in understanding such matters, one must consider the purpose of spiritual gifts and not treat them as ends in themselves for one’s own enjoyment.","summary_en":"14:20 To be mature in understanding such matters, one must consider the purpose of spiritual gifts and not treat them as ends in themselves for one’s own enjoyment.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112935,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:20","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:20","content_ro":"14:20<\/strong> To be mature in understanding<\/em> such matters<\/em>,<\/em> one must consider the purpose of spiritual gifts and not treat them as ends in themselves for one’s own enjoyment.<\/p>","content_en":"14:20<\/strong> To be mature in understanding<\/em> such matters<\/em>,<\/em> one must consider the purpose of spiritual gifts and not treat them as ends in themselves for one’s own enjoyment.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:20 To be mature in understanding such matters, one must consider the purpose of spiritual gifts and not treat them as ends in themselves for one’s own enjoyment.","summary_en":"14:20 To be mature in understanding such matters, one must consider the purpose of spiritual gifts and not treat them as ends in themselves for one’s own enjoyment.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140561,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:20","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:20","content_ro":"14:20<\/strong> To be mature in understanding<\/em> such matters<\/em>,<\/em> one must consider the purpose of spiritual gifts and not treat them as ends in themselves for one’s own enjoyment.<\/p>","content_en":"14:20<\/strong> To be mature in understanding<\/em> such matters<\/em>,<\/em> one must consider the purpose of spiritual gifts and not treat them as ends in themselves for one’s own enjoyment.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:20 To be mature in understanding such matters, one must consider the purpose of spiritual gifts and not treat them as ends in themselves for one’s own enjoyment.","summary_en":"14:20 To be mature in understanding such matters, one must consider the purpose of spiritual gifts and not treat them as ends in themselves for one’s own enjoyment.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":67693,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Spiritual Maturity","title_en":"Spiritual Maturity","content_ro":"<h3>Spiritual Maturity<\/h3>\nWhen a person turns to Christ for salvation, it marks the beginning of a journey that will continue the rest of their life. Such a person does not simply remain as they are; they are transformed, growing continually into Christlikeness—a process often referred to as sanctification. Just as newborn babies drink milk in order to grow—eventually being able to eat solid food—new believers must avail themselves of “spiritual milk” in order to “grow into a full experience of salvation” (1 Pet 2:2-3), eventually consuming the “solid food” of deeper teaching (Heb 5:11-14).<\/p>\nSpiritual maturity has to do with one’s ability to discern spiritual truth (1 Cor 2:6). Christians are exhorted to be mature in their thinking (1 Cor 14:20). The body of Christ grows to maturity through the equipping of believers and by growing in knowledge of the Son of God (Eph 4:11-16). The result is a united community of faith in which love and truth further build up the body of Christ.<\/p>\nThe audience of Hebrews was spiritually immature. The author wanted to give them real spiritual meat, but they were acting like spiritual babies who needed basic nourishment rather than deeper teaching (5:12). They had not been listening to the word of God. They had been believers long enough to be teaching others, but a growing insensitivity had rendered them spiritually dull (5:11-12; cp. 1 Cor 3:1-3). They lacked the maturity to discern the basic difference between right and wrong (Heb 5:14). Thus, the author challenged them to move on to maturity so he could present them with deeper truths of the faith, rather than repeatedly recounting the basics (6:1-3).<\/p>\nSpiritual maturity is not an automatic result of time. It results from focused listening to the word of God and living out that word in fellowship with a community of believers.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Cor 2:6; 3:1-3; 14:20; 2 Cor 13:9-11; Eph 4:11-16; Col 4:12; Heb 5:11-14; 6:1-3; 10:14; 12:1-2; 1 Pet 2:1-3<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Spiritual Maturity<\/h3>\nWhen a person turns to Christ for salvation, it marks the beginning of a journey that will continue the rest of their life. Such a person does not simply remain as they are; they are transformed, growing continually into Christlikeness—a process often referred to as sanctification. Just as newborn babies drink milk in order to grow—eventually being able to eat solid food—new believers must avail themselves of “spiritual milk” in order to “grow into a full experience of salvation” (1 Pet 2:2-3), eventually consuming the “solid food” of deeper teaching (Heb 5:11-14).<\/p>\nSpiritual maturity has to do with one’s ability to discern spiritual truth (1 Cor 2:6). Christians are exhorted to be mature in their thinking (1 Cor 14:20). The body of Christ grows to maturity through the equipping of believers and by growing in knowledge of the Son of God (Eph 4:11-16). The result is a united community of faith in which love and truth further build up the body of Christ.<\/p>\nThe audience of Hebrews was spiritually immature. The author wanted to give them real spiritual meat, but they were acting like spiritual babies who needed basic nourishment rather than deeper teaching (5:12). They had not been listening to the word of God. They had been believers long enough to be teaching others, but a growing insensitivity had rendered them spiritually dull (5:11-12; cp. 1 Cor 3:1-3). They lacked the maturity to discern the basic difference between right and wrong (Heb 5:14). Thus, the author challenged them to move on to maturity so he could present them with deeper truths of the faith, rather than repeatedly recounting the basics (6:1-3).<\/p>\nSpiritual maturity is not an automatic result of time. It results from focused listening to the word of God and living out that word in fellowship with a community of believers.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Cor 2:6; 3:1-3; 14:20; 2 Cor 13:9-11; Eph 4:11-16; Col 4:12; Heb 5:11-14; 6:1-3; 10:14; 12:1-2; 1 Pet 2:1-3<\/p>","summary_ro":"Spiritual Maturity When a person turns to Christ for salvation, it marks the beginning of a journey that will continue the rest of their life. Such a person does not simply remain as they are; they are transformed, growing continually into Christlikeness—a process often referred to as sanctification. Just as newborn babies drink milk in order to grow—eventually being able to eat solid food—new believers must avail themselves of “spiritual milk” in order to “grow into a full experience of salv...","summary_en":"Spiritual Maturity When a person turns to Christ for salvation, it marks the beginning of a journey that will continue the rest of their life. Such a person does not simply remain as they are; they are transformed, growing continually into Christlikeness—a process often referred to as sanctification. Just as newborn babies drink milk in order to grow—eventually being able to eat solid food—new believers must avail themselves of “spiritual milk” in order to “grow into a full experience of salv...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95319,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Spiritual Maturity","title_en":"Spiritual Maturity","content_ro":"<h3>Spiritual Maturity<\/h3>\nWhen a person turns to Christ for salvation, it marks the beginning of a journey that will continue the rest of their life. Such a person does not simply remain as they are; they are transformed, growing continually into Christlikeness—a process often referred to as sanctification. Just as newborn babies drink milk in order to grow—eventually being able to eat solid food—new believers must avail themselves of “spiritual milk” in order to “grow into a full experience of salvation” (1 Pet 2:2-3), eventually consuming the “solid food” of deeper teaching (Heb 5:11-14).<\/p>\nSpiritual maturity has to do with one’s ability to discern spiritual truth (1 Cor 2:6). Christians are exhorted to be mature in their thinking (1 Cor 14:20). The body of Christ grows to maturity through the equipping of believers and by growing in knowledge of the Son of God (Eph 4:11-16). The result is a united community of faith in which love and truth further build up the body of Christ.<\/p>\nThe audience of Hebrews was spiritually immature. The author wanted to give them real spiritual meat, but they were acting like spiritual babies who needed basic nourishment rather than deeper teaching (5:12). They had not been listening to the word of God. They had been believers long enough to be teaching others, but a growing insensitivity had rendered them spiritually dull (5:11-12; cp. 1 Cor 3:1-3). They lacked the maturity to discern the basic difference between right and wrong (Heb 5:14). Thus, the author challenged them to move on to maturity so he could present them with deeper truths of the faith, rather than repeatedly recounting the basics (6:1-3).<\/p>\nSpiritual maturity is not an automatic result of time. It results from focused listening to the word of God and living out that word in fellowship with a community of believers.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Cor 2:6; 3:1-3; 14:20; 2 Cor 13:9-11; Eph 4:11-16; Col 4:12; Heb 5:11-14; 6:1-3; 10:14; 12:1-2; 1 Pet 2:1-3<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Spiritual Maturity<\/h3>\nWhen a person turns to Christ for salvation, it marks the beginning of a journey that will continue the rest of their life. Such a person does not simply remain as they are; they are transformed, growing continually into Christlikeness—a process often referred to as sanctification. Just as newborn babies drink milk in order to grow—eventually being able to eat solid food—new believers must avail themselves of “spiritual milk” in order to “grow into a full experience of salvation” (1 Pet 2:2-3), eventually consuming the “solid food” of deeper teaching (Heb 5:11-14).<\/p>\nSpiritual maturity has to do with one’s ability to discern spiritual truth (1 Cor 2:6). Christians are exhorted to be mature in their thinking (1 Cor 14:20). The body of Christ grows to maturity through the equipping of believers and by growing in knowledge of the Son of God (Eph 4:11-16). The result is a united community of faith in which love and truth further build up the body of Christ.<\/p>\nThe audience of Hebrews was spiritually immature. The author wanted to give them real spiritual meat, but they were acting like spiritual babies who needed basic nourishment rather than deeper teaching (5:12). They had not been listening to the word of God. They had been believers long enough to be teaching others, but a growing insensitivity had rendered them spiritually dull (5:11-12; cp. 1 Cor 3:1-3). They lacked the maturity to discern the basic difference between right and wrong (Heb 5:14). Thus, the author challenged them to move on to maturity so he could present them with deeper truths of the faith, rather than repeatedly recounting the basics (6:1-3).<\/p>\nSpiritual maturity is not an automatic result of time. It results from focused listening to the word of God and living out that word in fellowship with a community of believers.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Cor 2:6; 3:1-3; 14:20; 2 Cor 13:9-11; Eph 4:11-16; Col 4:12; Heb 5:11-14; 6:1-3; 10:14; 12:1-2; 1 Pet 2:1-3<\/p>","summary_ro":"Spiritual Maturity When a person turns to Christ for salvation, it marks the beginning of a journey that will continue the rest of their life. Such a person does not simply remain as they are; they are transformed, growing continually into Christlikeness—a process often referred to as sanctification. Just as newborn babies drink milk in order to grow—eventually being able to eat solid food—new believers must avail themselves of “spiritual milk” in order to “grow into a full experience of salv...","summary_en":"Spiritual Maturity When a person turns to Christ for salvation, it marks the beginning of a journey that will continue the rest of their life. Such a person does not simply remain as they are; they are transformed, growing continually into Christlikeness—a process often referred to as sanctification. Just as newborn babies drink milk in order to grow—eventually being able to eat solid food—new believers must avail themselves of “spiritual milk” in order to “grow into a full experience of salv...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":122945,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Spiritual Maturity","title_en":"Spiritual Maturity","content_ro":"<h3>Spiritual Maturity<\/h3>\nWhen a person turns to Christ for salvation, it marks the beginning of a journey that will continue the rest of their life. Such a person does not simply remain as they are; they are transformed, growing continually into Christlikeness—a process often referred to as sanctification. Just as newborn babies drink milk in order to grow—eventually being able to eat solid food—new believers must avail themselves of “spiritual milk” in order to “grow into a full experience of salvation” (1 Pet 2:2-3), eventually consuming the “solid food” of deeper teaching (Heb 5:11-14).<\/p>\nSpiritual maturity has to do with one’s ability to discern spiritual truth (1 Cor 2:6). Christians are exhorted to be mature in their thinking (1 Cor 14:20). The body of Christ grows to maturity through the equipping of believers and by growing in knowledge of the Son of God (Eph 4:11-16). The result is a united community of faith in which love and truth further build up the body of Christ.<\/p>\nThe audience of Hebrews was spiritually immature. The author wanted to give them real spiritual meat, but they were acting like spiritual babies who needed basic nourishment rather than deeper teaching (5:12). They had not been listening to the word of God. They had been believers long enough to be teaching others, but a growing insensitivity had rendered them spiritually dull (5:11-12; cp. 1 Cor 3:1-3). They lacked the maturity to discern the basic difference between right and wrong (Heb 5:14). Thus, the author challenged them to move on to maturity so he could present them with deeper truths of the faith, rather than repeatedly recounting the basics (6:1-3).<\/p>\nSpiritual maturity is not an automatic result of time. It results from focused listening to the word of God and living out that word in fellowship with a community of believers.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Cor 2:6; 3:1-3; 14:20; 2 Cor 13:9-11; Eph 4:11-16; Col 4:12; Heb 5:11-14; 6:1-3; 10:14; 12:1-2; 1 Pet 2:1-3<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Spiritual Maturity<\/h3>\nWhen a person turns to Christ for salvation, it marks the beginning of a journey that will continue the rest of their life. Such a person does not simply remain as they are; they are transformed, growing continually into Christlikeness—a process often referred to as sanctification. Just as newborn babies drink milk in order to grow—eventually being able to eat solid food—new believers must avail themselves of “spiritual milk” in order to “grow into a full experience of salvation” (1 Pet 2:2-3), eventually consuming the “solid food” of deeper teaching (Heb 5:11-14).<\/p>\nSpiritual maturity has to do with one’s ability to discern spiritual truth (1 Cor 2:6). Christians are exhorted to be mature in their thinking (1 Cor 14:20). The body of Christ grows to maturity through the equipping of believers and by growing in knowledge of the Son of God (Eph 4:11-16). The result is a united community of faith in which love and truth further build up the body of Christ.<\/p>\nThe audience of Hebrews was spiritually immature. The author wanted to give them real spiritual meat, but they were acting like spiritual babies who needed basic nourishment rather than deeper teaching (5:12). They had not been listening to the word of God. They had been believers long enough to be teaching others, but a growing insensitivity had rendered them spiritually dull (5:11-12; cp. 1 Cor 3:1-3). They lacked the maturity to discern the basic difference between right and wrong (Heb 5:14). Thus, the author challenged them to move on to maturity so he could present them with deeper truths of the faith, rather than repeatedly recounting the basics (6:1-3).<\/p>\nSpiritual maturity is not an automatic result of time. It results from focused listening to the word of God and living out that word in fellowship with a community of believers.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Cor 2:6; 3:1-3; 14:20; 2 Cor 13:9-11; Eph 4:11-16; Col 4:12; Heb 5:11-14; 6:1-3; 10:14; 12:1-2; 1 Pet 2:1-3<\/p>","summary_ro":"Spiritual Maturity When a person turns to Christ for salvation, it marks the beginning of a journey that will continue the rest of their life. Such a person does not simply remain as they are; they are transformed, growing continually into Christlikeness—a process often referred to as sanctification. Just as newborn babies drink milk in order to grow—eventually being able to eat solid food—new believers must avail themselves of “spiritual milk” in order to “grow into a full experience of salv...","summary_en":"Spiritual Maturity When a person turns to Christ for salvation, it marks the beginning of a journey that will continue the rest of their life. Such a person does not simply remain as they are; they are transformed, growing continually into Christlikeness—a process often referred to as sanctification. Just as newborn babies drink milk in order to grow—eventually being able to eat solid food—new believers must avail themselves of “spiritual milk” in order to “grow into a full experience of salv...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":150571,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Spiritual Maturity","title_en":"Spiritual Maturity","content_ro":"<h3>Spiritual Maturity<\/h3>\nWhen a person turns to Christ for salvation, it marks the beginning of a journey that will continue the rest of their life. Such a person does not simply remain as they are; they are transformed, growing continually into Christlikeness—a process often referred to as sanctification. Just as newborn babies drink milk in order to grow—eventually being able to eat solid food—new believers must avail themselves of “spiritual milk” in order to “grow into a full experience of salvation” (1 Pet 2:2-3), eventually consuming the “solid food” of deeper teaching (Heb 5:11-14).<\/p>\nSpiritual maturity has to do with one’s ability to discern spiritual truth (1 Cor 2:6). Christians are exhorted to be mature in their thinking (1 Cor 14:20). The body of Christ grows to maturity through the equipping of believers and by growing in knowledge of the Son of God (Eph 4:11-16). The result is a united community of faith in which love and truth further build up the body of Christ.<\/p>\nThe audience of Hebrews was spiritually immature. The author wanted to give them real spiritual meat, but they were acting like spiritual babies who needed basic nourishment rather than deeper teaching (5:12). They had not been listening to the word of God. They had been believers long enough to be teaching others, but a growing insensitivity had rendered them spiritually dull (5:11-12; cp. 1 Cor 3:1-3). They lacked the maturity to discern the basic difference between right and wrong (Heb 5:14). Thus, the author challenged them to move on to maturity so he could present them with deeper truths of the faith, rather than repeatedly recounting the basics (6:1-3).<\/p>\nSpiritual maturity is not an automatic result of time. It results from focused listening to the word of God and living out that word in fellowship with a community of believers.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Cor 2:6; 3:1-3; 14:20; 2 Cor 13:9-11; Eph 4:11-16; Col 4:12; Heb 5:11-14; 6:1-3; 10:14; 12:1-2; 1 Pet 2:1-3<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Spiritual Maturity<\/h3>\nWhen a person turns to Christ for salvation, it marks the beginning of a journey that will continue the rest of their life. Such a person does not simply remain as they are; they are transformed, growing continually into Christlikeness—a process often referred to as sanctification. Just as newborn babies drink milk in order to grow—eventually being able to eat solid food—new believers must avail themselves of “spiritual milk” in order to “grow into a full experience of salvation” (1 Pet 2:2-3), eventually consuming the “solid food” of deeper teaching (Heb 5:11-14).<\/p>\nSpiritual maturity has to do with one’s ability to discern spiritual truth (1 Cor 2:6). Christians are exhorted to be mature in their thinking (1 Cor 14:20). The body of Christ grows to maturity through the equipping of believers and by growing in knowledge of the Son of God (Eph 4:11-16). The result is a united community of faith in which love and truth further build up the body of Christ.<\/p>\nThe audience of Hebrews was spiritually immature. The author wanted to give them real spiritual meat, but they were acting like spiritual babies who needed basic nourishment rather than deeper teaching (5:12). They had not been listening to the word of God. They had been believers long enough to be teaching others, but a growing insensitivity had rendered them spiritually dull (5:11-12; cp. 1 Cor 3:1-3). They lacked the maturity to discern the basic difference between right and wrong (Heb 5:14). Thus, the author challenged them to move on to maturity so he could present them with deeper truths of the faith, rather than repeatedly recounting the basics (6:1-3).<\/p>\nSpiritual maturity is not an automatic result of time. It results from focused listening to the word of God and living out that word in fellowship with a community of believers.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n1 Cor 2:6; 3:1-3; 14:20; 2 Cor 13:9-11; Eph 4:11-16; Col 4:12; Heb 5:11-14; 6:1-3; 10:14; 12:1-2; 1 Pet 2:1-3<\/p>","summary_ro":"Spiritual Maturity When a person turns to Christ for salvation, it marks the beginning of a journey that will continue the rest of their life. Such a person does not simply remain as they are; they are transformed, growing continually into Christlikeness—a process often referred to as sanctification. Just as newborn babies drink milk in order to grow—eventually being able to eat solid food—new believers must avail themselves of “spiritual milk” in order to “grow into a full experience of salv...","summary_en":"Spiritual Maturity When a person turns to Christ for salvation, it marks the beginning of a journey that will continue the rest of their life. Such a person does not simply remain as they are; they are transformed, growing continually into Christlikeness—a process often referred to as sanctification. Just as newborn babies drink milk in order to grow—eventually being able to eat solid food—new believers must avail themselves of “spiritual milk” in order to “grow into a full experience of salv...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"21":[{"id":7645,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"First Letter to the Corinthians","title_en":"First Letter to the Corinthians","content_ro":"<h3>CORINTHIANS, First Letter to the<\/h3>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date and Origin<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nThere is no doubt about who wrote 1 Corinthians, for all scholars agree that the apostle Paul wrote it on his third missionary journey while he was living in Ephesus. By this time Paul was a mature, middle-aged (perhaps 55 years old) missionary, fully seasoned from planting churches around a quarter of the Mediterranean world.<\/p>\nDate and Origin<\/p>\nPaul worked in Corinth from about AD<\/span> 50 to 52. After a brief stay in Jerusalem, he returned to his missionary work, this time at Ephesus (Acts 19), where he ministered for three years (AD<\/span> 53–55\/56). During this period, he wrote at least three letters to Corinth and made a visit as well. His first letter, often called “the previous letter,” is referred to in 1 Corinthians 5:9-11. We know from this reference that the letter was misunderstood, but we know little of its content, for it has been lost.<\/p>\nSometime in AD<\/span> 55, after hearing reports from Chloe’s household (1 Cor 1:11), who were probably members of Chloe’s house church, he dictated a second letter to Corinth, our 1 Corinthians. This was probably sent off in the hands of Stephanas, Fortunatus, and Achaicus (16:17). Paul would later write a third letter to Corinth, called “the letter of tears” (2 Cor 2:2-3), and then finally 2 Corinthians.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nCorinth was a seaport city, destroyed by the Romans in 146 BC<\/span> and rebuilt in 46 BC<\/span> by Julius Caesar. After 27 BC<\/span>, it was the Roman capital of Achaia, where the proconsul had his residence (Acts 18:12). The city itself was really three cities: the port of Cenchrea, about eight miles (13 kilometers) to the east, where ships from the Aegean would unload; the port of Lechaion, about a mile (1.6 kilometers) to the west on the Gulf of Corinth, where the ships would be reloaded, their goods having been transported in wagons over the isthmus and the ships on rollers; and the city itself on the high ground in between.<\/p>\nThe acropolis of the city, on top of the steep, high Acrocorinth, contained the temple of Aphrodite, where 1,000 female slaves were dedicated to the service of this goddess of love. This distinctive cult of Corinth was dedicated to the veneration of Aphrodite, goddess of love, beauty, and fertility, who is identified with the Roman Venus. Associated with such religious practices was a general moral degradation. Corinthian morals were notoriously corrupt, even when compared with pagan Rome. Down in the city was the synagogue (Acts 18:4); for while the city as a Roman colony was largely populated by Italians, it had attracted other peoples from the Mediterranean, among whom were the Jews.<\/p>\nPurpose and Teaching<\/p>\nThe main concern of Paul in 1 Corinthians was the unity of the church. There was a self-centeredness in Corinth that resulted in building cliques within the church, in flaunting knowledge and liberty in the face of others scandalized by it, and in selfish displays in the worship services.<\/p>\nTwo other major concerns also surface in the book. First, along with other pagan practices, the lax sexual ethics of Corinth had influenced the church; Paul needed to erect some barriers. Second, there was a problem in accepting the resurrection of the body; Paul realized that this issue had implications for the core of the faith and vigorously affirmed the resurrection.<\/p>\nBoth of these latter two areas, as well as aspects of the unity issue (particularly their concern with knowledge), have been identified by some scholars as Gnostic motifs, leading to the conclusion that Paul was opposing a Gnostic party in Corinth. Careful examination reveals, however, that while some of the elements floating in the Corinthian milieu would later contribute to the development of Gnosticism, it would be anachronistic to call them gnostic. While recognizing protognostic ideas in the Corinthian situation, it is important to keep interpretation within the first-century context.<\/p>\nThus, the focus of Paul’s concern was the church, its unity and purity. Paul was fighting to keep this church from disintegrating into a number of competing and bickering factions divided over moral and doctrinal issues. Furthermore, he wanted to keep the focus of the church on Jesus, the exalted Lord.<\/p>\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Greeting, 1:1-9<\/h5>\nPaul begins with a standard greeting, followed by his usual thanksgiving prayer. Two features stand out. First, the greeting associates Sosthenes with Paul. While we cannot be sure who Sosthenes was, he was surely well known to the Corinthians; probably he was the Sosthenes whom Acts 18:17 identifies as the ruler of the synagogue, following the conversion of Crispus.<\/p>\nSecond, Paul stresses the Corinthians’ abilities in speech, knowledge, and spiritual gifts. They had all of these, and these were genuine, but it was precisely these good things that they were abusing. Paul’s solution is not to suppress these gifts (indeed, he thanks God for them), but to place them in a new context.<\/p>\n<h5>Report from Chloe’s People, 1:10–4:21<\/h5>\nThe Corinthians had made Paul, Cephas (Peter), Apollos, and even Christ into party leaders. We are not sure what each of these groups stood for, but one might guess that the Pauline group stressed Paul’s slogans of liberty; the Petrine group, the need to hold to Jewish practices; and the Apollos group, the value of philosophical understanding and oratory. Whatever they stood for, Paul is appalled that it breaks their unity. His first response is to argue that his behavior was not calculated to build a following but to point to Christ. That is, he did not insist on personally baptizing converts; who performed these acts did not matter, since they were all baptized into Christ.<\/p>\nPaul immediately moves to the underlying issue, that of various persons wanting to show themselves better or wiser than others who did not have the insights of their party in the church. Their seeking for wisdom contradicts Paul’s preaching of the gospel.<\/p>\nFirst, the message of a crucified Christ (1:18) made no sense within the wisdom and values of either Jews or Greeks. It demanded a whole new way of looking on life—God’s way.<\/p>\nSecond, God had not chosen them on the basis of their status in society; quite the contrary, he had made their only status the equal status they received from him (1:26-31).<\/p>\nThird, their faith had not been based on Paul’s oratory but on the gifts of the Spirit that Paul had manifested (2:4), which had convinced them that God was acting in Paul. Thus, it was not argument that led them to God, but God’s Spirit. Therefore it was the Spirit, not human reasoning, that would continue to reveal God to them. Unless they became fools with respect to the world’s ways of reasoning, they would never be able to rethink life from the perspective of the Spirit, who gives true wisdom.<\/p>\nFourth, they were not acting on this spiritual level when they claimed Paul and others as party leaders; this activity demonstrates the evil impulse in human beings (“the flesh” or “fallen human nature”) at work since it elevates human servants rather than the God who works equally in each of them.<\/p>\nFifth, these servants were working together to build one “temple” for God based on the one foundation in Jesus Christ, that is, the church. God alone will judge how each Christian contributes to the work of building the church. But woe to the person who divides the church, for “if anyone destroys God’s temple, God will destroy him” (3:17, rsv<\/span>). (Note that here the temple imagery is used collectively; the church is the temple. In chapter 6 it will be used individually; each Christian is the temple.)<\/p>\nFinally, he points to their overrealized eschatology, for with their spiritual gifts (which were genuine) and vaunted wisdom (which was worldly) they claimed they were reigning with Christ (4:8-13). Paul, with ironic sarcasm, points out how different this claim is from the lifestyle of the apostles. The apostles lived like Jesus—a life of suffering, expecting exaltation later. The Corinthians were trying to have their exaltation now without crucifixion.<\/p>\nPaul closes this section with an admonition. He softens his words toward some who would be responsive, urging them to copy his lifestyle. The teacher was the message (vv 14-16). Timothy will also faithfully live the truth before them. Then he threatens the “arrogant” (v 18), pointing out that he will not challenge their words but their spiritual power if he comes.<\/p>\n<h5>The Report from the Corinthian Messengers, 5:1–6:20<\/h5>\nPaul now turns to three issues raised by oral reports from the messengers bearing the Corinthians’ letter to him.<\/p>\nThe first issue is that of church discipline (5:12-13). Paul cites a case of flagrant immorality—that of incest. This immorality was so clear (even pagans considered it immoral), that it was not a case of ignorance of Christian principles. Further, the church had taken no action but rather boasted in its tolerance, perhaps on the basis of a misunderstanding of Paul’s teaching on freedom from the law.<\/p>\nPaul presents three principles in this section: (1) the primary goal of church discipline is the repentance and restoration of the offender; (2) the secondary goal of church discipline is the protection of the church (5:6-8); and (3) the church is not to seek to judge or control the actions of evil persons in the world—they are God’s responsibility—but to discipline those within the church (vv 9-13). Paul will use these principles also in the following chapters (cf. 7:12-16).<\/p>\nThe second issue is that of lawsuits between Christians (6:1-11). The Corinthian society was as prone to litigation as our own, and Christians did not see anything wrong in suing each other. Paul was troubled. If Christians are to judge the world, they certainly should not bring the world in to judge issues within the church. Rather than put their cases before “those who are least esteemed by the church” (6:4, rsv<\/span>, i.e., pagan judges), they should decide the cases within the church.<\/p>\nPaul has an even better way than bypassing the pagan courts, and that is to simply suffer the wrong (1 Cor 6:7). Applying the teaching of Jesus quite literally (Mt 5:38-42), Paul argues that it would be best to allow themselves to be defrauded. Instead, the Corinthians are willing to step on their brothers in Christ to get what they feel are their rights. This raises the issue as to whether greed is not still in their hearts (1 Cor 6:9-11). While Paul accepts people who formerly did all sorts of evil (for Jesus has cleansed them), he makes it very clear that anyone presently practicing greed or immorality is not part of the kingdom, whatever their doctrinal commitments may be.<\/p>\nThe final issue in this section is that of casual sexual intercourse (6:12-20). In a world where virginity was important if a woman wished to be married and where slaves in the temple of Aphrodite were available as prostitutes, prostitution was the major form of casual sex. The libertine party used two slogans: “All things are lawful for me,” a saying that may well have been derived from Paul’s teaching, and “Food is meant for the stomach and the stomach for food”—that is, since the body works this way, it must be the Creator’s purpose. Paul qualifies rather than contradicts their slogans. Freedom is subordinate to other goals (6:12, 20). The body is not made to be used as we wish, but is to be dedicated to the Lord, as the doctrine of the resurrection demonstrates (vv 13-14).<\/p>\nFurthermore, sexual intercourse is an act of the whole person, unlike eating (Paul cites Gn 2:24; cf. Jesus in Mt 19:5). Therefore, this act takes a member (i.e., the person) from the body of Christ and makes him a unity with a prostitute (1 Cor 6:15-17). Thus immorality is unlike other sins that are external to the self, for it changes the self and thus defiles the body, the place where the Holy Spirit dwells. It disregards the fact that Christ has redeemed the body, and that the whole of the Christian belongs to God, not to the Christian.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Answers to the Corinthians, 7:1–16:4<\/h5>\nNow Paul turns to the Corinthians’ own issues, building on the answers he has already given to questions they did not ask.<\/p>\nThe first issue is that of marriage (7:1-24). The slogan of the ascetic party in Corinth (perhaps a reaction against the libertines of ch 6) was “It is good for a man not to touch a woman” (7:1, kjv<\/span>). The Corinthians applied this slogan to both married and unmarried, arguing that married Christians should abstain from sexual relations. Paul clarified the matter with three points. First, he said that this was totally unrealistic, for total abstinence would lead to immorality (vv 2, 7-9). Second, when people get married they no longer own their own bodies; their bodies belong to each other for their mutual benefit (vv 3-4). Sexual refusal denies a spouse what rightly belongs to him or her. Third, abstinence is allowed for limited periods by mutual agreement as a type of fast to help focus on Christ (v 5).<\/p>\nWhile Paul will address the issue of the unmarried more fully in 7:25-40, in a side remark he indicates that he is himself content to be unmarried. But since some do not have this gift, full sexual expression in marriage is far better than fighting passion (7:7-9). Once two Christians are married, divorce is unthinkable. A clear word of Christ proves this (Mt 5:31-32; Mk 10:11-12; Lk 16:18 and parallels), so there are no exceptions (Paul either does not know of the exception clause in Mt 19:9 or he understands it as referring to something like premarital unchastity discovered before the wedding, not to adultery after the wedding). Although in some cases a Christian couple must live separately, it is always with a view to reconciliation. The teaching of Jesus does not allow him to think of the marriage as ending (1 Cor 7:10-11).<\/p>\nBut what if the spouse is not a Christian? Paul applies his principles to a situation for which Jesus did not leave a clear word. First, since Jesus told Christians not to divorce, even in this situation the Christian may not initiate a divorce (7:12-13). Second, since Christians are not to control or judge non-Christians (6:12-13), the Christian does not need to continue the relationship if the non-Christian insists on a divorce (7:15). Third, far from defiling the Christian (as the relationship in 6:15 does), the Christian will make the relationship holy, with positive results for the children and the possible salvation of the spouse (7:14, 16). While this is no call to remain in situations of physical or sexual abuse, it is a call to remain faithful to a mixed marriage situation.<\/p>\nPaul does not believe that one normally needs to change one’s life situation to serve Christ (7:17-24). Therefore, normally each person should remain in that state of life in which he or she was when called to Christ. Paul’s examples show that he was thinking in terms of marriage or singleness, Jew (circumcision) or Gentile, slave or free, not in terms of situations that might be immoral in themselves. In the case of slaves, they can accept freedom if it becomes available, but it does not make an essential difference in their real state before God or their ability to serve Christ (vv 21-23).<\/p>\nThe second issue is that of the unmarried (7:25-40). Paul argues that single people and widows may marry—it is not wrong. Yet he advises them to remain single. Since all in this age is passing away, it would be good to stay single so as to avoid the extra suffering to which marriage exposes a person (vv 25-31). What is more, marriage always divides one’s attention between the Lord and the legitimate needs of the spouse. One must not abandon the spouse or ignore his or her needs in order to serve the Lord, but one can remain single so that the Lord can be the sole focus of life and devotion (vv 32-35). Finally, if one is in a situation in which marriage is expected, the person must make his own decision as to whether he should marry the woman for her sake (and perhaps that of the wider family) or whether he can and should simply care for her as a single person (vv 36-38). Paul closes this section by repeating his general principles (vv 39-40).<\/p>\nThe third issue Paul deals with is that of food that has been offered to idols (8:1–11:1). Most meat that was available in the marketplace came either from animals slaughtered as sacrifices in the temples or from groups of animals from which one was offered as a dedicatory sacrifice. To scrupulous Jews, all of this meat would be untouched. Furthermore, pagans invited Christians to feasts in their homes and to private feasts held in the precincts of pagan temples, where trade guilds also held feasts. Paul discusses these issues and uses them to teach wider principles of Christian conduct.<\/p>\nFirst, love, not knowledge, is the key to correct behavior (8:1-13). Some Corinthians felt superior because they were convinced that idols had no reality (there is only one God), and therefore any food offered to them was still fit to eat. Paul again accepts their slogans, but counters with the statement, “Knowledge puffs up, but love builds up” (v 1, niv<\/span>). God is not concerned with what we know or eat, but he is concerned with whether or not we love our fellow Christians. The concern is not that a fellow Christian might become enraged because one indulged, but that he or she might have a vulnerable conscience and indulge himself, even though he believed it wrong and thus in his own eyes apostasizes from the faith (i.e., rebels against Christ). Such leading astray is not love. It would be better never to eat meat than to lead a fellow Christian into sin.<\/p>\nSecond, he points out that one should subordinate one’s own interests to those of others, especially those of Christ and his gospel (9:1-23). Both the examples of the apostles, who expected the church to support them and their families (cf. Lk 10:5-7), and Scripture prove that Paul had the right to demand support from the Corinthians. This had not been his practice, for he had normally made tents to support his ministry, though he did accept gifts from other churches. Paul did this to prevent people from thinking he was peddling religion for profit (9:12) and for the personal satisfaction of doing more than he had to do (vv 16-17). This was part of Paul’s larger policy of subordinating his own personal preferences and interests to those of Christ and his gospel (vv 19-23).<\/p>\nThird, the bravado of the strong who demonstrate their liberty with disregard of fellow Christians is spiritually dangerous (9:24–10:22). It is not who begins but who completes the Christian life that counts; therefore, it is a life of discipline, not relaxed license (9:24-27). Israel in the wilderness presents an example of failure in this regard. They had “baptism” and “the Lord’s Supper” (10:2-4), just like the church, yet most of them did not make it to the Promised Land. The reason God destroyed them was simple: they turned to sin. Likewise, the Christian has to be careful not to be so proud about faith and freedom that he becomes careless about sin and falls from the faith (v 12). On the other hand, Christians need not be fearful, for the temptation is not more powerful than they are; God has provided a way of escape, if they will take it (v 13).<\/p>\nAnother link between the Israelites and the Corinthians pertains to partaking of a sacrificial meal (10:14-22). In the Lord’s Supper there is a sharing of the blood and body of Christ, just as real as Israel’s sacrifices on the altar. Food offered to idols is also a sharing, not with the supposed god, but with the real demon that is behind the idol. To try to share at both tables is to provoke God’s jealousy just as Israel did (v 22).<\/p>\nA summary of the discussion draws the three chapters together (10:23–11:1). Since the food is not changed by being offered to idols, and since all food really belongs to God, one may eat anything sold in the market—do not ask any questions (10:25-26). Likewise, the Christian may eat anything served at a dinner in the home of an unbeliever. However, if someone points out that the food was offered to idols, the Christian should pass it by, not because it would hurt him, but because it is an issue with the person who raised the question, and the Christian is concerned about the good of his neighbor (vv 27-30). In other words, follow Paul’s example as he patterns himself in turn after Christ, who served others rather than himself. Act so that God’s reputation and character shine through even in what one eats (v 31); try to offend no one but to benefit each person in moving him toward salvation (v 32).<\/p>\nThe fourth issue Paul deals with is that of order in church meetings (11:2–14:40). The Corinthians’ house churches had lively meetings, but rather than showing unity in Christ, they demonstrated selfishness. Paul had no desire to change what they did; he did want to change how they did it.<\/p>\nThe first problem in the meetings was the behavior of married women (11:1-16). The sign of marriage in that day was the wearing of a veil or distinctive hairstyle, as a ring is today. Women praying and delivering prophecies in church was no issue for Paul, but the women may have felt that this loosed them from their husbands (cf. Mk 12:25) and therefore was a reason to set aside their veils. Paul argues that husband and wife are intimately joined, just as humans are to God (1 Cor 11:3). Therefore as humans should not shame but glorify God, so the wife should act toward her husband. Thus, while Paul approves of ministry by women, he puts marriage first.<\/p>\nThe second problem in the meetings was that of making class distinctions (11:17-34). Until the weekly Lord’s Supper began to be turned into the sacrifice of the Mass in the third and fourth centuries, it was a full shared meal. Middle- and upper-class Christians could come earlier to the church gatherings and also provide better food and drink for themselves. Following the customs of pagan clubs, they had no scruples against starting early and feasting as befit their class, so long as at least simple food was provided for the slaves and peasants who could not come as early (v 21). This shamed the poorer Christians and made them feel class distinctions keenly (v 22). This, argues Paul, is not the Lord’s Supper but a sham (v 20).<\/p>\nPaul repeats the words of institution to point out that they all are participating in Christ’s body and blood (cf. 10:16-17), not their own meal. To do it in an unworthy manner, with divisions and class distinctions among them, is to profane his meal by failing to demonstrate the unity of his body, the church (11:29), and thus invite his judgment, which they were already experiencing. Instead, they should examine their own motives and truly gather as one to eat this common meal.<\/p>\nThe third problem in their meetings was the use of spiritual gifts (12:1–14:40). It is possible that some people in these house churches, under the influence of Gnostic ideas in which the spiritual is good and the material evil, and feeling inspired by a spirit, cried out, “Jesus [meaning the human Jesus as opposed to the spiritual Christ] be cursed.” It is not the Spirit of God saying this, argues Paul, for the Spirit in us cries the basic Christian confession, “Jesus is Lord.”<\/p>\nOthers in these churches were exalting their own particular gift, especially the gift of tongues, shouting down others or refusing to give them a turn. There is only one Spirit and he gives all the gifts, Paul argues (12:4-6). The Spirit manifests himself sovereignly in each Christian, not simply for the Christian’s own benefit, but for the good of all (v 7). Since it is the Spirit, not a given manifestation, that the Christian has, the gifts manifested could change from meeting to meeting.<\/p>\nThat same Spirit has made all Christians into one organic unity in Christ (12:12-13). Thus not only does the one Spirit give all the gifts—all are equally inspired—but all the gifts are equally needed for the proper functioning of the body of Christ (vv 14-26). No one can say that his lack of a given gift makes him less a part of the body; indeed, the less noticeable gifts may well be the more important. Thus, within the body of Christ, there are not only different manifestations of the Spirit through individuals in a given meeting, but different ministries or functions of individuals in the body (vv 27-31).<\/p>\nTherefore, it is not the demonstration of a particular gift that shows one’s spirituality, but how one demonstrates it—that is, whether one manifests it with love (13:1-13). Any gift exercised for selfish purposes may be a genuine gift of the Spirit, but it is worthless to the individual (vv 1-3). This is because love is the opposite of selfishness (vv 4-7). In fact, the gifts of the Spirit are only for the period between Jesus’ first coming and his second coming, when the kingdom of God will be perfectly revealed and the King will be present in person, and thus the intermediary gifts of the Spirit will be no longer necessary (vv 10, 12). It is not giftedness but faith and hope that will have a reward then, and love, which is the greatest, because it will continue as Christians live in perfect love with each other and with Jesus (v 13).<\/p>\nApplying this to Corinth, Paul argues that while one should desire all the gifts, love dictates that prophecy should be the gift of choice in the church meetings (14:1-25). The Corinthians had evidently been stressing tongues. Tongues without interpretation is of little value to anyone except to the speaker himself. It does not build anyone up; its confusion seems madness to outsiders. Outside the church meetings there is a role for tongues, both as a sign of judgment (v 21) and for private devotion (v 18), but inside, only with interpretation. Prophecy, however, both builds up and convicts, and thus is to be sought in the meetings.<\/p>\nIn the church meetings, then, both gifts and order are to prevail (14:26-40). All types of gifts are allowed expression with a goal of mutual edification, not selfish demonstration (v 26). Tongues speakers must have an interpreter; both they and prophets must speak in turn, with time being taken to evaluate the utterances after every few speakers (vv 27-33). Furthermore, the women, who were perhaps chatting in the service (perhaps due to habits learned in Jewish synagogues, where they were segregated and did not participate) are to cease their chattering, pay attention, and learn, asking questions at home if they do not understand (vv 34-36). In his concluding summary, Paul states that all should be done in an orderly manner (vv 37-40).<\/p>\nThe fifth issue Paul deals with is that of the resurrection of the dead (ch 15). Some of the problems mentioned earlier concerning loose morals (chs 5–6), ascetic denial, sexuality (ch 7), or feeling one was resurrected already (ch 11) point to the fact that some Corinthians did not believe in the resurrection of the body, though they apparently believed in the resurrection of Jesus and the immortality of the human soul.<\/p>\nPaul reaffirms that the resurrection of Jesus is an essential part of the gospel message (15:1-19). The unified voice of the church was that Jesus not only died but rose again and appeared to numerous witnesses (vv 3-11). If they were consistent in their antiresurrection argument, Christ could not have been raised. Yet if this were the case, the whole gospel message is false and all their hopes for salvation are in vain (vv 12-19).<\/p>\nSince Christ has been raised, Christians will also be raised because of their solidarity with him (15:20-28). As they had experienced the results of being in Adam, so now they will experience the results of being in Christ. But resurrection does not happen at once. There are progressive stages: (a) Christ was first; (b) Christians will be raised at his coming; (c) Christ must reign until he extends kingdom rule over the whole world, destroying all demonic powers (including death itself); and (d) then he will turn over the perfected kingdom to the Father (vv 23-28).<\/p>\nResurrection hope also explains Christian practices such as baptizing people on behalf of others who had died (probably people who had turned to Christ but had died before they could be baptized, 15:29), and willingness to risk death for Christ (vv 30-32).<\/p>\nPaul admits that there are intellectual problems involved, but these are solved when one realizes that resurrection includes both continuity and discontinuity (15:35-50). Just as seed and plant are the same and yet different, and just as many types of bodies exist, so it is with the resurrection. What was perishable, dishonorable, weak, and physical (i.e., in Adam) will be raised imperishable, glorious, powerful, and spiritual (i.e., in Christ). Indeed, it is only as Christians thus become like Christ, the heavenly man, that they can become part of God’s kingdom.<\/p>\nWith excitement Paul shares his real hope, that of transformation (15:51-58). At the coming of Christ the dead will be raised and transformed. But the living will also need transformation, and this will happen in a split second, making all of them impervious to death. Then they will truly know the victory already present in Jesus’ resurrection (vv 54-57). A concluding summary draws the practical conclusion that this teaching should give them assurance of a reward for anything done for Christ now (v 58).<\/p>\nThe sixth issue Paul deals with is that of the collection for the needy Jerusalem church (16:1-4). Because of famine in Judea in the 40s, the church there had become impoverished. Partly because of the need and partly to further the unity of the church, Paul took up a collection in some of his churches for the Judean church. He answers the Corinthians’ practical queries by stating that the collection should be made weekly according to ability, not all at once when Paul arrives (16:2). When he comes, he will send off the money with their own messengers. Paul remains vague about whether or not he will accompany them, allaying suspicions that somehow he plans to profit from it (cf. 2 Cor 8–9).<\/p>\n<h5>Final Remarks and Closing, 16:5-24<\/h5>\nHaving come to the end, Paul discusses his travel plans, including his intention for a lengthy visit whenever he leaves Ephesus (cf. 2 Cor 1). Timothy was either coming with the letter or else would arrive shortly after another mission; they were to respect him and help him return. Paul points out that he urged Apollos to visit Corinth, in case some suspect Paul is against him. A closing formal exhortation to firm faith and love leads into his final customary greetings. He praises the Corinthian messengers who had brought him their letter (16:15-18) and sends greetings from Aquila and Prisca (Priscilla), his comissionaries who had helped him found the church in Corinth (Acts 18:2-3, 18). Referring to the customary greeting in the church, he tells them to greet each other with a kiss on each cheek (16:20). Paul then takes the pen from the scribe, as was normal, and writes the closing exhortation—placing a curse on those who do not love Jesus, the common Aramaic expression used in the church “Come, O Lord” (Marana tha,<\/em> perhaps used to close services), and providing an assurance of his own love for them (vv 21-24).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; Corinth; Corinthians, Second Letter to the; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CORINTHIANS, First Letter to the<\/h3>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date and Origin<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nThere is no doubt about who wrote 1 Corinthians, for all scholars agree that the apostle Paul wrote it on his third missionary journey while he was living in Ephesus. By this time Paul was a mature, middle-aged (perhaps 55 years old) missionary, fully seasoned from planting churches around a quarter of the Mediterranean world.<\/p>\nDate and Origin<\/p>\nPaul worked in Corinth from about AD<\/span> 50 to 52. After a brief stay in Jerusalem, he returned to his missionary work, this time at Ephesus (Acts 19), where he ministered for three years (AD<\/span> 53–55\/56). During this period, he wrote at least three letters to Corinth and made a visit as well. His first letter, often called “the previous letter,” is referred to in 1 Corinthians 5:9-11. We know from this reference that the letter was misunderstood, but we know little of its content, for it has been lost.<\/p>\nSometime in AD<\/span> 55, after hearing reports from Chloe’s household (1 Cor 1:11), who were probably members of Chloe’s house church, he dictated a second letter to Corinth, our 1 Corinthians. This was probably sent off in the hands of Stephanas, Fortunatus, and Achaicus (16:17). Paul would later write a third letter to Corinth, called “the letter of tears” (2 Cor 2:2-3), and then finally 2 Corinthians.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nCorinth was a seaport city, destroyed by the Romans in 146 BC<\/span> and rebuilt in 46 BC<\/span> by Julius Caesar. After 27 BC<\/span>, it was the Roman capital of Achaia, where the proconsul had his residence (Acts 18:12). The city itself was really three cities: the port of Cenchrea, about eight miles (13 kilometers) to the east, where ships from the Aegean would unload; the port of Lechaion, about a mile (1.6 kilometers) to the west on the Gulf of Corinth, where the ships would be reloaded, their goods having been transported in wagons over the isthmus and the ships on rollers; and the city itself on the high ground in between.<\/p>\nThe acropolis of the city, on top of the steep, high Acrocorinth, contained the temple of Aphrodite, where 1,000 female slaves were dedicated to the service of this goddess of love. This distinctive cult of Corinth was dedicated to the veneration of Aphrodite, goddess of love, beauty, and fertility, who is identified with the Roman Venus. Associated with such religious practices was a general moral degradation. Corinthian morals were notoriously corrupt, even when compared with pagan Rome. Down in the city was the synagogue (Acts 18:4); for while the city as a Roman colony was largely populated by Italians, it had attracted other peoples from the Mediterranean, among whom were the Jews.<\/p>\nPurpose and Teaching<\/p>\nThe main concern of Paul in 1 Corinthians was the unity of the church. There was a self-centeredness in Corinth that resulted in building cliques within the church, in flaunting knowledge and liberty in the face of others scandalized by it, and in selfish displays in the worship services.<\/p>\nTwo other major concerns also surface in the book. First, along with other pagan practices, the lax sexual ethics of Corinth had influenced the church; Paul needed to erect some barriers. Second, there was a problem in accepting the resurrection of the body; Paul realized that this issue had implications for the core of the faith and vigorously affirmed the resurrection.<\/p>\nBoth of these latter two areas, as well as aspects of the unity issue (particularly their concern with knowledge), have been identified by some scholars as Gnostic motifs, leading to the conclusion that Paul was opposing a Gnostic party in Corinth. Careful examination reveals, however, that while some of the elements floating in the Corinthian milieu would later contribute to the development of Gnosticism, it would be anachronistic to call them gnostic. While recognizing protognostic ideas in the Corinthian situation, it is important to keep interpretation within the first-century context.<\/p>\nThus, the focus of Paul’s concern was the church, its unity and purity. Paul was fighting to keep this church from disintegrating into a number of competing and bickering factions divided over moral and doctrinal issues. Furthermore, he wanted to keep the focus of the church on Jesus, the exalted Lord.<\/p>\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Greeting, 1:1-9<\/h5>\nPaul begins with a standard greeting, followed by his usual thanksgiving prayer. Two features stand out. First, the greeting associates Sosthenes with Paul. While we cannot be sure who Sosthenes was, he was surely well known to the Corinthians; probably he was the Sosthenes whom Acts 18:17 identifies as the ruler of the synagogue, following the conversion of Crispus.<\/p>\nSecond, Paul stresses the Corinthians’ abilities in speech, knowledge, and spiritual gifts. They had all of these, and these were genuine, but it was precisely these good things that they were abusing. Paul’s solution is not to suppress these gifts (indeed, he thanks God for them), but to place them in a new context.<\/p>\n<h5>Report from Chloe’s People, 1:10–4:21<\/h5>\nThe Corinthians had made Paul, Cephas (Peter), Apollos, and even Christ into party leaders. We are not sure what each of these groups stood for, but one might guess that the Pauline group stressed Paul’s slogans of liberty; the Petrine group, the need to hold to Jewish practices; and the Apollos group, the value of philosophical understanding and oratory. Whatever they stood for, Paul is appalled that it breaks their unity. His first response is to argue that his behavior was not calculated to build a following but to point to Christ. That is, he did not insist on personally baptizing converts; who performed these acts did not matter, since they were all baptized into Christ.<\/p>\nPaul immediately moves to the underlying issue, that of various persons wanting to show themselves better or wiser than others who did not have the insights of their party in the church. Their seeking for wisdom contradicts Paul’s preaching of the gospel.<\/p>\nFirst, the message of a crucified Christ (1:18) made no sense within the wisdom and values of either Jews or Greeks. It demanded a whole new way of looking on life—God’s way.<\/p>\nSecond, God had not chosen them on the basis of their status in society; quite the contrary, he had made their only status the equal status they received from him (1:26-31).<\/p>\nThird, their faith had not been based on Paul’s oratory but on the gifts of the Spirit that Paul had manifested (2:4), which had convinced them that God was acting in Paul. Thus, it was not argument that led them to God, but God’s Spirit. Therefore it was the Spirit, not human reasoning, that would continue to reveal God to them. Unless they became fools with respect to the world’s ways of reasoning, they would never be able to rethink life from the perspective of the Spirit, who gives true wisdom.<\/p>\nFourth, they were not acting on this spiritual level when they claimed Paul and others as party leaders; this activity demonstrates the evil impulse in human beings (“the flesh” or “fallen human nature”) at work since it elevates human servants rather than the God who works equally in each of them.<\/p>\nFifth, these servants were working together to build one “temple” for God based on the one foundation in Jesus Christ, that is, the church. God alone will judge how each Christian contributes to the work of building the church. But woe to the person who divides the church, for “if anyone destroys God’s temple, God will destroy him” (3:17, rsv<\/span>). (Note that here the temple imagery is used collectively; the church is the temple. In chapter 6 it will be used individually; each Christian is the temple.)<\/p>\nFinally, he points to their overrealized eschatology, for with their spiritual gifts (which were genuine) and vaunted wisdom (which was worldly) they claimed they were reigning with Christ (4:8-13). Paul, with ironic sarcasm, points out how different this claim is from the lifestyle of the apostles. The apostles lived like Jesus—a life of suffering, expecting exaltation later. The Corinthians were trying to have their exaltation now without crucifixion.<\/p>\nPaul closes this section with an admonition. He softens his words toward some who would be responsive, urging them to copy his lifestyle. The teacher was the message (vv 14-16). Timothy will also faithfully live the truth before them. Then he threatens the “arrogant” (v 18), pointing out that he will not challenge their words but their spiritual power if he comes.<\/p>\n<h5>The Report from the Corinthian Messengers, 5:1–6:20<\/h5>\nPaul now turns to three issues raised by oral reports from the messengers bearing the Corinthians’ letter to him.<\/p>\nThe first issue is that of church discipline (5:12-13). Paul cites a case of flagrant immorality—that of incest. This immorality was so clear (even pagans considered it immoral), that it was not a case of ignorance of Christian principles. Further, the church had taken no action but rather boasted in its tolerance, perhaps on the basis of a misunderstanding of Paul’s teaching on freedom from the law.<\/p>\nPaul presents three principles in this section: (1) the primary goal of church discipline is the repentance and restoration of the offender; (2) the secondary goal of church discipline is the protection of the church (5:6-8); and (3) the church is not to seek to judge or control the actions of evil persons in the world—they are God’s responsibility—but to discipline those within the church (vv 9-13). Paul will use these principles also in the following chapters (cf. 7:12-16).<\/p>\nThe second issue is that of lawsuits between Christians (6:1-11). The Corinthian society was as prone to litigation as our own, and Christians did not see anything wrong in suing each other. Paul was troubled. If Christians are to judge the world, they certainly should not bring the world in to judge issues within the church. Rather than put their cases before “those who are least esteemed by the church” (6:4, rsv<\/span>, i.e., pagan judges), they should decide the cases within the church.<\/p>\nPaul has an even better way than bypassing the pagan courts, and that is to simply suffer the wrong (1 Cor 6:7). Applying the teaching of Jesus quite literally (Mt 5:38-42), Paul argues that it would be best to allow themselves to be defrauded. Instead, the Corinthians are willing to step on their brothers in Christ to get what they feel are their rights. This raises the issue as to whether greed is not still in their hearts (1 Cor 6:9-11). While Paul accepts people who formerly did all sorts of evil (for Jesus has cleansed them), he makes it very clear that anyone presently practicing greed or immorality is not part of the kingdom, whatever their doctrinal commitments may be.<\/p>\nThe final issue in this section is that of casual sexual intercourse (6:12-20). In a world where virginity was important if a woman wished to be married and where slaves in the temple of Aphrodite were available as prostitutes, prostitution was the major form of casual sex. The libertine party used two slogans: “All things are lawful for me,” a saying that may well have been derived from Paul’s teaching, and “Food is meant for the stomach and the stomach for food”—that is, since the body works this way, it must be the Creator’s purpose. Paul qualifies rather than contradicts their slogans. Freedom is subordinate to other goals (6:12, 20). The body is not made to be used as we wish, but is to be dedicated to the Lord, as the doctrine of the resurrection demonstrates (vv 13-14).<\/p>\nFurthermore, sexual intercourse is an act of the whole person, unlike eating (Paul cites Gn 2:24; cf. Jesus in Mt 19:5). Therefore, this act takes a member (i.e., the person) from the body of Christ and makes him a unity with a prostitute (1 Cor 6:15-17). Thus immorality is unlike other sins that are external to the self, for it changes the self and thus defiles the body, the place where the Holy Spirit dwells. It disregards the fact that Christ has redeemed the body, and that the whole of the Christian belongs to God, not to the Christian.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Answers to the Corinthians, 7:1–16:4<\/h5>\nNow Paul turns to the Corinthians’ own issues, building on the answers he has already given to questions they did not ask.<\/p>\nThe first issue is that of marriage (7:1-24). The slogan of the ascetic party in Corinth (perhaps a reaction against the libertines of ch 6) was “It is good for a man not to touch a woman” (7:1, kjv<\/span>). The Corinthians applied this slogan to both married and unmarried, arguing that married Christians should abstain from sexual relations. Paul clarified the matter with three points. First, he said that this was totally unrealistic, for total abstinence would lead to immorality (vv 2, 7-9). Second, when people get married they no longer own their own bodies; their bodies belong to each other for their mutual benefit (vv 3-4). Sexual refusal denies a spouse what rightly belongs to him or her. Third, abstinence is allowed for limited periods by mutual agreement as a type of fast to help focus on Christ (v 5).<\/p>\nWhile Paul will address the issue of the unmarried more fully in 7:25-40, in a side remark he indicates that he is himself content to be unmarried. But since some do not have this gift, full sexual expression in marriage is far better than fighting passion (7:7-9). Once two Christians are married, divorce is unthinkable. A clear word of Christ proves this (Mt 5:31-32; Mk 10:11-12; Lk 16:18 and parallels), so there are no exceptions (Paul either does not know of the exception clause in Mt 19:9 or he understands it as referring to something like premarital unchastity discovered before the wedding, not to adultery after the wedding). Although in some cases a Christian couple must live separately, it is always with a view to reconciliation. The teaching of Jesus does not allow him to think of the marriage as ending (1 Cor 7:10-11).<\/p>\nBut what if the spouse is not a Christian? Paul applies his principles to a situation for which Jesus did not leave a clear word. First, since Jesus told Christians not to divorce, even in this situation the Christian may not initiate a divorce (7:12-13). Second, since Christians are not to control or judge non-Christians (6:12-13), the Christian does not need to continue the relationship if the non-Christian insists on a divorce (7:15). Third, far from defiling the Christian (as the relationship in 6:15 does), the Christian will make the relationship holy, with positive results for the children and the possible salvation of the spouse (7:14, 16). While this is no call to remain in situations of physical or sexual abuse, it is a call to remain faithful to a mixed marriage situation.<\/p>\nPaul does not believe that one normally needs to change one’s life situation to serve Christ (7:17-24). Therefore, normally each person should remain in that state of life in which he or she was when called to Christ. Paul’s examples show that he was thinking in terms of marriage or singleness, Jew (circumcision) or Gentile, slave or free, not in terms of situations that might be immoral in themselves. In the case of slaves, they can accept freedom if it becomes available, but it does not make an essential difference in their real state before God or their ability to serve Christ (vv 21-23).<\/p>\nThe second issue is that of the unmarried (7:25-40). Paul argues that single people and widows may marry—it is not wrong. Yet he advises them to remain single. Since all in this age is passing away, it would be good to stay single so as to avoid the extra suffering to which marriage exposes a person (vv 25-31). What is more, marriage always divides one’s attention between the Lord and the legitimate needs of the spouse. One must not abandon the spouse or ignore his or her needs in order to serve the Lord, but one can remain single so that the Lord can be the sole focus of life and devotion (vv 32-35). Finally, if one is in a situation in which marriage is expected, the person must make his own decision as to whether he should marry the woman for her sake (and perhaps that of the wider family) or whether he can and should simply care for her as a single person (vv 36-38). Paul closes this section by repeating his general principles (vv 39-40).<\/p>\nThe third issue Paul deals with is that of food that has been offered to idols (8:1–11:1). Most meat that was available in the marketplace came either from animals slaughtered as sacrifices in the temples or from groups of animals from which one was offered as a dedicatory sacrifice. To scrupulous Jews, all of this meat would be untouched. Furthermore, pagans invited Christians to feasts in their homes and to private feasts held in the precincts of pagan temples, where trade guilds also held feasts. Paul discusses these issues and uses them to teach wider principles of Christian conduct.<\/p>\nFirst, love, not knowledge, is the key to correct behavior (8:1-13). Some Corinthians felt superior because they were convinced that idols had no reality (there is only one God), and therefore any food offered to them was still fit to eat. Paul again accepts their slogans, but counters with the statement, “Knowledge puffs up, but love builds up” (v 1, niv<\/span>). God is not concerned with what we know or eat, but he is concerned with whether or not we love our fellow Christians. The concern is not that a fellow Christian might become enraged because one indulged, but that he or she might have a vulnerable conscience and indulge himself, even though he believed it wrong and thus in his own eyes apostasizes from the faith (i.e., rebels against Christ). Such leading astray is not love. It would be better never to eat meat than to lead a fellow Christian into sin.<\/p>\nSecond, he points out that one should subordinate one’s own interests to those of others, especially those of Christ and his gospel (9:1-23). Both the examples of the apostles, who expected the church to support them and their families (cf. Lk 10:5-7), and Scripture prove that Paul had the right to demand support from the Corinthians. This had not been his practice, for he had normally made tents to support his ministry, though he did accept gifts from other churches. Paul did this to prevent people from thinking he was peddling religion for profit (9:12) and for the personal satisfaction of doing more than he had to do (vv 16-17). This was part of Paul’s larger policy of subordinating his own personal preferences and interests to those of Christ and his gospel (vv 19-23).<\/p>\nThird, the bravado of the strong who demonstrate their liberty with disregard of fellow Christians is spiritually dangerous (9:24–10:22). It is not who begins but who completes the Christian life that counts; therefore, it is a life of discipline, not relaxed license (9:24-27). Israel in the wilderness presents an example of failure in this regard. They had “baptism” and “the Lord’s Supper” (10:2-4), just like the church, yet most of them did not make it to the Promised Land. The reason God destroyed them was simple: they turned to sin. Likewise, the Christian has to be careful not to be so proud about faith and freedom that he becomes careless about sin and falls from the faith (v 12). On the other hand, Christians need not be fearful, for the temptation is not more powerful than they are; God has provided a way of escape, if they will take it (v 13).<\/p>\nAnother link between the Israelites and the Corinthians pertains to partaking of a sacrificial meal (10:14-22). In the Lord’s Supper there is a sharing of the blood and body of Christ, just as real as Israel’s sacrifices on the altar. Food offered to idols is also a sharing, not with the supposed god, but with the real demon that is behind the idol. To try to share at both tables is to provoke God’s jealousy just as Israel did (v 22).<\/p>\nA summary of the discussion draws the three chapters together (10:23–11:1). Since the food is not changed by being offered to idols, and since all food really belongs to God, one may eat anything sold in the market—do not ask any questions (10:25-26). Likewise, the Christian may eat anything served at a dinner in the home of an unbeliever. However, if someone points out that the food was offered to idols, the Christian should pass it by, not because it would hurt him, but because it is an issue with the person who raised the question, and the Christian is concerned about the good of his neighbor (vv 27-30). In other words, follow Paul’s example as he patterns himself in turn after Christ, who served others rather than himself. Act so that God’s reputation and character shine through even in what one eats (v 31); try to offend no one but to benefit each person in moving him toward salvation (v 32).<\/p>\nThe fourth issue Paul deals with is that of order in church meetings (11:2–14:40). The Corinthians’ house churches had lively meetings, but rather than showing unity in Christ, they demonstrated selfishness. Paul had no desire to change what they did; he did want to change how they did it.<\/p>\nThe first problem in the meetings was the behavior of married women (11:1-16). The sign of marriage in that day was the wearing of a veil or distinctive hairstyle, as a ring is today. Women praying and delivering prophecies in church was no issue for Paul, but the women may have felt that this loosed them from their husbands (cf. Mk 12:25) and therefore was a reason to set aside their veils. Paul argues that husband and wife are intimately joined, just as humans are to God (1 Cor 11:3). Therefore as humans should not shame but glorify God, so the wife should act toward her husband. Thus, while Paul approves of ministry by women, he puts marriage first.<\/p>\nThe second problem in the meetings was that of making class distinctions (11:17-34). Until the weekly Lord’s Supper began to be turned into the sacrifice of the Mass in the third and fourth centuries, it was a full shared meal. Middle- and upper-class Christians could come earlier to the church gatherings and also provide better food and drink for themselves. Following the customs of pagan clubs, they had no scruples against starting early and feasting as befit their class, so long as at least simple food was provided for the slaves and peasants who could not come as early (v 21). This shamed the poorer Christians and made them feel class distinctions keenly (v 22). This, argues Paul, is not the Lord’s Supper but a sham (v 20).<\/p>\nPaul repeats the words of institution to point out that they all are participating in Christ’s body and blood (cf. 10:16-17), not their own meal. To do it in an unworthy manner, with divisions and class distinctions among them, is to profane his meal by failing to demonstrate the unity of his body, the church (11:29), and thus invite his judgment, which they were already experiencing. Instead, they should examine their own motives and truly gather as one to eat this common meal.<\/p>\nThe third problem in their meetings was the use of spiritual gifts (12:1–14:40). It is possible that some people in these house churches, under the influence of Gnostic ideas in which the spiritual is good and the material evil, and feeling inspired by a spirit, cried out, “Jesus [meaning the human Jesus as opposed to the spiritual Christ] be cursed.” It is not the Spirit of God saying this, argues Paul, for the Spirit in us cries the basic Christian confession, “Jesus is Lord.”<\/p>\nOthers in these churches were exalting their own particular gift, especially the gift of tongues, shouting down others or refusing to give them a turn. There is only one Spirit and he gives all the gifts, Paul argues (12:4-6). The Spirit manifests himself sovereignly in each Christian, not simply for the Christian’s own benefit, but for the good of all (v 7). Since it is the Spirit, not a given manifestation, that the Christian has, the gifts manifested could change from meeting to meeting.<\/p>\nThat same Spirit has made all Christians into one organic unity in Christ (12:12-13). Thus not only does the one Spirit give all the gifts—all are equally inspired—but all the gifts are equally needed for the proper functioning of the body of Christ (vv 14-26). No one can say that his lack of a given gift makes him less a part of the body; indeed, the less noticeable gifts may well be the more important. Thus, within the body of Christ, there are not only different manifestations of the Spirit through individuals in a given meeting, but different ministries or functions of individuals in the body (vv 27-31).<\/p>\nTherefore, it is not the demonstration of a particular gift that shows one’s spirituality, but how one demonstrates it—that is, whether one manifests it with love (13:1-13). Any gift exercised for selfish purposes may be a genuine gift of the Spirit, but it is worthless to the individual (vv 1-3). This is because love is the opposite of selfishness (vv 4-7). In fact, the gifts of the Spirit are only for the period between Jesus’ first coming and his second coming, when the kingdom of God will be perfectly revealed and the King will be present in person, and thus the intermediary gifts of the Spirit will be no longer necessary (vv 10, 12). It is not giftedness but faith and hope that will have a reward then, and love, which is the greatest, because it will continue as Christians live in perfect love with each other and with Jesus (v 13).<\/p>\nApplying this to Corinth, Paul argues that while one should desire all the gifts, love dictates that prophecy should be the gift of choice in the church meetings (14:1-25). The Corinthians had evidently been stressing tongues. Tongues without interpretation is of little value to anyone except to the speaker himself. It does not build anyone up; its confusion seems madness to outsiders. Outside the church meetings there is a role for tongues, both as a sign of judgment (v 21) and for private devotion (v 18), but inside, only with interpretation. Prophecy, however, both builds up and convicts, and thus is to be sought in the meetings.<\/p>\nIn the church meetings, then, both gifts and order are to prevail (14:26-40). All types of gifts are allowed expression with a goal of mutual edification, not selfish demonstration (v 26). Tongues speakers must have an interpreter; both they and prophets must speak in turn, with time being taken to evaluate the utterances after every few speakers (vv 27-33). Furthermore, the women, who were perhaps chatting in the service (perhaps due to habits learned in Jewish synagogues, where they were segregated and did not participate) are to cease their chattering, pay attention, and learn, asking questions at home if they do not understand (vv 34-36). In his concluding summary, Paul states that all should be done in an orderly manner (vv 37-40).<\/p>\nThe fifth issue Paul deals with is that of the resurrection of the dead (ch 15). Some of the problems mentioned earlier concerning loose morals (chs 5–6), ascetic denial, sexuality (ch 7), or feeling one was resurrected already (ch 11) point to the fact that some Corinthians did not believe in the resurrection of the body, though they apparently believed in the resurrection of Jesus and the immortality of the human soul.<\/p>\nPaul reaffirms that the resurrection of Jesus is an essential part of the gospel message (15:1-19). The unified voice of the church was that Jesus not only died but rose again and appeared to numerous witnesses (vv 3-11). If they were consistent in their antiresurrection argument, Christ could not have been raised. Yet if this were the case, the whole gospel message is false and all their hopes for salvation are in vain (vv 12-19).<\/p>\nSince Christ has been raised, Christians will also be raised because of their solidarity with him (15:20-28). As they had experienced the results of being in Adam, so now they will experience the results of being in Christ. But resurrection does not happen at once. There are progressive stages: (a) Christ was first; (b) Christians will be raised at his coming; (c) Christ must reign until he extends kingdom rule over the whole world, destroying all demonic powers (including death itself); and (d) then he will turn over the perfected kingdom to the Father (vv 23-28).<\/p>\nResurrection hope also explains Christian practices such as baptizing people on behalf of others who had died (probably people who had turned to Christ but had died before they could be baptized, 15:29), and willingness to risk death for Christ (vv 30-32).<\/p>\nPaul admits that there are intellectual problems involved, but these are solved when one realizes that resurrection includes both continuity and discontinuity (15:35-50). Just as seed and plant are the same and yet different, and just as many types of bodies exist, so it is with the resurrection. What was perishable, dishonorable, weak, and physical (i.e., in Adam) will be raised imperishable, glorious, powerful, and spiritual (i.e., in Christ). Indeed, it is only as Christians thus become like Christ, the heavenly man, that they can become part of God’s kingdom.<\/p>\nWith excitement Paul shares his real hope, that of transformation (15:51-58). At the coming of Christ the dead will be raised and transformed. But the living will also need transformation, and this will happen in a split second, making all of them impervious to death. Then they will truly know the victory already present in Jesus’ resurrection (vv 54-57). A concluding summary draws the practical conclusion that this teaching should give them assurance of a reward for anything done for Christ now (v 58).<\/p>\nThe sixth issue Paul deals with is that of the collection for the needy Jerusalem church (16:1-4). Because of famine in Judea in the 40s, the church there had become impoverished. Partly because of the need and partly to further the unity of the church, Paul took up a collection in some of his churches for the Judean church. He answers the Corinthians’ practical queries by stating that the collection should be made weekly according to ability, not all at once when Paul arrives (16:2). When he comes, he will send off the money with their own messengers. Paul remains vague about whether or not he will accompany them, allaying suspicions that somehow he plans to profit from it (cf. 2 Cor 8–9).<\/p>\n<h5>Final Remarks and Closing, 16:5-24<\/h5>\nHaving come to the end, Paul discusses his travel plans, including his intention for a lengthy visit whenever he leaves Ephesus (cf. 2 Cor 1). Timothy was either coming with the letter or else would arrive shortly after another mission; they were to respect him and help him return. Paul points out that he urged Apollos to visit Corinth, in case some suspect Paul is against him. A closing formal exhortation to firm faith and love leads into his final customary greetings. He praises the Corinthian messengers who had brought him their letter (16:15-18) and sends greetings from Aquila and Prisca (Priscilla), his comissionaries who had helped him found the church in Corinth (Acts 18:2-3, 18). Referring to the customary greeting in the church, he tells them to greet each other with a kiss on each cheek (16:20). Paul then takes the pen from the scribe, as was normal, and writes the closing exhortation—placing a curse on those who do not love Jesus, the common Aramaic expression used in the church “Come, O Lord” (Marana tha,<\/em> perhaps used to close services), and providing an assurance of his own love for them (vv 21-24).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; Corinth; Corinthians, Second Letter to the; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CORINTHIANS, First Letter to the Preview • Author • Date and Origin • Background • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author There is no doubt about who wrote 1 Corinthians, for all scholars agree that the apostle Paul wrote it on his third missionary journey while he was living in Ephesus. By this time Paul was a mature, middle-aged (perhaps 55 years old) missionary, fully seasoned from planting churches around a quarter of the Mediterranean world. Date and Origin Paul worked in Corinth from abo...","summary_en":"CORINTHIANS, First Letter to the Preview • Author • Date and Origin • Background • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author There is no doubt about who wrote 1 Corinthians, for all scholars agree that the apostle Paul wrote it on his third missionary journey while he was living in Ephesus. By this time Paul was a mature, middle-aged (perhaps 55 years old) missionary, fully seasoned from planting churches around a quarter of the Mediterranean world. Date and Origin Paul worked in Corinth from abo...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57684,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:21","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:21","content_ro":"14:21-25<\/strong> Paul used this quotation from Isa 28:11-12 to show that speaking in tongues is a sign, not for believers, but for unbelievers<\/em>. However, in 1 Cor 14:23-25, Paul argues that even unbelievers are more likely to be convicted by a word of prophecy than by speaking in tongues. His point is that, in public worship, the gift of prophecy is of greater usefulness than the gift of tongues.<\/p>","content_en":"14:21-25<\/strong> Paul used this quotation from Isa 28:11-12 to show that speaking in tongues is a sign, not for believers, but for unbelievers<\/em>. However, in 1 Cor 14:23-25, Paul argues that even unbelievers are more likely to be convicted by a word of prophecy than by speaking in tongues. His point is that, in public worship, the gift of prophecy is of greater usefulness than the gift of tongues.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:21-25 Paul used this quotation from Isa 28:11-12 to show that speaking in tongues is a sign, not for believers, but for unbelievers. However, in 1 Cor 14:23-25, Paul argues that even unbelievers are more likely to be convicted by a word of prophecy than by speaking in tongues. His point is that, in public worship, the gift of prophecy is of greater usefulness than the gift of tongues.","summary_en":"14:21-25 Paul used this quotation from Isa 28:11-12 to show that speaking in tongues is a sign, not for believers, but for unbelievers. However, in 1 Cor 14:23-25, Paul argues that even unbelievers are more likely to be convicted by a word of prophecy than by speaking in tongues. His point is that, in public worship, the gift of prophecy is of greater usefulness than the gift of tongues.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85310,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:21","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:21","content_ro":"14:21-25<\/strong> Paul used this quotation from Isa 28:11-12 to show that speaking in tongues is a sign, not for believers, but for unbelievers<\/em>. However, in 1 Cor 14:23-25, Paul argues that even unbelievers are more likely to be convicted by a word of prophecy than by speaking in tongues. His point is that, in public worship, the gift of prophecy is of greater usefulness than the gift of tongues.<\/p>","content_en":"14:21-25<\/strong> Paul used this quotation from Isa 28:11-12 to show that speaking in tongues is a sign, not for believers, but for unbelievers<\/em>. However, in 1 Cor 14:23-25, Paul argues that even unbelievers are more likely to be convicted by a word of prophecy than by speaking in tongues. His point is that, in public worship, the gift of prophecy is of greater usefulness than the gift of tongues.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:21-25 Paul used this quotation from Isa 28:11-12 to show that speaking in tongues is a sign, not for believers, but for unbelievers. However, in 1 Cor 14:23-25, Paul argues that even unbelievers are more likely to be convicted by a word of prophecy than by speaking in tongues. His point is that, in public worship, the gift of prophecy is of greater usefulness than the gift of tongues.","summary_en":"14:21-25 Paul used this quotation from Isa 28:11-12 to show that speaking in tongues is a sign, not for believers, but for unbelievers. However, in 1 Cor 14:23-25, Paul argues that even unbelievers are more likely to be convicted by a word of prophecy than by speaking in tongues. His point is that, in public worship, the gift of prophecy is of greater usefulness than the gift of tongues.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112936,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:21","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:21","content_ro":"14:21-25<\/strong> Paul used this quotation from Isa 28:11-12 to show that speaking in tongues is a sign, not for believers, but for unbelievers<\/em>. However, in 1 Cor 14:23-25, Paul argues that even unbelievers are more likely to be convicted by a word of prophecy than by speaking in tongues. His point is that, in public worship, the gift of prophecy is of greater usefulness than the gift of tongues.<\/p>","content_en":"14:21-25<\/strong> Paul used this quotation from Isa 28:11-12 to show that speaking in tongues is a sign, not for believers, but for unbelievers<\/em>. However, in 1 Cor 14:23-25, Paul argues that even unbelievers are more likely to be convicted by a word of prophecy than by speaking in tongues. His point is that, in public worship, the gift of prophecy is of greater usefulness than the gift of tongues.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:21-25 Paul used this quotation from Isa 28:11-12 to show that speaking in tongues is a sign, not for believers, but for unbelievers. However, in 1 Cor 14:23-25, Paul argues that even unbelievers are more likely to be convicted by a word of prophecy than by speaking in tongues. His point is that, in public worship, the gift of prophecy is of greater usefulness than the gift of tongues.","summary_en":"14:21-25 Paul used this quotation from Isa 28:11-12 to show that speaking in tongues is a sign, not for believers, but for unbelievers. However, in 1 Cor 14:23-25, Paul argues that even unbelievers are more likely to be convicted by a word of prophecy than by speaking in tongues. His point is that, in public worship, the gift of prophecy is of greater usefulness than the gift of tongues.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140562,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:21","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:21","content_ro":"14:21-25<\/strong> Paul used this quotation from Isa 28:11-12 to show that speaking in tongues is a sign, not for believers, but for unbelievers<\/em>. However, in 1 Cor 14:23-25, Paul argues that even unbelievers are more likely to be convicted by a word of prophecy than by speaking in tongues. His point is that, in public worship, the gift of prophecy is of greater usefulness than the gift of tongues.<\/p>","content_en":"14:21-25<\/strong> Paul used this quotation from Isa 28:11-12 to show that speaking in tongues is a sign, not for believers, but for unbelievers<\/em>. However, in 1 Cor 14:23-25, Paul argues that even unbelievers are more likely to be convicted by a word of prophecy than by speaking in tongues. His point is that, in public worship, the gift of prophecy is of greater usefulness than the gift of tongues.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:21-25 Paul used this quotation from Isa 28:11-12 to show that speaking in tongues is a sign, not for believers, but for unbelievers. However, in 1 Cor 14:23-25, Paul argues that even unbelievers are more likely to be convicted by a word of prophecy than by speaking in tongues. His point is that, in public worship, the gift of prophecy is of greater usefulness than the gift of tongues.","summary_en":"14:21-25 Paul used this quotation from Isa 28:11-12 to show that speaking in tongues is a sign, not for believers, but for unbelievers. However, in 1 Cor 14:23-25, Paul argues that even unbelievers are more likely to be convicted by a word of prophecy than by speaking in tongues. His point is that, in public worship, the gift of prophecy is of greater usefulness than the gift of tongues.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"22":[{"id":66611,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Gift of Prophecy","title_en":"The Gift of Prophecy","content_ro":"<h3>The Gift of Prophecy<\/h3>\nAs Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp<\/em> 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek 4:1–5:17) and predicting events to come (Acts 11:28; 21:10-11).<\/p>\nPhilip the Evangelist was the father of four young women who “had the gift of prophecy” (21:9). The apostle Paul also acknowledged the prophetic gift of some Christian women (1 Cor 11:5). In the Old Testament, most prophets were men, but several women are also described as prophets, for example, Miriam (Exod 15:20), Deborah (Judg 4:4), and Huldah (2 Kgs 22:14-20; 2 Chr 34:22-28). In the New Testament, the gift of prophecy is given to both men and women, and both young and old, as Peter signaled in his sermon at Pentecost (Acts 2:17-18).<\/p>\nAlthough prophecy sometimes involves foretelling the future (20:22-23; 21:10-11; see Rom 9:24-33; 1 Thes 4:13-17; 2 Thes 2:3-4), at its core prophecy is proclaiming God’s word by preaching, exhorting, and explaining the will of God (Acts 15:32; 19:6; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 14:3-4, 29-33; Rev 19:10). The gift of prophecy is clearly mentioned in 1 Corinthians and Ephesians as one of the gifts of the Holy Spirit and of Christ to the church (1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-13). It is to be used for the benefit of believers (1 Cor 14:22).<\/p>\nProphecy is always in need of testing (1 Thes 5:19-21), and the church is strongly warned against false prophets (1 Jn 4:1; see also Rev 2:20-23). When used faithfully and in submission to God’s word and his Spirit, courageous proclamation of God’s truth helps the church to determine what God’s will is and inspires God’s people to do it.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 15:20; Deut 13:1-5; Judg 4:4; 1 Kgs 11:29-32; 2 Kgs 22:14-20; Isa 20:2-6; 44:25; Jer 13:1-11; 23:25-32; Ezek 4:1-17; 13:2-9; Joel 2:28-32; Matt 7:15; 24:24; Acts 2:17-21; 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 19:6; 20:23; Acts 21:9-11; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 11:5; 12:4-11; 14:1-40; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Thes 5:19-21; 2 Pet 2:1; 1 Jn 4:1-3; Rev 2:20-23; 19:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Gift of Prophecy<\/h3>\nAs Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp<\/em> 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek 4:1–5:17) and predicting events to come (Acts 11:28; 21:10-11).<\/p>\nPhilip the Evangelist was the father of four young women who “had the gift of prophecy” (21:9). The apostle Paul also acknowledged the prophetic gift of some Christian women (1 Cor 11:5). In the Old Testament, most prophets were men, but several women are also described as prophets, for example, Miriam (Exod 15:20), Deborah (Judg 4:4), and Huldah (2 Kgs 22:14-20; 2 Chr 34:22-28). In the New Testament, the gift of prophecy is given to both men and women, and both young and old, as Peter signaled in his sermon at Pentecost (Acts 2:17-18).<\/p>\nAlthough prophecy sometimes involves foretelling the future (20:22-23; 21:10-11; see Rom 9:24-33; 1 Thes 4:13-17; 2 Thes 2:3-4), at its core prophecy is proclaiming God’s word by preaching, exhorting, and explaining the will of God (Acts 15:32; 19:6; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 14:3-4, 29-33; Rev 19:10). The gift of prophecy is clearly mentioned in 1 Corinthians and Ephesians as one of the gifts of the Holy Spirit and of Christ to the church (1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-13). It is to be used for the benefit of believers (1 Cor 14:22).<\/p>\nProphecy is always in need of testing (1 Thes 5:19-21), and the church is strongly warned against false prophets (1 Jn 4:1; see also Rev 2:20-23). When used faithfully and in submission to God’s word and his Spirit, courageous proclamation of God’s truth helps the church to determine what God’s will is and inspires God’s people to do it.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 15:20; Deut 13:1-5; Judg 4:4; 1 Kgs 11:29-32; 2 Kgs 22:14-20; Isa 20:2-6; 44:25; Jer 13:1-11; 23:25-32; Ezek 4:1-17; 13:2-9; Joel 2:28-32; Matt 7:15; 24:24; Acts 2:17-21; 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 19:6; 20:23; Acts 21:9-11; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 11:5; 12:4-11; 14:1-40; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Thes 5:19-21; 2 Pet 2:1; 1 Jn 4:1-3; Rev 2:20-23; 19:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Gift of Prophecy As Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek ...","summary_en":"The Gift of Prophecy As Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":94237,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Gift of Prophecy","title_en":"The Gift of Prophecy","content_ro":"<h3>The Gift of Prophecy<\/h3>\nAs Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp<\/em> 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek 4:1–5:17) and predicting events to come (Acts 11:28; 21:10-11).<\/p>\nPhilip the Evangelist was the father of four young women who “had the gift of prophecy” (21:9). The apostle Paul also acknowledged the prophetic gift of some Christian women (1 Cor 11:5). In the Old Testament, most prophets were men, but several women are also described as prophets, for example, Miriam (Exod 15:20), Deborah (Judg 4:4), and Huldah (2 Kgs 22:14-20; 2 Chr 34:22-28). In the New Testament, the gift of prophecy is given to both men and women, and both young and old, as Peter signaled in his sermon at Pentecost (Acts 2:17-18).<\/p>\nAlthough prophecy sometimes involves foretelling the future (20:22-23; 21:10-11; see Rom 9:24-33; 1 Thes 4:13-17; 2 Thes 2:3-4), at its core prophecy is proclaiming God’s word by preaching, exhorting, and explaining the will of God (Acts 15:32; 19:6; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 14:3-4, 29-33; Rev 19:10). The gift of prophecy is clearly mentioned in 1 Corinthians and Ephesians as one of the gifts of the Holy Spirit and of Christ to the church (1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-13). It is to be used for the benefit of believers (1 Cor 14:22).<\/p>\nProphecy is always in need of testing (1 Thes 5:19-21), and the church is strongly warned against false prophets (1 Jn 4:1; see also Rev 2:20-23). When used faithfully and in submission to God’s word and his Spirit, courageous proclamation of God’s truth helps the church to determine what God’s will is and inspires God’s people to do it.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 15:20; Deut 13:1-5; Judg 4:4; 1 Kgs 11:29-32; 2 Kgs 22:14-20; Isa 20:2-6; 44:25; Jer 13:1-11; 23:25-32; Ezek 4:1-17; 13:2-9; Joel 2:28-32; Matt 7:15; 24:24; Acts 2:17-21; 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 19:6; 20:23; Acts 21:9-11; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 11:5; 12:4-11; 14:1-40; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Thes 5:19-21; 2 Pet 2:1; 1 Jn 4:1-3; Rev 2:20-23; 19:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Gift of Prophecy<\/h3>\nAs Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp<\/em> 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek 4:1–5:17) and predicting events to come (Acts 11:28; 21:10-11).<\/p>\nPhilip the Evangelist was the father of four young women who “had the gift of prophecy” (21:9). The apostle Paul also acknowledged the prophetic gift of some Christian women (1 Cor 11:5). In the Old Testament, most prophets were men, but several women are also described as prophets, for example, Miriam (Exod 15:20), Deborah (Judg 4:4), and Huldah (2 Kgs 22:14-20; 2 Chr 34:22-28). In the New Testament, the gift of prophecy is given to both men and women, and both young and old, as Peter signaled in his sermon at Pentecost (Acts 2:17-18).<\/p>\nAlthough prophecy sometimes involves foretelling the future (20:22-23; 21:10-11; see Rom 9:24-33; 1 Thes 4:13-17; 2 Thes 2:3-4), at its core prophecy is proclaiming God’s word by preaching, exhorting, and explaining the will of God (Acts 15:32; 19:6; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 14:3-4, 29-33; Rev 19:10). The gift of prophecy is clearly mentioned in 1 Corinthians and Ephesians as one of the gifts of the Holy Spirit and of Christ to the church (1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-13). It is to be used for the benefit of believers (1 Cor 14:22).<\/p>\nProphecy is always in need of testing (1 Thes 5:19-21), and the church is strongly warned against false prophets (1 Jn 4:1; see also Rev 2:20-23). When used faithfully and in submission to God’s word and his Spirit, courageous proclamation of God’s truth helps the church to determine what God’s will is and inspires God’s people to do it.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 15:20; Deut 13:1-5; Judg 4:4; 1 Kgs 11:29-32; 2 Kgs 22:14-20; Isa 20:2-6; 44:25; Jer 13:1-11; 23:25-32; Ezek 4:1-17; 13:2-9; Joel 2:28-32; Matt 7:15; 24:24; Acts 2:17-21; 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 19:6; 20:23; Acts 21:9-11; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 11:5; 12:4-11; 14:1-40; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Thes 5:19-21; 2 Pet 2:1; 1 Jn 4:1-3; Rev 2:20-23; 19:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Gift of Prophecy As Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek ...","summary_en":"The Gift of Prophecy As Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":121863,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Gift of Prophecy","title_en":"The Gift of Prophecy","content_ro":"<h3>The Gift of Prophecy<\/h3>\nAs Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp<\/em> 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek 4:1–5:17) and predicting events to come (Acts 11:28; 21:10-11).<\/p>\nPhilip the Evangelist was the father of four young women who “had the gift of prophecy” (21:9). The apostle Paul also acknowledged the prophetic gift of some Christian women (1 Cor 11:5). In the Old Testament, most prophets were men, but several women are also described as prophets, for example, Miriam (Exod 15:20), Deborah (Judg 4:4), and Huldah (2 Kgs 22:14-20; 2 Chr 34:22-28). In the New Testament, the gift of prophecy is given to both men and women, and both young and old, as Peter signaled in his sermon at Pentecost (Acts 2:17-18).<\/p>\nAlthough prophecy sometimes involves foretelling the future (20:22-23; 21:10-11; see Rom 9:24-33; 1 Thes 4:13-17; 2 Thes 2:3-4), at its core prophecy is proclaiming God’s word by preaching, exhorting, and explaining the will of God (Acts 15:32; 19:6; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 14:3-4, 29-33; Rev 19:10). The gift of prophecy is clearly mentioned in 1 Corinthians and Ephesians as one of the gifts of the Holy Spirit and of Christ to the church (1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-13). It is to be used for the benefit of believers (1 Cor 14:22).<\/p>\nProphecy is always in need of testing (1 Thes 5:19-21), and the church is strongly warned against false prophets (1 Jn 4:1; see also Rev 2:20-23). When used faithfully and in submission to God’s word and his Spirit, courageous proclamation of God’s truth helps the church to determine what God’s will is and inspires God’s people to do it.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 15:20; Deut 13:1-5; Judg 4:4; 1 Kgs 11:29-32; 2 Kgs 22:14-20; Isa 20:2-6; 44:25; Jer 13:1-11; 23:25-32; Ezek 4:1-17; 13:2-9; Joel 2:28-32; Matt 7:15; 24:24; Acts 2:17-21; 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 19:6; 20:23; Acts 21:9-11; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 11:5; 12:4-11; 14:1-40; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Thes 5:19-21; 2 Pet 2:1; 1 Jn 4:1-3; Rev 2:20-23; 19:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Gift of Prophecy<\/h3>\nAs Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp<\/em> 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek 4:1–5:17) and predicting events to come (Acts 11:28; 21:10-11).<\/p>\nPhilip the Evangelist was the father of four young women who “had the gift of prophecy” (21:9). The apostle Paul also acknowledged the prophetic gift of some Christian women (1 Cor 11:5). In the Old Testament, most prophets were men, but several women are also described as prophets, for example, Miriam (Exod 15:20), Deborah (Judg 4:4), and Huldah (2 Kgs 22:14-20; 2 Chr 34:22-28). In the New Testament, the gift of prophecy is given to both men and women, and both young and old, as Peter signaled in his sermon at Pentecost (Acts 2:17-18).<\/p>\nAlthough prophecy sometimes involves foretelling the future (20:22-23; 21:10-11; see Rom 9:24-33; 1 Thes 4:13-17; 2 Thes 2:3-4), at its core prophecy is proclaiming God’s word by preaching, exhorting, and explaining the will of God (Acts 15:32; 19:6; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 14:3-4, 29-33; Rev 19:10). The gift of prophecy is clearly mentioned in 1 Corinthians and Ephesians as one of the gifts of the Holy Spirit and of Christ to the church (1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-13). It is to be used for the benefit of believers (1 Cor 14:22).<\/p>\nProphecy is always in need of testing (1 Thes 5:19-21), and the church is strongly warned against false prophets (1 Jn 4:1; see also Rev 2:20-23). When used faithfully and in submission to God’s word and his Spirit, courageous proclamation of God’s truth helps the church to determine what God’s will is and inspires God’s people to do it.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 15:20; Deut 13:1-5; Judg 4:4; 1 Kgs 11:29-32; 2 Kgs 22:14-20; Isa 20:2-6; 44:25; Jer 13:1-11; 23:25-32; Ezek 4:1-17; 13:2-9; Joel 2:28-32; Matt 7:15; 24:24; Acts 2:17-21; 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 19:6; 20:23; Acts 21:9-11; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 11:5; 12:4-11; 14:1-40; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Thes 5:19-21; 2 Pet 2:1; 1 Jn 4:1-3; Rev 2:20-23; 19:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Gift of Prophecy As Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek ...","summary_en":"The Gift of Prophecy As Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":149489,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Gift of Prophecy","title_en":"The Gift of Prophecy","content_ro":"<h3>The Gift of Prophecy<\/h3>\nAs Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp<\/em> 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek 4:1–5:17) and predicting events to come (Acts 11:28; 21:10-11).<\/p>\nPhilip the Evangelist was the father of four young women who “had the gift of prophecy” (21:9). The apostle Paul also acknowledged the prophetic gift of some Christian women (1 Cor 11:5). In the Old Testament, most prophets were men, but several women are also described as prophets, for example, Miriam (Exod 15:20), Deborah (Judg 4:4), and Huldah (2 Kgs 22:14-20; 2 Chr 34:22-28). In the New Testament, the gift of prophecy is given to both men and women, and both young and old, as Peter signaled in his sermon at Pentecost (Acts 2:17-18).<\/p>\nAlthough prophecy sometimes involves foretelling the future (20:22-23; 21:10-11; see Rom 9:24-33; 1 Thes 4:13-17; 2 Thes 2:3-4), at its core prophecy is proclaiming God’s word by preaching, exhorting, and explaining the will of God (Acts 15:32; 19:6; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 14:3-4, 29-33; Rev 19:10). The gift of prophecy is clearly mentioned in 1 Corinthians and Ephesians as one of the gifts of the Holy Spirit and of Christ to the church (1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-13). It is to be used for the benefit of believers (1 Cor 14:22).<\/p>\nProphecy is always in need of testing (1 Thes 5:19-21), and the church is strongly warned against false prophets (1 Jn 4:1; see also Rev 2:20-23). When used faithfully and in submission to God’s word and his Spirit, courageous proclamation of God’s truth helps the church to determine what God’s will is and inspires God’s people to do it.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 15:20; Deut 13:1-5; Judg 4:4; 1 Kgs 11:29-32; 2 Kgs 22:14-20; Isa 20:2-6; 44:25; Jer 13:1-11; 23:25-32; Ezek 4:1-17; 13:2-9; Joel 2:28-32; Matt 7:15; 24:24; Acts 2:17-21; 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 19:6; 20:23; Acts 21:9-11; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 11:5; 12:4-11; 14:1-40; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Thes 5:19-21; 2 Pet 2:1; 1 Jn 4:1-3; Rev 2:20-23; 19:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Gift of Prophecy<\/h3>\nAs Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp<\/em> 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek 4:1–5:17) and predicting events to come (Acts 11:28; 21:10-11).<\/p>\nPhilip the Evangelist was the father of four young women who “had the gift of prophecy” (21:9). The apostle Paul also acknowledged the prophetic gift of some Christian women (1 Cor 11:5). In the Old Testament, most prophets were men, but several women are also described as prophets, for example, Miriam (Exod 15:20), Deborah (Judg 4:4), and Huldah (2 Kgs 22:14-20; 2 Chr 34:22-28). In the New Testament, the gift of prophecy is given to both men and women, and both young and old, as Peter signaled in his sermon at Pentecost (Acts 2:17-18).<\/p>\nAlthough prophecy sometimes involves foretelling the future (20:22-23; 21:10-11; see Rom 9:24-33; 1 Thes 4:13-17; 2 Thes 2:3-4), at its core prophecy is proclaiming God’s word by preaching, exhorting, and explaining the will of God (Acts 15:32; 19:6; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 14:3-4, 29-33; Rev 19:10). The gift of prophecy is clearly mentioned in 1 Corinthians and Ephesians as one of the gifts of the Holy Spirit and of Christ to the church (1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-13). It is to be used for the benefit of believers (1 Cor 14:22).