1 Cronici 5
1 Fiii lui Ruben, întâiul născut al lui Israel. -Căci el era întâiul născut, dar, pentru că a spurcat patul tatălui său, dreptul lui de întâi născut a fost dat fiilor lui Iosif, fiul lui Israel; totuş Iosif n-a fost scris în spiţele de neam ca întâi născut.
2 Iuda a fost în adevăr puternic printre fraţii săi, şi din el a ieşit un domnitor; dar dreptul de întâi născut este al lui Iosif.
3 Fiii lui Ruben, întâiul născut al lui Israel: Enoh, Palu, Heţron şi Carmi.
4 Fiii lui Ioel: Şemaia, fiul său; Gog, fiul său; Şimei, fiul său;
5 Mica, fiul său; Reaia, fiul său; Baal, fiul său;
6 Beera, fiul său, pe care l-a luat rob Tilgat-Pilneser, împăratul Asiriei; el era domnul Rubeniţilor. -
7 Fraţii lui Beera, după familiile lor, aşa cum sânt înscrişi în spiţele neamului după neamurile lor: cel dintâi, Ieiel; Zaharia;
8 Bela, fiul lui Azaz, fiul lui Şema, fiul lui Ioel. Bela locuia la Aroer, şi până la Nebo şi la Baal-Meon;
9 la răsărit, locuia până la întrarea pustiei, dela râul Eufrat, căci turmele lor erau în mare număr în ţara Galaadului.
10 Pe vremea lui Saul, au făcut război cu Hagareniţii, cari au căzut în mânile lor, şi au locuit în corturile lor, pe toată partea de răsărit a Galaadului.
11 Fiii lui Gad locuiau în faţa lor, în ţara Basanului, până la Salca.
12 Ioel, cel dintâi, Şafam, al doilea, Iaenai, şi Şafat, în Basan.
13 Fraţii lor, după casele părinţilor lor: Micael, Meşulam, Şeba, Iorai, Iaecan, Zia şi Eber, şapte.
14 Iată fiii lui Abihail, fiul lui Huri, fiul lui Iaroah, fiul lui Galaad, fiul lui Micael, fiul lui Ieşişai, fiul lui Iahdo, fiul lui Buz;
15 Ahi, fiul lui Abdiel, fiul lui Guni, era căpetenia caselor părinţilor lor.
16 Ei locuiau în Galaad, în Basan, şi în cetăţile lor, şi în toate împrejurimile Saronului până la marginile lor.
17 Toţi au fost scrişi în spiţele de neamuri, pe vremea lui Iotam, împăratul lui Iuda, şi pe vremea lui Ieroboam, împăratul lui Israel.
18 Fiii lui Ruben, Gadiţii şi jumătate din seminţia lui Manase, aveau oameni viteji, cari purtau scut şi sabie, trăgeau cu arcul, şi erau deprinşi cu războiul, în număr de patruzeci şi patru de mii şapte sute şase zeci în stare să meargă la oaste.
19 Au făcut război cu Hagareniţii, cu Ietur, cu Nafiş şi cu Nodab.
20 Au primit ajutor împotriva lor, şi Hagareniţii şi toţi ceice erau cu ei au fost daţi în mânile lor. Căci, în timpul luptei, strigaseră către Dumnezeu, care i-a ascultat, pentrucă se încrezuseră în El.
21 Şi le-au luat turmele, cincizeci de mii de cămile, douăsute cincizeci de mii de oi, două mii de măgari, şi o sută de mii de inşi;
22 căci au fost mulţi morţi, pentrucă lupta venea dela Dumnezeu. Şi s-au aşezat în locul lor până în vremea când au fost luaţi în robie.
23 Fiii jumătăţii seminţiei lui Manase locuiau în ţară, dela Basan până la Baal-Hermon şi Senir, şi pe muntele Hermon; erau mulţi la număr.
24 Iată căpeteniile caselor părinţilor lor: Efer, Işei, Eliel, Azriel, Ieremia, Hodavia şi Iahdiel, oameni viteji, oameni vestiţi, căpeteniile caselor părinţilor lor.
25 Dar au păcătuit împotriva Dumnezeului părinţilor lor, şi au curvit după dumnezeii popoarelor ţării, pe cari Dumnezeu le nimicise dinaintea lor.
26 Dumnezeul lui Israel a aţîţat duhul lui Pul, împăratul Asiriei, şi duhul lui Tilgat-Pilneser, împăratul Asiriei; şi Tilgat-Pilneser a luat robi pe Rubeniţi, Gadiţi şi jumătate din seminţia lui Manase şi i-a dus la Halah, la Habor, la Hara şi la râul Gozan, unde au rămas până în ziua de azi.