<\/p>\nProphecy is always in need of testing (1 Thes 5:19-21), and the church is strongly warned against false prophets (1 Jn 4:1; see also Rev 2:20-23). When used faithfully and in submission to God’s word and his Spirit, courageous proclamation of God’s truth helps the church to determine what God’s will is and inspires God’s people to do it.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 15:20; Deut 13:1-5; Judg 4:4; 1 Kgs 11:29-32; 2 Kgs 22:14-20; Isa 20:2-6; 44:25; Jer 13:1-11; 23:25-32; Ezek 4:1-17; 13:2-9; Joel 2:28-32; Matt 7:15; 24:24; Acts 2:17-21; 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 19:6; 20:23; Acts 21:9-11; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 11:5; 12:4-11; 14:1-40; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Thes 5:19-21; 2 Pet 2:1; 1 Jn 4:1-3; Rev 2:20-23; 19:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Gift of Prophecy As Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek ...","summary_en":"The Gift of Prophecy As Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"23":[{"id":6631,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Church Meetings","title_en":"Church Meetings","content_ro":"<h3>CHURCH MEETINGS<\/h3>\nThe assembling together of the believers. In the NT, the Greek word ekklesia<\/span> (usually translated “church”) is used primarily in two ways: (1) to describe a meeting or an assembly, and (2) to designate the people who participate in such assembling together—whether they are actually assembled or not. The NT contains a few places that speak of a secular Greek assembly (Acts 19:32, 41); every other instance speaks of a Christian assembly. Sometimes the word ekklesia<\/span> is used to designate the actual meeting together of Christians. This is certainly what Paul intended in 1 Corinthians 14:19, 28, and 35, in that the expression en ekklesia<\/span> must mean “in a meeting” and not “in the church.” To translate this phrase “in the church” (as is done in most modern English versions) is misleading, for most readers will think it means “in the church building.” The NT never once names the place of assembly a “church.” Aside from the few instances where the word clearly means the actual meeting together of believers, ekklesia<\/span> most often is used as a descriptor for the believers who constitute a local church (such as the church in Corinth, the church in Philippi, and the church in Colosse) or all the believers (past, present, and future) who constitute the universal church, the complete body of Christ.<\/p>\nWhen reading the NT, Christians need to be aware of the various ways in which the word ekklesia<\/span> (“church”) is used. On the most basic level, the ekklesia<\/span> is any gathering of believers. On another level, the ekklesia<\/span> is an organized local entity—comprised of all the believers in any given locality, under one pluralistic eldership. On another level, the ekklesia<\/span> is the universal church whose constituents are all the believers who have ever been, are now existing, and will ever be. The word ekklesia<\/span> was used by the NT writers with these various aspects of meaning, though, at times, it is not possible to differentiate one from the other. Nevertheless, students of the NT could avoid some confusion if they used discrimination in their exegesis of the text. Some interpreters have taught that the smallest unit of the church is the local church, but the NT writers sometimes used the word “church” to indicate a small home gathering. Other interpreters confuse the local church with the universal church. But some things in the NT are addressed to a local church that do not necessarily apply to the whole church, and some great things are spoken of the universal church that could never be attained by any particular local group. The things Paul said about the church in the Epistle to the Ephesians (which was written as an encyclical for several churches and not just for the church in Ephesus) could never be attained by a local church. For example, what local church could attain to the fullness of the stature of Christ?<\/p>\nThere is much to be said about how interpreters have confused the local church with the universal church, but this article is devoted to clearing up the confusion about what constitutes the smallest unit of the church—the local church, or what could be called the house church or home gathering.<\/p>\nThe NT seems to present the fact that a particular local church (i.e., a church comprising all the believers in a given locality under one eldership) could and did have several ekklesiai<\/span>—“meetings” or “assemblies” (carried on in homes of the local Christians). Thus, the smallest unit to comprise a “church” was one of these home meetings. However, there is no indication in the NT that each of these home meetings had its own eldership or was a distinct entity separate from the other gatherings (<\/em>ekklesiai<\/span>)<\/em> in the same locality. According to Acts 14:23 and Titus 1:5, elders were appointed for every local church (compare the expressions “appointed elders in every church” and “appoint elders in every city”)—not for every house church. Nevertheless, it appears that every local church of some size had several such ekklesiai<\/span> (“meetings”) going on within that locality.<\/p>\nThe church in Jerusalem must have had several home meetings (see Acts 2:46; 5:42; 8:3; 12:5, 12), as did the church in Rome (see Rom 16:3-5, 14-15 and comments below). A small local church may have had only one home gathering—as was probably the case with the church at Colosse (see Phlm 1:2 and comments below), but this would have been impossible for large local churches like those in Jerusalem, Rome, and Ephesus, in which there must have been several “house churches” (see 1 Cor 16:19-20 [1 Cor was written from Ephesus] and comments below). An examination of the passages that deal with the issue of the “house church” should affirm this. These passages are Romans 16:3-5, 14-15; 1 Corinthians 16:19-20; Colossians 4:15-16; and Philemon 1:1-2 (all quoted from the rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h4>Romans 16:3-5, 14-15<\/h4>\nIn the last chapter of Romans, Paul asked the believers in Rome, to whom he had written this epistle, to greet Priscilla and Aquila and the church that met in their home (16:3-5). The entire church in Rome could not have met in Priscilla and Aquila’s home, for the church was much too large to have assembled in a single home. Rather, the church in Priscilla and Aquila’s home must have been one among several such “house churches” in Rome. The following discussion should substantiate this position.<\/p>\nPaul’s Epistle to the Romans was addressed to “all God’s beloved in Rome” (1:7), not to “the church in Rome.” At the time of writing, Paul had not been to Rome—nor had any other apostle. The church was probably started there by Jewish Romans who had been converted during their visit to Jerusalem during Pentecost (Acts 2:10) and then returned to Rome. Since the church had not been started by an apostle, it could have been that there were no “ordained” elders in the church at Rome and that there were several gatherings of believers in various parts of Rome and its suburbs. Paul knew some of the saints in Rome (whom he addressed by name in the last chapter) and thus addressed an epistle to all the saints in that locality, instead of to the church in that locality—which was his usual practice (see 1 Cor 1:1; 2 Cor 1:1; 1 Thes 1:1; 2 Thes 1:1). Nonetheless, “all the saints in Rome” would comprise “the church in Rome” (cf. Phil 1:1, in which Paul addressed his epistle to all the saints in Philippi).<\/p>\nIn the final chapter of Romans, Paul asks all the believers in Rome (which equals the “local” church in Rome) to greet the church in Priscilla and Aquila’s house. Later in the chapter, Paul asks the church to greet Asyncritus, Phlegon, Hermas, Patrobas, Hermes, and the brothers with them; and then again he asks the church to greet Philologus, Julia, Nereus and his sister, Olympas, and all the saints with them (16:14-15). Evidently, Paul was identifying two other groups of believers who must have met together. (And perhaps Paul was referring to two more groups in 16:10-11, which in the Greek could mean the ones of Aristobulus’s and Narcissus’s households<\/em> or the ones of their fellowships.<\/em>) It seems that the church in Rome, like the church in Jerusalem and Ephesus, had several home ekklesiai<\/span> (meetings).<\/p>\nThe Epistle to the Romans was written around AD<\/span> 58. The Neronian persecution began around AD<\/span> 64. Secular historians such as Tacitus tell us that a vast multitude (ingens multitudo)<\/em> of Christians were tortured and killed during this persecution (Annals<\/em> 15.44). Seutonius (in his book Nero,<\/em> ch 16) said that the rapid increase of the Christians in Rome had made them unpopular. Indeed, at the time Paul penned the Epistle to the Romans he said their faith was known throughout the world (1:8), which indicates that the church in Rome had already made an impact on the Mediterranean world. When Paul came to Rome three years later (AD<\/span> 61), he came to a city that had a large church there already. From Romans 15:23, we know that the church had been in existence for many years even before Paul wrote his epistle to them. In short, the church in Rome was a large church around the time Paul wrote his epistle to them. The entire church could not have met in the home of Aquila and Priscilla, who would have had only a modest-sized dwelling (for they were tentmakers). Besides, Paul greeted over 25 individuals by name in chapter 16—and he had not yet even been to Rome!<\/p>\nThere must have been several ekklesiai<\/span> in Rome, i.e., several home churches all unified as the one local church in Rome. For example, the Christians in Rome apparently worshiped in numerous homes such as Priscilla and Aquila’s. Other churches in homes are mentioned in Colossians 4:15 and Philemon 1:2. Groups of Christians met in houses of prominent believers or in other available rooms (cf. Mt 26:16; Acts 12:12; 1 Cor 16:19; Col 4:15; Phlm 1:2). The church in Priscilla and Aquila’s house is the first of five groups of believers in Paul’s list, but the only one referred to definitely as a church (see Rom 16:5, 10-11, 14-15). Priscilla and Aquila opened their home for Christian meetings. The church mentioned there was obviously only a part of the total number of Christians in Rome. Verses 10-11 and 14-15 seem to refer to two other household churches in Rome. Apparently, there were at least three churches there, and probably more. Each house church could not have been a separate entity with a separate church government; rather, each house church must have been simply one home meeting of some of the saints in the one local church at Rome.<\/p>\n<h4>1 Corinthians 16:19-20<\/h4>\nIn this passage we again see Aquila and Priscilla and again discover that a church met in their house. According to Romans, their house church was, of course, in Rome. According to 1 Corinthians (written from Ephesus), their house church was in Ephesus. Many scholars think Aquila and Priscilla left Rome around AD<\/span> 49 at the time of Claudius’s edict expelling Jews from Rome. They very well could have already been Christians at this time. According to Acts 18, they joined Paul in Corinth (where they all worked together in their craft of tentmaking) and then went on with him to Ephesus, during the time (around AD<\/span> 51) the church in Ephesus was first established. Paul continued on with his second missionary journey, while Aquila and Priscilla remained in Ephesus. No doubt, the early church there first met in their home. Paul returned to Ephesus a few years later and remained there for two years (around AD<\/span> 53–54). During this time, Paul’s proclamation of the gospel went out from Ephesus (as a center) to all of Asia Minor (see Acts 19:8-10). As this was going on, the church in Ephesus grew (see vv 18-20).<\/p>\nIt was during these years that Paul wrote to the Corinthians, in which he sent greetings from the churches in Asia, from Aquila and Priscilla—and the church in their house, and from all the brothers (1 Cor 16:19-20). In giving this kind of greeting, it seems that Paul was sending greetings from (1) all the churches in Asia Minor, (2) the church in Ephesus (equivalent to “all the brothers”), and (3) those believers who gathered with Aquila and Priscilla in their home. It would be hard to imagine that all the saints in Ephesus met at Aquila and Priscilla’s home. The church probably began that way, but as it grew, so did the number of home meetings. From other portions of the NT (specifically 1 Timothy, which was written around AD<\/span> 64 by Paul to Timothy while Timothy was leading the church in Ephesus), we discover that there must have been several home meetings in Ephesus because there were so many saints there (see 1 Timothy 5–6, which reveal that there must have been a large number of saints in Ephesus—young men, young women, older men, widows, and so forth). At any rate, several saints must have hosted an ekklesia<\/span>,<\/em> a meeting, in their home. (Aquila and Priscilla left Ephesus around AD<\/span> 56\/57 and returned to Rome, where again they hosted a church in their home. Others in Ephesus would have to open their homes.) But each such ekklesia<\/span> did not have its own eldership; rather, all of the church in Ephesus was under one eldership—headed up by Timothy, Paul’s coworker.<\/p>\n<h4>Colossians 4:15-16<\/h4>\nIn this portion, we again read about a church existing in the home of one called Nymphas. In his final remarks to the church in Colosse, Paul asked the saints in Colosse to send his greetings to (1) the brothers that are in Laodicea, (2) Nymphas in particular, and (3) the church in Nymphas’s house. According to the structure of Colossians 4:15, it seems evident that the first greeting included all the believers in Laodicea (a neighboring church to Colosse), who would comprise the entire church in Laodicea (called “the church of the Laodiceans” in Col 4:16), and that the second and third greetings were to a specific individual (Nymphas) in the church in Laodicea and a church meeting in Nymphas’s house. This church meeting in Nymphas’s house would probably be one of several home meetings—all part of the one local church in Laodicea.<\/p>\nThere is a textual problem in this passage that could have some effect on the interpretation of it. Some manuscripts read “his house”; others read “her house”; still others read “their house.” Because it cannot be determined from the Greek text whether Nymphas was male or female, various scribes used different pronouns before “house.” Between the readings “her” and “his,” it is far more likely that the pronoun “her” was changed to “his” than vice versa. Some scholars say that “their” refers to “the brothers” at Laodicea. But that does not make sense if we understand that “the brothers in Laodicea” is equal to the church in Laodicea. How could the church in Laodicea have the church in their house? Other scholars indicate that the Greek word for “their” (<\/em>auton<\/span>)<\/em> refers to the ones with Nymphas—i.e., the members of his household. Whether the reading was “her house” or “their house,” a particular group of believers within the church of Laodicea met there. Their meeting could legitimately be called an ekklesia<\/span>—an assembling together.<\/p>\n<h4>Philemon 1:1-2<\/h4>\nThis is the last time in the NT we read about a church in a particular home. Paul wrote a short epistle to Philemon, an elder of the church in Colosse, on behalf of Onesimus, Philemon’s runaway slave converted by Paul to Christ. In his introduction to this short epistle, Paul sends his greetings to Philemon, Apphia, Archippus, and the church in Philemon’s house. It is important to note that Paul did not send greetings to all the saints in Colosse and then to the church in Philemon’s house (as is the pattern in 1 Cor 16:19-20 and Col 4:15); instead, he just sent greetings to Philemon and to the church in his house. Therefore, we can assume that the entire church in Colosse must have met at Philemon’s house.<\/p>\n<h4>Worship in the Home Meetings and Church Meetings<\/h4>\nWhen the church first began in Jerusalem, the believers met in homes for fellowship and worship. Acts 2:42-47 tells us that the early Christians met in homes to hear the apostles’ teachings and to celebrate Communion (which is called “the breaking of bread”). During such gatherings, the Christians often shared meals with one another in what was called a love feast (2 Pt 2:13; Jude 1:12). At these meetings, the Christians recited Scripture, sang hymns and psalms, and joyfully praised the Lord (see Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16-17). Christians also gathered together in homes to pray (Acts 12:12) and read the Word.<\/p>\nSmall groups of believers met in homes for worship quite regularly; in a city where there were several such ekklesiai<\/span>,<\/em> all the believers would gather together for special occasions. Scripture tells us that all the believers would come together to hear an epistle from the apostles read out loud (see Acts 15:30; Col 4:16), and we can surmise from the NT record that all the Christians in a city met together once a week on Sunday, which was called the Lord’s Day. First Corinthians provides several insights about how the early Christians worshiped together when all the believers in one city met together. We know that 1 Corinthians pertains to this larger gathering because in 11:20 Paul spoke of all the believers coming together in one place and in 14:23 he spoke of the whole church coming together in one place.<\/p>\nPaul used this epistle to correct the Corinthians’ behavior in the celebration of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:17-34) and in the exercising of spiritual gifts during church meetings (ch 14). Paul’s adjustments reveal his perceptions of a model Christian meeting, and his preceptions were probably developed from actual experience in other church meetings. Paul urged the Corinthians to celebrate the Lord’s Supper together in a manner that reflected Jesus’ institution of that meal. They were to remember the Lord and his death for them, and they were to partake of the bread and wine with all seriousness. At the same time, they were to be conscious of the fact that they were members of the same body of Christ—joined to one another, and also to Christ.<\/p>\nAccording to Paul’s presentation in chapter 14, this “body consciousness” should be evident in the way the believers worshiped together. One’s personal experience and liberty should not hinder the coordination of the body in worshiping God corporately. Thus, when the believers exercised their spiritual gifts—whether it be prophesying, speaking in tongues, providing interpretations of the tongues, or teaching—it should be done in good order and for the edification of the congregation, not personal edification. When all the church assembled together to worship God, it should be a display of spiritual unity.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Church.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CHURCH MEETINGS<\/h3>\nThe assembling together of the believers. In the NT, the Greek word ekklesia<\/span> (usually translated “church”) is used primarily in two ways: (1) to describe a meeting or an assembly, and (2) to designate the people who participate in such assembling together—whether they are actually assembled or not. The NT contains a few places that speak of a secular Greek assembly (Acts 19:32, 41); every other instance speaks of a Christian assembly. Sometimes the word ekklesia<\/span> is used to designate the actual meeting together of Christians. This is certainly what Paul intended in 1 Corinthians 14:19, 28, and 35, in that the expression en ekklesia<\/span> must mean “in a meeting” and not “in the church.” To translate this phrase “in the church” (as is done in most modern English versions) is misleading, for most readers will think it means “in the church building.” The NT never once names the place of assembly a “church.” Aside from the few instances where the word clearly means the actual meeting together of believers, ekklesia<\/span> most often is used as a descriptor for the believers who constitute a local church (such as the church in Corinth, the church in Philippi, and the church in Colosse) or all the believers (past, present, and future) who constitute the universal church, the complete body of Christ.<\/p>\nWhen reading the NT, Christians need to be aware of the various ways in which the word ekklesia<\/span> (“church”) is used. On the most basic level, the ekklesia<\/span> is any gathering of believers. On another level, the ekklesia<\/span> is an organized local entity—comprised of all the believers in any given locality, under one pluralistic eldership. On another level, the ekklesia<\/span> is the universal church whose constituents are all the believers who have ever been, are now existing, and will ever be. The word ekklesia<\/span> was used by the NT writers with these various aspects of meaning, though, at times, it is not possible to differentiate one from the other. Nevertheless, students of the NT could avoid some confusion if they used discrimination in their exegesis of the text. Some interpreters have taught that the smallest unit of the church is the local church, but the NT writers sometimes used the word “church” to indicate a small home gathering. Other interpreters confuse the local church with the universal church. But some things in the NT are addressed to a local church that do not necessarily apply to the whole church, and some great things are spoken of the universal church that could never be attained by any particular local group. The things Paul said about the church in the Epistle to the Ephesians (which was written as an encyclical for several churches and not just for the church in Ephesus) could never be attained by a local church. For example, what local church could attain to the fullness of the stature of Christ?<\/p>\nThere is much to be said about how interpreters have confused the local church with the universal church, but this article is devoted to clearing up the confusion about what constitutes the smallest unit of the church—the local church, or what could be called the house church or home gathering.<\/p>\nThe NT seems to present the fact that a particular local church (i.e., a church comprising all the believers in a given locality under one eldership) could and did have several ekklesiai<\/span>—“meetings” or “assemblies” (carried on in homes of the local Christians). Thus, the smallest unit to comprise a “church” was one of these home meetings. However, there is no indication in the NT that each of these home meetings had its own eldership or was a distinct entity separate from the other gatherings (<\/em>ekklesiai<\/span>)<\/em> in the same locality. According to Acts 14:23 and Titus 1:5, elders were appointed for every local church (compare the expressions “appointed elders in every church” and “appoint elders in every city”)—not for every house church. Nevertheless, it appears that every local church of some size had several such ekklesiai<\/span> (“meetings”) going on within that locality.<\/p>\nThe church in Jerusalem must have had several home meetings (see Acts 2:46; 5:42; 8:3; 12:5, 12), as did the church in Rome (see Rom 16:3-5, 14-15 and comments below). A small local church may have had only one home gathering—as was probably the case with the church at Colosse (see Phlm 1:2 and comments below), but this would have been impossible for large local churches like those in Jerusalem, Rome, and Ephesus, in which there must have been several “house churches” (see 1 Cor 16:19-20 [1 Cor was written from Ephesus] and comments below). An examination of the passages that deal with the issue of the “house church” should affirm this. These passages are Romans 16:3-5, 14-15; 1 Corinthians 16:19-20; Colossians 4:15-16; and Philemon 1:1-2 (all quoted from the rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h4>Romans 16:3-5, 14-15<\/h4>\nIn the last chapter of Romans, Paul asked the believers in Rome, to whom he had written this epistle, to greet Priscilla and Aquila and the church that met in their home (16:3-5). The entire church in Rome could not have met in Priscilla and Aquila’s home, for the church was much too large to have assembled in a single home. Rather, the church in Priscilla and Aquila’s home must have been one among several such “house churches” in Rome. The following discussion should substantiate this position.<\/p>\nPaul’s Epistle to the Romans was addressed to “all God’s beloved in Rome” (1:7), not to “the church in Rome.” At the time of writing, Paul had not been to Rome—nor had any other apostle. The church was probably started there by Jewish Romans who had been converted during their visit to Jerusalem during Pentecost (Acts 2:10) and then returned to Rome. Since the church had not been started by an apostle, it could have been that there were no “ordained” elders in the church at Rome and that there were several gatherings of believers in various parts of Rome and its suburbs. Paul knew some of the saints in Rome (whom he addressed by name in the last chapter) and thus addressed an epistle to all the saints in that locality, instead of to the church in that locality—which was his usual practice (see 1 Cor 1:1; 2 Cor 1:1; 1 Thes 1:1; 2 Thes 1:1). Nonetheless, “all the saints in Rome” would comprise “the church in Rome” (cf. Phil 1:1, in which Paul addressed his epistle to all the saints in Philippi).<\/p>\nIn the final chapter of Romans, Paul asks all the believers in Rome (which equals the “local” church in Rome) to greet the church in Priscilla and Aquila’s house. Later in the chapter, Paul asks the church to greet Asyncritus, Phlegon, Hermas, Patrobas, Hermes, and the brothers with them; and then again he asks the church to greet Philologus, Julia, Nereus and his sister, Olympas, and all the saints with them (16:14-15). Evidently, Paul was identifying two other groups of believers who must have met together. (And perhaps Paul was referring to two more groups in 16:10-11, which in the Greek could mean the ones of Aristobulus’s and Narcissus’s households<\/em> or the ones of their fellowships.<\/em>) It seems that the church in Rome, like the church in Jerusalem and Ephesus, had several home ekklesiai<\/span> (meetings).<\/p>\nThe Epistle to the Romans was written around AD<\/span> 58. The Neronian persecution began around AD<\/span> 64. Secular historians such as Tacitus tell us that a vast multitude (ingens multitudo)<\/em> of Christians were tortured and killed during this persecution (Annals<\/em> 15.44). Seutonius (in his book Nero,<\/em> ch 16) said that the rapid increase of the Christians in Rome had made them unpopular. Indeed, at the time Paul penned the Epistle to the Romans he said their faith was known throughout the world (1:8), which indicates that the church in Rome had already made an impact on the Mediterranean world. When Paul came to Rome three years later (AD<\/span> 61), he came to a city that had a large church there already. From Romans 15:23, we know that the church had been in existence for many years even before Paul wrote his epistle to them. In short, the church in Rome was a large church around the time Paul wrote his epistle to them. The entire church could not have met in the home of Aquila and Priscilla, who would have had only a modest-sized dwelling (for they were tentmakers). Besides, Paul greeted over 25 individuals by name in chapter 16—and he had not yet even been to Rome!<\/p>\nThere must have been several ekklesiai<\/span> in Rome, i.e., several home churches all unified as the one local church in Rome. For example, the Christians in Rome apparently worshiped in numerous homes such as Priscilla and Aquila’s. Other churches in homes are mentioned in Colossians 4:15 and Philemon 1:2. Groups of Christians met in houses of prominent believers or in other available rooms (cf. Mt 26:16; Acts 12:12; 1 Cor 16:19; Col 4:15; Phlm 1:2). The church in Priscilla and Aquila’s house is the first of five groups of believers in Paul’s list, but the only one referred to definitely as a church (see Rom 16:5, 10-11, 14-15). Priscilla and Aquila opened their home for Christian meetings. The church mentioned there was obviously only a part of the total number of Christians in Rome. Verses 10-11 and 14-15 seem to refer to two other household churches in Rome. Apparently, there were at least three churches there, and probably more. Each house church could not have been a separate entity with a separate church government; rather, each house church must have been simply one home meeting of some of the saints in the one local church at Rome.<\/p>\n<h4>1 Corinthians 16:19-20<\/h4>\nIn this passage we again see Aquila and Priscilla and again discover that a church met in their house. According to Romans, their house church was, of course, in Rome. According to 1 Corinthians (written from Ephesus), their house church was in Ephesus. Many scholars think Aquila and Priscilla left Rome around AD<\/span> 49 at the time of Claudius’s edict expelling Jews from Rome. They very well could have already been Christians at this time. According to Acts 18, they joined Paul in Corinth (where they all worked together in their craft of tentmaking) and then went on with him to Ephesus, during the time (around AD<\/span> 51) the church in Ephesus was first established. Paul continued on with his second missionary journey, while Aquila and Priscilla remained in Ephesus. No doubt, the early church there first met in their home. Paul returned to Ephesus a few years later and remained there for two years (around AD<\/span> 53–54). During this time, Paul’s proclamation of the gospel went out from Ephesus (as a center) to all of Asia Minor (see Acts 19:8-10). As this was going on, the church in Ephesus grew (see vv 18-20).<\/p>\nIt was during these years that Paul wrote to the Corinthians, in which he sent greetings from the churches in Asia, from Aquila and Priscilla—and the church in their house, and from all the brothers (1 Cor 16:19-20). In giving this kind of greeting, it seems that Paul was sending greetings from (1) all the churches in Asia Minor, (2) the church in Ephesus (equivalent to “all the brothers”), and (3) those believers who gathered with Aquila and Priscilla in their home. It would be hard to imagine that all the saints in Ephesus met at Aquila and Priscilla’s home. The church probably began that way, but as it grew, so did the number of home meetings. From other portions of the NT (specifically 1 Timothy, which was written around AD<\/span> 64 by Paul to Timothy while Timothy was leading the church in Ephesus), we discover that there must have been several home meetings in Ephesus because there were so many saints there (see 1 Timothy 5–6, which reveal that there must have been a large number of saints in Ephesus—young men, young women, older men, widows, and so forth). At any rate, several saints must have hosted an ekklesia<\/span>,<\/em> a meeting, in their home. (Aquila and Priscilla left Ephesus around AD<\/span> 56\/57 and returned to Rome, where again they hosted a church in their home. Others in Ephesus would have to open their homes.) But each such ekklesia<\/span> did not have its own eldership; rather, all of the church in Ephesus was under one eldership—headed up by Timothy, Paul’s coworker.<\/p>\n<h4>Colossians 4:15-16<\/h4>\nIn this portion, we again read about a church existing in the home of one called Nymphas. In his final remarks to the church in Colosse, Paul asked the saints in Colosse to send his greetings to (1) the brothers that are in Laodicea, (2) Nymphas in particular, and (3) the church in Nymphas’s house. According to the structure of Colossians 4:15, it seems evident that the first greeting included all the believers in Laodicea (a neighboring church to Colosse), who would comprise the entire church in Laodicea (called “the church of the Laodiceans” in Col 4:16), and that the second and third greetings were to a specific individual (Nymphas) in the church in Laodicea and a church meeting in Nymphas’s house. This church meeting in Nymphas’s house would probably be one of several home meetings—all part of the one local church in Laodicea.<\/p>\nThere is a textual problem in this passage that could have some effect on the interpretation of it. Some manuscripts read “his house”; others read “her house”; still others read “their house.” Because it cannot be determined from the Greek text whether Nymphas was male or female, various scribes used different pronouns before “house.” Between the readings “her” and “his,” it is far more likely that the pronoun “her” was changed to “his” than vice versa. Some scholars say that “their” refers to “the brothers” at Laodicea. But that does not make sense if we understand that “the brothers in Laodicea” is equal to the church in Laodicea. How could the church in Laodicea have the church in their house? Other scholars indicate that the Greek word for “their” (<\/em>auton<\/span>)<\/em> refers to the ones with Nymphas—i.e., the members of his household. Whether the reading was “her house” or “their house,” a particular group of believers within the church of Laodicea met there. Their meeting could legitimately be called an ekklesia<\/span>—an assembling together.<\/p>\n<h4>Philemon 1:1-2<\/h4>\nThis is the last time in the NT we read about a church in a particular home. Paul wrote a short epistle to Philemon, an elder of the church in Colosse, on behalf of Onesimus, Philemon’s runaway slave converted by Paul to Christ. In his introduction to this short epistle, Paul sends his greetings to Philemon, Apphia, Archippus, and the church in Philemon’s house. It is important to note that Paul did not send greetings to all the saints in Colosse and then to the church in Philemon’s house (as is the pattern in 1 Cor 16:19-20 and Col 4:15); instead, he just sent greetings to Philemon and to the church in his house. Therefore, we can assume that the entire church in Colosse must have met at Philemon’s house.<\/p>\n<h4>Worship in the Home Meetings and Church Meetings<\/h4>\nWhen the church first began in Jerusalem, the believers met in homes for fellowship and worship. Acts 2:42-47 tells us that the early Christians met in homes to hear the apostles’ teachings and to celebrate Communion (which is called “the breaking of bread”). During such gatherings, the Christians often shared meals with one another in what was called a love feast (2 Pt 2:13; Jude 1:12). At these meetings, the Christians recited Scripture, sang hymns and psalms, and joyfully praised the Lord (see Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16-17). Christians also gathered together in homes to pray (Acts 12:12) and read the Word.<\/p>\nSmall groups of believers met in homes for worship quite regularly; in a city where there were several such ekklesiai<\/span>,<\/em> all the believers would gather together for special occasions. Scripture tells us that all the believers would come together to hear an epistle from the apostles read out loud (see Acts 15:30; Col 4:16), and we can surmise from the NT record that all the Christians in a city met together once a week on Sunday, which was called the Lord’s Day. First Corinthians provides several insights about how the early Christians worshiped together when all the believers in one city met together. We know that 1 Corinthians pertains to this larger gathering because in 11:20 Paul spoke of all the believers coming together in one place and in 14:23 he spoke of the whole church coming together in one place.<\/p>\nPaul used this epistle to correct the Corinthians’ behavior in the celebration of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:17-34) and in the exercising of spiritual gifts during church meetings (ch 14). Paul’s adjustments reveal his perceptions of a model Christian meeting, and his preceptions were probably developed from actual experience in other church meetings. Paul urged the Corinthians to celebrate the Lord’s Supper together in a manner that reflected Jesus’ institution of that meal. They were to remember the Lord and his death for them, and they were to partake of the bread and wine with all seriousness. At the same time, they were to be conscious of the fact that they were members of the same body of Christ—joined to one another, and also to Christ.<\/p>\nAccording to Paul’s presentation in chapter 14, this “body consciousness” should be evident in the way the believers worshiped together. One’s personal experience and liberty should not hinder the coordination of the body in worshiping God corporately. Thus, when the believers exercised their spiritual gifts—whether it be prophesying, speaking in tongues, providing interpretations of the tongues, or teaching—it should be done in good order and for the edification of the congregation, not personal edification. When all the church assembled together to worship God, it should be a display of spiritual unity.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Church.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CHURCH MEETINGS The assembling together of the believers. In the NT, the Greek word ekklesia (usually translated “church”) is used primarily in two ways: (1) to describe a meeting or an assembly, and (2) to designate the people who participate in such assembling together—whether they are actually assembled or not. The NT contains a few places that speak of a secular Greek assembly (Acts 19:32, 41); every other instance speaks of a Christian assembly. Sometimes the word ekklesia is used to des...","summary_en":"CHURCH MEETINGS The assembling together of the believers. In the NT, the Greek word ekklesia (usually translated “church”) is used primarily in two ways: (1) to describe a meeting or an assembly, and (2) to designate the people who participate in such assembling together—whether they are actually assembled or not. The NT contains a few places that speak of a secular Greek assembly (Acts 19:32, 41); every other instance speaks of a Christian assembly. Sometimes the word ekklesia is used to des...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"25":[{"id":57685,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:25","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:25","content_ro":"14:25<\/strong> “God is truly here among you.”<\/em> Paul is alluding to Isa 45:14.<\/p>","content_en":"14:25<\/strong> “God is truly here among you.”<\/em> Paul is alluding to Isa 45:14.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:25 “God is truly here among you.” Paul is alluding to Isa 45:14.","summary_en":"14:25 “God is truly here among you.” Paul is alluding to Isa 45:14.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85311,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:25","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:25","content_ro":"14:25<\/strong> “God is truly here among you.”<\/em> Paul is alluding to Isa 45:14.<\/p>","content_en":"14:25<\/strong> “God is truly here among you.”<\/em> Paul is alluding to Isa 45:14.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:25 “God is truly here among you.” Paul is alluding to Isa 45:14.","summary_en":"14:25 “God is truly here among you.” Paul is alluding to Isa 45:14.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112937,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:25","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:25","content_ro":"14:25<\/strong> “God is truly here among you.”<\/em> Paul is alluding to Isa 45:14.<\/p>","content_en":"14:25<\/strong> “God is truly here among you.”<\/em> Paul is alluding to Isa 45:14.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:25 “God is truly here among you.” Paul is alluding to Isa 45:14.","summary_en":"14:25 “God is truly here among you.” Paul is alluding to Isa 45:14.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140563,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:25","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:25","content_ro":"14:25<\/strong> “God is truly here among you.”<\/em> Paul is alluding to Isa 45:14.<\/p>","content_en":"14:25<\/strong> “God is truly here among you.”<\/em> Paul is alluding to Isa 45:14.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:25 “God is truly here among you.” Paul is alluding to Isa 45:14.","summary_en":"14:25 “God is truly here among you.” Paul is alluding to Isa 45:14.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"26":[{"id":7647,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"First Letter to the Corinthians","title_en":"First Letter to the Corinthians","content_ro":"<h3>CORINTHIANS, First Letter to the<\/h3>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date and Origin<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nThere is no doubt about who wrote 1 Corinthians, for all scholars agree that the apostle Paul wrote it on his third missionary journey while he was living in Ephesus. By this time Paul was a mature, middle-aged (perhaps 55 years old) missionary, fully seasoned from planting churches around a quarter of the Mediterranean world.<\/p>\nDate and Origin<\/p>\nPaul worked in Corinth from about AD<\/span> 50 to 52. After a brief stay in Jerusalem, he returned to his missionary work, this time at Ephesus (Acts 19), where he ministered for three years (AD<\/span> 53–55\/56). During this period, he wrote at least three letters to Corinth and made a visit as well. His first letter, often called “the previous letter,” is referred to in 1 Corinthians 5:9-11. We know from this reference that the letter was misunderstood, but we know little of its content, for it has been lost.<\/p>\nSometime in AD<\/span> 55, after hearing reports from Chloe’s household (1 Cor 1:11), who were probably members of Chloe’s house church, he dictated a second letter to Corinth, our 1 Corinthians. This was probably sent off in the hands of Stephanas, Fortunatus, and Achaicus (16:17). Paul would later write a third letter to Corinth, called “the letter of tears” (2 Cor 2:2-3), and then finally 2 Corinthians.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nCorinth was a seaport city, destroyed by the Romans in 146 BC<\/span> and rebuilt in 46 BC<\/span> by Julius Caesar. After 27 BC<\/span>, it was the Roman capital of Achaia, where the proconsul had his residence (Acts 18:12). The city itself was really three cities: the port of Cenchrea, about eight miles (13 kilometers) to the east, where ships from the Aegean would unload; the port of Lechaion, about a mile (1.6 kilometers) to the west on the Gulf of Corinth, where the ships would be reloaded, their goods having been transported in wagons over the isthmus and the ships on rollers; and the city itself on the high ground in between.<\/p>\nThe acropolis of the city, on top of the steep, high Acrocorinth, contained the temple of Aphrodite, where 1,000 female slaves were dedicated to the service of this goddess of love. This distinctive cult of Corinth was dedicated to the veneration of Aphrodite, goddess of love, beauty, and fertility, who is identified with the Roman Venus. Associated with such religious practices was a general moral degradation. Corinthian morals were notoriously corrupt, even when compared with pagan Rome. Down in the city was the synagogue (Acts 18:4); for while the city as a Roman colony was largely populated by Italians, it had attracted other peoples from the Mediterranean, among whom were the Jews.<\/p>\nPurpose and Teaching<\/p>\nThe main concern of Paul in 1 Corinthians was the unity of the church. There was a self-centeredness in Corinth that resulted in building cliques within the church, in flaunting knowledge and liberty in the face of others scandalized by it, and in selfish displays in the worship services.<\/p>\nTwo other major concerns also surface in the book. First, along with other pagan practices, the lax sexual ethics of Corinth had influenced the church; Paul needed to erect some barriers. Second, there was a problem in accepting the resurrection of the body; Paul realized that this issue had implications for the core of the faith and vigorously affirmed the resurrection.<\/p>\nBoth of these latter two areas, as well as aspects of the unity issue (particularly their concern with knowledge), have been identified by some scholars as Gnostic motifs, leading to the conclusion that Paul was opposing a Gnostic party in Corinth. Careful examination reveals, however, that while some of the elements floating in the Corinthian milieu would later contribute to the development of Gnosticism, it would be anachronistic to call them gnostic. While recognizing protognostic ideas in the Corinthian situation, it is important to keep interpretation within the first-century context.<\/p>\nThus, the focus of Paul’s concern was the church, its unity and purity. Paul was fighting to keep this church from disintegrating into a number of competing and bickering factions divided over moral and doctrinal issues. Furthermore, he wanted to keep the focus of the church on Jesus, the exalted Lord.<\/p>\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Greeting, 1:1-9<\/h5>\nPaul begins with a standard greeting, followed by his usual thanksgiving prayer. Two features stand out. First, the greeting associates Sosthenes with Paul. While we cannot be sure who Sosthenes was, he was surely well known to the Corinthians; probably he was the Sosthenes whom Acts 18:17 identifies as the ruler of the synagogue, following the conversion of Crispus.<\/p>\nSecond, Paul stresses the Corinthians’ abilities in speech, knowledge, and spiritual gifts. They had all of these, and these were genuine, but it was precisely these good things that they were abusing. Paul’s solution is not to suppress these gifts (indeed, he thanks God for them), but to place them in a new context.<\/p>\n<h5>Report from Chloe’s People, 1:10–4:21<\/h5>\nThe Corinthians had made Paul, Cephas (Peter), Apollos, and even Christ into party leaders. We are not sure what each of these groups stood for, but one might guess that the Pauline group stressed Paul’s slogans of liberty; the Petrine group, the need to hold to Jewish practices; and the Apollos group, the value of philosophical understanding and oratory. Whatever they stood for, Paul is appalled that it breaks their unity. His first response is to argue that his behavior was not calculated to build a following but to point to Christ. That is, he did not insist on personally baptizing converts; who performed these acts did not matter, since they were all baptized into Christ.<\/p>\nPaul immediately moves to the underlying issue, that of various persons wanting to show themselves better or wiser than others who did not have the insights of their party in the church. Their seeking for wisdom contradicts Paul’s preaching of the gospel.<\/p>\nFirst, the message of a crucified Christ (1:18) made no sense within the wisdom and values of either Jews or Greeks. It demanded a whole new way of looking on life—God’s way.<\/p>\nSecond, God had not chosen them on the basis of their status in society; quite the contrary, he had made their only status the equal status they received from him (1:26-31).<\/p>\nThird, their faith had not been based on Paul’s oratory but on the gifts of the Spirit that Paul had manifested (2:4), which had convinced them that God was acting in Paul. Thus, it was not argument that led them to God, but God’s Spirit. Therefore it was the Spirit, not human reasoning, that would continue to reveal God to them. Unless they became fools with respect to the world’s ways of reasoning, they would never be able to rethink life from the perspective of the Spirit, who gives true wisdom.<\/p>\nFourth, they were not acting on this spiritual level when they claimed Paul and others as party leaders; this activity demonstrates the evil impulse in human beings (“the flesh” or “fallen human nature”) at work since it elevates human servants rather than the God who works equally in each of them.<\/p>\nFifth, these servants were working together to build one “temple” for God based on the one foundation in Jesus Christ, that is, the church. God alone will judge how each Christian contributes to the work of building the church. But woe to the person who divides the church, for “if anyone destroys God’s temple, God will destroy him” (3:17, rsv<\/span>). (Note that here the temple imagery is used collectively; the church is the temple. In chapter 6 it will be used individually; each Christian is the temple.)<\/p>\nFinally, he points to their overrealized eschatology, for with their spiritual gifts (which were genuine) and vaunted wisdom (which was worldly) they claimed they were reigning with Christ (4:8-13). Paul, with ironic sarcasm, points out how different this claim is from the lifestyle of the apostles. The apostles lived like Jesus—a life of suffering, expecting exaltation later. The Corinthians were trying to have their exaltation now without crucifixion.<\/p>\nPaul closes this section with an admonition. He softens his words toward some who would be responsive, urging them to copy his lifestyle. The teacher was the message (vv 14-16). Timothy will also faithfully live the truth before them. Then he threatens the “arrogant” (v 18), pointing out that he will not challenge their words but their spiritual power if he comes.<\/p>\n<h5>The Report from the Corinthian Messengers, 5:1–6:20<\/h5>\nPaul now turns to three issues raised by oral reports from the messengers bearing the Corinthians’ letter to him.<\/p>\nThe first issue is that of church discipline (5:12-13). Paul cites a case of flagrant immorality—that of incest. This immorality was so clear (even pagans considered it immoral), that it was not a case of ignorance of Christian principles. Further, the church had taken no action but rather boasted in its tolerance, perhaps on the basis of a misunderstanding of Paul’s teaching on freedom from the law.<\/p>\nPaul presents three principles in this section: (1) the primary goal of church discipline is the repentance and restoration of the offender; (2) the secondary goal of church discipline is the protection of the church (5:6-8); and (3) the church is not to seek to judge or control the actions of evil persons in the world—they are God’s responsibility—but to discipline those within the church (vv 9-13). Paul will use these principles also in the following chapters (cf. 7:12-16).<\/p>\nThe second issue is that of lawsuits between Christians (6:1-11). The Corinthian society was as prone to litigation as our own, and Christians did not see anything wrong in suing each other. Paul was troubled. If Christians are to judge the world, they certainly should not bring the world in to judge issues within the church. Rather than put their cases before “those who are least esteemed by the church” (6:4, rsv<\/span>, i.e., pagan judges), they should decide the cases within the church.<\/p>\nPaul has an even better way than bypassing the pagan courts, and that is to simply suffer the wrong (1 Cor 6:7). Applying the teaching of Jesus quite literally (Mt 5:38-42), Paul argues that it would be best to allow themselves to be defrauded. Instead, the Corinthians are willing to step on their brothers in Christ to get what they feel are their rights. This raises the issue as to whether greed is not still in their hearts (1 Cor 6:9-11). While Paul accepts people who formerly did all sorts of evil (for Jesus has cleansed them), he makes it very clear that anyone presently practicing greed or immorality is not part of the kingdom, whatever their doctrinal commitments may be.<\/p>\nThe final issue in this section is that of casual sexual intercourse (6:12-20). In a world where virginity was important if a woman wished to be married and where slaves in the temple of Aphrodite were available as prostitutes, prostitution was the major form of casual sex. The libertine party used two slogans: “All things are lawful for me,” a saying that may well have been derived from Paul’s teaching, and “Food is meant for the stomach and the stomach for food”—that is, since the body works this way, it must be the Creator’s purpose. Paul qualifies rather than contradicts their slogans. Freedom is subordinate to other goals (6:12, 20). The body is not made to be used as we wish, but is to be dedicated to the Lord, as the doctrine of the resurrection demonstrates (vv 13-14).<\/p>\nFurthermore, sexual intercourse is an act of the whole person, unlike eating (Paul cites Gn 2:24; cf. Jesus in Mt 19:5). Therefore, this act takes a member (i.e., the person) from the body of Christ and makes him a unity with a prostitute (1 Cor 6:15-17). Thus immorality is unlike other sins that are external to the self, for it changes the self and thus defiles the body, the place where the Holy Spirit dwells. It disregards the fact that Christ has redeemed the body, and that the whole of the Christian belongs to God, not to the Christian.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Answers to the Corinthians, 7:1–16:4<\/h5>\nNow Paul turns to the Corinthians’ own issues, building on the answers he has already given to questions they did not ask.<\/p>\nThe first issue is that of marriage (7:1-24). The slogan of the ascetic party in Corinth (perhaps a reaction against the libertines of ch 6) was “It is good for a man not to touch a woman” (7:1, kjv<\/span>). The Corinthians applied this slogan to both married and unmarried, arguing that married Christians should abstain from sexual relations. Paul clarified the matter with three points. First, he said that this was totally unrealistic, for total abstinence would lead to immorality (vv 2, 7-9). Second, when people get married they no longer own their own bodies; their bodies belong to each other for their mutual benefit (vv 3-4). Sexual refusal denies a spouse what rightly belongs to him or her. Third, abstinence is allowed for limited periods by mutual agreement as a type of fast to help focus on Christ (v 5).<\/p>\nWhile Paul will address the issue of the unmarried more fully in 7:25-40, in a side remark he indicates that he is himself content to be unmarried. But since some do not have this gift, full sexual expression in marriage is far better than fighting passion (7:7-9). Once two Christians are married, divorce is unthinkable. A clear word of Christ proves this (Mt 5:31-32; Mk 10:11-12; Lk 16:18 and parallels), so there are no exceptions (Paul either does not know of the exception clause in Mt 19:9 or he understands it as referring to something like premarital unchastity discovered before the wedding, not to adultery after the wedding). Although in some cases a Christian couple must live separately, it is always with a view to reconciliation. The teaching of Jesus does not allow him to think of the marriage as ending (1 Cor 7:10-11).<\/p>\nBut what if the spouse is not a Christian? Paul applies his principles to a situation for which Jesus did not leave a clear word. First, since Jesus told Christians not to divorce, even in this situation the Christian may not initiate a divorce (7:12-13). Second, since Christians are not to control or judge non-Christians (6:12-13), the Christian does not need to continue the relationship if the non-Christian insists on a divorce (7:15). Third, far from defiling the Christian (as the relationship in 6:15 does), the Christian will make the relationship holy, with positive results for the children and the possible salvation of the spouse (7:14, 16). While this is no call to remain in situations of physical or sexual abuse, it is a call to remain faithful to a mixed marriage situation.<\/p>\nPaul does not believe that one normally needs to change one’s life situation to serve Christ (7:17-24). Therefore, normally each person should remain in that state of life in which he or she was when called to Christ. Paul’s examples show that he was thinking in terms of marriage or singleness, Jew (circumcision) or Gentile, slave or free, not in terms of situations that might be immoral in themselves. In the case of slaves, they can accept freedom if it becomes available, but it does not make an essential difference in their real state before God or their ability to serve Christ (vv 21-23).<\/p>\nThe second issue is that of the unmarried (7:25-40). Paul argues that single people and widows may marry—it is not wrong. Yet he advises them to remain single. Since all in this age is passing away, it would be good to stay single so as to avoid the extra suffering to which marriage exposes a person (vv 25-31). What is more, marriage always divides one’s attention between the Lord and the legitimate needs of the spouse. One must not abandon the spouse or ignore his or her needs in order to serve the Lord, but one can remain single so that the Lord can be the sole focus of life and devotion (vv 32-35). Finally, if one is in a situation in which marriage is expected, the person must make his own decision as to whether he should marry the woman for her sake (and perhaps that of the wider family) or whether he can and should simply care for her as a single person (vv 36-38). Paul closes this section by repeating his general principles (vv 39-40).<\/p>\nThe third issue Paul deals with is that of food that has been offered to idols (8:1–11:1). Most meat that was available in the marketplace came either from animals slaughtered as sacrifices in the temples or from groups of animals from which one was offered as a dedicatory sacrifice. To scrupulous Jews, all of this meat would be untouched. Furthermore, pagans invited Christians to feasts in their homes and to private feasts held in the precincts of pagan temples, where trade guilds also held feasts. Paul discusses these issues and uses them to teach wider principles of Christian conduct.<\/p>\nFirst, love, not knowledge, is the key to correct behavior (8:1-13). Some Corinthians felt superior because they were convinced that idols had no reality (there is only one God), and therefore any food offered to them was still fit to eat. Paul again accepts their slogans, but counters with the statement, “Knowledge puffs up, but love builds up” (v 1, niv<\/span>). God is not concerned with what we know or eat, but he is concerned with whether or not we love our fellow Christians. The concern is not that a fellow Christian might become enraged because one indulged, but that he or she might have a vulnerable conscience and indulge himself, even though he believed it wrong and thus in his own eyes apostasizes from the faith (i.e., rebels against Christ). Such leading astray is not love. It would be better never to eat meat than to lead a fellow Christian into sin.<\/p>\nSecond, he points out that one should subordinate one’s own interests to those of others, especially those of Christ and his gospel (9:1-23). Both the examples of the apostles, who expected the church to support them and their families (cf. Lk 10:5-7), and Scripture prove that Paul had the right to demand support from the Corinthians. This had not been his practice, for he had normally made tents to support his ministry, though he did accept gifts from other churches. Paul did this to prevent people from thinking he was peddling religion for profit (9:12) and for the personal satisfaction of doing more than he had to do (vv 16-17). This was part of Paul’s larger policy of subordinating his own personal preferences and interests to those of Christ and his gospel (vv 19-23).<\/p>\nThird, the bravado of the strong who demonstrate their liberty with disregard of fellow Christians is spiritually dangerous (9:24–10:22). It is not who begins but who completes the Christian life that counts; therefore, it is a life of discipline, not relaxed license (9:24-27). Israel in the wilderness presents an example of failure in this regard. They had “baptism” and “the Lord’s Supper” (10:2-4), just like the church, yet most of them did not make it to the Promised Land. The reason God destroyed them was simple: they turned to sin. Likewise, the Christian has to be careful not to be so proud about faith and freedom that he becomes careless about sin and falls from the faith (v 12). On the other hand, Christians need not be fearful, for the temptation is not more powerful than they are; God has provided a way of escape, if they will take it (v 13).<\/p>\nAnother link between the Israelites and the Corinthians pertains to partaking of a sacrificial meal (10:14-22). In the Lord’s Supper there is a sharing of the blood and body of Christ, just as real as Israel’s sacrifices on the altar. Food offered to idols is also a sharing, not with the supposed god, but with the real demon that is behind the idol. To try to share at both tables is to provoke God’s jealousy just as Israel did (v 22).<\/p>\nA summary of the discussion draws the three chapters together (10:23–11:1). Since the food is not changed by being offered to idols, and since all food really belongs to God, one may eat anything sold in the market—do not ask any questions (10:25-26). Likewise, the Christian may eat anything served at a dinner in the home of an unbeliever. However, if someone points out that the food was offered to idols, the Christian should pass it by, not because it would hurt him, but because it is an issue with the person who raised the question, and the Christian is concerned about the good of his neighbor (vv 27-30). In other words, follow Paul’s example as he patterns himself in turn after Christ, who served others rather than himself. Act so that God’s reputation and character shine through even in what one eats (v 31); try to offend no one but to benefit each person in moving him toward salvation (v 32).<\/p>\nThe fourth issue Paul deals with is that of order in church meetings (11:2–14:40). The Corinthians’ house churches had lively meetings, but rather than showing unity in Christ, they demonstrated selfishness. Paul had no desire to change what they did; he did want to change how they did it.<\/p>\nThe first problem in the meetings was the behavior of married women (11:1-16). The sign of marriage in that day was the wearing of a veil or distinctive hairstyle, as a ring is today. Women praying and delivering prophecies in church was no issue for Paul, but the women may have felt that this loosed them from their husbands (cf. Mk 12:25) and therefore was a reason to set aside their veils. Paul argues that husband and wife are intimately joined, just as humans are to God (1 Cor 11:3). Therefore as humans should not shame but glorify God, so the wife should act toward her husband. Thus, while Paul approves of ministry by women, he puts marriage first.<\/p>\nThe second problem in the meetings was that of making class distinctions (11:17-34). Until the weekly Lord’s Supper began to be turned into the sacrifice of the Mass in the third and fourth centuries, it was a full shared meal. Middle- and upper-class Christians could come earlier to the church gatherings and also provide better food and drink for themselves. Following the customs of pagan clubs, they had no scruples against starting early and feasting as befit their class, so long as at least simple food was provided for the slaves and peasants who could not come as early (v 21). This shamed the poorer Christians and made them feel class distinctions keenly (v 22). This, argues Paul, is not the Lord’s Supper but a sham (v 20).<\/p>\nPaul repeats the words of institution to point out that they all are participating in Christ’s body and blood (cf. 10:16-17), not their own meal. To do it in an unworthy manner, with divisions and class distinctions among them, is to profane his meal by failing to demonstrate the unity of his body, the church (11:29), and thus invite his judgment, which they were already experiencing. Instead, they should examine their own motives and truly gather as one to eat this common meal.<\/p>\nThe third problem in their meetings was the use of spiritual gifts (12:1–14:40). It is possible that some people in these house churches, under the influence of Gnostic ideas in which the spiritual is good and the material evil, and feeling inspired by a spirit, cried out, “Jesus [meaning the human Jesus as opposed to the spiritual Christ] be cursed.” It is not the Spirit of God saying this, argues Paul, for the Spirit in us cries the basic Christian confession, “Jesus is Lord.”<\/p>\nOthers in these churches were exalting their own particular gift, especially the gift of tongues, shouting down others or refusing to give them a turn. There is only one Spirit and he gives all the gifts, Paul argues (12:4-6). The Spirit manifests himself sovereignly in each Christian, not simply for the Christian’s own benefit, but for the good of all (v 7). Since it is the Spirit, not a given manifestation, that the Christian has, the gifts manifested could change from meeting to meeting.<\/p>\nThat same Spirit has made all Christians into one organic unity in Christ (12:12-13). Thus not only does the one Spirit give all the gifts—all are equally inspired—but all the gifts are equally needed for the proper functioning of the body of Christ (vv 14-26). No one can say that his lack of a given gift makes him less a part of the body; indeed, the less noticeable gifts may well be the more important. Thus, within the body of Christ, there are not only different manifestations of the Spirit through individuals in a given meeting, but different ministries or functions of individuals in the body (vv 27-31).<\/p>\nTherefore, it is not the demonstration of a particular gift that shows one’s spirituality, but how one demonstrates it—that is, whether one manifests it with love (13:1-13). Any gift exercised for selfish purposes may be a genuine gift of the Spirit, but it is worthless to the individual (vv 1-3). This is because love is the opposite of selfishness (vv 4-7). In fact, the gifts of the Spirit are only for the period between Jesus’ first coming and his second coming, when the kingdom of God will be perfectly revealed and the King will be present in person, and thus the intermediary gifts of the Spirit will be no longer necessary (vv 10, 12). It is not giftedness but faith and hope that will have a reward then, and love, which is the greatest, because it will continue as Christians live in perfect love with each other and with Jesus (v 13).<\/p>\nApplying this to Corinth, Paul argues that while one should desire all the gifts, love dictates that prophecy should be the gift of choice in the church meetings (14:1-25). The Corinthians had evidently been stressing tongues. Tongues without interpretation is of little value to anyone except to the speaker himself. It does not build anyone up; its confusion seems madness to outsiders. Outside the church meetings there is a role for tongues, both as a sign of judgment (v 21) and for private devotion (v 18), but inside, only with interpretation. Prophecy, however, both builds up and convicts, and thus is to be sought in the meetings.<\/p>\nIn the church meetings, then, both gifts and order are to prevail (14:26-40). All types of gifts are allowed expression with a goal of mutual edification, not selfish demonstration (v 26). Tongues speakers must have an interpreter; both they and prophets must speak in turn, with time being taken to evaluate the utterances after every few speakers (vv 27-33). Furthermore, the women, who were perhaps chatting in the service (perhaps due to habits learned in Jewish synagogues, where they were segregated and did not participate) are to cease their chattering, pay attention, and learn, asking questions at home if they do not understand (vv 34-36). In his concluding summary, Paul states that all should be done in an orderly manner (vv 37-40).<\/p>\nThe fifth issue Paul deals with is that of the resurrection of the dead (ch 15). Some of the problems mentioned earlier concerning loose morals (chs 5–6), ascetic denial, sexuality (ch 7), or feeling one was resurrected already (ch 11) point to the fact that some Corinthians did not believe in the resurrection of the body, though they apparently believed in the resurrection of Jesus and the immortality of the human soul.<\/p>\nPaul reaffirms that the resurrection of Jesus is an essential part of the gospel message (15:1-19). The unified voice of the church was that Jesus not only died but rose again and appeared to numerous witnesses (vv 3-11). If they were consistent in their antiresurrection argument, Christ could not have been raised. Yet if this were the case, the whole gospel message is false and all their hopes for salvation are in vain (vv 12-19).<\/p>\nSince Christ has been raised, Christians will also be raised because of their solidarity with him (15:20-28). As they had experienced the results of being in Adam, so now they will experience the results of being in Christ. But resurrection does not happen at once. There are progressive stages: (a) Christ was first; (b) Christians will be raised at his coming; (c) Christ must reign until he extends kingdom rule over the whole world, destroying all demonic powers (including death itself); and (d) then he will turn over the perfected kingdom to the Father (vv 23-28).<\/p>\nResurrection hope also explains Christian practices such as baptizing people on behalf of others who had died (probably people who had turned to Christ but had died before they could be baptized, 15:29), and willingness to risk death for Christ (vv 30-32).<\/p>\nPaul admits that there are intellectual problems involved, but these are solved when one realizes that resurrection includes both continuity and discontinuity (15:35-50). Just as seed and plant are the same and yet different, and just as many types of bodies exist, so it is with the resurrection. What was perishable, dishonorable, weak, and physical (i.e., in Adam) will be raised imperishable, glorious, powerful, and spiritual (i.e., in Christ). Indeed, it is only as Christians thus become like Christ, the heavenly man, that they can become part of God’s kingdom.<\/p>\nWith excitement Paul shares his real hope, that of transformation (15:51-58). At the coming of Christ the dead will be raised and transformed. But the living will also need transformation, and this will happen in a split second, making all of them impervious to death. Then they will truly know the victory already present in Jesus’ resurrection (vv 54-57). A concluding summary draws the practical conclusion that this teaching should give them assurance of a reward for anything done for Christ now (v 58).<\/p>\nThe sixth issue Paul deals with is that of the collection for the needy Jerusalem church (16:1-4). Because of famine in Judea in the 40s, the church there had become impoverished. Partly because of the need and partly to further the unity of the church, Paul took up a collection in some of his churches for the Judean church. He answers the Corinthians’ practical queries by stating that the collection should be made weekly according to ability, not all at once when Paul arrives (16:2). When he comes, he will send off the money with their own messengers. Paul remains vague about whether or not he will accompany them, allaying suspicions that somehow he plans to profit from it (cf. 2 Cor 8–9).<\/p>\n<h5>Final Remarks and Closing, 16:5-24<\/h5>\nHaving come to the end, Paul discusses his travel plans, including his intention for a lengthy visit whenever he leaves Ephesus (cf. 2 Cor 1). Timothy was either coming with the letter or else would arrive shortly after another mission; they were to respect him and help him return. Paul points out that he urged Apollos to visit Corinth, in case some suspect Paul is against him. A closing formal exhortation to firm faith and love leads into his final customary greetings. He praises the Corinthian messengers who had brought him their letter (16:15-18) and sends greetings from Aquila and Prisca (Priscilla), his comissionaries who had helped him found the church in Corinth (Acts 18:2-3, 18). Referring to the customary greeting in the church, he tells them to greet each other with a kiss on each cheek (16:20). Paul then takes the pen from the scribe, as was normal, and writes the closing exhortation—placing a curse on those who do not love Jesus, the common Aramaic expression used in the church “Come, O Lord” (Marana tha,<\/em> perhaps used to close services), and providing an assurance of his own love for them (vv 21-24).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; Corinth; Corinthians, Second Letter to the; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CORINTHIANS, First Letter to the<\/h3>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date and Origin<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nThere is no doubt about who wrote 1 Corinthians, for all scholars agree that the apostle Paul wrote it on his third missionary journey while he was living in Ephesus. By this time Paul was a mature, middle-aged (perhaps 55 years old) missionary, fully seasoned from planting churches around a quarter of the Mediterranean world.<\/p>\nDate and Origin<\/p>\nPaul worked in Corinth from about AD<\/span> 50 to 52. After a brief stay in Jerusalem, he returned to his missionary work, this time at Ephesus (Acts 19), where he ministered for three years (AD<\/span> 53–55\/56). During this period, he wrote at least three letters to Corinth and made a visit as well. His first letter, often called “the previous letter,” is referred to in 1 Corinthians 5:9-11. We know from this reference that the letter was misunderstood, but we know little of its content, for it has been lost.<\/p>\nSometime in AD<\/span> 55, after hearing reports from Chloe’s household (1 Cor 1:11), who were probably members of Chloe’s house church, he dictated a second letter to Corinth, our 1 Corinthians. This was probably sent off in the hands of Stephanas, Fortunatus, and Achaicus (16:17). Paul would later write a third letter to Corinth, called “the letter of tears” (2 Cor 2:2-3), and then finally 2 Corinthians.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nCorinth was a seaport city, destroyed by the Romans in 146 BC<\/span> and rebuilt in 46 BC<\/span> by Julius Caesar. After 27 BC<\/span>, it was the Roman capital of Achaia, where the proconsul had his residence (Acts 18:12). The city itself was really three cities: the port of Cenchrea, about eight miles (13 kilometers) to the east, where ships from the Aegean would unload; the port of Lechaion, about a mile (1.6 kilometers) to the west on the Gulf of Corinth, where the ships would be reloaded, their goods having been transported in wagons over the isthmus and the ships on rollers; and the city itself on the high ground in between.<\/p>\nThe acropolis of the city, on top of the steep, high Acrocorinth, contained the temple of Aphrodite, where 1,000 female slaves were dedicated to the service of this goddess of love. This distinctive cult of Corinth was dedicated to the veneration of Aphrodite, goddess of love, beauty, and fertility, who is identified with the Roman Venus. Associated with such religious practices was a general moral degradation. Corinthian morals were notoriously corrupt, even when compared with pagan Rome. Down in the city was the synagogue (Acts 18:4); for while the city as a Roman colony was largely populated by Italians, it had attracted other peoples from the Mediterranean, among whom were the Jews.<\/p>\nPurpose and Teaching<\/p>\nThe main concern of Paul in 1 Corinthians was the unity of the church. There was a self-centeredness in Corinth that resulted in building cliques within the church, in flaunting knowledge and liberty in the face of others scandalized by it, and in selfish displays in the worship services.<\/p>\nTwo other major concerns also surface in the book. First, along with other pagan practices, the lax sexual ethics of Corinth had influenced the church; Paul needed to erect some barriers. Second, there was a problem in accepting the resurrection of the body; Paul realized that this issue had implications for the core of the faith and vigorously affirmed the resurrection.<\/p>\nBoth of these latter two areas, as well as aspects of the unity issue (particularly their concern with knowledge), have been identified by some scholars as Gnostic motifs, leading to the conclusion that Paul was opposing a Gnostic party in Corinth. Careful examination reveals, however, that while some of the elements floating in the Corinthian milieu would later contribute to the development of Gnosticism, it would be anachronistic to call them gnostic. While recognizing protognostic ideas in the Corinthian situation, it is important to keep interpretation within the first-century context.<\/p>\nThus, the focus of Paul’s concern was the church, its unity and purity. Paul was fighting to keep this church from disintegrating into a number of competing and bickering factions divided over moral and doctrinal issues. Furthermore, he wanted to keep the focus of the church on Jesus, the exalted Lord.<\/p>\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Greeting, 1:1-9<\/h5>\nPaul begins with a standard greeting, followed by his usual thanksgiving prayer. Two features stand out. First, the greeting associates Sosthenes with Paul. While we cannot be sure who Sosthenes was, he was surely well known to the Corinthians; probably he was the Sosthenes whom Acts 18:17 identifies as the ruler of the synagogue, following the conversion of Crispus.<\/p>\nSecond, Paul stresses the Corinthians’ abilities in speech, knowledge, and spiritual gifts. They had all of these, and these were genuine, but it was precisely these good things that they were abusing. Paul’s solution is not to suppress these gifts (indeed, he thanks God for them), but to place them in a new context.<\/p>\n<h5>Report from Chloe’s People, 1:10–4:21<\/h5>\nThe Corinthians had made Paul, Cephas (Peter), Apollos, and even Christ into party leaders. We are not sure what each of these groups stood for, but one might guess that the Pauline group stressed Paul’s slogans of liberty; the Petrine group, the need to hold to Jewish practices; and the Apollos group, the value of philosophical understanding and oratory. Whatever they stood for, Paul is appalled that it breaks their unity. His first response is to argue that his behavior was not calculated to build a following but to point to Christ. That is, he did not insist on personally baptizing converts; who performed these acts did not matter, since they were all baptized into Christ.<\/p>\nPaul immediately moves to the underlying issue, that of various persons wanting to show themselves better or wiser than others who did not have the insights of their party in the church. Their seeking for wisdom contradicts Paul’s preaching of the gospel.<\/p>\nFirst, the message of a crucified Christ (1:18) made no sense within the wisdom and values of either Jews or Greeks. It demanded a whole new way of looking on life—God’s way.<\/p>\nSecond, God had not chosen them on the basis of their status in society; quite the contrary, he had made their only status the equal status they received from him (1:26-31).<\/p>\nThird, their faith had not been based on Paul’s oratory but on the gifts of the Spirit that Paul had manifested (2:4), which had convinced them that God was acting in Paul. Thus, it was not argument that led them to God, but God’s Spirit. Therefore it was the Spirit, not human reasoning, that would continue to reveal God to them. Unless they became fools with respect to the world’s ways of reasoning, they would never be able to rethink life from the perspective of the Spirit, who gives true wisdom.<\/p>\nFourth, they were not acting on this spiritual level when they claimed Paul and others as party leaders; this activity demonstrates the evil impulse in human beings (“the flesh” or “fallen human nature”) at work since it elevates human servants rather than the God who works equally in each of them.<\/p>\nFifth, these servants were working together to build one “temple” for God based on the one foundation in Jesus Christ, that is, the church. God alone will judge how each Christian contributes to the work of building the church. But woe to the person who divides the church, for “if anyone destroys God’s temple, God will destroy him” (3:17, rsv<\/span>). (Note that here the temple imagery is used collectively; the church is the temple. In chapter 6 it will be used individually; each Christian is the temple.)<\/p>\nFinally, he points to their overrealized eschatology, for with their spiritual gifts (which were genuine) and vaunted wisdom (which was worldly) they claimed they were reigning with Christ (4:8-13). Paul, with ironic sarcasm, points out how different this claim is from the lifestyle of the apostles. The apostles lived like Jesus—a life of suffering, expecting exaltation later. The Corinthians were trying to have their exaltation now without crucifixion.<\/p>\nPaul closes this section with an admonition. He softens his words toward some who would be responsive, urging them to copy his lifestyle. The teacher was the message (vv 14-16). Timothy will also faithfully live the truth before them. Then he threatens the “arrogant” (v 18), pointing out that he will not challenge their words but their spiritual power if he comes.<\/p>\n<h5>The Report from the Corinthian Messengers, 5:1–6:20<\/h5>\nPaul now turns to three issues raised by oral reports from the messengers bearing the Corinthians’ letter to him.<\/p>\nThe first issue is that of church discipline (5:12-13). Paul cites a case of flagrant immorality—that of incest. This immorality was so clear (even pagans considered it immoral), that it was not a case of ignorance of Christian principles. Further, the church had taken no action but rather boasted in its tolerance, perhaps on the basis of a misunderstanding of Paul’s teaching on freedom from the law.<\/p>\nPaul presents three principles in this section: (1) the primary goal of church discipline is the repentance and restoration of the offender; (2) the secondary goal of church discipline is the protection of the church (5:6-8); and (3) the church is not to seek to judge or control the actions of evil persons in the world—they are God’s responsibility—but to discipline those within the church (vv 9-13). Paul will use these principles also in the following chapters (cf. 7:12-16).<\/p>\nThe second issue is that of lawsuits between Christians (6:1-11). The Corinthian society was as prone to litigation as our own, and Christians did not see anything wrong in suing each other. Paul was troubled. If Christians are to judge the world, they certainly should not bring the world in to judge issues within the church. Rather than put their cases before “those who are least esteemed by the church” (6:4, rsv<\/span>, i.e., pagan judges), they should decide the cases within the church.<\/p>\nPaul has an even better way than bypassing the pagan courts, and that is to simply suffer the wrong (1 Cor 6:7). Applying the teaching of Jesus quite literally (Mt 5:38-42), Paul argues that it would be best to allow themselves to be defrauded. Instead, the Corinthians are willing to step on their brothers in Christ to get what they feel are their rights. This raises the issue as to whether greed is not still in their hearts (1 Cor 6:9-11). While Paul accepts people who formerly did all sorts of evil (for Jesus has cleansed them), he makes it very clear that anyone presently practicing greed or immorality is not part of the kingdom, whatever their doctrinal commitments may be.<\/p>\nThe final issue in this section is that of casual sexual intercourse (6:12-20). In a world where virginity was important if a woman wished to be married and where slaves in the temple of Aphrodite were available as prostitutes, prostitution was the major form of casual sex. The libertine party used two slogans: “All things are lawful for me,” a saying that may well have been derived from Paul’s teaching, and “Food is meant for the stomach and the stomach for food”—that is, since the body works this way, it must be the Creator’s purpose. Paul qualifies rather than contradicts their slogans. Freedom is subordinate to other goals (6:12, 20). The body is not made to be used as we wish, but is to be dedicated to the Lord, as the doctrine of the resurrection demonstrates (vv 13-14).<\/p>\nFurthermore, sexual intercourse is an act of the whole person, unlike eating (Paul cites Gn 2:24; cf. Jesus in Mt 19:5). Therefore, this act takes a member (i.e., the person) from the body of Christ and makes him a unity with a prostitute (1 Cor 6:15-17). Thus immorality is unlike other sins that are external to the self, for it changes the self and thus defiles the body, the place where the Holy Spirit dwells. It disregards the fact that Christ has redeemed the body, and that the whole of the Christian belongs to God, not to the Christian.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Answers to the Corinthians, 7:1–16:4<\/h5>\nNow Paul turns to the Corinthians’ own issues, building on the answers he has already given to questions they did not ask.<\/p>\nThe first issue is that of marriage (7:1-24). The slogan of the ascetic party in Corinth (perhaps a reaction against the libertines of ch 6) was “It is good for a man not to touch a woman” (7:1, kjv<\/span>). The Corinthians applied this slogan to both married and unmarried, arguing that married Christians should abstain from sexual relations. Paul clarified the matter with three points. First, he said that this was totally unrealistic, for total abstinence would lead to immorality (vv 2, 7-9). Second, when people get married they no longer own their own bodies; their bodies belong to each other for their mutual benefit (vv 3-4). Sexual refusal denies a spouse what rightly belongs to him or her. Third, abstinence is allowed for limited periods by mutual agreement as a type of fast to help focus on Christ (v 5).<\/p>\nWhile Paul will address the issue of the unmarried more fully in 7:25-40, in a side remark he indicates that he is himself content to be unmarried. But since some do not have this gift, full sexual expression in marriage is far better than fighting passion (7:7-9). Once two Christians are married, divorce is unthinkable. A clear word of Christ proves this (Mt 5:31-32; Mk 10:11-12; Lk 16:18 and parallels), so there are no exceptions (Paul either does not know of the exception clause in Mt 19:9 or he understands it as referring to something like premarital unchastity discovered before the wedding, not to adultery after the wedding). Although in some cases a Christian couple must live separately, it is always with a view to reconciliation. The teaching of Jesus does not allow him to think of the marriage as ending (1 Cor 7:10-11).<\/p>\nBut what if the spouse is not a Christian? Paul applies his principles to a situation for which Jesus did not leave a clear word. First, since Jesus told Christians not to divorce, even in this situation the Christian may not initiate a divorce (7:12-13). Second, since Christians are not to control or judge non-Christians (6:12-13), the Christian does not need to continue the relationship if the non-Christian insists on a divorce (7:15). Third, far from defiling the Christian (as the relationship in 6:15 does), the Christian will make the relationship holy, with positive results for the children and the possible salvation of the spouse (7:14, 16). While this is no call to remain in situations of physical or sexual abuse, it is a call to remain faithful to a mixed marriage situation.<\/p>\nPaul does not believe that one normally needs to change one’s life situation to serve Christ (7:17-24). Therefore, normally each person should remain in that state of life in which he or she was when called to Christ. Paul’s examples show that he was thinking in terms of marriage or singleness, Jew (circumcision) or Gentile, slave or free, not in terms of situations that might be immoral in themselves. In the case of slaves, they can accept freedom if it becomes available, but it does not make an essential difference in their real state before God or their ability to serve Christ (vv 21-23).<\/p>\nThe second issue is that of the unmarried (7:25-40). Paul argues that single people and widows may marry—it is not wrong. Yet he advises them to remain single. Since all in this age is passing away, it would be good to stay single so as to avoid the extra suffering to which marriage exposes a person (vv 25-31). What is more, marriage always divides one’s attention between the Lord and the legitimate needs of the spouse. One must not abandon the spouse or ignore his or her needs in order to serve the Lord, but one can remain single so that the Lord can be the sole focus of life and devotion (vv 32-35). Finally, if one is in a situation in which marriage is expected, the person must make his own decision as to whether he should marry the woman for her sake (and perhaps that of the wider family) or whether he can and should simply care for her as a single person (vv 36-38). Paul closes this section by repeating his general principles (vv 39-40).<\/p>\nThe third issue Paul deals with is that of food that has been offered to idols (8:1–11:1). Most meat that was available in the marketplace came either from animals slaughtered as sacrifices in the temples or from groups of animals from which one was offered as a dedicatory sacrifice. To scrupulous Jews, all of this meat would be untouched. Furthermore, pagans invited Christians to feasts in their homes and to private feasts held in the precincts of pagan temples, where trade guilds also held feasts. Paul discusses these issues and uses them to teach wider principles of Christian conduct.<\/p>\nFirst, love, not knowledge, is the key to correct behavior (8:1-13). Some Corinthians felt superior because they were convinced that idols had no reality (there is only one God), and therefore any food offered to them was still fit to eat. Paul again accepts their slogans, but counters with the statement, “Knowledge puffs up, but love builds up” (v 1, niv<\/span>). God is not concerned with what we know or eat, but he is concerned with whether or not we love our fellow Christians. The concern is not that a fellow Christian might become enraged because one indulged, but that he or she might have a vulnerable conscience and indulge himself, even though he believed it wrong and thus in his own eyes apostasizes from the faith (i.e., rebels against Christ). Such leading astray is not love. It would be better never to eat meat than to lead a fellow Christian into sin.<\/p>\nSecond, he points out that one should subordinate one’s own interests to those of others, especially those of Christ and his gospel (9:1-23). Both the examples of the apostles, who expected the church to support them and their families (cf. Lk 10:5-7), and Scripture prove that Paul had the right to demand support from the Corinthians. This had not been his practice, for he had normally made tents to support his ministry, though he did accept gifts from other churches. Paul did this to prevent people from thinking he was peddling religion for profit (9:12) and for the personal satisfaction of doing more than he had to do (vv 16-17). This was part of Paul’s larger policy of subordinating his own personal preferences and interests to those of Christ and his gospel (vv 19-23).<\/p>\nThird, the bravado of the strong who demonstrate their liberty with disregard of fellow Christians is spiritually dangerous (9:24–10:22). It is not who begins but who completes the Christian life that counts; therefore, it is a life of discipline, not relaxed license (9:24-27). Israel in the wilderness presents an example of failure in this regard. They had “baptism” and “the Lord’s Supper” (10:2-4), just like the church, yet most of them did not make it to the Promised Land. The reason God destroyed them was simple: they turned to sin. Likewise, the Christian has to be careful not to be so proud about faith and freedom that he becomes careless about sin and falls from the faith (v 12). On the other hand, Christians need not be fearful, for the temptation is not more powerful than they are; God has provided a way of escape, if they will take it (v 13).<\/p>\nAnother link between the Israelites and the Corinthians pertains to partaking of a sacrificial meal (10:14-22). In the Lord’s Supper there is a sharing of the blood and body of Christ, just as real as Israel’s sacrifices on the altar. Food offered to idols is also a sharing, not with the supposed god, but with the real demon that is behind the idol. To try to share at both tables is to provoke God’s jealousy just as Israel did (v 22).<\/p>\nA summary of the discussion draws the three chapters together (10:23–11:1). Since the food is not changed by being offered to idols, and since all food really belongs to God, one may eat anything sold in the market—do not ask any questions (10:25-26). Likewise, the Christian may eat anything served at a dinner in the home of an unbeliever. However, if someone points out that the food was offered to idols, the Christian should pass it by, not because it would hurt him, but because it is an issue with the person who raised the question, and the Christian is concerned about the good of his neighbor (vv 27-30). In other words, follow Paul’s example as he patterns himself in turn after Christ, who served others rather than himself. Act so that God’s reputation and character shine through even in what one eats (v 31); try to offend no one but to benefit each person in moving him toward salvation (v 32).<\/p>\nThe fourth issue Paul deals with is that of order in church meetings (11:2–14:40). The Corinthians’ house churches had lively meetings, but rather than showing unity in Christ, they demonstrated selfishness. Paul had no desire to change what they did; he did want to change how they did it.<\/p>\nThe first problem in the meetings was the behavior of married women (11:1-16). The sign of marriage in that day was the wearing of a veil or distinctive hairstyle, as a ring is today. Women praying and delivering prophecies in church was no issue for Paul, but the women may have felt that this loosed them from their husbands (cf. Mk 12:25) and therefore was a reason to set aside their veils. Paul argues that husband and wife are intimately joined, just as humans are to God (1 Cor 11:3). Therefore as humans should not shame but glorify God, so the wife should act toward her husband. Thus, while Paul approves of ministry by women, he puts marriage first.<\/p>\nThe second problem in the meetings was that of making class distinctions (11:17-34). Until the weekly Lord’s Supper began to be turned into the sacrifice of the Mass in the third and fourth centuries, it was a full shared meal. Middle- and upper-class Christians could come earlier to the church gatherings and also provide better food and drink for themselves. Following the customs of pagan clubs, they had no scruples against starting early and feasting as befit their class, so long as at least simple food was provided for the slaves and peasants who could not come as early (v 21). This shamed the poorer Christians and made them feel class distinctions keenly (v 22). This, argues Paul, is not the Lord’s Supper but a sham (v 20).<\/p>\nPaul repeats the words of institution to point out that they all are participating in Christ’s body and blood (cf. 10:16-17), not their own meal. To do it in an unworthy manner, with divisions and class distinctions among them, is to profane his meal by failing to demonstrate the unity of his body, the church (11:29), and thus invite his judgment, which they were already experiencing. Instead, they should examine their own motives and truly gather as one to eat this common meal.<\/p>\nThe third problem in their meetings was the use of spiritual gifts (12:1–14:40). It is possible that some people in these house churches, under the influence of Gnostic ideas in which the spiritual is good and the material evil, and feeling inspired by a spirit, cried out, “Jesus [meaning the human Jesus as opposed to the spiritual Christ] be cursed.” It is not the Spirit of God saying this, argues Paul, for the Spirit in us cries the basic Christian confession, “Jesus is Lord.”<\/p>\nOthers in these churches were exalting their own particular gift, especially the gift of tongues, shouting down others or refusing to give them a turn. There is only one Spirit and he gives all the gifts, Paul argues (12:4-6). The Spirit manifests himself sovereignly in each Christian, not simply for the Christian’s own benefit, but for the good of all (v 7). Since it is the Spirit, not a given manifestation, that the Christian has, the gifts manifested could change from meeting to meeting.<\/p>\nThat same Spirit has made all Christians into one organic unity in Christ (12:12-13). Thus not only does the one Spirit give all the gifts—all are equally inspired—but all the gifts are equally needed for the proper functioning of the body of Christ (vv 14-26). No one can say that his lack of a given gift makes him less a part of the body; indeed, the less noticeable gifts may well be the more important. Thus, within the body of Christ, there are not only different manifestations of the Spirit through individuals in a given meeting, but different ministries or functions of individuals in the body (vv 27-31).<\/p>\nTherefore, it is not the demonstration of a particular gift that shows one’s spirituality, but how one demonstrates it—that is, whether one manifests it with love (13:1-13). Any gift exercised for selfish purposes may be a genuine gift of the Spirit, but it is worthless to the individual (vv 1-3). This is because love is the opposite of selfishness (vv 4-7). In fact, the gifts of the Spirit are only for the period between Jesus’ first coming and his second coming, when the kingdom of God will be perfectly revealed and the King will be present in person, and thus the intermediary gifts of the Spirit will be no longer necessary (vv 10, 12). It is not giftedness but faith and hope that will have a reward then, and love, which is the greatest, because it will continue as Christians live in perfect love with each other and with Jesus (v 13).<\/p>\nApplying this to Corinth, Paul argues that while one should desire all the gifts, love dictates that prophecy should be the gift of choice in the church meetings (14:1-25). The Corinthians had evidently been stressing tongues. Tongues without interpretation is of little value to anyone except to the speaker himself. It does not build anyone up; its confusion seems madness to outsiders. Outside the church meetings there is a role for tongues, both as a sign of judgment (v 21) and for private devotion (v 18), but inside, only with interpretation. Prophecy, however, both builds up and convicts, and thus is to be sought in the meetings.<\/p>\nIn the church meetings, then, both gifts and order are to prevail (14:26-40). All types of gifts are allowed expression with a goal of mutual edification, not selfish demonstration (v 26). Tongues speakers must have an interpreter; both they and prophets must speak in turn, with time being taken to evaluate the utterances after every few speakers (vv 27-33). Furthermore, the women, who were perhaps chatting in the service (perhaps due to habits learned in Jewish synagogues, where they were segregated and did not participate) are to cease their chattering, pay attention, and learn, asking questions at home if they do not understand (vv 34-36). In his concluding summary, Paul states that all should be done in an orderly manner (vv 37-40).<\/p>\nThe fifth issue Paul deals with is that of the resurrection of the dead (ch 15). Some of the problems mentioned earlier concerning loose morals (chs 5–6), ascetic denial, sexuality (ch 7), or feeling one was resurrected already (ch 11) point to the fact that some Corinthians did not believe in the resurrection of the body, though they apparently believed in the resurrection of Jesus and the immortality of the human soul.<\/p>\nPaul reaffirms that the resurrection of Jesus is an essential part of the gospel message (15:1-19). The unified voice of the church was that Jesus not only died but rose again and appeared to numerous witnesses (vv 3-11). If they were consistent in their antiresurrection argument, Christ could not have been raised. Yet if this were the case, the whole gospel message is false and all their hopes for salvation are in vain (vv 12-19).<\/p>\nSince Christ has been raised, Christians will also be raised because of their solidarity with him (15:20-28). As they had experienced the results of being in Adam, so now they will experience the results of being in Christ. But resurrection does not happen at once. There are progressive stages: (a) Christ was first; (b) Christians will be raised at his coming; (c) Christ must reign until he extends kingdom rule over the whole world, destroying all demonic powers (including death itself); and (d) then he will turn over the perfected kingdom to the Father (vv 23-28).<\/p>\nResurrection hope also explains Christian practices such as baptizing people on behalf of others who had died (probably people who had turned to Christ but had died before they could be baptized, 15:29), and willingness to risk death for Christ (vv 30-32).<\/p>\nPaul admits that there are intellectual problems involved, but these are solved when one realizes that resurrection includes both continuity and discontinuity (15:35-50). Just as seed and plant are the same and yet different, and just as many types of bodies exist, so it is with the resurrection. What was perishable, dishonorable, weak, and physical (i.e., in Adam) will be raised imperishable, glorious, powerful, and spiritual (i.e., in Christ). Indeed, it is only as Christians thus become like Christ, the heavenly man, that they can become part of God’s kingdom.<\/p>\nWith excitement Paul shares his real hope, that of transformation (15:51-58). At the coming of Christ the dead will be raised and transformed. But the living will also need transformation, and this will happen in a split second, making all of them impervious to death. Then they will truly know the victory already present in Jesus’ resurrection (vv 54-57). A concluding summary draws the practical conclusion that this teaching should give them assurance of a reward for anything done for Christ now (v 58).<\/p>\nThe sixth issue Paul deals with is that of the collection for the needy Jerusalem church (16:1-4). Because of famine in Judea in the 40s, the church there had become impoverished. Partly because of the need and partly to further the unity of the church, Paul took up a collection in some of his churches for the Judean church. He answers the Corinthians’ practical queries by stating that the collection should be made weekly according to ability, not all at once when Paul arrives (16:2). When he comes, he will send off the money with their own messengers. Paul remains vague about whether or not he will accompany them, allaying suspicions that somehow he plans to profit from it (cf. 2 Cor 8–9).<\/p>\n<h5>Final Remarks and Closing, 16:5-24<\/h5>\nHaving come to the end, Paul discusses his travel plans, including his intention for a lengthy visit whenever he leaves Ephesus (cf. 2 Cor 1). Timothy was either coming with the letter or else would arrive shortly after another mission; they were to respect him and help him return. Paul points out that he urged Apollos to visit Corinth, in case some suspect Paul is against him. A closing formal exhortation to firm faith and love leads into his final customary greetings. He praises the Corinthian messengers who had brought him their letter (16:15-18) and sends greetings from Aquila and Prisca (Priscilla), his comissionaries who had helped him found the church in Corinth (Acts 18:2-3, 18). Referring to the customary greeting in the church, he tells them to greet each other with a kiss on each cheek (16:20). Paul then takes the pen from the scribe, as was normal, and writes the closing exhortation—placing a curse on those who do not love Jesus, the common Aramaic expression used in the church “Come, O Lord” (Marana tha,<\/em> perhaps used to close services), and providing an assurance of his own love for them (vv 21-24).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; Corinth; Corinthians, Second Letter to the; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CORINTHIANS, First Letter to the Preview • Author • Date and Origin • Background • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author There is no doubt about who wrote 1 Corinthians, for all scholars agree that the apostle Paul wrote it on his third missionary journey while he was living in Ephesus. By this time Paul was a mature, middle-aged (perhaps 55 years old) missionary, fully seasoned from planting churches around a quarter of the Mediterranean world. Date and Origin Paul worked in Corinth from abo...","summary_en":"CORINTHIANS, First Letter to the Preview • Author • Date and Origin • Background • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author There is no doubt about who wrote 1 Corinthians, for all scholars agree that the apostle Paul wrote it on his third missionary journey while he was living in Ephesus. By this time Paul was a mature, middle-aged (perhaps 55 years old) missionary, fully seasoned from planting churches around a quarter of the Mediterranean world. Date and Origin Paul worked in Corinth from abo...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57686,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:26","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:26","content_ro":"14:26-40<\/strong> Paul gives specific procedures for the use of spiritual gifts in the church and emphasizes that they are to be expressed in an orderly way. Among the early Christians, church meetings<\/em> were not led by professional pastors or priests. Instead, everyone shared with the others what God had given them for strengthening the church.<\/p>","content_en":"14:26-40<\/strong> Paul gives specific procedures for the use of spiritual gifts in the church and emphasizes that they are to be expressed in an orderly way. Among the early Christians, church meetings<\/em> were not led by professional pastors or priests. Instead, everyone shared with the others what God had given them for strengthening the church.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:26-40 Paul gives specific procedures for the use of spiritual gifts in the church and emphasizes that they are to be expressed in an orderly way. Among the early Christians, church meetings were not led by professional pastors or priests. Instead, everyone shared with the others what God had given them for strengthening the church.","summary_en":"14:26-40 Paul gives specific procedures for the use of spiritual gifts in the church and emphasizes that they are to be expressed in an orderly way. Among the early Christians, church meetings were not led by professional pastors or priests. Instead, everyone shared with the others what God had given them for strengthening the church.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57687,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:26","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:26","content_ro":"14:26<\/strong> will sing:<\/em> Literally has a psalm<\/em>, either to be sung alone or for the fellowship to sing together (cp. Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). • Everything that is done<\/em> in public worship is to be for the purpose of strengthening the church (see 1 Cor 12:7; 14:4, 6, 12, 26; cp. 8:1).<\/p>","content_en":"14:26<\/strong> will sing:<\/em> Literally has a psalm<\/em>, either to be sung alone or for the fellowship to sing together (cp. Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). • Everything that is done<\/em> in public worship is to be for the purpose of strengthening the church (see 1 Cor 12:7; 14:4, 6, 12, 26; cp. 8:1).<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:26 will sing: Literally has a psalm, either to be sung alone or for the fellowship to sing together (cp. Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). • Everything that is done in public worship is to be for the purpose of strengthening the church (see 1 Cor 12:7; 14:4, 6, 12, 26; cp. 8:1).","summary_en":"14:26 will sing: Literally has a psalm, either to be sung alone or for the fellowship to sing together (cp. Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). • Everything that is done in public worship is to be for the purpose of strengthening the church (see 1 Cor 12:7; 14:4, 6, 12, 26; cp. 8:1).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85312,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:26","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:26","content_ro":"14:26-40<\/strong> Paul gives specific procedures for the use of spiritual gifts in the church and emphasizes that they are to be expressed in an orderly way. Among the early Christians, church meetings<\/em> were not led by professional pastors or priests. Instead, everyone shared with the others what God had given them for strengthening the church.<\/p>","content_en":"14:26-40<\/strong> Paul gives specific procedures for the use of spiritual gifts in the church and emphasizes that they are to be expressed in an orderly way. Among the early Christians, church meetings<\/em> were not led by professional pastors or priests. Instead, everyone shared with the others what God had given them for strengthening the church.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:26-40 Paul gives specific procedures for the use of spiritual gifts in the church and emphasizes that they are to be expressed in an orderly way. Among the early Christians, church meetings were not led by professional pastors or priests. Instead, everyone shared with the others what God had given them for strengthening the church.","summary_en":"14:26-40 Paul gives specific procedures for the use of spiritual gifts in the church and emphasizes that they are to be expressed in an orderly way. Among the early Christians, church meetings were not led by professional pastors or priests. Instead, everyone shared with the others what God had given them for strengthening the church.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85313,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:26","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:26","content_ro":"14:26<\/strong> will sing:<\/em> Literally has a psalm<\/em>, either to be sung alone or for the fellowship to sing together (cp. Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). • Everything that is done<\/em> in public worship is to be for the purpose of strengthening the church (see 1 Cor 12:7; 14:4, 6, 12, 26; cp. 8:1).<\/p>","content_en":"14:26<\/strong> will sing:<\/em> Literally has a psalm<\/em>, either to be sung alone or for the fellowship to sing together (cp. Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). • Everything that is done<\/em> in public worship is to be for the purpose of strengthening the church (see 1 Cor 12:7; 14:4, 6, 12, 26; cp. 8:1).<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:26 will sing: Literally has a psalm, either to be sung alone or for the fellowship to sing together (cp. Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). • Everything that is done in public worship is to be for the purpose of strengthening the church (see 1 Cor 12:7; 14:4, 6, 12, 26; cp. 8:1).","summary_en":"14:26 will sing: Literally has a psalm, either to be sung alone or for the fellowship to sing together (cp. Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). • Everything that is done in public worship is to be for the purpose of strengthening the church (see 1 Cor 12:7; 14:4, 6, 12, 26; cp. 8:1).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112938,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:26","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:26","content_ro":"14:26-40<\/strong> Paul gives specific procedures for the use of spiritual gifts in the church and emphasizes that they are to be expressed in an orderly way. Among the early Christians, church meetings<\/em> were not led by professional pastors or priests. Instead, everyone shared with the others what God had given them for strengthening the church.<\/p>","content_en":"14:26-40<\/strong> Paul gives specific procedures for the use of spiritual gifts in the church and emphasizes that they are to be expressed in an orderly way. Among the early Christians, church meetings<\/em> were not led by professional pastors or priests. Instead, everyone shared with the others what God had given them for strengthening the church.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:26-40 Paul gives specific procedures for the use of spiritual gifts in the church and emphasizes that they are to be expressed in an orderly way. Among the early Christians, church meetings were not led by professional pastors or priests. Instead, everyone shared with the others what God had given them for strengthening the church.","summary_en":"14:26-40 Paul gives specific procedures for the use of spiritual gifts in the church and emphasizes that they are to be expressed in an orderly way. Among the early Christians, church meetings were not led by professional pastors or priests. Instead, everyone shared with the others what God had given them for strengthening the church.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112939,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:26","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:26","content_ro":"14:26<\/strong> will sing:<\/em> Literally has a psalm<\/em>, either to be sung alone or for the fellowship to sing together (cp. Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). • Everything that is done<\/em> in public worship is to be for the purpose of strengthening the church (see 1 Cor 12:7; 14:4, 6, 12, 26; cp. 8:1).<\/p>","content_en":"14:26<\/strong> will sing:<\/em> Literally has a psalm<\/em>, either to be sung alone or for the fellowship to sing together (cp. Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). • Everything that is done<\/em> in public worship is to be for the purpose of strengthening the church (see 1 Cor 12:7; 14:4, 6, 12, 26; cp. 8:1).<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:26 will sing: Literally has a psalm, either to be sung alone or for the fellowship to sing together (cp. Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). • Everything that is done in public worship is to be for the purpose of strengthening the church (see 1 Cor 12:7; 14:4, 6, 12, 26; cp. 8:1).","summary_en":"14:26 will sing: Literally has a psalm, either to be sung alone or for the fellowship to sing together (cp. Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). • Everything that is done in public worship is to be for the purpose of strengthening the church (see 1 Cor 12:7; 14:4, 6, 12, 26; cp. 8:1).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140564,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:26","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:26","content_ro":"14:26-40<\/strong> Paul gives specific procedures for the use of spiritual gifts in the church and emphasizes that they are to be expressed in an orderly way. Among the early Christians, church meetings<\/em> were not led by professional pastors or priests. Instead, everyone shared with the others what God had given them for strengthening the church.<\/p>","content_en":"14:26-40<\/strong> Paul gives specific procedures for the use of spiritual gifts in the church and emphasizes that they are to be expressed in an orderly way. Among the early Christians, church meetings<\/em> were not led by professional pastors or priests. Instead, everyone shared with the others what God had given them for strengthening the church.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:26-40 Paul gives specific procedures for the use of spiritual gifts in the church and emphasizes that they are to be expressed in an orderly way. Among the early Christians, church meetings were not led by professional pastors or priests. Instead, everyone shared with the others what God had given them for strengthening the church.","summary_en":"14:26-40 Paul gives specific procedures for the use of spiritual gifts in the church and emphasizes that they are to be expressed in an orderly way. Among the early Christians, church meetings were not led by professional pastors or priests. Instead, everyone shared with the others what God had given them for strengthening the church.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140565,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:26","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:26","content_ro":"14:26<\/strong> will sing:<\/em> Literally has a psalm<\/em>, either to be sung alone or for the fellowship to sing together (cp. Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). • Everything that is done<\/em> in public worship is to be for the purpose of strengthening the church (see 1 Cor 12:7; 14:4, 6, 12, 26; cp. 8:1).<\/p>","content_en":"14:26<\/strong> will sing:<\/em> Literally has a psalm<\/em>, either to be sung alone or for the fellowship to sing together (cp. Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). • Everything that is done<\/em> in public worship is to be for the purpose of strengthening the church (see 1 Cor 12:7; 14:4, 6, 12, 26; cp. 8:1).<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:26 will sing: Literally has a psalm, either to be sung alone or for the fellowship to sing together (cp. Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). • Everything that is done in public worship is to be for the purpose of strengthening the church (see 1 Cor 12:7; 14:4, 6, 12, 26; cp. 8:1).","summary_en":"14:26 will sing: Literally has a psalm, either to be sung alone or for the fellowship to sing together (cp. Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). • Everything that is done in public worship is to be for the purpose of strengthening the church (see 1 Cor 12:7; 14:4, 6, 12, 26; cp. 8:1).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":67026,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Work","title_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Work","content_ro":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Work<\/h3>\nDifferent New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work.<\/p>\nAccording to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come into a saving relationship with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:19; Gal 3:2-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit brings new life in Christ. He affirms believers’ salvation (1 Cor 6:11; 2 Thes 2:13) and their identity as children of God (Rom 8:9, 14-17).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit gives Christians power over sin (Rom 8:1-4), power to live a fruitful life (Gal 5:22-23), and power for ministry (1 Cor 12:1-31). Believers are to be continuously “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Eph 5:18), and though they experience the conflict between the flesh and the Spirit, they can please God by yielding to the Spirit’s guidance and power (Gal 5:16-18).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit enables Christians to understand God’s thoughts and ways (1 Cor 2:9-16). He gives spiritual gifts to believers to help the church grow (12:1-31). The Spirit leads and empowers worship as believers use the gifts that the Spirit has given them (14:26-33, 39-40).<\/p>\nThe Spirit guarantees that believers will receive all the blessings that God has promised (2 Cor 1:21-22; 5:1-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit helps believers and prays for them in their human weakness (Rom 8:26-27). And the goal of the Spirit’s work is to make believers like Christ (Rom 8:28-29).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nJohn 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:29, 39; 9:31; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; Rom 8:1-4, 9, 14-17, 26-29; 1 Cor 2:9-16; 6:11, 19; 12:1-31; 14:1-33, 39-40; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 3:5; 5:16-18, 22-23; Eph 1:13-14; 5:18; 2 Thes 2:13; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Jn 2:20, 27<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Work<\/h3>\nDifferent New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work.<\/p>\nAccording to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come into a saving relationship with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:19; Gal 3:2-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit brings new life in Christ. He affirms believers’ salvation (1 Cor 6:11; 2 Thes 2:13) and their identity as children of God (Rom 8:9, 14-17).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit gives Christians power over sin (Rom 8:1-4), power to live a fruitful life (Gal 5:22-23), and power for ministry (1 Cor 12:1-31). Believers are to be continuously “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Eph 5:18), and though they experience the conflict between the flesh and the Spirit, they can please God by yielding to the Spirit’s guidance and power (Gal 5:16-18).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit enables Christians to understand God’s thoughts and ways (1 Cor 2:9-16). He gives spiritual gifts to believers to help the church grow (12:1-31). The Spirit leads and empowers worship as believers use the gifts that the Spirit has given them (14:26-33, 39-40).<\/p>\nThe Spirit guarantees that believers will receive all the blessings that God has promised (2 Cor 1:21-22; 5:1-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit helps believers and prays for them in their human weakness (Rom 8:26-27). And the goal of the Spirit’s work is to make believers like Christ (Rom 8:28-29).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nJohn 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:29, 39; 9:31; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; Rom 8:1-4, 9, 14-17, 26-29; 1 Cor 2:9-16; 6:11, 19; 12:1-31; 14:1-33, 39-40; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 3:5; 5:16-18, 22-23; Eph 1:13-14; 5:18; 2 Thes 2:13; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Jn 2:20, 27<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Work Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work. According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come i...","summary_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Work Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work. According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come i...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":67058,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Church as a Dynamic Body","title_en":"The Church as a Dynamic Body","content_ro":"<h3>The Church as a Dynamic Body<\/h3>\nPaul viewed the church as the living body of Christ comprised of believers. Paul made no formal distinction between professional clergy and laity, in which the ministry was done only by the clergy. The community had leaders (see, e.g., 1 Tim 3:1-13), but every believer had a ministry in building up the body (1 Cor 12:12-31). When the early believers gathered together, usually in someone’s home, everyone brought something from God to share with the others (14:26-33).<\/p>\nPaul understood God’s Spirit as gifting people for their specific ministries (12:7-11, 28; Rom 12:6-8; Eph 4:11) and leading them when they came together for worship. Guided by the Spirit, every believer was to use their spiritual gifts for the benefit of the church. Paul wanted believers to be sensitive to the empowering of the Spirit in all that they did (1 Cor 14:26-33).<\/p>\nWhen believers meet together, every individual is important and each one has an active role to play. Believers must listen for God speaking his word—and be prepared to speak it—in all their relationships. Paul also calls for the others to “evaluate” what is said (14:26, 29). Every believer is a crucial part of the body, called to be actively involved in its growth.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nRom 12:4-8; 1 Cor 12:7-31; 14:26-33; Eph 1:23; 4:11-13; Col 1:24; 2:18-19; 1 Tim 3:1-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Church as a Dynamic Body<\/h3>\nPaul viewed the church as the living body of Christ comprised of believers. Paul made no formal distinction between professional clergy and laity, in which the ministry was done only by the clergy. The community had leaders (see, e.g., 1 Tim 3:1-13), but every believer had a ministry in building up the body (1 Cor 12:12-31). When the early believers gathered together, usually in someone’s home, everyone brought something from God to share with the others (14:26-33).<\/p>\nPaul understood God’s Spirit as gifting people for their specific ministries (12:7-11, 28; Rom 12:6-8; Eph 4:11) and leading them when they came together for worship. Guided by the Spirit, every believer was to use their spiritual gifts for the benefit of the church. Paul wanted believers to be sensitive to the empowering of the Spirit in all that they did (1 Cor 14:26-33).<\/p>\nWhen believers meet together, every individual is important and each one has an active role to play. Believers must listen for God speaking his word—and be prepared to speak it—in all their relationships. Paul also calls for the others to “evaluate” what is said (14:26, 29). Every believer is a crucial part of the body, called to be actively involved in its growth.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nRom 12:4-8; 1 Cor 12:7-31; 14:26-33; Eph 1:23; 4:11-13; Col 1:24; 2:18-19; 1 Tim 3:1-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Church as a Dynamic Body Paul viewed the church as the living body of Christ comprised of believers. Paul made no formal distinction between professional clergy and laity, in which the ministry was done only by the clergy. The community had leaders (see, e.g., 1 Tim 3:1-13), but every believer had a ministry in building up the body (1 Cor 12:12-31). When the early believers gathered together, usually in someone’s home, everyone brought something from God to share with the others (14:26-33...","summary_en":"The Church as a Dynamic Body Paul viewed the church as the living body of Christ comprised of believers. Paul made no formal distinction between professional clergy and laity, in which the ministry was done only by the clergy. The community had leaders (see, e.g., 1 Tim 3:1-13), but every believer had a ministry in building up the body (1 Cor 12:12-31). When the early believers gathered together, usually in someone’s home, everyone brought something from God to share with the others (14:26-33...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":67543,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Church Leaders","title_en":"Church Leaders","content_ro":"<h3>Church Leaders<\/h3>\nSpontaneity and spiritual giftedness characterized the first church gatherings (see 1 Cor 14:26-33). The apostles exercised general oversight of the Christian communities (Acts 6:2; 8:14; 14:23) together with the elders in Jerusalem (Acts 15:4, 6, 22-23), whose function was drawn from the Jewish synagogue and Greco-Roman models. The titles and functions of Christian leaders in communities outside of Jerusalem appear to have been fluid (e.g. Acts 6:1-6; 13:1-3), but local leaders were dependent on the apostles when possible. Teachers and prophets also had important roles in guiding the church (see Acts 11:27-30; 1 Cor 14:26-40). Churches were often founded before their leaders were appointed (Titus 1:5; Acts 14:23). Such appointments were related to spiritual gifting (see 1 Cor 12:28-30; Eph 4:11-13) and (in some situations) to age.<\/p>\nThere were likely always community leaders, whether or not they occupied a formal office. In the letters to Timothy and Titus, however, there is a strong emphasis on the offices of elder, overseer, and deacon. How these offices developed over the years is unclear, and even the practices described in 1 Timothy and Titus might not have been universal. Elders in Ephesus and on Crete may have carried more of a teaching role because the false teachers had to be decisively counteracted. Otherwise, the problems implied in 1 Corinthians 14:26-33 might have prevailed. These letters are more concerned with ensuring that the Good News be faithfully transmitted than with perpetuating a specific form of church government.<\/p>\nThe apostle Paul exercised influence and control over his entire mission field, but there is no evidence that he intended to build or leave a regional or mission-wide infrastructure of governance. Apparently, the overseers were to carry on the teaching and disciplinary roles of Paul and his delegates without the wider responsibilities and authority of the apostles. As leaders of the local church, they wielded real and distinctive authority within their communities (see 1 Cor 5:3-5; 1 Tim 4:11-16; 5:19-22; 2 Tim 2:14-19, 25-26; Titus 2:15; 3:10-11). Yet it was not long after the death of the apostles that church structure began to take a more centralized form—largely around the office of bishop—as evidenced in Christian writings from the early second century.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nActs 6:1-6; 13:1-3; 14:23; 15:4-35; 1 Cor 12:28-30; 14:26-33; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Tim 3:1-13; 4:11-16; 5:17-22; 2 Tim 2:2, 25-26; Titus 1:5-9; 2:15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Church Leaders<\/h3>\nSpontaneity and spiritual giftedness characterized the first church gatherings (see 1 Cor 14:26-33). The apostles exercised general oversight of the Christian communities (Acts 6:2; 8:14; 14:23) together with the elders in Jerusalem (Acts 15:4, 6, 22-23), whose function was drawn from the Jewish synagogue and Greco-Roman models. The titles and functions of Christian leaders in communities outside of Jerusalem appear to have been fluid (e.g. Acts 6:1-6; 13:1-3), but local leaders were dependent on the apostles when possible. Teachers and prophets also had important roles in guiding the church (see Acts 11:27-30; 1 Cor 14:26-40). Churches were often founded before their leaders were appointed (Titus 1:5; Acts 14:23). Such appointments were related to spiritual gifting (see 1 Cor 12:28-30; Eph 4:11-13) and (in some situations) to age.<\/p>\nThere were likely always community leaders, whether or not they occupied a formal office. In the letters to Timothy and Titus, however, there is a strong emphasis on the offices of elder, overseer, and deacon. How these offices developed over the years is unclear, and even the practices described in 1 Timothy and Titus might not have been universal. Elders in Ephesus and on Crete may have carried more of a teaching role because the false teachers had to be decisively counteracted. Otherwise, the problems implied in 1 Corinthians 14:26-33 might have prevailed. These letters are more concerned with ensuring that the Good News be faithfully transmitted than with perpetuating a specific form of church government.<\/p>\nThe apostle Paul exercised influence and control over his entire mission field, but there is no evidence that he intended to build or leave a regional or mission-wide infrastructure of governance. Apparently, the overseers were to carry on the teaching and disciplinary roles of Paul and his delegates without the wider responsibilities and authority of the apostles. As leaders of the local church, they wielded real and distinctive authority within their communities (see 1 Cor 5:3-5; 1 Tim 4:11-16; 5:19-22; 2 Tim 2:14-19, 25-26; Titus 2:15; 3:10-11). Yet it was not long after the death of the apostles that church structure began to take a more centralized form—largely around the office of bishop—as evidenced in Christian writings from the early second century.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nActs 6:1-6; 13:1-3; 14:23; 15:4-35; 1 Cor 12:28-30; 14:26-33; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Tim 3:1-13; 4:11-16; 5:17-22; 2 Tim 2:2, 25-26; Titus 1:5-9; 2:15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Church Leaders Spontaneity and spiritual giftedness characterized the first church gatherings (see 1 Cor 14:26-33). The apostles exercised general oversight of the Christian communities (Acts 6:2; 8:14; 14:23) together with the elders in Jerusalem (Acts 15:4, 6, 22-23), whose function was drawn from the Jewish synagogue and Greco-Roman models. The titles and functions of Christian leaders in communities outside of Jerusalem appear to have been fluid (e.g. Acts 6:1-6; 13:1-3), but local leader...","summary_en":"Church Leaders Spontaneity and spiritual giftedness characterized the first church gatherings (see 1 Cor 14:26-33). The apostles exercised general oversight of the Christian communities (Acts 6:2; 8:14; 14:23) together with the elders in Jerusalem (Acts 15:4, 6, 22-23), whose function was drawn from the Jewish synagogue and Greco-Roman models. The titles and functions of Christian leaders in communities outside of Jerusalem appear to have been fluid (e.g. Acts 6:1-6; 13:1-3), but local leader...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":94652,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Work","title_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Work","content_ro":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Work<\/h3>\nDifferent New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work.<\/p>\nAccording to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come into a saving relationship with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:19; Gal 3:2-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit brings new life in Christ. He affirms believers’ salvation (1 Cor 6:11; 2 Thes 2:13) and their identity as children of God (Rom 8:9, 14-17).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit gives Christians power over sin (Rom 8:1-4), power to live a fruitful life (Gal 5:22-23), and power for ministry (1 Cor 12:1-31). Believers are to be continuously “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Eph 5:18), and though they experience the conflict between the flesh and the Spirit, they can please God by yielding to the Spirit’s guidance and power (Gal 5:16-18).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit enables Christians to understand God’s thoughts and ways (1 Cor 2:9-16). He gives spiritual gifts to believers to help the church grow (12:1-31). The Spirit leads and empowers worship as believers use the gifts that the Spirit has given them (14:26-33, 39-40).<\/p>\nThe Spirit guarantees that believers will receive all the blessings that God has promised (2 Cor 1:21-22; 5:1-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit helps believers and prays for them in their human weakness (Rom 8:26-27). And the goal of the Spirit’s work is to make believers like Christ (Rom 8:28-29).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nJohn 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:29, 39; 9:31; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; Rom 8:1-4, 9, 14-17, 26-29; 1 Cor 2:9-16; 6:11, 19; 12:1-31; 14:1-33, 39-40; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 3:5; 5:16-18, 22-23; Eph 1:13-14; 5:18; 2 Thes 2:13; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Jn 2:20, 27<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Work<\/h3>\nDifferent New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work.<\/p>\nAccording to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come into a saving relationship with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:19; Gal 3:2-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit brings new life in Christ. He affirms believers’ salvation (1 Cor 6:11; 2 Thes 2:13) and their identity as children of God (Rom 8:9, 14-17).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit gives Christians power over sin (Rom 8:1-4), power to live a fruitful life (Gal 5:22-23), and power for ministry (1 Cor 12:1-31). Believers are to be continuously “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Eph 5:18), and though they experience the conflict between the flesh and the Spirit, they can please God by yielding to the Spirit’s guidance and power (Gal 5:16-18).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit enables Christians to understand God’s thoughts and ways (1 Cor 2:9-16). He gives spiritual gifts to believers to help the church grow (12:1-31). The Spirit leads and empowers worship as believers use the gifts that the Spirit has given them (14:26-33, 39-40).<\/p>\nThe Spirit guarantees that believers will receive all the blessings that God has promised (2 Cor 1:21-22; 5:1-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit helps believers and prays for them in their human weakness (Rom 8:26-27). And the goal of the Spirit’s work is to make believers like Christ (Rom 8:28-29).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nJohn 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:29, 39; 9:31; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; Rom 8:1-4, 9, 14-17, 26-29; 1 Cor 2:9-16; 6:11, 19; 12:1-31; 14:1-33, 39-40; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 3:5; 5:16-18, 22-23; Eph 1:13-14; 5:18; 2 Thes 2:13; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Jn 2:20, 27<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Work Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work. According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come i...","summary_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Work Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work. According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come i...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":94684,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Church as a Dynamic Body","title_en":"The Church as a Dynamic Body","content_ro":"<h3>The Church as a Dynamic Body<\/h3>\nPaul viewed the church as the living body of Christ comprised of believers. Paul made no formal distinction between professional clergy and laity, in which the ministry was done only by the clergy. The community had leaders (see, e.g., 1 Tim 3:1-13), but every believer had a ministry in building up the body (1 Cor 12:12-31). When the early believers gathered together, usually in someone’s home, everyone brought something from God to share with the others (14:26-33).<\/p>\nPaul understood God’s Spirit as gifting people for their specific ministries (12:7-11, 28; Rom 12:6-8; Eph 4:11) and leading them when they came together for worship. Guided by the Spirit, every believer was to use their spiritual gifts for the benefit of the church. Paul wanted believers to be sensitive to the empowering of the Spirit in all that they did (1 Cor 14:26-33).<\/p>\nWhen believers meet together, every individual is important and each one has an active role to play. Believers must listen for God speaking his word—and be prepared to speak it—in all their relationships. Paul also calls for the others to “evaluate” what is said (14:26, 29). Every believer is a crucial part of the body, called to be actively involved in its growth.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nRom 12:4-8; 1 Cor 12:7-31; 14:26-33; Eph 1:23; 4:11-13; Col 1:24; 2:18-19; 1 Tim 3:1-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Church as a Dynamic Body<\/h3>\nPaul viewed the church as the living body of Christ comprised of believers. Paul made no formal distinction between professional clergy and laity, in which the ministry was done only by the clergy. The community had leaders (see, e.g., 1 Tim 3:1-13), but every believer had a ministry in building up the body (1 Cor 12:12-31). When the early believers gathered together, usually in someone’s home, everyone brought something from God to share with the others (14:26-33).<\/p>\nPaul understood God’s Spirit as gifting people for their specific ministries (12:7-11, 28; Rom 12:6-8; Eph 4:11) and leading them when they came together for worship. Guided by the Spirit, every believer was to use their spiritual gifts for the benefit of the church. Paul wanted believers to be sensitive to the empowering of the Spirit in all that they did (1 Cor 14:26-33).<\/p>\nWhen believers meet together, every individual is important and each one has an active role to play. Believers must listen for God speaking his word—and be prepared to speak it—in all their relationships. Paul also calls for the others to “evaluate” what is said (14:26, 29). Every believer is a crucial part of the body, called to be actively involved in its growth.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nRom 12:4-8; 1 Cor 12:7-31; 14:26-33; Eph 1:23; 4:11-13; Col 1:24; 2:18-19; 1 Tim 3:1-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Church as a Dynamic Body Paul viewed the church as the living body of Christ comprised of believers. Paul made no formal distinction between professional clergy and laity, in which the ministry was done only by the clergy. The community had leaders (see, e.g., 1 Tim 3:1-13), but every believer had a ministry in building up the body (1 Cor 12:12-31). When the early believers gathered together, usually in someone’s home, everyone brought something from God to share with the others (14:26-33...","summary_en":"The Church as a Dynamic Body Paul viewed the church as the living body of Christ comprised of believers. Paul made no formal distinction between professional clergy and laity, in which the ministry was done only by the clergy. The community had leaders (see, e.g., 1 Tim 3:1-13), but every believer had a ministry in building up the body (1 Cor 12:12-31). When the early believers gathered together, usually in someone’s home, everyone brought something from God to share with the others (14:26-33...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95169,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Church Leaders","title_en":"Church Leaders","content_ro":"<h3>Church Leaders<\/h3>\nSpontaneity and spiritual giftedness characterized the first church gatherings (see 1 Cor 14:26-33). The apostles exercised general oversight of the Christian communities (Acts 6:2; 8:14; 14:23) together with the elders in Jerusalem (Acts 15:4, 6, 22-23), whose function was drawn from the Jewish synagogue and Greco-Roman models. The titles and functions of Christian leaders in communities outside of Jerusalem appear to have been fluid (e.g. Acts 6:1-6; 13:1-3), but local leaders were dependent on the apostles when possible. Teachers and prophets also had important roles in guiding the church (see Acts 11:27-30; 1 Cor 14:26-40). Churches were often founded before their leaders were appointed (Titus 1:5; Acts 14:23). Such appointments were related to spiritual gifting (see 1 Cor 12:28-30; Eph 4:11-13) and (in some situations) to age.<\/p>\nThere were likely always community leaders, whether or not they occupied a formal office. In the letters to Timothy and Titus, however, there is a strong emphasis on the offices of elder, overseer, and deacon. How these offices developed over the years is unclear, and even the practices described in 1 Timothy and Titus might not have been universal. Elders in Ephesus and on Crete may have carried more of a teaching role because the false teachers had to be decisively counteracted. Otherwise, the problems implied in 1 Corinthians 14:26-33 might have prevailed. These letters are more concerned with ensuring that the Good News be faithfully transmitted than with perpetuating a specific form of church government.<\/p>\nThe apostle Paul exercised influence and control over his entire mission field, but there is no evidence that he intended to build or leave a regional or mission-wide infrastructure of governance. Apparently, the overseers were to carry on the teaching and disciplinary roles of Paul and his delegates without the wider responsibilities and authority of the apostles. As leaders of the local church, they wielded real and distinctive authority within their communities (see 1 Cor 5:3-5; 1 Tim 4:11-16; 5:19-22; 2 Tim 2:14-19, 25-26; Titus 2:15; 3:10-11). Yet it was not long after the death of the apostles that church structure began to take a more centralized form—largely around the office of bishop—as evidenced in Christian writings from the early second century.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nActs 6:1-6; 13:1-3; 14:23; 15:4-35; 1 Cor 12:28-30; 14:26-33; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Tim 3:1-13; 4:11-16; 5:17-22; 2 Tim 2:2, 25-26; Titus 1:5-9; 2:15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Church Leaders<\/h3>\nSpontaneity and spiritual giftedness characterized the first church gatherings (see 1 Cor 14:26-33). The apostles exercised general oversight of the Christian communities (Acts 6:2; 8:14; 14:23) together with the elders in Jerusalem (Acts 15:4, 6, 22-23), whose function was drawn from the Jewish synagogue and Greco-Roman models. The titles and functions of Christian leaders in communities outside of Jerusalem appear to have been fluid (e.g. Acts 6:1-6; 13:1-3), but local leaders were dependent on the apostles when possible. Teachers and prophets also had important roles in guiding the church (see Acts 11:27-30; 1 Cor 14:26-40). Churches were often founded before their leaders were appointed (Titus 1:5; Acts 14:23). Such appointments were related to spiritual gifting (see 1 Cor 12:28-30; Eph 4:11-13) and (in some situations) to age.<\/p>\nThere were likely always community leaders, whether or not they occupied a formal office. In the letters to Timothy and Titus, however, there is a strong emphasis on the offices of elder, overseer, and deacon. How these offices developed over the years is unclear, and even the practices described in 1 Timothy and Titus might not have been universal. Elders in Ephesus and on Crete may have carried more of a teaching role because the false teachers had to be decisively counteracted. Otherwise, the problems implied in 1 Corinthians 14:26-33 might have prevailed. These letters are more concerned with ensuring that the Good News be faithfully transmitted than with perpetuating a specific form of church government.<\/p>\nThe apostle Paul exercised influence and control over his entire mission field, but there is no evidence that he intended to build or leave a regional or mission-wide infrastructure of governance. Apparently, the overseers were to carry on the teaching and disciplinary roles of Paul and his delegates without the wider responsibilities and authority of the apostles. As leaders of the local church, they wielded real and distinctive authority within their communities (see 1 Cor 5:3-5; 1 Tim 4:11-16; 5:19-22; 2 Tim 2:14-19, 25-26; Titus 2:15; 3:10-11). Yet it was not long after the death of the apostles that church structure began to take a more centralized form—largely around the office of bishop—as evidenced in Christian writings from the early second century.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nActs 6:1-6; 13:1-3; 14:23; 15:4-35; 1 Cor 12:28-30; 14:26-33; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Tim 3:1-13; 4:11-16; 5:17-22; 2 Tim 2:2, 25-26; Titus 1:5-9; 2:15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Church Leaders Spontaneity and spiritual giftedness characterized the first church gatherings (see 1 Cor 14:26-33). The apostles exercised general oversight of the Christian communities (Acts 6:2; 8:14; 14:23) together with the elders in Jerusalem (Acts 15:4, 6, 22-23), whose function was drawn from the Jewish synagogue and Greco-Roman models. The titles and functions of Christian leaders in communities outside of Jerusalem appear to have been fluid (e.g. Acts 6:1-6; 13:1-3), but local leader...","summary_en":"Church Leaders Spontaneity and spiritual giftedness characterized the first church gatherings (see 1 Cor 14:26-33). The apostles exercised general oversight of the Christian communities (Acts 6:2; 8:14; 14:23) together with the elders in Jerusalem (Acts 15:4, 6, 22-23), whose function was drawn from the Jewish synagogue and Greco-Roman models. The titles and functions of Christian leaders in communities outside of Jerusalem appear to have been fluid (e.g. Acts 6:1-6; 13:1-3), but local leader...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":122278,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Work","title_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Work","content_ro":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Work<\/h3>\nDifferent New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work.<\/p>\nAccording to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come into a saving relationship with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:19; Gal 3:2-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit brings new life in Christ. He affirms believers’ salvation (1 Cor 6:11; 2 Thes 2:13) and their identity as children of God (Rom 8:9, 14-17).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit gives Christians power over sin (Rom 8:1-4), power to live a fruitful life (Gal 5:22-23), and power for ministry (1 Cor 12:1-31). Believers are to be continuously “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Eph 5:18), and though they experience the conflict between the flesh and the Spirit, they can please God by yielding to the Spirit’s guidance and power (Gal 5:16-18).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit enables Christians to understand God’s thoughts and ways (1 Cor 2:9-16). He gives spiritual gifts to believers to help the church grow (12:1-31). The Spirit leads and empowers worship as believers use the gifts that the Spirit has given them (14:26-33, 39-40).<\/p>\nThe Spirit guarantees that believers will receive all the blessings that God has promised (2 Cor 1:21-22; 5:1-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit helps believers and prays for them in their human weakness (Rom 8:26-27). And the goal of the Spirit’s work is to make believers like Christ (Rom 8:28-29).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nJohn 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:29, 39; 9:31; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; Rom 8:1-4, 9, 14-17, 26-29; 1 Cor 2:9-16; 6:11, 19; 12:1-31; 14:1-33, 39-40; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 3:5; 5:16-18, 22-23; Eph 1:13-14; 5:18; 2 Thes 2:13; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Jn 2:20, 27<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Work<\/h3>\nDifferent New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work.<\/p>\nAccording to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come into a saving relationship with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:19; Gal 3:2-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit brings new life in Christ. He affirms believers’ salvation (1 Cor 6:11; 2 Thes 2:13) and their identity as children of God (Rom 8:9, 14-17).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit gives Christians power over sin (Rom 8:1-4), power to live a fruitful life (Gal 5:22-23), and power for ministry (1 Cor 12:1-31). Believers are to be continuously “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Eph 5:18), and though they experience the conflict between the flesh and the Spirit, they can please God by yielding to the Spirit’s guidance and power (Gal 5:16-18).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit enables Christians to understand God’s thoughts and ways (1 Cor 2:9-16). He gives spiritual gifts to believers to help the church grow (12:1-31). The Spirit leads and empowers worship as believers use the gifts that the Spirit has given them (14:26-33, 39-40).<\/p>\nThe Spirit guarantees that believers will receive all the blessings that God has promised (2 Cor 1:21-22; 5:1-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit helps believers and prays for them in their human weakness (Rom 8:26-27). And the goal of the Spirit’s work is to make believers like Christ (Rom 8:28-29).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nJohn 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:29, 39; 9:31; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; Rom 8:1-4, 9, 14-17, 26-29; 1 Cor 2:9-16; 6:11, 19; 12:1-31; 14:1-33, 39-40; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 3:5; 5:16-18, 22-23; Eph 1:13-14; 5:18; 2 Thes 2:13; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Jn 2:20, 27<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Work Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work. According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come i...","summary_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Work Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work. According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come i...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":122310,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Church as a Dynamic Body","title_en":"The Church as a Dynamic Body","content_ro":"<h3>The Church as a Dynamic Body<\/h3>\nPaul viewed the church as the living body of Christ comprised of believers. Paul made no formal distinction between professional clergy and laity, in which the ministry was done only by the clergy. The community had leaders (see, e.g., 1 Tim 3:1-13), but every believer had a ministry in building up the body (1 Cor 12:12-31). When the early believers gathered together, usually in someone’s home, everyone brought something from God to share with the others (14:26-33).<\/p>\nPaul understood God’s Spirit as gifting people for their specific ministries (12:7-11, 28; Rom 12:6-8; Eph 4:11) and leading them when they came together for worship. Guided by the Spirit, every believer was to use their spiritual gifts for the benefit of the church. Paul wanted believers to be sensitive to the empowering of the Spirit in all that they did (1 Cor 14:26-33).<\/p>\nWhen believers meet together, every individual is important and each one has an active role to play. Believers must listen for God speaking his word—and be prepared to speak it—in all their relationships. Paul also calls for the others to “evaluate” what is said (14:26, 29). Every believer is a crucial part of the body, called to be actively involved in its growth.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nRom 12:4-8; 1 Cor 12:7-31; 14:26-33; Eph 1:23; 4:11-13; Col 1:24; 2:18-19; 1 Tim 3:1-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Church as a Dynamic Body<\/h3>\nPaul viewed the church as the living body of Christ comprised of believers. Paul made no formal distinction between professional clergy and laity, in which the ministry was done only by the clergy. The community had leaders (see, e.g., 1 Tim 3:1-13), but every believer had a ministry in building up the body (1 Cor 12:12-31). When the early believers gathered together, usually in someone’s home, everyone brought something from God to share with the others (14:26-33).<\/p>\nPaul understood God’s Spirit as gifting people for their specific ministries (12:7-11, 28; Rom 12:6-8; Eph 4:11) and leading them when they came together for worship. Guided by the Spirit, every believer was to use their spiritual gifts for the benefit of the church. Paul wanted believers to be sensitive to the empowering of the Spirit in all that they did (1 Cor 14:26-33).<\/p>\nWhen believers meet together, every individual is important and each one has an active role to play. Believers must listen for God speaking his word—and be prepared to speak it—in all their relationships. Paul also calls for the others to “evaluate” what is said (14:26, 29). Every believer is a crucial part of the body, called to be actively involved in its growth.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nRom 12:4-8; 1 Cor 12:7-31; 14:26-33; Eph 1:23; 4:11-13; Col 1:24; 2:18-19; 1 Tim 3:1-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Church as a Dynamic Body Paul viewed the church as the living body of Christ comprised of believers. Paul made no formal distinction between professional clergy and laity, in which the ministry was done only by the clergy. The community had leaders (see, e.g., 1 Tim 3:1-13), but every believer had a ministry in building up the body (1 Cor 12:12-31). When the early believers gathered together, usually in someone’s home, everyone brought something from God to share with the others (14:26-33...","summary_en":"The Church as a Dynamic Body Paul viewed the church as the living body of Christ comprised of believers. Paul made no formal distinction between professional clergy and laity, in which the ministry was done only by the clergy. The community had leaders (see, e.g., 1 Tim 3:1-13), but every believer had a ministry in building up the body (1 Cor 12:12-31). When the early believers gathered together, usually in someone’s home, everyone brought something from God to share with the others (14:26-33...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":122795,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Church Leaders","title_en":"Church Leaders","content_ro":"<h3>Church Leaders<\/h3>\nSpontaneity and spiritual giftedness characterized the first church gatherings (see 1 Cor 14:26-33). The apostles exercised general oversight of the Christian communities (Acts 6:2; 8:14; 14:23) together with the elders in Jerusalem (Acts 15:4, 6, 22-23), whose function was drawn from the Jewish synagogue and Greco-Roman models. The titles and functions of Christian leaders in communities outside of Jerusalem appear to have been fluid (e.g. Acts 6:1-6; 13:1-3), but local leaders were dependent on the apostles when possible. Teachers and prophets also had important roles in guiding the church (see Acts 11:27-30; 1 Cor 14:26-40). Churches were often founded before their leaders were appointed (Titus 1:5; Acts 14:23). Such appointments were related to spiritual gifting (see 1 Cor 12:28-30; Eph 4:11-13) and (in some situations) to age.<\/p>\nThere were likely always community leaders, whether or not they occupied a formal office. In the letters to Timothy and Titus, however, there is a strong emphasis on the offices of elder, overseer, and deacon. How these offices developed over the years is unclear, and even the practices described in 1 Timothy and Titus might not have been universal. Elders in Ephesus and on Crete may have carried more of a teaching role because the false teachers had to be decisively counteracted. Otherwise, the problems implied in 1 Corinthians 14:26-33 might have prevailed. These letters are more concerned with ensuring that the Good News be faithfully transmitted than with perpetuating a specific form of church government.<\/p>\nThe apostle Paul exercised influence and control over his entire mission field, but there is no evidence that he intended to build or leave a regional or mission-wide infrastructure of governance. Apparently, the overseers were to carry on the teaching and disciplinary roles of Paul and his delegates without the wider responsibilities and authority of the apostles. As leaders of the local church, they wielded real and distinctive authority within their communities (see 1 Cor 5:3-5; 1 Tim 4:11-16; 5:19-22; 2 Tim 2:14-19, 25-26; Titus 2:15; 3:10-11). Yet it was not long after the death of the apostles that church structure began to take a more centralized form—largely around the office of bishop—as evidenced in Christian writings from the early second century.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nActs 6:1-6; 13:1-3; 14:23; 15:4-35; 1 Cor 12:28-30; 14:26-33; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Tim 3:1-13; 4:11-16; 5:17-22; 2 Tim 2:2, 25-26; Titus 1:5-9; 2:15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Church Leaders<\/h3>\nSpontaneity and spiritual giftedness characterized the first church gatherings (see 1 Cor 14:26-33). The apostles exercised general oversight of the Christian communities (Acts 6:2; 8:14; 14:23) together with the elders in Jerusalem (Acts 15:4, 6, 22-23), whose function was drawn from the Jewish synagogue and Greco-Roman models. The titles and functions of Christian leaders in communities outside of Jerusalem appear to have been fluid (e.g. Acts 6:1-6; 13:1-3), but local leaders were dependent on the apostles when possible. Teachers and prophets also had important roles in guiding the church (see Acts 11:27-30; 1 Cor 14:26-40). Churches were often founded before their leaders were appointed (Titus 1:5; Acts 14:23). Such appointments were related to spiritual gifting (see 1 Cor 12:28-30; Eph 4:11-13) and (in some situations) to age.<\/p>\nThere were likely always community leaders, whether or not they occupied a formal office. In the letters to Timothy and Titus, however, there is a strong emphasis on the offices of elder, overseer, and deacon. How these offices developed over the years is unclear, and even the practices described in 1 Timothy and Titus might not have been universal. Elders in Ephesus and on Crete may have carried more of a teaching role because the false teachers had to be decisively counteracted. Otherwise, the problems implied in 1 Corinthians 14:26-33 might have prevailed. These letters are more concerned with ensuring that the Good News be faithfully transmitted than with perpetuating a specific form of church government.<\/p>\nThe apostle Paul exercised influence and control over his entire mission field, but there is no evidence that he intended to build or leave a regional or mission-wide infrastructure of governance. Apparently, the overseers were to carry on the teaching and disciplinary roles of Paul and his delegates without the wider responsibilities and authority of the apostles. As leaders of the local church, they wielded real and distinctive authority within their communities (see 1 Cor 5:3-5; 1 Tim 4:11-16; 5:19-22; 2 Tim 2:14-19, 25-26; Titus 2:15; 3:10-11). Yet it was not long after the death of the apostles that church structure began to take a more centralized form—largely around the office of bishop—as evidenced in Christian writings from the early second century.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nActs 6:1-6; 13:1-3; 14:23; 15:4-35; 1 Cor 12:28-30; 14:26-33; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Tim 3:1-13; 4:11-16; 5:17-22; 2 Tim 2:2, 25-26; Titus 1:5-9; 2:15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Church Leaders Spontaneity and spiritual giftedness characterized the first church gatherings (see 1 Cor 14:26-33). The apostles exercised general oversight of the Christian communities (Acts 6:2; 8:14; 14:23) together with the elders in Jerusalem (Acts 15:4, 6, 22-23), whose function was drawn from the Jewish synagogue and Greco-Roman models. The titles and functions of Christian leaders in communities outside of Jerusalem appear to have been fluid (e.g. Acts 6:1-6; 13:1-3), but local leader...","summary_en":"Church Leaders Spontaneity and spiritual giftedness characterized the first church gatherings (see 1 Cor 14:26-33). The apostles exercised general oversight of the Christian communities (Acts 6:2; 8:14; 14:23) together with the elders in Jerusalem (Acts 15:4, 6, 22-23), whose function was drawn from the Jewish synagogue and Greco-Roman models. The titles and functions of Christian leaders in communities outside of Jerusalem appear to have been fluid (e.g. Acts 6:1-6; 13:1-3), but local leader...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":149904,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Work","title_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Work","content_ro":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Work<\/h3>\nDifferent New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work.<\/p>\nAccording to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come into a saving relationship with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:19; Gal 3:2-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit brings new life in Christ. He affirms believers’ salvation (1 Cor 6:11; 2 Thes 2:13) and their identity as children of God (Rom 8:9, 14-17).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit gives Christians power over sin (Rom 8:1-4), power to live a fruitful life (Gal 5:22-23), and power for ministry (1 Cor 12:1-31). Believers are to be continuously “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Eph 5:18), and though they experience the conflict between the flesh and the Spirit, they can please God by yielding to the Spirit’s guidance and power (Gal 5:16-18).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit enables Christians to understand God’s thoughts and ways (1 Cor 2:9-16). He gives spiritual gifts to believers to help the church grow (12:1-31). The Spirit leads and empowers worship as believers use the gifts that the Spirit has given them (14:26-33, 39-40).<\/p>\nThe Spirit guarantees that believers will receive all the blessings that God has promised (2 Cor 1:21-22; 5:1-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit helps believers and prays for them in their human weakness (Rom 8:26-27). And the goal of the Spirit’s work is to make believers like Christ (Rom 8:28-29).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nJohn 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:29, 39; 9:31; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; Rom 8:1-4, 9, 14-17, 26-29; 1 Cor 2:9-16; 6:11, 19; 12:1-31; 14:1-33, 39-40; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 3:5; 5:16-18, 22-23; Eph 1:13-14; 5:18; 2 Thes 2:13; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Jn 2:20, 27<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Work<\/h3>\nDifferent New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work.<\/p>\nAccording to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come into a saving relationship with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:19; Gal 3:2-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit brings new life in Christ. He affirms believers’ salvation (1 Cor 6:11; 2 Thes 2:13) and their identity as children of God (Rom 8:9, 14-17).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit gives Christians power over sin (Rom 8:1-4), power to live a fruitful life (Gal 5:22-23), and power for ministry (1 Cor 12:1-31). Believers are to be continuously “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Eph 5:18), and though they experience the conflict between the flesh and the Spirit, they can please God by yielding to the Spirit’s guidance and power (Gal 5:16-18).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit enables Christians to understand God’s thoughts and ways (1 Cor 2:9-16). He gives spiritual gifts to believers to help the church grow (12:1-31). The Spirit leads and empowers worship as believers use the gifts that the Spirit has given them (14:26-33, 39-40).<\/p>\nThe Spirit guarantees that believers will receive all the blessings that God has promised (2 Cor 1:21-22; 5:1-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit helps believers and prays for them in their human weakness (Rom 8:26-27). And the goal of the Spirit’s work is to make believers like Christ (Rom 8:28-29).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nJohn 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:29, 39; 9:31; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; Rom 8:1-4, 9, 14-17, 26-29; 1 Cor 2:9-16; 6:11, 19; 12:1-31; 14:1-33, 39-40; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 3:5; 5:16-18, 22-23; Eph 1:13-14; 5:18; 2 Thes 2:13; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Jn 2:20, 27<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Work Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work. According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come i...","summary_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Work Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work. According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come i...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":149936,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Church as a Dynamic Body","title_en":"The Church as a Dynamic Body","content_ro":"<h3>The Church as a Dynamic Body<\/h3>\nPaul viewed the church as the living body of Christ comprised of believers. Paul made no formal distinction between professional clergy and laity, in which the ministry was done only by the clergy. The community had leaders (see, e.g., 1 Tim 3:1-13), but every believer had a ministry in building up the body (1 Cor 12:12-31). When the early believers gathered together, usually in someone’s home, everyone brought something from God to share with the others (14:26-33).<\/p>\nPaul understood God’s Spirit as gifting people for their specific ministries (12:7-11, 28; Rom 12:6-8; Eph 4:11) and leading them when they came together for worship. Guided by the Spirit, every believer was to use their spiritual gifts for the benefit of the church. Paul wanted believers to be sensitive to the empowering of the Spirit in all that they did (1 Cor 14:26-33).<\/p>\nWhen believers meet together, every individual is important and each one has an active role to play. Believers must listen for God speaking his word—and be prepared to speak it—in all their relationships. Paul also calls for the others to “evaluate” what is said (14:26, 29). Every believer is a crucial part of the body, called to be actively involved in its growth.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nRom 12:4-8; 1 Cor 12:7-31; 14:26-33; Eph 1:23; 4:11-13; Col 1:24; 2:18-19; 1 Tim 3:1-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Church as a Dynamic Body<\/h3>\nPaul viewed the church as the living body of Christ comprised of believers. Paul made no formal distinction between professional clergy and laity, in which the ministry was done only by the clergy. The community had leaders (see, e.g., 1 Tim 3:1-13), but every believer had a ministry in building up the body (1 Cor 12:12-31). When the early believers gathered together, usually in someone’s home, everyone brought something from God to share with the others (14:26-33).<\/p>\nPaul understood God’s Spirit as gifting people for their specific ministries (12:7-11, 28; Rom 12:6-8; Eph 4:11) and leading them when they came together for worship. Guided by the Spirit, every believer was to use their spiritual gifts for the benefit of the church. Paul wanted believers to be sensitive to the empowering of the Spirit in all that they did (1 Cor 14:26-33).<\/p>\nWhen believers meet together, every individual is important and each one has an active role to play. Believers must listen for God speaking his word—and be prepared to speak it—in all their relationships. Paul also calls for the others to “evaluate” what is said (14:26, 29). Every believer is a crucial part of the body, called to be actively involved in its growth.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nRom 12:4-8; 1 Cor 12:7-31; 14:26-33; Eph 1:23; 4:11-13; Col 1:24; 2:18-19; 1 Tim 3:1-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Church as a Dynamic Body Paul viewed the church as the living body of Christ comprised of believers. Paul made no formal distinction between professional clergy and laity, in which the ministry was done only by the clergy. The community had leaders (see, e.g., 1 Tim 3:1-13), but every believer had a ministry in building up the body (1 Cor 12:12-31). When the early believers gathered together, usually in someone’s home, everyone brought something from God to share with the others (14:26-33...","summary_en":"The Church as a Dynamic Body Paul viewed the church as the living body of Christ comprised of believers. Paul made no formal distinction between professional clergy and laity, in which the ministry was done only by the clergy. The community had leaders (see, e.g., 1 Tim 3:1-13), but every believer had a ministry in building up the body (1 Cor 12:12-31). When the early believers gathered together, usually in someone’s home, everyone brought something from God to share with the others (14:26-33...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":150421,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Church Leaders","title_en":"Church Leaders","content_ro":"<h3>Church Leaders<\/h3>\nSpontaneity and spiritual giftedness characterized the first church gatherings (see 1 Cor 14:26-33). The apostles exercised general oversight of the Christian communities (Acts 6:2; 8:14; 14:23) together with the elders in Jerusalem (Acts 15:4, 6, 22-23), whose function was drawn from the Jewish synagogue and Greco-Roman models. The titles and functions of Christian leaders in communities outside of Jerusalem appear to have been fluid (e.g. Acts 6:1-6; 13:1-3), but local leaders were dependent on the apostles when possible. Teachers and prophets also had important roles in guiding the church (see Acts 11:27-30; 1 Cor 14:26-40). Churches were often founded before their leaders were appointed (Titus 1:5; Acts 14:23). Such appointments were related to spiritual gifting (see 1 Cor 12:28-30; Eph 4:11-13) and (in some situations) to age.<\/p>\nThere were likely always community leaders, whether or not they occupied a formal office. In the letters to Timothy and Titus, however, there is a strong emphasis on the offices of elder, overseer, and deacon. How these offices developed over the years is unclear, and even the practices described in 1 Timothy and Titus might not have been universal. Elders in Ephesus and on Crete may have carried more of a teaching role because the false teachers had to be decisively counteracted. Otherwise, the problems implied in 1 Corinthians 14:26-33 might have prevailed. These letters are more concerned with ensuring that the Good News be faithfully transmitted than with perpetuating a specific form of church government.<\/p>\nThe apostle Paul exercised influence and control over his entire mission field, but there is no evidence that he intended to build or leave a regional or mission-wide infrastructure of governance. Apparently, the overseers were to carry on the teaching and disciplinary roles of Paul and his delegates without the wider responsibilities and authority of the apostles. As leaders of the local church, they wielded real and distinctive authority within their communities (see 1 Cor 5:3-5; 1 Tim 4:11-16; 5:19-22; 2 Tim 2:14-19, 25-26; Titus 2:15; 3:10-11). Yet it was not long after the death of the apostles that church structure began to take a more centralized form—largely around the office of bishop—as evidenced in Christian writings from the early second century.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nActs 6:1-6; 13:1-3; 14:23; 15:4-35; 1 Cor 12:28-30; 14:26-33; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Tim 3:1-13; 4:11-16; 5:17-22; 2 Tim 2:2, 25-26; Titus 1:5-9; 2:15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Church Leaders<\/h3>\nSpontaneity and spiritual giftedness characterized the first church gatherings (see 1 Cor 14:26-33). The apostles exercised general oversight of the Christian communities (Acts 6:2; 8:14; 14:23) together with the elders in Jerusalem (Acts 15:4, 6, 22-23), whose function was drawn from the Jewish synagogue and Greco-Roman models. The titles and functions of Christian leaders in communities outside of Jerusalem appear to have been fluid (e.g. Acts 6:1-6; 13:1-3), but local leaders were dependent on the apostles when possible. Teachers and prophets also had important roles in guiding the church (see Acts 11:27-30; 1 Cor 14:26-40). Churches were often founded before their leaders were appointed (Titus 1:5; Acts 14:23). Such appointments were related to spiritual gifting (see 1 Cor 12:28-30; Eph 4:11-13) and (in some situations) to age.<\/p>\nThere were likely always community leaders, whether or not they occupied a formal office. In the letters to Timothy and Titus, however, there is a strong emphasis on the offices of elder, overseer, and deacon. How these offices developed over the years is unclear, and even the practices described in 1 Timothy and Titus might not have been universal. Elders in Ephesus and on Crete may have carried more of a teaching role because the false teachers had to be decisively counteracted. Otherwise, the problems implied in 1 Corinthians 14:26-33 might have prevailed. These letters are more concerned with ensuring that the Good News be faithfully transmitted than with perpetuating a specific form of church government.<\/p>\nThe apostle Paul exercised influence and control over his entire mission field, but there is no evidence that he intended to build or leave a regional or mission-wide infrastructure of governance. Apparently, the overseers were to carry on the teaching and disciplinary roles of Paul and his delegates without the wider responsibilities and authority of the apostles. As leaders of the local church, they wielded real and distinctive authority within their communities (see 1 Cor 5:3-5; 1 Tim 4:11-16; 5:19-22; 2 Tim 2:14-19, 25-26; Titus 2:15; 3:10-11). Yet it was not long after the death of the apostles that church structure began to take a more centralized form—largely around the office of bishop—as evidenced in Christian writings from the early second century.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nActs 6:1-6; 13:1-3; 14:23; 15:4-35; 1 Cor 12:28-30; 14:26-33; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Tim 3:1-13; 4:11-16; 5:17-22; 2 Tim 2:2, 25-26; Titus 1:5-9; 2:15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Church Leaders Spontaneity and spiritual giftedness characterized the first church gatherings (see 1 Cor 14:26-33). The apostles exercised general oversight of the Christian communities (Acts 6:2; 8:14; 14:23) together with the elders in Jerusalem (Acts 15:4, 6, 22-23), whose function was drawn from the Jewish synagogue and Greco-Roman models. The titles and functions of Christian leaders in communities outside of Jerusalem appear to have been fluid (e.g. Acts 6:1-6; 13:1-3), but local leader...","summary_en":"Church Leaders Spontaneity and spiritual giftedness characterized the first church gatherings (see 1 Cor 14:26-33). The apostles exercised general oversight of the Christian communities (Acts 6:2; 8:14; 14:23) together with the elders in Jerusalem (Acts 15:4, 6, 22-23), whose function was drawn from the Jewish synagogue and Greco-Roman models. The titles and functions of Christian leaders in communities outside of Jerusalem appear to have been fluid (e.g. Acts 6:1-6; 13:1-3), but local leader...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"27":[{"id":7648,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"First Letter to the Corinthians","title_en":"First Letter to the Corinthians","content_ro":"<h3>CORINTHIANS, First Letter to the<\/h3>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date and Origin<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nThere is no doubt about who wrote 1 Corinthians, for all scholars agree that the apostle Paul wrote it on his third missionary journey while he was living in Ephesus. By this time Paul was a mature, middle-aged (perhaps 55 years old) missionary, fully seasoned from planting churches around a quarter of the Mediterranean world.<\/p>\nDate and Origin<\/p>\nPaul worked in Corinth from about AD<\/span> 50 to 52. After a brief stay in Jerusalem, he returned to his missionary work, this time at Ephesus (Acts 19), where he ministered for three years (AD<\/span> 53–55\/56). During this period, he wrote at least three letters to Corinth and made a visit as well. His first letter, often called “the previous letter,” is referred to in 1 Corinthians 5:9-11. We know from this reference that the letter was misunderstood, but we know little of its content, for it has been lost.<\/p>\nSometime in AD<\/span> 55, after hearing reports from Chloe’s household (1 Cor 1:11), who were probably members of Chloe’s house church, he dictated a second letter to Corinth, our 1 Corinthians. This was probably sent off in the hands of Stephanas, Fortunatus, and Achaicus (16:17). Paul would later write a third letter to Corinth, called “the letter of tears” (2 Cor 2:2-3), and then finally 2 Corinthians.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nCorinth was a seaport city, destroyed by the Romans in 146 BC<\/span> and rebuilt in 46 BC<\/span> by Julius Caesar. After 27 BC<\/span>, it was the Roman capital of Achaia, where the proconsul had his residence (Acts 18:12). The city itself was really three cities: the port of Cenchrea, about eight miles (13 kilometers) to the east, where ships from the Aegean would unload; the port of Lechaion, about a mile (1.6 kilometers) to the west on the Gulf of Corinth, where the ships would be reloaded, their goods having been transported in wagons over the isthmus and the ships on rollers; and the city itself on the high ground in between.<\/p>\nThe acropolis of the city, on top of the steep, high Acrocorinth, contained the temple of Aphrodite, where 1,000 female slaves were dedicated to the service of this goddess of love. This distinctive cult of Corinth was dedicated to the veneration of Aphrodite, goddess of love, beauty, and fertility, who is identified with the Roman Venus. Associated with such religious practices was a general moral degradation. Corinthian morals were notoriously corrupt, even when compared with pagan Rome. Down in the city was the synagogue (Acts 18:4); for while the city as a Roman colony was largely populated by Italians, it had attracted other peoples from the Mediterranean, among whom were the Jews.<\/p>\nPurpose and Teaching<\/p>\nThe main concern of Paul in 1 Corinthians was the unity of the church. There was a self-centeredness in Corinth that resulted in building cliques within the church, in flaunting knowledge and liberty in the face of others scandalized by it, and in selfish displays in the worship services.<\/p>\nTwo other major concerns also surface in the book. First, along with other pagan practices, the lax sexual ethics of Corinth had influenced the church; Paul needed to erect some barriers. Second, there was a problem in accepting the resurrection of the body; Paul realized that this issue had implications for the core of the faith and vigorously affirmed the resurrection.<\/p>\nBoth of these latter two areas, as well as aspects of the unity issue (particularly their concern with knowledge), have been identified by some scholars as Gnostic motifs, leading to the conclusion that Paul was opposing a Gnostic party in Corinth. Careful examination reveals, however, that while some of the elements floating in the Corinthian milieu would later contribute to the development of Gnosticism, it would be anachronistic to call them gnostic. While recognizing protognostic ideas in the Corinthian situation, it is important to keep interpretation within the first-century context.<\/p>\nThus, the focus of Paul’s concern was the church, its unity and purity. Paul was fighting to keep this church from disintegrating into a number of competing and bickering factions divided over moral and doctrinal issues. Furthermore, he wanted to keep the focus of the church on Jesus, the exalted Lord.<\/p>\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Greeting, 1:1-9<\/h5>\nPaul begins with a standard greeting, followed by his usual thanksgiving prayer. Two features stand out. First, the greeting associates Sosthenes with Paul. While we cannot be sure who Sosthenes was, he was surely well known to the Corinthians; probably he was the Sosthenes whom Acts 18:17 identifies as the ruler of the synagogue, following the conversion of Crispus.<\/p>\nSecond, Paul stresses the Corinthians’ abilities in speech, knowledge, and spiritual gifts. They had all of these, and these were genuine, but it was precisely these good things that they were abusing. Paul’s solution is not to suppress these gifts (indeed, he thanks God for them), but to place them in a new context.<\/p>\n<h5>Report from Chloe’s People, 1:10–4:21<\/h5>\nThe Corinthians had made Paul, Cephas (Peter), Apollos, and even Christ into party leaders. We are not sure what each of these groups stood for, but one might guess that the Pauline group stressed Paul’s slogans of liberty; the Petrine group, the need to hold to Jewish practices; and the Apollos group, the value of philosophical understanding and oratory. Whatever they stood for, Paul is appalled that it breaks their unity. His first response is to argue that his behavior was not calculated to build a following but to point to Christ. That is, he did not insist on personally baptizing converts; who performed these acts did not matter, since they were all baptized into Christ.<\/p>\nPaul immediately moves to the underlying issue, that of various persons wanting to show themselves better or wiser than others who did not have the insights of their party in the church. Their seeking for wisdom contradicts Paul’s preaching of the gospel.<\/p>\nFirst, the message of a crucified Christ (1:18) made no sense within the wisdom and values of either Jews or Greeks. It demanded a whole new way of looking on life—God’s way.<\/p>\nSecond, God had not chosen them on the basis of their status in society; quite the contrary, he had made their only status the equal status they received from him (1:26-31).<\/p>\nThird, their faith had not been based on Paul’s oratory but on the gifts of the Spirit that Paul had manifested (2:4), which had convinced them that God was acting in Paul. Thus, it was not argument that led them to God, but God’s Spirit. Therefore it was the Spirit, not human reasoning, that would continue to reveal God to them. Unless they became fools with respect to the world’s ways of reasoning, they would never be able to rethink life from the perspective of the Spirit, who gives true wisdom.<\/p>\nFourth, they were not acting on this spiritual level when they claimed Paul and others as party leaders; this activity demonstrates the evil impulse in human beings (“the flesh” or “fallen human nature”) at work since it elevates human servants rather than the God who works equally in each of them.<\/p>\nFifth, these servants were working together to build one “temple” for God based on the one foundation in Jesus Christ, that is, the church. God alone will judge how each Christian contributes to the work of building the church. But woe to the person who divides the church, for “if anyone destroys God’s temple, God will destroy him” (3:17, rsv<\/span>). (Note that here the temple imagery is used collectively; the church is the temple. In chapter 6 it will be used individually; each Christian is the temple.)<\/p>\nFinally, he points to their overrealized eschatology, for with their spiritual gifts (which were genuine) and vaunted wisdom (which was worldly) they claimed they were reigning with Christ (4:8-13). Paul, with ironic sarcasm, points out how different this claim is from the lifestyle of the apostles. The apostles lived like Jesus—a life of suffering, expecting exaltation later. The Corinthians were trying to have their exaltation now without crucifixion.<\/p>\nPaul closes this section with an admonition. He softens his words toward some who would be responsive, urging them to copy his lifestyle. The teacher was the message (vv 14-16). Timothy will also faithfully live the truth before them. Then he threatens the “arrogant” (v 18), pointing out that he will not challenge their words but their spiritual power if he comes.<\/p>\n<h5>The Report from the Corinthian Messengers, 5:1–6:20<\/h5>\nPaul now turns to three issues raised by oral reports from the messengers bearing the Corinthians’ letter to him.<\/p>\nThe first issue is that of church discipline (5:12-13). Paul cites a case of flagrant immorality—that of incest. This immorality was so clear (even pagans considered it immoral), that it was not a case of ignorance of Christian principles. Further, the church had taken no action but rather boasted in its tolerance, perhaps on the basis of a misunderstanding of Paul’s teaching on freedom from the law.<\/p>\nPaul presents three principles in this section: (1) the primary goal of church discipline is the repentance and restoration of the offender; (2) the secondary goal of church discipline is the protection of the church (5:6-8); and (3) the church is not to seek to judge or control the actions of evil persons in the world—they are God’s responsibility—but to discipline those within the church (vv 9-13). Paul will use these principles also in the following chapters (cf. 7:12-16).<\/p>\nThe second issue is that of lawsuits between Christians (6:1-11). The Corinthian society was as prone to litigation as our own, and Christians did not see anything wrong in suing each other. Paul was troubled. If Christians are to judge the world, they certainly should not bring the world in to judge issues within the church. Rather than put their cases before “those who are least esteemed by the church” (6:4, rsv<\/span>, i.e., pagan judges), they should decide the cases within the church.<\/p>\nPaul has an even better way than bypassing the pagan courts, and that is to simply suffer the wrong (1 Cor 6:7). Applying the teaching of Jesus quite literally (Mt 5:38-42), Paul argues that it would be best to allow themselves to be defrauded. Instead, the Corinthians are willing to step on their brothers in Christ to get what they feel are their rights. This raises the issue as to whether greed is not still in their hearts (1 Cor 6:9-11). While Paul accepts people who formerly did all sorts of evil (for Jesus has cleansed them), he makes it very clear that anyone presently practicing greed or immorality is not part of the kingdom, whatever their doctrinal commitments may be.<\/p>\nThe final issue in this section is that of casual sexual intercourse (6:12-20). In a world where virginity was important if a woman wished to be married and where slaves in the temple of Aphrodite were available as prostitutes, prostitution was the major form of casual sex. The libertine party used two slogans: “All things are lawful for me,” a saying that may well have been derived from Paul’s teaching, and “Food is meant for the stomach and the stomach for food”—that is, since the body works this way, it must be the Creator’s purpose. Paul qualifies rather than contradicts their slogans. Freedom is subordinate to other goals (6:12, 20). The body is not made to be used as we wish, but is to be dedicated to the Lord, as the doctrine of the resurrection demonstrates (vv 13-14).<\/p>\nFurthermore, sexual intercourse is an act of the whole person, unlike eating (Paul cites Gn 2:24; cf. Jesus in Mt 19:5). Therefore, this act takes a member (i.e., the person) from the body of Christ and makes him a unity with a prostitute (1 Cor 6:15-17). Thus immorality is unlike other sins that are external to the self, for it changes the self and thus defiles the body, the place where the Holy Spirit dwells. It disregards the fact that Christ has redeemed the body, and that the whole of the Christian belongs to God, not to the Christian.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Answers to the Corinthians, 7:1–16:4<\/h5>\nNow Paul turns to the Corinthians’ own issues, building on the answers he has already given to questions they did not ask.<\/p>\nThe first issue is that of marriage (7:1-24). The slogan of the ascetic party in Corinth (perhaps a reaction against the libertines of ch 6) was “It is good for a man not to touch a woman” (7:1, kjv<\/span>). The Corinthians applied this slogan to both married and unmarried, arguing that married Christians should abstain from sexual relations. Paul clarified the matter with three points. First, he said that this was totally unrealistic, for total abstinence would lead to immorality (vv 2, 7-9). Second, when people get married they no longer own their own bodies; their bodies belong to each other for their mutual benefit (vv 3-4). Sexual refusal denies a spouse what rightly belongs to him or her. Third, abstinence is allowed for limited periods by mutual agreement as a type of fast to help focus on Christ (v 5).<\/p>\nWhile Paul will address the issue of the unmarried more fully in 7:25-40, in a side remark he indicates that he is himself content to be unmarried. But since some do not have this gift, full sexual expression in marriage is far better than fighting passion (7:7-9). Once two Christians are married, divorce is unthinkable. A clear word of Christ proves this (Mt 5:31-32; Mk 10:11-12; Lk 16:18 and parallels), so there are no exceptions (Paul either does not know of the exception clause in Mt 19:9 or he understands it as referring to something like premarital unchastity discovered before the wedding, not to adultery after the wedding). Although in some cases a Christian couple must live separately, it is always with a view to reconciliation. The teaching of Jesus does not allow him to think of the marriage as ending (1 Cor 7:10-11).<\/p>\nBut what if the spouse is not a Christian? Paul applies his principles to a situation for which Jesus did not leave a clear word. First, since Jesus told Christians not to divorce, even in this situation the Christian may not initiate a divorce (7:12-13). Second, since Christians are not to control or judge non-Christians (6:12-13), the Christian does not need to continue the relationship if the non-Christian insists on a divorce (7:15). Third, far from defiling the Christian (as the relationship in 6:15 does), the Christian will make the relationship holy, with positive results for the children and the possible salvation of the spouse (7:14, 16). While this is no call to remain in situations of physical or sexual abuse, it is a call to remain faithful to a mixed marriage situation.<\/p>\nPaul does not believe that one normally needs to change one’s life situation to serve Christ (7:17-24). Therefore, normally each person should remain in that state of life in which he or she was when called to Christ. Paul’s examples show that he was thinking in terms of marriage or singleness, Jew (circumcision) or Gentile, slave or free, not in terms of situations that might be immoral in themselves. In the case of slaves, they can accept freedom if it becomes available, but it does not make an essential difference in their real state before God or their ability to serve Christ (vv 21-23).<\/p>\nThe second issue is that of the unmarried (7:25-40). Paul argues that single people and widows may marry—it is not wrong. Yet he advises them to remain single. Since all in this age is passing away, it would be good to stay single so as to avoid the extra suffering to which marriage exposes a person (vv 25-31). What is more, marriage always divides one’s attention between the Lord and the legitimate needs of the spouse. One must not abandon the spouse or ignore his or her needs in order to serve the Lord, but one can remain single so that the Lord can be the sole focus of life and devotion (vv 32-35). Finally, if one is in a situation in which marriage is expected, the person must make his own decision as to whether he should marry the woman for her sake (and perhaps that of the wider family) or whether he can and should simply care for her as a single person (vv 36-38). Paul closes this section by repeating his general principles (vv 39-40).<\/p>\nThe third issue Paul deals with is that of food that has been offered to idols (8:1–11:1). Most meat that was available in the marketplace came either from animals slaughtered as sacrifices in the temples or from groups of animals from which one was offered as a dedicatory sacrifice. To scrupulous Jews, all of this meat would be untouched. Furthermore, pagans invited Christians to feasts in their homes and to private feasts held in the precincts of pagan temples, where trade guilds also held feasts. Paul discusses these issues and uses them to teach wider principles of Christian conduct.<\/p>\nFirst, love, not knowledge, is the key to correct behavior (8:1-13). Some Corinthians felt superior because they were convinced that idols had no reality (there is only one God), and therefore any food offered to them was still fit to eat. Paul again accepts their slogans, but counters with the statement, “Knowledge puffs up, but love builds up” (v 1, niv<\/span>). God is not concerned with what we know or eat, but he is concerned with whether or not we love our fellow Christians. The concern is not that a fellow Christian might become enraged because one indulged, but that he or she might have a vulnerable conscience and indulge himself, even though he believed it wrong and thus in his own eyes apostasizes from the faith (i.e., rebels against Christ). Such leading astray is not love. It would be better never to eat meat than to lead a fellow Christian into sin.<\/p>\nSecond, he points out that one should subordinate one’s own interests to those of others, especially those of Christ and his gospel (9:1-23). Both the examples of the apostles, who expected the church to support them and their families (cf. Lk 10:5-7), and Scripture prove that Paul had the right to demand support from the Corinthians. This had not been his practice, for he had normally made tents to support his ministry, though he did accept gifts from other churches. Paul did this to prevent people from thinking he was peddling religion for profit (9:12) and for the personal satisfaction of doing more than he had to do (vv 16-17). This was part of Paul’s larger policy of subordinating his own personal preferences and interests to those of Christ and his gospel (vv 19-23).<\/p>\nThird, the bravado of the strong who demonstrate their liberty with disregard of fellow Christians is spiritually dangerous (9:24–10:22). It is not who begins but who completes the Christian life that counts; therefore, it is a life of discipline, not relaxed license (9:24-27). Israel in the wilderness presents an example of failure in this regard. They had “baptism” and “the Lord’s Supper” (10:2-4), just like the church, yet most of them did not make it to the Promised Land. The reason God destroyed them was simple: they turned to sin. Likewise, the Christian has to be careful not to be so proud about faith and freedom that he becomes careless about sin and falls from the faith (v 12). On the other hand, Christians need not be fearful, for the temptation is not more powerful than they are; God has provided a way of escape, if they will take it (v 13).<\/p>\nAnother link between the Israelites and the Corinthians pertains to partaking of a sacrificial meal (10:14-22). In the Lord’s Supper there is a sharing of the blood and body of Christ, just as real as Israel’s sacrifices on the altar. Food offered to idols is also a sharing, not with the supposed god, but with the real demon that is behind the idol. To try to share at both tables is to provoke God’s jealousy just as Israel did (v 22).<\/p>\nA summary of the discussion draws the three chapters together (10:23–11:1). Since the food is not changed by being offered to idols, and since all food really belongs to God, one may eat anything sold in the market—do not ask any questions (10:25-26). Likewise, the Christian may eat anything served at a dinner in the home of an unbeliever. However, if someone points out that the food was offered to idols, the Christian should pass it by, not because it would hurt him, but because it is an issue with the person who raised the question, and the Christian is concerned about the good of his neighbor (vv 27-30). In other words, follow Paul’s example as he patterns himself in turn after Christ, who served others rather than himself. Act so that God’s reputation and character shine through even in what one eats (v 31); try to offend no one but to benefit each person in moving him toward salvation (v 32).<\/p>\nThe fourth issue Paul deals with is that of order in church meetings (11:2–14:40). The Corinthians’ house churches had lively meetings, but rather than showing unity in Christ, they demonstrated selfishness. Paul had no desire to change what they did; he did want to change how they did it.<\/p>\nThe first problem in the meetings was the behavior of married women (11:1-16). The sign of marriage in that day was the wearing of a veil or distinctive hairstyle, as a ring is today. Women praying and delivering prophecies in church was no issue for Paul, but the women may have felt that this loosed them from their husbands (cf. Mk 12:25) and therefore was a reason to set aside their veils. Paul argues that husband and wife are intimately joined, just as humans are to God (1 Cor 11:3). Therefore as humans should not shame but glorify God, so the wife should act toward her husband. Thus, while Paul approves of ministry by women, he puts marriage first.<\/p>\nThe second problem in the meetings was that of making class distinctions (11:17-34). Until the weekly Lord’s Supper began to be turned into the sacrifice of the Mass in the third and fourth centuries, it was a full shared meal. Middle- and upper-class Christians could come earlier to the church gatherings and also provide better food and drink for themselves. Following the customs of pagan clubs, they had no scruples against starting early and feasting as befit their class, so long as at least simple food was provided for the slaves and peasants who could not come as early (v 21). This shamed the poorer Christians and made them feel class distinctions keenly (v 22). This, argues Paul, is not the Lord’s Supper but a sham (v 20).<\/p>\nPaul repeats the words of institution to point out that they all are participating in Christ’s body and blood (cf. 10:16-17), not their own meal. To do it in an unworthy manner, with divisions and class distinctions among them, is to profane his meal by failing to demonstrate the unity of his body, the church (11:29), and thus invite his judgment, which they were already experiencing. Instead, they should examine their own motives and truly gather as one to eat this common meal.<\/p>\nThe third problem in their meetings was the use of spiritual gifts (12:1–14:40). It is possible that some people in these house churches, under the influence of Gnostic ideas in which the spiritual is good and the material evil, and feeling inspired by a spirit, cried out, “Jesus [meaning the human Jesus as opposed to the spiritual Christ] be cursed.” It is not the Spirit of God saying this, argues Paul, for the Spirit in us cries the basic Christian confession, “Jesus is Lord.”<\/p>\nOthers in these churches were exalting their own particular gift, especially the gift of tongues, shouting down others or refusing to give them a turn. There is only one Spirit and he gives all the gifts, Paul argues (12:4-6). The Spirit manifests himself sovereignly in each Christian, not simply for the Christian’s own benefit, but for the good of all (v 7). Since it is the Spirit, not a given manifestation, that the Christian has, the gifts manifested could change from meeting to meeting.<\/p>\nThat same Spirit has made all Christians into one organic unity in Christ (12:12-13). Thus not only does the one Spirit give all the gifts—all are equally inspired—but all the gifts are equally needed for the proper functioning of the body of Christ (vv 14-26). No one can say that his lack of a given gift makes him less a part of the body; indeed, the less noticeable gifts may well be the more important. Thus, within the body of Christ, there are not only different manifestations of the Spirit through individuals in a given meeting, but different ministries or functions of individuals in the body (vv 27-31).<\/p>\nTherefore, it is not the demonstration of a particular gift that shows one’s spirituality, but how one demonstrates it—that is, whether one manifests it with love (13:1-13). Any gift exercised for selfish purposes may be a genuine gift of the Spirit, but it is worthless to the individual (vv 1-3). This is because love is the opposite of selfishness (vv 4-7). In fact, the gifts of the Spirit are only for the period between Jesus’ first coming and his second coming, when the kingdom of God will be perfectly revealed and the King will be present in person, and thus the intermediary gifts of the Spirit will be no longer necessary (vv 10, 12). It is not giftedness but faith and hope that will have a reward then, and love, which is the greatest, because it will continue as Christians live in perfect love with each other and with Jesus (v 13).<\/p>\nApplying this to Corinth, Paul argues that while one should desire all the gifts, love dictates that prophecy should be the gift of choice in the church meetings (14:1-25). The Corinthians had evidently been stressing tongues. Tongues without interpretation is of little value to anyone except to the speaker himself. It does not build anyone up; its confusion seems madness to outsiders. Outside the church meetings there is a role for tongues, both as a sign of judgment (v 21) and for private devotion (v 18), but inside, only with interpretation. Prophecy, however, both builds up and convicts, and thus is to be sought in the meetings.<\/p>\nIn the church meetings, then, both gifts and order are to prevail (14:26-40). All types of gifts are allowed expression with a goal of mutual edification, not selfish demonstration (v 26). Tongues speakers must have an interpreter; both they and prophets must speak in turn, with time being taken to evaluate the utterances after every few speakers (vv 27-33). Furthermore, the women, who were perhaps chatting in the service (perhaps due to habits learned in Jewish synagogues, where they were segregated and did not participate) are to cease their chattering, pay attention, and learn, asking questions at home if they do not understand (vv 34-36). In his concluding summary, Paul states that all should be done in an orderly manner (vv 37-40).<\/p>\nThe fifth issue Paul deals with is that of the resurrection of the dead (ch 15). Some of the problems mentioned earlier concerning loose morals (chs 5–6), ascetic denial, sexuality (ch 7), or feeling one was resurrected already (ch 11) point to the fact that some Corinthians did not believe in the resurrection of the body, though they apparently believed in the resurrection of Jesus and the immortality of the human soul.<\/p>\nPaul reaffirms that the resurrection of Jesus is an essential part of the gospel message (15:1-19). The unified voice of the church was that Jesus not only died but rose again and appeared to numerous witnesses (vv 3-11). If they were consistent in their antiresurrection argument, Christ could not have been raised. Yet if this were the case, the whole gospel message is false and all their hopes for salvation are in vain (vv 12-19).<\/p>\nSince Christ has been raised, Christians will also be raised because of their solidarity with him (15:20-28). As they had experienced the results of being in Adam, so now they will experience the results of being in Christ. But resurrection does not happen at once. There are progressive stages: (a) Christ was first; (b) Christians will be raised at his coming; (c) Christ must reign until he extends kingdom rule over the whole world, destroying all demonic powers (including death itself); and (d) then he will turn over the perfected kingdom to the Father (vv 23-28).<\/p>\nResurrection hope also explains Christian practices such as baptizing people on behalf of others who had died (probably people who had turned to Christ but had died before they could be baptized, 15:29), and willingness to risk death for Christ (vv 30-32).<\/p>\nPaul admits that there are intellectual problems involved, but these are solved when one realizes that resurrection includes both continuity and discontinuity (15:35-50). Just as seed and plant are the same and yet different, and just as many types of bodies exist, so it is with the resurrection. What was perishable, dishonorable, weak, and physical (i.e., in Adam) will be raised imperishable, glorious, powerful, and spiritual (i.e., in Christ). Indeed, it is only as Christians thus become like Christ, the heavenly man, that they can become part of God’s kingdom.<\/p>\nWith excitement Paul shares his real hope, that of transformation (15:51-58). At the coming of Christ the dead will be raised and transformed. But the living will also need transformation, and this will happen in a split second, making all of them impervious to death. Then they will truly know the victory already present in Jesus’ resurrection (vv 54-57). A concluding summary draws the practical conclusion that this teaching should give them assurance of a reward for anything done for Christ now (v 58).<\/p>\nThe sixth issue Paul deals with is that of the collection for the needy Jerusalem church (16:1-4). Because of famine in Judea in the 40s, the church there had become impoverished. Partly because of the need and partly to further the unity of the church, Paul took up a collection in some of his churches for the Judean church. He answers the Corinthians’ practical queries by stating that the collection should be made weekly according to ability, not all at once when Paul arrives (16:2). When he comes, he will send off the money with their own messengers. Paul remains vague about whether or not he will accompany them, allaying suspicions that somehow he plans to profit from it (cf. 2 Cor 8–9).<\/p>\n<h5>Final Remarks and Closing, 16:5-24<\/h5>\nHaving come to the end, Paul discusses his travel plans, including his intention for a lengthy visit whenever he leaves Ephesus (cf. 2 Cor 1). Timothy was either coming with the letter or else would arrive shortly after another mission; they were to respect him and help him return. Paul points out that he urged Apollos to visit Corinth, in case some suspect Paul is against him. A closing formal exhortation to firm faith and love leads into his final customary greetings. He praises the Corinthian messengers who had brought him their letter (16:15-18) and sends greetings from Aquila and Prisca (Priscilla), his comissionaries who had helped him found the church in Corinth (Acts 18:2-3, 18). Referring to the customary greeting in the church, he tells them to greet each other with a kiss on each cheek (16:20). Paul then takes the pen from the scribe, as was normal, and writes the closing exhortation—placing a curse on those who do not love Jesus, the common Aramaic expression used in the church “Come, O Lord” (Marana tha,<\/em> perhaps used to close services), and providing an assurance of his own love for them (vv 21-24).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; Corinth; Corinthians, Second Letter to the; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CORINTHIANS, First Letter to the<\/h3>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date and Origin<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nThere is no doubt about who wrote 1 Corinthians, for all scholars agree that the apostle Paul wrote it on his third missionary journey while he was living in Ephesus. By this time Paul was a mature, middle-aged (perhaps 55 years old) missionary, fully seasoned from planting churches around a quarter of the Mediterranean world.<\/p>\nDate and Origin<\/p>\nPaul worked in Corinth from about AD<\/span> 50 to 52. After a brief stay in Jerusalem, he returned to his missionary work, this time at Ephesus (Acts 19), where he ministered for three years (AD<\/span> 53–55\/56). During this period, he wrote at least three letters to Corinth and made a visit as well. His first letter, often called “the previous letter,” is referred to in 1 Corinthians 5:9-11. We know from this reference that the letter was misunderstood, but we know little of its content, for it has been lost.<\/p>\nSometime in AD<\/span> 55, after hearing reports from Chloe’s household (1 Cor 1:11), who were probably members of Chloe’s house church, he dictated a second letter to Corinth, our 1 Corinthians. This was probably sent off in the hands of Stephanas, Fortunatus, and Achaicus (16:17). Paul would later write a third letter to Corinth, called “the letter of tears” (2 Cor 2:2-3), and then finally 2 Corinthians.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nCorinth was a seaport city, destroyed by the Romans in 146 BC<\/span> and rebuilt in 46 BC<\/span> by Julius Caesar. After 27 BC<\/span>, it was the Roman capital of Achaia, where the proconsul had his residence (Acts 18:12). The city itself was really three cities: the port of Cenchrea, about eight miles (13 kilometers) to the east, where ships from the Aegean would unload; the port of Lechaion, about a mile (1.6 kilometers) to the west on the Gulf of Corinth, where the ships would be reloaded, their goods having been transported in wagons over the isthmus and the ships on rollers; and the city itself on the high ground in between.<\/p>\nThe acropolis of the city, on top of the steep, high Acrocorinth, contained the temple of Aphrodite, where 1,000 female slaves were dedicated to the service of this goddess of love. This distinctive cult of Corinth was dedicated to the veneration of Aphrodite, goddess of love, beauty, and fertility, who is identified with the Roman Venus. Associated with such religious practices was a general moral degradation. Corinthian morals were notoriously corrupt, even when compared with pagan Rome. Down in the city was the synagogue (Acts 18:4); for while the city as a Roman colony was largely populated by Italians, it had attracted other peoples from the Mediterranean, among whom were the Jews.<\/p>\nPurpose and Teaching<\/p>\nThe main concern of Paul in 1 Corinthians was the unity of the church. There was a self-centeredness in Corinth that resulted in building cliques within the church, in flaunting knowledge and liberty in the face of others scandalized by it, and in selfish displays in the worship services.<\/p>\nTwo other major concerns also surface in the book. First, along with other pagan practices, the lax sexual ethics of Corinth had influenced the church; Paul needed to erect some barriers. Second, there was a problem in accepting the resurrection of the body; Paul realized that this issue had implications for the core of the faith and vigorously affirmed the resurrection.<\/p>\nBoth of these latter two areas, as well as aspects of the unity issue (particularly their concern with knowledge), have been identified by some scholars as Gnostic motifs, leading to the conclusion that Paul was opposing a Gnostic party in Corinth. Careful examination reveals, however, that while some of the elements floating in the Corinthian milieu would later contribute to the development of Gnosticism, it would be anachronistic to call them gnostic. While recognizing protognostic ideas in the Corinthian situation, it is important to keep interpretation within the first-century context.<\/p>\nThus, the focus of Paul’s concern was the church, its unity and purity. Paul was fighting to keep this church from disintegrating into a number of competing and bickering factions divided over moral and doctrinal issues. Furthermore, he wanted to keep the focus of the church on Jesus, the exalted Lord.<\/p>\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Greeting, 1:1-9<\/h5>\nPaul begins with a standard greeting, followed by his usual thanksgiving prayer. Two features stand out. First, the greeting associates Sosthenes with Paul. While we cannot be sure who Sosthenes was, he was surely well known to the Corinthians; probably he was the Sosthenes whom Acts 18:17 identifies as the ruler of the synagogue, following the conversion of Crispus.<\/p>\nSecond, Paul stresses the Corinthians’ abilities in speech, knowledge, and spiritual gifts. They had all of these, and these were genuine, but it was precisely these good things that they were abusing. Paul’s solution is not to suppress these gifts (indeed, he thanks God for them), but to place them in a new context.<\/p>\n<h5>Report from Chloe’s People, 1:10–4:21<\/h5>\nThe Corinthians had made Paul, Cephas (Peter), Apollos, and even Christ into party leaders. We are not sure what each of these groups stood for, but one might guess that the Pauline group stressed Paul’s slogans of liberty; the Petrine group, the need to hold to Jewish practices; and the Apollos group, the value of philosophical understanding and oratory. Whatever they stood for, Paul is appalled that it breaks their unity. His first response is to argue that his behavior was not calculated to build a following but to point to Christ. That is, he did not insist on personally baptizing converts; who performed these acts did not matter, since they were all baptized into Christ.<\/p>\nPaul immediately moves to the underlying issue, that of various persons wanting to show themselves better or wiser than others who did not have the insights of their party in the church. Their seeking for wisdom contradicts Paul’s preaching of the gospel.<\/p>\nFirst, the message of a crucified Christ (1:18) made no sense within the wisdom and values of either Jews or Greeks. It demanded a whole new way of looking on life—God’s way.<\/p>\nSecond, God had not chosen them on the basis of their status in society; quite the contrary, he had made their only status the equal status they received from him (1:26-31).<\/p>\nThird, their faith had not been based on Paul’s oratory but on the gifts of the Spirit that Paul had manifested (2:4), which had convinced them that God was acting in Paul. Thus, it was not argument that led them to God, but God’s Spirit. Therefore it was the Spirit, not human reasoning, that would continue to reveal God to them. Unless they became fools with respect to the world’s ways of reasoning, they would never be able to rethink life from the perspective of the Spirit, who gives true wisdom.<\/p>\nFourth, they were not acting on this spiritual level when they claimed Paul and others as party leaders; this activity demonstrates the evil impulse in human beings (“the flesh” or “fallen human nature”) at work since it elevates human servants rather than the God who works equally in each of them.<\/p>\nFifth, these servants were working together to build one “temple” for God based on the one foundation in Jesus Christ, that is, the church. God alone will judge how each Christian contributes to the work of building the church. But woe to the person who divides the church, for “if anyone destroys God’s temple, God will destroy him” (3:17, rsv<\/span>). (Note that here the temple imagery is used collectively; the church is the temple. In chapter 6 it will be used individually; each Christian is the temple.)<\/p>\nFinally, he points to their overrealized eschatology, for with their spiritual gifts (which were genuine) and vaunted wisdom (which was worldly) they claimed they were reigning with Christ (4:8-13). Paul, with ironic sarcasm, points out how different this claim is from the lifestyle of the apostles. The apostles lived like Jesus—a life of suffering, expecting exaltation later. The Corinthians were trying to have their exaltation now without crucifixion.<\/p>\nPaul closes this section with an admonition. He softens his words toward some who would be responsive, urging them to copy his lifestyle. The teacher was the message (vv 14-16). Timothy will also faithfully live the truth before them. Then he threatens the “arrogant” (v 18), pointing out that he will not challenge their words but their spiritual power if he comes.<\/p>\n<h5>The Report from the Corinthian Messengers, 5:1–6:20<\/h5>\nPaul now turns to three issues raised by oral reports from the messengers bearing the Corinthians’ letter to him.<\/p>\nThe first issue is that of church discipline (5:12-13). Paul cites a case of flagrant immorality—that of incest. This immorality was so clear (even pagans considered it immoral), that it was not a case of ignorance of Christian principles. Further, the church had taken no action but rather boasted in its tolerance, perhaps on the basis of a misunderstanding of Paul’s teaching on freedom from the law.<\/p>\nPaul presents three principles in this section: (1) the primary goal of church discipline is the repentance and restoration of the offender; (2) the secondary goal of church discipline is the protection of the church (5:6-8); and (3) the church is not to seek to judge or control the actions of evil persons in the world—they are God’s responsibility—but to discipline those within the church (vv 9-13). Paul will use these principles also in the following chapters (cf. 7:12-16).<\/p>\nThe second issue is that of lawsuits between Christians (6:1-11). The Corinthian society was as prone to litigation as our own, and Christians did not see anything wrong in suing each other. Paul was troubled. If Christians are to judge the world, they certainly should not bring the world in to judge issues within the church. Rather than put their cases before “those who are least esteemed by the church” (6:4, rsv<\/span>, i.e., pagan judges), they should decide the cases within the church.<\/p>\nPaul has an even better way than bypassing the pagan courts, and that is to simply suffer the wrong (1 Cor 6:7). Applying the teaching of Jesus quite literally (Mt 5:38-42), Paul argues that it would be best to allow themselves to be defrauded. Instead, the Corinthians are willing to step on their brothers in Christ to get what they feel are their rights. This raises the issue as to whether greed is not still in their hearts (1 Cor 6:9-11). While Paul accepts people who formerly did all sorts of evil (for Jesus has cleansed them), he makes it very clear that anyone presently practicing greed or immorality is not part of the kingdom, whatever their doctrinal commitments may be.<\/p>\nThe final issue in this section is that of casual sexual intercourse (6:12-20). In a world where virginity was important if a woman wished to be married and where slaves in the temple of Aphrodite were available as prostitutes, prostitution was the major form of casual sex. The libertine party used two slogans: “All things are lawful for me,” a saying that may well have been derived from Paul’s teaching, and “Food is meant for the stomach and the stomach for food”—that is, since the body works this way, it must be the Creator’s purpose. Paul qualifies rather than contradicts their slogans. Freedom is subordinate to other goals (6:12, 20). The body is not made to be used as we wish, but is to be dedicated to the Lord, as the doctrine of the resurrection demonstrates (vv 13-14).<\/p>\nFurthermore, sexual intercourse is an act of the whole person, unlike eating (Paul cites Gn 2:24; cf. Jesus in Mt 19:5). Therefore, this act takes a member (i.e., the person) from the body of Christ and makes him a unity with a prostitute (1 Cor 6:15-17). Thus immorality is unlike other sins that are external to the self, for it changes the self and thus defiles the body, the place where the Holy Spirit dwells. It disregards the fact that Christ has redeemed the body, and that the whole of the Christian belongs to God, not to the Christian.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Answers to the Corinthians, 7:1–16:4<\/h5>\nNow Paul turns to the Corinthians’ own issues, building on the answers he has already given to questions they did not ask.<\/p>\nThe first issue is that of marriage (7:1-24). The slogan of the ascetic party in Corinth (perhaps a reaction against the libertines of ch 6) was “It is good for a man not to touch a woman” (7:1, kjv<\/span>). The Corinthians applied this slogan to both married and unmarried, arguing that married Christians should abstain from sexual relations. Paul clarified the matter with three points. First, he said that this was totally unrealistic, for total abstinence would lead to immorality (vv 2, 7-9). Second, when people get married they no longer own their own bodies; their bodies belong to each other for their mutual benefit (vv 3-4). Sexual refusal denies a spouse what rightly belongs to him or her. Third, abstinence is allowed for limited periods by mutual agreement as a type of fast to help focus on Christ (v 5).<\/p>\nWhile Paul will address the issue of the unmarried more fully in 7:25-40, in a side remark he indicates that he is himself content to be unmarried. But since some do not have this gift, full sexual expression in marriage is far better than fighting passion (7:7-9). Once two Christians are married, divorce is unthinkable. A clear word of Christ proves this (Mt 5:31-32; Mk 10:11-12; Lk 16:18 and parallels), so there are no exceptions (Paul either does not know of the exception clause in Mt 19:9 or he understands it as referring to something like premarital unchastity discovered before the wedding, not to adultery after the wedding). Although in some cases a Christian couple must live separately, it is always with a view to reconciliation. The teaching of Jesus does not allow him to think of the marriage as ending (1 Cor 7:10-11).<\/p>\nBut what if the spouse is not a Christian? Paul applies his principles to a situation for which Jesus did not leave a clear word. First, since Jesus told Christians not to divorce, even in this situation the Christian may not initiate a divorce (7:12-13). Second, since Christians are not to control or judge non-Christians (6:12-13), the Christian does not need to continue the relationship if the non-Christian insists on a divorce (7:15). Third, far from defiling the Christian (as the relationship in 6:15 does), the Christian will make the relationship holy, with positive results for the children and the possible salvation of the spouse (7:14, 16). While this is no call to remain in situations of physical or sexual abuse, it is a call to remain faithful to a mixed marriage situation.<\/p>\nPaul does not believe that one normally needs to change one’s life situation to serve Christ (7:17-24). Therefore, normally each person should remain in that state of life in which he or she was when called to Christ. Paul’s examples show that he was thinking in terms of marriage or singleness, Jew (circumcision) or Gentile, slave or free, not in terms of situations that might be immoral in themselves. In the case of slaves, they can accept freedom if it becomes available, but it does not make an essential difference in their real state before God or their ability to serve Christ (vv 21-23).<\/p>\nThe second issue is that of the unmarried (7:25-40). Paul argues that single people and widows may marry—it is not wrong. Yet he advises them to remain single. Since all in this age is passing away, it would be good to stay single so as to avoid the extra suffering to which marriage exposes a person (vv 25-31). What is more, marriage always divides one’s attention between the Lord and the legitimate needs of the spouse. One must not abandon the spouse or ignore his or her needs in order to serve the Lord, but one can remain single so that the Lord can be the sole focus of life and devotion (vv 32-35). Finally, if one is in a situation in which marriage is expected, the person must make his own decision as to whether he should marry the woman for her sake (and perhaps that of the wider family) or whether he can and should simply care for her as a single person (vv 36-38). Paul closes this section by repeating his general principles (vv 39-40).