{"verseMap":{"1":[{"id":5125,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Birthright","title_en":"Birthright","content_ro":"<h3>BIRTHRIGHT<\/h3>\n<p>Right or privilege belonging to the firstborn son in a Hebrew family. The eldest son ranked highest after the father and in the father’s absence had the father’s authority and responsibility, as illustrated by Reuben’s relationship to his younger brothers (Gn 37:19-22, 28-30). However, because he later committed incest, Reuben forfeited his birthright (Gn 49:1-4). Next in line were Simeon, Levi, and Judah (Gn 29:31-35), but Jacob, their father, passed over Simeon and Levi because of their lack of character (Gn 49:5-7). Although he praised Judah (Gn 49:8-10), Jacob gave the birthright to his favorite son, Joseph (Gn 49:22-26; 1 Chr 5:1-2; cf. Gn 37:2-4).<\/p>\n<p>Tablets recovered from Nuzi in Mesopotamia have shown that the birthright could be exchanged among members of the same family (cf. Gn 25:19-34). The holder of the birthright appears to have been in possession of the “teraphim,” or household idols (31:19, 32, 34), which were small terra-cotta images, presumably of the particular deity worshiped locally. These tokens would reinforce the position and authority of the firstborn.<\/p>\n<p>The birthright meant not only the honor of family leadership but also an inheritance of twice the amount received by every other son. In polygamous Israelite society the birthright belonged to the actual firstborn of the father and could not be transferred to the son of a favorite wife without just cause (Dt 21:15-17). However, the birthright did not belong to the firstborn son if his mother was a concubine or slave (Gn 21:9-13; Jgs 11:1-2). The rights of the firstborn son of a king included the right of succession to the throne (2 Chr 21:1-3). When King Rehoboam of Judah violated custom by making his favorite son, Abijah, his successor, he had to pay off his other sons to avoid trouble (11:18-23; 12:16).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, reference is made to the OT account of Esau, the son of the patriarch Isaac, who impulsively traded his birthright for a bowl of lentil stew (Heb 12:16-17; cf. Gn 25:19-34). Christians are warned not to throw away their inheritance of spiritual blessing from God the way Esau lost his birthright and his father’s blessing (Gn 27).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Inheritance; Heir; Firstborn.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BIRTHRIGHT<\/h3>\n<p>Right or privilege belonging to the firstborn son in a Hebrew family. The eldest son ranked highest after the father and in the father’s absence had the father’s authority and responsibility, as illustrated by Reuben’s relationship to his younger brothers (Gn 37:19-22, 28-30). However, because he later committed incest, Reuben forfeited his birthright (Gn 49:1-4). Next in line were Simeon, Levi, and Judah (Gn 29:31-35), but Jacob, their father, passed over Simeon and Levi because of their lack of character (Gn 49:5-7). Although he praised Judah (Gn 49:8-10), Jacob gave the birthright to his favorite son, Joseph (Gn 49:22-26; 1 Chr 5:1-2; cf. Gn 37:2-4).<\/p>\n<p>Tablets recovered from Nuzi in Mesopotamia have shown that the birthright could be exchanged among members of the same family (cf. Gn 25:19-34). The holder of the birthright appears to have been in possession of the “teraphim,” or household idols (31:19, 32, 34), which were small terra-cotta images, presumably of the particular deity worshiped locally. These tokens would reinforce the position and authority of the firstborn.<\/p>\n<p>The birthright meant not only the honor of family leadership but also an inheritance of twice the amount received by every other son. In polygamous Israelite society the birthright belonged to the actual firstborn of the father and could not be transferred to the son of a favorite wife without just cause (Dt 21:15-17). However, the birthright did not belong to the firstborn son if his mother was a concubine or slave (Gn 21:9-13; Jgs 11:1-2). The rights of the firstborn son of a king included the right of succession to the throne (2 Chr 21:1-3). When King Rehoboam of Judah violated custom by making his favorite son, Abijah, his successor, he had to pay off his other sons to avoid trouble (11:18-23; 12:16).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, reference is made to the OT account of Esau, the son of the patriarch Isaac, who impulsively traded his birthright for a bowl of lentil stew (Heb 12:16-17; cf. Gn 25:19-34). Christians are warned not to throw away their inheritance of spiritual blessing from God the way Esau lost his birthright and his father’s blessing (Gn 27).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Inheritance; Heir; Firstborn.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BIRTHRIGHT Right or privilege belonging to the firstborn son in a Hebrew family. The eldest son ranked highest after the father and in the father’s absence had the father’s authority and responsibility, as illustrated by Reuben’s relationship to his younger brothers (Gn 37:19-22, 28-30). However, because he later committed incest, Reuben forfeited his birthright (Gn 49:1-4). Next in line were Simeon, Levi, and Judah (Gn 29:31-35), but Jacob, their father, passed over Simeon and Levi because o...","summary_en":"BIRTHRIGHT Right or privilege belonging to the firstborn son in a Hebrew family. The eldest son ranked highest after the father and in the father’s absence had the father’s authority and responsibility, as illustrated by Reuben’s relationship to his younger brothers (Gn 37:19-22, 28-30). However, because he later committed incest, Reuben forfeited his birthright (Gn 49:1-4). Next in line were Simeon, Levi, and Judah (Gn 29:31-35), but Jacob, their father, passed over Simeon and Levi because o...