<\/p>\nThe third issue Paul deals with is that of food that has been offered to idols (8:1–11:1). Most meat that was available in the marketplace came either from animals slaughtered as sacrifices in the temples or from groups of animals from which one was offered as a dedicatory sacrifice. To scrupulous Jews, all of this meat would be untouched. Furthermore, pagans invited Christians to feasts in their homes and to private feasts held in the precincts of pagan temples, where trade guilds also held feasts. Paul discusses these issues and uses them to teach wider principles of Christian conduct.<\/p>\nFirst, love, not knowledge, is the key to correct behavior (8:1-13). Some Corinthians felt superior because they were convinced that idols had no reality (there is only one God), and therefore any food offered to them was still fit to eat. Paul again accepts their slogans, but counters with the statement, “Knowledge puffs up, but love builds up” (v 1, niv<\/span>). God is not concerned with what we know or eat, but he is concerned with whether or not we love our fellow Christians. The concern is not that a fellow Christian might become enraged because one indulged, but that he or she might have a vulnerable conscience and indulge himself, even though he believed it wrong and thus in his own eyes apostasizes from the faith (i.e., rebels against Christ). Such leading astray is not love. It would be better never to eat meat than to lead a fellow Christian into sin.<\/p>\nSecond, he points out that one should subordinate one’s own interests to those of others, especially those of Christ and his gospel (9:1-23). Both the examples of the apostles, who expected the church to support them and their families (cf. Lk 10:5-7), and Scripture prove that Paul had the right to demand support from the Corinthians. This had not been his practice, for he had normally made tents to support his ministry, though he did accept gifts from other churches. Paul did this to prevent people from thinking he was peddling religion for profit (9:12) and for the personal satisfaction of doing more than he had to do (vv 16-17). This was part of Paul’s larger policy of subordinating his own personal preferences and interests to those of Christ and his gospel (vv 19-23).<\/p>\nThird, the bravado of the strong who demonstrate their liberty with disregard of fellow Christians is spiritually dangerous (9:24–10:22). It is not who begins but who completes the Christian life that counts; therefore, it is a life of discipline, not relaxed license (9:24-27). Israel in the wilderness presents an example of failure in this regard. They had “baptism” and “the Lord’s Supper” (10:2-4), just like the church, yet most of them did not make it to the Promised Land. The reason God destroyed them was simple: they turned to sin. Likewise, the Christian has to be careful not to be so proud about faith and freedom that he becomes careless about sin and falls from the faith (v 12). On the other hand, Christians need not be fearful, for the temptation is not more powerful than they are; God has provided a way of escape, if they will take it (v 13).<\/p>\nAnother link between the Israelites and the Corinthians pertains to partaking of a sacrificial meal (10:14-22). In the Lord’s Supper there is a sharing of the blood and body of Christ, just as real as Israel’s sacrifices on the altar. Food offered to idols is also a sharing, not with the supposed god, but with the real demon that is behind the idol. To try to share at both tables is to provoke God’s jealousy just as Israel did (v 22).<\/p>\nA summary of the discussion draws the three chapters together (10:23–11:1). Since the food is not changed by being offered to idols, and since all food really belongs to God, one may eat anything sold in the market—do not ask any questions (10:25-26). Likewise, the Christian may eat anything served at a dinner in the home of an unbeliever. However, if someone points out that the food was offered to idols, the Christian should pass it by, not because it would hurt him, but because it is an issue with the person who raised the question, and the Christian is concerned about the good of his neighbor (vv 27-30). In other words, follow Paul’s example as he patterns himself in turn after Christ, who served others rather than himself. Act so that God’s reputation and character shine through even in what one eats (v 31); try to offend no one but to benefit each person in moving him toward salvation (v 32).<\/p>\nThe fourth issue Paul deals with is that of order in church meetings (11:2–14:40). The Corinthians’ house churches had lively meetings, but rather than showing unity in Christ, they demonstrated selfishness. Paul had no desire to change what they did; he did want to change how they did it.<\/p>\nThe first problem in the meetings was the behavior of married women (11:1-16). The sign of marriage in that day was the wearing of a veil or distinctive hairstyle, as a ring is today. Women praying and delivering prophecies in church was no issue for Paul, but the women may have felt that this loosed them from their husbands (cf. Mk 12:25) and therefore was a reason to set aside their veils. Paul argues that husband and wife are intimately joined, just as humans are to God (1 Cor 11:3). Therefore as humans should not shame but glorify God, so the wife should act toward her husband. Thus, while Paul approves of ministry by women, he puts marriage first.<\/p>\nThe second problem in the meetings was that of making class distinctions (11:17-34). Until the weekly Lord’s Supper began to be turned into the sacrifice of the Mass in the third and fourth centuries, it was a full shared meal. Middle- and upper-class Christians could come earlier to the church gatherings and also provide better food and drink for themselves. Following the customs of pagan clubs, they had no scruples against starting early and feasting as befit their class, so long as at least simple food was provided for the slaves and peasants who could not come as early (v 21). This shamed the poorer Christians and made them feel class distinctions keenly (v 22). This, argues Paul, is not the Lord’s Supper but a sham (v 20).<\/p>\nPaul repeats the words of institution to point out that they all are participating in Christ’s body and blood (cf. 10:16-17), not their own meal. To do it in an unworthy manner, with divisions and class distinctions among them, is to profane his meal by failing to demonstrate the unity of his body, the church (11:29), and thus invite his judgment, which they were already experiencing. Instead, they should examine their own motives and truly gather as one to eat this common meal.<\/p>\nThe third problem in their meetings was the use of spiritual gifts (12:1–14:40). It is possible that some people in these house churches, under the influence of Gnostic ideas in which the spiritual is good and the material evil, and feeling inspired by a spirit, cried out, “Jesus [meaning the human Jesus as opposed to the spiritual Christ] be cursed.” It is not the Spirit of God saying this, argues Paul, for the Spirit in us cries the basic Christian confession, “Jesus is Lord.”<\/p>\nOthers in these churches were exalting their own particular gift, especially the gift of tongues, shouting down others or refusing to give them a turn. There is only one Spirit and he gives all the gifts, Paul argues (12:4-6). The Spirit manifests himself sovereignly in each Christian, not simply for the Christian’s own benefit, but for the good of all (v 7). Since it is the Spirit, not a given manifestation, that the Christian has, the gifts manifested could change from meeting to meeting.<\/p>\nThat same Spirit has made all Christians into one organic unity in Christ (12:12-13). Thus not only does the one Spirit give all the gifts—all are equally inspired—but all the gifts are equally needed for the proper functioning of the body of Christ (vv 14-26). No one can say that his lack of a given gift makes him less a part of the body; indeed, the less noticeable gifts may well be the more important. Thus, within the body of Christ, there are not only different manifestations of the Spirit through individuals in a given meeting, but different ministries or functions of individuals in the body (vv 27-31).<\/p>\nTherefore, it is not the demonstration of a particular gift that shows one’s spirituality, but how one demonstrates it—that is, whether one manifests it with love (13:1-13). Any gift exercised for selfish purposes may be a genuine gift of the Spirit, but it is worthless to the individual (vv 1-3). This is because love is the opposite of selfishness (vv 4-7). In fact, the gifts of the Spirit are only for the period between Jesus’ first coming and his second coming, when the kingdom of God will be perfectly revealed and the King will be present in person, and thus the intermediary gifts of the Spirit will be no longer necessary (vv 10, 12). It is not giftedness but faith and hope that will have a reward then, and love, which is the greatest, because it will continue as Christians live in perfect love with each other and with Jesus (v 13).<\/p>\nApplying this to Corinth, Paul argues that while one should desire all the gifts, love dictates that prophecy should be the gift of choice in the church meetings (14:1-25). The Corinthians had evidently been stressing tongues. Tongues without interpretation is of little value to anyone except to the speaker himself. It does not build anyone up; its confusion seems madness to outsiders. Outside the church meetings there is a role for tongues, both as a sign of judgment (v 21) and for private devotion (v 18), but inside, only with interpretation. Prophecy, however, both builds up and convicts, and thus is to be sought in the meetings.<\/p>\nIn the church meetings, then, both gifts and order are to prevail (14:26-40). All types of gifts are allowed expression with a goal of mutual edification, not selfish demonstration (v 26). Tongues speakers must have an interpreter; both they and prophets must speak in turn, with time being taken to evaluate the utterances after every few speakers (vv 27-33). Furthermore, the women, who were perhaps chatting in the service (perhaps due to habits learned in Jewish synagogues, where they were segregated and did not participate) are to cease their chattering, pay attention, and learn, asking questions at home if they do not understand (vv 34-36). In his concluding summary, Paul states that all should be done in an orderly manner (vv 37-40).<\/p>\nThe fifth issue Paul deals with is that of the resurrection of the dead (ch 15). Some of the problems mentioned earlier concerning loose morals (chs 5–6), ascetic denial, sexuality (ch 7), or feeling one was resurrected already (ch 11) point to the fact that some Corinthians did not believe in the resurrection of the body, though they apparently believed in the resurrection of Jesus and the immortality of the human soul.<\/p>\nPaul reaffirms that the resurrection of Jesus is an essential part of the gospel message (15:1-19). The unified voice of the church was that Jesus not only died but rose again and appeared to numerous witnesses (vv 3-11). If they were consistent in their antiresurrection argument, Christ could not have been raised. Yet if this were the case, the whole gospel message is false and all their hopes for salvation are in vain (vv 12-19).<\/p>\nSince Christ has been raised, Christians will also be raised because of their solidarity with him (15:20-28). As they had experienced the results of being in Adam, so now they will experience the results of being in Christ. But resurrection does not happen at once. There are progressive stages: (a) Christ was first; (b) Christians will be raised at his coming; (c) Christ must reign until he extends kingdom rule over the whole world, destroying all demonic powers (including death itself); and (d) then he will turn over the perfected kingdom to the Father (vv 23-28).<\/p>\nResurrection hope also explains Christian practices such as baptizing people on behalf of others who had died (probably people who had turned to Christ but had died before they could be baptized, 15:29), and willingness to risk death for Christ (vv 30-32).<\/p>\nPaul admits that there are intellectual problems involved, but these are solved when one realizes that resurrection includes both continuity and discontinuity (15:35-50). Just as seed and plant are the same and yet different, and just as many types of bodies exist, so it is with the resurrection. What was perishable, dishonorable, weak, and physical (i.e., in Adam) will be raised imperishable, glorious, powerful, and spiritual (i.e., in Christ). Indeed, it is only as Christians thus become like Christ, the heavenly man, that they can become part of God’s kingdom.<\/p>\nWith excitement Paul shares his real hope, that of transformation (15:51-58). At the coming of Christ the dead will be raised and transformed. But the living will also need transformation, and this will happen in a split second, making all of them impervious to death. Then they will truly know the victory already present in Jesus’ resurrection (vv 54-57). A concluding summary draws the practical conclusion that this teaching should give them assurance of a reward for anything done for Christ now (v 58).<\/p>\nThe sixth issue Paul deals with is that of the collection for the needy Jerusalem church (16:1-4). Because of famine in Judea in the 40s, the church there had become impoverished. Partly because of the need and partly to further the unity of the church, Paul took up a collection in some of his churches for the Judean church. He answers the Corinthians’ practical queries by stating that the collection should be made weekly according to ability, not all at once when Paul arrives (16:2). When he comes, he will send off the money with their own messengers. Paul remains vague about whether or not he will accompany them, allaying suspicions that somehow he plans to profit from it (cf. 2 Cor 8–9).<\/p>\n<h5>Final Remarks and Closing, 16:5-24<\/h5>\nHaving come to the end, Paul discusses his travel plans, including his intention for a lengthy visit whenever he leaves Ephesus (cf. 2 Cor 1). Timothy was either coming with the letter or else would arrive shortly after another mission; they were to respect him and help him return. Paul points out that he urged Apollos to visit Corinth, in case some suspect Paul is against him. A closing formal exhortation to firm faith and love leads into his final customary greetings. He praises the Corinthian messengers who had brought him their letter (16:15-18) and sends greetings from Aquila and Prisca (Priscilla), his comissionaries who had helped him found the church in Corinth (Acts 18:2-3, 18). Referring to the customary greeting in the church, he tells them to greet each other with a kiss on each cheek (16:20). Paul then takes the pen from the scribe, as was normal, and writes the closing exhortation—placing a curse on those who do not love Jesus, the common Aramaic expression used in the church “Come, O Lord” (Marana tha,<\/em> perhaps used to close services), and providing an assurance of his own love for them (vv 21-24).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; Corinth; Corinthians, Second Letter to the; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CORINTHIANS, First Letter to the Preview • Author • Date and Origin • Background • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author There is no doubt about who wrote 1 Corinthians, for all scholars agree that the apostle Paul wrote it on his third missionary journey while he was living in Ephesus. By this time Paul was a mature, middle-aged (perhaps 55 years old) missionary, fully seasoned from planting churches around a quarter of the Mediterranean world. Date and Origin Paul worked in Corinth from abo...","summary_en":"CORINTHIANS, First Letter to the Preview • Author • Date and Origin • Background • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author There is no doubt about who wrote 1 Corinthians, for all scholars agree that the apostle Paul wrote it on his third missionary journey while he was living in Ephesus. By this time Paul was a mature, middle-aged (perhaps 55 years old) missionary, fully seasoned from planting churches around a quarter of the Mediterranean world. Date and Origin Paul worked in Corinth from abo...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37539,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Speaking in Tongues","title_en":"Speaking in Tongues","content_ro":"<h3>TONGUES, Speaking in<\/h3>\nSupernatural manifestation of speech in a language not known to the speaker; the Greek term is glossolalia<\/span>.<\/em><\/p>\nTongues-speaking was first manifested in the early church on the Day of Pentecost, when the Holy Spirit filled 120 Christians meeting together. They burst out in praise to God in a multitude of different languages. According to Acts 2:8-11, the audience of Jerusalem could understand them, since they were communicating the gospel in the hearers’ own languages. (Verses 9-11 list about 16 nations whose representatives in Jerusalem hear the disciples speaking in their own language.) In subsequent occurrences, when a group of people were baptized in the Holy Spirit, the book of Acts indicates that they spoke in tongues (10:46; 19:6). But not all spoke in tongues when they received the Spirit (see 8:15-17), so it wasn’t the<\/em> unique sign for having received the Holy Spirit. The Scripture teaches that all believers are baptized by the Spirit as they become integrated into the body of Christ, the church (1 Cor 12:13). The genuine evidence of the work of the Holy Spirit is the “fruit of the Spirit” as defined in Galatians 5:22-23.<\/p>\nIn the days of the early church, some Christians spoke in tongues and some didn’t. According to Paul, speaking in tongues, when practiced in the church meetings, required interpretation. If no one could give an interpretation, it was to be practiced as a private devotional exercise, for one’s own edification. As a means of private worship, the practice of glossolalia is tantamount to speaking to oneself and to God (1 Cor 14:28). However, under certain conditions formulated by Paul, glossolalia may become one of the spiritual gifts to be used in ministry to the church for the common good. In this case, the main concern is that the public use of glossolalia not be reduced to praying in tongues or speaking in tongues without interpretation.<\/p>\n In order to establish firmly the public practice of glossolalia as a ministry to the church and to prevent its abuse as a quest for personal fulfillment, Paul put forth a set of rules designed to control its corporate exercise (1 Cor 14:27-33):<\/p>\n1. A limit of one, two, or three persons is set for participation in tongues per worship session.<\/p>\n<li>2. The one, two, or three tongues-speakers are to make their contribution in sequence, “one at a time” or “in turn,” never simultaneously.<\/li>\n<li>3. Before a worshiper decides to speak in tongues, he or she is to secure an interpreter. Should no such person be available, he or she is to refrain from speaking in tongues.<\/li>\n<li>4. The person speaking in tongues should not be the one to provide the interpretation (1 Cor 12:10).<\/li>\n<li>5. If there are too many believers speaking in tongues and not enough interpreters, the former should pray, instead, for the power to interpret (1 Cor 14:13).<\/li>\n<li>6. When the contribution in tongues has been interpreted in intelligible language, it becomes a prophecy that needs to be evaluated by the recipients.<\/li>\n<li>7. The genuineness of the experience is to be tested by those who have the ability to distinguish between spirits (1 Cor 12:10) so that they can test everything, hold fast to what is good, and abstain from every form of evil.<\/li>\nPersons participating in worship should be in control of their conduct at all times. They may not appeal to ecstatic states to excuse disorderly conduct or infractions to the rules of worship. Disorder and confusion are not inspired by God, since he is a God of peace and unity.<\/p>\nThe gift of tongues is not to be desired or sought after. Only the “higher gifts” involving communication through directly intelligible speech are to be earnestly desired (1 Cor 12:31; 14:1, 5). However, should the gift of tongues be present, it should not be stifled, provided it can be used according to the rules and for the common good.<\/p>\nSee<\/em> Baptism of the Spirit; Spiritual Gifts.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TONGUES, Speaking in<\/h3>\nSupernatural manifestation of speech in a language not known to the speaker; the Greek term is glossolalia<\/span>.<\/em><\/p>\nTongues-speaking was first manifested in the early church on the Day of Pentecost, when the Holy Spirit filled 120 Christians meeting together. They burst out in praise to God in a multitude of different languages. According to Acts 2:8-11, the audience of Jerusalem could understand them, since they were communicating the gospel in the hearers’ own languages. (Verses 9-11 list about 16 nations whose representatives in Jerusalem hear the disciples speaking in their own language.) In subsequent occurrences, when a group of people were baptized in the Holy Spirit, the book of Acts indicates that they spoke in tongues (10:46; 19:6). But not all spoke in tongues when they received the Spirit (see 8:15-17), so it wasn’t the<\/em> unique sign for having received the Holy Spirit. The Scripture teaches that all believers are baptized by the Spirit as they become integrated into the body of Christ, the church (1 Cor 12:13). The genuine evidence of the work of the Holy Spirit is the “fruit of the Spirit” as defined in Galatians 5:22-23.<\/p>\nIn the days of the early church, some Christians spoke in tongues and some didn’t. According to Paul, speaking in tongues, when practiced in the church meetings, required interpretation. If no one could give an interpretation, it was to be practiced as a private devotional exercise, for one’s own edification. As a means of private worship, the practice of glossolalia is tantamount to speaking to oneself and to God (1 Cor 14:28). However, under certain conditions formulated by Paul, glossolalia may become one of the spiritual gifts to be used in ministry to the church for the common good. In this case, the main concern is that the public use of glossolalia not be reduced to praying in tongues or speaking in tongues without interpretation.<\/p>\n In order to establish firmly the public practice of glossolalia as a ministry to the church and to prevent its abuse as a quest for personal fulfillment, Paul put forth a set of rules designed to control its corporate exercise (1 Cor 14:27-33):<\/p>\n1. A limit of one, two, or three persons is set for participation in tongues per worship session.<\/p>\n<li>2. The one, two, or three tongues-speakers are to make their contribution in sequence, “one at a time” or “in turn,” never simultaneously.<\/li>\n<li>3. Before a worshiper decides to speak in tongues, he or she is to secure an interpreter. Should no such person be available, he or she is to refrain from speaking in tongues.<\/li>\n<li>4. The person speaking in tongues should not be the one to provide the interpretation (1 Cor 12:10).<\/li>\n<li>5. If there are too many believers speaking in tongues and not enough interpreters, the former should pray, instead, for the power to interpret (1 Cor 14:13).<\/li>\n<li>6. When the contribution in tongues has been interpreted in intelligible language, it becomes a prophecy that needs to be evaluated by the recipients.<\/li>\n<li>7. The genuineness of the experience is to be tested by those who have the ability to distinguish between spirits (1 Cor 12:10) so that they can test everything, hold fast to what is good, and abstain from every form of evil.<\/li>\nPersons participating in worship should be in control of their conduct at all times. They may not appeal to ecstatic states to excuse disorderly conduct or infractions to the rules of worship. Disorder and confusion are not inspired by God, since he is a God of peace and unity.<\/p>\nThe gift of tongues is not to be desired or sought after. Only the “higher gifts” involving communication through directly intelligible speech are to be earnestly desired (1 Cor 12:31; 14:1, 5). However, should the gift of tongues be present, it should not be stifled, provided it can be used according to the rules and for the common good.<\/p>\nSee<\/em> Baptism of the Spirit; Spiritual Gifts.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TONGUES, Speaking in Supernatural manifestation of speech in a language not known to the speaker; the Greek term is glossolalia. Tongues-speaking was first manifested in the early church on the Day of Pentecost, when the Holy Spirit filled 120 Christians meeting together. They burst out in praise to God in a multitude of different languages. According to Acts 2:8-11, the audience of Jerusalem could understand them, since they were communicating the gospel in the hearers’ own languages. (Verse...","summary_en":"TONGUES, Speaking in Supernatural manifestation of speech in a language not known to the speaker; the Greek term is glossolalia. Tongues-speaking was first manifested in the early church on the Day of Pentecost, when the Holy Spirit filled 120 Christians meeting together. They burst out in praise to God in a multitude of different languages. According to Acts 2:8-11, the audience of Jerusalem could understand them, since they were communicating the gospel in the hearers’ own languages. (Verse...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57688,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:27","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:27","content_ro":"14:27-28<\/strong> For a church overly eager for the gift of tongues<\/em> (see 12:10), Paul places limits on its public expression so it would be most helpful to the church: no more than two or three,<\/em> . . . one at a time<\/em>,<\/em> and only if there is someone present who can interpret<\/em> the message.<\/p>","content_en":"14:27-28<\/strong> For a church overly eager for the gift of tongues<\/em> (see 12:10), Paul places limits on its public expression so it would be most helpful to the church: no more than two or three,<\/em> . . . one at a time<\/em>,<\/em> and only if there is someone present who can interpret<\/em> the message.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:27-28 For a church overly eager for the gift of tongues (see 12:10), Paul places limits on its public expression so it would be most helpful to the church: no more than two or three, . . . one at a time, and only if there is someone present who can interpret the message.","summary_en":"14:27-28 For a church overly eager for the gift of tongues (see 12:10), Paul places limits on its public expression so it would be most helpful to the church: no more than two or three, . . . one at a time, and only if there is someone present who can interpret the message.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85314,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:27","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:27","content_ro":"14:27-28<\/strong> For a church overly eager for the gift of tongues<\/em> (see 12:10), Paul places limits on its public expression so it would be most helpful to the church: no more than two or three,<\/em> . . . one at a time<\/em>,<\/em> and only if there is someone present who can interpret<\/em> the message.<\/p>","content_en":"14:27-28<\/strong> For a church overly eager for the gift of tongues<\/em> (see 12:10), Paul places limits on its public expression so it would be most helpful to the church: no more than two or three,<\/em> . . . one at a time<\/em>,<\/em> and only if there is someone present who can interpret<\/em> the message.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:27-28 For a church overly eager for the gift of tongues (see 12:10), Paul places limits on its public expression so it would be most helpful to the church: no more than two or three, . . . one at a time, and only if there is someone present who can interpret the message.","summary_en":"14:27-28 For a church overly eager for the gift of tongues (see 12:10), Paul places limits on its public expression so it would be most helpful to the church: no more than two or three, . . . one at a time, and only if there is someone present who can interpret the message.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112940,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:27","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:27","content_ro":"14:27-28<\/strong> For a church overly eager for the gift of tongues<\/em> (see 12:10), Paul places limits on its public expression so it would be most helpful to the church: no more than two or three,<\/em> . . . one at a time<\/em>,<\/em> and only if there is someone present who can interpret<\/em> the message.<\/p>","content_en":"14:27-28<\/strong> For a church overly eager for the gift of tongues<\/em> (see 12:10), Paul places limits on its public expression so it would be most helpful to the church: no more than two or three,<\/em> . . . one at a time<\/em>,<\/em> and only if there is someone present who can interpret<\/em> the message.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:27-28 For a church overly eager for the gift of tongues (see 12:10), Paul places limits on its public expression so it would be most helpful to the church: no more than two or three, . . . one at a time, and only if there is someone present who can interpret the message.","summary_en":"14:27-28 For a church overly eager for the gift of tongues (see 12:10), Paul places limits on its public expression so it would be most helpful to the church: no more than two or three, . . . one at a time, and only if there is someone present who can interpret the message.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140566,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:27","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:27","content_ro":"14:27-28<\/strong> For a church overly eager for the gift of tongues<\/em> (see 12:10), Paul places limits on its public expression so it would be most helpful to the church: no more than two or three,<\/em> . . . one at a time<\/em>,<\/em> and only if there is someone present who can interpret<\/em> the message.<\/p>","content_en":"14:27-28<\/strong> For a church overly eager for the gift of tongues<\/em> (see 12:10), Paul places limits on its public expression so it would be most helpful to the church: no more than two or three,<\/em> . . . one at a time<\/em>,<\/em> and only if there is someone present who can interpret<\/em> the message.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:27-28 For a church overly eager for the gift of tongues (see 12:10), Paul places limits on its public expression so it would be most helpful to the church: no more than two or three, . . . one at a time, and only if there is someone present who can interpret the message.","summary_en":"14:27-28 For a church overly eager for the gift of tongues (see 12:10), Paul places limits on its public expression so it would be most helpful to the church: no more than two or three, . . . one at a time, and only if there is someone present who can interpret the message.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"28":[{"id":17663,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Interpreter","title_en":"Interpreter","content_ro":"<h3>INTERPRETER<\/h3>\nOne who facilitates communication between people who speak different languages, or one who explains the meaning of dreams. Joseph pretended to need an interpreter to speak to his brothers (Gn 42:23). Also, dreams needed to be interpreted (Gn 40:8; 41:15-16; Dn 2; 4:6-9, 18-24; 5:7-8, 12-17; 7:16). The interpreter was sometimes one who acted as an intermediary (Jb 33:23). Ezra and Nehemiah functioned as interpreters or translators of the law of Moses when it was read to the Jews who had returned from exile (Neh 8:8-9) and who must not have known Hebrew. In NT times the interpreter explained the utterances of those who spoke in tongues (1 Cor 14:28), translated foreign languages (Acts 2:6), or expounded the Scriptures (Lk 24:27).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>INTERPRETER<\/h3>\nOne who facilitates communication between people who speak different languages, or one who explains the meaning of dreams. Joseph pretended to need an interpreter to speak to his brothers (Gn 42:23). Also, dreams needed to be interpreted (Gn 40:8; 41:15-16; Dn 2; 4:6-9, 18-24; 5:7-8, 12-17; 7:16). The interpreter was sometimes one who acted as an intermediary (Jb 33:23). Ezra and Nehemiah functioned as interpreters or translators of the law of Moses when it was read to the Jews who had returned from exile (Neh 8:8-9) and who must not have known Hebrew. In NT times the interpreter explained the utterances of those who spoke in tongues (1 Cor 14:28), translated foreign languages (Acts 2:6), or expounded the Scriptures (Lk 24:27).<\/p>","summary_ro":"INTERPRETER One who facilitates communication between people who speak different languages, or one who explains the meaning of dreams. Joseph pretended to need an interpreter to speak to his brothers (Gn 42:23). Also, dreams needed to be interpreted (Gn 40:8; 41:15-16; Dn 2; 4:6-9, 18-24; 5:7-8, 12-17; 7:16). The interpreter was sometimes one who acted as an intermediary (Jb 33:23). Ezra and Nehemiah functioned as interpreters or translators of the law of Moses when it was read to the Jews wh...","summary_en":"INTERPRETER One who facilitates communication between people who speak different languages, or one who explains the meaning of dreams. Joseph pretended to need an interpreter to speak to his brothers (Gn 42:23). Also, dreams needed to be interpreted (Gn 40:8; 41:15-16; Dn 2; 4:6-9, 18-24; 5:7-8, 12-17; 7:16). The interpreter was sometimes one who acted as an intermediary (Jb 33:23). Ezra and Nehemiah functioned as interpreters or translators of the law of Moses when it was read to the Jews wh...","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37538,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Speaking in Tongues","title_en":"Speaking in Tongues","content_ro":"<h3>TONGUES, Speaking in<\/h3>\nSupernatural manifestation of speech in a language not known to the speaker; the Greek term is glossolalia<\/span>.<\/em><\/p>\nTongues-speaking was first manifested in the early church on the Day of Pentecost, when the Holy Spirit filled 120 Christians meeting together. They burst out in praise to God in a multitude of different languages. According to Acts 2:8-11, the audience of Jerusalem could understand them, since they were communicating the gospel in the hearers’ own languages. (Verses 9-11 list about 16 nations whose representatives in Jerusalem hear the disciples speaking in their own language.) In subsequent occurrences, when a group of people were baptized in the Holy Spirit, the book of Acts indicates that they spoke in tongues (10:46; 19:6). But not all spoke in tongues when they received the Spirit (see 8:15-17), so it wasn’t the<\/em> unique sign for having received the Holy Spirit. The Scripture teaches that all believers are baptized by the Spirit as they become integrated into the body of Christ, the church (1 Cor 12:13). The genuine evidence of the work of the Holy Spirit is the “fruit of the Spirit” as defined in Galatians 5:22-23.<\/p>\nIn the days of the early church, some Christians spoke in tongues and some didn’t. According to Paul, speaking in tongues, when practiced in the church meetings, required interpretation. If no one could give an interpretation, it was to be practiced as a private devotional exercise, for one’s own edification. As a means of private worship, the practice of glossolalia is tantamount to speaking to oneself and to God (1 Cor 14:28). However, under certain conditions formulated by Paul, glossolalia may become one of the spiritual gifts to be used in ministry to the church for the common good. In this case, the main concern is that the public use of glossolalia not be reduced to praying in tongues or speaking in tongues without interpretation.<\/p>\n In order to establish firmly the public practice of glossolalia as a ministry to the church and to prevent its abuse as a quest for personal fulfillment, Paul put forth a set of rules designed to control its corporate exercise (1 Cor 14:27-33):<\/p>\n1. A limit of one, two, or three persons is set for participation in tongues per worship session.<\/p>\n<li>2. The one, two, or three tongues-speakers are to make their contribution in sequence, “one at a time” or “in turn,” never simultaneously.<\/li>\n<li>3. Before a worshiper decides to speak in tongues, he or she is to secure an interpreter. Should no such person be available, he or she is to refrain from speaking in tongues.<\/li>\n<li>4. The person speaking in tongues should not be the one to provide the interpretation (1 Cor 12:10).<\/li>\n<li>5. If there are too many believers speaking in tongues and not enough interpreters, the former should pray, instead, for the power to interpret (1 Cor 14:13).<\/li>\n<li>6. When the contribution in tongues has been interpreted in intelligible language, it becomes a prophecy that needs to be evaluated by the recipients.<\/li>\n<li>7. The genuineness of the experience is to be tested by those who have the ability to distinguish between spirits (1 Cor 12:10) so that they can test everything, hold fast to what is good, and abstain from every form of evil.<\/li>\nPersons participating in worship should be in control of their conduct at all times. They may not appeal to ecstatic states to excuse disorderly conduct or infractions to the rules of worship. Disorder and confusion are not inspired by God, since he is a God of peace and unity.<\/p>\nThe gift of tongues is not to be desired or sought after. Only the “higher gifts” involving communication through directly intelligible speech are to be earnestly desired (1 Cor 12:31; 14:1, 5). However, should the gift of tongues be present, it should not be stifled, provided it can be used according to the rules and for the common good.<\/p>\nSee<\/em> Baptism of the Spirit; Spiritual Gifts.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TONGUES, Speaking in<\/h3>\nSupernatural manifestation of speech in a language not known to the speaker; the Greek term is glossolalia<\/span>.<\/em><\/p>\nTongues-speaking was first manifested in the early church on the Day of Pentecost, when the Holy Spirit filled 120 Christians meeting together. They burst out in praise to God in a multitude of different languages. According to Acts 2:8-11, the audience of Jerusalem could understand them, since they were communicating the gospel in the hearers’ own languages. (Verses 9-11 list about 16 nations whose representatives in Jerusalem hear the disciples speaking in their own language.) In subsequent occurrences, when a group of people were baptized in the Holy Spirit, the book of Acts indicates that they spoke in tongues (10:46; 19:6). But not all spoke in tongues when they received the Spirit (see 8:15-17), so it wasn’t the<\/em> unique sign for having received the Holy Spirit. The Scripture teaches that all believers are baptized by the Spirit as they become integrated into the body of Christ, the church (1 Cor 12:13). The genuine evidence of the work of the Holy Spirit is the “fruit of the Spirit” as defined in Galatians 5:22-23.<\/p>\nIn the days of the early church, some Christians spoke in tongues and some didn’t. According to Paul, speaking in tongues, when practiced in the church meetings, required interpretation. If no one could give an interpretation, it was to be practiced as a private devotional exercise, for one’s own edification. As a means of private worship, the practice of glossolalia is tantamount to speaking to oneself and to God (1 Cor 14:28). However, under certain conditions formulated by Paul, glossolalia may become one of the spiritual gifts to be used in ministry to the church for the common good. In this case, the main concern is that the public use of glossolalia not be reduced to praying in tongues or speaking in tongues without interpretation.<\/p>\n In order to establish firmly the public practice of glossolalia as a ministry to the church and to prevent its abuse as a quest for personal fulfillment, Paul put forth a set of rules designed to control its corporate exercise (1 Cor 14:27-33):<\/p>\n1. A limit of one, two, or three persons is set for participation in tongues per worship session.<\/p>\n<li>2. The one, two, or three tongues-speakers are to make their contribution in sequence, “one at a time” or “in turn,” never simultaneously.<\/li>\n<li>3. Before a worshiper decides to speak in tongues, he or she is to secure an interpreter. Should no such person be available, he or she is to refrain from speaking in tongues.<\/li>\n<li>4. The person speaking in tongues should not be the one to provide the interpretation (1 Cor 12:10).<\/li>\n<li>5. If there are too many believers speaking in tongues and not enough interpreters, the former should pray, instead, for the power to interpret (1 Cor 14:13).<\/li>\n<li>6. When the contribution in tongues has been interpreted in intelligible language, it becomes a prophecy that needs to be evaluated by the recipients.<\/li>\n<li>7. The genuineness of the experience is to be tested by those who have the ability to distinguish between spirits (1 Cor 12:10) so that they can test everything, hold fast to what is good, and abstain from every form of evil.<\/li>\nPersons participating in worship should be in control of their conduct at all times. They may not appeal to ecstatic states to excuse disorderly conduct or infractions to the rules of worship. Disorder and confusion are not inspired by God, since he is a God of peace and unity.<\/p>\nThe gift of tongues is not to be desired or sought after. Only the “higher gifts” involving communication through directly intelligible speech are to be earnestly desired (1 Cor 12:31; 14:1, 5). However, should the gift of tongues be present, it should not be stifled, provided it can be used according to the rules and for the common good.<\/p>\nSee<\/em> Baptism of the Spirit; Spiritual Gifts.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TONGUES, Speaking in Supernatural manifestation of speech in a language not known to the speaker; the Greek term is glossolalia. Tongues-speaking was first manifested in the early church on the Day of Pentecost, when the Holy Spirit filled 120 Christians meeting together. They burst out in praise to God in a multitude of different languages. According to Acts 2:8-11, the audience of Jerusalem could understand them, since they were communicating the gospel in the hearers’ own languages. (Verse...","summary_en":"TONGUES, Speaking in Supernatural manifestation of speech in a language not known to the speaker; the Greek term is glossolalia. Tongues-speaking was first manifested in the early church on the Day of Pentecost, when the Holy Spirit filled 120 Christians meeting together. They burst out in praise to God in a multitude of different languages. According to Acts 2:8-11, the audience of Jerusalem could understand them, since they were communicating the gospel in the hearers’ own languages. (Verse...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"29":[{"id":4674,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"of the Bible*, Canon","title_en":"of the Bible*, Canon","content_ro":"<h3>BIBLE*, Canon of the<\/span><\/h3>\nThose books in the Jewish and Christian Bible considered to be Scripture and therefore authoritative in matters of faith and doctrine. The term translates both a Greek and a Hebrew word that mean “a rule,” or “measuring rod.” It is a list to which other books are compared and by which they are measured. After the fourth century AD<\/span>, the Christian church found itself with only 66 books that constituted its Scripture; 27 of these were the NT and 39 were the OT. Just as Plato, Aristotle, and Homer form a canon of Greek literature, so the NT books became the canon of Christian literature. The criteria for selecting the books in the Jewish canon (the OT) are not known but clearly had to do with their worth in the ongoing life and religion of the worshiping nation. The criteria of the selection of NT books revolved around their “apostolicity,” according to early church writers. Like those of the OT, these books were collected and preserved by local churches in the continuing process of their worship and need for authoritative guidance for Christian living. The formation of the canon was a process, rather than an event, that took several hundred years to reach finality in all parts of the Roman Empire. Local canons were the basis for comparison, and out of them eventually emerged the general canon that exists in Christendom today, although some of the Eastern churches have a NT that is slightly smaller than that accepted in the West. Judaism, as well as Christianity as a whole, believes that the Spirit of God was operative in some providential way in the production and preservation of his Word.<\/p>\nCanon of the Old Testament<\/p>\nThe Old Testament is a name that does not appear in Jewish literature. Jews prefer to call their collection of Scriptures the TANAK—an acronym formed from the first letters of Torah<\/em> (Law), Nevi<\/em>’<\/em>im<\/em> (Prophets), and Kethubim<\/em> (Writings). In Luke 24:44 (niv<\/span>), these are called the “Law of Moses, the Prophets and the Psalms” (the first book of the Writings in the Hebrew Bible). Christians called their collection of writings the New Testament, or covenant, the latter term being a designation earlier used of the agreement God made with Abraham and the patriarchs, which was repeated by Christ to his apostles (Mt 26:28). Christians in the first century considered their new covenant from Christ (1 Cor 11:25) to be a continuation of the one made earlier with the patriarchs (Eph 2:12), spoken of by the prophets (Jer 31:31-34), and which was therefore called a former covenant (Heb 8:7-13; 9:1, 15-22) or in later centuries the OT. The terms “Old” and “New” do not appear in the apostolic fathers of the first and second century or in the apologists of the early- to mid-second century, but they do appear in the latter half of the second century in Justin Martyr (Dialogues<\/em> 11:2), Irenaeus (Against Heresies<\/em> 4.9.1), and Clement of Alexandria (Stromata<\/em> 1:5). In these authors the expression referred more to the covenant itself than to the books containing it, though the transfer was eventually made. The term “canon” was not used in the OT or NT to refer to the Jewish Scriptures. The idea of limitation inherent in the word was not appropriate to the nature of religious authority in Jewish religion during the thousand years when the OT books were being written. Only the Torah was conceived as incapable of being added to or taken from (Dt 4:2). Jewish religion existed for a millennium, from Moses to Malachi, without a closed canon, i.e., an exclusive list of authoritative books. Never in their history did the people of the OT have the entire 39 books of the OT. When their canon was closed is not known. Although some questions were being asked about religious authority by rabbis at Jamnia 20 years after the fall of Jerusalem in AD<\/span> 70, we have our first list of 39 books produced by Melito of Sardis around AD<\/span> 170. That list included no books written after the time of Malachi, unless one is disposed to date Daniel to the second century. The Prophets and the Writings were always considered secondary to the Law. Their composition and collection was a process rather than an event in the life of the people of Israel and functioned largely as a record of the nation’s response to the Law, which was so sacred that it was kept (according to rabbinical tradition: Babylonian Talmud, Baba Bathra<\/em> 14a; cf. also Cairo Damascus Document<\/em> 5.2) in the ark of the covenant that stood in the Holy of Holies in the tabernacle. In Deuteronomy 31:26, however, the Levites were commanded by Moses merely to put the Book of the Law beside the ark. Nevertheless, its very presence in the Holy of Holies establishes its uniqueness in relation to other OT books.<\/p>\n\nThe 39 books of the modern OT were originally divided into only 24, according to the uniform testimony of early Hebrew tradition. The Talmud, rabbinic literature, and probably 4 Esdras testify to this arrangement that included five books of the Law, eight Prophets, and eleven Writings (Greek—Hagiographa). Modern Hebrew Bibles reflect this tripartite arrangement that was used in the first three printed editions (Soncino, 1488; Naples, 1491–1493; Brescia, 1492–1494). The Law contained the Pentateuch in our familiar order, Genesis to Deuteronomy. The eight Prophets were Joshua, Judges, Samuel (1 and 2), Kings (1 and 2), Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the Minor Prophets (all 12), which were considered as one book and arranged in the same order as our English Bibles. The eleven books of Writings contained three of poetry (Ps, Prv, Jb), the Five Scrolls (Sg, Ru, Lam, Eccl, Est), which were read at the important feasts and arranged in the chronological order of their observance, and three of narrative or historical (Dn, Ezr-Neh, 1 and 2 Chr).<\/p>\nApart from authentic Jewish tradition, efforts were made to divide the books into 21, combining Ruth with Judges, and Lamentations with Jeremiah. Josephus was the first to do so, in the first century AD<\/span>, but he was influenced by the Greek OT, the Septuagint. Origen observed in the early third century that this arrangement also corresponded to the number of letters in the Hebrew alphabet, as did Athanasius in the fourth, and others, including Jerome. It was dubiously concluded that the number of books in the Hebrew Bible had been divinely ordained to agree with the number of letters of the Hebrew alphabet! Church fathers added their support to this coincidence, which became providence to them. All such efforts, however, are of Greek origin and have no support in Hebrew tradition.<\/p>\nThe oldest extant manuscripts of the complete OT in Hebrew are the Masoretic Texts, which are no earlier than the eighth century AD<\/span>. Only manuscripts of individual books have been found in the Dead Sea Scrolls. The Masoretic scribes apparently laid down no rules about arrangement of books because there is no uniform order of the Latter Prophets or the Writings in early Hebrew manuscripts. Nor is the situation any different in ancient Greek translations of the Hebrew. Great diversity exists in the order of books in all three of our oldest manuscripts—Codex Alexandrinus, Vaticanus, and Sinaiticus. All the early Christian authors who profess to give the order and contents of the Hebrew Bible but who do not reflect the Hebrew tripartite division are clearly dependent on the Alexandrian order reflected in these Greek editions, rather than on the Hebrew Bible. Modern Protestant Bibles follow the order of the Latin Vulgate and the content of the Hebrew. Both the Vulgate and the Septuagint (Greek translation) contained the Apocrypha, which was never accepted by the Jews. The Roman Catholic Church includes the Apocrypha in its English translations because of the influence of the Vulgate on Catholic tradition. It is considered deuterocanonical.<\/p>\nEven though no uniformity of order was maintained, the Alexandrian order, reflected in the Greek manuscripts, generally arranged books according to their subject matter—narrative, history, poetry, and prophecy, with the apocryphal books appropriately interspersed into these categories. The Hebrew division was totally ignored.<\/p>\nEarly Hebrew Bibles divided the text into small paragraphs and larger sections somewhat akin to our paragraphs. These were indicated by spaces left between them—three letters between the small sections and nine letters between the larger ones. The number of sections is not the same in all manuscripts. Jesus probably referred to such sections in his comment concerning the “passage about the bush” (Mk 12:26). Later, liturgical needs led to further divisions of the text for the complete reading of the Law in Babylonian synagogues in one year (54 sections) and in Palestinian synagogues in three years (154 sections). These are reflected in the lectionary cycles marked in some early Hebrew Bibles.<\/p>\nThe division of the text into modern chapters, done in the 13th century (c. 1228) for the Latin Vulgate by Stephen Langton, was applied to the Hebrew Bible in 1518 (Bomberg Edition), but the numbers were not given to the chapters until 1571 in the text of Montanus, a Hebrew Bible with Latin interlinear translation. The verses were introduced in Bomberg’s Great Bible of 1547–48 in which every fifth verse was designated by a Hebrew numeral 1, 5, 10, and so on. Verses were inserted into the Latin Vulgate in 1555 in the small octavo edition of Stephanus.<\/p>\nCanon of the New Testament<\/p>\nThe NT was written within the period of half a century, several hundred years after the completion of the OT. Both halves of that statement would be questioned by modern critics, who would extend the time span for completion of both Testaments. The writer of this survey is confident of its truthfulness to historic fact, however, and the approach taken to canonization of both OT and NT is based solidly upon that twofold premise.<\/p>\nIn a sense, we possess far higher certification of the OT canon than of the NT canon. We refer to the fact of our Lord’s own imprimatur by way of his use of the Hebrew Scriptures as the authoritative Word of God. Yet there is a sense in which Jesus Christ did establish the NT content or canon as well, by way of anticipation. It was he who promised, “The Counselor, the Holy Spirit, whom the Father will send in my name, will teach you all things and will remind you of everything I have said to you” and “he will guide you into all truth” (Jn 14:26; 16:13, niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n\nFrom this we can derive, in turn, the basic principle of canonicity for the NT. It is identical to that of the OT, since it narrows down to a matter of divine inspiration. Whether we think of the prophets of OT times or the apostles and their God-given associates of the New, the recognition at the very time of their writing that they were authentic spokesmen for God is what determines the intrinsic canonicity of their writing. It is altogether God’s Word only if it is God-breathed. We can be assured that the books under question were received by the church of the apostolic age precisely when they had been certified by an apostle as being thus inspired. The apparent variation, relative to geographic area, in acknowledgment of some of the NT epistles may well reflect the simple fact that this attestation was by its very nature localized at first. Conversely, that all 27 books of the now universally received NT were ultimately agreed upon is evidence that proper attestation was indeed confirmed after rigorous investigation.<\/p>\nTertullian, an outstanding Christian writer in the first two decades of the third century, was one of the first to call the Christian Scriptures the “New Testament.” That title had appeared earlier (c. 190) in a composition against Montanism, the author of which is unknown. This is significant. Its use placed the NT Scripture on a level of inspiration and authority with the OT.<\/p>\nFrom available information, the gradual process that led to full and formal public recognition of a fixed canon of the 27 books comprising the NT takes us down into the fourth century of our era. This does not necessarily mean that these Scriptures were lacking recognition in their entirety before that time, but that a need for officially defining the canon was not pressing until then.<\/p>\nThough a much shorter period of time was involved in the writing of the NT than the OT, the geographic range of its origin is far wider. This circumstance alone is sufficient to account for a lack of spontaneous or simultaneous recognition of the precise extent of the NT canon. Because of the geographic isolation of the various recipients of portions of the NT, there was bound to be some lag and uncertainty from one region to another in the acknowledgment of some of the books.<\/p>\nIn order to appreciate just what did transpire in the process of canonization of the NT books, we must review the facts available to us. This will enable us to analyze how<\/em> and why<\/em> our early Christian forebears settled upon the 27 books in our NT.<\/p>\nThe historic process was a gradual and continuous one, but it will help us understand it if we subdivide the nearly three and a half centuries involved into shorter periods of time. Some speak of three major stages toward canonization. This implies, without justification, that there are readily discernible steps along the way. Others simply present a long list of the names of persons and documents involved. Such a list makes it difficult to sense any motion at all. A somewhat arbitrary breakdown into five periods will be made here, with the reminder that the spreading of the knowledge of sacred literature and the deepening consensus as to its authenticity as inspired Scripture continued uninterruptedly. The periods are:<\/p>\n1. First Century<\/p>\n<li>2. First Half of Second Century<\/li>\n<li>3. Second Half of Second Century<\/li>\n<li>4. Third Century<\/li>\n<li>5. Fourth Century<\/li>\nAgain, without meaning to imply that these are clear-cut stages, it will be helpful to notice the major trends observable in each of the periods just identified. In the first period, of course, the various books were written, but they also began to be copied and disseminated among the churches. In the second, as they became more widely known and cherished for their contents, they began to be cited as authoritative. By the end of the third period, they held a recognized place alongside the OT as “Scripture,” and they began to be both translated into regional languages and made the subject of commentaries. During the third century AD<\/span>, our fourth period, the collecting of books into a whole “New Testament” was underway, together with a sifting process that was separating them from other Christian literature. The final, or fifth, period finds the church fathers of the fourth century stating that conclusions regarding the canon have been reached that indicate acceptance by the whole church. Thus, in the most strict and formal sense of the word, the canon had become fixed. It remains to list in greater detail the forces and individuals that produced the written sources witnessing to this remarkable process through which, by God’s providence, we have inherited our NT.<\/p>\n<h5>Period One: First Century<\/h5>\nThe principle determining recognition of the authority of the canonical NT writings was established within the content of those writings themselves. There are repeated exhortations for public reading of the apostolic communications. At the close of his First Letter to the Thessalonians, possibly the first book of the NT to be written, Paul says, “I command you in the name of the Lord to read this letter to all the brothers and sisters” (1 Thes 5:27, nlt<\/span>). Earlier in the same letter Paul commends their ready acceptance of his spoken word as “the word of God” (2:13), and in 1 Corinthians 14:37 he speaks similarly of his “writings,” insisting that his message be recognized as a commandment from the Lord himself. (See also Col 4:16; Rv 1:3.) In 2 Peter 3:15-16 Paul’s letters are included with “the other Scriptures.” Since Peter’s is a general letter, widespread knowledge of Paul’s letters is thereby implied. Highly indicative also is Paul’s usage in 1 Timothy 5:18. He follows up the formula “the Scriptures say” by a combined quotation about not muzzling an ox (Dt 25:4) and “the worker deserves his wages” (cf. Lk 10:7). Thus, an equivalence is implied between OT Scripture and a NT Gospel.<\/p>\nIn AD<\/span> 95, Clement of Rome wrote to the Christians in Corinth using a free rendering of material from Matthew and Luke. He seems to be strongly influenced by Hebrews and is obviously familiar with Romans and Corinthians. There are also reflections of Ephesians, 1 Timothy, Titus, and 1 Peter.<\/p>\n<h5>Period Two: First Half of Second Century<\/h5>\nOne of the earliest NT manuscripts yet discovered, a fragment of John from Egypt known as the John Rylands papyrus, demonstrates how the writings of the apostle John were revered and copied by about AD<\/span> 125, within 30 to 35 years of his death. There is evidence that within 30 years of the apostle’s death all the Gospels and Pauline letters were known and used in all those centers from which any evidence has come down to us. It is true that some of the smaller letters were being questioned as to their authority in some quarters for perhaps another 50 years, but this was due only to uncertainty about their authorship in those particular locales. This demonstrates that acceptance was not being imposed by the actions of councils but was rather happening spontaneously through a normal response on the part of those who had learned the facts about authorship. In those places where the churches were uncertain about the authorship or apostolic approval of certain books, acceptance was slower.<\/p>\nThe first three outstanding church fathers, Clement, Polycarp, and Ignatius, used the bulk of the material of the NT in a revealingly casual manner—authenticated Scriptures were being accepted as authoritative without argument. In the writings of these men only Mark (which closely parallels the material of Matthew), 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, and Jude are not clearly attested.<\/p>\nThe Epistles of Ignatius (c. AD<\/span> 115) have correspondences in several places with the Gospels and seem to incorporate language from a number of the Pauline letters. The Didache (or Teaching of the Twelve), perhaps even earlier, makes references to a written Gospel. Most important is the fact that Clement, Barnabas, and Ignatius all draw a clear distinction between their own and the inspired, authoritative apostolic writings.<\/p>\nIt is in the Epistle of Barnabas (c. AD<\/span> 130) that we first find the formula “it is written” (4:14) used in reference to a NT book (Mt 22:14). But even before this, Polycarp, who had personal acquaintance with eyewitnesses of our Lord’s ministry, used a combined OT and NT quotation. Citing Paul’s admonition in Ephesians 4:26, where the apostle quotes Psalm 4:4 and makes an addition, Polycarp in his Epistle to the Philippians introduces the reference by “as it is said in these Scriptures” (12:4). Then Papias, bishop of Hierapolis (c. 130–140), in a work preserved for us by Eusebius, mentions by name the Gospels of Matthew and Mark, and his use of them as the basis of exposition indicates his acceptance of them as canonical. Also around AD<\/span> 140, the recently discovered Gospel of Truth (a Gnostic-oriented work probably authored by Valentinius) makes an important contribution. Its use of canonical NT sources, treating them as authoritative, is comprehensive enough to warrant the conclusion that in Rome at this period there was a NT compilation in existence corresponding very closely to our own. Citations are made from the Gospels, Acts, letters of Paul, Hebrews, and the book of Revelation.<\/p>\nThe heretic Marcion, by defining a limited canon of his own (c. 140), in effect hastened the day when the orthodox believers needed to declare themselves on this issue. Rejecting the entire OT, Marcion settled for Luke’s Gospel (eliminating chapters 1 and 2 as too Jewish) and Paul’s letters (except for the pastoral ones). Interestingly, especially in the light of Colossians 4:16, he substitutes the name “Laodiceans” for Ephesians.<\/p>\nNear the end of this period, Justin Martyr, in describing the worship services of the early church, puts the apostolic writings on a par with those of the OT prophets. He states that the voice which spoke through the apostles of Christ in the NT was the same as that which spoke through the prophets—the voice of God—and the same voice that Abraham heard, responding in faith and obedience. Justin was also free in his use of “it is written” with quotations from NT Scriptures.<\/p>\n<h5>Period Three: Second Half of Second Century<\/h5>\nIrenaeus had been privileged to begin his Christian training under Polycarp, a disciple of apostles. Then, as a presbyter in Lyons, he had association with Bishop Pothinus, whose own background also included contact with firstgeneration Christians. Irenaeus quotes from almost all the NT on the basis of its authority and asserts that the apostles were endowed with power from on high. They were, he says, “fully informed concerning all things, and had a perfect knowledge . . . having indeed all in equal measure and each one singly the Gospel of God” (Against Heresies<\/em> 3.3). Irenaeus gives reasons why there should be four Gospels. “The word,” he says, “gave us the Gospel in a fourfold shape, but held together by one Spirit.” In addition to the Gospels, he makes reference also to Acts, all the letters of Paul except Philemon, 1 Peter, 1 John, and the book of Revelation.<\/p>\nTatian, pupil of Justin Martyr, made a harmony of the four Gospels, the Diatessaron,<\/em> attesting to the equal status they had in the church by AD<\/span> 170. Other “gospels” had come into existence by then, but he recognized only the four. Also dating from about 170 was the Muratorian Canon.<\/em> An eighth-century copy of this document was discovered and published in 1740 by librarian L. A. Muratori. The manuscript is mutilated at both ends, but the remaining text makes it evident that Matthew and Mark were included in the now missing part. The fragment begins with Luke and John, cites Acts, 13 Pauline letters, 1 and 2 John, Jude, and Revelation. There follows a statement, “We accept only the Apocalypse of John and Peter, although some of us do not want it [Apocalypse of Peter is 2 Peter?] to be read in the Church.” The list goes on to reject by name various heretical leaders and their writings.<\/p>\nTranslated versions existed by this period. In the form of Syriac and Old Latin translations we secure, by AD<\/span> 170, adequate witness from the extreme eastern and western branches of the church, as we might well expect from the other evidence in hand. The NT canon is represented with no additions and the omission of only one book, 2 Peter.<\/p>\n<h5>Period Four: Third Century<\/h5>\nThe outstanding Christian name of the third century is that of Origen (AD<\/span> 185– 254). A prodigious scholar and interpreter, he made critical studies of the NT text (alongside his work on the Hexapla<\/em>) and wrote commentaries and homilies on most of the books of the NT, emphasizing their inspiration by God.<\/p>\nDionysius of Alexandria, pupil of Origen, indicates that while the Western church accepted the book of Revelation from the first, its position in the East was variable. In the case of the Letter to the Hebrews, the situation was reversed. It proved to be more insecure in the West than in the East. When it comes to other contested books (note, incidently, that all in that category have the hindmost position in our present Bibles—Hebrews to Revelation), among the so-called “Catholic Epistles” Dionysius supports James and 2 and 3 John but not 2 Peter or Jude. In other words, even at the end of the third century there was the same lack of finality about certain books as at its beginning.<\/p>\n<h5>Period Five: Fourth Century<\/h5>\nEarly in this period, the picture begins to clarify. Eusebius (AD<\/span> 270–340, bishop of Caesarea before 315), the great church historian, sets forth his estimate of the canon in his Ecclesiastical History<\/em> (3.3–25). Herein he makes a straightforward statement on the status of the canon in the early part of the fourth century: (1) Universally agreed upon as canonical were the four Gospels, Acts, letters of Paul (including Hebrews, with question about his authorship), 1 Peter, 1 John, and Revelation. (2) Admitted by a majority, including Eusebius himself, but disputed by some were James, 2 Peter (the most strongly contested), 2 and 3 John, and Jude. (3) The Acts of Paul, the Didache, and Shepherd of Hermas were classified “spurious,” and still other writings were listed as “heretical and absurd.”<\/p>\nIt is in the latter half of the fourth century, however, that the NT canon finds full and final declaration. In his Festal Letter<\/em> for Easter, 367, Bishop Athanasius of Alexandria included information designed to eliminate once and for all the use of certain apocryphal books. This letter, with its admonition, “Let no one add to these; let nothing be taken away,” gives us the earliest extant document that specifies our 27 books without qualification. At the close of the century, the Council of Carthage (AD<\/span> 397) decreed that “aside from the canonical Scriptures nothing is to be read in church under the Name of Divine Scriptures.” This, too, lists the 27 books of the NT.<\/p>\nThe sudden advance of Christianity under Emperor Constantine (Edict of Milan, 313) had a great deal to do with the reception of all the NT books in the East. When he assigned Eusebius the task of preparing “fifty copies of the Divine Scriptures,” the historian, fully aware of which were the sacred books for which many believers had been willing to lay down their very lives, in effect established the standard that gave recognition to all of the once-doubtful books. In the West, of course, Jerome and Augustine were the leaders who exercised a determinitive influence. Publication of the 27 books in the Vulgate version virtually settled the matter.<\/p>\n<h5>Principles and Factors Determining the Canon<\/h5>\nBy its very nature, Holy Scripture, whether OT or NT, is a production given of God, not the work of human creation. The key to canonicity is divine inspiration. Therefore, the method of determination is not one of selection from a number of possible candidates (there are no other candidates, in actuality) but one of reception of authentic material and its consequent recognition by an ever-widening circle as the facts of its origin become known.<\/p>\nIn a sense, the movement of Montanus, which was declared heretical by the church of his day (mid-second century), was an impetus toward the recognition of a closed canon of the written Word of God. He taught that the prophetic gift was permanently granted to the church and that he himself was a prophet. The pressure to deal with Montanism, therefore, intensified the search for a basic authority, and apostolic authorship or approval became recognized as the only sure standard for identifying God’s revelation. Even within the Scripture record, first-century prophets were subordinate and subject to apostolic authority (see, for example, 1 Cor 14:29-30; Eph 4:11).<\/p>\nWhen all things were being reexamined in the Protestant Reformation, some of the Reformers sought means of reassuring themselves and their followers about the canon of Scripture. This was in some ways an unfortunate aspect of Reformation thinking, because once God in his providence had determined for his people the fixed content of Scripture, that became a fact of history and was not a repeatable process. Nevertheless, Luther established a theological test for the books of the Bible (and questioned some of them)—“Do they teach Christ?” Equally subjective, it would seem, was Calvin’s insistence that the Spirit of God bears witness to each individual Christian in any age of church history as to what is his Word and what is not.<\/p>\nActually, even for the initial acceptance of the written Word, it is neither safe nor sound (as far as Scripture or history teaches us) to say that recognition and reception was an intuitive matter. It was rather a matter of simple obedience to the known commands of Christ and his apostles. As we saw at the outset, our Lord promised (Jn 14:26; 16:13) to communicate all things necessary through his agents. The apostles were conscious of this responsibility and agency as they wrote. Paul’s explanation in 1 Corinthians 2:13 is apropos: “In telling you about these gifts we have even used the very words given to us by the Holy Spirit, not words that we as men might choose. So we use the Holy Spirit’s words to explain the Holy Spirit’s facts” (tlb<\/span>).<\/p>\nHence, the early church, with closer ties and greater information than is available to us today, examined the testimony of the ancients. They were able to discern which were the authentic and authoritative books by their apostolic origin. Mark’s association with Peter, and Luke’s with Paul, gave them such apostolic approval, and epistles like Hebrews and Jude were also tied in with the apostolic message and ministry. Incontrovertible consistency of doctrine in all the books, including the sometime contested ones, was perhaps a subordinate test. But historically the procedure was essentially one of acceptance and approval of those books that were vouched for by knowledgeable church leaders. Full acceptance by the original recipients followed by a continued acknowledgment and use is an essential factor in the development of the canon.<\/p>\nThe church’s concept of canon, derived first of all from the reverence given the OT Scriptures, rested in the conviction that the apostles were uniquely authorized to speak in the name of the one who possessed all authority—the Lord Jesus Christ. The development from there is logical and straightforward. Those who heard Jesus in person were immediately subject to his authority. He personally authenticated his words to the believers. These same believers knew that Jesus authorized his apostles to speak in his name, both during and (more significantly) after his earthly ministry. Apostolic speaking on behalf of Christ was recognized in the church, whether in personal utterance or in written form. Both the spoken word of an apostle and the letter of an apostle constituted the word of Christ.<\/p>\nThe generation that followed that of the apostles themselves received the witness of those who knew that the apostles had the right to speak and write in the name of Christ. Consequently, the second and third generation of Christians looked back to apostolic words (writings) as the very words of Christ. This is what is really meant by canonization—recognition of the divinely authenticated Word. Hence, the believers (the church) did not establish the canon but simply bore witness to its extent by recognizing the authority of the word of Christ.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BIBLE*, Canon of the<\/span><\/h3>\nThose books in the Jewish and Christian Bible considered to be Scripture and therefore authoritative in matters of faith and doctrine. The term translates both a Greek and a Hebrew word that mean “a rule,” or “measuring rod.” It is a list to which other books are compared and by which they are measured. After the fourth century AD<\/span>, the Christian church found itself with only 66 books that constituted its Scripture; 27 of these were the NT and 39 were the OT. Just as Plato, Aristotle, and Homer form a canon of Greek literature, so the NT books became the canon of Christian literature. The criteria for selecting the books in the Jewish canon (the OT) are not known but clearly had to do with their worth in the ongoing life and religion of the worshiping nation. The criteria of the selection of NT books revolved around their “apostolicity,” according to early church writers. Like those of the OT, these books were collected and preserved by local churches in the continuing process of their worship and need for authoritative guidance for Christian living. The formation of the canon was a process, rather than an event, that took several hundred years to reach finality in all parts of the Roman Empire. Local canons were the basis for comparison, and out of them eventually emerged the general canon that exists in Christendom today, although some of the Eastern churches have a NT that is slightly smaller than that accepted in the West. Judaism, as well as Christianity as a whole, believes that the Spirit of God was operative in some providential way in the production and preservation of his Word.<\/p>\nCanon of the Old Testament<\/p>\nThe Old Testament is a name that does not appear in Jewish literature. Jews prefer to call their collection of Scriptures the TANAK—an acronym formed from the first letters of Torah<\/em> (Law), Nevi<\/em>’<\/em>im<\/em> (Prophets), and Kethubim<\/em> (Writings). In Luke 24:44 (niv<\/span>), these are called the “Law of Moses, the Prophets and the Psalms” (the first book of the Writings in the Hebrew Bible). Christians called their collection of writings the New Testament, or covenant, the latter term being a designation earlier used of the agreement God made with Abraham and the patriarchs, which was repeated by Christ to his apostles (Mt 26:28). Christians in the first century considered their new covenant from Christ (1 Cor 11:25) to be a continuation of the one made earlier with the patriarchs (Eph 2:12), spoken of by the prophets (Jer 31:31-34), and which was therefore called a former covenant (Heb 8:7-13; 9:1, 15-22) or in later centuries the OT. The terms “Old” and “New” do not appear in the apostolic fathers of the first and second century or in the apologists of the early- to mid-second century, but they do appear in the latter half of the second century in Justin Martyr (Dialogues<\/em> 11:2), Irenaeus (Against Heresies<\/em> 4.9.1), and Clement of Alexandria (Stromata<\/em> 1:5). In these authors the expression referred more to the covenant itself than to the books containing it, though the transfer was eventually made. The term “canon” was not used in the OT or NT to refer to the Jewish Scriptures. The idea of limitation inherent in the word was not appropriate to the nature of religious authority in Jewish religion during the thousand years when the OT books were being written. Only the Torah was conceived as incapable of being added to or taken from (Dt 4:2). Jewish religion existed for a millennium, from Moses to Malachi, without a closed canon, i.e., an exclusive list of authoritative books. Never in their history did the people of the OT have the entire 39 books of the OT. When their canon was closed is not known. Although some questions were being asked about religious authority by rabbis at Jamnia 20 years after the fall of Jerusalem in AD<\/span> 70, we have our first list of 39 books produced by Melito of Sardis around AD<\/span> 170. That list included no books written after the time of Malachi, unless one is disposed to date Daniel to the second century. The Prophets and the Writings were always considered secondary to the Law. Their composition and collection was a process rather than an event in the life of the people of Israel and functioned largely as a record of the nation’s response to the Law, which was so sacred that it was kept (according to rabbinical tradition: Babylonian Talmud, Baba Bathra<\/em> 14a; cf. also Cairo Damascus Document<\/em> 5.2) in the ark of the covenant that stood in the Holy of Holies in the tabernacle. In Deuteronomy 31:26, however, the Levites were commanded by Moses merely to put the Book of the Law beside the ark. Nevertheless, its very presence in the Holy of Holies establishes its uniqueness in relation to other OT books.<\/p>\n\nThe 39 books of the modern OT were originally divided into only 24, according to the uniform testimony of early Hebrew tradition. The Talmud, rabbinic literature, and probably 4 Esdras testify to this arrangement that included five books of the Law, eight Prophets, and eleven Writings (Greek—Hagiographa). Modern Hebrew Bibles reflect this tripartite arrangement that was used in the first three printed editions (Soncino, 1488; Naples, 1491–1493; Brescia, 1492–1494). The Law contained the Pentateuch in our familiar order, Genesis to Deuteronomy. The eight Prophets were Joshua, Judges, Samuel (1 and 2), Kings (1 and 2), Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the Minor Prophets (all 12), which were considered as one book and arranged in the same order as our English Bibles. The eleven books of Writings contained three of poetry (Ps, Prv, Jb), the Five Scrolls (Sg, Ru, Lam, Eccl, Est), which were read at the important feasts and arranged in the chronological order of their observance, and three of narrative or historical (Dn, Ezr-Neh, 1 and 2 Chr).<\/p>\nApart from authentic Jewish tradition, efforts were made to divide the books into 21, combining Ruth with Judges, and Lamentations with Jeremiah. Josephus was the first to do so, in the first century AD<\/span>, but he was influenced by the Greek OT, the Septuagint. Origen observed in the early third century that this arrangement also corresponded to the number of letters in the Hebrew alphabet, as did Athanasius in the fourth, and others, including Jerome. It was dubiously concluded that the number of books in the Hebrew Bible had been divinely ordained to agree with the number of letters of the Hebrew alphabet! Church fathers added their support to this coincidence, which became providence to them. All such efforts, however, are of Greek origin and have no support in Hebrew tradition.<\/p>\nThe oldest extant manuscripts of the complete OT in Hebrew are the Masoretic Texts, which are no earlier than the eighth century AD<\/span>. Only manuscripts of individual books have been found in the Dead Sea Scrolls. The Masoretic scribes apparently laid down no rules about arrangement of books because there is no uniform order of the Latter Prophets or the Writings in early Hebrew manuscripts. Nor is the situation any different in ancient Greek translations of the Hebrew. Great diversity exists in the order of books in all three of our oldest manuscripts—Codex Alexandrinus, Vaticanus, and Sinaiticus. All the early Christian authors who profess to give the order and contents of the Hebrew Bible but who do not reflect the Hebrew tripartite division are clearly dependent on the Alexandrian order reflected in these Greek editions, rather than on the Hebrew Bible. Modern Protestant Bibles follow the order of the Latin Vulgate and the content of the Hebrew. Both the Vulgate and the Septuagint (Greek translation) contained the Apocrypha, which was never accepted by the Jews. The Roman Catholic Church includes the Apocrypha in its English translations because of the influence of the Vulgate on Catholic tradition. It is considered deuterocanonical.<\/p>\nEven though no uniformity of order was maintained, the Alexandrian order, reflected in the Greek manuscripts, generally arranged books according to their subject matter—narrative, history, poetry, and prophecy, with the apocryphal books appropriately interspersed into these categories. The Hebrew division was totally ignored.<\/p>\nEarly Hebrew Bibles divided the text into small paragraphs and larger sections somewhat akin to our paragraphs. These were indicated by spaces left between them—three letters between the small sections and nine letters between the larger ones. The number of sections is not the same in all manuscripts. Jesus probably referred to such sections in his comment concerning the “passage about the bush” (Mk 12:26). Later, liturgical needs led to further divisions of the text for the complete reading of the Law in Babylonian synagogues in one year (54 sections) and in Palestinian synagogues in three years (154 sections). These are reflected in the lectionary cycles marked in some early Hebrew Bibles.<\/p>\nThe division of the text into modern chapters, done in the 13th century (c. 1228) for the Latin Vulgate by Stephen Langton, was applied to the Hebrew Bible in 1518 (Bomberg Edition), but the numbers were not given to the chapters until 1571 in the text of Montanus, a Hebrew Bible with Latin interlinear translation. The verses were introduced in Bomberg’s Great Bible of 1547–48 in which every fifth verse was designated by a Hebrew numeral 1, 5, 10, and so on. Verses were inserted into the Latin Vulgate in 1555 in the small octavo edition of Stephanus.<\/p>\nCanon of the New Testament<\/p>\nThe NT was written within the period of half a century, several hundred years after the completion of the OT. Both halves of that statement would be questioned by modern critics, who would extend the time span for completion of both Testaments. The writer of this survey is confident of its truthfulness to historic fact, however, and the approach taken to canonization of both OT and NT is based solidly upon that twofold premise.<\/p>\nIn a sense, we possess far higher certification of the OT canon than of the NT canon. We refer to the fact of our Lord’s own imprimatur by way of his use of the Hebrew Scriptures as the authoritative Word of God. Yet there is a sense in which Jesus Christ did establish the NT content or canon as well, by way of anticipation. It was he who promised, “The Counselor, the Holy Spirit, whom the Father will send in my name, will teach you all things and will remind you of everything I have said to you” and “he will guide you into all truth” (Jn 14:26; 16:13, niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n\nFrom this we can derive, in turn, the basic principle of canonicity for the NT. It is identical to that of the OT, since it narrows down to a matter of divine inspiration. Whether we think of the prophets of OT times or the apostles and their God-given associates of the New, the recognition at the very time of their writing that they were authentic spokesmen for God is what determines the intrinsic canonicity of their writing. It is altogether God’s Word only if it is God-breathed. We can be assured that the books under question were received by the church of the apostolic age precisely when they had been certified by an apostle as being thus inspired. The apparent variation, relative to geographic area, in acknowledgment of some of the NT epistles may well reflect the simple fact that this attestation was by its very nature localized at first. Conversely, that all 27 books of the now universally received NT were ultimately agreed upon is evidence that proper attestation was indeed confirmed after rigorous investigation.<\/p>\nTertullian, an outstanding Christian writer in the first two decades of the third century, was one of the first to call the Christian Scriptures the “New Testament.” That title had appeared earlier (c. 190) in a composition against Montanism, the author of which is unknown. This is significant. Its use placed the NT Scripture on a level of inspiration and authority with the OT.<\/p>\nFrom available information, the gradual process that led to full and formal public recognition of a fixed canon of the 27 books comprising the NT takes us down into the fourth century of our era. This does not necessarily mean that these Scriptures were lacking recognition in their entirety before that time, but that a need for officially defining the canon was not pressing until then.<\/p>\nThough a much shorter period of time was involved in the writing of the NT than the OT, the geographic range of its origin is far wider. This circumstance alone is sufficient to account for a lack of spontaneous or simultaneous recognition of the precise extent of the NT canon. Because of the geographic isolation of the various recipients of portions of the NT, there was bound to be some lag and uncertainty from one region to another in the acknowledgment of some of the books.<\/p>\nIn order to appreciate just what did transpire in the process of canonization of the NT books, we must review the facts available to us. This will enable us to analyze how<\/em> and why<\/em> our early Christian forebears settled upon the 27 books in our NT.<\/p>\nThe historic process was a gradual and continuous one, but it will help us understand it if we subdivide the nearly three and a half centuries involved into shorter periods of time. Some speak of three major stages toward canonization. This implies, without justification, that there are readily discernible steps along the way. Others simply present a long list of the names of persons and documents involved. Such a list makes it difficult to sense any motion at all. A somewhat arbitrary breakdown into five periods will be made here, with the reminder that the spreading of the knowledge of sacred literature and the deepening consensus as to its authenticity as inspired Scripture continued uninterruptedly. The periods are:<\/p>\n1. First Century<\/p>\n<li>2. First Half of Second Century<\/li>\n<li>3. Second Half of Second Century<\/li>\n<li>4. Third Century<\/li>\n<li>5. Fourth Century<\/li>\nAgain, without meaning to imply that these are clear-cut stages, it will be helpful to notice the major trends observable in each of the periods just identified. In the first period, of course, the various books were written, but they also began to be copied and disseminated among the churches. In the second, as they became more widely known and cherished for their contents, they began to be cited as authoritative. By the end of the third period, they held a recognized place alongside the OT as “Scripture,” and they began to be both translated into regional languages and made the subject of commentaries. During the third century AD<\/span>, our fourth period, the collecting of books into a whole “New Testament” was underway, together with a sifting process that was separating them from other Christian literature. The final, or fifth, period finds the church fathers of the fourth century stating that conclusions regarding the canon have been reached that indicate acceptance by the whole church. Thus, in the most strict and formal sense of the word, the canon had become fixed. It remains to list in greater detail the forces and individuals that produced the written sources witnessing to this remarkable process through which, by God’s providence, we have inherited our NT.<\/p>\n<h5>Period One: First Century<\/h5>\nThe principle determining recognition of the authority of the canonical NT writings was established within the content of those writings themselves. There are repeated exhortations for public reading of the apostolic communications. At the close of his First Letter to the Thessalonians, possibly the first book of the NT to be written, Paul says, “I command you in the name of the Lord to read this letter to all the brothers and sisters” (1 Thes 5:27, nlt<\/span>). Earlier in the same letter Paul commends their ready acceptance of his spoken word as “the word of God” (2:13), and in 1 Corinthians 14:37 he speaks similarly of his “writings,” insisting that his message be recognized as a commandment from the Lord himself. (See also Col 4:16; Rv 1:3.) In 2 Peter 3:15-16 Paul’s letters are included with “the other Scriptures.” Since Peter’s is a general letter, widespread knowledge of Paul’s letters is thereby implied. Highly indicative also is Paul’s usage in 1 Timothy 5:18. He follows up the formula “the Scriptures say” by a combined quotation about not muzzling an ox (Dt 25:4) and “the worker deserves his wages” (cf. Lk 10:7). Thus, an equivalence is implied between OT Scripture and a NT Gospel.<\/p>\nIn AD<\/span> 95, Clement of Rome wrote to the Christians in Corinth using a free rendering of material from Matthew and Luke. He seems to be strongly influenced by Hebrews and is obviously familiar with Romans and Corinthians. There are also reflections of Ephesians, 1 Timothy, Titus, and 1 Peter.<\/p>\n<h5>Period Two: First Half of Second Century<\/h5>\nOne of the earliest NT manuscripts yet discovered, a fragment of John from Egypt known as the John Rylands papyrus, demonstrates how the writings of the apostle John were revered and copied by about AD<\/span> 125, within 30 to 35 years of his death. There is evidence that within 30 years of the apostle’s death all the Gospels and Pauline letters were known and used in all those centers from which any evidence has come down to us. It is true that some of the smaller letters were being questioned as to their authority in some quarters for perhaps another 50 years, but this was due only to uncertainty about their authorship in those particular locales. This demonstrates that acceptance was not being imposed by the actions of councils but was rather happening spontaneously through a normal response on the part of those who had learned the facts about authorship. In those places where the churches were uncertain about the authorship or apostolic approval of certain books, acceptance was slower.<\/p>\nThe first three outstanding church fathers, Clement, Polycarp, and Ignatius, used the bulk of the material of the NT in a revealingly casual manner—authenticated Scriptures were being accepted as authoritative without argument. In the writings of these men only Mark (which closely parallels the material of Matthew), 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, and Jude are not clearly attested.<\/p>\nThe Epistles of Ignatius (c. AD<\/span> 115) have correspondences in several places with the Gospels and seem to incorporate language from a number of the Pauline letters. The Didache (or Teaching of the Twelve), perhaps even earlier, makes references to a written Gospel. Most important is the fact that Clement, Barnabas, and Ignatius all draw a clear distinction between their own and the inspired, authoritative apostolic writings.<\/p>\nIt is in the Epistle of Barnabas (c. AD<\/span> 130) that we first find the formula “it is written” (4:14) used in reference to a NT book (Mt 22:14). But even before this, Polycarp, who had personal acquaintance with eyewitnesses of our Lord’s ministry, used a combined OT and NT quotation. Citing Paul’s admonition in Ephesians 4:26, where the apostle quotes Psalm 4:4 and makes an addition, Polycarp in his Epistle to the Philippians introduces the reference by “as it is said in these Scriptures” (12:4). Then Papias, bishop of Hierapolis (c. 130–140), in a work preserved for us by Eusebius, mentions by name the Gospels of Matthew and Mark, and his use of them as the basis of exposition indicates his acceptance of them as canonical. Also around AD<\/span> 140, the recently discovered Gospel of Truth (a Gnostic-oriented work probably authored by Valentinius) makes an important contribution. Its use of canonical NT sources, treating them as authoritative, is comprehensive enough to warrant the conclusion that in Rome at this period there was a NT compilation in existence corresponding very closely to our own. Citations are made from the Gospels, Acts, letters of Paul, Hebrews, and the book of Revelation.<\/p>\nThe heretic Marcion, by defining a limited canon of his own (c. 140), in effect hastened the day when the orthodox believers needed to declare themselves on this issue. Rejecting the entire OT, Marcion settled for Luke’s Gospel (eliminating chapters 1 and 2 as too Jewish) and Paul’s letters (except for the pastoral ones). Interestingly, especially in the light of Colossians 4:16, he substitutes the name “Laodiceans” for Ephesians.<\/p>\nNear the end of this period, Justin Martyr, in describing the worship services of the early church, puts the apostolic writings on a par with those of the OT prophets. He states that the voice which spoke through the apostles of Christ in the NT was the same as that which spoke through the prophets—the voice of God—and the same voice that Abraham heard, responding in faith and obedience. Justin was also free in his use of “it is written” with quotations from NT Scriptures.<\/p>\n<h5>Period Three: Second Half of Second Century<\/h5>\nIrenaeus had been privileged to begin his Christian training under Polycarp, a disciple of apostles. Then, as a presbyter in Lyons, he had association with Bishop Pothinus, whose own background also included contact with firstgeneration Christians. Irenaeus quotes from almost all the NT on the basis of its authority and asserts that the apostles were endowed with power from on high. They were, he says, “fully informed concerning all things, and had a perfect knowledge . . . having indeed all in equal measure and each one singly the Gospel of God” (Against Heresies<\/em> 3.3). Irenaeus gives reasons why there should be four Gospels. “The word,” he says, “gave us the Gospel in a fourfold shape, but held together by one Spirit.” In addition to the Gospels, he makes reference also to Acts, all the letters of Paul except Philemon, 1 Peter, 1 John, and the book of Revelation.<\/p>\nTatian, pupil of Justin Martyr, made a harmony of the four Gospels, the Diatessaron,<\/em> attesting to the equal status they had in the church by AD<\/span> 170. Other “gospels” had come into existence by then, but he recognized only the four. Also dating from about 170 was the Muratorian Canon.<\/em> An eighth-century copy of this document was discovered and published in 1740 by librarian L. A. Muratori. The manuscript is mutilated at both ends, but the remaining text makes it evident that Matthew and Mark were included in the now missing part. The fragment begins with Luke and John, cites Acts, 13 Pauline letters, 1 and 2 John, Jude, and Revelation. There follows a statement, “We accept only the Apocalypse of John and Peter, although some of us do not want it [Apocalypse of Peter is 2 Peter?] to be read in the Church.” The list goes on to reject by name various heretical leaders and their writings.<\/p>\nTranslated versions existed by this period. In the form of Syriac and Old Latin translations we secure, by AD<\/span> 170, adequate witness from the extreme eastern and western branches of the church, as we might well expect from the other evidence in hand. The NT canon is represented with no additions and the omission of only one book, 2 Peter.<\/p>\n<h5>Period Four: Third Century<\/h5>\nThe outstanding Christian name of the third century is that of Origen (AD<\/span> 185– 254). A prodigious scholar and interpreter, he made critical studies of the NT text (alongside his work on the Hexapla<\/em>) and wrote commentaries and homilies on most of the books of the NT, emphasizing their inspiration by God.<\/p>\nDionysius of Alexandria, pupil of Origen, indicates that while the Western church accepted the book of Revelation from the first, its position in the East was variable. In the case of the Letter to the Hebrews, the situation was reversed. It proved to be more insecure in the West than in the East. When it comes to other contested books (note, incidently, that all in that category have the hindmost position in our present Bibles—Hebrews to Revelation), among the so-called “Catholic Epistles” Dionysius supports James and 2 and 3 John but not 2 Peter or Jude. In other words, even at the end of the third century there was the same lack of finality about certain books as at its beginning.<\/p>\n<h5>Period Five: Fourth Century<\/h5>\nEarly in this period, the picture begins to clarify. Eusebius (AD<\/span> 270–340, bishop of Caesarea before 315), the great church historian, sets forth his estimate of the canon in his Ecclesiastical History<\/em> (3.3–25). Herein he makes a straightforward statement on the status of the canon in the early part of the fourth century: (1) Universally agreed upon as canonical were the four Gospels, Acts, letters of Paul (including Hebrews, with question about his authorship), 1 Peter, 1 John, and Revelation. (2) Admitted by a majority, including Eusebius himself, but disputed by some were James, 2 Peter (the most strongly contested), 2 and 3 John, and Jude. (3) The Acts of Paul, the Didache, and Shepherd of Hermas were classified “spurious,” and still other writings were listed as “heretical and absurd.”<\/p>\nIt is in the latter half of the fourth century, however, that the NT canon finds full and final declaration. In his Festal Letter<\/em> for Easter, 367, Bishop Athanasius of Alexandria included information designed to eliminate once and for all the use of certain apocryphal books. This letter, with its admonition, “Let no one add to these; let nothing be taken away,” gives us the earliest extant document that specifies our 27 books without qualification. At the close of the century, the Council of Carthage (AD<\/span> 397) decreed that “aside from the canonical Scriptures nothing is to be read in church under the Name of Divine Scriptures.” This, too, lists the 27 books of the NT.<\/p>\nThe sudden advance of Christianity under Emperor Constantine (Edict of Milan, 313) had a great deal to do with the reception of all the NT books in the East. When he assigned Eusebius the task of preparing “fifty copies of the Divine Scriptures,” the historian, fully aware of which were the sacred books for which many believers had been willing to lay down their very lives, in effect established the standard that gave recognition to all of the once-doubtful books. In the West, of course, Jerome and Augustine were the leaders who exercised a determinitive influence. Publication of the 27 books in the Vulgate version virtually settled the matter.<\/p>\n<h5>Principles and Factors Determining the Canon<\/h5>\nBy its very nature, Holy Scripture, whether OT or NT, is a production given of God, not the work of human creation. The key to canonicity is divine inspiration. Therefore, the method of determination is not one of selection from a number of possible candidates (there are no other candidates, in actuality) but one of reception of authentic material and its consequent recognition by an ever-widening circle as the facts of its origin become known.<\/p>\nIn a sense, the movement of Montanus, which was declared heretical by the church of his day (mid-second century), was an impetus toward the recognition of a closed canon of the written Word of God. He taught that the prophetic gift was permanently granted to the church and that he himself was a prophet. The pressure to deal with Montanism, therefore, intensified the search for a basic authority, and apostolic authorship or approval became recognized as the only sure standard for identifying God’s revelation. Even within the Scripture record, first-century prophets were subordinate and subject to apostolic authority (see, for example, 1 Cor 14:29-30; Eph 4:11).<\/p>\nWhen all things were being reexamined in the Protestant Reformation, some of the Reformers sought means of reassuring themselves and their followers about the canon of Scripture. This was in some ways an unfortunate aspect of Reformation thinking, because once God in his providence had determined for his people the fixed content of Scripture, that became a fact of history and was not a repeatable process. Nevertheless, Luther established a theological test for the books of the Bible (and questioned some of them)—“Do they teach Christ?” Equally subjective, it would seem, was Calvin’s insistence that the Spirit of God bears witness to each individual Christian in any age of church history as to what is his Word and what is not.<\/p>\nActually, even for the initial acceptance of the written Word, it is neither safe nor sound (as far as Scripture or history teaches us) to say that recognition and reception was an intuitive matter. It was rather a matter of simple obedience to the known commands of Christ and his apostles. As we saw at the outset, our Lord promised (Jn 14:26; 16:13) to communicate all things necessary through his agents. The apostles were conscious of this responsibility and agency as they wrote. Paul’s explanation in 1 Corinthians 2:13 is apropos: “In telling you about these gifts we have even used the very words given to us by the Holy Spirit, not words that we as men might choose. So we use the Holy Spirit’s words to explain the Holy Spirit’s facts” (tlb<\/span>).<\/p>\nHence, the early church, with closer ties and greater information than is available to us today, examined the testimony of the ancients. They were able to discern which were the authentic and authoritative books by their apostolic origin. Mark’s association with Peter, and Luke’s with Paul, gave them such apostolic approval, and epistles like Hebrews and Jude were also tied in with the apostolic message and ministry. Incontrovertible consistency of doctrine in all the books, including the sometime contested ones, was perhaps a subordinate test. But historically the procedure was essentially one of acceptance and approval of those books that were vouched for by knowledgeable church leaders. Full acceptance by the original recipients followed by a continued acknowledgment and use is an essential factor in the development of the canon.<\/p>\nThe church’s concept of canon, derived first of all from the reverence given the OT Scriptures, rested in the conviction that the apostles were uniquely authorized to speak in the name of the one who possessed all authority—the Lord Jesus Christ. The development from there is logical and straightforward. Those who heard Jesus in person were immediately subject to his authority. He personally authenticated his words to the believers. These same believers knew that Jesus authorized his apostles to speak in his name, both during and (more significantly) after his earthly ministry. Apostolic speaking on behalf of Christ was recognized in the church, whether in personal utterance or in written form. Both the spoken word of an apostle and the letter of an apostle constituted the word of Christ.<\/p>\nThe generation that followed that of the apostles themselves received the witness of those who knew that the apostles had the right to speak and write in the name of Christ. Consequently, the second and third generation of Christians looked back to apostolic words (writings) as the very words of Christ. This is what is really meant by canonization—recognition of the divinely authenticated Word. Hence, the believers (the church) did not establish the canon but simply bore witness to its extent by recognizing the authority of the word of Christ.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BIBLE*, Canon of the Those books in the Jewish and Christian Bible considered to be Scripture and therefore authoritative in matters of faith and doctrine. The term translates both a Greek and a Hebrew word that mean “a rule,” or “measuring rod.” It is a list to which other books are compared and by which they are measured. After the fourth century AD, the Christian church found itself with only 66 books that constituted its Scripture; 27 of these were the NT and 39 were the OT. Just as Plato...","summary_en":"BIBLE*, Canon of the Those books in the Jewish and Christian Bible considered to be Scripture and therefore authoritative in matters of faith and doctrine. The term translates both a Greek and a Hebrew word that mean “a rule,” or “measuring rod.” It is a list to which other books are compared and by which they are measured. After the fourth century AD, the Christian church found itself with only 66 books that constituted its Scripture; 27 of these were the NT and 39 were the OT. Just as Plato...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57689,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:29","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:29","content_ro":"14:29-32<\/strong> Public prophesying<\/em> is to be expressed in an orderly way, sensitive to the guidance of the Spirit, so that everyone may benefit from it. The others<\/em> are then to evaluate what is said<\/em> to assess whether it is indeed a word from God (1 Thes 5:19-21). Those with a word of prophecy are to take turns<\/em>—prophecy is a divinely given word, but it is still subject to the control<\/em> of the speaker.<\/p>","content_en":"14:29-32<\/strong> Public prophesying<\/em> is to be expressed in an orderly way, sensitive to the guidance of the Spirit, so that everyone may benefit from it. The others<\/em> are then to evaluate what is said<\/em> to assess whether it is indeed a word from God (1 Thes 5:19-21). Those with a word of prophecy are to take turns<\/em>—prophecy is a divinely given word, but it is still subject to the control<\/em> of the speaker.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:29-32 Public prophesying is to be expressed in an orderly way, sensitive to the guidance of the Spirit, so that everyone may benefit from it. The others are then to evaluate what is said to assess whether it is indeed a word from God (1 Thes 5:19-21). Those with a word of prophecy are to take turns—prophecy is a divinely given word, but it is still subject to the control of the speaker.","summary_en":"14:29-32 Public prophesying is to be expressed in an orderly way, sensitive to the guidance of the Spirit, so that everyone may benefit from it. The others are then to evaluate what is said to assess whether it is indeed a word from God (1 Thes 5:19-21). Those with a word of prophecy are to take turns—prophecy is a divinely given word, but it is still subject to the control of the speaker.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85315,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:29","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:29","content_ro":"14:29-32<\/strong> Public prophesying<\/em> is to be expressed in an orderly way, sensitive to the guidance of the Spirit, so that everyone may benefit from it. The others<\/em> are then to evaluate what is said<\/em> to assess whether it is indeed a word from God (1 Thes 5:19-21). Those with a word of prophecy are to take turns<\/em>—prophecy is a divinely given word, but it is still subject to the control<\/em> of the speaker.<\/p>","content_en":"14:29-32<\/strong> Public prophesying<\/em> is to be expressed in an orderly way, sensitive to the guidance of the Spirit, so that everyone may benefit from it. The others<\/em> are then to evaluate what is said<\/em> to assess whether it is indeed a word from God (1 Thes 5:19-21). Those with a word of prophecy are to take turns<\/em>—prophecy is a divinely given word, but it is still subject to the control<\/em> of the speaker.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:29-32 Public prophesying is to be expressed in an orderly way, sensitive to the guidance of the Spirit, so that everyone may benefit from it. The others are then to evaluate what is said to assess whether it is indeed a word from God (1 Thes 5:19-21). Those with a word of prophecy are to take turns—prophecy is a divinely given word, but it is still subject to the control of the speaker.","summary_en":"14:29-32 Public prophesying is to be expressed in an orderly way, sensitive to the guidance of the Spirit, so that everyone may benefit from it. The others are then to evaluate what is said to assess whether it is indeed a word from God (1 Thes 5:19-21). Those with a word of prophecy are to take turns—prophecy is a divinely given word, but it is still subject to the control of the speaker.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112941,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:29","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:29","content_ro":"14:29-32<\/strong> Public prophesying<\/em> is to be expressed in an orderly way, sensitive to the guidance of the Spirit, so that everyone may benefit from it. The others<\/em> are then to evaluate what is said<\/em> to assess whether it is indeed a word from God (1 Thes 5:19-21). Those with a word of prophecy are to take turns<\/em>—prophecy is a divinely given word, but it is still subject to the control<\/em> of the speaker.<\/p>","content_en":"14:29-32<\/strong> Public prophesying<\/em> is to be expressed in an orderly way, sensitive to the guidance of the Spirit, so that everyone may benefit from it. The others<\/em> are then to evaluate what is said<\/em> to assess whether it is indeed a word from God (1 Thes 5:19-21). Those with a word of prophecy are to take turns<\/em>—prophecy is a divinely given word, but it is still subject to the control<\/em> of the speaker.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:29-32 Public prophesying is to be expressed in an orderly way, sensitive to the guidance of the Spirit, so that everyone may benefit from it. The others are then to evaluate what is said to assess whether it is indeed a word from God (1 Thes 5:19-21). Those with a word of prophecy are to take turns—prophecy is a divinely given word, but it is still subject to the control of the speaker.","summary_en":"14:29-32 Public prophesying is to be expressed in an orderly way, sensitive to the guidance of the Spirit, so that everyone may benefit from it. The others are then to evaluate what is said to assess whether it is indeed a word from God (1 Thes 5:19-21). Those with a word of prophecy are to take turns—prophecy is a divinely given word, but it is still subject to the control of the speaker.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140567,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:29","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:29","content_ro":"14:29-32<\/strong> Public prophesying<\/em> is to be expressed in an orderly way, sensitive to the guidance of the Spirit, so that everyone may benefit from it. The others<\/em> are then to evaluate what is said<\/em> to assess whether it is indeed a word from God (1 Thes 5:19-21). Those with a word of prophecy are to take turns<\/em>—prophecy is a divinely given word, but it is still subject to the control<\/em> of the speaker.<\/p>","content_en":"14:29-32<\/strong> Public prophesying<\/em> is to be expressed in an orderly way, sensitive to the guidance of the Spirit, so that everyone may benefit from it. The others<\/em> are then to evaluate what is said<\/em> to assess whether it is indeed a word from God (1 Thes 5:19-21). Those with a word of prophecy are to take turns<\/em>—prophecy is a divinely given word, but it is still subject to the control<\/em> of the speaker.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:29-32 Public prophesying is to be expressed in an orderly way, sensitive to the guidance of the Spirit, so that everyone may benefit from it. The others are then to evaluate what is said to assess whether it is indeed a word from God (1 Thes 5:19-21). Those with a word of prophecy are to take turns—prophecy is a divinely given word, but it is still subject to the control of the speaker.","summary_en":"14:29-32 Public prophesying is to be expressed in an orderly way, sensitive to the guidance of the Spirit, so that everyone may benefit from it. The others are then to evaluate what is said to assess whether it is indeed a word from God (1 Thes 5:19-21). Those with a word of prophecy are to take turns—prophecy is a divinely given word, but it is still subject to the control of the speaker.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":66607,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Gift of Prophecy","title_en":"The Gift of Prophecy","content_ro":"<h3>The Gift of Prophecy<\/h3>\nAs Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp<\/em> 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek 4:1–5:17) and predicting events to come (Acts 11:28; 21:10-11).<\/p>\nPhilip the Evangelist was the father of four young women who “had the gift of prophecy” (21:9). The apostle Paul also acknowledged the prophetic gift of some Christian women (1 Cor 11:5). In the Old Testament, most prophets were men, but several women are also described as prophets, for example, Miriam (Exod 15:20), Deborah (Judg 4:4), and Huldah (2 Kgs 22:14-20; 2 Chr 34:22-28). In the New Testament, the gift of prophecy is given to both men and women, and both young and old, as Peter signaled in his sermon at Pentecost (Acts 2:17-18).<\/p>\nAlthough prophecy sometimes involves foretelling the future (20:22-23; 21:10-11; see Rom 9:24-33; 1 Thes 4:13-17; 2 Thes 2:3-4), at its core prophecy is proclaiming God’s word by preaching, exhorting, and explaining the will of God (Acts 15:32; 19:6; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 14:3-4, 29-33; Rev 19:10). The gift of prophecy is clearly mentioned in 1 Corinthians and Ephesians as one of the gifts of the Holy Spirit and of Christ to the church (1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-13). It is to be used for the benefit of believers (1 Cor 14:22).<\/p>\nProphecy is always in need of testing (1 Thes 5:19-21), and the church is strongly warned against false prophets (1 Jn 4:1; see also Rev 2:20-23). When used faithfully and in submission to God’s word and his Spirit, courageous proclamation of God’s truth helps the church to determine what God’s will is and inspires God’s people to do it.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 15:20; Deut 13:1-5; Judg 4:4; 1 Kgs 11:29-32; 2 Kgs 22:14-20; Isa 20:2-6; 44:25; Jer 13:1-11; 23:25-32; Ezek 4:1-17; 13:2-9; Joel 2:28-32; Matt 7:15; 24:24; Acts 2:17-21; 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 19:6; 20:23; Acts 21:9-11; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 11:5; 12:4-11; 14:1-40; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Thes 5:19-21; 2 Pet 2:1; 1 Jn 4:1-3; Rev 2:20-23; 19:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Gift of Prophecy<\/h3>\nAs Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp<\/em> 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek 4:1–5:17) and predicting events to come (Acts 11:28; 21:10-11).<\/p>\nPhilip the Evangelist was the father of four young women who “had the gift of prophecy” (21:9). The apostle Paul also acknowledged the prophetic gift of some Christian women (1 Cor 11:5). In the Old Testament, most prophets were men, but several women are also described as prophets, for example, Miriam (Exod 15:20), Deborah (Judg 4:4), and Huldah (2 Kgs 22:14-20; 2 Chr 34:22-28). In the New Testament, the gift of prophecy is given to both men and women, and both young and old, as Peter signaled in his sermon at Pentecost (Acts 2:17-18).<\/p>\nAlthough prophecy sometimes involves foretelling the future (20:22-23; 21:10-11; see Rom 9:24-33; 1 Thes 4:13-17; 2 Thes 2:3-4), at its core prophecy is proclaiming God’s word by preaching, exhorting, and explaining the will of God (Acts 15:32; 19:6; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 14:3-4, 29-33; Rev 19:10). The gift of prophecy is clearly mentioned in 1 Corinthians and Ephesians as one of the gifts of the Holy Spirit and of Christ to the church (1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-13). It is to be used for the benefit of believers (1 Cor 14:22).<\/p>\nProphecy is always in need of testing (1 Thes 5:19-21), and the church is strongly warned against false prophets (1 Jn 4:1; see also Rev 2:20-23). When used faithfully and in submission to God’s word and his Spirit, courageous proclamation of God’s truth helps the church to determine what God’s will is and inspires God’s people to do it.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 15:20; Deut 13:1-5; Judg 4:4; 1 Kgs 11:29-32; 2 Kgs 22:14-20; Isa 20:2-6; 44:25; Jer 13:1-11; 23:25-32; Ezek 4:1-17; 13:2-9; Joel 2:28-32; Matt 7:15; 24:24; Acts 2:17-21; 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 19:6; 20:23; Acts 21:9-11; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 11:5; 12:4-11; 14:1-40; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Thes 5:19-21; 2 Pet 2:1; 1 Jn 4:1-3; Rev 2:20-23; 19:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Gift of Prophecy As Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek ...","summary_en":"The Gift of Prophecy As Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":67063,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Church as a Dynamic Body","title_en":"The Church as a Dynamic Body","content_ro":"<h3>The Church as a Dynamic Body<\/h3>\nPaul viewed the church as the living body of Christ comprised of believers. Paul made no formal distinction between professional clergy and laity, in which the ministry was done only by the clergy. The community had leaders (see, e.g., 1 Tim 3:1-13), but every believer had a ministry in building up the body (1 Cor 12:12-31). When the early believers gathered together, usually in someone’s home, everyone brought something from God to share with the others (14:26-33).<\/p>\nPaul understood God’s Spirit as gifting people for their specific ministries (12:7-11, 28; Rom 12:6-8; Eph 4:11) and leading them when they came together for worship. Guided by the Spirit, every believer was to use their spiritual gifts for the benefit of the church. Paul wanted believers to be sensitive to the empowering of the Spirit in all that they did (1 Cor 14:26-33).<\/p>\nWhen believers meet together, every individual is important and each one has an active role to play. Believers must listen for God speaking his word—and be prepared to speak it—in all their relationships. Paul also calls for the others to “evaluate” what is said (14:26, 29). Every believer is a crucial part of the body, called to be actively involved in its growth.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nRom 12:4-8; 1 Cor 12:7-31; 14:26-33; Eph 1:23; 4:11-13; Col 1:24; 2:18-19; 1 Tim 3:1-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Church as a Dynamic Body<\/h3>\nPaul viewed the church as the living body of Christ comprised of believers. Paul made no formal distinction between professional clergy and laity, in which the ministry was done only by the clergy. The community had leaders (see, e.g., 1 Tim 3:1-13), but every believer had a ministry in building up the body (1 Cor 12:12-31). When the early believers gathered together, usually in someone’s home, everyone brought something from God to share with the others (14:26-33).<\/p>\nPaul understood God’s Spirit as gifting people for their specific ministries (12:7-11, 28; Rom 12:6-8; Eph 4:11) and leading them when they came together for worship. Guided by the Spirit, every believer was to use their spiritual gifts for the benefit of the church. Paul wanted believers to be sensitive to the empowering of the Spirit in all that they did (1 Cor 14:26-33).<\/p>\nWhen believers meet together, every individual is important and each one has an active role to play. Believers must listen for God speaking his word—and be prepared to speak it—in all their relationships. Paul also calls for the others to “evaluate” what is said (14:26, 29). Every believer is a crucial part of the body, called to be actively involved in its growth.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nRom 12:4-8; 1 Cor 12:7-31; 14:26-33; Eph 1:23; 4:11-13; Col 1:24; 2:18-19; 1 Tim 3:1-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Church as a Dynamic Body Paul viewed the church as the living body of Christ comprised of believers. Paul made no formal distinction between professional clergy and laity, in which the ministry was done only by the clergy. The community had leaders (see, e.g., 1 Tim 3:1-13), but every believer had a ministry in building up the body (1 Cor 12:12-31). When the early believers gathered together, usually in someone’s home, everyone brought something from God to share with the others (14:26-33...","summary_en":"The Church as a Dynamic Body Paul viewed the church as the living body of Christ comprised of believers. Paul made no formal distinction between professional clergy and laity, in which the ministry was done only by the clergy. The community had leaders (see, e.g., 1 Tim 3:1-13), but every believer had a ministry in building up the body (1 Cor 12:12-31). When the early believers gathered together, usually in someone’s home, everyone brought something from God to share with the others (14:26-33...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":94233,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Gift of Prophecy","title_en":"The Gift of Prophecy","content_ro":"<h3>The Gift of Prophecy<\/h3>\nAs Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp<\/em> 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek 4:1–5:17) and predicting events to come (Acts 11:28; 21:10-11).<\/p>\nPhilip the Evangelist was the father of four young women who “had the gift of prophecy” (21:9). The apostle Paul also acknowledged the prophetic gift of some Christian women (1 Cor 11:5). In the Old Testament, most prophets were men, but several women are also described as prophets, for example, Miriam (Exod 15:20), Deborah (Judg 4:4), and Huldah (2 Kgs 22:14-20; 2 Chr 34:22-28). In the New Testament, the gift of prophecy is given to both men and women, and both young and old, as Peter signaled in his sermon at Pentecost (Acts 2:17-18).<\/p>\nAlthough prophecy sometimes involves foretelling the future (20:22-23; 21:10-11; see Rom 9:24-33; 1 Thes 4:13-17; 2 Thes 2:3-4), at its core prophecy is proclaiming God’s word by preaching, exhorting, and explaining the will of God (Acts 15:32; 19:6; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 14:3-4, 29-33; Rev 19:10). The gift of prophecy is clearly mentioned in 1 Corinthians and Ephesians as one of the gifts of the Holy Spirit and of Christ to the church (1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-13). It is to be used for the benefit of believers (1 Cor 14:22).<\/p>\nProphecy is always in need of testing (1 Thes 5:19-21), and the church is strongly warned against false prophets (1 Jn 4:1; see also Rev 2:20-23). When used faithfully and in submission to God’s word and his Spirit, courageous proclamation of God’s truth helps the church to determine what God’s will is and inspires God’s people to do it.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 15:20; Deut 13:1-5; Judg 4:4; 1 Kgs 11:29-32; 2 Kgs 22:14-20; Isa 20:2-6; 44:25; Jer 13:1-11; 23:25-32; Ezek 4:1-17; 13:2-9; Joel 2:28-32; Matt 7:15; 24:24; Acts 2:17-21; 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 19:6; 20:23; Acts 21:9-11; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 11:5; 12:4-11; 14:1-40; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Thes 5:19-21; 2 Pet 2:1; 1 Jn 4:1-3; Rev 2:20-23; 19:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Gift of Prophecy<\/h3>\nAs Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp<\/em> 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek 4:1–5:17) and predicting events to come (Acts 11:28; 21:10-11).<\/p>\nPhilip the Evangelist was the father of four young women who “had the gift of prophecy” (21:9). The apostle Paul also acknowledged the prophetic gift of some Christian women (1 Cor 11:5). In the Old Testament, most prophets were men, but several women are also described as prophets, for example, Miriam (Exod 15:20), Deborah (Judg 4:4), and Huldah (2 Kgs 22:14-20; 2 Chr 34:22-28). In the New Testament, the gift of prophecy is given to both men and women, and both young and old, as Peter signaled in his sermon at Pentecost (Acts 2:17-18).<\/p>\nAlthough prophecy sometimes involves foretelling the future (20:22-23; 21:10-11; see Rom 9:24-33; 1 Thes 4:13-17; 2 Thes 2:3-4), at its core prophecy is proclaiming God’s word by preaching, exhorting, and explaining the will of God (Acts 15:32; 19:6; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 14:3-4, 29-33; Rev 19:10). The gift of prophecy is clearly mentioned in 1 Corinthians and Ephesians as one of the gifts of the Holy Spirit and of Christ to the church (1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-13). It is to be used for the benefit of believers (1 Cor 14:22).<\/p>\nProphecy is always in need of testing (1 Thes 5:19-21), and the church is strongly warned against false prophets (1 Jn 4:1; see also Rev 2:20-23). When used faithfully and in submission to God’s word and his Spirit, courageous proclamation of God’s truth helps the church to determine what God’s will is and inspires God’s people to do it.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 15:20; Deut 13:1-5; Judg 4:4; 1 Kgs 11:29-32; 2 Kgs 22:14-20; Isa 20:2-6; 44:25; Jer 13:1-11; 23:25-32; Ezek 4:1-17; 13:2-9; Joel 2:28-32; Matt 7:15; 24:24; Acts 2:17-21; 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 19:6; 20:23; Acts 21:9-11; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 11:5; 12:4-11; 14:1-40; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Thes 5:19-21; 2 Pet 2:1; 1 Jn 4:1-3; Rev 2:20-23; 19:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Gift of Prophecy As Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek ...","summary_en":"The Gift of Prophecy As Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":94689,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Church as a Dynamic Body","title_en":"The Church as a Dynamic Body","content_ro":"<h3>The Church as a Dynamic Body<\/h3>\nPaul viewed the church as the living body of Christ comprised of believers. Paul made no formal distinction between professional clergy and laity, in which the ministry was done only by the clergy. The community had leaders (see, e.g., 1 Tim 3:1-13), but every believer had a ministry in building up the body (1 Cor 12:12-31). When the early believers gathered together, usually in someone’s home, everyone brought something from God to share with the others (14:26-33).<\/p>\nPaul understood God’s Spirit as gifting people for their specific ministries (12:7-11, 28; Rom 12:6-8; Eph 4:11) and leading them when they came together for worship. Guided by the Spirit, every believer was to use their spiritual gifts for the benefit of the church. Paul wanted believers to be sensitive to the empowering of the Spirit in all that they did (1 Cor 14:26-33).<\/p>\nWhen believers meet together, every individual is important and each one has an active role to play. Believers must listen for God speaking his word—and be prepared to speak it—in all their relationships. Paul also calls for the others to “evaluate” what is said (14:26, 29). Every believer is a crucial part of the body, called to be actively involved in its growth.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nRom 12:4-8; 1 Cor 12:7-31; 14:26-33; Eph 1:23; 4:11-13; Col 1:24; 2:18-19; 1 Tim 3:1-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Church as a Dynamic Body<\/h3>\nPaul viewed the church as the living body of Christ comprised of believers. Paul made no formal distinction between professional clergy and laity, in which the ministry was done only by the clergy. The community had leaders (see, e.g., 1 Tim 3:1-13), but every believer had a ministry in building up the body (1 Cor 12:12-31). When the early believers gathered together, usually in someone’s home, everyone brought something from God to share with the others (14:26-33).<\/p>\nPaul understood God’s Spirit as gifting people for their specific ministries (12:7-11, 28; Rom 12:6-8; Eph 4:11) and leading them when they came together for worship. Guided by the Spirit, every believer was to use their spiritual gifts for the benefit of the church. Paul wanted believers to be sensitive to the empowering of the Spirit in all that they did (1 Cor 14:26-33).<\/p>\nWhen believers meet together, every individual is important and each one has an active role to play. Believers must listen for God speaking his word—and be prepared to speak it—in all their relationships. Paul also calls for the others to “evaluate” what is said (14:26, 29). Every believer is a crucial part of the body, called to be actively involved in its growth.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nRom 12:4-8; 1 Cor 12:7-31; 14:26-33; Eph 1:23; 4:11-13; Col 1:24; 2:18-19; 1 Tim 3:1-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Church as a Dynamic Body Paul viewed the church as the living body of Christ comprised of believers. Paul made no formal distinction between professional clergy and laity, in which the ministry was done only by the clergy. The community had leaders (see, e.g., 1 Tim 3:1-13), but every believer had a ministry in building up the body (1 Cor 12:12-31). When the early believers gathered together, usually in someone’s home, everyone brought something from God to share with the others (14:26-33...","summary_en":"The Church as a Dynamic Body Paul viewed the church as the living body of Christ comprised of believers. Paul made no formal distinction between professional clergy and laity, in which the ministry was done only by the clergy. The community had leaders (see, e.g., 1 Tim 3:1-13), but every believer had a ministry in building up the body (1 Cor 12:12-31). When the early believers gathered together, usually in someone’s home, everyone brought something from God to share with the others (14:26-33...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":121859,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Gift of Prophecy","title_en":"The Gift of Prophecy","content_ro":"<h3>The Gift of Prophecy<\/h3>\nAs Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp<\/em> 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek 4:1–5:17) and predicting events to come (Acts 11:28; 21:10-11).<\/p>\nPhilip the Evangelist was the father of four young women who “had the gift of prophecy” (21:9). The apostle Paul also acknowledged the prophetic gift of some Christian women (1 Cor 11:5). In the Old Testament, most prophets were men, but several women are also described as prophets, for example, Miriam (Exod 15:20), Deborah (Judg 4:4), and Huldah (2 Kgs 22:14-20; 2 Chr 34:22-28). In the New Testament, the gift of prophecy is given to both men and women, and both young and old, as Peter signaled in his sermon at Pentecost (Acts 2:17-18).<\/p>\nAlthough prophecy sometimes involves foretelling the future (20:22-23; 21:10-11; see Rom 9:24-33; 1 Thes 4:13-17; 2 Thes 2:3-4), at its core prophecy is proclaiming God’s word by preaching, exhorting, and explaining the will of God (Acts 15:32; 19:6; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 14:3-4, 29-33; Rev 19:10). The gift of prophecy is clearly mentioned in 1 Corinthians and Ephesians as one of the gifts of the Holy Spirit and of Christ to the church (1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-13). It is to be used for the benefit of believers (1 Cor 14:22).<\/p>\nProphecy is always in need of testing (1 Thes 5:19-21), and the church is strongly warned against false prophets (1 Jn 4:1; see also Rev 2:20-23). When used faithfully and in submission to God’s word and his Spirit, courageous proclamation of God’s truth helps the church to determine what God’s will is and inspires God’s people to do it.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 15:20; Deut 13:1-5; Judg 4:4; 1 Kgs 11:29-32; 2 Kgs 22:14-20; Isa 20:2-6; 44:25; Jer 13:1-11; 23:25-32; Ezek 4:1-17; 13:2-9; Joel 2:28-32; Matt 7:15; 24:24; Acts 2:17-21; 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 19:6; 20:23; Acts 21:9-11; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 11:5; 12:4-11; 14:1-40; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Thes 5:19-21; 2 Pet 2:1; 1 Jn 4:1-3; Rev 2:20-23; 19:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Gift of Prophecy<\/h3>\nAs Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp<\/em> 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek 4:1–5:17) and predicting events to come (Acts 11:28; 21:10-11).<\/p>\nPhilip the Evangelist was the father of four young women who “had the gift of prophecy” (21:9). The apostle Paul also acknowledged the prophetic gift of some Christian women (1 Cor 11:5). In the Old Testament, most prophets were men, but several women are also described as prophets, for example, Miriam (Exod 15:20), Deborah (Judg 4:4), and Huldah (2 Kgs 22:14-20; 2 Chr 34:22-28). In the New Testament, the gift of prophecy is given to both men and women, and both young and old, as Peter signaled in his sermon at Pentecost (Acts 2:17-18).<\/p>\nAlthough prophecy sometimes involves foretelling the future (20:22-23; 21:10-11; see Rom 9:24-33; 1 Thes 4:13-17; 2 Thes 2:3-4), at its core prophecy is proclaiming God’s word by preaching, exhorting, and explaining the will of God (Acts 15:32; 19:6; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 14:3-4, 29-33; Rev 19:10). The gift of prophecy is clearly mentioned in 1 Corinthians and Ephesians as one of the gifts of the Holy Spirit and of Christ to the church (1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-13). It is to be used for the benefit of believers (1 Cor 14:22).<\/p>\nProphecy is always in need of testing (1 Thes 5:19-21), and the church is strongly warned against false prophets (1 Jn 4:1; see also Rev 2:20-23). When used faithfully and in submission to God’s word and his Spirit, courageous proclamation of God’s truth helps the church to determine what God’s will is and inspires God’s people to do it.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 15:20; Deut 13:1-5; Judg 4:4; 1 Kgs 11:29-32; 2 Kgs 22:14-20; Isa 20:2-6; 44:25; Jer 13:1-11; 23:25-32; Ezek 4:1-17; 13:2-9; Joel 2:28-32; Matt 7:15; 24:24; Acts 2:17-21; 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 19:6; 20:23; Acts 21:9-11; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 11:5; 12:4-11; 14:1-40; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Thes 5:19-21; 2 Pet 2:1; 1 Jn 4:1-3; Rev 2:20-23; 19:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Gift of Prophecy As Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek ...","summary_en":"The Gift of Prophecy As Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":122315,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Church as a Dynamic Body","title_en":"The Church as a Dynamic Body","content_ro":"<h3>The Church as a Dynamic Body<\/h3>\nPaul viewed the church as the living body of Christ comprised of believers. Paul made no formal distinction between professional clergy and laity, in which the ministry was done only by the clergy. The community had leaders (see, e.g., 1 Tim 3:1-13), but every believer had a ministry in building up the body (1 Cor 12:12-31). When the early believers gathered together, usually in someone’s home, everyone brought something from God to share with the others (14:26-33).<\/p>\nPaul understood God’s Spirit as gifting people for their specific ministries (12:7-11, 28; Rom 12:6-8; Eph 4:11) and leading them when they came together for worship. Guided by the Spirit, every believer was to use their spiritual gifts for the benefit of the church. Paul wanted believers to be sensitive to the empowering of the Spirit in all that they did (1 Cor 14:26-33).<\/p>\nWhen believers meet together, every individual is important and each one has an active role to play. Believers must listen for God speaking his word—and be prepared to speak it—in all their relationships. Paul also calls for the others to “evaluate” what is said (14:26, 29). Every believer is a crucial part of the body, called to be actively involved in its growth.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nRom 12:4-8; 1 Cor 12:7-31; 14:26-33; Eph 1:23; 4:11-13; Col 1:24; 2:18-19; 1 Tim 3:1-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Church as a Dynamic Body<\/h3>\nPaul viewed the church as the living body of Christ comprised of believers. Paul made no formal distinction between professional clergy and laity, in which the ministry was done only by the clergy. The community had leaders (see, e.g., 1 Tim 3:1-13), but every believer had a ministry in building up the body (1 Cor 12:12-31). When the early believers gathered together, usually in someone’s home, everyone brought something from God to share with the others (14:26-33).<\/p>\nPaul understood God’s Spirit as gifting people for their specific ministries (12:7-11, 28; Rom 12:6-8; Eph 4:11) and leading them when they came together for worship. Guided by the Spirit, every believer was to use their spiritual gifts for the benefit of the church. Paul wanted believers to be sensitive to the empowering of the Spirit in all that they did (1 Cor 14:26-33).<\/p>\nWhen believers meet together, every individual is important and each one has an active role to play. Believers must listen for God speaking his word—and be prepared to speak it—in all their relationships. Paul also calls for the others to “evaluate” what is said (14:26, 29). Every believer is a crucial part of the body, called to be actively involved in its growth.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nRom 12:4-8; 1 Cor 12:7-31; 14:26-33; Eph 1:23; 4:11-13; Col 1:24; 2:18-19; 1 Tim 3:1-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Church as a Dynamic Body Paul viewed the church as the living body of Christ comprised of believers. Paul made no formal distinction between professional clergy and laity, in which the ministry was done only by the clergy. The community had leaders (see, e.g., 1 Tim 3:1-13), but every believer had a ministry in building up the body (1 Cor 12:12-31). When the early believers gathered together, usually in someone’s home, everyone brought something from God to share with the others (14:26-33...","summary_en":"The Church as a Dynamic Body Paul viewed the church as the living body of Christ comprised of believers. Paul made no formal distinction between professional clergy and laity, in which the ministry was done only by the clergy. The community had leaders (see, e.g., 1 Tim 3:1-13), but every believer had a ministry in building up the body (1 Cor 12:12-31). When the early believers gathered together, usually in someone’s home, everyone brought something from God to share with the others (14:26-33...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":149485,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Gift of Prophecy","title_en":"The Gift of Prophecy","content_ro":"<h3>The Gift of Prophecy<\/h3>\nAs Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp<\/em> 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek 4:1–5:17) and predicting events to come (Acts 11:28; 21:10-11).<\/p>\nPhilip the Evangelist was the father of four young women who “had the gift of prophecy” (21:9). The apostle Paul also acknowledged the prophetic gift of some Christian women (1 Cor 11:5). In the Old Testament, most prophets were men, but several women are also described as prophets, for example, Miriam (Exod 15:20), Deborah (Judg 4:4), and Huldah (2 Kgs 22:14-20; 2 Chr 34:22-28). In the New Testament, the gift of prophecy is given to both men and women, and both young and old, as Peter signaled in his sermon at Pentecost (Acts 2:17-18).<\/p>\nAlthough prophecy sometimes involves foretelling the future (20:22-23; 21:10-11; see Rom 9:24-33; 1 Thes 4:13-17; 2 Thes 2:3-4), at its core prophecy is proclaiming God’s word by preaching, exhorting, and explaining the will of God (Acts 15:32; 19:6; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 14:3-4, 29-33; Rev 19:10). The gift of prophecy is clearly mentioned in 1 Corinthians and Ephesians as one of the gifts of the Holy Spirit and of Christ to the church (1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-13). It is to be used for the benefit of believers (1 Cor 14:22).<\/p>\nProphecy is always in need of testing (1 Thes 5:19-21), and the church is strongly warned against false prophets (1 Jn 4:1; see also Rev 2:20-23). When used faithfully and in submission to God’s word and his Spirit, courageous proclamation of God’s truth helps the church to determine what God’s will is and inspires God’s people to do it.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 15:20; Deut 13:1-5; Judg 4:4; 1 Kgs 11:29-32; 2 Kgs 22:14-20; Isa 20:2-6; 44:25; Jer 13:1-11; 23:25-32; Ezek 4:1-17; 13:2-9; Joel 2:28-32; Matt 7:15; 24:24; Acts 2:17-21; 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 19:6; 20:23; Acts 21:9-11; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 11:5; 12:4-11; 14:1-40; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Thes 5:19-21; 2 Pet 2:1; 1 Jn 4:1-3; Rev 2:20-23; 19:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Gift of Prophecy<\/h3>\nAs Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp<\/em> 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek 4:1–5:17) and predicting events to come (Acts 11:28; 21:10-11).<\/p>\nPhilip the Evangelist was the father of four young women who “had the gift of prophecy” (21:9). The apostle Paul also acknowledged the prophetic gift of some Christian women (1 Cor 11:5). In the Old Testament, most prophets were men, but several women are also described as prophets, for example, Miriam (Exod 15:20), Deborah (Judg 4:4), and Huldah (2 Kgs 22:14-20; 2 Chr 34:22-28). In the New Testament, the gift of prophecy is given to both men and women, and both young and old, as Peter signaled in his sermon at Pentecost (Acts 2:17-18).<\/p>\nAlthough prophecy sometimes involves foretelling the future (20:22-23; 21:10-11; see Rom 9:24-33; 1 Thes 4:13-17; 2 Thes 2:3-4), at its core prophecy is proclaiming God’s word by preaching, exhorting, and explaining the will of God (Acts 15:32; 19:6; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 14:3-4, 29-33; Rev 19:10). The gift of prophecy is clearly mentioned in 1 Corinthians and Ephesians as one of the gifts of the Holy Spirit and of Christ to the church (1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-13). It is to be used for the benefit of believers (1 Cor 14:22).<\/p>\nProphecy is always in need of testing (1 Thes 5:19-21), and the church is strongly warned against false prophets (1 Jn 4:1; see also Rev 2:20-23). When used faithfully and in submission to God’s word and his Spirit, courageous proclamation of God’s truth helps the church to determine what God’s will is and inspires God’s people to do it.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nExod 15:20; Deut 13:1-5; Judg 4:4; 1 Kgs 11:29-32; 2 Kgs 22:14-20; Isa 20:2-6; 44:25; Jer 13:1-11; 23:25-32; Ezek 4:1-17; 13:2-9; Joel 2:28-32; Matt 7:15; 24:24; Acts 2:17-21; 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 19:6; 20:23; Acts 21:9-11; Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 11:5; 12:4-11; 14:1-40; Eph 4:11-13; 1 Thes 5:19-21; 2 Pet 2:1; 1 Jn 4:1-3; Rev 2:20-23; 19:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Gift of Prophecy As Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek ...","summary_en":"The Gift of Prophecy As Peter had declared at Pentecost, the gift of prophecy was one of the results of the outpouring of God’s Holy Spirit (Acts 2:17-21; see Joel 2:28-32). The book of Acts names a few Christian prophets (Acts 11:27-28; 13:1; 15:32; 21:9-11; see also The Martyrdom of Polycarp 12:3; 16:2). One of these prophets was Agabus, whose function was similar to that of an Old Testament prophet, performing symbolic acts (Acts 21:10-11; see 1 Kgs 11:29-32; Isa 20:2-6; Jer 13:1-11; Ezek ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":149941,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Church as a Dynamic Body","title_en":"The Church as a Dynamic Body","content_ro":"<h3>The Church as a Dynamic Body<\/h3>\nPaul viewed the church as the living body of Christ comprised of believers. Paul made no formal distinction between professional clergy and laity, in which the ministry was done only by the clergy. The community had leaders (see, e.g., 1 Tim 3:1-13), but every believer had a ministry in building up the body (1 Cor 12:12-31). When the early believers gathered together, usually in someone’s home, everyone brought something from God to share with the others (14:26-33).<\/p>\nPaul understood God’s Spirit as gifting people for their specific ministries (12:7-11, 28; Rom 12:6-8; Eph 4:11) and leading them when they came together for worship. Guided by the Spirit, every believer was to use their spiritual gifts for the benefit of the church. Paul wanted believers to be sensitive to the empowering of the Spirit in all that they did (1 Cor 14:26-33).<\/p>\nWhen believers meet together, every individual is important and each one has an active role to play. Believers must listen for God speaking his word—and be prepared to speak it—in all their relationships. Paul also calls for the others to “evaluate” what is said (14:26, 29). Every believer is a crucial part of the body, called to be actively involved in its growth.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nRom 12:4-8; 1 Cor 12:7-31; 14:26-33; Eph 1:23; 4:11-13; Col 1:24; 2:18-19; 1 Tim 3:1-16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Church as a Dynamic Body<\/h3>\nPaul viewed the church as the living body of Christ comprised of believers. Paul made no formal distinction between professional clergy and laity, in which the ministry was done only by the clergy. The community had leaders (see, e.g., 1 Tim 3:1-13), but every believer had a ministry in building up the body (1 Cor 12:12-31). When the early believers gathered together, usually in someone’s home, everyone brought something from God to share with the others (14:26-33).<\/p>\nPaul understood God’s Spirit as gifting people for their specific ministries (12:7-11, 28; Rom 12:6-8; Eph 4:11) and leading them when they came together for worship. Guided by the Spirit, every believer was to use their spiritual gifts for the benefit of the church. Paul wanted believers to be sensitive to the empowering of the Spirit in all that they did (1 Cor 14:26-33).<\/p>\nWhen believers meet together, every individual is important and each one has an active role to play. Believers must listen for God speaking his word—and be prepared to speak it—in all their relationships. Paul also calls for the others to “evaluate” what is said (14:26, 29). Every believer is a crucial part of the body, called to be actively involved in its growth.<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nRom 12:4-8; 1 Cor 12:7-31; 14:26-33; Eph 1:23; 4:11-13; Col 1:24; 2:18-19; 1 Tim 3:1-16<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Church as a Dynamic Body Paul viewed the church as the living body of Christ comprised of believers. Paul made no formal distinction between professional clergy and laity, in which the ministry was done only by the clergy. The community had leaders (see, e.g., 1 Tim 3:1-13), but every believer had a ministry in building up the body (1 Cor 12:12-31). When the early believers gathered together, usually in someone’s home, everyone brought something from God to share with the others (14:26-33...","summary_en":"The Church as a Dynamic Body Paul viewed the church as the living body of Christ comprised of believers. Paul made no formal distinction between professional clergy and laity, in which the ministry was done only by the clergy. The community had leaders (see, e.g., 1 Tim 3:1-13), but every believer had a ministry in building up the body (1 Cor 12:12-31). When the early believers gathered together, usually in someone’s home, everyone brought something from God to share with the others (14:26-33...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"33":[{"id":60407,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Clean, Unclean, and Holy","title_en":"Clean, Unclean, and Holy","content_ro":"<h3>Clean, Unclean, and Holy<\/h3>\nThe rites and regulations establishing cleanness and uncleanness were to distinguish Israel from the surrounding nations. To understand a rationale behind these regulations, one suggestion has been that unclean things are associated with death or the ground (see, e.g., Lev 21:1, 11; 22:8). Recent studies, however, suggest the principle of “normalcy.” God is a God of order. Things that are normal in God’s order are called “clean” and are “permitted.” Abnormal things would be unfit for food or offerings and would be “unclean.” A normal land animal would be a vegetarian (see Gen 1:30). A normal human body would have no infections or discharges. A normal piece of cloth would have no mildew on it. If abnormalities occurred, the animal, person, or cloth was unclean.<\/p>\nWhat is unclean is not sinful but represents a kind of unworthiness that cannot come in contact with what is holy (e.g., Lev 11:44-45). If it is cleansed, it acquires the potential for holiness; it may be dedicated to God and become holy. If what is holy (such as the Sabbath) is treated like something common, God is blasphemed and the thing is profaned. If what is clean becomes unclean, it is defiled and requires cleansing. Some things, such as unclean animals, fish, or birds, remain unclean by definition and can never be cleansed, and, thus, can never become holy.<\/p>\nIn the new covenant, things that were previously unclean have been declared clean (Acts 10:15, 28, 45). Yet God is still a God of order (1 Cor 14:33) and wants worship to be conducted in an orderly way (1 Cor 14:40). While God’s grace is abundant to repentant sinners, some things are still repulsive to his holiness and should never be brought into his presence (e.g., Ananias and Sapphira’s offering; see Acts 5:1-11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 7:2; Lev 11:1–15:33; 21:1-23; 22:3-8; Num 19:1-22; Deut 14:1-21; 21:1-9; Pss 19:9; 24:3-4; 51:7-10; Isa 52:11; Matt 8:2-4; John 13:10-11; Acts 10:9-28; Heb 9:13-15, 23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Clean, Unclean, and Holy<\/h3>\nThe rites and regulations establishing cleanness and uncleanness were to distinguish Israel from the surrounding nations. To understand a rationale behind these regulations, one suggestion has been that unclean things are associated with death or the ground (see, e.g., Lev 21:1, 11; 22:8). Recent studies, however, suggest the principle of “normalcy.” God is a God of order. Things that are normal in God’s order are called “clean” and are “permitted.” Abnormal things would be unfit for food or offerings and would be “unclean.” A normal land animal would be a vegetarian (see Gen 1:30). A normal human body would have no infections or discharges. A normal piece of cloth would have no mildew on it. If abnormalities occurred, the animal, person, or cloth was unclean.<\/p>\nWhat is unclean is not sinful but represents a kind of unworthiness that cannot come in contact with what is holy (e.g., Lev 11:44-45). If it is cleansed, it acquires the potential for holiness; it may be dedicated to God and become holy. If what is holy (such as the Sabbath) is treated like something common, God is blasphemed and the thing is profaned. If what is clean becomes unclean, it is defiled and requires cleansing. Some things, such as unclean animals, fish, or birds, remain unclean by definition and can never be cleansed, and, thus, can never become holy.<\/p>\nIn the new covenant, things that were previously unclean have been declared clean (Acts 10:15, 28, 45). Yet God is still a God of order (1 Cor 14:33) and wants worship to be conducted in an orderly way (1 Cor 14:40). While God’s grace is abundant to repentant sinners, some things are still repulsive to his holiness and should never be brought into his presence (e.g., Ananias and Sapphira’s offering; see Acts 5:1-11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 7:2; Lev 11:1–15:33; 21:1-23; 22:3-8; Num 19:1-22; Deut 14:1-21; 21:1-9; Pss 19:9; 24:3-4; 51:7-10; Isa 52:11; Matt 8:2-4; John 13:10-11; Acts 10:9-28; Heb 9:13-15, 23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Clean, Unclean, and Holy The rites and regulations establishing cleanness and uncleanness were to distinguish Israel from the surrounding nations. To understand a rationale behind these regulations, one suggestion has been that unclean things are associated with death or the ground (see, e.g., Lev 21:1, 11; 22:8). Recent studies, however, suggest the principle of “normalcy.” God is a God of order. Things that are normal in God’s order are called “clean” and are “permitted.” Abnormal things wo...","summary_en":"Clean, Unclean, and Holy The rites and regulations establishing cleanness and uncleanness were to distinguish Israel from the surrounding nations. To understand a rationale behind these regulations, one suggestion has been that unclean things are associated with death or the ground (see, e.g., Lev 21:1, 11; 22:8). Recent studies, however, suggest the principle of “normalcy.” God is a God of order. Things that are normal in God’s order are called “clean” and are “permitted.” Abnormal things wo...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":88033,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Clean, Unclean, and Holy","title_en":"Clean, Unclean, and Holy","content_ro":"<h3>Clean, Unclean, and Holy<\/h3>\nThe rites and regulations establishing cleanness and uncleanness were to distinguish Israel from the surrounding nations. To understand a rationale behind these regulations, one suggestion has been that unclean things are associated with death or the ground (see, e.g., Lev 21:1, 11; 22:8). Recent studies, however, suggest the principle of “normalcy.” God is a God of order. Things that are normal in God’s order are called “clean” and are “permitted.” Abnormal things would be unfit for food or offerings and would be “unclean.” A normal land animal would be a vegetarian (see Gen 1:30). A normal human body would have no infections or discharges. A normal piece of cloth would have no mildew on it. If abnormalities occurred, the animal, person, or cloth was unclean.<\/p>\nWhat is unclean is not sinful but represents a kind of unworthiness that cannot come in contact with what is holy (e.g., Lev 11:44-45). If it is cleansed, it acquires the potential for holiness; it may be dedicated to God and become holy. If what is holy (such as the Sabbath) is treated like something common, God is blasphemed and the thing is profaned. If what is clean becomes unclean, it is defiled and requires cleansing. Some things, such as unclean animals, fish, or birds, remain unclean by definition and can never be cleansed, and, thus, can never become holy.<\/p>\nIn the new covenant, things that were previously unclean have been declared clean (Acts 10:15, 28, 45). Yet God is still a God of order (1 Cor 14:33) and wants worship to be conducted in an orderly way (1 Cor 14:40). While God’s grace is abundant to repentant sinners, some things are still repulsive to his holiness and should never be brought into his presence (e.g., Ananias and Sapphira’s offering; see Acts 5:1-11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 7:2; Lev 11:1–15:33; 21:1-23; 22:3-8; Num 19:1-22; Deut 14:1-21; 21:1-9; Pss 19:9; 24:3-4; 51:7-10; Isa 52:11; Matt 8:2-4; John 13:10-11; Acts 10:9-28; Heb 9:13-15, 23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Clean, Unclean, and Holy<\/h3>\nThe rites and regulations establishing cleanness and uncleanness were to distinguish Israel from the surrounding nations. To understand a rationale behind these regulations, one suggestion has been that unclean things are associated with death or the ground (see, e.g., Lev 21:1, 11; 22:8). Recent studies, however, suggest the principle of “normalcy.” God is a God of order. Things that are normal in God’s order are called “clean” and are “permitted.” Abnormal things would be unfit for food or offerings and would be “unclean.” A normal land animal would be a vegetarian (see Gen 1:30). A normal human body would have no infections or discharges. A normal piece of cloth would have no mildew on it. If abnormalities occurred, the animal, person, or cloth was unclean.<\/p>\nWhat is unclean is not sinful but represents a kind of unworthiness that cannot come in contact with what is holy (e.g., Lev 11:44-45). If it is cleansed, it acquires the potential for holiness; it may be dedicated to God and become holy. If what is holy (such as the Sabbath) is treated like something common, God is blasphemed and the thing is profaned. If what is clean becomes unclean, it is defiled and requires cleansing. Some things, such as unclean animals, fish, or birds, remain unclean by definition and can never be cleansed, and, thus, can never become holy.<\/p>\nIn the new covenant, things that were previously unclean have been declared clean (Acts 10:15, 28, 45). Yet God is still a God of order (1 Cor 14:33) and wants worship to be conducted in an orderly way (1 Cor 14:40). While God’s grace is abundant to repentant sinners, some things are still repulsive to his holiness and should never be brought into his presence (e.g., Ananias and Sapphira’s offering; see Acts 5:1-11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 7:2; Lev 11:1–15:33; 21:1-23; 22:3-8; Num 19:1-22; Deut 14:1-21; 21:1-9; Pss 19:9; 24:3-4; 51:7-10; Isa 52:11; Matt 8:2-4; John 13:10-11; Acts 10:9-28; Heb 9:13-15, 23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Clean, Unclean, and Holy The rites and regulations establishing cleanness and uncleanness were to distinguish Israel from the surrounding nations. To understand a rationale behind these regulations, one suggestion has been that unclean things are associated with death or the ground (see, e.g., Lev 21:1, 11; 22:8). Recent studies, however, suggest the principle of “normalcy.” God is a God of order. Things that are normal in God’s order are called “clean” and are “permitted.” Abnormal things wo...","summary_en":"Clean, Unclean, and Holy The rites and regulations establishing cleanness and uncleanness were to distinguish Israel from the surrounding nations. To understand a rationale behind these regulations, one suggestion has been that unclean things are associated with death or the ground (see, e.g., Lev 21:1, 11; 22:8). Recent studies, however, suggest the principle of “normalcy.” God is a God of order. Things that are normal in God’s order are called “clean” and are “permitted.” Abnormal things wo...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115659,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Clean, Unclean, and Holy","title_en":"Clean, Unclean, and Holy","content_ro":"<h3>Clean, Unclean, and Holy<\/h3>\nThe rites and regulations establishing cleanness and uncleanness were to distinguish Israel from the surrounding nations. To understand a rationale behind these regulations, one suggestion has been that unclean things are associated with death or the ground (see, e.g., Lev 21:1, 11; 22:8). Recent studies, however, suggest the principle of “normalcy.” God is a God of order. Things that are normal in God’s order are called “clean” and are “permitted.” Abnormal things would be unfit for food or offerings and would be “unclean.” A normal land animal would be a vegetarian (see Gen 1:30). A normal human body would have no infections or discharges. A normal piece of cloth would have no mildew on it. If abnormalities occurred, the animal, person, or cloth was unclean.<\/p>\nWhat is unclean is not sinful but represents a kind of unworthiness that cannot come in contact with what is holy (e.g., Lev 11:44-45). If it is cleansed, it acquires the potential for holiness; it may be dedicated to God and become holy. If what is holy (such as the Sabbath) is treated like something common, God is blasphemed and the thing is profaned. If what is clean becomes unclean, it is defiled and requires cleansing. Some things, such as unclean animals, fish, or birds, remain unclean by definition and can never be cleansed, and, thus, can never become holy.<\/p>\nIn the new covenant, things that were previously unclean have been declared clean (Acts 10:15, 28, 45). Yet God is still a God of order (1 Cor 14:33) and wants worship to be conducted in an orderly way (1 Cor 14:40). While God’s grace is abundant to repentant sinners, some things are still repulsive to his holiness and should never be brought into his presence (e.g., Ananias and Sapphira’s offering; see Acts 5:1-11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 7:2; Lev 11:1–15:33; 21:1-23; 22:3-8; Num 19:1-22; Deut 14:1-21; 21:1-9; Pss 19:9; 24:3-4; 51:7-10; Isa 52:11; Matt 8:2-4; John 13:10-11; Acts 10:9-28; Heb 9:13-15, 23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Clean, Unclean, and Holy<\/h3>\nThe rites and regulations establishing cleanness and uncleanness were to distinguish Israel from the surrounding nations. To understand a rationale behind these regulations, one suggestion has been that unclean things are associated with death or the ground (see, e.g., Lev 21:1, 11; 22:8). Recent studies, however, suggest the principle of “normalcy.” God is a God of order. Things that are normal in God’s order are called “clean” and are “permitted.” Abnormal things would be unfit for food or offerings and would be “unclean.” A normal land animal would be a vegetarian (see Gen 1:30). A normal human body would have no infections or discharges. A normal piece of cloth would have no mildew on it. If abnormalities occurred, the animal, person, or cloth was unclean.<\/p>\nWhat is unclean is not sinful but represents a kind of unworthiness that cannot come in contact with what is holy (e.g., Lev 11:44-45). If it is cleansed, it acquires the potential for holiness; it may be dedicated to God and become holy. If what is holy (such as the Sabbath) is treated like something common, God is blasphemed and the thing is profaned. If what is clean becomes unclean, it is defiled and requires cleansing. Some things, such as unclean animals, fish, or birds, remain unclean by definition and can never be cleansed, and, thus, can never become holy.<\/p>\nIn the new covenant, things that were previously unclean have been declared clean (Acts 10:15, 28, 45). Yet God is still a God of order (1 Cor 14:33) and wants worship to be conducted in an orderly way (1 Cor 14:40). While God’s grace is abundant to repentant sinners, some things are still repulsive to his holiness and should never be brought into his presence (e.g., Ananias and Sapphira’s offering; see Acts 5:1-11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 7:2; Lev 11:1–15:33; 21:1-23; 22:3-8; Num 19:1-22; Deut 14:1-21; 21:1-9; Pss 19:9; 24:3-4; 51:7-10; Isa 52:11; Matt 8:2-4; John 13:10-11; Acts 10:9-28; Heb 9:13-15, 23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Clean, Unclean, and Holy The rites and regulations establishing cleanness and uncleanness were to distinguish Israel from the surrounding nations. To understand a rationale behind these regulations, one suggestion has been that unclean things are associated with death or the ground (see, e.g., Lev 21:1, 11; 22:8). Recent studies, however, suggest the principle of “normalcy.” God is a God of order. Things that are normal in God’s order are called “clean” and are “permitted.” Abnormal things wo...","summary_en":"Clean, Unclean, and Holy The rites and regulations establishing cleanness and uncleanness were to distinguish Israel from the surrounding nations. To understand a rationale behind these regulations, one suggestion has been that unclean things are associated with death or the ground (see, e.g., Lev 21:1, 11; 22:8). Recent studies, however, suggest the principle of “normalcy.” God is a God of order. Things that are normal in God’s order are called “clean” and are “permitted.” Abnormal things wo...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143285,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Clean, Unclean, and Holy","title_en":"Clean, Unclean, and Holy","content_ro":"<h3>Clean, Unclean, and Holy<\/h3>\nThe rites and regulations establishing cleanness and uncleanness were to distinguish Israel from the surrounding nations. To understand a rationale behind these regulations, one suggestion has been that unclean things are associated with death or the ground (see, e.g., Lev 21:1, 11; 22:8). Recent studies, however, suggest the principle of “normalcy.” God is a God of order. Things that are normal in God’s order are called “clean” and are “permitted.” Abnormal things would be unfit for food or offerings and would be “unclean.” A normal land animal would be a vegetarian (see Gen 1:30). A normal human body would have no infections or discharges. A normal piece of cloth would have no mildew on it. If abnormalities occurred, the animal, person, or cloth was unclean.<\/p>\nWhat is unclean is not sinful but represents a kind of unworthiness that cannot come in contact with what is holy (e.g., Lev 11:44-45). If it is cleansed, it acquires the potential for holiness; it may be dedicated to God and become holy. If what is holy (such as the Sabbath) is treated like something common, God is blasphemed and the thing is profaned. If what is clean becomes unclean, it is defiled and requires cleansing. Some things, such as unclean animals, fish, or birds, remain unclean by definition and can never be cleansed, and, thus, can never become holy.<\/p>\nIn the new covenant, things that were previously unclean have been declared clean (Acts 10:15, 28, 45). Yet God is still a God of order (1 Cor 14:33) and wants worship to be conducted in an orderly way (1 Cor 14:40). While God’s grace is abundant to repentant sinners, some things are still repulsive to his holiness and should never be brought into his presence (e.g., Ananias and Sapphira’s offering; see Acts 5:1-11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 7:2; Lev 11:1–15:33; 21:1-23; 22:3-8; Num 19:1-22; Deut 14:1-21; 21:1-9; Pss 19:9; 24:3-4; 51:7-10; Isa 52:11; Matt 8:2-4; John 13:10-11; Acts 10:9-28; Heb 9:13-15, 23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Clean, Unclean, and Holy<\/h3>\nThe rites and regulations establishing cleanness and uncleanness were to distinguish Israel from the surrounding nations. To understand a rationale behind these regulations, one suggestion has been that unclean things are associated with death or the ground (see, e.g., Lev 21:1, 11; 22:8). Recent studies, however, suggest the principle of “normalcy.” God is a God of order. Things that are normal in God’s order are called “clean” and are “permitted.” Abnormal things would be unfit for food or offerings and would be “unclean.” A normal land animal would be a vegetarian (see Gen 1:30). A normal human body would have no infections or discharges. A normal piece of cloth would have no mildew on it. If abnormalities occurred, the animal, person, or cloth was unclean.<\/p>\nWhat is unclean is not sinful but represents a kind of unworthiness that cannot come in contact with what is holy (e.g., Lev 11:44-45). If it is cleansed, it acquires the potential for holiness; it may be dedicated to God and become holy. If what is holy (such as the Sabbath) is treated like something common, God is blasphemed and the thing is profaned. If what is clean becomes unclean, it is defiled and requires cleansing. Some things, such as unclean animals, fish, or birds, remain unclean by definition and can never be cleansed, and, thus, can never become holy.<\/p>\nIn the new covenant, things that were previously unclean have been declared clean (Acts 10:15, 28, 45). Yet God is still a God of order (1 Cor 14:33) and wants worship to be conducted in an orderly way (1 Cor 14:40). While God’s grace is abundant to repentant sinners, some things are still repulsive to his holiness and should never be brought into his presence (e.g., Ananias and Sapphira’s offering; see Acts 5:1-11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 7:2; Lev 11:1–15:33; 21:1-23; 22:3-8; Num 19:1-22; Deut 14:1-21; 21:1-9; Pss 19:9; 24:3-4; 51:7-10; Isa 52:11; Matt 8:2-4; John 13:10-11; Acts 10:9-28; Heb 9:13-15, 23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Clean, Unclean, and Holy The rites and regulations establishing cleanness and uncleanness were to distinguish Israel from the surrounding nations. To understand a rationale behind these regulations, one suggestion has been that unclean things are associated with death or the ground (see, e.g., Lev 21:1, 11; 22:8). Recent studies, however, suggest the principle of “normalcy.” God is a God of order. Things that are normal in God’s order are called “clean” and are “permitted.” Abnormal things wo...","summary_en":"Clean, Unclean, and Holy The rites and regulations establishing cleanness and uncleanness were to distinguish Israel from the surrounding nations. To understand a rationale behind these regulations, one suggestion has been that unclean things are associated with death or the ground (see, e.g., Lev 21:1, 11; 22:8). Recent studies, however, suggest the principle of “normalcy.” God is a God of order. Things that are normal in God’s order are called “clean” and are “permitted.” Abnormal things wo...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"34":[{"id":4811,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"of the Old Testament in the New Testament Bible*, Quotations","title_en":"of the Old Testament in the New Testament Bible*, Quotations","content_ro":"<h3>BIBLE*, Quotations of the Old Testament in the New Testament<\/span><\/h3>\nOT passages cited or alluded to in the NT writings.<\/p>\nOne of the most complex problems in interpreting the Bible is in understanding how NT writers quoted the OT. Obviously nothing is so formative and authoritative for the NT writers as Scripture. However, the way that they used OT passages often seems strange to modern readers.<\/p>\nThe OT has provided the words and ideas for much of the NT. Unless one has a Bible that prints OT quotations in distinctive print, this may not be easily seen, for the NT writers often weave the OT words into their own without indicating they are borrowing from the OT. There are over 400 passages of the OT that are explicitly cited in the NT. Almost half of these are introduced by a statement like “Scripture says” to draw attention to the fact that the authority and thought of the OT is being implemented. For the others, however, the OT words are woven into the fabric of the author’s own statement.<\/p>\nIn addition to the over 400 passages cited explicitly, there are well over 1,000 places where there is an allusion to an OT text, event, or person. The difference between a quotation and an allusion is sometimes debated for particular texts, but usually the distinction is that in a quotation the author consciously uses the words of an OT passage, whereas with an allusion he has the texts in mind but is not consciously trying to use the words.<\/p>\nQuotations are easy to identify if there is an introductory formula such as “the Scripture says” (as in Rom 10:11; cf. Is 28:16). Where there is no introductory formula, it is easy to overlook explicit quotations (Rom 10:13; cf. Jl 2:32). The allusions are, of course, harder still to recognize, but they often provide the key to interpretation. For example, John 1:14-18—with its mention of glory, grace and truth, Moses, and the fact that no one has seen God—is much more easily and profoundly understood when read in connection with Exodus 33:17–34:8. In the Exodus passage the glory of God and his grace and truth are revealed to Moses. The author was showing that a much more complete revelation of God was given in Jesus than was given Moses in the account recorded in Exodus.<\/p>\nIn addition, significant light is shed on many NT passages from OT passages with similar ideas and words even where the NT author may not have been consciously alluding to those texts (e.g. Mt 16:19; Is 22:22). What was behind the author’s thinking is not certain, but in such cases the NT reflects the thinking, the culture, and language of the OT period.<\/p>\nDistribution of Old Testament Quotations<\/p>\nThe books of the NT that show the most dependence on the OT are Matthew, John, Romans, Hebrews, 1 Peter, and Revelation. Such a statement can be misleading, however, because the writers have different methods.<\/p>\nMatthew quotes or consciously reflects the wording of OT passages about 62 times, almost half of which have an introductory formula. The book of Revelation, on the other hand, never quotes the OT and never has an introductory formula but is probably more dependent on the OT than any other NT book. The book of Hebrews quotes or consciously reflects the OT about 59 times, again half of which have an introductory formula, but the Gospel of John does so only 18 times, nearly always with an introductory formula. However, the allusions to the OT are present on virtually every page of John’s Gospel, so much so that some scholars have argued that he has modeled his account on the exodus narrative, the Jewish feasts, or OT persons and images. Paul’s Letter to the Romans uses the OT 54 times (about three-fourths of which have introductory formulas), but nowhere else so frequently (e.g., 1 Cor 16 times, Gal 11 times, Phil one time, 1 Thes one time).<\/p>\nIn addition to the indication that Philippians and 1 Thessalonians use the OT only once each, some other books make explicit use of the OT rarely or never. Colossians, Titus, Philemon, and the Johannine letters do not use the OT at all; 2 Timothy and Jude use the OT only once; while 2 Peter and 1 Timothy make use of it twice.<\/p>\nThe important point is to realize that the OT is used most frequently in circumstances where the audience is familiar with the OT or where the OT is essential for describing the events relating to Christ and the church. The books using the OT most frequently (Mt, Jn, Rom, Heb, 1 Pt, Rv) either stem from or are addressed to a Jewish context or, as in the case of Romans and John, deal specifically with the relation of Jews and Christians. The Gospels make rather extensive use of the OT because the language of the OT is necessary to convey the identity and importance of Jesus in the purposes of God. Similarly 1 Peter uses the OT frequently because the author is trying to convey to his persecuted audience that they are the people of God and the inheritors of the promises of God.<\/p>\nDifficulties in Interpretation<\/p>\nOften when people think of quotations of the OT in the NT they think only in terms of prophecy. Some have been guilty of counting up the OT statements that the NT applies to Christ and the church and then claiming these OT texts as predictions that prove Jesus is the Messiah. Such a procedure is filled with problems because it is too simplistic and does not do justice to either the OT or to the way the NT uses it. Of course, the early church used the OT to show that Jesus fulfilled the promises of God and did God’s work, but the use the church made of the OT was quite varied and much of it cannot be classified as predictive prophecy. Prophecy itself is too complex to be limited to predictive thinking.<\/p>\nSome of the most obvious examples of the difficulties appear in Matthew’s Gospel, although they are by no means confined there. Matthew 2:15—“Out of Egypt I called my son”—is a quotation of Hosea 11:1, but in Hosea these words do not refer to the Messiah. They refer to the nation of Israel. Similarly Matthew 2:18 quotes Jeremiah 31:15 (“A voice is heard in Ramah, weeping and great mourning, Rachel weeping for her children and refusing to be comforted, because they are no more,” niv<\/span>) as fulfilled in the slaughter of the innocent babies in Bethlehem, but in Jeremiah the weeping is over the destruction of Jerusalem. John 12:40 views Isaiah 6:10 as fulfilled in Jesus’ ministry, but this verse deals with the call of Isaiah and is not a prediction concerning the ministry of the Messiah. The examples could be multiplied but these should be sufficient to illustrate the problem. For this reason the NT writers have often been accused of twisting the Scriptures, but this charge is as simplistic as the thought that all prophecy is predictive and in fact springs from the same error. Therefore, any attempt to understand the use of the OT in the NT will have to deal with the variety of ways in which the OT is used and with the methods employed by the NT writers.<\/p>\nThere are other difficulties that are encountered as well. Sometimes the NT writer will indicate that some fact related to Christ is a fulfillment of the OT but the explicit text that he had in mind cannot be identified. For example, John 7:38 introduces the words “Out of his heart shall flow rivers of living water” with the statement “as Scripture has said.” No OT text reads this way. Possibly the allusion is to the rock that provided water in the wilderness (Ex 17:1), or to the waters that flowed from the new temple (Zec 14:8) or, more generally, it may be a reference to Isaiah 58:11. Similarly, the difficulty in determining the OT text behind the prophecy that Christ will be called a Nazarene (Mt 2:23) is notorious. Probably the reference is to Isaiah 11:1 and the Hebrew word there translated as “branch,” but the connection is not easily made and is not certain. A third example of this kind of difficulty is in 1 Corinthians 14:34, where Paul indicates that women should be in submission just as the Law says, but there is no OT text expressing this idea. His statement in probably to be understood as a summary rather than a quotation or allusion. Similarly on a few occasions an OT text is seemingly attributed to the wrong OT book. In Mark 1:2-3 an OT quotation is attributed to Isaiah but the quotation is really a conflation (or mixing) of Exodus 23:20, Malachi 3:1, and Isaiah 40:3. Matthew 27:9-10 quotes a passage that is said to be from Jeremiah, when really it is dependent on Zechariah 11:13 and might best be described as a summary of Zechariah 11:12-13, with certain words included from Jeremiah 32:6-9. These two examples do not create a major problem, however, for the determination of the origin of the words may be due to their use in collections of quotations from various prophets, in which case the more prominent prophets would be used to designate origin.<\/p>\nThe wording of the quotations of the OT text does not always conform to the modern form of the OT. Just as today there are numerous translations of the Bible, when the NT was being written there were various forms of the OT text. With regard to the Hebrew text (for the OT was written mostly in Hebrew), there were different traditions. Such differences in the Hebrew traditions would have been relatively small. Because of the increasing importance of Aramaic after the Babylonian captivity and of Greek after the conquests of Alexander the Great, the OT was also known and used in both these languages when the NT was being written. In fact, the Jews found it necessary in their synagogue services after reading the Hebrew OT to paraphrase the reading in Aramaic so that all could understand. These paraphrases were later written down and are known as Targums. The Greek translation of the OT that stems from the third century BC<\/span> is known as the Septuagint, but there were also other Greek translations in use. This being the case, the wording of a NT quotation is not identical in every detail to the text of the Hebrew OT.<\/p>\nAdded to the fact that there were various forms of the text known in first-century AD<\/span> Palestine is the complicating factor that NT writers often did not intend to quote the OT exactly. The use of formal quotation marks is a modern device, and ancient writers were not so taken by technical precision. They were more concerned with the intention of a text and consequently might copy or quote it verbatim, quote it from memory, use or adapt part of a verse, or even change certain words as they borrowed the verse to express their points. (The NT writers often use the OT words describing God’s actions in the past to explain what he has done in their time.) The importance of any differences between the NT quotation and the OT depends on the use to which the quotation is put and the degree to which the use is dependent on textual differences.<\/p>\nSome examples should illustrate the nature of these difficulties. Ephesians 4:8 quotes Psalm 68:18. Whereas the Hebrew and Septuagint read, “You ascended to the heights, you lead captivity captive, you received gifts among mankind,” Ephesians records the verse as “After he ascended into the heights, he<\/em> led captivity captive; he gave<\/em> gifts to men.” Paul is stressing that Christ has given grace to people for ministry. He has either adapted the wording of the OT to make his point or he quoted a variant reading, “he gave<\/em> gifts.” Some versions do have this reading. In fact, the Targum understands this verse as Moses giving the words of the law to the children of men, and Paul may well be adapting this understanding to the new revelation that has come in Christ.<\/p>\nMatthew 1:23 quotes Isaiah 7:14, but there are distinct differences between the Hebrew text and the wording in Matthew. The Hebrew reads, “Behold the young woman will become pregnant and will bear a son and you will call his name Immanuel,” whereas Matthew’s text records “Behold, the virgin<\/em> will become pregnant and will bear a son, and they<\/em> will call his name Immanuel.” The Septuagint does have the specific word “virgin,” like Matthew, but is not the source of Matthew’s quotation since other differences exist. Some have argued that the change from “you will call” to “they will call” was made by Matthew when he applied the words to Jesus. However, there are several traditions known for this part of the quotation and partial support for the reading in Matthew is provided by the text of Isaiah found among the Dead Sea Scrolls.<\/p>\nRomans 11:26-27 is a conflation of Isaiah 59:20-21 and part of Isaiah 27:9, but there are important differences. One of these is that the OT has “the redeemer will come to Zion,” whereas Romans has “the deliverer will come from<\/em> Zion.” The change to “from Zion” could indicate that Paul had a different textual tradition, could be the result of an intentional change by Paul, or more probably, could reflect the wording of Psalm 14:7.<\/p>\nAn awareness of the difficulties involved in the quotations of the OT by the NT writers will prohibit a simplistic approach and will prevent hasty conclusions. Care to ask not only which text was used but also which form of the text was used and how is obviously essential in any serious study. In addition it is necessary to allow for the possibility that the NT writers knew forms of a text that are now lost.<\/p>\nThe Methods of the New Testament Writers<\/p>\nThe methods used by the NT writers were not unique to them. Many of these methods were also employed in first-century Judaism. In fact, both the technique used in quoting and the understanding of the OT text itself in many cases are paralleled in Judaism. For example, from the standpoint of technique used in quoting, the same kinds of formula introductions are used in the Dead Sea Scrolls, the rabbinic writings, and elsewhere. The rabbinic technique of “pearl stringing,” that is, of applying verses from various parts of the OT (the Law, the Prophets, the Writings) to a subject, can be seen especially in Paul’s writings (note Rom 9:12-19 or 11:8-10). Somewhat related is the practice of using quotations that all contain a key word or key words (note 1 Pt 2:6-8, which draws together quotations using the word “stone,” or Rom 15:9-12, which joins OT verses referring to the “nations”).<\/p>\nThe methods used in the NT to interpret an OT text are also displayed in Judaism. Some passages interpret the OT “literally,” such as Jesus’ replies during temptation (see the quotations of Dt 8:3; 6:16; 6:13; in Mt 4:3-10), his teachings on marriage based on Genesis 2:24 (Mt 19:5), or Paul’s use of Habakkuk 2:4 (Rom 1:17) or Genesis 15:6 (Rom 4:3-9). Many such examples could be given. With regard to prophecy, some of these statements are fulfilled in a “literal” or “direct” way in keeping with the intention of the OT (e.g., Mi 5:2, Bethlehem as the birthplace of the Messiah; Mt 2:4-6). Jeremiah 31:31-34, the promise of the new covenant, is viewed as directly fulfilled in Christ (Heb 8:7-13). The prophecy of Joel 2:28-32 concerning the pouring out of the Spirit of the Lord is directly fulfilled in the Pentecost event (Acts 2:17-21), but the changing of the sun to darkness and the moon to blood are certainly not understood literally in connection with this event.<\/p>\nA different method of interpretation is based on the concept of corporate solidarity.<\/em> This technical expression is an attempt to convey the idea that the individuals among God’s people are not merely individuals; they are part of a larger whole. Consequently, what is said about the individual can apply to the whole and vice versa. This is the reason the Servant of the Lord in Isaiah is seen both as the nation (44:1) and as an individual (52:13–53:12). Also the king is sometimes viewed as representative of the nation. The easiest places to see the concept of corporate solidarity are in the effect of the sin of Achan on all the people (Jos 7) or the sin of David in numbering the people (1 Chr 21:3-8).<\/p>\nCorrespondence in history<\/em> is not so much a method of interpretation as it is a way of thinking about God. It assumes that the things that happen to God’s people are the things that have happened to previous generations and that God is faithful and operates in the present as he has in the past. Consequently, the trials and deliverance of God’s people are often expressed with words borrowed from the previous accounts of God’s people. Isaiah describes the anticipated deliverance in terms of a second exodus (11:15-16). Ezekiel describes the king set up over the people in terms of a second David (Ez 37:25). In the NT, Revelation 22 describes the new heavens and the new earth in terms of the Garden of Eden (Gn 2–3). Sometimes this technique is described as “typology,” but this term has been used for so many questionable interpretations that it is misleading. The most important thing about this concept is that it is a view of God and his working among his people.<\/p>\nWith these two concepts, the way that the OT is quoted in the NT can be understood. The conviction that Jesus was the promised deliverer and that the last days had dawned in his ministry are evident everywhere. The quotation of Hosea 11:1 can be used in Matthew 2:15 because of corporate solidarity and correspondence in history. What was said of the nation is true of the one who is its representative, and there is correspondence in their respective histories. Jeremiah 31:15 can be used in Matthew 2:18 because of correspondence in history and especially because Jeremiah looked forward to God’s intention for Israel and prophesied a new covenant (31:17, 31-34). Matthew saw not only the correspondence in history but believed that in Jesus this promised salvation had been granted. John 12:40 can quote Isaiah 6:10 of Jesus’ ministry, not because he twists the meaning of the OT text, but because he saw that what had happened with God’s messenger before happened again and even ultimately<\/em> in Jesus’ ministry. The instances of such correspondences in history are numerous.<\/p>\nThere are other texts where there seems to be an actualization<\/em> of the OT text. Some quotations seem to be “lived out” in the ministry of Jesus. Because of their conviction about Jesus and his kingdom, the NT writers often saw certain OT texts as appropriated and made alive by Jesus. Psalm 118:22 was not intended as a prophecy of the Messiah, but Jesus saw it as descriptive of his ministry (Mt 21:42), and the early church saw this verse as actualized in his death and resurrection (Acts 4:11). Isaiah 53 is another text that the NT views as actualized in Jesus’ ministry (see Acts 8:32-35 and 1 Pt 2:22-25). Some Christians would view Psalm 22 as a prophecy of the crucifixion of Jesus, but it seems instead to be the lament of a righteous OT sufferer. Through correspondence in history, and because Christians saw so much of the psalmist’s plight actualized in Jesus’ crucifixion, the psalm became the easiest way to describe what once again had happened to God’s righteous sufferer. The words of Isaiah 40:3 describe the ministry of John the Baptist (Mt 3:3). Jews had come to see this verse as a prophecy of God’s end-time salvation, and the early church saw John the Baptist fulfilling this forerunner’s task. Luke made this identification (Lk 3:4-6), but he applied the same role to Jesus’ disciples (9:52; 10:1). This seems to be a further example of actualization and correspondence in history. In other places the church has applied to Christians ideas that were previously understood of Christ (e.g., the stone in 1 Pt 2:4-5; the ministry of the Suffering Servant in Acts 13:46-47).<\/p>\nThe most convenient term to describe the way the OT is “fulfilled” in Christ is to say that the OT finds its climax in Jesus. Even where actual quotations are not involved, the OT ideas such as prophet, priest, or king are climaxed in him as the ideal and embodiment of all the OT models. He could tell religious authorities that “one greater than Solomon is here” (Mt 12:42) or “one greater than the temple is here” (Mt 12:6). Those passages involving correspondence in history or actualization also lead to the conviction that he is the climax of the OT Scriptures.<\/p>\nThe Purposes of the Use of the Old Testament<\/p>\nThe variety of methods of interpretation and application of the OT parallels the fact that the OT was used for a variety of purposes. People tend to think only in terms of the use of the OT to show that Jesus was the Messiah, but there are a number of other uses with a variety of goals. Many OT texts are used to show Jesus is the Messiah, the fulfillment of the OT promises (Lk 4:16-21). Without lessening the fulfillment emphasis, however, other verses are applied to Jesus for other purposes: to evangelize (Acts 8:32-25); to demonstrate or convince (Acts 13:33-35); to rebuke (Mk 7:6-7; Rom 11:7-10); and to describe (Rv 1:12-15). On the other hand, many quotations of the OT in the NT are not directly related to the Messiah. OT passages are adapted to provide a word from God on some aspect of life or ethics. For example, Jesus used Genesis 2:24 to substantiate his teaching on divorce as he attempted to deal with the issues raised by the civil regulation of divorce (Dt 24:1; Mt 19:1-12). The stress on the OT commandments shows their importance for Christians (Mt 19:16-22; Rom 13:8-10). Often OT statements deal with specific problems. The problem of pride at Corinth is solved by the quotation of Jeremiah 9:24 (“Let the one boasting, boast in the Lord,” 1 Cor 1:31). First Peter 3:10-12 incorporates Psalm 34:12-16 as ethical instructions, and 3:14-15 borrows from Isaiah 8:12-13 to address the fear of suffering. The spiritual armor in Ephesians 6:14-17 is derived largely from OT passages. Such examples are so numerous that there can be no doubt that the OT is used to describe Christian existence. In fact, nearly every subject discussed in the NT is presented somewhere via OT terms and quotations. Frequently OT passages are used to describe the church as God’s end-time community. Hosea 2:23 is used to show that those who formerly were not God’s people now are (Rom 9:25-26; 1 Pt 2:10). Several OT texts contribute to the description of the church in 1 Peter 2:9. OT texts that speak of the word of God describe the apostles’ preaching (Rom 10:8; 1 Pt 1:24-25). OT quotations describe the sinful condition of humanity (Rom 3:10-20). Salvation is explained through OT concepts and symbols and is based on OT statements (Jn 6:31-33; Gal 3:6-13). The words of Daniel describe the Second Coming (7:13-14; cf. Mt 24:30). Even the worship of early Christians was expressed through use of the OT (see Acts 4:24; Rom 11:34-35).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BIBLE*, Quotations of the Old Testament in the New Testament<\/span><\/h3>\nOT passages cited or alluded to in the NT writings.<\/p>\nOne of the most complex problems in interpreting the Bible is in understanding how NT writers quoted the OT. Obviously nothing is so formative and authoritative for the NT writers as Scripture. However, the way that they used OT passages often seems strange to modern readers.<\/p>\nThe OT has provided the words and ideas for much of the NT. Unless one has a Bible that prints OT quotations in distinctive print, this may not be easily seen, for the NT writers often weave the OT words into their own without indicating they are borrowing from the OT. There are over 400 passages of the OT that are explicitly cited in the NT. Almost half of these are introduced by a statement like “Scripture says” to draw attention to the fact that the authority and thought of the OT is being implemented. For the others, however, the OT words are woven into the fabric of the author’s own statement.<\/p>\nIn addition to the over 400 passages cited explicitly, there are well over 1,000 places where there is an allusion to an OT text, event, or person. The difference between a quotation and an allusion is sometimes debated for particular texts, but usually the distinction is that in a quotation the author consciously uses the words of an OT passage, whereas with an allusion he has the texts in mind but is not consciously trying to use the words.<\/p>\nQuotations are easy to identify if there is an introductory formula such as “the Scripture says” (as in Rom 10:11; cf. Is 28:16). Where there is no introductory formula, it is easy to overlook explicit quotations (Rom 10:13; cf. Jl 2:32). The allusions are, of course, harder still to recognize, but they often provide the key to interpretation. For example, John 1:14-18—with its mention of glory, grace and truth, Moses, and the fact that no one has seen God—is much more easily and profoundly understood when read in connection with Exodus 33:17–34:8. In the Exodus passage the glory of God and his grace and truth are revealed to Moses. The author was showing that a much more complete revelation of God was given in Jesus than was given Moses in the account recorded in Exodus.<\/p>\nIn addition, significant light is shed on many NT passages from OT passages with similar ideas and words even where the NT author may not have been consciously alluding to those texts (e.g. Mt 16:19; Is 22:22). What was behind the author’s thinking is not certain, but in such cases the NT reflects the thinking, the culture, and language of the OT period.<\/p>\nDistribution of Old Testament Quotations<\/p>\nThe books of the NT that show the most dependence on the OT are Matthew, John, Romans, Hebrews, 1 Peter, and Revelation. Such a statement can be misleading, however, because the writers have different methods.<\/p>\nMatthew quotes or consciously reflects the wording of OT passages about 62 times, almost half of which have an introductory formula. The book of Revelation, on the other hand, never quotes the OT and never has an introductory formula but is probably more dependent on the OT than any other NT book. The book of Hebrews quotes or consciously reflects the OT about 59 times, again half of which have an introductory formula, but the Gospel of John does so only 18 times, nearly always with an introductory formula. However, the allusions to the OT are present on virtually every page of John’s Gospel, so much so that some scholars have argued that he has modeled his account on the exodus narrative, the Jewish feasts, or OT persons and images. Paul’s Letter to the Romans uses the OT 54 times (about three-fourths of which have introductory formulas), but nowhere else so frequently (e.g., 1 Cor 16 times, Gal 11 times, Phil one time, 1 Thes one time).<\/p>\nIn addition to the indication that Philippians and 1 Thessalonians use the OT only once each, some other books make explicit use of the OT rarely or never. Colossians, Titus, Philemon, and the Johannine letters do not use the OT at all; 2 Timothy and Jude use the OT only once; while 2 Peter and 1 Timothy make use of it twice.<\/p>\nThe important point is to realize that the OT is used most frequently in circumstances where the audience is familiar with the OT or where the OT is essential for describing the events relating to Christ and the church. The books using the OT most frequently (Mt, Jn, Rom, Heb, 1 Pt, Rv) either stem from or are addressed to a Jewish context or, as in the case of Romans and John, deal specifically with the relation of Jews and Christians. The Gospels make rather extensive use of the OT because the language of the OT is necessary to convey the identity and importance of Jesus in the purposes of God. Similarly 1 Peter uses the OT frequently because the author is trying to convey to his persecuted audience that they are the people of God and the inheritors of the promises of God.<\/p>\nDifficulties in Interpretation<\/p>\nOften when people think of quotations of the OT in the NT they think only in terms of prophecy. Some have been guilty of counting up the OT statements that the NT applies to Christ and the church and then claiming these OT texts as predictions that prove Jesus is the Messiah. Such a procedure is filled with problems because it is too simplistic and does not do justice to either the OT or to the way the NT uses it. Of course, the early church used the OT to show that Jesus fulfilled the promises of God and did God’s work, but the use the church made of the OT was quite varied and much of it cannot be classified as predictive prophecy. Prophecy itself is too complex to be limited to predictive thinking.<\/p>\nSome of the most obvious examples of the difficulties appear in Matthew’s Gospel, although they are by no means confined there. Matthew 2:15—“Out of Egypt I called my son”—is a quotation of Hosea 11:1, but in Hosea these words do not refer to the Messiah. They refer to the nation of Israel. Similarly Matthew 2:18 quotes Jeremiah 31:15 (“A voice is heard in Ramah, weeping and great mourning, Rachel weeping for her children and refusing to be comforted, because they are no more,” niv<\/span>) as fulfilled in the slaughter of the innocent babies in Bethlehem, but in Jeremiah the weeping is over the destruction of Jerusalem. John 12:40 views Isaiah 6:10 as fulfilled in Jesus’ ministry, but this verse deals with the call of Isaiah and is not a prediction concerning the ministry of the Messiah. The examples could be multiplied but these should be sufficient to illustrate the problem. For this reason the NT writers have often been accused of twisting the Scriptures, but this charge is as simplistic as the thought that all prophecy is predictive and in fact springs from the same error. Therefore, any attempt to understand the use of the OT in the NT will have to deal with the variety of ways in which the OT is used and with the methods employed by the NT writers.<\/p>\nThere are other difficulties that are encountered as well. Sometimes the NT writer will indicate that some fact related to Christ is a fulfillment of the OT but the explicit text that he had in mind cannot be identified. For example, John 7:38 introduces the words “Out of his heart shall flow rivers of living water” with the statement “as Scripture has said.” No OT text reads this way. Possibly the allusion is to the rock that provided water in the wilderness (Ex 17:1), or to the waters that flowed from the new temple (Zec 14:8) or, more generally, it may be a reference to Isaiah 58:11. Similarly, the difficulty in determining the OT text behind the prophecy that Christ will be called a Nazarene (Mt 2:23) is notorious. Probably the reference is to Isaiah 11:1 and the Hebrew word there translated as “branch,” but the connection is not easily made and is not certain. A third example of this kind of difficulty is in 1 Corinthians 14:34, where Paul indicates that women should be in submission just as the Law says, but there is no OT text expressing this idea. His statement in probably to be understood as a summary rather than a quotation or allusion. Similarly on a few occasions an OT text is seemingly attributed to the wrong OT book. In Mark 1:2-3 an OT quotation is attributed to Isaiah but the quotation is really a conflation (or mixing) of Exodus 23:20, Malachi 3:1, and Isaiah 40:3. Matthew 27:9-10 quotes a passage that is said to be from Jeremiah, when really it is dependent on Zechariah 11:13 and might best be described as a summary of Zechariah 11:12-13, with certain words included from Jeremiah 32:6-9. These two examples do not create a major problem, however, for the determination of the origin of the words may be due to their use in collections of quotations from various prophets, in which case the more prominent prophets would be used to designate origin.<\/p>\nThe wording of the quotations of the OT text does not always conform to the modern form of the OT. Just as today there are numerous translations of the Bible, when the NT was being written there were various forms of the OT text. With regard to the Hebrew text (for the OT was written mostly in Hebrew), there were different traditions. Such differences in the Hebrew traditions would have been relatively small. Because of the increasing importance of Aramaic after the Babylonian captivity and of Greek after the conquests of Alexander the Great, the OT was also known and used in both these languages when the NT was being written. In fact, the Jews found it necessary in their synagogue services after reading the Hebrew OT to paraphrase the reading in Aramaic so that all could understand. These paraphrases were later written down and are known as Targums. The Greek translation of the OT that stems from the third century BC<\/span> is known as the Septuagint, but there were also other Greek translations in use. This being the case, the wording of a NT quotation is not identical in every detail to the text of the Hebrew OT.<\/p>\nAdded to the fact that there were various forms of the text known in first-century AD<\/span> Palestine is the complicating factor that NT writers often did not intend to quote the OT exactly. The use of formal quotation marks is a modern device, and ancient writers were not so taken by technical precision. They were more concerned with the intention of a text and consequently might copy or quote it verbatim, quote it from memory, use or adapt part of a verse, or even change certain words as they borrowed the verse to express their points. (The NT writers often use the OT words describing God’s actions in the past to explain what he has done in their time.) The importance of any differences between the NT quotation and the OT depends on the use to which the quotation is put and the degree to which the use is dependent on textual differences.<\/p>\nSome examples should illustrate the nature of these difficulties. Ephesians 4:8 quotes Psalm 68:18. Whereas the Hebrew and Septuagint read, “You ascended to the heights, you lead captivity captive, you received gifts among mankind,” Ephesians records the verse as “After he ascended into the heights, he<\/em> led captivity captive; he gave<\/em> gifts to men.” Paul is stressing that Christ has given grace to people for ministry. He has either adapted the wording of the OT to make his point or he quoted a variant reading, “he gave<\/em> gifts.” Some versions do have this reading. In fact, the Targum understands this verse as Moses giving the words of the law to the children of men, and Paul may well be adapting this understanding to the new revelation that has come in Christ.<\/p>\nMatthew 1:23 quotes Isaiah 7:14, but there are distinct differences between the Hebrew text and the wording in Matthew. The Hebrew reads, “Behold the young woman will become pregnant and will bear a son and you will call his name Immanuel,” whereas Matthew’s text records “Behold, the virgin<\/em> will become pregnant and will bear a son, and they<\/em> will call his name Immanuel.” The Septuagint does have the specific word “virgin,” like Matthew, but is not the source of Matthew’s quotation since other differences exist. Some have argued that the change from “you will call” to “they will call” was made by Matthew when he applied the words to Jesus. However, there are several traditions known for this part of the quotation and partial support for the reading in Matthew is provided by the text of Isaiah found among the Dead Sea Scrolls.<\/p>\nRomans 11:26-27 is a conflation of Isaiah 59:20-21 and part of Isaiah 27:9, but there are important differences. One of these is that the OT has “the redeemer will come to Zion,” whereas Romans has “the deliverer will come from<\/em> Zion.” The change to “from Zion” could indicate that Paul had a different textual tradition, could be the result of an intentional change by Paul, or more probably, could reflect the wording of Psalm 14:7.<\/p>\nAn awareness of the difficulties involved in the quotations of the OT by the NT writers will prohibit a simplistic approach and will prevent hasty conclusions. Care to ask not only which text was used but also which form of the text was used and how is obviously essential in any serious study. In addition it is necessary to allow for the possibility that the NT writers knew forms of a text that are now lost.<\/p>\nThe Methods of the New Testament Writers<\/p>\nThe methods used by the NT writers were not unique to them. Many of these methods were also employed in first-century Judaism. In fact, both the technique used in quoting and the understanding of the OT text itself in many cases are paralleled in Judaism. For example, from the standpoint of technique used in quoting, the same kinds of formula introductions are used in the Dead Sea Scrolls, the rabbinic writings, and elsewhere. The rabbinic technique of “pearl stringing,” that is, of applying verses from various parts of the OT (the Law, the Prophets, the Writings) to a subject, can be seen especially in Paul’s writings (note Rom 9:12-19 or 11:8-10). Somewhat related is the practice of using quotations that all contain a key word or key words (note 1 Pt 2:6-8, which draws together quotations using the word “stone,” or Rom 15:9-12, which joins OT verses referring to the “nations”).<\/p>\nThe methods used in the NT to interpret an OT text are also displayed in Judaism. Some passages interpret the OT “literally,” such as Jesus’ replies during temptation (see the quotations of Dt 8:3; 6:16; 6:13; in Mt 4:3-10), his teachings on marriage based on Genesis 2:24 (Mt 19:5), or Paul’s use of Habakkuk 2:4 (Rom 1:17) or Genesis 15:6 (Rom 4:3-9). Many such examples could be given. With regard to prophecy, some of these statements are fulfilled in a “literal” or “direct” way in keeping with the intention of the OT (e.g., Mi 5:2, Bethlehem as the birthplace of the Messiah; Mt 2:4-6). Jeremiah 31:31-34, the promise of the new covenant, is viewed as directly fulfilled in Christ (Heb 8:7-13). The prophecy of Joel 2:28-32 concerning the pouring out of the Spirit of the Lord is directly fulfilled in the Pentecost event (Acts 2:17-21), but the changing of the sun to darkness and the moon to blood are certainly not understood literally in connection with this event.<\/p>\nA different method of interpretation is based on the concept of corporate solidarity.<\/em> This technical expression is an attempt to convey the idea that the individuals among God’s people are not merely individuals; they are part of a larger whole. Consequently, what is said about the individual can apply to the whole and vice versa. This is the reason the Servant of the Lord in Isaiah is seen both as the nation (44:1) and as an individual (52:13–53:12). Also the king is sometimes viewed as representative of the nation. The easiest places to see the concept of corporate solidarity are in the effect of the sin of Achan on all the people (Jos 7) or the sin of David in numbering the people (1 Chr 21:3-8).<\/p>\nCorrespondence in history<\/em> is not so much a method of interpretation as it is a way of thinking about God. It assumes that the things that happen to God’s people are the things that have happened to previous generations and that God is faithful and operates in the present as he has in the past. Consequently, the trials and deliverance of God’s people are often expressed with words borrowed from the previous accounts of God’s people. Isaiah describes the anticipated deliverance in terms of a second exodus (11:15-16). Ezekiel describes the king set up over the people in terms of a second David (Ez 37:25). In the NT, Revelation 22 describes the new heavens and the new earth in terms of the Garden of Eden (Gn 2–3). Sometimes this technique is described as “typology,” but this term has been used for so many questionable interpretations that it is misleading. The most important thing about this concept is that it is a view of God and his working among his people.<\/p>\nWith these two concepts, the way that the OT is quoted in the NT can be understood. The conviction that Jesus was the promised deliverer and that the last days had dawned in his ministry are evident everywhere. The quotation of Hosea 11:1 can be used in Matthew 2:15 because of corporate solidarity and correspondence in history. What was said of the nation is true of the one who is its representative, and there is correspondence in their respective histories. Jeremiah 31:15 can be used in Matthew 2:18 because of correspondence in history and especially because Jeremiah looked forward to God’s intention for Israel and prophesied a new covenant (31:17, 31-34). Matthew saw not only the correspondence in history but believed that in Jesus this promised salvation had been granted. John 12:40 can quote Isaiah 6:10 of Jesus’ ministry, not because he twists the meaning of the OT text, but because he saw that what had happened with God’s messenger before happened again and even ultimately<\/em> in Jesus’ ministry. The instances of such correspondences in history are numerous.<\/p>\nThere are other texts where there seems to be an actualization<\/em> of the OT text. Some quotations seem to be “lived out” in the ministry of Jesus. Because of their conviction about Jesus and his kingdom, the NT writers often saw certain OT texts as appropriated and made alive by Jesus. Psalm 118:22 was not intended as a prophecy of the Messiah, but Jesus saw it as descriptive of his ministry (Mt 21:42), and the early church saw this verse as actualized in his death and resurrection (Acts 4:11). Isaiah 53 is another text that the NT views as actualized in Jesus’ ministry (see Acts 8:32-35 and 1 Pt 2:22-25). Some Christians would view Psalm 22 as a prophecy of the crucifixion of Jesus, but it seems instead to be the lament of a righteous OT sufferer. Through correspondence in history, and because Christians saw so much of the psalmist’s plight actualized in Jesus’ crucifixion, the psalm became the easiest way to describe what once again had happened to God’s righteous sufferer. The words of Isaiah 40:3 describe the ministry of John the Baptist (Mt 3:3). Jews had come to see this verse as a prophecy of God’s end-time salvation, and the early church saw John the Baptist fulfilling this forerunner’s task. Luke made this identification (Lk 3:4-6), but he applied the same role to Jesus’ disciples (9:52; 10:1). This seems to be a further example of actualization and correspondence in history. In other places the church has applied to Christians ideas that were previously understood of Christ (e.g., the stone in 1 Pt 2:4-5; the ministry of the Suffering Servant in Acts 13:46-47).<\/p>\nThe most convenient term to describe the way the OT is “fulfilled” in Christ is to say that the OT finds its climax in Jesus. Even where actual quotations are not involved, the OT ideas such as prophet, priest, or king are climaxed in him as the ideal and embodiment of all the OT models. He could tell religious authorities that “one greater than Solomon is here” (Mt 12:42) or “one greater than the temple is here” (Mt 12:6). Those passages involving correspondence in history or actualization also lead to the conviction that he is the climax of the OT Scriptures.<\/p>\nThe Purposes of the Use of the Old Testament<\/p>\nThe variety of methods of interpretation and application of the OT parallels the fact that the OT was used for a variety of purposes. People tend to think only in terms of the use of the OT to show that Jesus was the Messiah, but there are a number of other uses with a variety of goals. Many OT texts are used to show Jesus is the Messiah, the fulfillment of the OT promises (Lk 4:16-21). Without lessening the fulfillment emphasis, however, other verses are applied to Jesus for other purposes: to evangelize (Acts 8:32-25); to demonstrate or convince (Acts 13:33-35); to rebuke (Mk 7:6-7; Rom 11:7-10); and to describe (Rv 1:12-15). On the other hand, many quotations of the OT in the NT are not directly related to the Messiah. OT passages are adapted to provide a word from God on some aspect of life or ethics. For example, Jesus used Genesis 2:24 to substantiate his teaching on divorce as he attempted to deal with the issues raised by the civil regulation of divorce (Dt 24:1; Mt 19:1-12). The stress on the OT commandments shows their importance for Christians (Mt 19:16-22; Rom 13:8-10). Often OT statements deal with specific problems. The problem of pride at Corinth is solved by the quotation of Jeremiah 9:24 (“Let the one boasting, boast in the Lord,” 1 Cor 1:31). First Peter 3:10-12 incorporates Psalm 34:12-16 as ethical instructions, and 3:14-15 borrows from Isaiah 8:12-13 to address the fear of suffering. The spiritual armor in Ephesians 6:14-17 is derived largely from OT passages. Such examples are so numerous that there can be no doubt that the OT is used to describe Christian existence. In fact, nearly every subject discussed in the NT is presented somewhere via OT terms and quotations. Frequently OT passages are used to describe the church as God’s end-time community. Hosea 2:23 is used to show that those who formerly were not God’s people now are (Rom 9:25-26; 1 Pt 2:10). Several OT texts contribute to the description of the church in 1 Peter 2:9. OT texts that speak of the word of God describe the apostles’ preaching (Rom 10:8; 1 Pt 1:24-25). OT quotations describe the sinful condition of humanity (Rom 3:10-20). Salvation is explained through OT concepts and symbols and is based on OT statements (Jn 6:31-33; Gal 3:6-13). The words of Daniel describe the Second Coming (7:13-14; cf. Mt 24:30). Even the worship of early Christians was expressed through use of the OT (see Acts 4:24; Rom 11:34-35).<\/p>","summary_ro":"BIBLE*, Quotations of the Old Testament in the New Testament OT passages cited or alluded to in the NT writings. One of the most complex problems in interpreting the Bible is in understanding how NT writers quoted the OT. Obviously nothing is so formative and authoritative for the NT writers as Scripture. However, the way that they used OT passages often seems strange to modern readers. The OT has provided the words and ideas for much of the NT. Unless one has a Bible that prints OT quotation...","summary_en":"BIBLE*, Quotations of the Old Testament in the New Testament OT passages cited or alluded to in the NT writings. One of the most complex problems in interpreting the Bible is in understanding how NT writers quoted the OT. Obviously nothing is so formative and authoritative for the NT writers as Scripture. However, the way that they used OT passages often seems strange to modern readers. The OT has provided the words and ideas for much of the NT. Unless one has a Bible that prints OT quotation...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":7649,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"First Letter to the Corinthians","title_en":"First Letter to the Corinthians","content_ro":"<h3>CORINTHIANS, First Letter to the<\/h3>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date and Origin<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nThere is no doubt about who wrote 1 Corinthians, for all scholars agree that the apostle Paul wrote it on his third missionary journey while he was living in Ephesus. By this time Paul was a mature, middle-aged (perhaps 55 years old) missionary, fully seasoned from planting churches around a quarter of the Mediterranean world.<\/p>\nDate and Origin<\/p>\nPaul worked in Corinth from about AD<\/span> 50 to 52. After a brief stay in Jerusalem, he returned to his missionary work, this time at Ephesus (Acts 19), where he ministered for three years (AD<\/span> 53–55\/56). During this period, he wrote at least three letters to Corinth and made a visit as well. His first letter, often called “the previous letter,” is referred to in 1 Corinthians 5:9-11. We know from this reference that the letter was misunderstood, but we know little of its content, for it has been lost.<\/p>\nSometime in AD<\/span> 55, after hearing reports from Chloe’s household (1 Cor 1:11), who were probably members of Chloe’s house church, he dictated a second letter to Corinth, our 1 Corinthians. This was probably sent off in the hands of Stephanas, Fortunatus, and Achaicus (16:17). Paul would later write a third letter to Corinth, called “the letter of tears” (2 Cor 2:2-3), and then finally 2 Corinthians.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nCorinth was a seaport city, destroyed by the Romans in 146 BC<\/span> and rebuilt in 46 BC<\/span> by Julius Caesar. After 27 BC<\/span>, it was the Roman capital of Achaia, where the proconsul had his residence (Acts 18:12). The city itself was really three cities: the port of Cenchrea, about eight miles (13 kilometers) to the east, where ships from the Aegean would unload; the port of Lechaion, about a mile (1.6 kilometers) to the west on the Gulf of Corinth, where the ships would be reloaded, their goods having been transported in wagons over the isthmus and the ships on rollers; and the city itself on the high ground in between.<\/p>\nThe acropolis of the city, on top of the steep, high Acrocorinth, contained the temple of Aphrodite, where 1,000 female slaves were dedicated to the service of this goddess of love. This distinctive cult of Corinth was dedicated to the veneration of Aphrodite, goddess of love, beauty, and fertility, who is identified with the Roman Venus. Associated with such religious practices was a general moral degradation. Corinthian morals were notoriously corrupt, even when compared with pagan Rome. Down in the city was the synagogue (Acts 18:4); for while the city as a Roman colony was largely populated by Italians, it had attracted other peoples from the Mediterranean, among whom were the Jews.<\/p>\nPurpose and Teaching<\/p>\nThe main concern of Paul in 1 Corinthians was the unity of the church. There was a self-centeredness in Corinth that resulted in building cliques within the church, in flaunting knowledge and liberty in the face of others scandalized by it, and in selfish displays in the worship services.<\/p>\nTwo other major concerns also surface in the book. First, along with other pagan practices, the lax sexual ethics of Corinth had influenced the church; Paul needed to erect some barriers. Second, there was a problem in accepting the resurrection of the body; Paul realized that this issue had implications for the core of the faith and vigorously affirmed the resurrection.<\/p>\nBoth of these latter two areas, as well as aspects of the unity issue (particularly their concern with knowledge), have been identified by some scholars as Gnostic motifs, leading to the conclusion that Paul was opposing a Gnostic party in Corinth. Careful examination reveals, however, that while some of the elements floating in the Corinthian milieu would later contribute to the development of Gnosticism, it would be anachronistic to call them gnostic. While recognizing protognostic ideas in the Corinthian situation, it is important to keep interpretation within the first-century context.<\/p>\nThus, the focus of Paul’s concern was the church, its unity and purity. Paul was fighting to keep this church from disintegrating into a number of competing and bickering factions divided over moral and doctrinal issues. Furthermore, he wanted to keep the focus of the church on Jesus, the exalted Lord.<\/p>\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Greeting, 1:1-9<\/h5>\nPaul begins with a standard greeting, followed by his usual thanksgiving prayer. Two features stand out. First, the greeting associates Sosthenes with Paul. While we cannot be sure who Sosthenes was, he was surely well known to the Corinthians; probably he was the Sosthenes whom Acts 18:17 identifies as the ruler of the synagogue, following the conversion of Crispus.<\/p>\nSecond, Paul stresses the Corinthians’ abilities in speech, knowledge, and spiritual gifts. They had all of these, and these were genuine, but it was precisely these good things that they were abusing. Paul’s solution is not to suppress these gifts (indeed, he thanks God for them), but to place them in a new context.<\/p>\n<h5>Report from Chloe’s People, 1:10–4:21<\/h5>\nThe Corinthians had made Paul, Cephas (Peter), Apollos, and even Christ into party leaders. We are not sure what each of these groups stood for, but one might guess that the Pauline group stressed Paul’s slogans of liberty; the Petrine group, the need to hold to Jewish practices; and the Apollos group, the value of philosophical understanding and oratory. Whatever they stood for, Paul is appalled that it breaks their unity. His first response is to argue that his behavior was not calculated to build a following but to point to Christ. That is, he did not insist on personally baptizing converts; who performed these acts did not matter, since they were all baptized into Christ.<\/p>\nPaul immediately moves to the underlying issue, that of various persons wanting to show themselves better or wiser than others who did not have the insights of their party in the church. Their seeking for wisdom contradicts Paul’s preaching of the gospel.<\/p>\nFirst, the message of a crucified Christ (1:18) made no sense within the wisdom and values of either Jews or Greeks. It demanded a whole new way of looking on life—God’s way.<\/p>\nSecond, God had not chosen them on the basis of their status in society; quite the contrary, he had made their only status the equal status they received from him (1:26-31).<\/p>\nThird, their faith had not been based on Paul’s oratory but on the gifts of the Spirit that Paul had manifested (2:4), which had convinced them that God was acting in Paul. Thus, it was not argument that led them to God, but God’s Spirit. Therefore it was the Spirit, not human reasoning, that would continue to reveal God to them. Unless they became fools with respect to the world’s ways of reasoning, they would never be able to rethink life from the perspective of the Spirit, who gives true wisdom.<\/p>\nFourth, they were not acting on this spiritual level when they claimed Paul and others as party leaders; this activity demonstrates the evil impulse in human beings (“the flesh” or “fallen human nature”) at work since it elevates human servants rather than the God who works equally in each of them.<\/p>\nFifth, these servants were working together to build one “temple” for God based on the one foundation in Jesus Christ, that is, the church. God alone will judge how each Christian contributes to the work of building the church. But woe to the person who divides the church, for “if anyone destroys God’s temple, God will destroy him” (3:17, rsv<\/span>). (Note that here the temple imagery is used collectively; the church is the temple. In chapter 6 it will be used individually; each Christian is the temple.)<\/p>\nFinally, he points to their overrealized eschatology, for with their spiritual gifts (which were genuine) and vaunted wisdom (which was worldly) they claimed they were reigning with Christ (4:8-13). Paul, with ironic sarcasm, points out how different this claim is from the lifestyle of the apostles. The apostles lived like Jesus—a life of suffering, expecting exaltation later. The Corinthians were trying to have their exaltation now without crucifixion.<\/p>\nPaul closes this section with an admonition. He softens his words toward some who would be responsive, urging them to copy his lifestyle. The teacher was the message (vv 14-16). Timothy will also faithfully live the truth before them. Then he threatens the “arrogant” (v 18), pointing out that he will not challenge their words but their spiritual power if he comes.<\/p>\n<h5>The Report from the Corinthian Messengers, 5:1–6:20<\/h5>\nPaul now turns to three issues raised by oral reports from the messengers bearing the Corinthians’ letter to him.