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":11969,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Family Life and Relations","title_en":"Family Life and Relations","content_ro":"<h3>FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS<\/h3>\n<p>In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refer to setting up a separate dwelling as well as establishing a family. In the broader sense, “house” may refer to an entire nation (“house of Israel”). The heads of families returning from Babylon in the postexilic period controlled sometimes several hundred family members (Ezr 8:1-14). The family was a smaller part of a clan and tribe. In nomadic times the responsibilities and allegiances centered on the larger family group.<\/p>\n<p>Those who belonged to the clan knew that they had to work for common interests and accept responsibility for the whole group. All members of the family were to be protected and assisted in time of need.<\/p>\n<p>As the life of the Israelites became more settled, families (in the wider sense of the term) lived in villages surrounded by fields of wheat, barley, and flax, with areas of grazing land for sheep and goats. Each group of villages consisted of an intermarried, interdependent family group, such as that of the Danites of Zorah and Eshtaol (Jgs 18:11). The hard life of those days demanded a sharing of work and the loyal cooperation of the entire family for survival.<\/p>\n<p>As crafts and trades developed, along with a more sedentary lifestyle, sons learned their fathers’ skills and continued the family trade. Consequently, the whole village might follow a particular craft (1 Chr 4:14; Neh 11:35). By specializing in such trades, however, the villagers became less self-sufficient, depending more on farmers for food and on other specialized villages for the production of cloth or pottery (1 Chr 4:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>With the growth of cities, related groups lived together in specific areas. Many members of the tribes of Benjamin and Judah were listed in the census of Jerusalem by Nehemiah (Neh 11:4-8), and by the writer of Chronicles (1 Chr 9:3-9). One consequence of life in the cities was the fragmentation of the family group. As the bonds of the wider family were loosened, the unit consisted increasingly of a husband and wife with their children, living in one house. The size of houses that have been excavated precludes the idea of any larger family unit as the norm in OT societies.<\/p>\n<p>During the kingdom period, King David’s sons Amnon and Absalom set up their own separate houses (2 Sm 13:7-8, 20). At that time there were few slaves in Hebrew society, but they also were considered members of the family. As bonds of the wider family loosened, and the master of the household lost a degree of authority, the society became one in which the king was sovereign and all the people were his subjects.<\/p>\n<p>The early kings of Israel promoted such a change in order to establish a central ruling authority for the entire country. The king’s subjects fell broadly into the categories of employers and employees, corresponding to the rich and poor of society. By the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, members of the wider family no longer worked for the communal good under the authority of the clan’s head; rather, individuals worked primarily for the good of their own immediate family. Hence one’s labor and devotion were focused more narrowly, and the greatest beneficiary was the king, the personal symbol of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>Emphasis on the smaller family unit increased, and old duties that had been willingly accepted by the wider groups in former times came to be neglected. People did not always help relatives in times of need, and they frequently had to be reminded of their obligations, particularly toward widows and orphans (Is 1:17; Jer 7:6). Family feuds also declined because members no longer felt responsible to take vengeance as a way to uphold the honor of the clan (2 Sm 3:27; 16:8; 2 Kgs 9:26). Nevertheless, Nehemiah expected Israelites to fight for their family honor (Neh 4:14). In NT times, the family was such a unit that it could be sold for a debt incurred by one of its members (Mt 18:25).<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew religion’s emphasis on family participation in certain celebrations strengthened the small unit. The Passover, for example, was always celebrated as a family thanksgiving meal (Ex 12:3-4, 46). The prophet Samuel’s parents made a traditional annual pilgrimage to the shrine at Shiloh (1 Sm 2:19). In modern times, a young Jewish boy’s arrival at the threshold of manhood is celebrated with the Bar Mitzvah ceremony. Being so honored in the midst of a religious family preserves the ancient Hebrew tradition of family participation in religious ceremonies.