<\/p>\nThe first issue is that of church discipline (5:12-13). Paul cites a case of flagrant immorality—that of incest. This immorality was so clear (even pagans considered it immoral), that it was not a case of ignorance of Christian principles. Further, the church had taken no action but rather boasted in its tolerance, perhaps on the basis of a misunderstanding of Paul’s teaching on freedom from the law.<\/p>\nPaul presents three principles in this section: (1) the primary goal of church discipline is the repentance and restoration of the offender; (2) the secondary goal of church discipline is the protection of the church (5:6-8); and (3) the church is not to seek to judge or control the actions of evil persons in the world—they are God’s responsibility—but to discipline those within the church (vv 9-13). Paul will use these principles also in the following chapters (cf. 7:12-16).<\/p>\nThe second issue is that of lawsuits between Christians (6:1-11). The Corinthian society was as prone to litigation as our own, and Christians did not see anything wrong in suing each other. Paul was troubled. If Christians are to judge the world, they certainly should not bring the world in to judge issues within the church. Rather than put their cases before “those who are least esteemed by the church” (6:4, rsv<\/span>, i.e., pagan judges), they should decide the cases within the church.<\/p>\nPaul has an even better way than bypassing the pagan courts, and that is to simply suffer the wrong (1 Cor 6:7). Applying the teaching of Jesus quite literally (Mt 5:38-42), Paul argues that it would be best to allow themselves to be defrauded. Instead, the Corinthians are willing to step on their brothers in Christ to get what they feel are their rights. This raises the issue as to whether greed is not still in their hearts (1 Cor 6:9-11). While Paul accepts people who formerly did all sorts of evil (for Jesus has cleansed them), he makes it very clear that anyone presently practicing greed or immorality is not part of the kingdom, whatever their doctrinal commitments may be.<\/p>\nThe final issue in this section is that of casual sexual intercourse (6:12-20). In a world where virginity was important if a woman wished to be married and where slaves in the temple of Aphrodite were available as prostitutes, prostitution was the major form of casual sex. The libertine party used two slogans: “All things are lawful for me,” a saying that may well have been derived from Paul’s teaching, and “Food is meant for the stomach and the stomach for food”—that is, since the body works this way, it must be the Creator’s purpose. Paul qualifies rather than contradicts their slogans. Freedom is subordinate to other goals (6:12, 20). The body is not made to be used as we wish, but is to be dedicated to the Lord, as the doctrine of the resurrection demonstrates (vv 13-14).<\/p>\nFurthermore, sexual intercourse is an act of the whole person, unlike eating (Paul cites Gn 2:24; cf. Jesus in Mt 19:5). Therefore, this act takes a member (i.e., the person) from the body of Christ and makes him a unity with a prostitute (1 Cor 6:15-17). Thus immorality is unlike other sins that are external to the self, for it changes the self and thus defiles the body, the place where the Holy Spirit dwells. It disregards the fact that Christ has redeemed the body, and that the whole of the Christian belongs to God, not to the Christian.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Answers to the Corinthians, 7:1–16:4<\/h5>\nNow Paul turns to the Corinthians’ own issues, building on the answers he has already given to questions they did not ask.<\/p>\nThe first issue is that of marriage (7:1-24). The slogan of the ascetic party in Corinth (perhaps a reaction against the libertines of ch 6) was “It is good for a man not to touch a woman” (7:1, kjv<\/span>). The Corinthians applied this slogan to both married and unmarried, arguing that married Christians should abstain from sexual relations. Paul clarified the matter with three points. First, he said that this was totally unrealistic, for total abstinence would lead to immorality (vv 2, 7-9). Second, when people get married they no longer own their own bodies; their bodies belong to each other for their mutual benefit (vv 3-4). Sexual refusal denies a spouse what rightly belongs to him or her. Third, abstinence is allowed for limited periods by mutual agreement as a type of fast to help focus on Christ (v 5).<\/p>\nWhile Paul will address the issue of the unmarried more fully in 7:25-40, in a side remark he indicates that he is himself content to be unmarried. But since some do not have this gift, full sexual expression in marriage is far better than fighting passion (7:7-9). Once two Christians are married, divorce is unthinkable. A clear word of Christ proves this (Mt 5:31-32; Mk 10:11-12; Lk 16:18 and parallels), so there are no exceptions (Paul either does not know of the exception clause in Mt 19:9 or he understands it as referring to something like premarital unchastity discovered before the wedding, not to adultery after the wedding). Although in some cases a Christian couple must live separately, it is always with a view to reconciliation. The teaching of Jesus does not allow him to think of the marriage as ending (1 Cor 7:10-11).<\/p>\nBut what if the spouse is not a Christian? Paul applies his principles to a situation for which Jesus did not leave a clear word. First, since Jesus told Christians not to divorce, even in this situation the Christian may not initiate a divorce (7:12-13). Second, since Christians are not to control or judge non-Christians (6:12-13), the Christian does not need to continue the relationship if the non-Christian insists on a divorce (7:15). Third, far from defiling the Christian (as the relationship in 6:15 does), the Christian will make the relationship holy, with positive results for the children and the possible salvation of the spouse (7:14, 16). While this is no call to remain in situations of physical or sexual abuse, it is a call to remain faithful to a mixed marriage situation.<\/p>\nPaul does not believe that one normally needs to change one’s life situation to serve Christ (7:17-24). Therefore, normally each person should remain in that state of life in which he or she was when called to Christ. Paul’s examples show that he was thinking in terms of marriage or singleness, Jew (circumcision) or Gentile, slave or free, not in terms of situations that might be immoral in themselves. In the case of slaves, they can accept freedom if it becomes available, but it does not make an essential difference in their real state before God or their ability to serve Christ (vv 21-23).<\/p>\nThe second issue is that of the unmarried (7:25-40). Paul argues that single people and widows may marry—it is not wrong. Yet he advises them to remain single. Since all in this age is passing away, it would be good to stay single so as to avoid the extra suffering to which marriage exposes a person (vv 25-31). What is more, marriage always divides one’s attention between the Lord and the legitimate needs of the spouse. One must not abandon the spouse or ignore his or her needs in order to serve the Lord, but one can remain single so that the Lord can be the sole focus of life and devotion (vv 32-35). Finally, if one is in a situation in which marriage is expected, the person must make his own decision as to whether he should marry the woman for her sake (and perhaps that of the wider family) or whether he can and should simply care for her as a single person (vv 36-38). Paul closes this section by repeating his general principles (vv 39-40).<\/p>\nThe third issue Paul deals with is that of food that has been offered to idols (8:1–11:1). Most meat that was available in the marketplace came either from animals slaughtered as sacrifices in the temples or from groups of animals from which one was offered as a dedicatory sacrifice. To scrupulous Jews, all of this meat would be untouched. Furthermore, pagans invited Christians to feasts in their homes and to private feasts held in the precincts of pagan temples, where trade guilds also held feasts. Paul discusses these issues and uses them to teach wider principles of Christian conduct.<\/p>\nFirst, love, not knowledge, is the key to correct behavior (8:1-13). Some Corinthians felt superior because they were convinced that idols had no reality (there is only one God), and therefore any food offered to them was still fit to eat. Paul again accepts their slogans, but counters with the statement, “Knowledge puffs up, but love builds up” (v 1, niv<\/span>). God is not concerned with what we know or eat, but he is concerned with whether or not we love our fellow Christians. The concern is not that a fellow Christian might become enraged because one indulged, but that he or she might have a vulnerable conscience and indulge himself, even though he believed it wrong and thus in his own eyes apostasizes from the faith (i.e., rebels against Christ). Such leading astray is not love. It would be better never to eat meat than to lead a fellow Christian into sin.<\/p>\nSecond, he points out that one should subordinate one’s own interests to those of others, especially those of Christ and his gospel (9:1-23). Both the examples of the apostles, who expected the church to support them and their families (cf. Lk 10:5-7), and Scripture prove that Paul had the right to demand support from the Corinthians. This had not been his practice, for he had normally made tents to support his ministry, though he did accept gifts from other churches. Paul did this to prevent people from thinking he was peddling religion for profit (9:12) and for the personal satisfaction of doing more than he had to do (vv 16-17). This was part of Paul’s larger policy of subordinating his own personal preferences and interests to those of Christ and his gospel (vv 19-23).<\/p>\nThird, the bravado of the strong who demonstrate their liberty with disregard of fellow Christians is spiritually dangerous (9:24–10:22). It is not who begins but who completes the Christian life that counts; therefore, it is a life of discipline, not relaxed license (9:24-27). Israel in the wilderness presents an example of failure in this regard. They had “baptism” and “the Lord’s Supper” (10:2-4), just like the church, yet most of them did not make it to the Promised Land. The reason God destroyed them was simple: they turned to sin. Likewise, the Christian has to be careful not to be so proud about faith and freedom that he becomes careless about sin and falls from the faith (v 12). On the other hand, Christians need not be fearful, for the temptation is not more powerful than they are; God has provided a way of escape, if they will take it (v 13).<\/p>\nAnother link between the Israelites and the Corinthians pertains to partaking of a sacrificial meal (10:14-22). In the Lord’s Supper there is a sharing of the blood and body of Christ, just as real as Israel’s sacrifices on the altar. Food offered to idols is also a sharing, not with the supposed god, but with the real demon that is behind the idol. To try to share at both tables is to provoke God’s jealousy just as Israel did (v 22).<\/p>\nA summary of the discussion draws the three chapters together (10:23–11:1). Since the food is not changed by being offered to idols, and since all food really belongs to God, one may eat anything sold in the market—do not ask any questions (10:25-26). Likewise, the Christian may eat anything served at a dinner in the home of an unbeliever. However, if someone points out that the food was offered to idols, the Christian should pass it by, not because it would hurt him, but because it is an issue with the person who raised the question, and the Christian is concerned about the good of his neighbor (vv 27-30). In other words, follow Paul’s example as he patterns himself in turn after Christ, who served others rather than himself. Act so that God’s reputation and character shine through even in what one eats (v 31); try to offend no one but to benefit each person in moving him toward salvation (v 32).<\/p>\nThe fourth issue Paul deals with is that of order in church meetings (11:2–14:40). The Corinthians’ house churches had lively meetings, but rather than showing unity in Christ, they demonstrated selfishness. Paul had no desire to change what they did; he did want to change how they did it.<\/p>\nThe first problem in the meetings was the behavior of married women (11:1-16). The sign of marriage in that day was the wearing of a veil or distinctive hairstyle, as a ring is today. Women praying and delivering prophecies in church was no issue for Paul, but the women may have felt that this loosed them from their husbands (cf. Mk 12:25) and therefore was a reason to set aside their veils. Paul argues that husband and wife are intimately joined, just as humans are to God (1 Cor 11:3). Therefore as humans should not shame but glorify God, so the wife should act toward her husband. Thus, while Paul approves of ministry by women, he puts marriage first.<\/p>\nThe second problem in the meetings was that of making class distinctions (11:17-34). Until the weekly Lord’s Supper began to be turned into the sacrifice of the Mass in the third and fourth centuries, it was a full shared meal. Middle- and upper-class Christians could come earlier to the church gatherings and also provide better food and drink for themselves. Following the customs of pagan clubs, they had no scruples against starting early and feasting as befit their class, so long as at least simple food was provided for the slaves and peasants who could not come as early (v 21). This shamed the poorer Christians and made them feel class distinctions keenly (v 22). This, argues Paul, is not the Lord’s Supper but a sham (v 20).<\/p>\nPaul repeats the words of institution to point out that they all are participating in Christ’s body and blood (cf. 10:16-17), not their own meal. To do it in an unworthy manner, with divisions and class distinctions among them, is to profane his meal by failing to demonstrate the unity of his body, the church (11:29), and thus invite his judgment, which they were already experiencing. Instead, they should examine their own motives and truly gather as one to eat this common meal.<\/p>\nThe third problem in their meetings was the use of spiritual gifts (12:1–14:40). It is possible that some people in these house churches, under the influence of Gnostic ideas in which the spiritual is good and the material evil, and feeling inspired by a spirit, cried out, “Jesus [meaning the human Jesus as opposed to the spiritual Christ] be cursed.” It is not the Spirit of God saying this, argues Paul, for the Spirit in us cries the basic Christian confession, “Jesus is Lord.”<\/p>\nOthers in these churches were exalting their own particular gift, especially the gift of tongues, shouting down others or refusing to give them a turn. There is only one Spirit and he gives all the gifts, Paul argues (12:4-6). The Spirit manifests himself sovereignly in each Christian, not simply for the Christian’s own benefit, but for the good of all (v 7). Since it is the Spirit, not a given manifestation, that the Christian has, the gifts manifested could change from meeting to meeting.<\/p>\nThat same Spirit has made all Christians into one organic unity in Christ (12:12-13). Thus not only does the one Spirit give all the gifts—all are equally inspired—but all the gifts are equally needed for the proper functioning of the body of Christ (vv 14-26). No one can say that his lack of a given gift makes him less a part of the body; indeed, the less noticeable gifts may well be the more important. Thus, within the body of Christ, there are not only different manifestations of the Spirit through individuals in a given meeting, but different ministries or functions of individuals in the body (vv 27-31).<\/p>\nTherefore, it is not the demonstration of a particular gift that shows one’s spirituality, but how one demonstrates it—that is, whether one manifests it with love (13:1-13). Any gift exercised for selfish purposes may be a genuine gift of the Spirit, but it is worthless to the individual (vv 1-3). This is because love is the opposite of selfishness (vv 4-7). In fact, the gifts of the Spirit are only for the period between Jesus’ first coming and his second coming, when the kingdom of God will be perfectly revealed and the King will be present in person, and thus the intermediary gifts of the Spirit will be no longer necessary (vv 10, 12). It is not giftedness but faith and hope that will have a reward then, and love, which is the greatest, because it will continue as Christians live in perfect love with each other and with Jesus (v 13).<\/p>\nApplying this to Corinth, Paul argues that while one should desire all the gifts, love dictates that prophecy should be the gift of choice in the church meetings (14:1-25). The Corinthians had evidently been stressing tongues. Tongues without interpretation is of little value to anyone except to the speaker himself. It does not build anyone up; its confusion seems madness to outsiders. Outside the church meetings there is a role for tongues, both as a sign of judgment (v 21) and for private devotion (v 18), but inside, only with interpretation. Prophecy, however, both builds up and convicts, and thus is to be sought in the meetings.<\/p>\nIn the church meetings, then, both gifts and order are to prevail (14:26-40). All types of gifts are allowed expression with a goal of mutual edification, not selfish demonstration (v 26). Tongues speakers must have an interpreter; both they and prophets must speak in turn, with time being taken to evaluate the utterances after every few speakers (vv 27-33). Furthermore, the women, who were perhaps chatting in the service (perhaps due to habits learned in Jewish synagogues, where they were segregated and did not participate) are to cease their chattering, pay attention, and learn, asking questions at home if they do not understand (vv 34-36). In his concluding summary, Paul states that all should be done in an orderly manner (vv 37-40).<\/p>\nThe fifth issue Paul deals with is that of the resurrection of the dead (ch 15). Some of the problems mentioned earlier concerning loose morals (chs 5–6), ascetic denial, sexuality (ch 7), or feeling one was resurrected already (ch 11) point to the fact that some Corinthians did not believe in the resurrection of the body, though they apparently believed in the resurrection of Jesus and the immortality of the human soul.<\/p>\nPaul reaffirms that the resurrection of Jesus is an essential part of the gospel message (15:1-19). The unified voice of the church was that Jesus not only died but rose again and appeared to numerous witnesses (vv 3-11). If they were consistent in their antiresurrection argument, Christ could not have been raised. Yet if this were the case, the whole gospel message is false and all their hopes for salvation are in vain (vv 12-19).<\/p>\nSince Christ has been raised, Christians will also be raised because of their solidarity with him (15:20-28). As they had experienced the results of being in Adam, so now they will experience the results of being in Christ. But resurrection does not happen at once. There are progressive stages: (a) Christ was first; (b) Christians will be raised at his coming; (c) Christ must reign until he extends kingdom rule over the whole world, destroying all demonic powers (including death itself); and (d) then he will turn over the perfected kingdom to the Father (vv 23-28).<\/p>\nResurrection hope also explains Christian practices such as baptizing people on behalf of others who had died (probably people who had turned to Christ but had died before they could be baptized, 15:29), and willingness to risk death for Christ (vv 30-32).<\/p>\nPaul admits that there are intellectual problems involved, but these are solved when one realizes that resurrection includes both continuity and discontinuity (15:35-50). Just as seed and plant are the same and yet different, and just as many types of bodies exist, so it is with the resurrection. What was perishable, dishonorable, weak, and physical (i.e., in Adam) will be raised imperishable, glorious, powerful, and spiritual (i.e., in Christ). Indeed, it is only as Christians thus become like Christ, the heavenly man, that they can become part of God’s kingdom.<\/p>\nWith excitement Paul shares his real hope, that of transformation (15:51-58). At the coming of Christ the dead will be raised and transformed. But the living will also need transformation, and this will happen in a split second, making all of them impervious to death. Then they will truly know the victory already present in Jesus’ resurrection (vv 54-57). A concluding summary draws the practical conclusion that this teaching should give them assurance of a reward for anything done for Christ now (v 58).<\/p>\nThe sixth issue Paul deals with is that of the collection for the needy Jerusalem church (16:1-4). Because of famine in Judea in the 40s, the church there had become impoverished. Partly because of the need and partly to further the unity of the church, Paul took up a collection in some of his churches for the Judean church. He answers the Corinthians’ practical queries by stating that the collection should be made weekly according to ability, not all at once when Paul arrives (16:2). When he comes, he will send off the money with their own messengers. Paul remains vague about whether or not he will accompany them, allaying suspicions that somehow he plans to profit from it (cf. 2 Cor 8–9).<\/p>\n<h5>Final Remarks and Closing, 16:5-24<\/h5>\nHaving come to the end, Paul discusses his travel plans, including his intention for a lengthy visit whenever he leaves Ephesus (cf. 2 Cor 1). Timothy was either coming with the letter or else would arrive shortly after another mission; they were to respect him and help him return. Paul points out that he urged Apollos to visit Corinth, in case some suspect Paul is against him. A closing formal exhortation to firm faith and love leads into his final customary greetings. He praises the Corinthian messengers who had brought him their letter (16:15-18) and sends greetings from Aquila and Prisca (Priscilla), his comissionaries who had helped him found the church in Corinth (Acts 18:2-3, 18). Referring to the customary greeting in the church, he tells them to greet each other with a kiss on each cheek (16:20). Paul then takes the pen from the scribe, as was normal, and writes the closing exhortation—placing a curse on those who do not love Jesus, the common Aramaic expression used in the church “Come, O Lord” (Marana tha,<\/em> perhaps used to close services), and providing an assurance of his own love for them (vv 21-24).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; Corinth; Corinthians, Second Letter to the; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CORINTHIANS, First Letter to the<\/h3>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date and Origin<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nThere is no doubt about who wrote 1 Corinthians, for all scholars agree that the apostle Paul wrote it on his third missionary journey while he was living in Ephesus. By this time Paul was a mature, middle-aged (perhaps 55 years old) missionary, fully seasoned from planting churches around a quarter of the Mediterranean world.<\/p>\nDate and Origin<\/p>\nPaul worked in Corinth from about AD<\/span> 50 to 52. After a brief stay in Jerusalem, he returned to his missionary work, this time at Ephesus (Acts 19), where he ministered for three years (AD<\/span> 53–55\/56). During this period, he wrote at least three letters to Corinth and made a visit as well. His first letter, often called “the previous letter,” is referred to in 1 Corinthians 5:9-11. We know from this reference that the letter was misunderstood, but we know little of its content, for it has been lost.<\/p>\nSometime in AD<\/span> 55, after hearing reports from Chloe’s household (1 Cor 1:11), who were probably members of Chloe’s house church, he dictated a second letter to Corinth, our 1 Corinthians. This was probably sent off in the hands of Stephanas, Fortunatus, and Achaicus (16:17). Paul would later write a third letter to Corinth, called “the letter of tears” (2 Cor 2:2-3), and then finally 2 Corinthians.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nCorinth was a seaport city, destroyed by the Romans in 146 BC<\/span> and rebuilt in 46 BC<\/span> by Julius Caesar. After 27 BC<\/span>, it was the Roman capital of Achaia, where the proconsul had his residence (Acts 18:12). The city itself was really three cities: the port of Cenchrea, about eight miles (13 kilometers) to the east, where ships from the Aegean would unload; the port of Lechaion, about a mile (1.6 kilometers) to the west on the Gulf of Corinth, where the ships would be reloaded, their goods having been transported in wagons over the isthmus and the ships on rollers; and the city itself on the high ground in between.<\/p>\nThe acropolis of the city, on top of the steep, high Acrocorinth, contained the temple of Aphrodite, where 1,000 female slaves were dedicated to the service of this goddess of love. This distinctive cult of Corinth was dedicated to the veneration of Aphrodite, goddess of love, beauty, and fertility, who is identified with the Roman Venus. Associated with such religious practices was a general moral degradation. Corinthian morals were notoriously corrupt, even when compared with pagan Rome. Down in the city was the synagogue (Acts 18:4); for while the city as a Roman colony was largely populated by Italians, it had attracted other peoples from the Mediterranean, among whom were the Jews.<\/p>\nPurpose and Teaching<\/p>\nThe main concern of Paul in 1 Corinthians was the unity of the church. There was a self-centeredness in Corinth that resulted in building cliques within the church, in flaunting knowledge and liberty in the face of others scandalized by it, and in selfish displays in the worship services.<\/p>\nTwo other major concerns also surface in the book. First, along with other pagan practices, the lax sexual ethics of Corinth had influenced the church; Paul needed to erect some barriers. Second, there was a problem in accepting the resurrection of the body; Paul realized that this issue had implications for the core of the faith and vigorously affirmed the resurrection.<\/p>\nBoth of these latter two areas, as well as aspects of the unity issue (particularly their concern with knowledge), have been identified by some scholars as Gnostic motifs, leading to the conclusion that Paul was opposing a Gnostic party in Corinth. Careful examination reveals, however, that while some of the elements floating in the Corinthian milieu would later contribute to the development of Gnosticism, it would be anachronistic to call them gnostic. While recognizing protognostic ideas in the Corinthian situation, it is important to keep interpretation within the first-century context.<\/p>\nThus, the focus of Paul’s concern was the church, its unity and purity. Paul was fighting to keep this church from disintegrating into a number of competing and bickering factions divided over moral and doctrinal issues. Furthermore, he wanted to keep the focus of the church on Jesus, the exalted Lord.<\/p>\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Greeting, 1:1-9<\/h5>\nPaul begins with a standard greeting, followed by his usual thanksgiving prayer. Two features stand out. First, the greeting associates Sosthenes with Paul. While we cannot be sure who Sosthenes was, he was surely well known to the Corinthians; probably he was the Sosthenes whom Acts 18:17 identifies as the ruler of the synagogue, following the conversion of Crispus.<\/p>\nSecond, Paul stresses the Corinthians’ abilities in speech, knowledge, and spiritual gifts. They had all of these, and these were genuine, but it was precisely these good things that they were abusing. Paul’s solution is not to suppress these gifts (indeed, he thanks God for them), but to place them in a new context.<\/p>\n<h5>Report from Chloe’s People, 1:10–4:21<\/h5>\nThe Corinthians had made Paul, Cephas (Peter), Apollos, and even Christ into party leaders. We are not sure what each of these groups stood for, but one might guess that the Pauline group stressed Paul’s slogans of liberty; the Petrine group, the need to hold to Jewish practices; and the Apollos group, the value of philosophical understanding and oratory. Whatever they stood for, Paul is appalled that it breaks their unity. His first response is to argue that his behavior was not calculated to build a following but to point to Christ. That is, he did not insist on personally baptizing converts; who performed these acts did not matter, since they were all baptized into Christ.<\/p>\nPaul immediately moves to the underlying issue, that of various persons wanting to show themselves better or wiser than others who did not have the insights of their party in the church. Their seeking for wisdom contradicts Paul’s preaching of the gospel.<\/p>\nFirst, the message of a crucified Christ (1:18) made no sense within the wisdom and values of either Jews or Greeks. It demanded a whole new way of looking on life—God’s way.<\/p>\nSecond, God had not chosen them on the basis of their status in society; quite the contrary, he had made their only status the equal status they received from him (1:26-31).<\/p>\nThird, their faith had not been based on Paul’s oratory but on the gifts of the Spirit that Paul had manifested (2:4), which had convinced them that God was acting in Paul. Thus, it was not argument that led them to God, but God’s Spirit. Therefore it was the Spirit, not human reasoning, that would continue to reveal God to them. Unless they became fools with respect to the world’s ways of reasoning, they would never be able to rethink life from the perspective of the Spirit, who gives true wisdom.<\/p>\nFourth, they were not acting on this spiritual level when they claimed Paul and others as party leaders; this activity demonstrates the evil impulse in human beings (“the flesh” or “fallen human nature”) at work since it elevates human servants rather than the God who works equally in each of them.<\/p>\nFifth, these servants were working together to build one “temple” for God based on the one foundation in Jesus Christ, that is, the church. God alone will judge how each Christian contributes to the work of building the church. But woe to the person who divides the church, for “if anyone destroys God’s temple, God will destroy him” (3:17, rsv<\/span>). (Note that here the temple imagery is used collectively; the church is the temple. In chapter 6 it will be used individually; each Christian is the temple.)<\/p>\nFinally, he points to their overrealized eschatology, for with their spiritual gifts (which were genuine) and vaunted wisdom (which was worldly) they claimed they were reigning with Christ (4:8-13). Paul, with ironic sarcasm, points out how different this claim is from the lifestyle of the apostles. The apostles lived like Jesus—a life of suffering, expecting exaltation later. The Corinthians were trying to have their exaltation now without crucifixion.<\/p>\nPaul closes this section with an admonition. He softens his words toward some who would be responsive, urging them to copy his lifestyle. The teacher was the message (vv 14-16). Timothy will also faithfully live the truth before them. Then he threatens the “arrogant” (v 18), pointing out that he will not challenge their words but their spiritual power if he comes.<\/p>\n<h5>The Report from the Corinthian Messengers, 5:1–6:20<\/h5>\nPaul now turns to three issues raised by oral reports from the messengers bearing the Corinthians’ letter to him.<\/p>\nThe first issue is that of church discipline (5:12-13). Paul cites a case of flagrant immorality—that of incest. This immorality was so clear (even pagans considered it immoral), that it was not a case of ignorance of Christian principles. Further, the church had taken no action but rather boasted in its tolerance, perhaps on the basis of a misunderstanding of Paul’s teaching on freedom from the law.<\/p>\nPaul presents three principles in this section: (1) the primary goal of church discipline is the repentance and restoration of the offender; (2) the secondary goal of church discipline is the protection of the church (5:6-8); and (3) the church is not to seek to judge or control the actions of evil persons in the world—they are God’s responsibility—but to discipline those within the church (vv 9-13). Paul will use these principles also in the following chapters (cf. 7:12-16).<\/p>\nThe second issue is that of lawsuits between Christians (6:1-11). The Corinthian society was as prone to litigation as our own, and Christians did not see anything wrong in suing each other. Paul was troubled. If Christians are to judge the world, they certainly should not bring the world in to judge issues within the church. Rather than put their cases before “those who are least esteemed by the church” (6:4, rsv<\/span>, i.e., pagan judges), they should decide the cases within the church.<\/p>\nPaul has an even better way than bypassing the pagan courts, and that is to simply suffer the wrong (1 Cor 6:7). Applying the teaching of Jesus quite literally (Mt 5:38-42), Paul argues that it would be best to allow themselves to be defrauded. Instead, the Corinthians are willing to step on their brothers in Christ to get what they feel are their rights. This raises the issue as to whether greed is not still in their hearts (1 Cor 6:9-11). While Paul accepts people who formerly did all sorts of evil (for Jesus has cleansed them), he makes it very clear that anyone presently practicing greed or immorality is not part of the kingdom, whatever their doctrinal commitments may be.<\/p>\nThe final issue in this section is that of casual sexual intercourse (6:12-20). In a world where virginity was important if a woman wished to be married and where slaves in the temple of Aphrodite were available as prostitutes, prostitution was the major form of casual sex. The libertine party used two slogans: “All things are lawful for me,” a saying that may well have been derived from Paul’s teaching, and “Food is meant for the stomach and the stomach for food”—that is, since the body works this way, it must be the Creator’s purpose. Paul qualifies rather than contradicts their slogans. Freedom is subordinate to other goals (6:12, 20). The body is not made to be used as we wish, but is to be dedicated to the Lord, as the doctrine of the resurrection demonstrates (vv 13-14).<\/p>\nFurthermore, sexual intercourse is an act of the whole person, unlike eating (Paul cites Gn 2:24; cf. Jesus in Mt 19:5). Therefore, this act takes a member (i.e., the person) from the body of Christ and makes him a unity with a prostitute (1 Cor 6:15-17). Thus immorality is unlike other sins that are external to the self, for it changes the self and thus defiles the body, the place where the Holy Spirit dwells. It disregards the fact that Christ has redeemed the body, and that the whole of the Christian belongs to God, not to the Christian.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Answers to the Corinthians, 7:1–16:4<\/h5>\nNow Paul turns to the Corinthians’ own issues, building on the answers he has already given to questions they did not ask.<\/p>\nThe first issue is that of marriage (7:1-24). The slogan of the ascetic party in Corinth (perhaps a reaction against the libertines of ch 6) was “It is good for a man not to touch a woman” (7:1, kjv<\/span>). The Corinthians applied this slogan to both married and unmarried, arguing that married Christians should abstain from sexual relations. Paul clarified the matter with three points. First, he said that this was totally unrealistic, for total abstinence would lead to immorality (vv 2, 7-9). Second, when people get married they no longer own their own bodies; their bodies belong to each other for their mutual benefit (vv 3-4). Sexual refusal denies a spouse what rightly belongs to him or her. Third, abstinence is allowed for limited periods by mutual agreement as a type of fast to help focus on Christ (v 5).<\/p>\nWhile Paul will address the issue of the unmarried more fully in 7:25-40, in a side remark he indicates that he is himself content to be unmarried. But since some do not have this gift, full sexual expression in marriage is far better than fighting passion (7:7-9). Once two Christians are married, divorce is unthinkable. A clear word of Christ proves this (Mt 5:31-32; Mk 10:11-12; Lk 16:18 and parallels), so there are no exceptions (Paul either does not know of the exception clause in Mt 19:9 or he understands it as referring to something like premarital unchastity discovered before the wedding, not to adultery after the wedding). Although in some cases a Christian couple must live separately, it is always with a view to reconciliation. The teaching of Jesus does not allow him to think of the marriage as ending (1 Cor 7:10-11).<\/p>\nBut what if the spouse is not a Christian? Paul applies his principles to a situation for which Jesus did not leave a clear word. First, since Jesus told Christians not to divorce, even in this situation the Christian may not initiate a divorce (7:12-13). Second, since Christians are not to control or judge non-Christians (6:12-13), the Christian does not need to continue the relationship if the non-Christian insists on a divorce (7:15). Third, far from defiling the Christian (as the relationship in 6:15 does), the Christian will make the relationship holy, with positive results for the children and the possible salvation of the spouse (7:14, 16). While this is no call to remain in situations of physical or sexual abuse, it is a call to remain faithful to a mixed marriage situation.<\/p>\nPaul does not believe that one normally needs to change one’s life situation to serve Christ (7:17-24). Therefore, normally each person should remain in that state of life in which he or she was when called to Christ. Paul’s examples show that he was thinking in terms of marriage or singleness, Jew (circumcision) or Gentile, slave or free, not in terms of situations that might be immoral in themselves. In the case of slaves, they can accept freedom if it becomes available, but it does not make an essential difference in their real state before God or their ability to serve Christ (vv 21-23).<\/p>\nThe second issue is that of the unmarried (7:25-40). Paul argues that single people and widows may marry—it is not wrong. Yet he advises them to remain single. Since all in this age is passing away, it would be good to stay single so as to avoid the extra suffering to which marriage exposes a person (vv 25-31). What is more, marriage always divides one’s attention between the Lord and the legitimate needs of the spouse. One must not abandon the spouse or ignore his or her needs in order to serve the Lord, but one can remain single so that the Lord can be the sole focus of life and devotion (vv 32-35). Finally, if one is in a situation in which marriage is expected, the person must make his own decision as to whether he should marry the woman for her sake (and perhaps that of the wider family) or whether he can and should simply care for her as a single person (vv 36-38). Paul closes this section by repeating his general principles (vv 39-40).<\/p>\nThe third issue Paul deals with is that of food that has been offered to idols (8:1–11:1). Most meat that was available in the marketplace came either from animals slaughtered as sacrifices in the temples or from groups of animals from which one was offered as a dedicatory sacrifice. To scrupulous Jews, all of this meat would be untouched. Furthermore, pagans invited Christians to feasts in their homes and to private feasts held in the precincts of pagan temples, where trade guilds also held feasts. Paul discusses these issues and uses them to teach wider principles of Christian conduct.<\/p>\nFirst, love, not knowledge, is the key to correct behavior (8:1-13). Some Corinthians felt superior because they were convinced that idols had no reality (there is only one God), and therefore any food offered to them was still fit to eat. Paul again accepts their slogans, but counters with the statement, “Knowledge puffs up, but love builds up” (v 1, niv<\/span>). God is not concerned with what we know or eat, but he is concerned with whether or not we love our fellow Christians. The concern is not that a fellow Christian might become enraged because one indulged, but that he or she might have a vulnerable conscience and indulge himself, even though he believed it wrong and thus in his own eyes apostasizes from the faith (i.e., rebels against Christ). Such leading astray is not love. It would be better never to eat meat than to lead a fellow Christian into sin.<\/p>\nSecond, he points out that one should subordinate one’s own interests to those of others, especially those of Christ and his gospel (9:1-23). Both the examples of the apostles, who expected the church to support them and their families (cf. Lk 10:5-7), and Scripture prove that Paul had the right to demand support from the Corinthians. This had not been his practice, for he had normally made tents to support his ministry, though he did accept gifts from other churches. Paul did this to prevent people from thinking he was peddling religion for profit (9:12) and for the personal satisfaction of doing more than he had to do (vv 16-17). This was part of Paul’s larger policy of subordinating his own personal preferences and interests to those of Christ and his gospel (vv 19-23).<\/p>\nThird, the bravado of the strong who demonstrate their liberty with disregard of fellow Christians is spiritually dangerous (9:24–10:22). It is not who begins but who completes the Christian life that counts; therefore, it is a life of discipline, not relaxed license (9:24-27). Israel in the wilderness presents an example of failure in this regard. They had “baptism” and “the Lord’s Supper” (10:2-4), just like the church, yet most of them did not make it to the Promised Land. The reason God destroyed them was simple: they turned to sin. Likewise, the Christian has to be careful not to be so proud about faith and freedom that he becomes careless about sin and falls from the faith (v 12). On the other hand, Christians need not be fearful, for the temptation is not more powerful than they are; God has provided a way of escape, if they will take it (v 13).<\/p>\nAnother link between the Israelites and the Corinthians pertains to partaking of a sacrificial meal (10:14-22). In the Lord’s Supper there is a sharing of the blood and body of Christ, just as real as Israel’s sacrifices on the altar. Food offered to idols is also a sharing, not with the supposed god, but with the real demon that is behind the idol. To try to share at both tables is to provoke God’s jealousy just as Israel did (v 22).<\/p>\nA summary of the discussion draws the three chapters together (10:23–11:1). Since the food is not changed by being offered to idols, and since all food really belongs to God, one may eat anything sold in the market—do not ask any questions (10:25-26). Likewise, the Christian may eat anything served at a dinner in the home of an unbeliever. However, if someone points out that the food was offered to idols, the Christian should pass it by, not because it would hurt him, but because it is an issue with the person who raised the question, and the Christian is concerned about the good of his neighbor (vv 27-30). In other words, follow Paul’s example as he patterns himself in turn after Christ, who served others rather than himself. Act so that God’s reputation and character shine through even in what one eats (v 31); try to offend no one but to benefit each person in moving him toward salvation (v 32).<\/p>\nThe fourth issue Paul deals with is that of order in church meetings (11:2–14:40). The Corinthians’ house churches had lively meetings, but rather than showing unity in Christ, they demonstrated selfishness. Paul had no desire to change what they did; he did want to change how they did it.<\/p>\nThe first problem in the meetings was the behavior of married women (11:1-16). The sign of marriage in that day was the wearing of a veil or distinctive hairstyle, as a ring is today. Women praying and delivering prophecies in church was no issue for Paul, but the women may have felt that this loosed them from their husbands (cf. Mk 12:25) and therefore was a reason to set aside their veils. Paul argues that husband and wife are intimately joined, just as humans are to God (1 Cor 11:3). Therefore as humans should not shame but glorify God, so the wife should act toward her husband. Thus, while Paul approves of ministry by women, he puts marriage first.<\/p>\nThe second problem in the meetings was that of making class distinctions (11:17-34). Until the weekly Lord’s Supper began to be turned into the sacrifice of the Mass in the third and fourth centuries, it was a full shared meal. Middle- and upper-class Christians could come earlier to the church gatherings and also provide better food and drink for themselves. Following the customs of pagan clubs, they had no scruples against starting early and feasting as befit their class, so long as at least simple food was provided for the slaves and peasants who could not come as early (v 21). This shamed the poorer Christians and made them feel class distinctions keenly (v 22). This, argues Paul, is not the Lord’s Supper but a sham (v 20).<\/p>\nPaul repeats the words of institution to point out that they all are participating in Christ’s body and blood (cf. 10:16-17), not their own meal. To do it in an unworthy manner, with divisions and class distinctions among them, is to profane his meal by failing to demonstrate the unity of his body, the church (11:29), and thus invite his judgment, which they were already experiencing. Instead, they should examine their own motives and truly gather as one to eat this common meal.<\/p>\nThe third problem in their meetings was the use of spiritual gifts (12:1–14:40). It is possible that some people in these house churches, under the influence of Gnostic ideas in which the spiritual is good and the material evil, and feeling inspired by a spirit, cried out, “Jesus [meaning the human Jesus as opposed to the spiritual Christ] be cursed.” It is not the Spirit of God saying this, argues Paul, for the Spirit in us cries the basic Christian confession, “Jesus is Lord.”<\/p>\nOthers in these churches were exalting their own particular gift, especially the gift of tongues, shouting down others or refusing to give them a turn. There is only one Spirit and he gives all the gifts, Paul argues (12:4-6). The Spirit manifests himself sovereignly in each Christian, not simply for the Christian’s own benefit, but for the good of all (v 7). Since it is the Spirit, not a given manifestation, that the Christian has, the gifts manifested could change from meeting to meeting.<\/p>\nThat same Spirit has made all Christians into one organic unity in Christ (12:12-13). Thus not only does the one Spirit give all the gifts—all are equally inspired—but all the gifts are equally needed for the proper functioning of the body of Christ (vv 14-26). No one can say that his lack of a given gift makes him less a part of the body; indeed, the less noticeable gifts may well be the more important. Thus, within the body of Christ, there are not only different manifestations of the Spirit through individuals in a given meeting, but different ministries or functions of individuals in the body (vv 27-31).<\/p>\nTherefore, it is not the demonstration of a particular gift that shows one’s spirituality, but how one demonstrates it—that is, whether one manifests it with love (13:1-13). Any gift exercised for selfish purposes may be a genuine gift of the Spirit, but it is worthless to the individual (vv 1-3). This is because love is the opposite of selfishness (vv 4-7). In fact, the gifts of the Spirit are only for the period between Jesus’ first coming and his second coming, when the kingdom of God will be perfectly revealed and the King will be present in person, and thus the intermediary gifts of the Spirit will be no longer necessary (vv 10, 12). It is not giftedness but faith and hope that will have a reward then, and love, which is the greatest, because it will continue as Christians live in perfect love with each other and with Jesus (v 13).<\/p>\nApplying this to Corinth, Paul argues that while one should desire all the gifts, love dictates that prophecy should be the gift of choice in the church meetings (14:1-25). The Corinthians had evidently been stressing tongues. Tongues without interpretation is of little value to anyone except to the speaker himself. It does not build anyone up; its confusion seems madness to outsiders. Outside the church meetings there is a role for tongues, both as a sign of judgment (v 21) and for private devotion (v 18), but inside, only with interpretation. Prophecy, however, both builds up and convicts, and thus is to be sought in the meetings.<\/p>\nIn the church meetings, then, both gifts and order are to prevail (14:26-40). All types of gifts are allowed expression with a goal of mutual edification, not selfish demonstration (v 26). Tongues speakers must have an interpreter; both they and prophets must speak in turn, with time being taken to evaluate the utterances after every few speakers (vv 27-33). Furthermore, the women, who were perhaps chatting in the service (perhaps due to habits learned in Jewish synagogues, where they were segregated and did not participate) are to cease their chattering, pay attention, and learn, asking questions at home if they do not understand (vv 34-36). In his concluding summary, Paul states that all should be done in an orderly manner (vv 37-40).<\/p>\nThe fifth issue Paul deals with is that of the resurrection of the dead (ch 15). Some of the problems mentioned earlier concerning loose morals (chs 5–6), ascetic denial, sexuality (ch 7), or feeling one was resurrected already (ch 11) point to the fact that some Corinthians did not believe in the resurrection of the body, though they apparently believed in the resurrection of Jesus and the immortality of the human soul.<\/p>\nPaul reaffirms that the resurrection of Jesus is an essential part of the gospel message (15:1-19). The unified voice of the church was that Jesus not only died but rose again and appeared to numerous witnesses (vv 3-11). If they were consistent in their antiresurrection argument, Christ could not have been raised. Yet if this were the case, the whole gospel message is false and all their hopes for salvation are in vain (vv 12-19).<\/p>\nSince Christ has been raised, Christians will also be raised because of their solidarity with him (15:20-28). As they had experienced the results of being in Adam, so now they will experience the results of being in Christ. But resurrection does not happen at once. There are progressive stages: (a) Christ was first; (b) Christians will be raised at his coming; (c) Christ must reign until he extends kingdom rule over the whole world, destroying all demonic powers (including death itself); and (d) then he will turn over the perfected kingdom to the Father (vv 23-28).<\/p>\nResurrection hope also explains Christian practices such as baptizing people on behalf of others who had died (probably people who had turned to Christ but had died before they could be baptized, 15:29), and willingness to risk death for Christ (vv 30-32).<\/p>\nPaul admits that there are intellectual problems involved, but these are solved when one realizes that resurrection includes both continuity and discontinuity (15:35-50). Just as seed and plant are the same and yet different, and just as many types of bodies exist, so it is with the resurrection. What was perishable, dishonorable, weak, and physical (i.e., in Adam) will be raised imperishable, glorious, powerful, and spiritual (i.e., in Christ). Indeed, it is only as Christians thus become like Christ, the heavenly man, that they can become part of God’s kingdom.<\/p>\nWith excitement Paul shares his real hope, that of transformation (15:51-58). At the coming of Christ the dead will be raised and transformed. But the living will also need transformation, and this will happen in a split second, making all of them impervious to death. Then they will truly know the victory already present in Jesus’ resurrection (vv 54-57). A concluding summary draws the practical conclusion that this teaching should give them assurance of a reward for anything done for Christ now (v 58).<\/p>\nThe sixth issue Paul deals with is that of the collection for the needy Jerusalem church (16:1-4). Because of famine in Judea in the 40s, the church there had become impoverished. Partly because of the need and partly to further the unity of the church, Paul took up a collection in some of his churches for the Judean church. He answers the Corinthians’ practical queries by stating that the collection should be made weekly according to ability, not all at once when Paul arrives (16:2). When he comes, he will send off the money with their own messengers. Paul remains vague about whether or not he will accompany them, allaying suspicions that somehow he plans to profit from it (cf. 2 Cor 8–9).<\/p>\n<h5>Final Remarks and Closing, 16:5-24<\/h5>\nHaving come to the end, Paul discusses his travel plans, including his intention for a lengthy visit whenever he leaves Ephesus (cf. 2 Cor 1). Timothy was either coming with the letter or else would arrive shortly after another mission; they were to respect him and help him return. Paul points out that he urged Apollos to visit Corinth, in case some suspect Paul is against him. A closing formal exhortation to firm faith and love leads into his final customary greetings. He praises the Corinthian messengers who had brought him their letter (16:15-18) and sends greetings from Aquila and Prisca (Priscilla), his comissionaries who had helped him found the church in Corinth (Acts 18:2-3, 18). Referring to the customary greeting in the church, he tells them to greet each other with a kiss on each cheek (16:20). Paul then takes the pen from the scribe, as was normal, and writes the closing exhortation—placing a curse on those who do not love Jesus, the common Aramaic expression used in the church “Come, O Lord” (Marana tha,<\/em> perhaps used to close services), and providing an assurance of his own love for them (vv 21-24).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; Corinth; Corinthians, Second Letter to the; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CORINTHIANS, First Letter to the Preview • Author • Date and Origin • Background • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author There is no doubt about who wrote 1 Corinthians, for all scholars agree that the apostle Paul wrote it on his third missionary journey while he was living in Ephesus. By this time Paul was a mature, middle-aged (perhaps 55 years old) missionary, fully seasoned from planting churches around a quarter of the Mediterranean world. Date and Origin Paul worked in Corinth from abo...","summary_en":"CORINTHIANS, First Letter to the Preview • Author • Date and Origin • Background • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author There is no doubt about who wrote 1 Corinthians, for all scholars agree that the apostle Paul wrote it on his third missionary journey while he was living in Ephesus. By this time Paul was a mature, middle-aged (perhaps 55 years old) missionary, fully seasoned from planting churches around a quarter of the Mediterranean world. Date and Origin Paul worked in Corinth from abo...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57690,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:34","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:34","content_ro":"14:34-35<\/strong> This aside in the discussion on using spiritual gifts reflects a perspective on women’s roles similar to that of the Pastoral Letters (see 1 Tim 2:11-15). • Paul advises women to be silent<\/em> and submissive<\/em> in church meetings. This instruction is to be understood in light of 1 Cor 11:5, which clearly implies that women are permitted to pray and prophesy publicly. • just as the law says:<\/em> Possibly referring to Gen 3:16.<\/p>","content_en":"14:34-35<\/strong> This aside in the discussion on using spiritual gifts reflects a perspective on women’s roles similar to that of the Pastoral Letters (see 1 Tim 2:11-15). • Paul advises women to be silent<\/em> and submissive<\/em> in church meetings. This instruction is to be understood in light of 1 Cor 11:5, which clearly implies that women are permitted to pray and prophesy publicly. • just as the law says:<\/em> Possibly referring to Gen 3:16.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:34-35 This aside in the discussion on using spiritual gifts reflects a perspective on women’s roles similar to that of the Pastoral Letters (see 1 Tim 2:11-15). • Paul advises women to be silent and submissive in church meetings. This instruction is to be understood in light of 1 Cor 11:5, which clearly implies that women are permitted to pray and prophesy publicly. • just as the law says: Possibly referring to Gen 3:16.","summary_en":"14:34-35 This aside in the discussion on using spiritual gifts reflects a perspective on women’s roles similar to that of the Pastoral Letters (see 1 Tim 2:11-15). • Paul advises women to be silent and submissive in church meetings. This instruction is to be understood in light of 1 Cor 11:5, which clearly implies that women are permitted to pray and prophesy publicly. • just as the law says: Possibly referring to Gen 3:16.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85316,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:34","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:34","content_ro":"14:34-35<\/strong> This aside in the discussion on using spiritual gifts reflects a perspective on women’s roles similar to that of the Pastoral Letters (see 1 Tim 2:11-15). • Paul advises women to be silent<\/em> and submissive<\/em> in church meetings. This instruction is to be understood in light of 1 Cor 11:5, which clearly implies that women are permitted to pray and prophesy publicly. • just as the law says:<\/em> Possibly referring to Gen 3:16.<\/p>","content_en":"14:34-35<\/strong> This aside in the discussion on using spiritual gifts reflects a perspective on women’s roles similar to that of the Pastoral Letters (see 1 Tim 2:11-15). • Paul advises women to be silent<\/em> and submissive<\/em> in church meetings. This instruction is to be understood in light of 1 Cor 11:5, which clearly implies that women are permitted to pray and prophesy publicly. • just as the law says:<\/em> Possibly referring to Gen 3:16.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:34-35 This aside in the discussion on using spiritual gifts reflects a perspective on women’s roles similar to that of the Pastoral Letters (see 1 Tim 2:11-15). • Paul advises women to be silent and submissive in church meetings. This instruction is to be understood in light of 1 Cor 11:5, which clearly implies that women are permitted to pray and prophesy publicly. • just as the law says: Possibly referring to Gen 3:16.","summary_en":"14:34-35 This aside in the discussion on using spiritual gifts reflects a perspective on women’s roles similar to that of the Pastoral Letters (see 1 Tim 2:11-15). • Paul advises women to be silent and submissive in church meetings. This instruction is to be understood in light of 1 Cor 11:5, which clearly implies that women are permitted to pray and prophesy publicly. • just as the law says: Possibly referring to Gen 3:16.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112942,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:34","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:34","content_ro":"14:34-35<\/strong> This aside in the discussion on using spiritual gifts reflects a perspective on women’s roles similar to that of the Pastoral Letters (see 1 Tim 2:11-15). • Paul advises women to be silent<\/em> and submissive<\/em> in church meetings. This instruction is to be understood in light of 1 Cor 11:5, which clearly implies that women are permitted to pray and prophesy publicly. • just as the law says:<\/em> Possibly referring to Gen 3:16.<\/p>","content_en":"14:34-35<\/strong> This aside in the discussion on using spiritual gifts reflects a perspective on women’s roles similar to that of the Pastoral Letters (see 1 Tim 2:11-15). • Paul advises women to be silent<\/em> and submissive<\/em> in church meetings. This instruction is to be understood in light of 1 Cor 11:5, which clearly implies that women are permitted to pray and prophesy publicly. • just as the law says:<\/em> Possibly referring to Gen 3:16.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:34-35 This aside in the discussion on using spiritual gifts reflects a perspective on women’s roles similar to that of the Pastoral Letters (see 1 Tim 2:11-15). • Paul advises women to be silent and submissive in church meetings. This instruction is to be understood in light of 1 Cor 11:5, which clearly implies that women are permitted to pray and prophesy publicly. • just as the law says: Possibly referring to Gen 3:16.","summary_en":"14:34-35 This aside in the discussion on using spiritual gifts reflects a perspective on women’s roles similar to that of the Pastoral Letters (see 1 Tim 2:11-15). • Paul advises women to be silent and submissive in church meetings. This instruction is to be understood in light of 1 Cor 11:5, which clearly implies that women are permitted to pray and prophesy publicly. • just as the law says: Possibly referring to Gen 3:16.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140568,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:34","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:34","content_ro":"14:34-35<\/strong> This aside in the discussion on using spiritual gifts reflects a perspective on women’s roles similar to that of the Pastoral Letters (see 1 Tim 2:11-15). • Paul advises women to be silent<\/em> and submissive<\/em> in church meetings. This instruction is to be understood in light of 1 Cor 11:5, which clearly implies that women are permitted to pray and prophesy publicly. • just as the law says:<\/em> Possibly referring to Gen 3:16.<\/p>","content_en":"14:34-35<\/strong> This aside in the discussion on using spiritual gifts reflects a perspective on women’s roles similar to that of the Pastoral Letters (see 1 Tim 2:11-15). • Paul advises women to be silent<\/em> and submissive<\/em> in church meetings. This instruction is to be understood in light of 1 Cor 11:5, which clearly implies that women are permitted to pray and prophesy publicly. • just as the law says:<\/em> Possibly referring to Gen 3:16.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:34-35 This aside in the discussion on using spiritual gifts reflects a perspective on women’s roles similar to that of the Pastoral Letters (see 1 Tim 2:11-15). • Paul advises women to be silent and submissive in church meetings. This instruction is to be understood in light of 1 Cor 11:5, which clearly implies that women are permitted to pray and prophesy publicly. • just as the law says: Possibly referring to Gen 3:16.","summary_en":"14:34-35 This aside in the discussion on using spiritual gifts reflects a perspective on women’s roles similar to that of the Pastoral Letters (see 1 Tim 2:11-15). • Paul advises women to be silent and submissive in church meetings. This instruction is to be understood in light of 1 Cor 11:5, which clearly implies that women are permitted to pray and prophesy publicly. • just as the law says: Possibly referring to Gen 3:16.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":67489,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Women’s Roles in the New Testament Church","title_en":"Women’s Roles in the New Testament Church","content_ro":"<h3>Women’s Roles in the New Testament Church<\/h3>\nPaul’s words in 1 Timothy regarding women’s roles in the church were intended to correct what was happening in Ephesus, but the extent to which this passage applies to other situations is a subject of discussion. The possible understandings include the following three:<\/p>\nUniversal Interpretation.<\/em> Galatians 3:28 (“There is no longer . . . male and female”) does not negate creational gender distinctions and roles. Even if Galatians 3:28 represents the ideal of equality in God’s eternal Kingdom, gender roles should still be ordered as outlined in 1 Timothy 2:11-15 for as long as this creation continues. By way of comparison, Matthew 22:30 discusses the status of marriage in the new creation—it differs from the structure of this creation outlined in Genesis 2:23-24, and it applies to the present life only in a special and limited sense (see 1 Tim 4:3-5; Matt 19:11-12; 1 Cor 7:29-35). The structure of the new creation will be fully realized in the coming age, and it is not the ideal for the present time. Therefore, Christian women in all times and places must recognize their role in the created order of God. They must not teach men or exercise authority over men in the church (see also 1 Cor 11:2-16; 14:34-35).<\/p>\nPolemical Interpretation.<\/em> Paul was addressing a particular situation created by the false teaching within the Ephesian church (see 1 Tim 1:18-20; 4:1-5; cp. 2 Tim 3:6-9). Evidence suggests that this teaching was disturbing family relationships (see 1 Tim 4:3; Titus 1:11). It is possible that Ephesian women, caught up in the local heresy, were abusing Genesis 1–3 in their teaching. They might have been asserting female domination in the final resurrection (which, according to some of the Ephesians, had already occurred; 2 Tim 2:18) and accentuated Adam’s blame for the Fall. Paul corrects their misreadings by alluding to the biblical text, but his point is not to make a universal statement about the status of women in the church. His concern is merely to silence the false teachers in Ephesus, including the women among them. First Timothy 2:11-15 entails a rebuke with loss of privilege specifically for those false teachers.<\/p>\nCultural Interpretation.<\/em> Paul’s argument was not necessarily directed to a local problem in Ephesus, but it presupposes a strongly patriarchal society, both in concern for public decorum (women in their place, showing proper honor to men) and in handling Genesis 2:7, 22. This shows that Christians must respect cultural norms insofar as possible in their evangelistic mission (1 Cor 9:19-23). In addition, most women in that society had limited training as teachers. Their society, in contrast to many twenty-first-century societies, usually educated women poorly. Because of that culture’s patriarchal structure, women would not normally have qualified as teachers and leaders. First Timothy 2:11-15, therefore, reflects the notion that properly qualified people should lead and teach. At the same time, there are examples in Paul’s writings and in the early church of women participating in various facets of ministry (e.g., Acts 18:26; Rom 16:1-7; 1 Cor 11:5). This leads to questions about the universal applicability of Paul’s statements on women in the church.<\/p>\nChristians continue to discuss these complex issues. Many Christians today subscribe to a complementarian viewpoint, affirming distinct gender roles in the church, while many others take an egalitarian position, supporting the notion that men and women share equal roles in the church. All Christians affirm, however, the equality of men and women with respect to their identity as beloved children of God (see Galatians 3:26-28).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 2:23-24; Acts 18:26; Rom 16:1-7; 1 Cor 11:2-16; 14:34-35; Gal 3:28; 1 Tim 2:11-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Women’s Roles in the New Testament Church<\/h3>\nPaul’s words in 1 Timothy regarding women’s roles in the church were intended to correct what was happening in Ephesus, but the extent to which this passage applies to other situations is a subject of discussion. The possible understandings include the following three:<\/p>\nUniversal Interpretation.<\/em> Galatians 3:28 (“There is no longer . . . male and female”) does not negate creational gender distinctions and roles. Even if Galatians 3:28 represents the ideal of equality in God’s eternal Kingdom, gender roles should still be ordered as outlined in 1 Timothy 2:11-15 for as long as this creation continues. By way of comparison, Matthew 22:30 discusses the status of marriage in the new creation—it differs from the structure of this creation outlined in Genesis 2:23-24, and it applies to the present life only in a special and limited sense (see 1 Tim 4:3-5; Matt 19:11-12; 1 Cor 7:29-35). The structure of the new creation will be fully realized in the coming age, and it is not the ideal for the present time. Therefore, Christian women in all times and places must recognize their role in the created order of God. They must not teach men or exercise authority over men in the church (see also 1 Cor 11:2-16; 14:34-35).<\/p>\nPolemical Interpretation.<\/em> Paul was addressing a particular situation created by the false teaching within the Ephesian church (see 1 Tim 1:18-20; 4:1-5; cp. 2 Tim 3:6-9). Evidence suggests that this teaching was disturbing family relationships (see 1 Tim 4:3; Titus 1:11). It is possible that Ephesian women, caught up in the local heresy, were abusing Genesis 1–3 in their teaching. They might have been asserting female domination in the final resurrection (which, according to some of the Ephesians, had already occurred; 2 Tim 2:18) and accentuated Adam’s blame for the Fall. Paul corrects their misreadings by alluding to the biblical text, but his point is not to make a universal statement about the status of women in the church. His concern is merely to silence the false teachers in Ephesus, including the women among them. First Timothy 2:11-15 entails a rebuke with loss of privilege specifically for those false teachers.<\/p>\nCultural Interpretation.<\/em> Paul’s argument was not necessarily directed to a local problem in Ephesus, but it presupposes a strongly patriarchal society, both in concern for public decorum (women in their place, showing proper honor to men) and in handling Genesis 2:7, 22. This shows that Christians must respect cultural norms insofar as possible in their evangelistic mission (1 Cor 9:19-23). In addition, most women in that society had limited training as teachers. Their society, in contrast to many twenty-first-century societies, usually educated women poorly. Because of that culture’s patriarchal structure, women would not normally have qualified as teachers and leaders. First Timothy 2:11-15, therefore, reflects the notion that properly qualified people should lead and teach. At the same time, there are examples in Paul’s writings and in the early church of women participating in various facets of ministry (e.g., Acts 18:26; Rom 16:1-7; 1 Cor 11:5). This leads to questions about the universal applicability of Paul’s statements on women in the church.<\/p>\nChristians continue to discuss these complex issues. Many Christians today subscribe to a complementarian viewpoint, affirming distinct gender roles in the church, while many others take an egalitarian position, supporting the notion that men and women share equal roles in the church. All Christians affirm, however, the equality of men and women with respect to their identity as beloved children of God (see Galatians 3:26-28).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 2:23-24; Acts 18:26; Rom 16:1-7; 1 Cor 11:2-16; 14:34-35; Gal 3:28; 1 Tim 2:11-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Women’s Roles in the New Testament Church Paul’s words in 1 Timothy regarding women’s roles in the church were intended to correct what was happening in Ephesus, but the extent to which this passage applies to other situations is a subject of discussion. The possible understandings include the following three: Universal Interpretation. Galatians 3:28 (“There is no longer . . . male and female”) does not negate creational gender distinctions and roles. Even if Galatians 3:28 represents the ide...","summary_en":"Women’s Roles in the New Testament Church Paul’s words in 1 Timothy regarding women’s roles in the church were intended to correct what was happening in Ephesus, but the extent to which this passage applies to other situations is a subject of discussion. The possible understandings include the following three: Universal Interpretation. Galatians 3:28 (“There is no longer . . . male and female”) does not negate creational gender distinctions and roles. Even if Galatians 3:28 represents the ide...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":95115,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Women’s Roles in the New Testament Church","title_en":"Women’s Roles in the New Testament Church","content_ro":"<h3>Women’s Roles in the New Testament Church<\/h3>\nPaul’s words in 1 Timothy regarding women’s roles in the church were intended to correct what was happening in Ephesus, but the extent to which this passage applies to other situations is a subject of discussion. The possible understandings include the following three:<\/p>\nUniversal Interpretation.<\/em> Galatians 3:28 (“There is no longer . . . male and female”) does not negate creational gender distinctions and roles. Even if Galatians 3:28 represents the ideal of equality in God’s eternal Kingdom, gender roles should still be ordered as outlined in 1 Timothy 2:11-15 for as long as this creation continues. By way of comparison, Matthew 22:30 discusses the status of marriage in the new creation—it differs from the structure of this creation outlined in Genesis 2:23-24, and it applies to the present life only in a special and limited sense (see 1 Tim 4:3-5; Matt 19:11-12; 1 Cor 7:29-35). The structure of the new creation will be fully realized in the coming age, and it is not the ideal for the present time. Therefore, Christian women in all times and places must recognize their role in the created order of God. They must not teach men or exercise authority over men in the church (see also 1 Cor 11:2-16; 14:34-35).<\/p>\nPolemical Interpretation.<\/em> Paul was addressing a particular situation created by the false teaching within the Ephesian church (see 1 Tim 1:18-20; 4:1-5; cp. 2 Tim 3:6-9). Evidence suggests that this teaching was disturbing family relationships (see 1 Tim 4:3; Titus 1:11). It is possible that Ephesian women, caught up in the local heresy, were abusing Genesis 1–3 in their teaching. They might have been asserting female domination in the final resurrection (which, according to some of the Ephesians, had already occurred; 2 Tim 2:18) and accentuated Adam’s blame for the Fall. Paul corrects their misreadings by alluding to the biblical text, but his point is not to make a universal statement about the status of women in the church. His concern is merely to silence the false teachers in Ephesus, including the women among them. First Timothy 2:11-15 entails a rebuke with loss of privilege specifically for those false teachers.<\/p>\nCultural Interpretation.<\/em> Paul’s argument was not necessarily directed to a local problem in Ephesus, but it presupposes a strongly patriarchal society, both in concern for public decorum (women in their place, showing proper honor to men) and in handling Genesis 2:7, 22. This shows that Christians must respect cultural norms insofar as possible in their evangelistic mission (1 Cor 9:19-23). In addition, most women in that society had limited training as teachers. Their society, in contrast to many twenty-first-century societies, usually educated women poorly. Because of that culture’s patriarchal structure, women would not normally have qualified as teachers and leaders. First Timothy 2:11-15, therefore, reflects the notion that properly qualified people should lead and teach. At the same time, there are examples in Paul’s writings and in the early church of women participating in various facets of ministry (e.g., Acts 18:26; Rom 16:1-7; 1 Cor 11:5). This leads to questions about the universal applicability of Paul’s statements on women in the church.<\/p>\nChristians continue to discuss these complex issues. Many Christians today subscribe to a complementarian viewpoint, affirming distinct gender roles in the church, while many others take an egalitarian position, supporting the notion that men and women share equal roles in the church. All Christians affirm, however, the equality of men and women with respect to their identity as beloved children of God (see Galatians 3:26-28).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 2:23-24; Acts 18:26; Rom 16:1-7; 1 Cor 11:2-16; 14:34-35; Gal 3:28; 1 Tim 2:11-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Women’s Roles in the New Testament Church<\/h3>\nPaul’s words in 1 Timothy regarding women’s roles in the church were intended to correct what was happening in Ephesus, but the extent to which this passage applies to other situations is a subject of discussion. The possible understandings include the following three:<\/p>\nUniversal Interpretation.<\/em> Galatians 3:28 (“There is no longer . . . male and female”) does not negate creational gender distinctions and roles. Even if Galatians 3:28 represents the ideal of equality in God’s eternal Kingdom, gender roles should still be ordered as outlined in 1 Timothy 2:11-15 for as long as this creation continues. By way of comparison, Matthew 22:30 discusses the status of marriage in the new creation—it differs from the structure of this creation outlined in Genesis 2:23-24, and it applies to the present life only in a special and limited sense (see 1 Tim 4:3-5; Matt 19:11-12; 1 Cor 7:29-35). The structure of the new creation will be fully realized in the coming age, and it is not the ideal for the present time. Therefore, Christian women in all times and places must recognize their role in the created order of God. They must not teach men or exercise authority over men in the church (see also 1 Cor 11:2-16; 14:34-35).<\/p>\nPolemical Interpretation.<\/em> Paul was addressing a particular situation created by the false teaching within the Ephesian church (see 1 Tim 1:18-20; 4:1-5; cp. 2 Tim 3:6-9). Evidence suggests that this teaching was disturbing family relationships (see 1 Tim 4:3; Titus 1:11). It is possible that Ephesian women, caught up in the local heresy, were abusing Genesis 1–3 in their teaching. They might have been asserting female domination in the final resurrection (which, according to some of the Ephesians, had already occurred; 2 Tim 2:18) and accentuated Adam’s blame for the Fall. Paul corrects their misreadings by alluding to the biblical text, but his point is not to make a universal statement about the status of women in the church. His concern is merely to silence the false teachers in Ephesus, including the women among them. First Timothy 2:11-15 entails a rebuke with loss of privilege specifically for those false teachers.<\/p>\nCultural Interpretation.<\/em> Paul’s argument was not necessarily directed to a local problem in Ephesus, but it presupposes a strongly patriarchal society, both in concern for public decorum (women in their place, showing proper honor to men) and in handling Genesis 2:7, 22. This shows that Christians must respect cultural norms insofar as possible in their evangelistic mission (1 Cor 9:19-23). In addition, most women in that society had limited training as teachers. Their society, in contrast to many twenty-first-century societies, usually educated women poorly. Because of that culture’s patriarchal structure, women would not normally have qualified as teachers and leaders. First Timothy 2:11-15, therefore, reflects the notion that properly qualified people should lead and teach. At the same time, there are examples in Paul’s writings and in the early church of women participating in various facets of ministry (e.g., Acts 18:26; Rom 16:1-7; 1 Cor 11:5). This leads to questions about the universal applicability of Paul’s statements on women in the church.<\/p>\nChristians continue to discuss these complex issues. Many Christians today subscribe to a complementarian viewpoint, affirming distinct gender roles in the church, while many others take an egalitarian position, supporting the notion that men and women share equal roles in the church. All Christians affirm, however, the equality of men and women with respect to their identity as beloved children of God (see Galatians 3:26-28).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 2:23-24; Acts 18:26; Rom 16:1-7; 1 Cor 11:2-16; 14:34-35; Gal 3:28; 1 Tim 2:11-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Women’s Roles in the New Testament Church Paul’s words in 1 Timothy regarding women’s roles in the church were intended to correct what was happening in Ephesus, but the extent to which this passage applies to other situations is a subject of discussion. The possible understandings include the following three: Universal Interpretation. Galatians 3:28 (“There is no longer . . . male and female”) does not negate creational gender distinctions and roles. Even if Galatians 3:28 represents the ide...","summary_en":"Women’s Roles in the New Testament Church Paul’s words in 1 Timothy regarding women’s roles in the church were intended to correct what was happening in Ephesus, but the extent to which this passage applies to other situations is a subject of discussion. The possible understandings include the following three: Universal Interpretation. Galatians 3:28 (“There is no longer . . . male and female”) does not negate creational gender distinctions and roles. Even if Galatians 3:28 represents the ide...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":122741,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Women’s Roles in the New Testament Church","title_en":"Women’s Roles in the New Testament Church","content_ro":"<h3>Women’s Roles in the New Testament Church<\/h3>\nPaul’s words in 1 Timothy regarding women’s roles in the church were intended to correct what was happening in Ephesus, but the extent to which this passage applies to other situations is a subject of discussion. The possible understandings include the following three:<\/p>\nUniversal Interpretation.<\/em> Galatians 3:28 (“There is no longer . . . male and female”) does not negate creational gender distinctions and roles. Even if Galatians 3:28 represents the ideal of equality in God’s eternal Kingdom, gender roles should still be ordered as outlined in 1 Timothy 2:11-15 for as long as this creation continues. By way of comparison, Matthew 22:30 discusses the status of marriage in the new creation—it differs from the structure of this creation outlined in Genesis 2:23-24, and it applies to the present life only in a special and limited sense (see 1 Tim 4:3-5; Matt 19:11-12; 1 Cor 7:29-35). The structure of the new creation will be fully realized in the coming age, and it is not the ideal for the present time. Therefore, Christian women in all times and places must recognize their role in the created order of God. They must not teach men or exercise authority over men in the church (see also 1 Cor 11:2-16; 14:34-35).<\/p>\nPolemical Interpretation.<\/em> Paul was addressing a particular situation created by the false teaching within the Ephesian church (see 1 Tim 1:18-20; 4:1-5; cp. 2 Tim 3:6-9). Evidence suggests that this teaching was disturbing family relationships (see 1 Tim 4:3; Titus 1:11). It is possible that Ephesian women, caught up in the local heresy, were abusing Genesis 1–3 in their teaching. They might have been asserting female domination in the final resurrection (which, according to some of the Ephesians, had already occurred; 2 Tim 2:18) and accentuated Adam’s blame for the Fall. Paul corrects their misreadings by alluding to the biblical text, but his point is not to make a universal statement about the status of women in the church. His concern is merely to silence the false teachers in Ephesus, including the women among them. First Timothy 2:11-15 entails a rebuke with loss of privilege specifically for those false teachers.<\/p>\nCultural Interpretation.<\/em> Paul’s argument was not necessarily directed to a local problem in Ephesus, but it presupposes a strongly patriarchal society, both in concern for public decorum (women in their place, showing proper honor to men) and in handling Genesis 2:7, 22. This shows that Christians must respect cultural norms insofar as possible in their evangelistic mission (1 Cor 9:19-23). In addition, most women in that society had limited training as teachers. Their society, in contrast to many twenty-first-century societies, usually educated women poorly. Because of that culture’s patriarchal structure, women would not normally have qualified as teachers and leaders. First Timothy 2:11-15, therefore, reflects the notion that properly qualified people should lead and teach. At the same time, there are examples in Paul’s writings and in the early church of women participating in various facets of ministry (e.g., Acts 18:26; Rom 16:1-7; 1 Cor 11:5). This leads to questions about the universal applicability of Paul’s statements on women in the church.<\/p>\nChristians continue to discuss these complex issues. Many Christians today subscribe to a complementarian viewpoint, affirming distinct gender roles in the church, while many others take an egalitarian position, supporting the notion that men and women share equal roles in the church. All Christians affirm, however, the equality of men and women with respect to their identity as beloved children of God (see Galatians 3:26-28).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 2:23-24; Acts 18:26; Rom 16:1-7; 1 Cor 11:2-16; 14:34-35; Gal 3:28; 1 Tim 2:11-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Women’s Roles in the New Testament Church<\/h3>\nPaul’s words in 1 Timothy regarding women’s roles in the church were intended to correct what was happening in Ephesus, but the extent to which this passage applies to other situations is a subject of discussion. The possible understandings include the following three:<\/p>\nUniversal Interpretation.<\/em> Galatians 3:28 (“There is no longer . . . male and female”) does not negate creational gender distinctions and roles. Even if Galatians 3:28 represents the ideal of equality in God’s eternal Kingdom, gender roles should still be ordered as outlined in 1 Timothy 2:11-15 for as long as this creation continues. By way of comparison, Matthew 22:30 discusses the status of marriage in the new creation—it differs from the structure of this creation outlined in Genesis 2:23-24, and it applies to the present life only in a special and limited sense (see 1 Tim 4:3-5; Matt 19:11-12; 1 Cor 7:29-35). The structure of the new creation will be fully realized in the coming age, and it is not the ideal for the present time. Therefore, Christian women in all times and places must recognize their role in the created order of God. They must not teach men or exercise authority over men in the church (see also 1 Cor 11:2-16; 14:34-35).<\/p>\nPolemical Interpretation.<\/em> Paul was addressing a particular situation created by the false teaching within the Ephesian church (see 1 Tim 1:18-20; 4:1-5; cp. 2 Tim 3:6-9). Evidence suggests that this teaching was disturbing family relationships (see 1 Tim 4:3; Titus 1:11). It is possible that Ephesian women, caught up in the local heresy, were abusing Genesis 1–3 in their teaching. They might have been asserting female domination in the final resurrection (which, according to some of the Ephesians, had already occurred; 2 Tim 2:18) and accentuated Adam’s blame for the Fall. Paul corrects their misreadings by alluding to the biblical text, but his point is not to make a universal statement about the status of women in the church. His concern is merely to silence the false teachers in Ephesus, including the women among them. First Timothy 2:11-15 entails a rebuke with loss of privilege specifically for those false teachers.<\/p>\nCultural Interpretation.<\/em> Paul’s argument was not necessarily directed to a local problem in Ephesus, but it presupposes a strongly patriarchal society, both in concern for public decorum (women in their place, showing proper honor to men) and in handling Genesis 2:7, 22. This shows that Christians must respect cultural norms insofar as possible in their evangelistic mission (1 Cor 9:19-23). In addition, most women in that society had limited training as teachers. Their society, in contrast to many twenty-first-century societies, usually educated women poorly. Because of that culture’s patriarchal structure, women would not normally have qualified as teachers and leaders. First Timothy 2:11-15, therefore, reflects the notion that properly qualified people should lead and teach. At the same time, there are examples in Paul’s writings and in the early church of women participating in various facets of ministry (e.g., Acts 18:26; Rom 16:1-7; 1 Cor 11:5). This leads to questions about the universal applicability of Paul’s statements on women in the church.<\/p>\nChristians continue to discuss these complex issues. Many Christians today subscribe to a complementarian viewpoint, affirming distinct gender roles in the church, while many others take an egalitarian position, supporting the notion that men and women share equal roles in the church. All Christians affirm, however, the equality of men and women with respect to their identity as beloved children of God (see Galatians 3:26-28).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 2:23-24; Acts 18:26; Rom 16:1-7; 1 Cor 11:2-16; 14:34-35; Gal 3:28; 1 Tim 2:11-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Women’s Roles in the New Testament Church Paul’s words in 1 Timothy regarding women’s roles in the church were intended to correct what was happening in Ephesus, but the extent to which this passage applies to other situations is a subject of discussion. The possible understandings include the following three: Universal Interpretation. Galatians 3:28 (“There is no longer . . . male and female”) does not negate creational gender distinctions and roles. Even if Galatians 3:28 represents the ide...","summary_en":"Women’s Roles in the New Testament Church Paul’s words in 1 Timothy regarding women’s roles in the church were intended to correct what was happening in Ephesus, but the extent to which this passage applies to other situations is a subject of discussion. The possible understandings include the following three: Universal Interpretation. Galatians 3:28 (“There is no longer . . . male and female”) does not negate creational gender distinctions and roles. Even if Galatians 3:28 represents the ide...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":150367,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Women’s Roles in the New Testament Church","title_en":"Women’s Roles in the New Testament Church","content_ro":"<h3>Women’s Roles in the New Testament Church<\/h3>\nPaul’s words in 1 Timothy regarding women’s roles in the church were intended to correct what was happening in Ephesus, but the extent to which this passage applies to other situations is a subject of discussion. The possible understandings include the following three:<\/p>\nUniversal Interpretation.<\/em> Galatians 3:28 (“There is no longer . . . male and female”) does not negate creational gender distinctions and roles. Even if Galatians 3:28 represents the ideal of equality in God’s eternal Kingdom, gender roles should still be ordered as outlined in 1 Timothy 2:11-15 for as long as this creation continues. By way of comparison, Matthew 22:30 discusses the status of marriage in the new creation—it differs from the structure of this creation outlined in Genesis 2:23-24, and it applies to the present life only in a special and limited sense (see 1 Tim 4:3-5; Matt 19:11-12; 1 Cor 7:29-35). The structure of the new creation will be fully realized in the coming age, and it is not the ideal for the present time. Therefore, Christian women in all times and places must recognize their role in the created order of God. They must not teach men or exercise authority over men in the church (see also 1 Cor 11:2-16; 14:34-35).<\/p>\nPolemical Interpretation.<\/em> Paul was addressing a particular situation created by the false teaching within the Ephesian church (see 1 Tim 1:18-20; 4:1-5; cp. 2 Tim 3:6-9). Evidence suggests that this teaching was disturbing family relationships (see 1 Tim 4:3; Titus 1:11). It is possible that Ephesian women, caught up in the local heresy, were abusing Genesis 1–3 in their teaching. They might have been asserting female domination in the final resurrection (which, according to some of the Ephesians, had already occurred; 2 Tim 2:18) and accentuated Adam’s blame for the Fall. Paul corrects their misreadings by alluding to the biblical text, but his point is not to make a universal statement about the status of women in the church. His concern is merely to silence the false teachers in Ephesus, including the women among them. First Timothy 2:11-15 entails a rebuke with loss of privilege specifically for those false teachers.<\/p>\nCultural Interpretation.<\/em> Paul’s argument was not necessarily directed to a local problem in Ephesus, but it presupposes a strongly patriarchal society, both in concern for public decorum (women in their place, showing proper honor to men) and in handling Genesis 2:7, 22. This shows that Christians must respect cultural norms insofar as possible in their evangelistic mission (1 Cor 9:19-23). In addition, most women in that society had limited training as teachers. Their society, in contrast to many twenty-first-century societies, usually educated women poorly. Because of that culture’s patriarchal structure, women would not normally have qualified as teachers and leaders. First Timothy 2:11-15, therefore, reflects the notion that properly qualified people should lead and teach. At the same time, there are examples in Paul’s writings and in the early church of women participating in various facets of ministry (e.g., Acts 18:26; Rom 16:1-7; 1 Cor 11:5). This leads to questions about the universal applicability of Paul’s statements on women in the church.<\/p>\nChristians continue to discuss these complex issues. Many Christians today subscribe to a complementarian viewpoint, affirming distinct gender roles in the church, while many others take an egalitarian position, supporting the notion that men and women share equal roles in the church. All Christians affirm, however, the equality of men and women with respect to their identity as beloved children of God (see Galatians 3:26-28).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 2:23-24; Acts 18:26; Rom 16:1-7; 1 Cor 11:2-16; 14:34-35; Gal 3:28; 1 Tim 2:11-15<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Women’s Roles in the New Testament Church<\/h3>\nPaul’s words in 1 Timothy regarding women’s roles in the church were intended to correct what was happening in Ephesus, but the extent to which this passage applies to other situations is a subject of discussion. The possible understandings include the following three:<\/p>\nUniversal Interpretation.<\/em> Galatians 3:28 (“There is no longer . . . male and female”) does not negate creational gender distinctions and roles. Even if Galatians 3:28 represents the ideal of equality in God’s eternal Kingdom, gender roles should still be ordered as outlined in 1 Timothy 2:11-15 for as long as this creation continues. By way of comparison, Matthew 22:30 discusses the status of marriage in the new creation—it differs from the structure of this creation outlined in Genesis 2:23-24, and it applies to the present life only in a special and limited sense (see 1 Tim 4:3-5; Matt 19:11-12; 1 Cor 7:29-35). The structure of the new creation will be fully realized in the coming age, and it is not the ideal for the present time. Therefore, Christian women in all times and places must recognize their role in the created order of God. They must not teach men or exercise authority over men in the church (see also 1 Cor 11:2-16; 14:34-35).<\/p>\nPolemical Interpretation.<\/em> Paul was addressing a particular situation created by the false teaching within the Ephesian church (see 1 Tim 1:18-20; 4:1-5; cp. 2 Tim 3:6-9). Evidence suggests that this teaching was disturbing family relationships (see 1 Tim 4:3; Titus 1:11). It is possible that Ephesian women, caught up in the local heresy, were abusing Genesis 1–3 in their teaching. They might have been asserting female domination in the final resurrection (which, according to some of the Ephesians, had already occurred; 2 Tim 2:18) and accentuated Adam’s blame for the Fall. Paul corrects their misreadings by alluding to the biblical text, but his point is not to make a universal statement about the status of women in the church. His concern is merely to silence the false teachers in Ephesus, including the women among them. First Timothy 2:11-15 entails a rebuke with loss of privilege specifically for those false teachers.<\/p>\nCultural Interpretation.<\/em> Paul’s argument was not necessarily directed to a local problem in Ephesus, but it presupposes a strongly patriarchal society, both in concern for public decorum (women in their place, showing proper honor to men) and in handling Genesis 2:7, 22. This shows that Christians must respect cultural norms insofar as possible in their evangelistic mission (1 Cor 9:19-23). In addition, most women in that society had limited training as teachers. Their society, in contrast to many twenty-first-century societies, usually educated women poorly. Because of that culture’s patriarchal structure, women would not normally have qualified as teachers and leaders. First Timothy 2:11-15, therefore, reflects the notion that properly qualified people should lead and teach. At the same time, there are examples in Paul’s writings and in the early church of women participating in various facets of ministry (e.g., Acts 18:26; Rom 16:1-7; 1 Cor 11:5). This leads to questions about the universal applicability of Paul’s statements on women in the church.<\/p>\nChristians continue to discuss these complex issues. Many Christians today subscribe to a complementarian viewpoint, affirming distinct gender roles in the church, while many others take an egalitarian position, supporting the notion that men and women share equal roles in the church. All Christians affirm, however, the equality of men and women with respect to their identity as beloved children of God (see Galatians 3:26-28).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 2:23-24; Acts 18:26; Rom 16:1-7; 1 Cor 11:2-16; 14:34-35; Gal 3:28; 1 Tim 2:11-15<\/p>","summary_ro":"Women’s Roles in the New Testament Church Paul’s words in 1 Timothy regarding women’s roles in the church were intended to correct what was happening in Ephesus, but the extent to which this passage applies to other situations is a subject of discussion. The possible understandings include the following three: Universal Interpretation. Galatians 3:28 (“There is no longer . . . male and female”) does not negate creational gender distinctions and roles. Even if Galatians 3:28 represents the ide...","summary_en":"Women’s Roles in the New Testament Church Paul’s words in 1 Timothy regarding women’s roles in the church were intended to correct what was happening in Ephesus, but the extent to which this passage applies to other situations is a subject of discussion. The possible understandings include the following three: Universal Interpretation. Galatians 3:28 (“There is no longer . . . male and female”) does not negate creational gender distinctions and roles. Even if Galatians 3:28 represents the ide...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"35":[{"id":6594,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Church Meetings","title_en":"Church Meetings","content_ro":"<h3>CHURCH MEETINGS<\/h3>\nThe assembling together of the believers. In the NT, the Greek word ekklesia<\/span> (usually translated “church”) is used primarily in two ways: (1) to describe a meeting or an assembly, and (2) to designate the people who participate in such assembling together—whether they are actually assembled or not. The NT contains a few places that speak of a secular Greek assembly (Acts 19:32, 41); every other instance speaks of a Christian assembly. Sometimes the word ekklesia<\/span> is used to designate the actual meeting together of Christians. This is certainly what Paul intended in 1 Corinthians 14:19, 28, and 35, in that the expression en ekklesia<\/span> must mean “in a meeting” and not “in the church.” To translate this phrase “in the church” (as is done in most modern English versions) is misleading, for most readers will think it means “in the church building.” The NT never once names the place of assembly a “church.” Aside from the few instances where the word clearly means the actual meeting together of believers, ekklesia<\/span> most often is used as a descriptor for the believers who constitute a local church (such as the church in Corinth, the church in Philippi, and the church in Colosse) or all the believers (past, present, and future) who constitute the universal church, the complete body of Christ.<\/p>\nWhen reading the NT, Christians need to be aware of the various ways in which the word ekklesia<\/span> (“church”) is used. On the most basic level, the ekklesia<\/span> is any gathering of believers. On another level, the ekklesia<\/span> is an organized local entity—comprised of all the believers in any given locality, under one pluralistic eldership. On another level, the ekklesia<\/span> is the universal church whose constituents are all the believers who have ever been, are now existing, and will ever be. The word ekklesia<\/span> was used by the NT writers with these various aspects of meaning, though, at times, it is not possible to differentiate one from the other. Nevertheless, students of the NT could avoid some confusion if they used discrimination in their exegesis of the text. Some interpreters have taught that the smallest unit of the church is the local church, but the NT writers sometimes used the word “church” to indicate a small home gathering. Other interpreters confuse the local church with the universal church. But some things in the NT are addressed to a local church that do not necessarily apply to the whole church, and some great things are spoken of the universal church that could never be attained by any particular local group. The things Paul said about the church in the Epistle to the Ephesians (which was written as an encyclical for several churches and not just for the church in Ephesus) could never be attained by a local church. For example, what local church could attain to the fullness of the stature of Christ?<\/p>\nThere is much to be said about how interpreters have confused the local church with the universal church, but this article is devoted to clearing up the confusion about what constitutes the smallest unit of the church—the local church, or what could be called the house church or home gathering.<\/p>\nThe NT seems to present the fact that a particular local church (i.e., a church comprising all the believers in a given locality under one eldership) could and did have several ekklesiai<\/span>—“meetings” or “assemblies” (carried on in homes of the local Christians). Thus, the smallest unit to comprise a “church” was one of these home meetings. However, there is no indication in the NT that each of these home meetings had its own eldership or was a distinct entity separate from the other gatherings (<\/em>ekklesiai<\/span>)<\/em> in the same locality. According to Acts 14:23 and Titus 1:5, elders were appointed for every local church (compare the expressions “appointed elders in every church” and “appoint elders in every city”)—not for every house church. Nevertheless, it appears that every local church of some size had several such ekklesiai<\/span> (“meetings”) going on within that locality.<\/p>\nThe church in Jerusalem must have had several home meetings (see Acts 2:46; 5:42; 8:3; 12:5, 12), as did the church in Rome (see Rom 16:3-5, 14-15 and comments below). A small local church may have had only one home gathering—as was probably the case with the church at Colosse (see Phlm 1:2 and comments below), but this would have been impossible for large local churches like those in Jerusalem, Rome, and Ephesus, in which there must have been several “house churches” (see 1 Cor 16:19-20 [1 Cor was written from Ephesus] and comments below). An examination of the passages that deal with the issue of the “house church” should affirm this. These passages are Romans 16:3-5, 14-15; 1 Corinthians 16:19-20; Colossians 4:15-16; and Philemon 1:1-2 (all quoted from the rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h4>Romans 16:3-5, 14-15<\/h4>\nIn the last chapter of Romans, Paul asked the believers in Rome, to whom he had written this epistle, to greet Priscilla and Aquila and the church that met in their home (16:3-5). The entire church in Rome could not have met in Priscilla and Aquila’s home, for the church was much too large to have assembled in a single home. Rather, the church in Priscilla and Aquila’s home must have been one among several such “house churches” in Rome. The following discussion should substantiate this position.<\/p>\nPaul’s Epistle to the Romans was addressed to “all God’s beloved in Rome” (1:7), not to “the church in Rome.” At the time of writing, Paul had not been to Rome—nor had any other apostle. The church was probably started there by Jewish Romans who had been converted during their visit to Jerusalem during Pentecost (Acts 2:10) and then returned to Rome. Since the church had not been started by an apostle, it could have been that there were no “ordained” elders in the church at Rome and that there were several gatherings of believers in various parts of Rome and its suburbs. Paul knew some of the saints in Rome (whom he addressed by name in the last chapter) and thus addressed an epistle to all the saints in that locality, instead of to the church in that locality—which was his usual practice (see 1 Cor 1:1; 2 Cor 1:1; 1 Thes 1:1; 2 Thes 1:1). Nonetheless, “all the saints in Rome” would comprise “the church in Rome” (cf. Phil 1:1, in which Paul addressed his epistle to all the saints in Philippi).<\/p>\nIn the final chapter of Romans, Paul asks all the believers in Rome (which equals the “local” church in Rome) to greet the church in Priscilla and Aquila’s house. Later in the chapter, Paul asks the church to greet Asyncritus, Phlegon, Hermas, Patrobas, Hermes, and the brothers with them; and then again he asks the church to greet Philologus, Julia, Nereus and his sister, Olympas, and all the saints with them (16:14-15). Evidently, Paul was identifying two other groups of believers who must have met together. (And perhaps Paul was referring to two more groups in 16:10-11, which in the Greek could mean the ones of Aristobulus’s and Narcissus’s households<\/em> or the ones of their fellowships.<\/em>) It seems that the church in Rome, like the church in Jerusalem and Ephesus, had several home ekklesiai<\/span> (meetings).<\/p>\nThe Epistle to the Romans was written around AD<\/span> 58. The Neronian persecution began around AD<\/span> 64. Secular historians such as Tacitus tell us that a vast multitude (ingens multitudo)<\/em> of Christians were tortured and killed during this persecution (Annals<\/em> 15.44). Seutonius (in his book Nero,<\/em> ch 16) said that the rapid increase of the Christians in Rome had made them unpopular. Indeed, at the time Paul penned the Epistle to the Romans he said their faith was known throughout the world (1:8), which indicates that the church in Rome had already made an impact on the Mediterranean world. When Paul came to Rome three years later (AD<\/span> 61), he came to a city that had a large church there already. From Romans 15:23, we know that the church had been in existence for many years even before Paul wrote his epistle to them. In short, the church in Rome was a large church around the time Paul wrote his epistle to them. The entire church could not have met in the home of Aquila and Priscilla, who would have had only a modest-sized dwelling (for they were tentmakers). Besides, Paul greeted over 25 individuals by name in chapter 16—and he had not yet even been to Rome!<\/p>\nThere must have been several ekklesiai<\/span> in Rome, i.e., several home churches all unified as the one local church in Rome. For example, the Christians in Rome apparently worshiped in numerous homes such as Priscilla and Aquila’s. Other churches in homes are mentioned in Colossians 4:15 and Philemon 1:2. Groups of Christians met in houses of prominent believers or in other available rooms (cf. Mt 26:16; Acts 12:12; 1 Cor 16:19; Col 4:15; Phlm 1:2). The church in Priscilla and Aquila’s house is the first of five groups of believers in Paul’s list, but the only one referred to definitely as a church (see Rom 16:5, 10-11, 14-15). Priscilla and Aquila opened their home for Christian meetings. The church mentioned there was obviously only a part of the total number of Christians in Rome. Verses 10-11 and 14-15 seem to refer to two other household churches in Rome. Apparently, there were at least three churches there, and probably more. Each house church could not have been a separate entity with a separate church government; rather, each house church must have been simply one home meeting of some of the saints in the one local church at Rome.<\/p>\n<h4>1 Corinthians 16:19-20<\/h4>\nIn this passage we again see Aquila and Priscilla and again discover that a church met in their house. According to Romans, their house church was, of course, in Rome. According to 1 Corinthians (written from Ephesus), their house church was in Ephesus. Many scholars think Aquila and Priscilla left Rome around AD<\/span> 49 at the time of Claudius’s edict expelling Jews from Rome. They very well could have already been Christians at this time. According to Acts 18, they joined Paul in Corinth (where they all worked together in their craft of tentmaking) and then went on with him to Ephesus, during the time (around AD<\/span> 51) the church in Ephesus was first established. Paul continued on with his second missionary journey, while Aquila and Priscilla remained in Ephesus. No doubt, the early church there first met in their home. Paul returned to Ephesus a few years later and remained there for two years (around AD<\/span> 53–54). During this time, Paul’s proclamation of the gospel went out from Ephesus (as a center) to all of Asia Minor (see Acts 19:8-10). As this was going on, the church in Ephesus grew (see vv 18-20).<\/p>\nIt was during these years that Paul wrote to the Corinthians, in which he sent greetings from the churches in Asia, from Aquila and Priscilla—and the church in their house, and from all the brothers (1 Cor 16:19-20). In giving this kind of greeting, it seems that Paul was sending greetings from (1) all the churches in Asia Minor, (2) the church in Ephesus (equivalent to “all the brothers”), and (3) those believers who gathered with Aquila and Priscilla in their home. It would be hard to imagine that all the saints in Ephesus met at Aquila and Priscilla’s home. The church probably began that way, but as it grew, so did the number of home meetings. From other portions of the NT (specifically 1 Timothy, which was written around AD<\/span> 64 by Paul to Timothy while Timothy was leading the church in Ephesus), we discover that there must have been several home meetings in Ephesus because there were so many saints there (see 1 Timothy 5–6, which reveal that there must have been a large number of saints in Ephesus—young men, young women, older men, widows, and so forth). At any rate, several saints must have hosted an ekklesia<\/span>,<\/em> a meeting, in their home. (Aquila and Priscilla left Ephesus around AD<\/span> 56\/57 and returned to Rome, where again they hosted a church in their home. Others in Ephesus would have to open their homes.) But each such ekklesia<\/span> did not have its own eldership; rather, all of the church in Ephesus was under one eldership—headed up by Timothy, Paul’s coworker.<\/p>\n<h4>Colossians 4:15-16<\/h4>\nIn this portion, we again read about a church existing in the home of one called Nymphas. In his final remarks to the church in Colosse, Paul asked the saints in Colosse to send his greetings to (1) the brothers that are in Laodicea, (2) Nymphas in particular, and (3) the church in Nymphas’s house. According to the structure of Colossians 4:15, it seems evident that the first greeting included all the believers in Laodicea (a neighboring church to Colosse), who would comprise the entire church in Laodicea (called “the church of the Laodiceans” in Col 4:16), and that the second and third greetings were to a specific individual (Nymphas) in the church in Laodicea and a church meeting in Nymphas’s house. This church meeting in Nymphas’s house would probably be one of several home meetings—all part of the one local church in Laodicea.<\/p>\nThere is a textual problem in this passage that could have some effect on the interpretation of it. Some manuscripts read “his house”; others read “her house”; still others read “their house.” Because it cannot be determined from the Greek text whether Nymphas was male or female, various scribes used different pronouns before “house.” Between the readings “her” and “his,” it is far more likely that the pronoun “her” was changed to “his” than vice versa. Some scholars say that “their” refers to “the brothers” at Laodicea. But that does not make sense if we understand that “the brothers in Laodicea” is equal to the church in Laodicea. How could the church in Laodicea have the church in their house? Other scholars indicate that the Greek word for “their” (<\/em>auton<\/span>)<\/em> refers to the ones with Nymphas—i.e., the members of his household. Whether the reading was “her house” or “their house,” a particular group of believers within the church of Laodicea met there. Their meeting could legitimately be called an ekklesia<\/span>—an assembling together.<\/p>\n<h4>Philemon 1:1-2<\/h4>\nThis is the last time in the NT we read about a church in a particular home. Paul wrote a short epistle to Philemon, an elder of the church in Colosse, on behalf of Onesimus, Philemon’s runaway slave converted by Paul to Christ. In his introduction to this short epistle, Paul sends his greetings to Philemon, Apphia, Archippus, and the church in Philemon’s house. It is important to note that Paul did not send greetings to all the saints in Colosse and then to the church in Philemon’s house (as is the pattern in 1 Cor 16:19-20 and Col 4:15); instead, he just sent greetings to Philemon and to the church in his house. Therefore, we can assume that the entire church in Colosse must have met at Philemon’s house.<\/p>\n<h4>Worship in the Home Meetings and Church Meetings<\/h4>\nWhen the church first began in Jerusalem, the believers met in homes for fellowship and worship. Acts 2:42-47 tells us that the early Christians met in homes to hear the apostles’ teachings and to celebrate Communion (which is called “the breaking of bread”). During such gatherings, the Christians often shared meals with one another in what was called a love feast (2 Pt 2:13; Jude 1:12). At these meetings, the Christians recited Scripture, sang hymns and psalms, and joyfully praised the Lord (see Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16-17). Christians also gathered together in homes to pray (Acts 12:12) and read the Word.<\/p>\nSmall groups of believers met in homes for worship quite regularly; in a city where there were several such ekklesiai<\/span>,<\/em> all the believers would gather together for special occasions. Scripture tells us that all the believers would come together to hear an epistle from the apostles read out loud (see Acts 15:30; Col 4:16), and we can surmise from the NT record that all the Christians in a city met together once a week on Sunday, which was called the Lord’s Day. First Corinthians provides several insights about how the early Christians worshiped together when all the believers in one city met together. We know that 1 Corinthians pertains to this larger gathering because in 11:20 Paul spoke of all the believers coming together in one place and in 14:23 he spoke of the whole church coming together in one place.<\/p>\nPaul used this epistle to correct the Corinthians’ behavior in the celebration of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:17-34) and in the exercising of spiritual gifts during church meetings (ch 14). Paul’s adjustments reveal his perceptions of a model Christian meeting, and his preceptions were probably developed from actual experience in other church meetings. Paul urged the Corinthians to celebrate the Lord’s Supper together in a manner that reflected Jesus’ institution of that meal. They were to remember the Lord and his death for them, and they were to partake of the bread and wine with all seriousness. At the same time, they were to be conscious of the fact that they were members of the same body of Christ—joined to one another, and also to Christ.<\/p>\nAccording to Paul’s presentation in chapter 14, this “body consciousness” should be evident in the way the believers worshiped together. One’s personal experience and liberty should not hinder the coordination of the body in worshiping God corporately. Thus, when the believers exercised their spiritual gifts—whether it be prophesying, speaking in tongues, providing interpretations of the tongues, or teaching—it should be done in good order and for the edification of the congregation, not personal edification. When all the church assembled together to worship God, it should be a display of spiritual unity.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Church.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CHURCH MEETINGS<\/h3>\nThe assembling together of the believers. In the NT, the Greek word ekklesia<\/span> (usually translated “church”) is used primarily in two ways: (1) to describe a meeting or an assembly, and (2) to designate the people who participate in such assembling together—whether they are actually assembled or not. The NT contains a few places that speak of a secular Greek assembly (Acts 19:32, 41); every other instance speaks of a Christian assembly. Sometimes the word ekklesia<\/span> is used to designate the actual meeting together of Christians. This is certainly what Paul intended in 1 Corinthians 14:19, 28, and 35, in that the expression en ekklesia<\/span> must mean “in a meeting” and not “in the church.” To translate this phrase “in the church” (as is done in most modern English versions) is misleading, for most readers will think it means “in the church building.” The NT never once names the place of assembly a “church.” Aside from the few instances where the word clearly means the actual meeting together of believers, ekklesia<\/span> most often is used as a descriptor for the believers who constitute a local church (such as the church in Corinth, the church in Philippi, and the church in Colosse) or all the believers (past, present, and future) who constitute the universal church, the complete body of Christ.<\/p>\nWhen reading the NT, Christians need to be aware of the various ways in which the word ekklesia<\/span> (“church”) is used. On the most basic level, the ekklesia<\/span> is any gathering of believers. On another level, the ekklesia<\/span> is an organized local entity—comprised of all the believers in any given locality, under one pluralistic eldership. On another level, the ekklesia<\/span> is the universal church whose constituents are all the believers who have ever been, are now existing, and will ever be. The word ekklesia<\/span> was used by the NT writers with these various aspects of meaning, though, at times, it is not possible to differentiate one from the other. Nevertheless, students of the NT could avoid some confusion if they used discrimination in their exegesis of the text. Some interpreters have taught that the smallest unit of the church is the local church, but the NT writers sometimes used the word “church” to indicate a small home gathering. Other interpreters confuse the local church with the universal church. But some things in the NT are addressed to a local church that do not necessarily apply to the whole church, and some great things are spoken of the universal church that could never be attained by any particular local group. The things Paul said about the church in the Epistle to the Ephesians (which was written as an encyclical for several churches and not just for the church in Ephesus) could never be attained by a local church. For example, what local church could attain to the fullness of the stature of Christ?<\/p>\nThere is much to be said about how interpreters have confused the local church with the universal church, but this article is devoted to clearing up the confusion about what constitutes the smallest unit of the church—the local church, or what could be called the house church or home gathering.<\/p>\nThe NT seems to present the fact that a particular local church (i.e., a church comprising all the believers in a given locality under one eldership) could and did have several ekklesiai<\/span>—“meetings” or “assemblies” (carried on in homes of the local Christians). Thus, the smallest unit to comprise a “church” was one of these home meetings. However, there is no indication in the NT that each of these home meetings had its own eldership or was a distinct entity separate from the other gatherings (<\/em>ekklesiai<\/span>)<\/em> in the same locality. According to Acts 14:23 and Titus 1:5, elders were appointed for every local church (compare the expressions “appointed elders in every church” and “appoint elders in every city”)—not for every house church. Nevertheless, it appears that every local church of some size had several such ekklesiai<\/span> (“meetings”) going on within that locality.<\/p>\nThe church in Jerusalem must have had several home meetings (see Acts 2:46; 5:42; 8:3; 12:5, 12), as did the church in Rome (see Rom 16:3-5, 14-15 and comments below). A small local church may have had only one home gathering—as was probably the case with the church at Colosse (see Phlm 1:2 and comments below), but this would have been impossible for large local churches like those in Jerusalem, Rome, and Ephesus, in which there must have been several “house churches” (see 1 Cor 16:19-20 [1 Cor was written from Ephesus] and comments below). An examination of the passages that deal with the issue of the “house church” should affirm this. These passages are Romans 16:3-5, 14-15; 1 Corinthians 16:19-20; Colossians 4:15-16; and Philemon 1:1-2 (all quoted from the rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h4>Romans 16:3-5, 14-15<\/h4>\nIn the last chapter of Romans, Paul asked the believers in Rome, to whom he had written this epistle, to greet Priscilla and Aquila and the church that met in their home (16:3-5). The entire church in Rome could not have met in Priscilla and Aquila’s home, for the church was much too large to have assembled in a single home. Rather, the church in Priscilla and Aquila’s home must have been one among several such “house churches” in Rome. The following discussion should substantiate this position.<\/p>\nPaul’s Epistle to the Romans was addressed to “all God’s beloved in Rome” (1:7), not to “the church in Rome.” At the time of writing, Paul had not been to Rome—nor had any other apostle. The church was probably started there by Jewish Romans who had been converted during their visit to Jerusalem during Pentecost (Acts 2:10) and then returned to Rome. Since the church had not been started by an apostle, it could have been that there were no “ordained” elders in the church at Rome and that there were several gatherings of believers in various parts of Rome and its suburbs. Paul knew some of the saints in Rome (whom he addressed by name in the last chapter) and thus addressed an epistle to all the saints in that locality, instead of to the church in that locality—which was his usual practice (see 1 Cor 1:1; 2 Cor 1:1; 1 Thes 1:1; 2 Thes 1:1). Nonetheless, “all the saints in Rome” would comprise “the church in Rome” (cf. Phil 1:1, in which Paul addressed his epistle to all the saints in Philippi).<\/p>\nIn the final chapter of Romans, Paul asks all the believers in Rome (which equals the “local” church in Rome) to greet the church in Priscilla and Aquila’s house. Later in the chapter, Paul asks the church to greet Asyncritus, Phlegon, Hermas, Patrobas, Hermes, and the brothers with them; and then again he asks the church to greet Philologus, Julia, Nereus and his sister, Olympas, and all the saints with them (16:14-15). Evidently, Paul was identifying two other groups of believers who must have met together. (And perhaps Paul was referring to two more groups in 16:10-11, which in the Greek could mean the ones of Aristobulus’s and Narcissus’s households<\/em> or the ones of their fellowships.<\/em>) It seems that the church in Rome, like the church in Jerusalem and Ephesus, had several home ekklesiai<\/span> (meetings).<\/p>\nThe Epistle to the Romans was written around AD<\/span> 58. The Neronian persecution began around AD<\/span> 64. Secular historians such as Tacitus tell us that a vast multitude (ingens multitudo)<\/em> of Christians were tortured and killed during this persecution (Annals<\/em> 15.44). Seutonius (in his book Nero,<\/em> ch 16) said that the rapid increase of the Christians in Rome had made them unpopular. Indeed, at the time Paul penned the Epistle to the Romans he said their faith was known throughout the world (1:8), which indicates that the church in Rome had already made an impact on the Mediterranean world. When Paul came to Rome three years later (AD<\/span> 61), he came to a city that had a large church there already. From Romans 15:23, we know that the church had been in existence for many years even before Paul wrote his epistle to them. In short, the church in Rome was a large church around the time Paul wrote his epistle to them. The entire church could not have met in the home of Aquila and Priscilla, who would have had only a modest-sized dwelling (for they were tentmakers). Besides, Paul greeted over 25 individuals by name in chapter 16—and he had not yet even been to Rome!<\/p>\nThere must have been several ekklesiai<\/span> in Rome, i.e., several home churches all unified as the one local church in Rome. For example, the Christians in Rome apparently worshiped in numerous homes such as Priscilla and Aquila’s. Other churches in homes are mentioned in Colossians 4:15 and Philemon 1:2. Groups of Christians met in houses of prominent believers or in other available rooms (cf. Mt 26:16; Acts 12:12; 1 Cor 16:19; Col 4:15; Phlm 1:2). The church in Priscilla and Aquila’s house is the first of five groups of believers in Paul’s list, but the only one referred to definitely as a church (see Rom 16:5, 10-11, 14-15). Priscilla and Aquila opened their home for Christian meetings. The church mentioned there was obviously only a part of the total number of Christians in Rome. Verses 10-11 and 14-15 seem to refer to two other household churches in Rome. Apparently, there were at least three churches there, and probably more. Each house church could not have been a separate entity with a separate church government; rather, each house church must have been simply one home meeting of some of the saints in the one local church at Rome.<\/p>\n<h4>1 Corinthians 16:19-20<\/h4>\nIn this passage we again see Aquila and Priscilla and again discover that a church met in their house. According to Romans, their house church was, of course, in Rome. According to 1 Corinthians (written from Ephesus), their house church was in Ephesus. Many scholars think Aquila and Priscilla left Rome around AD<\/span> 49 at the time of Claudius’s edict expelling Jews from Rome. They very well could have already been Christians at this time. According to Acts 18, they joined Paul in Corinth (where they all worked together in their craft of tentmaking) and then went on with him to Ephesus, during the time (around AD<\/span> 51) the church in Ephesus was first established. Paul continued on with his second missionary journey, while Aquila and Priscilla remained in Ephesus. No doubt, the early church there first met in their home. Paul returned to Ephesus a few years later and remained there for two years (around AD<\/span> 53–54). During this time, Paul’s proclamation of the gospel went out from Ephesus (as a center) to all of Asia Minor (see Acts 19:8-10). As this was going on, the church in Ephesus grew (see vv 18-20).<\/p>\nIt was during these years that Paul wrote to the Corinthians, in which he sent greetings from the churches in Asia, from Aquila and Priscilla—and the church in their house, and from all the brothers (1 Cor 16:19-20). In giving this kind of greeting, it seems that Paul was sending greetings from (1) all the churches in Asia Minor, (2) the church in Ephesus (equivalent to “all the brothers”), and (3) those believers who gathered with Aquila and Priscilla in their home. It would be hard to imagine that all the saints in Ephesus met at Aquila and Priscilla’s home. The church probably began that way, but as it grew, so did the number of home meetings. From other portions of the NT (specifically 1 Timothy, which was written around AD<\/span> 64 by Paul to Timothy while Timothy was leading the church in Ephesus), we discover that there must have been several home meetings in Ephesus because there were so many saints there (see 1 Timothy 5–6, which reveal that there must have been a large number of saints in Ephesus—young men, young women, older men, widows, and so forth). At any rate, several saints must have hosted an ekklesia<\/span>,<\/em> a meeting, in their home. (Aquila and Priscilla left Ephesus around AD<\/span> 56\/57 and returned to Rome, where again they hosted a church in their home. Others in Ephesus would have to open their homes.) But each such ekklesia<\/span> did not have its own eldership; rather, all of the church in Ephesus was under one eldership—headed up by Timothy, Paul’s coworker.<\/p>\n<h4>Colossians 4:15-16<\/h4>\nIn this portion, we again read about a church existing in the home of one called Nymphas. In his final remarks to the church in Colosse, Paul asked the saints in Colosse to send his greetings to (1) the brothers that are in Laodicea, (2) Nymphas in particular, and (3) the church in Nymphas’s house. According to the structure of Colossians 4:15, it seems evident that the first greeting included all the believers in Laodicea (a neighboring church to Colosse), who would comprise the entire church in Laodicea (called “the church of the Laodiceans” in Col 4:16), and that the second and third greetings were to a specific individual (Nymphas) in the church in Laodicea and a church meeting in Nymphas’s house. This church meeting in Nymphas’s house would probably be one of several home meetings—all part of the one local church in Laodicea.<\/p>\nThere is a textual problem in this passage that could have some effect on the interpretation of it. Some manuscripts read “his house”; others read “her house”; still others read “their house.” Because it cannot be determined from the Greek text whether Nymphas was male or female, various scribes used different pronouns before “house.” Between the readings “her” and “his,” it is far more likely that the pronoun “her” was changed to “his” than vice versa. Some scholars say that “their” refers to “the brothers” at Laodicea. But that does not make sense if we understand that “the brothers in Laodicea” is equal to the church in Laodicea. How could the church in Laodicea have the church in their house? Other scholars indicate that the Greek word for “their” (<\/em>auton<\/span>)<\/em> refers to the ones with Nymphas—i.e., the members of his household. Whether the reading was “her house” or “their house,” a particular group of believers within the church of Laodicea met there. Their meeting could legitimately be called an ekklesia<\/span>—an assembling together.<\/p>\n<h4>Philemon 1:1-2<\/h4>\nThis is the last time in the NT we read about a church in a particular home. Paul wrote a short epistle to Philemon, an elder of the church in Colosse, on behalf of Onesimus, Philemon’s runaway slave converted by Paul to Christ. In his introduction to this short epistle, Paul sends his greetings to Philemon, Apphia, Archippus, and the church in Philemon’s house. It is important to note that Paul did not send greetings to all the saints in Colosse and then to the church in Philemon’s house (as is the pattern in 1 Cor 16:19-20 and Col 4:15); instead, he just sent greetings to Philemon and to the church in his house. Therefore, we can assume that the entire church in Colosse must have met at Philemon’s house.<\/p>\n<h4>Worship in the Home Meetings and Church Meetings<\/h4>\nWhen the church first began in Jerusalem, the believers met in homes for fellowship and worship. Acts 2:42-47 tells us that the early Christians met in homes to hear the apostles’ teachings and to celebrate Communion (which is called “the breaking of bread”). During such gatherings, the Christians often shared meals with one another in what was called a love feast (2 Pt 2:13; Jude 1:12). At these meetings, the Christians recited Scripture, sang hymns and psalms, and joyfully praised the Lord (see Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16-17). Christians also gathered together in homes to pray (Acts 12:12) and read the Word.<\/p>\nSmall groups of believers met in homes for worship quite regularly; in a city where there were several such ekklesiai<\/span>,<\/em> all the believers would gather together for special occasions. Scripture tells us that all the believers would come together to hear an epistle from the apostles read out loud (see Acts 15:30; Col 4:16), and we can surmise from the NT record that all the Christians in a city met together once a week on Sunday, which was called the Lord’s Day. First Corinthians provides several insights about how the early Christians worshiped together when all the believers in one city met together. We know that 1 Corinthians pertains to this larger gathering because in 11:20 Paul spoke of all the believers coming together in one place and in 14:23 he spoke of the whole church coming together in one place.<\/p>\nPaul used this epistle to correct the Corinthians’ behavior in the celebration of the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor 11:17-34) and in the exercising of spiritual gifts during church meetings (ch 14). Paul’s adjustments reveal his perceptions of a model Christian meeting, and his preceptions were probably developed from actual experience in other church meetings. Paul urged the Corinthians to celebrate the Lord’s Supper together in a manner that reflected Jesus’ institution of that meal. They were to remember the Lord and his death for them, and they were to partake of the bread and wine with all seriousness. At the same time, they were to be conscious of the fact that they were members of the same body of Christ—joined to one another, and also to Christ.<\/p>\nAccording to Paul’s presentation in chapter 14, this “body consciousness” should be evident in the way the believers worshiped together. One’s personal experience and liberty should not hinder the coordination of the body in worshiping God corporately. Thus, when the believers exercised their spiritual gifts—whether it be prophesying, speaking in tongues, providing interpretations of the tongues, or teaching—it should be done in good order and for the edification of the congregation, not personal edification. When all the church assembled together to worship God, it should be a display of spiritual unity.<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Church.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CHURCH MEETINGS The assembling together of the believers. In the NT, the Greek word ekklesia (usually translated “church”) is used primarily in two ways: (1) to describe a meeting or an assembly, and (2) to designate the people who participate in such assembling together—whether they are actually assembled or not. The NT contains a few places that speak of a secular Greek assembly (Acts 19:32, 41); every other instance speaks of a Christian assembly. Sometimes the word ekklesia is used to des...","summary_en":"CHURCH MEETINGS The assembling together of the believers. In the NT, the Greek word ekklesia (usually translated “church”) is used primarily in two ways: (1) to describe a meeting or an assembly, and (2) to designate the people who participate in such assembling together—whether they are actually assembled or not. The NT contains a few places that speak of a secular Greek assembly (Acts 19:32, 41); every other instance speaks of a Christian assembly. Sometimes the word ekklesia is used to des...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"36":[{"id":57691,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:36","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:36","content_ro":"14:36-37<\/strong> Paul expected the Corinthians to take his apostolic word seriously, as a command from the Lord himself<\/em>. • What I am saying<\/em> probably refers to all of his teaching, especially as it relates to spiritual gifts.<\/p>","content_en":"14:36-37<\/strong> Paul expected the Corinthians to take his apostolic word seriously, as a command from the Lord himself<\/em>. • What I am saying<\/em> probably refers to all of his teaching, especially as it relates to spiritual gifts.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:36-37 Paul expected the Corinthians to take his apostolic word seriously, as a command from the Lord himself. • What I am saying probably refers to all of his teaching, especially as it relates to spiritual gifts.","summary_en":"14:36-37 Paul expected the Corinthians to take his apostolic word seriously, as a command from the Lord himself. • What I am saying probably refers to all of his teaching, especially as it relates to spiritual gifts.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85317,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:36","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:36","content_ro":"14:36-37<\/strong> Paul expected the Corinthians to take his apostolic word seriously, as a command from the Lord himself<\/em>. • What I am saying<\/em> probably refers to all of his teaching, especially as it relates to spiritual gifts.<\/p>","content_en":"14:36-37<\/strong> Paul expected the Corinthians to take his apostolic word seriously, as a command from the Lord himself<\/em>. • What I am saying<\/em> probably refers to all of his teaching, especially as it relates to spiritual gifts.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:36-37 Paul expected the Corinthians to take his apostolic word seriously, as a command from the Lord himself. • What I am saying probably refers to all of his teaching, especially as it relates to spiritual gifts.","summary_en":"14:36-37 Paul expected the Corinthians to take his apostolic word seriously, as a command from the Lord himself. • What I am saying probably refers to all of his teaching, especially as it relates to spiritual gifts.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112943,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:36","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:36","content_ro":"14:36-37<\/strong> Paul expected the Corinthians to take his apostolic word seriously, as a command from the Lord himself<\/em>. • What I am saying<\/em> probably refers to all of his teaching, especially as it relates to spiritual gifts.<\/p>","content_en":"14:36-37<\/strong> Paul expected the Corinthians to take his apostolic word seriously, as a command from the Lord himself<\/em>. • What I am saying<\/em> probably refers to all of his teaching, especially as it relates to spiritual gifts.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:36-37 Paul expected the Corinthians to take his apostolic word seriously, as a command from the Lord himself. • What I am saying probably refers to all of his teaching, especially as it relates to spiritual gifts.","summary_en":"14:36-37 Paul expected the Corinthians to take his apostolic word seriously, as a command from the Lord himself. • What I am saying probably refers to all of his teaching, especially as it relates to spiritual gifts.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140569,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:36","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:36","content_ro":"14:36-37<\/strong> Paul expected the Corinthians to take his apostolic word seriously, as a command from the Lord himself<\/em>. • What I am saying<\/em> probably refers to all of his teaching, especially as it relates to spiritual gifts.<\/p>","content_en":"14:36-37<\/strong> Paul expected the Corinthians to take his apostolic word seriously, as a command from the Lord himself<\/em>. • What I am saying<\/em> probably refers to all of his teaching, especially as it relates to spiritual gifts.<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:36-37 Paul expected the Corinthians to take his apostolic word seriously, as a command from the Lord himself. • What I am saying probably refers to all of his teaching, especially as it relates to spiritual gifts.","summary_en":"14:36-37 Paul expected the Corinthians to take his apostolic word seriously, as a command from the Lord himself. • What I am saying probably refers to all of his teaching, especially as it relates to spiritual gifts.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"37":[{"id":4662,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"of the Bible*, Canon","title_en":"of the Bible*, Canon","content_ro":"<h3>BIBLE*, Canon of the<\/span><\/h3>\nThose books in the Jewish and Christian Bible considered to be Scripture and therefore authoritative in matters of faith and doctrine. The term translates both a Greek and a Hebrew word that mean “a rule,” or “measuring rod.” It is a list to which other books are compared and by which they are measured. After the fourth century AD<\/span>, the Christian church found itself with only 66 books that constituted its Scripture; 27 of these were the NT and 39 were the OT. Just as Plato, Aristotle, and Homer form a canon of Greek literature, so the NT books became the canon of Christian literature. The criteria for selecting the books in the Jewish canon (the OT) are not known but clearly had to do with their worth in the ongoing life and religion of the worshiping nation. The criteria of the selection of NT books revolved around their “apostolicity,” according to early church writers. Like those of the OT, these books were collected and preserved by local churches in the continuing process of their worship and need for authoritative guidance for Christian living. The formation of the canon was a process, rather than an event, that took several hundred years to reach finality in all parts of the Roman Empire. Local canons were the basis for comparison, and out of them eventually emerged the general canon that exists in Christendom today, although some of the Eastern churches have a NT that is slightly smaller than that accepted in the West. Judaism, as well as Christianity as a whole, believes that the Spirit of God was operative in some providential way in the production and preservation of his Word.<\/p>\nCanon of the Old Testament<\/p>\nThe Old Testament is a name that does not appear in Jewish literature. Jews prefer to call their collection of Scriptures the TANAK—an acronym formed from the first letters of Torah<\/em> (Law), Nevi<\/em>’<\/em>im<\/em> (Prophets), and Kethubim<\/em> (Writings). In Luke 24:44 (niv<\/span>), these are called the “Law of Moses, the Prophets and the Psalms” (the first book of the Writings in the Hebrew Bible). Christians called their collection of writings the New Testament, or covenant, the latter term being a designation earlier used of the agreement God made with Abraham and the patriarchs, which was repeated by Christ to his apostles (Mt 26:28). Christians in the first century considered their new covenant from Christ (1 Cor 11:25) to be a continuation of the one made earlier with the patriarchs (Eph 2:12), spoken of by the prophets (Jer 31:31-34), and which was therefore called a former covenant (Heb 8:7-13; 9:1, 15-22) or in later centuries the OT. The terms “Old” and “New” do not appear in the apostolic fathers of the first and second century or in the apologists of the early- to mid-second century, but they do appear in the latter half of the second century in Justin Martyr (Dialogues<\/em> 11:2), Irenaeus (Against Heresies<\/em> 4.9.1), and Clement of Alexandria (Stromata<\/em> 1:5). In these authors the expression referred more to the covenant itself than to the books containing it, though the transfer was eventually made. The term “canon” was not used in the OT or NT to refer to the Jewish Scriptures. The idea of limitation inherent in the word was not appropriate to the nature of religious authority in Jewish religion during the thousand years when the OT books were being written. Only the Torah was conceived as incapable of being added to or taken from (Dt 4:2). Jewish religion existed for a millennium, from Moses to Malachi, without a closed canon, i.e., an exclusive list of authoritative books. Never in their history did the people of the OT have the entire 39 books of the OT. When their canon was closed is not known. Although some questions were being asked about religious authority by rabbis at Jamnia 20 years after the fall of Jerusalem in AD<\/span> 70, we have our first list of 39 books produced by Melito of Sardis around AD<\/span> 170. That list included no books written after the time of Malachi, unless one is disposed to date Daniel to the second century. The Prophets and the Writings were always considered secondary to the Law. Their composition and collection was a process rather than an event in the life of the people of Israel and functioned largely as a record of the nation’s response to the Law, which was so sacred that it was kept (according to rabbinical tradition: Babylonian Talmud, Baba Bathra<\/em> 14a; cf. also Cairo Damascus Document<\/em> 5.2) in the ark of the covenant that stood in the Holy of Holies in the tabernacle. In Deuteronomy 31:26, however, the Levites were commanded by Moses merely to put the Book of the Law beside the ark. Nevertheless, its very presence in the Holy of Holies establishes its uniqueness in relation to other OT books.<\/p>\n\nThe 39 books of the modern OT were originally divided into only 24, according to the uniform testimony of early Hebrew tradition. The Talmud, rabbinic literature, and probably 4 Esdras testify to this arrangement that included five books of the Law, eight Prophets, and eleven Writings (Greek—Hagiographa). Modern Hebrew Bibles reflect this tripartite arrangement that was used in the first three printed editions (Soncino, 1488; Naples, 1491–1493; Brescia, 1492–1494). The Law contained the Pentateuch in our familiar order, Genesis to Deuteronomy. The eight Prophets were Joshua, Judges, Samuel (1 and 2), Kings (1 and 2), Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the Minor Prophets (all 12), which were considered as one book and arranged in the same order as our English Bibles. The eleven books of Writings contained three of poetry (Ps, Prv, Jb), the Five Scrolls (Sg, Ru, Lam, Eccl, Est), which were read at the important feasts and arranged in the chronological order of their observance, and three of narrative or historical (Dn, Ezr-Neh, 1 and 2 Chr).<\/p>\nApart from authentic Jewish tradition, efforts were made to divide the books into 21, combining Ruth with Judges, and Lamentations with Jeremiah. Josephus was the first to do so, in the first century AD<\/span>, but he was influenced by the Greek OT, the Septuagint. Origen observed in the early third century that this arrangement also corresponded to the number of letters in the Hebrew alphabet, as did Athanasius in the fourth, and others, including Jerome. It was dubiously concluded that the number of books in the Hebrew Bible had been divinely ordained to agree with the number of letters of the Hebrew alphabet! Church fathers added their support to this coincidence, which became providence to them. All such efforts, however, are of Greek origin and have no support in Hebrew tradition.<\/p>\nThe oldest extant manuscripts of the complete OT in Hebrew are the Masoretic Texts, which are no earlier than the eighth century AD<\/span>. Only manuscripts of individual books have been found in the Dead Sea Scrolls. The Masoretic scribes apparently laid down no rules about arrangement of books because there is no uniform order of the Latter Prophets or the Writings in early Hebrew manuscripts. Nor is the situation any different in ancient Greek translations of the Hebrew. Great diversity exists in the order of books in all three of our oldest manuscripts—Codex Alexandrinus, Vaticanus, and Sinaiticus. All the early Christian authors who profess to give the order and contents of the Hebrew Bible but who do not reflect the Hebrew tripartite division are clearly dependent on the Alexandrian order reflected in these Greek editions, rather than on the Hebrew Bible. Modern Protestant Bibles follow the order of the Latin Vulgate and the content of the Hebrew. Both the Vulgate and the Septuagint (Greek translation) contained the Apocrypha, which was never accepted by the Jews. The Roman Catholic Church includes the Apocrypha in its English translations because of the influence of the Vulgate on Catholic tradition. It is considered deuterocanonical.<\/p>\nEven though no uniformity of order was maintained, the Alexandrian order, reflected in the Greek manuscripts, generally arranged books according to their subject matter—narrative, history, poetry, and prophecy, with the apocryphal books appropriately interspersed into these categories. The Hebrew division was totally ignored.<\/p>\nEarly Hebrew Bibles divided the text into small paragraphs and larger sections somewhat akin to our paragraphs. These were indicated by spaces left between them—three letters between the small sections and nine letters between the larger ones. The number of sections is not the same in all manuscripts. Jesus probably referred to such sections in his comment concerning the “passage about the bush” (Mk 12:26). Later, liturgical needs led to further divisions of the text for the complete reading of the Law in Babylonian synagogues in one year (54 sections) and in Palestinian synagogues in three years (154 sections). These are reflected in the lectionary cycles marked in some early Hebrew Bibles.<\/p>\nThe division of the text into modern chapters, done in the 13th century (c. 1228) for the Latin Vulgate by Stephen Langton, was applied to the Hebrew Bible in 1518 (Bomberg Edition), but the numbers were not given to the chapters until 1571 in the text of Montanus, a Hebrew Bible with Latin interlinear translation. The verses were introduced in Bomberg’s Great Bible of 1547–48 in which every fifth verse was designated by a Hebrew numeral 1, 5, 10, and so on. Verses were inserted into the Latin Vulgate in 1555 in the small octavo edition of Stephanus.<\/p>\nCanon of the New Testament<\/p>\nThe NT was written within the period of half a century, several hundred years after the completion of the OT. Both halves of that statement would be questioned by modern critics, who would extend the time span for completion of both Testaments. The writer of this survey is confident of its truthfulness to historic fact, however, and the approach taken to canonization of both OT and NT is based solidly upon that twofold premise.<\/p>\nIn a sense, we possess far higher certification of the OT canon than of the NT canon. We refer to the fact of our Lord’s own imprimatur by way of his use of the Hebrew Scriptures as the authoritative Word of God. Yet there is a sense in which Jesus Christ did establish the NT content or canon as well, by way of anticipation. It was he who promised, “The Counselor, the Holy Spirit, whom the Father will send in my name, will teach you all things and will remind you of everything I have said to you” and “he will guide you into all truth” (Jn 14:26; 16:13, niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n\nFrom this we can derive, in turn, the basic principle of canonicity for the NT. It is identical to that of the OT, since it narrows down to a matter of divine inspiration. Whether we think of the prophets of OT times or the apostles and their God-given associates of the New, the recognition at the very time of their writing that they were authentic spokesmen for God is what determines the intrinsic canonicity of their writing. It is altogether God’s Word only if it is God-breathed. We can be assured that the books under question were received by the church of the apostolic age precisely when they had been certified by an apostle as being thus inspired. The apparent variation, relative to geographic area, in acknowledgment of some of the NT epistles may well reflect the simple fact that this attestation was by its very nature localized at first. Conversely, that all 27 books of the now universally received NT were ultimately agreed upon is evidence that proper attestation was indeed confirmed after rigorous investigation.<\/p>\nTertullian, an outstanding Christian writer in the first two decades of the third century, was one of the first to call the Christian Scriptures the “New Testament.” That title had appeared earlier (c. 190) in a composition against Montanism, the author of which is unknown. This is significant. Its use placed the NT Scripture on a level of inspiration and authority with the OT.<\/p>\nFrom available information, the gradual process that led to full and formal public recognition of a fixed canon of the 27 books comprising the NT takes us down into the fourth century of our era. This does not necessarily mean that these Scriptures were lacking recognition in their entirety before that time, but that a need for officially defining the canon was not pressing until then.<\/p>\nThough a much shorter period of time was involved in the writing of the NT than the OT, the geographic range of its origin is far wider. This circumstance alone is sufficient to account for a lack of spontaneous or simultaneous recognition of the precise extent of the NT canon. Because of the geographic isolation of the various recipients of portions of the NT, there was bound to be some lag and uncertainty from one region to another in the acknowledgment of some of the books.<\/p>\nIn order to appreciate just what did transpire in the process of canonization of the NT books, we must review the facts available to us. This will enable us to analyze how<\/em> and why<\/em> our early Christian forebears settled upon the 27 books in our NT.<\/p>\nThe historic process was a gradual and continuous one, but it will help us understand it if we subdivide the nearly three and a half centuries involved into shorter periods of time. Some speak of three major stages toward canonization. This implies, without justification, that there are readily discernible steps along the way. Others simply present a long list of the names of persons and documents involved. Such a list makes it difficult to sense any motion at all. A somewhat arbitrary breakdown into five periods will be made here, with the reminder that the spreading of the knowledge of sacred literature and the deepening consensus as to its authenticity as inspired Scripture continued uninterruptedly. The periods are:<\/p>\n1. First Century<\/p>\n<li>2. First Half of Second Century<\/li>\n<li>3. Second Half of Second Century<\/li>\n<li>4. Third Century<\/li>\n<li>5. Fourth Century<\/li>\nAgain, without meaning to imply that these are clear-cut stages, it will be helpful to notice the major trends observable in each of the periods just identified. In the first period, of course, the various books were written, but they also began to be copied and disseminated among the churches. In the second, as they became more widely known and cherished for their contents, they began to be cited as authoritative. By the end of the third period, they held a recognized place alongside the OT as “Scripture,” and they began to be both translated into regional languages and made the subject of commentaries. During the third century AD<\/span>, our fourth period, the collecting of books into a whole “New Testament” was underway, together with a sifting process that was separating them from other Christian literature. The final, or fifth, period finds the church fathers of the fourth century stating that conclusions regarding the canon have been reached that indicate acceptance by the whole church. Thus, in the most strict and formal sense of the word, the canon had become fixed. It remains to list in greater detail the forces and individuals that produced the written sources witnessing to this remarkable process through which, by God’s providence, we have inherited our NT.<\/p>\n<h5>Period One: First Century<\/h5>\nThe principle determining recognition of the authority of the canonical NT writings was established within the content of those writings themselves. There are repeated exhortations for public reading of the apostolic communications. At the close of his First Letter to the Thessalonians, possibly the first book of the NT to be written, Paul says, “I command you in the name of the Lord to read this letter to all the brothers and sisters” (1 Thes 5:27, nlt<\/span>). Earlier in the same letter Paul commends their ready acceptance of his spoken word as “the word of God” (2:13), and in 1 Corinthians 14:37 he speaks similarly of his “writings,” insisting that his message be recognized as a commandment from the Lord himself. (See also Col 4:16; Rv 1:3.) In 2 Peter 3:15-16 Paul’s letters are included with “the other Scriptures.” Since Peter’s is a general letter, widespread knowledge of Paul’s letters is thereby implied. Highly indicative also is Paul’s usage in 1 Timothy 5:18. He follows up the formula “the Scriptures say” by a combined quotation about not muzzling an ox (Dt 25:4) and “the worker deserves his wages” (cf. Lk 10:7). Thus, an equivalence is implied between OT Scripture and a NT Gospel.<\/p>\nIn AD<\/span> 95, Clement of Rome wrote to the Christians in Corinth using a free rendering of material from Matthew and Luke. He seems to be strongly influenced by Hebrews and is obviously familiar with Romans and Corinthians. There are also reflections of Ephesians, 1 Timothy, Titus, and 1 Peter.<\/p>\n<h5>Period Two: First Half of Second Century<\/h5>\nOne of the earliest NT manuscripts yet discovered, a fragment of John from Egypt known as the John Rylands papyrus, demonstrates how the writings of the apostle John were revered and copied by about AD<\/span> 125, within 30 to 35 years of his death. There is evidence that within 30 years of the apostle’s death all the Gospels and Pauline letters were known and used in all those centers from which any evidence has come down to us. It is true that some of the smaller letters were being questioned as to their authority in some quarters for perhaps another 50 years, but this was due only to uncertainty about their authorship in those particular locales. This demonstrates that acceptance was not being imposed by the actions of councils but was rather happening spontaneously through a normal response on the part of those who had learned the facts about authorship. In those places where the churches were uncertain about the authorship or apostolic approval of certain books, acceptance was slower.<\/p>\nThe first three outstanding church fathers, Clement, Polycarp, and Ignatius, used the bulk of the material of the NT in a revealingly casual manner—authenticated Scriptures were being accepted as authoritative without argument. In the writings of these men only Mark (which closely parallels the material of Matthew), 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, and Jude are not clearly attested.<\/p>\nThe Epistles of Ignatius (c. AD<\/span> 115) have correspondences in several places with the Gospels and seem to incorporate language from a number of the Pauline letters. The Didache (or Teaching of the Twelve), perhaps even earlier, makes references to a written Gospel. Most important is the fact that Clement, Barnabas, and Ignatius all draw a clear distinction between their own and the inspired, authoritative apostolic writings.<\/p>\nIt is in the Epistle of Barnabas (c. AD<\/span> 130) that we first find the formula “it is written” (4:14) used in reference to a NT book (Mt 22:14). But even before this, Polycarp, who had personal acquaintance with eyewitnesses of our Lord’s ministry, used a combined OT and NT quotation. Citing Paul’s admonition in Ephesians 4:26, where the apostle quotes Psalm 4:4 and makes an addition, Polycarp in his Epistle to the Philippians introduces the reference by “as it is said in these Scriptures” (12:4). Then Papias, bishop of Hierapolis (c. 130–140), in a work preserved for us by Eusebius, mentions by name the Gospels of Matthew and Mark, and his use of them as the basis of exposition indicates his acceptance of them as canonical. Also around AD<\/span> 140, the recently discovered Gospel of Truth (a Gnostic-oriented work probably authored by Valentinius) makes an important contribution. Its use of canonical NT sources, treating them as authoritative, is comprehensive enough to warrant the conclusion that in Rome at this period there was a NT compilation in existence corresponding very closely to our own. Citations are made from the Gospels, Acts, letters of Paul, Hebrews, and the book of Revelation.<\/p>\nThe heretic Marcion, by defining a limited canon of his own (c. 140), in effect hastened the day when the orthodox believers needed to declare themselves on this issue. Rejecting the entire OT, Marcion settled for Luke’s Gospel (eliminating chapters 1 and 2 as too Jewish) and Paul’s letters (except for the pastoral ones). Interestingly, especially in the light of Colossians 4:16, he substitutes the name “Laodiceans” for Ephesians.<\/p>\nNear the end of this period, Justin Martyr, in describing the worship services of the early church, puts the apostolic writings on a par with those of the OT prophets. He states that the voice which spoke through the apostles of Christ in the NT was the same as that which spoke through the prophets—the voice of God—and the same voice that Abraham heard, responding in faith and obedience. Justin was also free in his use of “it is written” with quotations from NT Scriptures.<\/p>\n<h5>Period Three: Second Half of Second Century<\/h5>\nIrenaeus had been privileged to begin his Christian training under Polycarp, a disciple of apostles. Then, as a presbyter in Lyons, he had association with Bishop Pothinus, whose own background also included contact with firstgeneration Christians. Irenaeus quotes from almost all the NT on the basis of its authority and asserts that the apostles were endowed with power from on high. They were, he says, “fully informed concerning all things, and had a perfect knowledge . . . having indeed all in equal measure and each one singly the Gospel of God” (Against Heresies<\/em> 3.3). Irenaeus gives reasons why there should be four Gospels. “The word,” he says, “gave us the Gospel in a fourfold shape, but held together by one Spirit.” In addition to the Gospels, he makes reference also to Acts, all the letters of Paul except Philemon, 1 Peter, 1 John, and the book of Revelation.<\/p>\nTatian, pupil of Justin Martyr, made a harmony of the four Gospels, the Diatessaron,<\/em> attesting to the equal status they had in the church by AD<\/span> 170. Other “gospels” had come into existence by then, but he recognized only the four. Also dating from about 170 was the Muratorian Canon.<\/em> An eighth-century copy of this document was discovered and published in 1740 by librarian L. A. Muratori. The manuscript is mutilated at both ends, but the remaining text makes it evident that Matthew and Mark were included in the now missing part. The fragment begins with Luke and John, cites Acts, 13 Pauline letters, 1 and 2 John, Jude, and Revelation. There follows a statement, “We accept only the Apocalypse of John and Peter, although some of us do not want it [Apocalypse of Peter is 2 Peter?] to be read in the Church.” The list goes on to reject by name various heretical leaders and their writings.<\/p>\nTranslated versions existed by this period. In the form of Syriac and Old Latin translations we secure, by AD<\/span> 170, adequate witness from the extreme eastern and western branches of the church, as we might well expect from the other evidence in hand. The NT canon is represented with no additions and the omission of only one book, 2 Peter.<\/p>\n<h5>Period Four: Third Century<\/h5>\nThe outstanding Christian name of the third century is that of Origen (AD<\/span> 185– 254). A prodigious scholar and interpreter, he made critical studies of the NT text (alongside his work on the Hexapla<\/em>) and wrote commentaries and homilies on most of the books of the NT, emphasizing their inspiration by God.<\/p>\nDionysius of Alexandria, pupil of Origen, indicates that while the Western church accepted the book of Revelation from the first, its position in the East was variable. In the case of the Letter to the Hebrews, the situation was reversed. It proved to be more insecure in the West than in the East. When it comes to other contested books (note, incidently, that all in that category have the hindmost position in our present Bibles—Hebrews to Revelation), among the so-called “Catholic Epistles” Dionysius supports James and 2 and 3 John but not 2 Peter or Jude. In other words, even at the end of the third century there was the same lack of finality about certain books as at its beginning.<\/p>\n<h5>Period Five: Fourth Century<\/h5>\nEarly in this period, the picture begins to clarify. Eusebius (AD<\/span> 270–340, bishop of Caesarea before 315), the great church historian, sets forth his estimate of the canon in his Ecclesiastical History<\/em> (3.3–25). Herein he makes a straightforward statement on the status of the canon in the early part of the fourth century: (1) Universally agreed upon as canonical were the four Gospels, Acts, letters of Paul (including Hebrews, with question about his authorship), 1 Peter, 1 John, and Revelation. (2) Admitted by a majority, including Eusebius himself, but disputed by some were James, 2 Peter (the most strongly contested), 2 and 3 John, and Jude. (3) The Acts of Paul, the Didache, and Shepherd of Hermas were classified “spurious,” and still other writings were listed as “heretical and absurd.”<\/p>\nIt is in the latter half of the fourth century, however, that the NT canon finds full and final declaration. In his Festal Letter<\/em> for Easter, 367, Bishop Athanasius of Alexandria included information designed to eliminate once and for all the use of certain apocryphal books. This letter, with its admonition, “Let no one add to these; let nothing be taken away,” gives us the earliest extant document that specifies our 27 books without qualification. At the close of the century, the Council of Carthage (AD<\/span> 397) decreed that “aside from the canonical Scriptures nothing is to be read in church under the Name of Divine Scriptures.” This, too, lists the 27 books of the NT.<\/p>\nThe sudden advance of Christianity under Emperor Constantine (Edict of Milan, 313) had a great deal to do with the reception of all the NT books in the East. When he assigned Eusebius the task of preparing “fifty copies of the Divine Scriptures,” the historian, fully aware of which were the sacred books for which many believers had been willing to lay down their very lives, in effect established the standard that gave recognition to all of the once-doubtful books. In the West, of course, Jerome and Augustine were the leaders who exercised a determinitive influence. Publication of the 27 books in the Vulgate version virtually settled the matter.<\/p>\n<h5>Principles and Factors Determining the Canon<\/h5>\nBy its very nature, Holy Scripture, whether OT or NT, is a production given of God, not the work of human creation. The key to canonicity is divine inspiration. Therefore, the method of determination is not one of selection from a number of possible candidates (there are no other candidates, in actuality) but one of reception of authentic material and its consequent recognition by an ever-widening circle as the facts of its origin become known.<\/p>\nIn a sense, the movement of Montanus, which was declared heretical by the church of his day (mid-second century), was an impetus toward the recognition of a closed canon of the written Word of God. He taught that the prophetic gift was permanently granted to the church and that he himself was a prophet. The pressure to deal with Montanism, therefore, intensified the search for a basic authority, and apostolic authorship or approval became recognized as the only sure standard for identifying God’s revelation. Even within the Scripture record, first-century prophets were subordinate and subject to apostolic authority (see, for example, 1 Cor 14:29-30; Eph 4:11).<\/p>\nWhen all things were being reexamined in the Protestant Reformation, some of the Reformers sought means of reassuring themselves and their followers about the canon of Scripture. This was in some ways an unfortunate aspect of Reformation thinking, because once God in his providence had determined for his people the fixed content of Scripture, that became a fact of history and was not a repeatable process. Nevertheless, Luther established a theological test for the books of the Bible (and questioned some of them)—“Do they teach Christ?” Equally subjective, it would seem, was Calvin’s insistence that the Spirit of God bears witness to each individual Christian in any age of church history as to what is his Word and what is not.<\/p>\nActually, even for the initial acceptance of the written Word, it is neither safe nor sound (as far as Scripture or history teaches us) to say that recognition and reception was an intuitive matter. It was rather a matter of simple obedience to the known commands of Christ and his apostles. As we saw at the outset, our Lord promised (Jn 14:26; 16:13) to communicate all things necessary through his agents. The apostles were conscious of this responsibility and agency as they wrote. Paul’s explanation in 1 Corinthians 2:13 is apropos: “In telling you about these gifts we have even used the very words given to us by the Holy Spirit, not words that we as men might choose. So we use the Holy Spirit’s words to explain the Holy Spirit’s facts” (tlb<\/span>).<\/p>\nHence, the early church, with closer ties and greater information than is available to us today, examined the testimony of the ancients. They were able to discern which were the authentic and authoritative books by their apostolic origin. Mark’s association with Peter, and Luke’s with Paul, gave them such apostolic approval, and epistles like Hebrews and Jude were also tied in with the apostolic message and ministry. Incontrovertible consistency of doctrine in all the books, including the sometime contested ones, was perhaps a subordinate test. But historically the procedure was essentially one of acceptance and approval of those books that were vouched for by knowledgeable church leaders. Full acceptance by the original recipients followed by a continued acknowledgment and use is an essential factor in the development of the canon.<\/p>\nThe church’s concept of canon, derived first of all from the reverence given the OT Scriptures, rested in the conviction that the apostles were uniquely authorized to speak in the name of the one who possessed all authority—the Lord Jesus Christ. The development from there is logical and straightforward. Those who heard Jesus in person were immediately subject to his authority. He personally authenticated his words to the believers. These same believers knew that Jesus authorized his apostles to speak in his name, both during and (more significantly) after his earthly ministry. Apostolic speaking on behalf of Christ was recognized in the church, whether in personal utterance or in written form. Both the spoken word of an apostle and the letter of an apostle constituted the word of Christ.<\/p>\nThe generation that followed that of the apostles themselves received the witness of those who knew that the apostles had the right to speak and write in the name of Christ. Consequently, the second and third generation of Christians looked back to apostolic words (writings) as the very words of Christ. This is what is really meant by canonization—recognition of the divinely authenticated Word. Hence, the believers (the church) did not establish the canon but simply bore witness to its extent by recognizing the authority of the word of Christ.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BIBLE*, Canon of the<\/span><\/h3>\nThose books in the Jewish and Christian Bible considered to be Scripture and therefore authoritative in matters of faith and doctrine. The term translates both a Greek and a Hebrew word that mean “a rule,” or “measuring rod.” It is a list to which other books are compared and by which they are measured. After the fourth century AD<\/span>, the Christian church found itself with only 66 books that constituted its Scripture; 27 of these were the NT and 39 were the OT. Just as Plato, Aristotle, and Homer form a canon of Greek literature, so the NT books became the canon of Christian literature. The criteria for selecting the books in the Jewish canon (the OT) are not known but clearly had to do with their worth in the ongoing life and religion of the worshiping nation. The criteria of the selection of NT books revolved around their “apostolicity,” according to early church writers. Like those of the OT, these books were collected and preserved by local churches in the continuing process of their worship and need for authoritative guidance for Christian living. The formation of the canon was a process, rather than an event, that took several hundred years to reach finality in all parts of the Roman Empire. Local canons were the basis for comparison, and out of them eventually emerged the general canon that exists in Christendom today, although some of the Eastern churches have a NT that is slightly smaller than that accepted in the West. Judaism, as well as Christianity as a whole, believes that the Spirit of God was operative in some providential way in the production and preservation of his Word.<\/p>\nCanon of the Old Testament<\/p>\nThe Old Testament is a name that does not appear in Jewish literature. Jews prefer to call their collection of Scriptures the TANAK—an acronym formed from the first letters of Torah<\/em> (Law), Nevi<\/em>’<\/em>im<\/em> (Prophets), and Kethubim<\/em> (Writings). In Luke 24:44 (niv<\/span>), these are called the “Law of Moses, the Prophets and the Psalms” (the first book of the Writings in the Hebrew Bible). Christians called their collection of writings the New Testament, or covenant, the latter term being a designation earlier used of the agreement God made with Abraham and the patriarchs, which was repeated by Christ to his apostles (Mt 26:28). Christians in the first century considered their new covenant from Christ (1 Cor 11:25) to be a continuation of the one made earlier with the patriarchs (Eph 2:12), spoken of by the prophets (Jer 31:31-34), and which was therefore called a former covenant (Heb 8:7-13; 9:1, 15-22) or in later centuries the OT. The terms “Old” and “New” do not appear in the apostolic fathers of the first and second century or in the apologists of the early- to mid-second century, but they do appear in the latter half of the second century in Justin Martyr (Dialogues<\/em> 11:2), Irenaeus (Against Heresies<\/em> 4.9.1), and Clement of Alexandria (Stromata<\/em> 1:5). In these authors the expression referred more to the covenant itself than to the books containing it, though the transfer was eventually made. The term “canon” was not used in the OT or NT to refer to the Jewish Scriptures. The idea of limitation inherent in the word was not appropriate to the nature of religious authority in Jewish religion during the thousand years when the OT books were being written. Only the Torah was conceived as incapable of being added to or taken from (Dt 4:2). Jewish religion existed for a millennium, from Moses to Malachi, without a closed canon, i.e., an exclusive list of authoritative books. Never in their history did the people of the OT have the entire 39 books of the OT. When their canon was closed is not known. Although some questions were being asked about religious authority by rabbis at Jamnia 20 years after the fall of Jerusalem in AD<\/span> 70, we have our first list of 39 books produced by Melito of Sardis around AD<\/span> 170. That list included no books written after the time of Malachi, unless one is disposed to date Daniel to the second century. The Prophets and the Writings were always considered secondary to the Law. Their composition and collection was a process rather than an event in the life of the people of Israel and functioned largely as a record of the nation’s response to the Law, which was so sacred that it was kept (according to rabbinical tradition: Babylonian Talmud, Baba Bathra<\/em> 14a; cf. also Cairo Damascus Document<\/em> 5.2) in the ark of the covenant that stood in the Holy of Holies in the tabernacle. In Deuteronomy 31:26, however, the Levites were commanded by Moses merely to put the Book of the Law beside the ark. Nevertheless, its very presence in the Holy of Holies establishes its uniqueness in relation to other OT books.<\/p>\n\nThe 39 books of the modern OT were originally divided into only 24, according to the uniform testimony of early Hebrew tradition. The Talmud, rabbinic literature, and probably 4 Esdras testify to this arrangement that included five books of the Law, eight Prophets, and eleven Writings (Greek—Hagiographa). Modern Hebrew Bibles reflect this tripartite arrangement that was used in the first three printed editions (Soncino, 1488; Naples, 1491–1493; Brescia, 1492–1494). The Law contained the Pentateuch in our familiar order, Genesis to Deuteronomy. The eight Prophets were Joshua, Judges, Samuel (1 and 2), Kings (1 and 2), Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the Minor Prophets (all 12), which were considered as one book and arranged in the same order as our English Bibles. The eleven books of Writings contained three of poetry (Ps, Prv, Jb), the Five Scrolls (Sg, Ru, Lam, Eccl, Est), which were read at the important feasts and arranged in the chronological order of their observance, and three of narrative or historical (Dn, Ezr-Neh, 1 and 2 Chr).<\/p>\nApart from authentic Jewish tradition, efforts were made to divide the books into 21, combining Ruth with Judges, and Lamentations with Jeremiah. Josephus was the first to do so, in the first century AD<\/span>, but he was influenced by the Greek OT, the Septuagint. Origen observed in the early third century that this arrangement also corresponded to the number of letters in the Hebrew alphabet, as did Athanasius in the fourth, and others, including Jerome. It was dubiously concluded that the number of books in the Hebrew Bible had been divinely ordained to agree with the number of letters of the Hebrew alphabet! Church fathers added their support to this coincidence, which became providence to them. All such efforts, however, are of Greek origin and have no support in Hebrew tradition.<\/p>\nThe oldest extant manuscripts of the complete OT in Hebrew are the Masoretic Texts, which are no earlier than the eighth century AD<\/span>. Only manuscripts of individual books have been found in the Dead Sea Scrolls. The Masoretic scribes apparently laid down no rules about arrangement of books because there is no uniform order of the Latter Prophets or the Writings in early Hebrew manuscripts. Nor is the situation any different in ancient Greek translations of the Hebrew. Great diversity exists in the order of books in all three of our oldest manuscripts—Codex Alexandrinus, Vaticanus, and Sinaiticus. All the early Christian authors who profess to give the order and contents of the Hebrew Bible but who do not reflect the Hebrew tripartite division are clearly dependent on the Alexandrian order reflected in these Greek editions, rather than on the Hebrew Bible. Modern Protestant Bibles follow the order of the Latin Vulgate and the content of the Hebrew. Both the Vulgate and the Septuagint (Greek translation) contained the Apocrypha, which was never accepted by the Jews. The Roman Catholic Church includes the Apocrypha in its English translations because of the influence of the Vulgate on Catholic tradition. It is considered deuterocanonical.<\/p>\nEven though no uniformity of order was maintained, the Alexandrian order, reflected in the Greek manuscripts, generally arranged books according to their subject matter—narrative, history, poetry, and prophecy, with the apocryphal books appropriately interspersed into these categories. The Hebrew division was totally ignored.<\/p>\nEarly Hebrew Bibles divided the text into small paragraphs and larger sections somewhat akin to our paragraphs. These were indicated by spaces left between them—three letters between the small sections and nine letters between the larger ones. The number of sections is not the same in all manuscripts. Jesus probably referred to such sections in his comment concerning the “passage about the bush” (Mk 12:26). Later, liturgical needs led to further divisions of the text for the complete reading of the Law in Babylonian synagogues in one year (54 sections) and in Palestinian synagogues in three years (154 sections). These are reflected in the lectionary cycles marked in some early Hebrew Bibles.<\/p>\nThe division of the text into modern chapters, done in the 13th century (c. 1228) for the Latin Vulgate by Stephen Langton, was applied to the Hebrew Bible in 1518 (Bomberg Edition), but the numbers were not given to the chapters until 1571 in the text of Montanus, a Hebrew Bible with Latin interlinear translation. The verses were introduced in Bomberg’s Great Bible of 1547–48 in which every fifth verse was designated by a Hebrew numeral 1, 5, 10, and so on. Verses were inserted into the Latin Vulgate in 1555 in the small octavo edition of Stephanus.<\/p>\nCanon of the New Testament<\/p>\nThe NT was written within the period of half a century, several hundred years after the completion of the OT. Both halves of that statement would be questioned by modern critics, who would extend the time span for completion of both Testaments. The writer of this survey is confident of its truthfulness to historic fact, however, and the approach taken to canonization of both OT and NT is based solidly upon that twofold premise.<\/p>\nIn a sense, we possess far higher certification of the OT canon than of the NT canon. We refer to the fact of our Lord’s own imprimatur by way of his use of the Hebrew Scriptures as the authoritative Word of God. Yet there is a sense in which Jesus Christ did establish the NT content or canon as well, by way of anticipation. It was he who promised, “The Counselor, the Holy Spirit, whom the Father will send in my name, will teach you all things and will remind you of everything I have said to you” and “he will guide you into all truth” (Jn 14:26; 16:13, niv<\/span>).<\/p>\n\nFrom this we can derive, in turn, the basic principle of canonicity for the NT. It is identical to that of the OT, since it narrows down to a matter of divine inspiration. Whether we think of the prophets of OT times or the apostles and their God-given associates of the New, the recognition at the very time of their writing that they were authentic spokesmen for God is what determines the intrinsic canonicity of their writing. It is altogether God’s Word only if it is God-breathed. We can be assured that the books under question were received by the church of the apostolic age precisely when they had been certified by an apostle as being thus inspired. The apparent variation, relative to geographic area, in acknowledgment of some of the NT epistles may well reflect the simple fact that this attestation was by its very nature localized at first. Conversely, that all 27 books of the now universally received NT were ultimately agreed upon is evidence that proper attestation was indeed confirmed after rigorous investigation.<\/p>\nTertullian, an outstanding Christian writer in the first two decades of the third century, was one of the first to call the Christian Scriptures the “New Testament.” That title had appeared earlier (c. 190) in a composition against Montanism, the author of which is unknown. This is significant. Its use placed the NT Scripture on a level of inspiration and authority with the OT.<\/p>\nFrom available information, the gradual process that led to full and formal public recognition of a fixed canon of the 27 books comprising the NT takes us down into the fourth century of our era. This does not necessarily mean that these Scriptures were lacking recognition in their entirety before that time, but that a need for officially defining the canon was not pressing until then.<\/p>\nThough a much shorter period of time was involved in the writing of the NT than the OT, the geographic range of its origin is far wider. This circumstance alone is sufficient to account for a lack of spontaneous or simultaneous recognition of the precise extent of the NT canon. Because of the geographic isolation of the various recipients of portions of the NT, there was bound to be some lag and uncertainty from one region to another in the acknowledgment of some of the books.<\/p>\nIn order to appreciate just what did transpire in the process of canonization of the NT books, we must review the facts available to us. This will enable us to analyze how<\/em> and why<\/em> our early Christian forebears settled upon the 27 books in our NT.<\/p>\nThe historic process was a gradual and continuous one, but it will help us understand it if we subdivide the nearly three and a half centuries involved into shorter periods of time. Some speak of three major stages toward canonization. This implies, without justification, that there are readily discernible steps along the way. Others simply present a long list of the names of persons and documents involved. Such a list makes it difficult to sense any motion at all. A somewhat arbitrary breakdown into five periods will be made here, with the reminder that the spreading of the knowledge of sacred literature and the deepening consensus as to its authenticity as inspired Scripture continued uninterruptedly. The periods are:<\/p>\n1. First Century<\/p>\n<li>2. First Half of Second Century<\/li>\n<li>3. Second Half of Second Century<\/li>\n<li>4. Third Century<\/li>\n<li>5. Fourth Century<\/li>\nAgain, without meaning to imply that these are clear-cut stages, it will be helpful to notice the major trends observable in each of the periods just identified. In the first period, of course, the various books were written, but they also began to be copied and disseminated among the churches. In the second, as they became more widely known and cherished for their contents, they began to be cited as authoritative. By the end of the third period, they held a recognized place alongside the OT as “Scripture,” and they began to be both translated into regional languages and made the subject of commentaries. During the third century AD<\/span>, our fourth period, the collecting of books into a whole “New Testament” was underway, together with a sifting process that was separating them from other Christian literature. The final, or fifth, period finds the church fathers of the fourth century stating that conclusions regarding the canon have been reached that indicate acceptance by the whole church. Thus, in the most strict and formal sense of the word, the canon had become fixed. It remains to list in greater detail the forces and individuals that produced the written sources witnessing to this remarkable process through which, by God’s providence, we have inherited our NT.<\/p>\n<h5>Period One: First Century<\/h5>\nThe principle determining recognition of the authority of the canonical NT writings was established within the content of those writings themselves. There are repeated exhortations for public reading of the apostolic communications. At the close of his First Letter to the Thessalonians, possibly the first book of the NT to be written, Paul says, “I command you in the name of the Lord to read this letter to all the brothers and sisters” (1 Thes 5:27, nlt<\/span>). Earlier in the same letter Paul commends their ready acceptance of his spoken word as “the word of God” (2:13), and in 1 Corinthians 14:37 he speaks similarly of his “writings,” insisting that his message be recognized as a commandment from the Lord himself. (See also Col 4:16; Rv 1:3.) In 2 Peter 3:15-16 Paul’s letters are included with “the other Scriptures.” Since Peter’s is a general letter, widespread knowledge of Paul’s letters is thereby implied. Highly indicative also is Paul’s usage in 1 Timothy 5:18. He follows up the formula “the Scriptures say” by a combined quotation about not muzzling an ox (Dt 25:4) and “the worker deserves his wages” (cf. Lk 10:7). Thus, an equivalence is implied between OT Scripture and a NT Gospel.<\/p>\nIn AD<\/span> 95, Clement of Rome wrote to the Christians in Corinth using a free rendering of material from Matthew and Luke. He seems to be strongly influenced by Hebrews and is obviously familiar with Romans and Corinthians. There are also reflections of Ephesians, 1 Timothy, Titus, and 1 Peter.<\/p>\n<h5>Period Two: First Half of Second Century<\/h5>\nOne of the earliest NT manuscripts yet discovered, a fragment of John from Egypt known as the John Rylands papyrus, demonstrates how the writings of the apostle John were revered and copied by about AD<\/span> 125, within 30 to 35 years of his death. There is evidence that within 30 years of the apostle’s death all the Gospels and Pauline letters were known and used in all those centers from which any evidence has come down to us. It is true that some of the smaller letters were being questioned as to their authority in some quarters for perhaps another 50 years, but this was due only to uncertainty about their authorship in those particular locales. This demonstrates that acceptance was not being imposed by the actions of councils but was rather happening spontaneously through a normal response on the part of those who had learned the facts about authorship. In those places where the churches were uncertain about the authorship or apostolic approval of certain books, acceptance was slower.<\/p>\nThe first three outstanding church fathers, Clement, Polycarp, and Ignatius, used the bulk of the material of the NT in a revealingly casual manner—authenticated Scriptures were being accepted as authoritative without argument. In the writings of these men only Mark (which closely parallels the material of Matthew), 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, and Jude are not clearly attested.<\/p>\nThe Epistles of Ignatius (c. AD<\/span> 115) have correspondences in several places with the Gospels and seem to incorporate language from a number of the Pauline letters. The Didache (or Teaching of the Twelve), perhaps even earlier, makes references to a written Gospel. Most important is the fact that Clement, Barnabas, and Ignatius all draw a clear distinction between their own and the inspired, authoritative apostolic writings.<\/p>\nIt is in the Epistle of Barnabas (c. AD<\/span> 130) that we first find the formula “it is written” (4:14) used in reference to a NT book (Mt 22:14). But even before this, Polycarp, who had personal acquaintance with eyewitnesses of our Lord’s ministry, used a combined OT and NT quotation. Citing Paul’s admonition in Ephesians 4:26, where the apostle quotes Psalm 4:4 and makes an addition, Polycarp in his Epistle to the Philippians introduces the reference by “as it is said in these Scriptures” (12:4). Then Papias, bishop of Hierapolis (c. 130–140), in a work preserved for us by Eusebius, mentions by name the Gospels of Matthew and Mark, and his use of them as the basis of exposition indicates his acceptance of them as canonical. Also around AD<\/span> 140, the recently discovered Gospel of Truth (a Gnostic-oriented work probably authored by Valentinius) makes an important contribution. Its use of canonical NT sources, treating them as authoritative, is comprehensive enough to warrant the conclusion that in Rome at this period there was a NT compilation in existence corresponding very closely to our own. Citations are made from the Gospels, Acts, letters of Paul, Hebrews, and the book of Revelation.<\/p>\nThe heretic Marcion, by defining a limited canon of his own (c. 140), in effect hastened the day when the orthodox believers needed to declare themselves on this issue. Rejecting the entire OT, Marcion settled for Luke’s Gospel (eliminating chapters 1 and 2 as too Jewish) and Paul’s letters (except for the pastoral ones). Interestingly, especially in the light of Colossians 4:16, he substitutes the name “Laodiceans” for Ephesians.<\/p>\nNear the end of this period, Justin Martyr, in describing the worship services of the early church, puts the apostolic writings on a par with those of the OT prophets. He states that the voice which spoke through the apostles of Christ in the NT was the same as that which spoke through the prophets—the voice of God—and the same voice that Abraham heard, responding in faith and obedience. Justin was also free in his use of “it is written” with quotations from NT Scriptures.<\/p>\n<h5>Period Three: Second Half of Second Century<\/h5>\nIrenaeus had been privileged to begin his Christian training under Polycarp, a disciple of apostles. Then, as a presbyter in Lyons, he had association with Bishop Pothinus, whose own background also included contact with firstgeneration Christians. Irenaeus quotes from almost all the NT on the basis of its authority and asserts that the apostles were endowed with power from on high. They were, he says, “fully informed concerning all things, and had a perfect knowledge . . . having indeed all in equal measure and each one singly the Gospel of God” (Against Heresies<\/em> 3.3). Irenaeus gives reasons why there should be four Gospels. “The word,” he says, “gave us the Gospel in a fourfold shape, but held together by one Spirit.” In addition to the Gospels, he makes reference also to Acts, all the letters of Paul except Philemon, 1 Peter, 1 John, and the book of Revelation.<\/p>\nTatian, pupil of Justin Martyr, made a harmony of the four Gospels, the Diatessaron,<\/em> attesting to the equal status they had in the church by AD<\/span> 170. Other “gospels” had come into existence by then, but he recognized only the four. Also dating from about 170 was the Muratorian Canon.<\/em> An eighth-century copy of this document was discovered and published in 1740 by librarian L. A. Muratori. The manuscript is mutilated at both ends, but the remaining text makes it evident that Matthew and Mark were included in the now missing part. The fragment begins with Luke and John, cites Acts, 13 Pauline letters, 1 and 2 John, Jude, and Revelation. There follows a statement, “We accept only the Apocalypse of John and Peter, although some of us do not want it [Apocalypse of Peter is 2 Peter?] to be read in the Church.” The list goes on to reject by name various heretical leaders and their writings.<\/p>\nTranslated versions existed by this period. In the form of Syriac and Old Latin translations we secure, by AD<\/span> 170, adequate witness from the extreme eastern and western branches of the church, as we might well expect from the other evidence in hand. The NT canon is represented with no additions and the omission of only one book, 2 Peter.<\/p>\n<h5>Period Four: Third Century<\/h5>\nThe outstanding Christian name of the third century is that of Origen (AD<\/span> 185– 254). A prodigious scholar and interpreter, he made critical studies of the NT text (alongside his work on the Hexapla<\/em>) and wrote commentaries and homilies on most of the books of the NT, emphasizing their inspiration by God.<\/p>\nDionysius of Alexandria, pupil of Origen, indicates that while the Western church accepted the book of Revelation from the first, its position in the East was variable. In the case of the Letter to the Hebrews, the situation was reversed. It proved to be more insecure in the West than in the East. When it comes to other contested books (note, incidently, that all in that category have the hindmost position in our present Bibles—Hebrews to Revelation), among the so-called “Catholic Epistles” Dionysius supports James and 2 and 3 John but not 2 Peter or Jude. In other words, even at the end of the third century there was the same lack of finality about certain books as at its beginning.<\/p>\n<h5>Period Five: Fourth Century<\/h5>\nEarly in this period, the picture begins to clarify. Eusebius (AD<\/span> 270–340, bishop of Caesarea before 315), the great church historian, sets forth his estimate of the canon in his Ecclesiastical History<\/em> (3.3–25). Herein he makes a straightforward statement on the status of the canon in the early part of the fourth century: (1) Universally agreed upon as canonical were the four Gospels, Acts, letters of Paul (including Hebrews, with question about his authorship), 1 Peter, 1 John, and Revelation. (2) Admitted by a majority, including Eusebius himself, but disputed by some were James, 2 Peter (the most strongly contested), 2 and 3 John, and Jude. (3) The Acts of Paul, the Didache, and Shepherd of Hermas were classified “spurious,” and still other writings were listed as “heretical and absurd.”<\/p>\nIt is in the latter half of the fourth century, however, that the NT canon finds full and final declaration. In his Festal Letter<\/em> for Easter, 367, Bishop Athanasius of Alexandria included information designed to eliminate once and for all the use of certain apocryphal books. This letter, with its admonition, “Let no one add to these; let nothing be taken away,” gives us the earliest extant document that specifies our 27 books without qualification. At the close of the century, the Council of Carthage (AD<\/span> 397) decreed that “aside from the canonical Scriptures nothing is to be read in church under the Name of Divine Scriptures.” This, too, lists the 27 books of the NT.<\/p>\nThe sudden advance of Christianity under Emperor Constantine (Edict of Milan, 313) had a great deal to do with the reception of all the NT books in the East. When he assigned Eusebius the task of preparing “fifty copies of the Divine Scriptures,” the historian, fully aware of which were the sacred books for which many believers had been willing to lay down their very lives, in effect established the standard that gave recognition to all of the once-doubtful books. In the West, of course, Jerome and Augustine were the leaders who exercised a determinitive influence. Publication of the 27 books in the Vulgate version virtually settled the matter.<\/p>\n<h5>Principles and Factors Determining the Canon<\/h5>\nBy its very nature, Holy Scripture, whether OT or NT, is a production given of God, not the work of human creation. The key to canonicity is divine inspiration. Therefore, the method of determination is not one of selection from a number of possible candidates (there are no other candidates, in actuality) but one of reception of authentic material and its consequent recognition by an ever-widening circle as the facts of its origin become known.<\/p>\nIn a sense, the movement of Montanus, which was declared heretical by the church of his day (mid-second century), was an impetus toward the recognition of a closed canon of the written Word of God. He taught that the prophetic gift was permanently granted to the church and that he himself was a prophet. The pressure to deal with Montanism, therefore, intensified the search for a basic authority, and apostolic authorship or approval became recognized as the only sure standard for identifying God’s revelation. Even within the Scripture record, first-century prophets were subordinate and subject to apostolic authority (see, for example, 1 Cor 14:29-30; Eph 4:11).<\/p>\nWhen all things were being reexamined in the Protestant Reformation, some of the Reformers sought means of reassuring themselves and their followers about the canon of Scripture. This was in some ways an unfortunate aspect of Reformation thinking, because once God in his providence had determined for his people the fixed content of Scripture, that became a fact of history and was not a repeatable process. Nevertheless, Luther established a theological test for the books of the Bible (and questioned some of them)—“Do they teach Christ?” Equally subjective, it would seem, was Calvin’s insistence that the Spirit of God bears witness to each individual Christian in any age of church history as to what is his Word and what is not.<\/p>\nActually, even for the initial acceptance of the written Word, it is neither safe nor sound (as far as Scripture or history teaches us) to say that recognition and reception was an intuitive matter. It was rather a matter of simple obedience to the known commands of Christ and his apostles. As we saw at the outset, our Lord promised (Jn 14:26; 16:13) to communicate all things necessary through his agents. The apostles were conscious of this responsibility and agency as they wrote. Paul’s explanation in 1 Corinthians 2:13 is apropos: “In telling you about these gifts we have even used the very words given to us by the Holy Spirit, not words that we as men might choose. So we use the Holy Spirit’s words to explain the Holy Spirit’s facts” (tlb<\/span>).<\/p>\nHence, the early church, with closer ties and greater information than is available to us today, examined the testimony of the ancients. They were able to discern which were the authentic and authoritative books by their apostolic origin. Mark’s association with Peter, and Luke’s with Paul, gave them such apostolic approval, and epistles like Hebrews and Jude were also tied in with the apostolic message and ministry. Incontrovertible consistency of doctrine in all the books, including the sometime contested ones, was perhaps a subordinate test. But historically the procedure was essentially one of acceptance and approval of those books that were vouched for by knowledgeable church leaders. Full acceptance by the original recipients followed by a continued acknowledgment and use is an essential factor in the development of the canon.<\/p>\nThe church’s concept of canon, derived first of all from the reverence given the OT Scriptures, rested in the conviction that the apostles were uniquely authorized to speak in the name of the one who possessed all authority—the Lord Jesus Christ. The development from there is logical and straightforward. Those who heard Jesus in person were immediately subject to his authority. He personally authenticated his words to the believers. These same believers knew that Jesus authorized his apostles to speak in his name, both during and (more significantly) after his earthly ministry. Apostolic speaking on behalf of Christ was recognized in the church, whether in personal utterance or in written form. Both the spoken word of an apostle and the letter of an apostle constituted the word of Christ.<\/p>\nThe generation that followed that of the apostles themselves received the witness of those who knew that the apostles had the right to speak and write in the name of Christ. Consequently, the second and third generation of Christians looked back to apostolic words (writings) as the very words of Christ. This is what is really meant by canonization—recognition of the divinely authenticated Word. Hence, the believers (the church) did not establish the canon but simply bore witness to its extent by recognizing the authority of the word of Christ.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BIBLE*, Canon of the Those books in the Jewish and Christian Bible considered to be Scripture and therefore authoritative in matters of faith and doctrine. The term translates both a Greek and a Hebrew word that mean “a rule,” or “measuring rod.” It is a list to which other books are compared and by which they are measured. After the fourth century AD, the Christian church found itself with only 66 books that constituted its Scripture; 27 of these were the NT and 39 were the OT. Just as Plato...","summary_en":"BIBLE*, Canon of the Those books in the Jewish and Christian Bible considered to be Scripture and therefore authoritative in matters of faith and doctrine. The term translates both a Greek and a Hebrew word that mean “a rule,” or “measuring rod.” It is a list to which other books are compared and by which they are measured. After the fourth century AD, the Christian church found itself with only 66 books that constituted its Scripture; 27 of these were the NT and 39 were the OT. Just as Plato...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":7650,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"First Letter to the Corinthians","title_en":"First Letter to the Corinthians","content_ro":"<h3>CORINTHIANS, First Letter to the<\/h3>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date and Origin<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nThere is no doubt about who wrote 1 Corinthians, for all scholars agree that the apostle Paul wrote it on his third missionary journey while he was living in Ephesus. By this time Paul was a mature, middle-aged (perhaps 55 years old) missionary, fully seasoned from planting churches around a quarter of the Mediterranean world.<\/p>\nDate and Origin<\/p>\nPaul worked in Corinth from about AD<\/span> 50 to 52. After a brief stay in Jerusalem, he returned to his missionary work, this time at Ephesus (Acts 19), where he ministered for three years (AD<\/span> 53–55\/56). During this period, he wrote at least three letters to Corinth and made a visit as well. His first letter, often called “the previous letter,” is referred to in 1 Corinthians 5:9-11. We know from this reference that the letter was misunderstood, but we know little of its content, for it has been lost.<\/p>\nSometime in AD<\/span> 55, after hearing reports from Chloe’s household (1 Cor 1:11), who were probably members of Chloe’s house church, he dictated a second letter to Corinth, our 1 Corinthians. This was probably sent off in the hands of Stephanas, Fortunatus, and Achaicus (16:17). Paul would later write a third letter to Corinth, called “the letter of tears” (2 Cor 2:2-3), and then finally 2 Corinthians.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nCorinth was a seaport city, destroyed by the Romans in 146 BC<\/span> and rebuilt in 46 BC<\/span> by Julius Caesar. After 27 BC<\/span>, it was the Roman capital of Achaia, where the proconsul had his residence (Acts 18:12). The city itself was really three cities: the port of Cenchrea, about eight miles (13 kilometers) to the east, where ships from the Aegean would unload; the port of Lechaion, about a mile (1.6 kilometers) to the west on the Gulf of Corinth, where the ships would be reloaded, their goods having been transported in wagons over the isthmus and the ships on rollers; and the city itself on the high ground in between.<\/p>\nThe acropolis of the city, on top of the steep, high Acrocorinth, contained the temple of Aphrodite, where 1,000 female slaves were dedicated to the service of this goddess of love. This distinctive cult of Corinth was dedicated to the veneration of Aphrodite, goddess of love, beauty, and fertility, who is identified with the Roman Venus. Associated with such religious practices was a general moral degradation. Corinthian morals were notoriously corrupt, even when compared with pagan Rome. Down in the city was the synagogue (Acts 18:4); for while the city as a Roman colony was largely populated by Italians, it had attracted other peoples from the Mediterranean, among whom were the Jews.<\/p>\nPurpose and Teaching<\/p>\nThe main concern of Paul in 1 Corinthians was the unity of the church. There was a self-centeredness in Corinth that resulted in building cliques within the church, in flaunting knowledge and liberty in the face of others scandalized by it, and in selfish displays in the worship services.<\/p>\nTwo other major concerns also surface in the book. First, along with other pagan practices, the lax sexual ethics of Corinth had influenced the church; Paul needed to erect some barriers. Second, there was a problem in accepting the resurrection of the body; Paul realized that this issue had implications for the core of the faith and vigorously affirmed the resurrection.<\/p>\nBoth of these latter two areas, as well as aspects of the unity issue (particularly their concern with knowledge), have been identified by some scholars as Gnostic motifs, leading to the conclusion that Paul was opposing a Gnostic party in Corinth. Careful examination reveals, however, that while some of the elements floating in the Corinthian milieu would later contribute to the development of Gnosticism, it would be anachronistic to call them gnostic. While recognizing protognostic ideas in the Corinthian situation, it is important to keep interpretation within the first-century context.<\/p>\nThus, the focus of Paul’s concern was the church, its unity and purity. Paul was fighting to keep this church from disintegrating into a number of competing and bickering factions divided over moral and doctrinal issues. Furthermore, he wanted to keep the focus of the church on Jesus, the exalted Lord.<\/p>\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Greeting, 1:1-9<\/h5>\nPaul begins with a standard greeting, followed by his usual thanksgiving prayer. Two features stand out. First, the greeting associates Sosthenes with Paul. While we cannot be sure who Sosthenes was, he was surely well known to the Corinthians; probably he was the Sosthenes whom Acts 18:17 identifies as the ruler of the synagogue, following the conversion of Crispus.<\/p>\nSecond, Paul stresses the Corinthians’ abilities in speech, knowledge, and spiritual gifts. They had all of these, and these were genuine, but it was precisely these good things that they were abusing. Paul’s solution is not to suppress these gifts (indeed, he thanks God for them), but to place them in a new context.<\/p>\n<h5>Report from Chloe’s People, 1:10–4:21<\/h5>\nThe Corinthians had made Paul, Cephas (Peter), Apollos, and even Christ into party leaders. We are not sure what each of these groups stood for, but one might guess that the Pauline group stressed Paul’s slogans of liberty; the Petrine group, the need to hold to Jewish practices; and the Apollos group, the value of philosophical understanding and oratory. Whatever they stood for, Paul is appalled that it breaks their unity. His first response is to argue that his behavior was not calculated to build a following but to point to Christ. That is, he did not insist on personally baptizing converts; who performed these acts did not matter, since they were all baptized into Christ.<\/p>\nPaul immediately moves to the underlying issue, that of various persons wanting to show themselves better or wiser than others who did not have the insights of their party in the church. Their seeking for wisdom contradicts Paul’s preaching of the gospel.<\/p>\nFirst, the message of a crucified Christ (1:18) made no sense within the wisdom and values of either Jews or Greeks. It demanded a whole new way of looking on life—God’s way.<\/p>\nSecond, God had not chosen them on the basis of their status in society; quite the contrary, he had made their only status the equal status they received from him (1:26-31).<\/p>\nThird, their faith had not been based on Paul’s oratory but on the gifts of the Spirit that Paul had manifested (2:4), which had convinced them that God was acting in Paul. Thus, it was not argument that led them to God, but God’s Spirit. Therefore it was the Spirit, not human reasoning, that would continue to reveal God to them. Unless they became fools with respect to the world’s ways of reasoning, they would never be able to rethink life from the perspective of the Spirit, who gives true wisdom.<\/p>\nFourth, they were not acting on this spiritual level when they claimed Paul and others as party leaders; this activity demonstrates the evil impulse in human beings (“the flesh” or “fallen human nature”) at work since it elevates human servants rather than the God who works equally in each of them.<\/p>\nFifth, these servants were working together to build one “temple” for God based on the one foundation in Jesus Christ, that is, the church. God alone will judge how each Christian contributes to the work of building the church. But woe to the person who divides the church, for “if anyone destroys God’s temple, God will destroy him” (3:17, rsv<\/span>). (Note that here the temple imagery is used collectively; the church is the temple. In chapter 6 it will be used individually; each Christian is the temple.)<\/p>\nFinally, he points to their overrealized eschatology, for with their spiritual gifts (which were genuine) and vaunted wisdom (which was worldly) they claimed they were reigning with Christ (4:8-13). Paul, with ironic sarcasm, points out how different this claim is from the lifestyle of the apostles. The apostles lived like Jesus—a life of suffering, expecting exaltation later. The Corinthians were trying to have their exaltation now without crucifixion.<\/p>\nPaul closes this section with an admonition. He softens his words toward some who would be responsive, urging them to copy his lifestyle. The teacher was the message (vv 14-16). Timothy will also faithfully live the truth before them. Then he threatens the “arrogant” (v 18), pointing out that he will not challenge their words but their spiritual power if he comes.<\/p>\n<h5>The Report from the Corinthian Messengers, 5:1–6:20<\/h5>\nPaul now turns to three issues raised by oral reports from the messengers bearing the Corinthians’ letter to him.<\/p>\nThe first issue is that of church discipline (5:12-13). Paul cites a case of flagrant immorality—that of incest. This immorality was so clear (even pagans considered it immoral), that it was not a case of ignorance of Christian principles. Further, the church had taken no action but rather boasted in its tolerance, perhaps on the basis of a misunderstanding of Paul’s teaching on freedom from the law.<\/p>\nPaul presents three principles in this section: (1) the primary goal of church discipline is the repentance and restoration of the offender; (2) the secondary goal of church discipline is the protection of the church (5:6-8); and (3) the church is not to seek to judge or control the actions of evil persons in the world—they are God’s responsibility—but to discipline those within the church (vv 9-13). Paul will use these principles also in the following chapters (cf. 7:12-16).<\/p>\nThe second issue is that of lawsuits between Christians (6:1-11). The Corinthian society was as prone to litigation as our own, and Christians did not see anything wrong in suing each other. Paul was troubled. If Christians are to judge the world, they certainly should not bring the world in to judge issues within the church. Rather than put their cases before “those who are least esteemed by the church” (6:4, rsv<\/span>, i.e., pagan judges), they should decide the cases within the church.<\/p>\nPaul has an even better way than bypassing the pagan courts, and that is to simply suffer the wrong (1 Cor 6:7). Applying the teaching of Jesus quite literally (Mt 5:38-42), Paul argues that it would be best to allow themselves to be defrauded. Instead, the Corinthians are willing to step on their brothers in Christ to get what they feel are their rights. This raises the issue as to whether greed is not still in their hearts (1 Cor 6:9-11). While Paul accepts people who formerly did all sorts of evil (for Jesus has cleansed them), he makes it very clear that anyone presently practicing greed or immorality is not part of the kingdom, whatever their doctrinal commitments may be.<\/p>\nThe final issue in this section is that of casual sexual intercourse (6:12-20). In a world where virginity was important if a woman wished to be married and where slaves in the temple of Aphrodite were available as prostitutes, prostitution was the major form of casual sex. The libertine party used two slogans: “All things are lawful for me,” a saying that may well have been derived from Paul’s teaching, and “Food is meant for the stomach and the stomach for food”—that is, since the body works this way, it must be the Creator’s purpose. Paul qualifies rather than contradicts their slogans. Freedom is subordinate to other goals (6:12, 20). The body is not made to be used as we wish, but is to be dedicated to the Lord, as the doctrine of the resurrection demonstrates (vv 13-14).<\/p>\nFurthermore, sexual intercourse is an act of the whole person, unlike eating (Paul cites Gn 2:24; cf. Jesus in Mt 19:5). Therefore, this act takes a member (i.e., the person) from the body of Christ and makes him a unity with a prostitute (1 Cor 6:15-17). Thus immorality is unlike other sins that are external to the self, for it changes the self and thus defiles the body, the place where the Holy Spirit dwells. It disregards the fact that Christ has redeemed the body, and that the whole of the Christian belongs to God, not to the Christian.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Answers to the Corinthians, 7:1–16:4<\/h5>\nNow Paul turns to the Corinthians’ own issues, building on the answers he has already given to questions they did not ask.<\/p>\nThe first issue is that of marriage (7:1-24). The slogan of the ascetic party in Corinth (perhaps a reaction against the libertines of ch 6) was “It is good for a man not to touch a woman” (7:1, kjv<\/span>). The Corinthians applied this slogan to both married and unmarried, arguing that married Christians should abstain from sexual relations. Paul clarified the matter with three points. First, he said that this was totally unrealistic, for total abstinence would lead to immorality (vv 2, 7-9). Second, when people get married they no longer own their own bodies; their bodies belong to each other for their mutual benefit (vv 3-4). Sexual refusal denies a spouse what rightly belongs to him or her. Third, abstinence is allowed for limited periods by mutual agreement as a type of fast to help focus on Christ (v 5).<\/p>\nWhile Paul will address the issue of the unmarried more fully in 7:25-40, in a side remark he indicates that he is himself content to be unmarried. But since some do not have this gift, full sexual expression in marriage is far better than fighting passion (7:7-9). Once two Christians are married, divorce is unthinkable. A clear word of Christ proves this (Mt 5:31-32; Mk 10:11-12; Lk 16:18 and parallels), so there are no exceptions (Paul either does not know of the exception clause in Mt 19:9 or he understands it as referring to something like premarital unchastity discovered before the wedding, not to adultery after the wedding). Although in some cases a Christian couple must live separately, it is always with a view to reconciliation. The teaching of Jesus does not allow him to think of the marriage as ending (1 Cor 7:10-11).<\/p>\nBut what if the spouse is not a Christian? Paul applies his principles to a situation for which Jesus did not leave a clear word. First, since Jesus told Christians not to divorce, even in this situation the Christian may not initiate a divorce (7:12-13). Second, since Christians are not to control or judge non-Christians (6:12-13), the Christian does not need to continue the relationship if the non-Christian insists on a divorce (7:15). Third, far from defiling the Christian (as the relationship in 6:15 does), the Christian will make the relationship holy, with positive results for the children and the possible salvation of the spouse (7:14, 16). While this is no call to remain in situations of physical or sexual abuse, it is a call to remain faithful to a mixed marriage situation.<\/p>\nPaul does not believe that one normally needs to change one’s life situation to serve Christ (7:17-24). Therefore, normally each person should remain in that state of life in which he or she was when called to Christ. Paul’s examples show that he was thinking in terms of marriage or singleness, Jew (circumcision) or Gentile, slave or free, not in terms of situations that might be immoral in themselves. In the case of slaves, they can accept freedom if it becomes available, but it does not make an essential difference in their real state before God or their ability to serve Christ (vv 21-23).<\/p>\nThe second issue is that of the unmarried (7:25-40). Paul argues that single people and widows may marry—it is not wrong. Yet he advises them to remain single. Since all in this age is passing away, it would be good to stay single so as to avoid the extra suffering to which marriage exposes a person (vv 25-31). What is more, marriage always divides one’s attention between the Lord and the legitimate needs of the spouse. One must not abandon the spouse or ignore his or her needs in order to serve the Lord, but one can remain single so that the Lord can be the sole focus of life and devotion (vv 32-35). Finally, if one is in a situation in which marriage is expected, the person must make his own decision as to whether he should marry the woman for her sake (and perhaps that of the wider family) or whether he can and should simply care for her as a single person (vv 36-38). Paul closes this section by repeating his general principles (vv 39-40).<\/p>\nThe third issue Paul deals with is that of food that has been offered to idols (8:1–11:1). Most meat that was available in the marketplace came either from animals slaughtered as sacrifices in the temples or from groups of animals from which one was offered as a dedicatory sacrifice. To scrupulous Jews, all of this meat would be untouched. Furthermore, pagans invited Christians to feasts in their homes and to private feasts held in the precincts of pagan temples, where trade guilds also held feasts. Paul discusses these issues and uses them to teach wider principles of Christian conduct.<\/p>\nFirst, love, not knowledge, is the key to correct behavior (8:1-13). Some Corinthians felt superior because they were convinced that idols had no reality (there is only one God), and therefore any food offered to them was still fit to eat. Paul again accepts their slogans, but counters with the statement, “Knowledge puffs up, but love builds up” (v 1, niv<\/span>). God is not concerned with what we know or eat, but he is concerned with whether or not we love our fellow Christians. The concern is not that a fellow Christian might become enraged because one indulged, but that he or she might have a vulnerable conscience and indulge himself, even though he believed it wrong and thus in his own eyes apostasizes from the faith (i.e., rebels against Christ). Such leading astray is not love. It would be better never to eat meat than to lead a fellow Christian into sin.<\/p>\nSecond, he points out that one should subordinate one’s own interests to those of others, especially those of Christ and his gospel (9:1-23). Both the examples of the apostles, who expected the church to support them and their families (cf. Lk 10:5-7), and Scripture prove that Paul had the right to demand support from the Corinthians. This had not been his practice, for he had normally made tents to support his ministry, though he did accept gifts from other churches. Paul did this to prevent people from thinking he was peddling religion for profit (9:12) and for the personal satisfaction of doing more than he had to do (vv 16-17). This was part of Paul’s larger policy of subordinating his own personal preferences and interests to those of Christ and his gospel (vv 19-23).<\/p>\nThird, the bravado of the strong who demonstrate their liberty with disregard of fellow Christians is spiritually dangerous (9:24–10:22). It is not who begins but who completes the Christian life that counts; therefore, it is a life of discipline, not relaxed license (9:24-27). Israel in the wilderness presents an example of failure in this regard. They had “baptism” and “the Lord’s Supper” (10:2-4), just like the church, yet most of them did not make it to the Promised Land. The reason God destroyed them was simple: they turned to sin. Likewise, the Christian has to be careful not to be so proud about faith and freedom that he becomes careless about sin and falls from the faith (v 12). On the other hand, Christians need not be fearful, for the temptation is not more powerful than they are; God has provided a way of escape, if they will take it (v 13).<\/p>\nAnother link between the Israelites and the Corinthians pertains to partaking of a sacrificial meal (10:14-22). In the Lord’s Supper there is a sharing of the blood and body of Christ, just as real as Israel’s sacrifices on the altar. Food offered to idols is also a sharing, not with the supposed god, but with the real demon that is behind the idol. To try to share at both tables is to provoke God’s jealousy just as Israel did (v 22).<\/p>\nA summary of the discussion draws the three chapters together (10:23–11:1). Since the food is not changed by being offered to idols, and since all food really belongs to God, one may eat anything sold in the market—do not ask any questions (10:25-26). Likewise, the Christian may eat anything served at a dinner in the home of an unbeliever. However, if someone points out that the food was offered to idols, the Christian should pass it by, not because it would hurt him, but because it is an issue with the person who raised the question, and the Christian is concerned about the good of his neighbor (vv 27-30). In other words, follow Paul’s example as he patterns himself in turn after Christ, who served others rather than himself. Act so that God’s reputation and character shine through even in what one eats (v 31); try to offend no one but to benefit each person in moving him toward salvation (v 32).<\/p>\nThe fourth issue Paul deals with is that of order in church meetings (11:2–14:40). The Corinthians’ house churches had lively meetings, but rather than showing unity in Christ, they demonstrated selfishness. Paul had no desire to change what they did; he did want to change how they did it.<\/p>\nThe first problem in the meetings was the behavior of married women (11:1-16). The sign of marriage in that day was the wearing of a veil or distinctive hairstyle, as a ring is today. Women praying and delivering prophecies in church was no issue for Paul, but the women may have felt that this loosed them from their husbands (cf. Mk 12:25) and therefore was a reason to set aside their veils. Paul argues that husband and wife are intimately joined, just as humans are to God (1 Cor 11:3). Therefore as humans should not shame but glorify God, so the wife should act toward her husband. Thus, while Paul approves of ministry by women, he puts marriage first.<\/p>\nThe second problem in the meetings was that of making class distinctions (11:17-34). Until the weekly Lord’s Supper began to be turned into the sacrifice of the Mass in the third and fourth centuries, it was a full shared meal. Middle- and upper-class Christians could come earlier to the church gatherings and also provide better food and drink for themselves. Following the customs of pagan clubs, they had no scruples against starting early and feasting as befit their class, so long as at least simple food was provided for the slaves and peasants who could not come as early (v 21). This shamed the poorer Christians and made them feel class distinctions keenly (v 22). This, argues Paul, is not the Lord’s Supper but a sham (v 20).<\/p>\nPaul repeats the words of institution to point out that they all are participating in Christ’s body and blood (cf. 10:16-17), not their own meal. To do it in an unworthy manner, with divisions and class distinctions among them, is to profane his meal by failing to demonstrate the unity of his body, the church (11:29), and thus invite his judgment, which they were already experiencing. Instead, they should examine their own motives and truly gather as one to eat this common meal.<\/p>\nThe third problem in their meetings was the use of spiritual gifts (12:1–14:40). It is possible that some people in these house churches, under the influence of Gnostic ideas in which the spiritual is good and the material evil, and feeling inspired by a spirit, cried out, “Jesus [meaning the human Jesus as opposed to the spiritual Christ] be cursed.” It is not the Spirit of God saying this, argues Paul, for the Spirit in us cries the basic Christian confession, “Jesus is Lord.”<\/p>\nOthers in these churches were exalting their own particular gift, especially the gift of tongues, shouting down others or refusing to give them a turn. There is only one Spirit and he gives all the gifts, Paul argues (12:4-6). The Spirit manifests himself sovereignly in each Christian, not simply for the Christian’s own benefit, but for the good of all (v 7). Since it is the Spirit, not a given manifestation, that the Christian has, the gifts manifested could change from meeting to meeting.<\/p>\nThat same Spirit has made all Christians into one organic unity in Christ (12:12-13). Thus not only does the one Spirit give all the gifts—all are equally inspired—but all the gifts are equally needed for the proper functioning of the body of Christ (vv 14-26). No one can say that his lack of a given gift makes him less a part of the body; indeed, the less noticeable gifts may well be the more important. Thus, within the body of Christ, there are not only different manifestations of the Spirit through individuals in a given meeting, but different ministries or functions of individuals in the body (vv 27-31).<\/p>\nTherefore, it is not the demonstration of a particular gift that shows one’s spirituality, but how one demonstrates it—that is, whether one manifests it with love (13:1-13). Any gift exercised for selfish purposes may be a genuine gift of the Spirit, but it is worthless to the individual (vv 1-3). This is because love is the opposite of selfishness (vv 4-7). In fact, the gifts of the Spirit are only for the period between Jesus’ first coming and his second coming, when the kingdom of God will be perfectly revealed and the King will be present in person, and thus the intermediary gifts of the Spirit will be no longer necessary (vv 10, 12). It is not giftedness but faith and hope that will have a reward then, and love, which is the greatest, because it will continue as Christians live in perfect love with each other and with Jesus (v 13).<\/p>\nApplying this to Corinth, Paul argues that while one should desire all the gifts, love dictates that prophecy should be the gift of choice in the church meetings (14:1-25). The Corinthians had evidently been stressing tongues. Tongues without interpretation is of little value to anyone except to the speaker himself. It does not build anyone up; its confusion seems madness to outsiders. Outside the church meetings there is a role for tongues, both as a sign of judgment (v 21) and for private devotion (v 18), but inside, only with interpretation. Prophecy, however, both builds up and convicts, and thus is to be sought in the meetings.<\/p>\nIn the church meetings, then, both gifts and order are to prevail (14:26-40). All types of gifts are allowed expression with a goal of mutual edification, not selfish demonstration (v 26). Tongues speakers must have an interpreter; both they and prophets must speak in turn, with time being taken to evaluate the utterances after every few speakers (vv 27-33). Furthermore, the women, who were perhaps chatting in the service (perhaps due to habits learned in Jewish synagogues, where they were segregated and did not participate) are to cease their chattering, pay attention, and learn, asking questions at home if they do not understand (vv 34-36). In his concluding summary, Paul states that all should be done in an orderly manner (vv 37-40).<\/p>\nThe fifth issue Paul deals with is that of the resurrection of the dead (ch 15). Some of the problems mentioned earlier concerning loose morals (chs 5–6), ascetic denial, sexuality (ch 7), or feeling one was resurrected already (ch 11) point to the fact that some Corinthians did not believe in the resurrection of the body, though they apparently believed in the resurrection of Jesus and the immortality of the human soul.<\/p>\nPaul reaffirms that the resurrection of Jesus is an essential part of the gospel message (15:1-19). The unified voice of the church was that Jesus not only died but rose again and appeared to numerous witnesses (vv 3-11). If they were consistent in their antiresurrection argument, Christ could not have been raised. Yet if this were the case, the whole gospel message is false and all their hopes for salvation are in vain (vv 12-19).<\/p>\nSince Christ has been raised, Christians will also be raised because of their solidarity with him (15:20-28). As they had experienced the results of being in Adam, so now they will experience the results of being in Christ. But resurrection does not happen at once. There are progressive stages: (a) Christ was first; (b) Christians will be raised at his coming; (c) Christ must reign until he extends kingdom rule over the whole world, destroying all demonic powers (including death itself); and (d) then he will turn over the perfected kingdom to the Father (vv 23-28).<\/p>\nResurrection hope also explains Christian practices such as baptizing people on behalf of others who had died (probably people who had turned to Christ but had died before they could be baptized, 15:29), and willingness to risk death for Christ (vv 30-32).<\/p>\nPaul admits that there are intellectual problems involved, but these are solved when one realizes that resurrection includes both continuity and discontinuity (15:35-50). Just as seed and plant are the same and yet different, and just as many types of bodies exist, so it is with the resurrection. What was perishable, dishonorable, weak, and physical (i.e., in Adam) will be raised imperishable, glorious, powerful, and spiritual (i.e., in Christ). Indeed, it is only as Christians thus become like Christ, the heavenly man, that they can become part of God’s kingdom.<\/p>\nWith excitement Paul shares his real hope, that of transformation (15:51-58). At the coming of Christ the dead will be raised and transformed. But the living will also need transformation, and this will happen in a split second, making all of them impervious to death. Then they will truly know the victory already present in Jesus’ resurrection (vv 54-57). A concluding summary draws the practical conclusion that this teaching should give them assurance of a reward for anything done for Christ now (v 58).<\/p>\nThe sixth issue Paul deals with is that of the collection for the needy Jerusalem church (16:1-4). Because of famine in Judea in the 40s, the church there had become impoverished. Partly because of the need and partly to further the unity of the church, Paul took up a collection in some of his churches for the Judean church. He answers the Corinthians’ practical queries by stating that the collection should be made weekly according to ability, not all at once when Paul arrives (16:2). When he comes, he will send off the money with their own messengers. Paul remains vague about whether or not he will accompany them, allaying suspicions that somehow he plans to profit from it (cf. 2 Cor 8–9).<\/p>\n<h5>Final Remarks and Closing, 16:5-24<\/h5>\nHaving come to the end, Paul discusses his travel plans, including his intention for a lengthy visit whenever he leaves Ephesus (cf. 2 Cor 1). Timothy was either coming with the letter or else would arrive shortly after another mission; they were to respect him and help him return. Paul points out that he urged Apollos to visit Corinth, in case some suspect Paul is against him. A closing formal exhortation to firm faith and love leads into his final customary greetings. He praises the Corinthian messengers who had brought him their letter (16:15-18) and sends greetings from Aquila and Prisca (Priscilla), his comissionaries who had helped him found the church in Corinth (Acts 18:2-3, 18). Referring to the customary greeting in the church, he tells them to greet each other with a kiss on each cheek (16:20). Paul then takes the pen from the scribe, as was normal, and writes the closing exhortation—placing a curse on those who do not love Jesus, the common Aramaic expression used in the church “Come, O Lord” (Marana tha,<\/em> perhaps used to close services), and providing an assurance of his own love for them (vv 21-24).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; Corinth; Corinthians, Second Letter to the; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CORINTHIANS, First Letter to the<\/h3>\nPreview<\/p>\n• Author<\/p>\n• Date and Origin<\/p>\n• Background<\/p>\n• Purpose and Teaching<\/p>\n• Content<\/p>\nAuthor<\/p>\nThere is no doubt about who wrote 1 Corinthians, for all scholars agree that the apostle Paul wrote it on his third missionary journey while he was living in Ephesus. By this time Paul was a mature, middle-aged (perhaps 55 years old) missionary, fully seasoned from planting churches around a quarter of the Mediterranean world.<\/p>\nDate and Origin<\/p>\nPaul worked in Corinth from about AD<\/span> 50 to 52. After a brief stay in Jerusalem, he returned to his missionary work, this time at Ephesus (Acts 19), where he ministered for three years (AD<\/span> 53–55\/56). During this period, he wrote at least three letters to Corinth and made a visit as well. His first letter, often called “the previous letter,” is referred to in 1 Corinthians 5:9-11. We know from this reference that the letter was misunderstood, but we know little of its content, for it has been lost.<\/p>\nSometime in AD<\/span> 55, after hearing reports from Chloe’s household (1 Cor 1:11), who were probably members of Chloe’s house church, he dictated a second letter to Corinth, our 1 Corinthians. This was probably sent off in the hands of Stephanas, Fortunatus, and Achaicus (16:17). Paul would later write a third letter to Corinth, called “the letter of tears” (2 Cor 2:2-3), and then finally 2 Corinthians.<\/p>\nBackground<\/p>\nCorinth was a seaport city, destroyed by the Romans in 146 BC<\/span> and rebuilt in 46 BC<\/span> by Julius Caesar. After 27 BC<\/span>, it was the Roman capital of Achaia, where the proconsul had his residence (Acts 18:12). The city itself was really three cities: the port of Cenchrea, about eight miles (13 kilometers) to the east, where ships from the Aegean would unload; the port of Lechaion, about a mile (1.6 kilometers) to the west on the Gulf of Corinth, where the ships would be reloaded, their goods having been transported in wagons over the isthmus and the ships on rollers; and the city itself on the high ground in between.<\/p>\nThe acropolis of the city, on top of the steep, high Acrocorinth, contained the temple of Aphrodite, where 1,000 female slaves were dedicated to the service of this goddess of love. This distinctive cult of Corinth was dedicated to the veneration of Aphrodite, goddess of love, beauty, and fertility, who is identified with the Roman Venus. Associated with such religious practices was a general moral degradation. Corinthian morals were notoriously corrupt, even when compared with pagan Rome. Down in the city was the synagogue (Acts 18:4); for while the city as a Roman colony was largely populated by Italians, it had attracted other peoples from the Mediterranean, among whom were the Jews.<\/p>\nPurpose and Teaching<\/p>\nThe main concern of Paul in 1 Corinthians was the unity of the church. There was a self-centeredness in Corinth that resulted in building cliques within the church, in flaunting knowledge and liberty in the face of others scandalized by it, and in selfish displays in the worship services.<\/p>\nTwo other major concerns also surface in the book. First, along with other pagan practices, the lax sexual ethics of Corinth had influenced the church; Paul needed to erect some barriers. Second, there was a problem in accepting the resurrection of the body; Paul realized that this issue had implications for the core of the faith and vigorously affirmed the resurrection.<\/p>\nBoth of these latter two areas, as well as aspects of the unity issue (particularly their concern with knowledge), have been identified by some scholars as Gnostic motifs, leading to the conclusion that Paul was opposing a Gnostic party in Corinth. Careful examination reveals, however, that while some of the elements floating in the Corinthian milieu would later contribute to the development of Gnosticism, it would be anachronistic to call them gnostic. While recognizing protognostic ideas in the Corinthian situation, it is important to keep interpretation within the first-century context.<\/p>\nThus, the focus of Paul’s concern was the church, its unity and purity. Paul was fighting to keep this church from disintegrating into a number of competing and bickering factions divided over moral and doctrinal issues. Furthermore, he wanted to keep the focus of the church on Jesus, the exalted Lord.<\/p>\nContent<\/p>\n<h5>Greeting, 1:1-9<\/h5>\nPaul begins with a standard greeting, followed by his usual thanksgiving prayer. Two features stand out. First, the greeting associates Sosthenes with Paul. While we cannot be sure who Sosthenes was, he was surely well known to the Corinthians; probably he was the Sosthenes whom Acts 18:17 identifies as the ruler of the synagogue, following the conversion of Crispus.<\/p>\nSecond, Paul stresses the Corinthians’ abilities in speech, knowledge, and spiritual gifts. They had all of these, and these were genuine, but it was precisely these good things that they were abusing. Paul’s solution is not to suppress these gifts (indeed, he thanks God for them), but to place them in a new context.<\/p>\n<h5>Report from Chloe’s People, 1:10–4:21<\/h5>\nThe Corinthians had made Paul, Cephas (Peter), Apollos, and even Christ into party leaders. We are not sure what each of these groups stood for, but one might guess that the Pauline group stressed Paul’s slogans of liberty; the Petrine group, the need to hold to Jewish practices; and the Apollos group, the value of philosophical understanding and oratory. Whatever they stood for, Paul is appalled that it breaks their unity. His first response is to argue that his behavior was not calculated to build a following but to point to Christ. That is, he did not insist on personally baptizing converts; who performed these acts did not matter, since they were all baptized into Christ.<\/p>\nPaul immediately moves to the underlying issue, that of various persons wanting to show themselves better or wiser than others who did not have the insights of their party in the church. Their seeking for wisdom contradicts Paul’s preaching of the gospel.<\/p>\nFirst, the message of a crucified Christ (1:18) made no sense within the wisdom and values of either Jews or Greeks. It demanded a whole new way of looking on life—God’s way.<\/p>\nSecond, God had not chosen them on the basis of their status in society; quite the contrary, he had made their only status the equal status they received from him (1:26-31).<\/p>\nThird, their faith had not been based on Paul’s oratory but on the gifts of the Spirit that Paul had manifested (2:4), which had convinced them that God was acting in Paul. Thus, it was not argument that led them to God, but God’s Spirit. Therefore it was the Spirit, not human reasoning, that would continue to reveal God to them. Unless they became fools with respect to the world’s ways of reasoning, they would never be able to rethink life from the perspective of the Spirit, who gives true wisdom.<\/p>\nFourth, they were not acting on this spiritual level when they claimed Paul and others as party leaders; this activity demonstrates the evil impulse in human beings (“the flesh” or “fallen human nature”) at work since it elevates human servants rather than the God who works equally in each of them.<\/p>\nFifth, these servants were working together to build one “temple” for God based on the one foundation in Jesus Christ, that is, the church. God alone will judge how each Christian contributes to the work of building the church. But woe to the person who divides the church, for “if anyone destroys God’s temple, God will destroy him” (3:17, rsv<\/span>). (Note that here the temple imagery is used collectively; the church is the temple. In chapter 6 it will be used individually; each Christian is the temple.)<\/p>\nFinally, he points to their overrealized eschatology, for with their spiritual gifts (which were genuine) and vaunted wisdom (which was worldly) they claimed they were reigning with Christ (4:8-13). Paul, with ironic sarcasm, points out how different this claim is from the lifestyle of the apostles. The apostles lived like Jesus—a life of suffering, expecting exaltation later. The Corinthians were trying to have their exaltation now without crucifixion.<\/p>\nPaul closes this section with an admonition. He softens his words toward some who would be responsive, urging them to copy his lifestyle. The teacher was the message (vv 14-16). Timothy will also faithfully live the truth before them. Then he threatens the “arrogant” (v 18), pointing out that he will not challenge their words but their spiritual power if he comes.<\/p>\n<h5>The Report from the Corinthian Messengers, 5:1–6:20<\/h5>\nPaul now turns to three issues raised by oral reports from the messengers bearing the Corinthians’ letter to him.<\/p>\nThe first issue is that of church discipline (5:12-13). Paul cites a case of flagrant immorality—that of incest. This immorality was so clear (even pagans considered it immoral), that it was not a case of ignorance of Christian principles. Further, the church had taken no action but rather boasted in its tolerance, perhaps on the basis of a misunderstanding of Paul’s teaching on freedom from the law.<\/p>\nPaul presents three principles in this section: (1) the primary goal of church discipline is the repentance and restoration of the offender; (2) the secondary goal of church discipline is the protection of the church (5:6-8); and (3) the church is not to seek to judge or control the actions of evil persons in the world—they are God’s responsibility—but to discipline those within the church (vv 9-13). Paul will use these principles also in the following chapters (cf. 7:12-16).<\/p>\nThe second issue is that of lawsuits between Christians (6:1-11). The Corinthian society was as prone to litigation as our own, and Christians did not see anything wrong in suing each other. Paul was troubled. If Christians are to judge the world, they certainly should not bring the world in to judge issues within the church. Rather than put their cases before “those who are least esteemed by the church” (6:4, rsv<\/span>, i.e., pagan judges), they should decide the cases within the church.<\/p>\nPaul has an even better way than bypassing the pagan courts, and that is to simply suffer the wrong (1 Cor 6:7). Applying the teaching of Jesus quite literally (Mt 5:38-42), Paul argues that it would be best to allow themselves to be defrauded. Instead, the Corinthians are willing to step on their brothers in Christ to get what they feel are their rights. This raises the issue as to whether greed is not still in their hearts (1 Cor 6:9-11). While Paul accepts people who formerly did all sorts of evil (for Jesus has cleansed them), he makes it very clear that anyone presently practicing greed or immorality is not part of the kingdom, whatever their doctrinal commitments may be.<\/p>\nThe final issue in this section is that of casual sexual intercourse (6:12-20). In a world where virginity was important if a woman wished to be married and where slaves in the temple of Aphrodite were available as prostitutes, prostitution was the major form of casual sex. The libertine party used two slogans: “All things are lawful for me,” a saying that may well have been derived from Paul’s teaching, and “Food is meant for the stomach and the stomach for food”—that is, since the body works this way, it must be the Creator’s purpose. Paul qualifies rather than contradicts their slogans. Freedom is subordinate to other goals (6:12, 20). The body is not made to be used as we wish, but is to be dedicated to the Lord, as the doctrine of the resurrection demonstrates (vv 13-14).<\/p>\nFurthermore, sexual intercourse is an act of the whole person, unlike eating (Paul cites Gn 2:24; cf. Jesus in Mt 19:5). Therefore, this act takes a member (i.e., the person) from the body of Christ and makes him a unity with a prostitute (1 Cor 6:15-17). Thus immorality is unlike other sins that are external to the self, for it changes the self and thus defiles the body, the place where the Holy Spirit dwells. It disregards the fact that Christ has redeemed the body, and that the whole of the Christian belongs to God, not to the Christian.<\/p>\n<h5>Paul’s Answers to the Corinthians, 7:1–16:4<\/h5>\nNow Paul turns to the Corinthians’ own issues, building on the answers he has already given to questions they did not ask.<\/p>\nThe first issue is that of marriage (7:1-24). The slogan of the ascetic party in Corinth (perhaps a reaction against the libertines of ch 6) was “It is good for a man not to touch a woman” (7:1, kjv<\/span>). The Corinthians applied this slogan to both married and unmarried, arguing that married Christians should abstain from sexual relations. Paul clarified the matter with three points. First, he said that this was totally unrealistic, for total abstinence would lead to immorality (vv 2, 7-9). Second, when people get married they no longer own their own bodies; their bodies belong to each other for their mutual benefit (vv 3-4). Sexual refusal denies a spouse what rightly belongs to him or her. Third, abstinence is allowed for limited periods by mutual agreement as a type of fast to help focus on Christ (v 5).<\/p>\nWhile Paul will address the issue of the unmarried more fully in 7:25-40, in a side remark he indicates that he is himself content to be unmarried. But since some do not have this gift, full sexual expression in marriage is far better than fighting passion (7:7-9). Once two Christians are married, divorce is unthinkable. A clear word of Christ proves this (Mt 5:31-32; Mk 10:11-12; Lk 16:18 and parallels), so there are no exceptions (Paul either does not know of the exception clause in Mt 19:9 or he understands it as referring to something like premarital unchastity discovered before the wedding, not to adultery after the wedding). Although in some cases a Christian couple must live separately, it is always with a view to reconciliation. The teaching of Jesus does not allow him to think of the marriage as ending (1 Cor 7:10-11).<\/p>\nBut what if the spouse is not a Christian? Paul applies his principles to a situation for which Jesus did not leave a clear word. First, since Jesus told Christians not to divorce, even in this situation the Christian may not initiate a divorce (7:12-13). Second, since Christians are not to control or judge non-Christians (6:12-13), the Christian does not need to continue the relationship if the non-Christian insists on a divorce (7:15). Third, far from defiling the Christian (as the relationship in 6:15 does), the Christian will make the relationship holy, with positive results for the children and the possible salvation of the spouse (7:14, 16). While this is no call to remain in situations of physical or sexual abuse, it is a call to remain faithful to a mixed marriage situation.<\/p>\nPaul does not believe that one normally needs to change one’s life situation to serve Christ (7:17-24). Therefore, normally each person should remain in that state of life in which he or she was when called to Christ. Paul’s examples show that he was thinking in terms of marriage or singleness, Jew (circumcision) or Gentile, slave or free, not in terms of situations that might be immoral in themselves. In the case of slaves, they can accept freedom if it becomes available, but it does not make an essential difference in their real state before God or their ability to serve Christ (vv 21-23).<\/p>\nThe second issue is that of the unmarried (7:25-40). Paul argues that single people and widows may marry—it is not wrong. Yet he advises them to remain single. Since all in this age is passing away, it would be good to stay single so as to avoid the extra suffering to which marriage exposes a person (vv 25-31). What is more, marriage always divides one’s attention between the Lord and the legitimate needs of the spouse. One must not abandon the spouse or ignore his or her needs in order to serve the Lord, but one can remain single so that the Lord can be the sole focus of life and devotion (vv 32-35). Finally, if one is in a situation in which marriage is expected, the person must make his own decision as to whether he should marry the woman for her sake (and perhaps that of the wider family) or whether he can and should simply care for her as a single person (vv 36-38). Paul closes this section by repeating his general principles (vv 39-40).<\/p>\nThe third issue Paul deals with is that of food that has been offered to idols (8:1–11:1). Most meat that was available in the marketplace came either from animals slaughtered as sacrifices in the temples or from groups of animals from which one was offered as a dedicatory sacrifice. To scrupulous Jews, all of this meat would be untouched. Furthermore, pagans invited Christians to feasts in their homes and to private feasts held in the precincts of pagan temples, where trade guilds also held feasts. Paul discusses these issues and uses them to teach wider principles of Christian conduct.<\/p>\nFirst, love, not knowledge, is the key to correct behavior (8:1-13). Some Corinthians felt superior because they were convinced that idols had no reality (there is only one God), and therefore any food offered to them was still fit to eat. Paul again accepts their slogans, but counters with the statement, “Knowledge puffs up, but love builds up” (v 1, niv<\/span>). God is not concerned with what we know or eat, but he is concerned with whether or not we love our fellow Christians. The concern is not that a fellow Christian might become enraged because one indulged, but that he or she might have a vulnerable conscience and indulge himself, even though he believed it wrong and thus in his own eyes apostasizes from the faith (i.e., rebels against Christ). Such leading astray is not love. It would be better never to eat meat than to lead a fellow Christian into sin.<\/p>\nSecond, he points out that one should subordinate one’s own interests to those of others, especially those of Christ and his gospel (9:1-23). Both the examples of the apostles, who expected the church to support them and their families (cf. Lk 10:5-7), and Scripture prove that Paul had the right to demand support from the Corinthians. This had not been his practice, for he had normally made tents to support his ministry, though he did accept gifts from other churches. Paul did this to prevent people from thinking he was peddling religion for profit (9:12) and for the personal satisfaction of doing more than he had to do (vv 16-17). This was part of Paul’s larger policy of subordinating his own personal preferences and interests to those of Christ and his gospel (vv 19-23).<\/p>\nThird, the bravado of the strong who demonstrate their liberty with disregard of fellow Christians is spiritually dangerous (9:24–10:22). It is not who begins but who completes the Christian life that counts; therefore, it is a life of discipline, not relaxed license (9:24-27). Israel in the wilderness presents an example of failure in this regard. They had “baptism” and “the Lord’s Supper” (10:2-4), just like the church, yet most of them did not make it to the Promised Land. The reason God destroyed them was simple: they turned to sin. Likewise, the Christian has to be careful not to be so proud about faith and freedom that he becomes careless about sin and falls from the faith (v 12). On the other hand, Christians need not be fearful, for the temptation is not more powerful than they are; God has provided a way of escape, if they will take it (v 13).<\/p>\nAnother link between the Israelites and the Corinthians pertains to partaking of a sacrificial meal (10:14-22). In the Lord’s Supper there is a sharing of the blood and body of Christ, just as real as Israel’s sacrifices on the altar. Food offered to idols is also a sharing, not with the supposed god, but with the real demon that is behind the idol. To try to share at both tables is to provoke God’s jealousy just as Israel did (v 22).<\/p>\nA summary of the discussion draws the three chapters together (10:23–11:1). Since the food is not changed by being offered to idols, and since all food really belongs to God, one may eat anything sold in the market—do not ask any questions (10:25-26). Likewise, the Christian may eat anything served at a dinner in the home of an unbeliever. However, if someone points out that the food was offered to idols, the Christian should pass it by, not because it would hurt him, but because it is an issue with the person who raised the question, and the Christian is concerned about the good of his neighbor (vv 27-30). In other words, follow Paul’s example as he patterns himself in turn after Christ, who served others rather than himself. Act so that God’s reputation and character shine through even in what one eats (v 31); try to offend no one but to benefit each person in moving him toward salvation (v 32).<\/p>\nThe fourth issue Paul deals with is that of order in church meetings (11:2–14:40). The Corinthians’ house churches had lively meetings, but rather than showing unity in Christ, they demonstrated selfishness. Paul had no desire to change what they did; he did want to change how they did it.<\/p>\nThe first problem in the meetings was the behavior of married women (11:1-16). The sign of marriage in that day was the wearing of a veil or distinctive hairstyle, as a ring is today. Women praying and delivering prophecies in church was no issue for Paul, but the women may have felt that this loosed them from their husbands (cf. Mk 12:25) and therefore was a reason to set aside their veils. Paul argues that husband and wife are intimately joined, just as humans are to God (1 Cor 11:3). Therefore as humans should not shame but glorify God, so the wife should act toward her husband. Thus, while Paul approves of ministry by women, he puts marriage first.<\/p>\nThe second problem in the meetings was that of making class distinctions (11:17-34). Until the weekly Lord’s Supper began to be turned into the sacrifice of the Mass in the third and fourth centuries, it was a full shared meal. Middle- and upper-class Christians could come earlier to the church gatherings and also provide better food and drink for themselves. Following the customs of pagan clubs, they had no scruples against starting early and feasting as befit their class, so long as at least simple food was provided for the slaves and peasants who could not come as early (v 21). This shamed the poorer Christians and made them feel class distinctions keenly (v 22). This, argues Paul, is not the Lord’s Supper but a sham (v 20).<\/p>\nPaul repeats the words of institution to point out that they all are participating in Christ’s body and blood (cf. 10:16-17), not their own meal. To do it in an unworthy manner, with divisions and class distinctions among them, is to profane his meal by failing to demonstrate the unity of his body, the church (11:29), and thus invite his judgment, which they were already experiencing. Instead, they should examine their own motives and truly gather as one to eat this common meal.<\/p>\nThe third problem in their meetings was the use of spiritual gifts (12:1–14:40). It is possible that some people in these house churches, under the influence of Gnostic ideas in which the spiritual is good and the material evil, and feeling inspired by a spirit, cried out, “Jesus [meaning the human Jesus as opposed to the spiritual Christ] be cursed.” It is not the Spirit of God saying this, argues Paul, for the Spirit in us cries the basic Christian confession, “Jesus is Lord.”<\/p>\nOthers in these churches were exalting their own particular gift, especially the gift of tongues, shouting down others or refusing to give them a turn. There is only one Spirit and he gives all the gifts, Paul argues (12:4-6). The Spirit manifests himself sovereignly in each Christian, not simply for the Christian’s own benefit, but for the good of all (v 7). Since it is the Spirit, not a given manifestation, that the Christian has, the gifts manifested could change from meeting to meeting.<\/p>\nThat same Spirit has made all Christians into one organic unity in Christ (12:12-13). Thus not only does the one Spirit give all the gifts—all are equally inspired—but all the gifts are equally needed for the proper functioning of the body of Christ (vv 14-26). No one can say that his lack of a given gift makes him less a part of the body; indeed, the less noticeable gifts may well be the more important. Thus, within the body of Christ, there are not only different manifestations of the Spirit through individuals in a given meeting, but different ministries or functions of individuals in the body (vv 27-31).<\/p>\nTherefore, it is not the demonstration of a particular gift that shows one’s spirituality, but how one demonstrates it—that is, whether one manifests it with love (13:1-13). Any gift exercised for selfish purposes may be a genuine gift of the Spirit, but it is worthless to the individual (vv 1-3). This is because love is the opposite of selfishness (vv 4-7). In fact, the gifts of the Spirit are only for the period between Jesus’ first coming and his second coming, when the kingdom of God will be perfectly revealed and the King will be present in person, and thus the intermediary gifts of the Spirit will be no longer necessary (vv 10, 12). It is not giftedness but faith and hope that will have a reward then, and love, which is the greatest, because it will continue as Christians live in perfect love with each other and with Jesus (v 13).<\/p>\nApplying this to Corinth, Paul argues that while one should desire all the gifts, love dictates that prophecy should be the gift of choice in the church meetings (14:1-25). The Corinthians had evidently been stressing tongues. Tongues without interpretation is of little value to anyone except to the speaker himself. It does not build anyone up; its confusion seems madness to outsiders. Outside the church meetings there is a role for tongues, both as a sign of judgment (v 21) and for private devotion (v 18), but inside, only with interpretation. Prophecy, however, both builds up and convicts, and thus is to be sought in the meetings.<\/p>\nIn the church meetings, then, both gifts and order are to prevail (14:26-40). All types of gifts are allowed expression with a goal of mutual edification, not selfish demonstration (v 26). Tongues speakers must have an interpreter; both they and prophets must speak in turn, with time being taken to evaluate the utterances after every few speakers (vv 27-33). Furthermore, the women, who were perhaps chatting in the service (perhaps due to habits learned in Jewish synagogues, where they were segregated and did not participate) are to cease their chattering, pay attention, and learn, asking questions at home if they do not understand (vv 34-36). In his concluding summary, Paul states that all should be done in an orderly manner (vv 37-40).<\/p>\nThe fifth issue Paul deals with is that of the resurrection of the dead (ch 15). Some of the problems mentioned earlier concerning loose morals (chs 5–6), ascetic denial, sexuality (ch 7), or feeling one was resurrected already (ch 11) point to the fact that some Corinthians did not believe in the resurrection of the body, though they apparently believed in the resurrection of Jesus and the immortality of the human soul.<\/p>\nPaul reaffirms that the resurrection of Jesus is an essential part of the gospel message (15:1-19). The unified voice of the church was that Jesus not only died but rose again and appeared to numerous witnesses (vv 3-11). If they were consistent in their antiresurrection argument, Christ could not have been raised. Yet if this were the case, the whole gospel message is false and all their hopes for salvation are in vain (vv 12-19).<\/p>\nSince Christ has been raised, Christians will also be raised because of their solidarity with him (15:20-28). As they had experienced the results of being in Adam, so now they will experience the results of being in Christ. But resurrection does not happen at once. There are progressive stages: (a) Christ was first; (b) Christians will be raised at his coming; (c) Christ must reign until he extends kingdom rule over the whole world, destroying all demonic powers (including death itself); and (d) then he will turn over the perfected kingdom to the Father (vv 23-28).<\/p>\nResurrection hope also explains Christian practices such as baptizing people on behalf of others who had died (probably people who had turned to Christ but had died before they could be baptized, 15:29), and willingness to risk death for Christ (vv 30-32).<\/p>\nPaul admits that there are intellectual problems involved, but these are solved when one realizes that resurrection includes both continuity and discontinuity (15:35-50). Just as seed and plant are the same and yet different, and just as many types of bodies exist, so it is with the resurrection. What was perishable, dishonorable, weak, and physical (i.e., in Adam) will be raised imperishable, glorious, powerful, and spiritual (i.e., in Christ). Indeed, it is only as Christians thus become like Christ, the heavenly man, that they can become part of God’s kingdom.<\/p>\nWith excitement Paul shares his real hope, that of transformation (15:51-58). At the coming of Christ the dead will be raised and transformed. But the living will also need transformation, and this will happen in a split second, making all of them impervious to death. Then they will truly know the victory already present in Jesus’ resurrection (vv 54-57). A concluding summary draws the practical conclusion that this teaching should give them assurance of a reward for anything done for Christ now (v 58).<\/p>\nThe sixth issue Paul deals with is that of the collection for the needy Jerusalem church (16:1-4). Because of famine in Judea in the 40s, the church there had become impoverished. Partly because of the need and partly to further the unity of the church, Paul took up a collection in some of his churches for the Judean church. He answers the Corinthians’ practical queries by stating that the collection should be made weekly according to ability, not all at once when Paul arrives (16:2). When he comes, he will send off the money with their own messengers. Paul remains vague about whether or not he will accompany them, allaying suspicions that somehow he plans to profit from it (cf. 2 Cor 8–9).<\/p>\n<h5>Final Remarks and Closing, 16:5-24<\/h5>\nHaving come to the end, Paul discusses his travel plans, including his intention for a lengthy visit whenever he leaves Ephesus (cf. 2 Cor 1). Timothy was either coming with the letter or else would arrive shortly after another mission; they were to respect him and help him return. Paul points out that he urged Apollos to visit Corinth, in case some suspect Paul is against him. A closing formal exhortation to firm faith and love leads into his final customary greetings. He praises the Corinthian messengers who had brought him their letter (16:15-18) and sends greetings from Aquila and Prisca (Priscilla), his comissionaries who had helped him found the church in Corinth (Acts 18:2-3, 18). Referring to the customary greeting in the church, he tells them to greet each other with a kiss on each cheek (16:20). Paul then takes the pen from the scribe, as was normal, and writes the closing exhortation—placing a curse on those who do not love Jesus, the common Aramaic expression used in the church “Come, O Lord” (Marana tha,<\/em> perhaps used to close services), and providing an assurance of his own love for them (vv 21-24).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Acts of the Apostles, Book of the; Corinth; Corinthians, Second Letter to the; Paul, The Apostle.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CORINTHIANS, First Letter to the Preview • Author • Date and Origin • Background • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author There is no doubt about who wrote 1 Corinthians, for all scholars agree that the apostle Paul wrote it on his third missionary journey while he was living in Ephesus. By this time Paul was a mature, middle-aged (perhaps 55 years old) missionary, fully seasoned from planting churches around a quarter of the Mediterranean world. Date and Origin Paul worked in Corinth from abo...","summary_en":"CORINTHIANS, First Letter to the Preview • Author • Date and Origin • Background • Purpose and Teaching • Content Author There is no doubt about who wrote 1 Corinthians, for all scholars agree that the apostle Paul wrote it on his third missionary journey while he was living in Ephesus. By this time Paul was a mature, middle-aged (perhaps 55 years old) missionary, fully seasoned from planting churches around a quarter of the Mediterranean world. Date and Origin Paul worked in Corinth from abo...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":24172,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Man*, Natural","title_en":"Man*, Natural","content_ro":"<h3>MAN*, Natural<\/h3>\nExpression occurring in 1 Corinthians 2:14 (rsv<\/span> mg). The adjective translated there by “natural” is also found in 1 Corinthians 15:44 (twice), 46; James 3:15; and Jude 1:19. This adjective is related to the Greek noun usually translated “soul.” Its meaning, however, is primarily determined by its various contexts, particularly in 1 Corinthians, where all four occurrences are contrasted pointedly with “spiritual,” an adjective occurring frequently in the NT, mostly in Paul’s writings. In almost every instance it refers to the work of the Holy Spirit. Applied to things, “spiritual” means derived from, or produced by, the Holy Spirit (the law—Rom 7:14; gifts—1 Cor 12:1; blessings—Eph 1:3; sacrifices—1 Pt 2:5). When it is applied to persons, it means indwelt, motivated, and directed by the Holy Spirit (1 Cor 2:15; 14:37; Gal 6:1). “Natural,” then, when contrasted with “spiritual,” generally describes what is devoid of or in opposition to the Holy Spirit and his work. In 1 Corinthians 2:14-15 “natural man” is set over against “spiritual man” (see rsv<\/span>). Within this context the natural man is one who does not accept the things that come from the spirit of God (1 Cor 2:14). Rather, these things are “foolishness” to him. He cannot understand them because they are “spiritually discerned.” This foolishness is the foolishness of unbelief (1:21), and the discernment lacking is insight produced only by the Holy Spirit. Plainly, Paul has in view someone utterly without and even opposed to the Holy Spirit and God’s revealed truth.<\/p>\nIn 1 Corinthians 15:44-46, the contrast between spiritual and natural occurs in a different context—that of the “body” in death as compared to the “body” in resurrection. The body of the believer laid in the grave (“sown”) is a natural body (v 44a). The body of the believer raised from the dead will be a spiritual body, that is, a body renewed and transformed by the Holy Spirit (Rom 8:11). In 1 Corinthians 15:44b and 45a, however, the natural body is traced back by appeal to Genesis 2:7 to Adam before the fall, at Creation. This shows that biblically what is natural refers to the Creation. Originally, as created by God, the “natural” was “very good” (Gn 1:31) but subsequently it has been subjected to corruption and death by the sin of man. Therefore, the sinful rebellion of the natural man, measured by the original creation, is thoroughly unnatural and abnormal. The opposing work of the Holy Spirit now, in Christ, not only removes this abnormality but brings the original purposes of Creation to their consummation (Rom 8:19-22; 2 Cor 5:17).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Man; Man, Old and New.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MAN*, Natural<\/h3>\nExpression occurring in 1 Corinthians 2:14 (rsv<\/span> mg). The adjective translated there by “natural” is also found in 1 Corinthians 15:44 (twice), 46; James 3:15; and Jude 1:19. This adjective is related to the Greek noun usually translated “soul.” Its meaning, however, is primarily determined by its various contexts, particularly in 1 Corinthians, where all four occurrences are contrasted pointedly with “spiritual,” an adjective occurring frequently in the NT, mostly in Paul’s writings. In almost every instance it refers to the work of the Holy Spirit. Applied to things, “spiritual” means derived from, or produced by, the Holy Spirit (the law—Rom 7:14; gifts—1 Cor 12:1; blessings—Eph 1:3; sacrifices—1 Pt 2:5). When it is applied to persons, it means indwelt, motivated, and directed by the Holy Spirit (1 Cor 2:15; 14:37; Gal 6:1). “Natural,” then, when contrasted with “spiritual,” generally describes what is devoid of or in opposition to the Holy Spirit and his work. In 1 Corinthians 2:14-15 “natural man” is set over against “spiritual man” (see rsv<\/span>). Within this context the natural man is one who does not accept the things that come from the spirit of God (1 Cor 2:14). Rather, these things are “foolishness” to him. He cannot understand them because they are “spiritually discerned.” This foolishness is the foolishness of unbelief (1:21), and the discernment lacking is insight produced only by the Holy Spirit. Plainly, Paul has in view someone utterly without and even opposed to the Holy Spirit and God’s revealed truth.<\/p>\nIn 1 Corinthians 15:44-46, the contrast between spiritual and natural occurs in a different context—that of the “body” in death as compared to the “body” in resurrection. The body of the believer laid in the grave (“sown”) is a natural body (v 44a). The body of the believer raised from the dead will be a spiritual body, that is, a body renewed and transformed by the Holy Spirit (Rom 8:11). In 1 Corinthians 15:44b and 45a, however, the natural body is traced back by appeal to Genesis 2:7 to Adam before the fall, at Creation. This shows that biblically what is natural refers to the Creation. Originally, as created by God, the “natural” was “very good” (Gn 1:31) but subsequently it has been subjected to corruption and death by the sin of man. Therefore, the sinful rebellion of the natural man, measured by the original creation, is thoroughly unnatural and abnormal. The opposing work of the Holy Spirit now, in Christ, not only removes this abnormality but brings the original purposes of Creation to their consummation (Rom 8:19-22; 2 Cor 5:17).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Man; Man, Old and New.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MAN*, Natural Expression occurring in 1 Corinthians 2:14 (rsv mg). The adjective translated there by “natural” is also found in 1 Corinthians 15:44 (twice), 46; James 3:15; and Jude 1:19. This adjective is related to the Greek noun usually translated “soul.” Its meaning, however, is primarily determined by its various contexts, particularly in 1 Corinthians, where all four occurrences are contrasted pointedly with “spiritual,” an adjective occurring frequently in the NT, mostly in Paul’s writ...","summary_en":"MAN*, Natural Expression occurring in 1 Corinthians 2:14 (rsv mg). The adjective translated there by “natural” is also found in 1 Corinthians 15:44 (twice), 46; James 3:15; and Jude 1:19. This adjective is related to the Greek noun usually translated “soul.” Its meaning, however, is primarily determined by its various contexts, particularly in 1 Corinthians, where all four occurrences are contrasted pointedly with “spiritual,” an adjective occurring frequently in the NT, mostly in Paul’s writ...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":36273,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Spiritual Gifts","title_en":"Spiritual Gifts","content_ro":"<h3>SPIRITUAL GIFTS<\/h3>\nPhrase regularly used to translate two Greek words, charismata<\/span> and pneumatika<\/span> (the plural forms of charisma<\/span> and pneumatikon<\/span>). Both words are almost exclusively Pauline within the biblical writings; elsewhere in the NT, they appear only in 1 Peter 2:5 and 4:10. Other writers, of course, mention phenomena that fall within Paul’s definition of “spiritual gifts,” but for specific teaching on the subject, one must depend on Paul first and foremost.<\/p>\nBoth words are derived from more familiar words, charis<\/span> (grace) and pneuma<\/span> (spirit). Both have similar senses—charisma<\/span> meaning “expression of grace,” pneumatikon<\/span> meaning “expression of Spirit.” Their range of application, however, is somewhat different.<\/p>\nCharisma<\/span> denotes God’s saving action in Christ (Rom 5:15-16) and the gift of eternal life (6:23). More generally, in Romans 11:29 it probably refers to the series of gracious acts on behalf of Israel whereby God made Israel’s calling and election sure. In 2 Corinthians 1:11 it probably refers to a particular action of God that brought Paul deliverance from deadly peril. Otherwise, the reference seems to be to divine grace as mediated through individuals, with Paul presumably thinking of the sort of utterances and deeds that he illustrates in Romans 12:6-8 and 1 Corinthians 12:8-10 (so in Rom 1:11; 1 Cor 1:7; 7:7; 12:4-11, 28-30; similarly 1 Pt 4:10).<\/p>\nPneumatikon<\/span> has a wider range of usage. It is more properly an adjective and so describes various things (and people) as “spiritual,” as manifesting the Spirit, or as serving as the instrument of the Spirit. These include some particular word or act (Rom 1:11), the law (7:14), the manna, water from the rock, and the rock itself in the wilderness wanderings of Israel (1 Cor 10:3-4), the resurrection body (15:44-46), unspecified blessings “in the heavenly places” (Eph 1:3), particular insights into the divine will (Col 1:9), and songs in worship (Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). As a plural noun, it can be used of individuals (“the spiritual ones,” 1 Cor 2:13, 15; 14:37; Gal 6:1) or of things (“the spirituals,” “spiritual gifts,” Rom 15:27; 1 Cor 2:13; 9:11; 12:1; 14:1), even “spiritual powers in heaven” (Eph 6:12).<\/p>\nFrom this brief survey, a more precise definition of “spiritual gifts” can be made. Whatever thing or individual serves as an instrument of the Spirit or manifests the Spirit or embodies the Spirit is a spiritual gift (pneumatikon<\/span>). Whatever event, word, or action is a concrete expression of grace or serves as a means of grace is a spiritual gift (charisma<\/span>). Pneumatikon<\/span> is the more general word; charisma<\/span> is more specific. Moreover, charisma<\/span> is probably Paul’s own word (Rom 1:11; 12:6; 1 Cor 7:7; 12:4) in preference to the more ambiguous pneumatikon<\/span>,<\/em> which seems to have been popular with those causing difficulty for Paul in Corinth (1 Cor 2:13–3:4; 14:37; 15:44-46). Consequently, attention will focus in what follows on charisma<\/span>.<\/em> Not forgetting those passages where Paul uses this word in broader terms for the direct act of God (Rom 5:15, 16; 6:23; 11:29; 1 Cor 1:11), concentration will be on the passages where Paul speaks in more precise terms of particular manifestations of grace mediated through one individual to others—“spiritual gifts” in this the narrower sense of charisma<\/span>.<\/em><\/p>\nThe lists of charismata<\/span> (Rom 12; 1 Cor 12; Eph 4; 1 Pt 4) are the obvious starting point because they provide the clearest indications of what Paul would include within the range of spiritual gifts. For Paul (the one who gave Christianity the concept of charisma<\/span>), a spiritual gift is essentially an act of God’s Spirit, a concrete manifestation in word or deed of God’s grace through an individual for the benefit of others.<\/p>\nIn its basic sense, a spiritual gift is a specific act of God, and this remains true even when it is mediated through any individual. This means that no one can hope to manifest such a gift except in conscious openness to and dependence on God. By extension Paul can speak of individuals “having” or “possessing” certain spiritual gifts (Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 7:7; 12:3), but this is presumably just shorthand for their being so open to God’s grace that that grace regularly or constantly manifests itself through them in particular ways. Such language no more means that the charisma<\/span> is an ability at the individual’s command than does the similar talk of “having the Spirit” (Rom 8:9, 23). It is true, however, that in 1 Timothy 4:14 and 2 Timothy 1:6 this basic sense is beginning to be left behind.<\/p>\nA spiritual gift is any event, word, or action that embodies and expresses God’s grace. In this sense sacraments can be “means of grace” (though they are never called this in the NT), as are many other utterances and actions as well. In recognizing this, one can recognize too that the lists of gifts (e.g., Rom 12:6-8; 1 Cor 12:8-10) are neither definitive nor exhaustive, simply typical manifestations of the Spirit (or those with which they needed some advice). The degree of overlap between these various lists shows that Paul was not concerned to specify a precisely defined catalog; he simply selected a number of activities and utterances through which he saw the grace of God manifesting itself in his churches.<\/p>\n\nIt is important to grasp that Paul saw all Christians as charismatics. Whoever “has” the Spirit—that is, is open to and being led by the Spirit (Rom 8:9-14)—will inevitably manifest the grace of God in some way and should also be open to the Spirit’s power coming to expression in particular words and deeds within the community of the Spirit. For Paul, the church is the body of Christ. The functions of that body’s members are exemplified by the spiritual gifts (Rom 12:4-6; 1 Cor 12:14-30). Unless the individual is functioning charismatically, he is not functioning as a member of the body. The Spirit’s gifts are the living movements of Christ’s body. As the body is many different members functioning as one body, so the unity of the church grows out of the diverse functions (gifts) of its members. It follows that a spiritual gift is given primarily with the community in view. It is given “for the common good” (1 Cor 12:7). That is why a selfish, loveless clutching after charismata<\/span> is wrong and futile (13:1-3). A spiritual gift is never one’s to use as one wants for one’s own benefit (except perhaps glossolalia, but that is why Paul gives it lower value). It is given to one only in the sense that God chooses to act through one for others. More precisely, it is given only through one to the community, and one benefits only as the community benefits. The spiritual health and edification of the individual is inextricably bound up with the health and well-being of the whole body (12:14-26; Eph 4:16). See<\/em> Apostle, Apostleship; Miracle; Prophecy; Teacher; Tongues, Speaking in.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SPIRITUAL GIFTS<\/h3>\nPhrase regularly used to translate two Greek words, charismata<\/span> and pneumatika<\/span> (the plural forms of charisma<\/span> and pneumatikon<\/span>). Both words are almost exclusively Pauline within the biblical writings; elsewhere in the NT, they appear only in 1 Peter 2:5 and 4:10. Other writers, of course, mention phenomena that fall within Paul’s definition of “spiritual gifts,” but for specific teaching on the subject, one must depend on Paul first and foremost.<\/p>\nBoth words are derived from more familiar words, charis<\/span> (grace) and pneuma<\/span> (spirit). Both have similar senses—charisma<\/span> meaning “expression of grace,” pneumatikon<\/span> meaning “expression of Spirit.” Their range of application, however, is somewhat different.<\/p>\nCharisma<\/span> denotes God’s saving action in Christ (Rom 5:15-16) and the gift of eternal life (6:23). More generally, in Romans 11:29 it probably refers to the series of gracious acts on behalf of Israel whereby God made Israel’s calling and election sure. In 2 Corinthians 1:11 it probably refers to a particular action of God that brought Paul deliverance from deadly peril. Otherwise, the reference seems to be to divine grace as mediated through individuals, with Paul presumably thinking of the sort of utterances and deeds that he illustrates in Romans 12:6-8 and 1 Corinthians 12:8-10 (so in Rom 1:11; 1 Cor 1:7; 7:7; 12:4-11, 28-30; similarly 1 Pt 4:10).<\/p>\nPneumatikon<\/span> has a wider range of usage. It is more properly an adjective and so describes various things (and people) as “spiritual,” as manifesting the Spirit, or as serving as the instrument of the Spirit. These include some particular word or act (Rom 1:11), the law (7:14), the manna, water from the rock, and the rock itself in the wilderness wanderings of Israel (1 Cor 10:3-4), the resurrection body (15:44-46), unspecified blessings “in the heavenly places” (Eph 1:3), particular insights into the divine will (Col 1:9), and songs in worship (Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). As a plural noun, it can be used of individuals (“the spiritual ones,” 1 Cor 2:13, 15; 14:37; Gal 6:1) or of things (“the spirituals,” “spiritual gifts,” Rom 15:27; 1 Cor 2:13; 9:11; 12:1; 14:1), even “spiritual powers in heaven” (Eph 6:12).<\/p>\nFrom this brief survey, a more precise definition of “spiritual gifts” can be made. Whatever thing or individual serves as an instrument of the Spirit or manifests the Spirit or embodies the Spirit is a spiritual gift (pneumatikon<\/span>). Whatever event, word, or action is a concrete expression of grace or serves as a means of grace is a spiritual gift (charisma<\/span>). Pneumatikon<\/span> is the more general word; charisma<\/span> is more specific. Moreover, charisma<\/span> is probably Paul’s own word (Rom 1:11; 12:6; 1 Cor 7:7; 12:4) in preference to the more ambiguous pneumatikon<\/span>,<\/em> which seems to have been popular with those causing difficulty for Paul in Corinth (1 Cor 2:13–3:4; 14:37; 15:44-46). Consequently, attention will focus in what follows on charisma<\/span>.<\/em> Not forgetting those passages where Paul uses this word in broader terms for the direct act of God (Rom 5:15, 16; 6:23; 11:29; 1 Cor 1:11), concentration will be on the passages where Paul speaks in more precise terms of particular manifestations of grace mediated through one individual to others—“spiritual gifts” in this the narrower sense of charisma<\/span>.<\/em><\/p>\nThe lists of charismata<\/span> (Rom 12; 1 Cor 12; Eph 4; 1 Pt 4) are the obvious starting point because they provide the clearest indications of what Paul would include within the range of spiritual gifts. For Paul (the one who gave Christianity the concept of charisma<\/span>), a spiritual gift is essentially an act of God’s Spirit, a concrete manifestation in word or deed of God’s grace through an individual for the benefit of others.<\/p>\nIn its basic sense, a spiritual gift is a specific act of God, and this remains true even when it is mediated through any individual. This means that no one can hope to manifest such a gift except in conscious openness to and dependence on God. By extension Paul can speak of individuals “having” or “possessing” certain spiritual gifts (Rom 12:6; 1 Cor 7:7; 12:3), but this is presumably just shorthand for their being so open to God’s grace that that grace regularly or constantly manifests itself through them in particular ways. Such language no more means that the charisma<\/span> is an ability at the individual’s command than does the similar talk of “having the Spirit” (Rom 8:9, 23). It is true, however, that in 1 Timothy 4:14 and 2 Timothy 1:6 this basic sense is beginning to be left behind.<\/p>\nA spiritual gift is any event, word, or action that embodies and expresses God’s grace. In this sense sacraments can be “means of grace” (though they are never called this in the NT), as are many other utterances and actions as well. In recognizing this, one can recognize too that the lists of gifts (e.g., Rom 12:6-8; 1 Cor 12:8-10) are neither definitive nor exhaustive, simply typical manifestations of the Spirit (or those with which they needed some advice). The degree of overlap between these various lists shows that Paul was not concerned to specify a precisely defined catalog; he simply selected a number of activities and utterances through which he saw the grace of God manifesting itself in his churches.<\/p>\n\nIt is important to grasp that Paul saw all Christians as charismatics. Whoever “has” the Spirit—that is, is open to and being led by the Spirit (Rom 8:9-14)—will inevitably manifest the grace of God in some way and should also be open to the Spirit’s power coming to expression in particular words and deeds within the community of the Spirit. For Paul, the church is the body of Christ. The functions of that body’s members are exemplified by the spiritual gifts (Rom 12:4-6; 1 Cor 12:14-30). Unless the individual is functioning charismatically, he is not functioning as a member of the body. The Spirit’s gifts are the living movements of Christ’s body. As the body is many different members functioning as one body, so the unity of the church grows out of the diverse functions (gifts) of its members. It follows that a spiritual gift is given primarily with the community in view. It is given “for the common good” (1 Cor 12:7). That is why a selfish, loveless clutching after charismata<\/span> is wrong and futile (13:1-3). A spiritual gift is never one’s to use as one wants for one’s own benefit (except perhaps glossolalia, but that is why Paul gives it lower value). It is given to one only in the sense that God chooses to act through one for others. More precisely, it is given only through one to the community, and one benefits only as the community benefits. The spiritual health and edification of the individual is inextricably bound up with the health and well-being of the whole body (12:14-26; Eph 4:16). See<\/em> Apostle, Apostleship; Miracle; Prophecy; Teacher; Tongues, Speaking in.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SPIRITUAL GIFTS Phrase regularly used to translate two Greek words, charismata and pneumatika (the plural forms of charisma and pneumatikon). Both words are almost exclusively Pauline within the biblical writings; elsewhere in the NT, they appear only in 1 Peter 2:5 and 4:10. Other writers, of course, mention phenomena that fall within Paul’s definition of “spiritual gifts,” but for specific teaching on the subject, one must depend on Paul first and foremost. Both words are derived from more ...","summary_en":"SPIRITUAL GIFTS Phrase regularly used to translate two Greek words, charismata and pneumatika (the plural forms of charisma and pneumatikon). Both words are almost exclusively Pauline within the biblical writings; elsewhere in the NT, they appear only in 1 Peter 2:5 and 4:10. Other writers, of course, mention phenomena that fall within Paul’s definition of “spiritual gifts,” but for specific teaching on the subject, one must depend on Paul first and foremost. Both words are derived from more ...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"39":[{"id":7985,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Covet, Covetousness*","title_en":"Covet, Covetousness*","content_ro":"<h3>COVET, COVETOUSNESS*<\/h3>\nThe desire to have something for oneself that belongs to another—a craving or passionate desire. Three Hebrew words are translated “covet” in the OT (see rsv<\/span>). In one recital of the Ten Commandments (Dt 5:21) the text reads, “You shall not covet your neighbor’s wife.” The same Hebrew word occurs in Proverbs 21:26: “All day long the wicked covets.” Another word implies dishonest gain (Hb 2:9). In the Exodus listing of the Ten Commandments, a third word is used for craving a neighbor’s wife (Ex 20:17). The same word is used of Achan’s coveting of the spoils of Ai (Jos 7:21; cf. Mi 2:2). To covet is to desire inordinately, to place the object of desire before love and devotion to God.<\/p>\nThat idea is conveyed in the NT by a Greek word literally meaning “inordinate desire to have more.” The apostle Paul listed that kind of covetousness among earthly attitudes of which Christians are to rid themselves. “Put to death therefore what is earthly in you: immorality, impurity, passion, evil desire, and covetousness, which is idolatry” (Col 3:5, rsv<\/span>; cf. Eph 5:3; 1 Cor 6:10).<\/p>\nCovetousness is pictured as a serious sin that leads to a variety of other sins. The love of money is the root of all evils (1 Tm 6:9-10; cf. Prv 15:27). It was the sin of Ananias and Sapphira (Acts 5:1-3; cf. 1 Sm 15:9, 19; Mt 26:14-15; 2 Pt 2:15; Jude 1:11). Jesus warned: “Take heed, and beware of all covetousness; for a man’s life does not consist in the abundance of his possessions” (Lk 12:15, rsv<\/span>). Another Greek word translated “covet” in the kjv<\/span> is better translated “earnestly desire” in a positive sense (1 Cor 14:39).<\/p>\nThe translators of the OT who produced the Septuagint used still another Greek word for the three Hebrew words rendered “covet” in English versions. In the NT the verb form of that word is used in both a positive and negative sense. It means “to desire or long for,” whether food (Lk 15:16), the divine mysteries (Mt 13:17; 1 Pt 1:12), some good thing (Phil 1:23; Heb 6:11), or some evil thing (Mt 5:28; 1 Thes 4:5; 1 Jn 2:17). The noun form of the same word generally reflects an attitude of disobedience to the law of God in which desire has given place to an evil impulse that results in sin (Jn 8:44; Rom 1:24; 6:12; 7:7-8; 13:14; Gal 5:16, 26).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Commandments, The Ten.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>COVET, COVETOUSNESS*<\/h3>\nThe desire to have something for oneself that belongs to another—a craving or passionate desire. Three Hebrew words are translated “covet” in the OT (see rsv<\/span>). In one recital of the Ten Commandments (Dt 5:21) the text reads, “You shall not covet your neighbor’s wife.” The same Hebrew word occurs in Proverbs 21:26: “All day long the wicked covets.” Another word implies dishonest gain (Hb 2:9). In the Exodus listing of the Ten Commandments, a third word is used for craving a neighbor’s wife (Ex 20:17). The same word is used of Achan’s coveting of the spoils of Ai (Jos 7:21; cf. Mi 2:2). To covet is to desire inordinately, to place the object of desire before love and devotion to God.<\/p>\nThat idea is conveyed in the NT by a Greek word literally meaning “inordinate desire to have more.” The apostle Paul listed that kind of covetousness among earthly attitudes of which Christians are to rid themselves. “Put to death therefore what is earthly in you: immorality, impurity, passion, evil desire, and covetousness, which is idolatry” (Col 3:5, rsv<\/span>; cf. Eph 5:3; 1 Cor 6:10).<\/p>\nCovetousness is pictured as a serious sin that leads to a variety of other sins. The love of money is the root of all evils (1 Tm 6:9-10; cf. Prv 15:27). It was the sin of Ananias and Sapphira (Acts 5:1-3; cf. 1 Sm 15:9, 19; Mt 26:14-15; 2 Pt 2:15; Jude 1:11). Jesus warned: “Take heed, and beware of all covetousness; for a man’s life does not consist in the abundance of his possessions” (Lk 12:15, rsv<\/span>). Another Greek word translated “covet” in the kjv<\/span> is better translated “earnestly desire” in a positive sense (1 Cor 14:39).<\/p>\nThe translators of the OT who produced the Septuagint used still another Greek word for the three Hebrew words rendered “covet” in English versions. In the NT the verb form of that word is used in both a positive and negative sense. It means “to desire or long for,” whether food (Lk 15:16), the divine mysteries (Mt 13:17; 1 Pt 1:12), some good thing (Phil 1:23; Heb 6:11), or some evil thing (Mt 5:28; 1 Thes 4:5; 1 Jn 2:17). The noun form of the same word generally reflects an attitude of disobedience to the law of God in which desire has given place to an evil impulse that results in sin (Jn 8:44; Rom 1:24; 6:12; 7:7-8; 13:14; Gal 5:16, 26).<\/p>\nSee also<\/em> Commandments, The Ten.<\/p>","summary_ro":"COVET, COVETOUSNESS* The desire to have something for oneself that belongs to another—a craving or passionate desire. Three Hebrew words are translated “covet” in the OT (see rsv). In one recital of the Ten Commandments (Dt 5:21) the text reads, “You shall not covet your neighbor’s wife.” The same Hebrew word occurs in Proverbs 21:26: “All day long the wicked covets.” Another word implies dishonest gain (Hb 2:9). In the Exodus listing of the Ten Commandments, a third word is used for craving ...","summary_en":"COVET, COVETOUSNESS* The desire to have something for oneself that belongs to another—a craving or passionate desire. Three Hebrew words are translated “covet” in the OT (see rsv). In one recital of the Ten Commandments (Dt 5:21) the text reads, “You shall not covet your neighbor’s wife.” The same Hebrew word occurs in Proverbs 21:26: “All day long the wicked covets.” Another word implies dishonest gain (Hb 2:9). In the Exodus listing of the Ten Commandments, a third word is used for craving ...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":57692,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:39","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:39","content_ro":"14:39-40<\/strong> Paul summarizes his discussion of spiritual gifts (chs 12–14).<\/p>","content_en":"14:39-40<\/strong> Paul summarizes his discussion of spiritual gifts (chs 12–14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:39-40 Paul summarizes his discussion of spiritual gifts (chs 12–14).","summary_en":"14:39-40 Paul summarizes his discussion of spiritual gifts (chs 12–14).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":85318,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:39","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:39","content_ro":"14:39-40<\/strong> Paul summarizes his discussion of spiritual gifts (chs 12–14).<\/p>","content_en":"14:39-40<\/strong> Paul summarizes his discussion of spiritual gifts (chs 12–14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:39-40 Paul summarizes his discussion of spiritual gifts (chs 12–14).","summary_en":"14:39-40 Paul summarizes his discussion of spiritual gifts (chs 12–14).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":112944,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:39","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:39","content_ro":"14:39-40<\/strong> Paul summarizes his discussion of spiritual gifts (chs 12–14).<\/p>","content_en":"14:39-40<\/strong> Paul summarizes his discussion of spiritual gifts (chs 12–14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:39-40 Paul summarizes his discussion of spiritual gifts (chs 12–14).","summary_en":"14:39-40 Paul summarizes his discussion of spiritual gifts (chs 12–14).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":140570,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Corinteni 14:39","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Corinteni 14:39","content_ro":"14:39-40<\/strong> Paul summarizes his discussion of spiritual gifts (chs 12–14).<\/p>","content_en":"14:39-40<\/strong> Paul summarizes his discussion of spiritual gifts (chs 12–14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"14:39-40 Paul summarizes his discussion of spiritual gifts (chs 12–14).","summary_en":"14:39-40 Paul summarizes his discussion of spiritual gifts (chs 12–14).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":67027,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Work","title_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Work","content_ro":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Work<\/h3>\nDifferent New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work.<\/p>\nAccording to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come into a saving relationship with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:19; Gal 3:2-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit brings new life in Christ. He affirms believers’ salvation (1 Cor 6:11; 2 Thes 2:13) and their identity as children of God (Rom 8:9, 14-17).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit gives Christians power over sin (Rom 8:1-4), power to live a fruitful life (Gal 5:22-23), and power for ministry (1 Cor 12:1-31). Believers are to be continuously “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Eph 5:18), and though they experience the conflict between the flesh and the Spirit, they can please God by yielding to the Spirit’s guidance and power (Gal 5:16-18).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit enables Christians to understand God’s thoughts and ways (1 Cor 2:9-16). He gives spiritual gifts to believers to help the church grow (12:1-31). The Spirit leads and empowers worship as believers use the gifts that the Spirit has given them (14:26-33, 39-40).<\/p>\nThe Spirit guarantees that believers will receive all the blessings that God has promised (2 Cor 1:21-22; 5:1-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit helps believers and prays for them in their human weakness (Rom 8:26-27). And the goal of the Spirit’s work is to make believers like Christ (Rom 8:28-29).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nJohn 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:29, 39; 9:31; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; Rom 8:1-4, 9, 14-17, 26-29; 1 Cor 2:9-16; 6:11, 19; 12:1-31; 14:1-33, 39-40; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 3:5; 5:16-18, 22-23; Eph 1:13-14; 5:18; 2 Thes 2:13; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Jn 2:20, 27<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Work<\/h3>\nDifferent New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work.<\/p>\nAccording to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come into a saving relationship with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:19; Gal 3:2-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit brings new life in Christ. He affirms believers’ salvation (1 Cor 6:11; 2 Thes 2:13) and their identity as children of God (Rom 8:9, 14-17).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit gives Christians power over sin (Rom 8:1-4), power to live a fruitful life (Gal 5:22-23), and power for ministry (1 Cor 12:1-31). Believers are to be continuously “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Eph 5:18), and though they experience the conflict between the flesh and the Spirit, they can please God by yielding to the Spirit’s guidance and power (Gal 5:16-18).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit enables Christians to understand God’s thoughts and ways (1 Cor 2:9-16). He gives spiritual gifts to believers to help the church grow (12:1-31). The Spirit leads and empowers worship as believers use the gifts that the Spirit has given them (14:26-33, 39-40).<\/p>\nThe Spirit guarantees that believers will receive all the blessings that God has promised (2 Cor 1:21-22; 5:1-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit helps believers and prays for them in their human weakness (Rom 8:26-27). And the goal of the Spirit’s work is to make believers like Christ (Rom 8:28-29).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nJohn 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:29, 39; 9:31; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; Rom 8:1-4, 9, 14-17, 26-29; 1 Cor 2:9-16; 6:11, 19; 12:1-31; 14:1-33, 39-40; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 3:5; 5:16-18, 22-23; Eph 1:13-14; 5:18; 2 Thes 2:13; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Jn 2:20, 27<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Work Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work. According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come i...","summary_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Work Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work. According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come i...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":94653,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Work","title_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Work","content_ro":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Work<\/h3>\nDifferent New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work.<\/p>\nAccording to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come into a saving relationship with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:19; Gal 3:2-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit brings new life in Christ. He affirms believers’ salvation (1 Cor 6:11; 2 Thes 2:13) and their identity as children of God (Rom 8:9, 14-17).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit gives Christians power over sin (Rom 8:1-4), power to live a fruitful life (Gal 5:22-23), and power for ministry (1 Cor 12:1-31). Believers are to be continuously “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Eph 5:18), and though they experience the conflict between the flesh and the Spirit, they can please God by yielding to the Spirit’s guidance and power (Gal 5:16-18).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit enables Christians to understand God’s thoughts and ways (1 Cor 2:9-16). He gives spiritual gifts to believers to help the church grow (12:1-31). The Spirit leads and empowers worship as believers use the gifts that the Spirit has given them (14:26-33, 39-40).<\/p>\nThe Spirit guarantees that believers will receive all the blessings that God has promised (2 Cor 1:21-22; 5:1-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit helps believers and prays for them in their human weakness (Rom 8:26-27). And the goal of the Spirit’s work is to make believers like Christ (Rom 8:28-29).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nJohn 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:29, 39; 9:31; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; Rom 8:1-4, 9, 14-17, 26-29; 1 Cor 2:9-16; 6:11, 19; 12:1-31; 14:1-33, 39-40; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 3:5; 5:16-18, 22-23; Eph 1:13-14; 5:18; 2 Thes 2:13; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Jn 2:20, 27<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Work<\/h3>\nDifferent New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work.<\/p>\nAccording to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come into a saving relationship with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:19; Gal 3:2-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit brings new life in Christ. He affirms believers’ salvation (1 Cor 6:11; 2 Thes 2:13) and their identity as children of God (Rom 8:9, 14-17).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit gives Christians power over sin (Rom 8:1-4), power to live a fruitful life (Gal 5:22-23), and power for ministry (1 Cor 12:1-31). Believers are to be continuously “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Eph 5:18), and though they experience the conflict between the flesh and the Spirit, they can please God by yielding to the Spirit’s guidance and power (Gal 5:16-18).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit enables Christians to understand God’s thoughts and ways (1 Cor 2:9-16). He gives spiritual gifts to believers to help the church grow (12:1-31). The Spirit leads and empowers worship as believers use the gifts that the Spirit has given them (14:26-33, 39-40).<\/p>\nThe Spirit guarantees that believers will receive all the blessings that God has promised (2 Cor 1:21-22; 5:1-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit helps believers and prays for them in their human weakness (Rom 8:26-27). And the goal of the Spirit’s work is to make believers like Christ (Rom 8:28-29).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nJohn 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:29, 39; 9:31; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; Rom 8:1-4, 9, 14-17, 26-29; 1 Cor 2:9-16; 6:11, 19; 12:1-31; 14:1-33, 39-40; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 3:5; 5:16-18, 22-23; Eph 1:13-14; 5:18; 2 Thes 2:13; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Jn 2:20, 27<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Work Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work. According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come i...","summary_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Work Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work. According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come i...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":122279,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Work","title_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Work","content_ro":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Work<\/h3>\nDifferent New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work.<\/p>\nAccording to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come into a saving relationship with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:19; Gal 3:2-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit brings new life in Christ. He affirms believers’ salvation (1 Cor 6:11; 2 Thes 2:13) and their identity as children of God (Rom 8:9, 14-17).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit gives Christians power over sin (Rom 8:1-4), power to live a fruitful life (Gal 5:22-23), and power for ministry (1 Cor 12:1-31). Believers are to be continuously “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Eph 5:18), and though they experience the conflict between the flesh and the Spirit, they can please God by yielding to the Spirit’s guidance and power (Gal 5:16-18).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit enables Christians to understand God’s thoughts and ways (1 Cor 2:9-16). He gives spiritual gifts to believers to help the church grow (12:1-31). The Spirit leads and empowers worship as believers use the gifts that the Spirit has given them (14:26-33, 39-40).<\/p>\nThe Spirit guarantees that believers will receive all the blessings that God has promised (2 Cor 1:21-22; 5:1-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit helps believers and prays for them in their human weakness (Rom 8:26-27). And the goal of the Spirit’s work is to make believers like Christ (Rom 8:28-29).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nJohn 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:29, 39; 9:31; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; Rom 8:1-4, 9, 14-17, 26-29; 1 Cor 2:9-16; 6:11, 19; 12:1-31; 14:1-33, 39-40; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 3:5; 5:16-18, 22-23; Eph 1:13-14; 5:18; 2 Thes 2:13; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Jn 2:20, 27<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Work<\/h3>\nDifferent New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work.<\/p>\nAccording to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come into a saving relationship with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:19; Gal 3:2-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit brings new life in Christ. He affirms believers’ salvation (1 Cor 6:11; 2 Thes 2:13) and their identity as children of God (Rom 8:9, 14-17).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit gives Christians power over sin (Rom 8:1-4), power to live a fruitful life (Gal 5:22-23), and power for ministry (1 Cor 12:1-31). Believers are to be continuously “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Eph 5:18), and though they experience the conflict between the flesh and the Spirit, they can please God by yielding to the Spirit’s guidance and power (Gal 5:16-18).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit enables Christians to understand God’s thoughts and ways (1 Cor 2:9-16). He gives spiritual gifts to believers to help the church grow (12:1-31). The Spirit leads and empowers worship as believers use the gifts that the Spirit has given them (14:26-33, 39-40).<\/p>\nThe Spirit guarantees that believers will receive all the blessings that God has promised (2 Cor 1:21-22; 5:1-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit helps believers and prays for them in their human weakness (Rom 8:26-27). And the goal of the Spirit’s work is to make believers like Christ (Rom 8:28-29).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nJohn 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:29, 39; 9:31; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; Rom 8:1-4, 9, 14-17, 26-29; 1 Cor 2:9-16; 6:11, 19; 12:1-31; 14:1-33, 39-40; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 3:5; 5:16-18, 22-23; Eph 1:13-14; 5:18; 2 Thes 2:13; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Jn 2:20, 27<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Work Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work. According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come i...","summary_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Work Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work. According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come i...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":149905,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Work","title_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Work","content_ro":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Work<\/h3>\nDifferent New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work.<\/p>\nAccording to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come into a saving relationship with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:19; Gal 3:2-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit brings new life in Christ. He affirms believers’ salvation (1 Cor 6:11; 2 Thes 2:13) and their identity as children of God (Rom 8:9, 14-17).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit gives Christians power over sin (Rom 8:1-4), power to live a fruitful life (Gal 5:22-23), and power for ministry (1 Cor 12:1-31). Believers are to be continuously “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Eph 5:18), and though they experience the conflict between the flesh and the Spirit, they can please God by yielding to the Spirit’s guidance and power (Gal 5:16-18).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit enables Christians to understand God’s thoughts and ways (1 Cor 2:9-16). He gives spiritual gifts to believers to help the church grow (12:1-31). The Spirit leads and empowers worship as believers use the gifts that the Spirit has given them (14:26-33, 39-40).<\/p>\nThe Spirit guarantees that believers will receive all the blessings that God has promised (2 Cor 1:21-22; 5:1-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit helps believers and prays for them in their human weakness (Rom 8:26-27). And the goal of the Spirit’s work is to make believers like Christ (Rom 8:28-29).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nJohn 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:29, 39; 9:31; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; Rom 8:1-4, 9, 14-17, 26-29; 1 Cor 2:9-16; 6:11, 19; 12:1-31; 14:1-33, 39-40; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 3:5; 5:16-18, 22-23; Eph 1:13-14; 5:18; 2 Thes 2:13; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Jn 2:20, 27<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Holy Spirit’s Work<\/h3>\nDifferent New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work.<\/p>\nAccording to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come into a saving relationship with Jesus Christ (1 Cor 6:19; Gal 3:2-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit brings new life in Christ. He affirms believers’ salvation (1 Cor 6:11; 2 Thes 2:13) and their identity as children of God (Rom 8:9, 14-17).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit gives Christians power over sin (Rom 8:1-4), power to live a fruitful life (Gal 5:22-23), and power for ministry (1 Cor 12:1-31). Believers are to be continuously “filled with the Holy Spirit” (Eph 5:18), and though they experience the conflict between the flesh and the Spirit, they can please God by yielding to the Spirit’s guidance and power (Gal 5:16-18).<\/p>\nThe Holy Spirit enables Christians to understand God’s thoughts and ways (1 Cor 2:9-16). He gives spiritual gifts to believers to help the church grow (12:1-31). The Spirit leads and empowers worship as believers use the gifts that the Spirit has given them (14:26-33, 39-40).<\/p>\nThe Spirit guarantees that believers will receive all the blessings that God has promised (2 Cor 1:21-22; 5:1-5; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit helps believers and prays for them in their human weakness (Rom 8:26-27). And the goal of the Spirit’s work is to make believers like Christ (Rom 8:28-29).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nJohn 14:15-17, 26; 15:26; 16:7-15; Acts 1:8; 2:4; 5:32; 6:1-7; 8:29, 39; 9:31; 13:1-5; 14:3; 15:28; 16:6; 20:28; Rom 8:1-4, 9, 14-17, 26-29; 1 Cor 2:9-16; 6:11, 19; 12:1-31; 14:1-33, 39-40; 2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Gal 3:5; 5:16-18, 22-23; Eph 1:13-14; 5:18; 2 Thes 2:13; 2 Tim 3:16-17; Heb 2:4; 3:7-11, 15; 9:8; 10:15-17; 1 Pet 1:11-12; 2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Jn 2:20, 27<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Holy Spirit’s Work Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work. According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come i...","summary_en":"The Holy Spirit’s Work Different New Testament writers emphasized different aspects of the Holy Spirit’s work. John, for example, highlighted the Spirit’s role as teacher and revealer of God’s thoughts and ways (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:13-15; 1 Jn 2:20, 27). Luke focused on the Spirit’s guidance and power for evangelism (Acts 1:8; 4:8-12, 31; 8:29-40; 13:9-12). Paul, meanwhile, provides a comprehensive view of the Spirit’s work. According to Paul, God gives his Holy Spirit to all who come i...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"40":[{"id":60408,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Clean, Unclean, and Holy","title_en":"Clean, Unclean, and Holy","content_ro":"<h3>Clean, Unclean, and Holy<\/h3>\nThe rites and regulations establishing cleanness and uncleanness were to distinguish Israel from the surrounding nations. To understand a rationale behind these regulations, one suggestion has been that unclean things are associated with death or the ground (see, e.g., Lev 21:1, 11; 22:8). Recent studies, however, suggest the principle of “normalcy.” God is a God of order. Things that are normal in God’s order are called “clean” and are “permitted.” Abnormal things would be unfit for food or offerings and would be “unclean.” A normal land animal would be a vegetarian (see Gen 1:30). A normal human body would have no infections or discharges. A normal piece of cloth would have no mildew on it. If abnormalities occurred, the animal, person, or cloth was unclean.<\/p>\nWhat is unclean is not sinful but represents a kind of unworthiness that cannot come in contact with what is holy (e.g., Lev 11:44-45). If it is cleansed, it acquires the potential for holiness; it may be dedicated to God and become holy. If what is holy (such as the Sabbath) is treated like something common, God is blasphemed and the thing is profaned. If what is clean becomes unclean, it is defiled and requires cleansing. Some things, such as unclean animals, fish, or birds, remain unclean by definition and can never be cleansed, and, thus, can never become holy.<\/p>\nIn the new covenant, things that were previously unclean have been declared clean (Acts 10:15, 28, 45). Yet God is still a God of order (1 Cor 14:33) and wants worship to be conducted in an orderly way (1 Cor 14:40). While God’s grace is abundant to repentant sinners, some things are still repulsive to his holiness and should never be brought into his presence (e.g., Ananias and Sapphira’s offering; see Acts 5:1-11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 7:2; Lev 11:1–15:33; 21:1-23; 22:3-8; Num 19:1-22; Deut 14:1-21; 21:1-9; Pss 19:9; 24:3-4; 51:7-10; Isa 52:11; Matt 8:2-4; John 13:10-11; Acts 10:9-28; Heb 9:13-15, 23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Clean, Unclean, and Holy<\/h3>\nThe rites and regulations establishing cleanness and uncleanness were to distinguish Israel from the surrounding nations. To understand a rationale behind these regulations, one suggestion has been that unclean things are associated with death or the ground (see, e.g., Lev 21:1, 11; 22:8). Recent studies, however, suggest the principle of “normalcy.” God is a God of order. Things that are normal in God’s order are called “clean” and are “permitted.” Abnormal things would be unfit for food or offerings and would be “unclean.” A normal land animal would be a vegetarian (see Gen 1:30). A normal human body would have no infections or discharges. A normal piece of cloth would have no mildew on it. If abnormalities occurred, the animal, person, or cloth was unclean.<\/p>\nWhat is unclean is not sinful but represents a kind of unworthiness that cannot come in contact with what is holy (e.g., Lev 11:44-45). If it is cleansed, it acquires the potential for holiness; it may be dedicated to God and become holy. If what is holy (such as the Sabbath) is treated like something common, God is blasphemed and the thing is profaned. If what is clean becomes unclean, it is defiled and requires cleansing. Some things, such as unclean animals, fish, or birds, remain unclean by definition and can never be cleansed, and, thus, can never become holy.<\/p>\nIn the new covenant, things that were previously unclean have been declared clean (Acts 10:15, 28, 45). Yet God is still a God of order (1 Cor 14:33) and wants worship to be conducted in an orderly way (1 Cor 14:40). While God’s grace is abundant to repentant sinners, some things are still repulsive to his holiness and should never be brought into his presence (e.g., Ananias and Sapphira’s offering; see Acts 5:1-11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 7:2; Lev 11:1–15:33; 21:1-23; 22:3-8; Num 19:1-22; Deut 14:1-21; 21:1-9; Pss 19:9; 24:3-4; 51:7-10; Isa 52:11; Matt 8:2-4; John 13:10-11; Acts 10:9-28; Heb 9:13-15, 23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Clean, Unclean, and Holy The rites and regulations establishing cleanness and uncleanness were to distinguish Israel from the surrounding nations. To understand a rationale behind these regulations, one suggestion has been that unclean things are associated with death or the ground (see, e.g., Lev 21:1, 11; 22:8). Recent studies, however, suggest the principle of “normalcy.” God is a God of order. Things that are normal in God’s order are called “clean” and are “permitted.” Abnormal things wo...","summary_en":"Clean, Unclean, and Holy The rites and regulations establishing cleanness and uncleanness were to distinguish Israel from the surrounding nations. To understand a rationale behind these regulations, one suggestion has been that unclean things are associated with death or the ground (see, e.g., Lev 21:1, 11; 22:8). Recent studies, however, suggest the principle of “normalcy.” God is a God of order. Things that are normal in God’s order are called “clean” and are “permitted.” Abnormal things wo...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":88034,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Clean, Unclean, and Holy","title_en":"Clean, Unclean, and Holy","content_ro":"<h3>Clean, Unclean, and Holy<\/h3>\nThe rites and regulations establishing cleanness and uncleanness were to distinguish Israel from the surrounding nations. To understand a rationale behind these regulations, one suggestion has been that unclean things are associated with death or the ground (see, e.g., Lev 21:1, 11; 22:8). Recent studies, however, suggest the principle of “normalcy.” God is a God of order. Things that are normal in God’s order are called “clean” and are “permitted.” Abnormal things would be unfit for food or offerings and would be “unclean.” A normal land animal would be a vegetarian (see Gen 1:30). A normal human body would have no infections or discharges. A normal piece of cloth would have no mildew on it. If abnormalities occurred, the animal, person, or cloth was unclean.<\/p>\nWhat is unclean is not sinful but represents a kind of unworthiness that cannot come in contact with what is holy (e.g., Lev 11:44-45). If it is cleansed, it acquires the potential for holiness; it may be dedicated to God and become holy. If what is holy (such as the Sabbath) is treated like something common, God is blasphemed and the thing is profaned. If what is clean becomes unclean, it is defiled and requires cleansing. Some things, such as unclean animals, fish, or birds, remain unclean by definition and can never be cleansed, and, thus, can never become holy.<\/p>\nIn the new covenant, things that were previously unclean have been declared clean (Acts 10:15, 28, 45). Yet God is still a God of order (1 Cor 14:33) and wants worship to be conducted in an orderly way (1 Cor 14:40). While God’s grace is abundant to repentant sinners, some things are still repulsive to his holiness and should never be brought into his presence (e.g., Ananias and Sapphira’s offering; see Acts 5:1-11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 7:2; Lev 11:1–15:33; 21:1-23; 22:3-8; Num 19:1-22; Deut 14:1-21; 21:1-9; Pss 19:9; 24:3-4; 51:7-10; Isa 52:11; Matt 8:2-4; John 13:10-11; Acts 10:9-28; Heb 9:13-15, 23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Clean, Unclean, and Holy<\/h3>\nThe rites and regulations establishing cleanness and uncleanness were to distinguish Israel from the surrounding nations. To understand a rationale behind these regulations, one suggestion has been that unclean things are associated with death or the ground (see, e.g., Lev 21:1, 11; 22:8). Recent studies, however, suggest the principle of “normalcy.” God is a God of order. Things that are normal in God’s order are called “clean” and are “permitted.” Abnormal things would be unfit for food or offerings and would be “unclean.” A normal land animal would be a vegetarian (see Gen 1:30). A normal human body would have no infections or discharges. A normal piece of cloth would have no mildew on it. If abnormalities occurred, the animal, person, or cloth was unclean.<\/p>\nWhat is unclean is not sinful but represents a kind of unworthiness that cannot come in contact with what is holy (e.g., Lev 11:44-45). If it is cleansed, it acquires the potential for holiness; it may be dedicated to God and become holy. If what is holy (such as the Sabbath) is treated like something common, God is blasphemed and the thing is profaned. If what is clean becomes unclean, it is defiled and requires cleansing. Some things, such as unclean animals, fish, or birds, remain unclean by definition and can never be cleansed, and, thus, can never become holy.<\/p>\nIn the new covenant, things that were previously unclean have been declared clean (Acts 10:15, 28, 45). Yet God is still a God of order (1 Cor 14:33) and wants worship to be conducted in an orderly way (1 Cor 14:40). While God’s grace is abundant to repentant sinners, some things are still repulsive to his holiness and should never be brought into his presence (e.g., Ananias and Sapphira’s offering; see Acts 5:1-11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 7:2; Lev 11:1–15:33; 21:1-23; 22:3-8; Num 19:1-22; Deut 14:1-21; 21:1-9; Pss 19:9; 24:3-4; 51:7-10; Isa 52:11; Matt 8:2-4; John 13:10-11; Acts 10:9-28; Heb 9:13-15, 23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Clean, Unclean, and Holy The rites and regulations establishing cleanness and uncleanness were to distinguish Israel from the surrounding nations. To understand a rationale behind these regulations, one suggestion has been that unclean things are associated with death or the ground (see, e.g., Lev 21:1, 11; 22:8). Recent studies, however, suggest the principle of “normalcy.” God is a God of order. Things that are normal in God’s order are called “clean” and are “permitted.” Abnormal things wo...","summary_en":"Clean, Unclean, and Holy The rites and regulations establishing cleanness and uncleanness were to distinguish Israel from the surrounding nations. To understand a rationale behind these regulations, one suggestion has been that unclean things are associated with death or the ground (see, e.g., Lev 21:1, 11; 22:8). Recent studies, however, suggest the principle of “normalcy.” God is a God of order. Things that are normal in God’s order are called “clean” and are “permitted.” Abnormal things wo...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115660,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Clean, Unclean, and Holy","title_en":"Clean, Unclean, and Holy","content_ro":"<h3>Clean, Unclean, and Holy<\/h3>\nThe rites and regulations establishing cleanness and uncleanness were to distinguish Israel from the surrounding nations. To understand a rationale behind these regulations, one suggestion has been that unclean things are associated with death or the ground (see, e.g., Lev 21:1, 11; 22:8). Recent studies, however, suggest the principle of “normalcy.” God is a God of order. Things that are normal in God’s order are called “clean” and are “permitted.” Abnormal things would be unfit for food or offerings and would be “unclean.” A normal land animal would be a vegetarian (see Gen 1:30). A normal human body would have no infections or discharges. A normal piece of cloth would have no mildew on it. If abnormalities occurred, the animal, person, or cloth was unclean.<\/p>\nWhat is unclean is not sinful but represents a kind of unworthiness that cannot come in contact with what is holy (e.g., Lev 11:44-45). If it is cleansed, it acquires the potential for holiness; it may be dedicated to God and become holy. If what is holy (such as the Sabbath) is treated like something common, God is blasphemed and the thing is profaned. If what is clean becomes unclean, it is defiled and requires cleansing. Some things, such as unclean animals, fish, or birds, remain unclean by definition and can never be cleansed, and, thus, can never become holy.<\/p>\nIn the new covenant, things that were previously unclean have been declared clean (Acts 10:15, 28, 45). Yet God is still a God of order (1 Cor 14:33) and wants worship to be conducted in an orderly way (1 Cor 14:40). While God’s grace is abundant to repentant sinners, some things are still repulsive to his holiness and should never be brought into his presence (e.g., Ananias and Sapphira’s offering; see Acts 5:1-11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 7:2; Lev 11:1–15:33; 21:1-23; 22:3-8; Num 19:1-22; Deut 14:1-21; 21:1-9; Pss 19:9; 24:3-4; 51:7-10; Isa 52:11; Matt 8:2-4; John 13:10-11; Acts 10:9-28; Heb 9:13-15, 23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Clean, Unclean, and Holy<\/h3>\nThe rites and regulations establishing cleanness and uncleanness were to distinguish Israel from the surrounding nations. To understand a rationale behind these regulations, one suggestion has been that unclean things are associated with death or the ground (see, e.g., Lev 21:1, 11; 22:8). Recent studies, however, suggest the principle of “normalcy.” God is a God of order. Things that are normal in God’s order are called “clean” and are “permitted.” Abnormal things would be unfit for food or offerings and would be “unclean.” A normal land animal would be a vegetarian (see Gen 1:30). A normal human body would have no infections or discharges. A normal piece of cloth would have no mildew on it. If abnormalities occurred, the animal, person, or cloth was unclean.<\/p>\nWhat is unclean is not sinful but represents a kind of unworthiness that cannot come in contact with what is holy (e.g., Lev 11:44-45). If it is cleansed, it acquires the potential for holiness; it may be dedicated to God and become holy. If what is holy (such as the Sabbath) is treated like something common, God is blasphemed and the thing is profaned. If what is clean becomes unclean, it is defiled and requires cleansing. Some things, such as unclean animals, fish, or birds, remain unclean by definition and can never be cleansed, and, thus, can never become holy.<\/p>\nIn the new covenant, things that were previously unclean have been declared clean (Acts 10:15, 28, 45). Yet God is still a God of order (1 Cor 14:33) and wants worship to be conducted in an orderly way (1 Cor 14:40). While God’s grace is abundant to repentant sinners, some things are still repulsive to his holiness and should never be brought into his presence (e.g., Ananias and Sapphira’s offering; see Acts 5:1-11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 7:2; Lev 11:1–15:33; 21:1-23; 22:3-8; Num 19:1-22; Deut 14:1-21; 21:1-9; Pss 19:9; 24:3-4; 51:7-10; Isa 52:11; Matt 8:2-4; John 13:10-11; Acts 10:9-28; Heb 9:13-15, 23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Clean, Unclean, and Holy The rites and regulations establishing cleanness and uncleanness were to distinguish Israel from the surrounding nations. To understand a rationale behind these regulations, one suggestion has been that unclean things are associated with death or the ground (see, e.g., Lev 21:1, 11; 22:8). Recent studies, however, suggest the principle of “normalcy.” God is a God of order. Things that are normal in God’s order are called “clean” and are “permitted.” Abnormal things wo...","summary_en":"Clean, Unclean, and Holy The rites and regulations establishing cleanness and uncleanness were to distinguish Israel from the surrounding nations. To understand a rationale behind these regulations, one suggestion has been that unclean things are associated with death or the ground (see, e.g., Lev 21:1, 11; 22:8). Recent studies, however, suggest the principle of “normalcy.” God is a God of order. Things that are normal in God’s order are called “clean” and are “permitted.” Abnormal things wo...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143286,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Clean, Unclean, and Holy","title_en":"Clean, Unclean, and Holy","content_ro":"<h3>Clean, Unclean, and Holy<\/h3>\nThe rites and regulations establishing cleanness and uncleanness were to distinguish Israel from the surrounding nations. To understand a rationale behind these regulations, one suggestion has been that unclean things are associated with death or the ground (see, e.g., Lev 21:1, 11; 22:8). Recent studies, however, suggest the principle of “normalcy.” God is a God of order. Things that are normal in God’s order are called “clean” and are “permitted.” Abnormal things would be unfit for food or offerings and would be “unclean.” A normal land animal would be a vegetarian (see Gen 1:30). A normal human body would have no infections or discharges. A normal piece of cloth would have no mildew on it. If abnormalities occurred, the animal, person, or cloth was unclean.<\/p>\nWhat is unclean is not sinful but represents a kind of unworthiness that cannot come in contact with what is holy (e.g., Lev 11:44-45). If it is cleansed, it acquires the potential for holiness; it may be dedicated to God and become holy. If what is holy (such as the Sabbath) is treated like something common, God is blasphemed and the thing is profaned. If what is clean becomes unclean, it is defiled and requires cleansing. Some things, such as unclean animals, fish, or birds, remain unclean by definition and can never be cleansed, and, thus, can never become holy.<\/p>\nIn the new covenant, things that were previously unclean have been declared clean (Acts 10:15, 28, 45). Yet God is still a God of order (1 Cor 14:33) and wants worship to be conducted in an orderly way (1 Cor 14:40). While God’s grace is abundant to repentant sinners, some things are still repulsive to his holiness and should never be brought into his presence (e.g., Ananias and Sapphira’s offering; see Acts 5:1-11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 7:2; Lev 11:1–15:33; 21:1-23; 22:3-8; Num 19:1-22; Deut 14:1-21; 21:1-9; Pss 19:9; 24:3-4; 51:7-10; Isa 52:11; Matt 8:2-4; John 13:10-11; Acts 10:9-28; Heb 9:13-15, 23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Clean, Unclean, and Holy<\/h3>\nThe rites and regulations establishing cleanness and uncleanness were to distinguish Israel from the surrounding nations. To understand a rationale behind these regulations, one suggestion has been that unclean things are associated with death or the ground (see, e.g., Lev 21:1, 11; 22:8). Recent studies, however, suggest the principle of “normalcy.” God is a God of order. Things that are normal in God’s order are called “clean” and are “permitted.” Abnormal things would be unfit for food or offerings and would be “unclean.” A normal land animal would be a vegetarian (see Gen 1:30). A normal human body would have no infections or discharges. A normal piece of cloth would have no mildew on it. If abnormalities occurred, the animal, person, or cloth was unclean.<\/p>\nWhat is unclean is not sinful but represents a kind of unworthiness that cannot come in contact with what is holy (e.g., Lev 11:44-45). If it is cleansed, it acquires the potential for holiness; it may be dedicated to God and become holy. If what is holy (such as the Sabbath) is treated like something common, God is blasphemed and the thing is profaned. If what is clean becomes unclean, it is defiled and requires cleansing. Some things, such as unclean animals, fish, or birds, remain unclean by definition and can never be cleansed, and, thus, can never become holy.<\/p>\nIn the new covenant, things that were previously unclean have been declared clean (Acts 10:15, 28, 45). Yet God is still a God of order (1 Cor 14:33) and wants worship to be conducted in an orderly way (1 Cor 14:40). While God’s grace is abundant to repentant sinners, some things are still repulsive to his holiness and should never be brought into his presence (e.g., Ananias and Sapphira’s offering; see Acts 5:1-11).<\/p>\nPassages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\nGen 7:2; Lev 11:1–15:33; 21:1-23; 22:3-8; Num 19:1-22; Deut 14:1-21; 21:1-9; Pss 19:9; 24:3-4; 51:7-10; Isa 52:11; Matt 8:2-4; John 13:10-11; Acts 10:9-28; Heb 9:13-15, 23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Clean, Unclean, and Holy The rites and regulations establishing cleanness and uncleanness were to distinguish Israel from the surrounding nations. To understand a rationale behind these regulations, one suggestion has been that unclean things are associated with death or the ground (see, e.g., Lev 21:1, 11; 22:8). Recent studies, however, suggest the principle of “normalcy.” God is a God of order. Things that are normal in God’s order are called “clean” and are “permitted.” Abnormal things wo...","summary_en":"Clean, Unclean, and Holy The rites and regulations establishing cleanness and uncleanness were to distinguish Israel from the surrounding nations. To understand a rationale behind these regulations, one suggestion has been that unclean things are associated with death or the ground (see, e.g., Lev 21:1, 11; 22:8). Recent studies, however, suggest the principle of “normalcy.” God is a God of order. Things that are normal in God’s order are called “clean” and are “permitted.” Abnormal things wo...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}

1 Corinteni 14

Citește Biblia

1 Corinteni 14

Niciun rezultat

Redare audio

Bine ai venit! 👋