<\/p>\n<p>In his preaching Jesus used the family as a symbol for the relationship of God to his people (Mt 19:14; 23:9; Lk 8:21). From the cross he handed over responsibility for the care of his mother to his disciple John (Jn 19:27).<\/p>\n<p>In NT times, the communion meals in the Jerusalem church took place by households (Acts 2:46). Early Christian meetings were held in the homes of believers because of opposition by the authorities. The book of Acts contains examples of entire families being converted to Christianity (Acts 10:24, 44-48; 16:15, 31-32). Timothy learned the gospel from his grandmother and mother (2 Tm 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>• Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>• Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>• The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>• Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>• In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StatusofFamilyMembers\">Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>From nomadic times, a father’s authority held the family group together in their encampment, and he became the symbol of their security. In ancient patriarchal societies, the father was an absolute master who had the power of life and death over family members, ruling with unchallenged authority. Although he had extensive responsibilities for those under his care, his power was awesome and his status unquestioned.<\/p>\n<p>A man’s possessions included his wife, servants, slaves, and animals (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). In fact, the phrase “to marry a wife” comes from a Hebrew root meaning “to become the master of a wife.” A husband was as much the master of his wife as he was of his home or his fields. Consequently, the wife addressed him in a subservient manner, as a slave would address a master (Gn 18:12; Jgs 19:26). This low status for a woman extended to a daughter’s position in the ancient household. Females were always under the authority of a male relative: first, the father; then a husband. If a woman became a widow, she was subject to her husband’s nearest male relative, who became her “redeemer.” The bride price (Gn 29:18, 27; Ex 22:16-17; 1 Sm 18:25; 2 Sm 3:14) paid by her husband was not exactly a purchase of the woman from her father, but the exchange of money did stigmatize her. The amount of a bride price depended on the father’s status (Gn 34:12). The usual price was probably 20 to 30 shekels of silver. The bride received gifts of jewelry, ornaments, and clothing from her future husband, and she occasionally enjoyed some sort of financial or material return from the bride price for her own use (Jos 15:19; Jgs 1:15). When her father or husband died, the money frequently reverted to her.<\/p>\n<p>An engaged woman was considered her fiancé’s property just as much as if she were already married to him (Dt 22:23-27). The woman left her own family at marriage, to live with and become part of her new husband’s family. Normally, any succeeding marriages would be with members of that family.<\/p>\n<p>Despite the low legal status of the mother of the family, her life was not as bad as one might suppose. She was the legal wife, not an unpaid servant, and she frequently took a strong role as adviser to her husband in family affairs. Her most important function, aside from childbearing, was organization of the household, of which she was generally the respected manager. Even though the wife might have been acquired through capture in war (Dt 21:10-14), she could not be sold as a slave or daughter could (Ex 21:7; Neh 5:5).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, her position was precarious, in that she could be disowned or divorced by her husband as the result of a simple renunciation: “She is no longer my wife, and I am no longer her husband.” Perhaps he had found fault with her culinary skills, or possibly he was casting his eyes on another woman. In any event, a husband knew that if his wife did not obey even a signal or a glance, he was within his rights to obtain a divorce (cf. Ecclus 25:26). The wife, however, obtained a certain degree of protection in the letter of repudiation, by which her freedom was formally restored. Under Jewish tradition, a wife could not divorce her husband.<\/p>\n<p>In matters of domestic protocol, the Hebrew wife was not introduced to her husband’s guests, a tradition that subsequently led to considerable embarrassment for Abraham’s wife, Sarah, and for Rebekah (Gn 20:16). A woman normally remained veiled in public (24:65; 38:14; Is 47:2).<\/p>\n<p>The imagery in Proverbs 19:13 and 27:15 draws a vigorous comparison between a contentious woman and water dripping from a leaky roof. The OT leaves little doubt about the type of behavior expected from a woman. She was expected to be charming, soft-spoken, discreet, and calm (Prv 9:13; 11:16, 22; 21:9). She was also to be responsible, well-organized, intelligent, thoughtful, reverent, and a good manager of both the household and the family purse (31:10-31). A woman should also be pious and beautiful, and in NT tradition, submissive to her husband, as befitted a woman adorned with the priceless jewel of a gentle and quiet spirit (Ti 2:4-5; 1 Pt 3:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The actions of a few women whose roles in life do not seem to fit the pattern of the meek, passive female pictured above, are recorded in the Bible and the Apocrypha. The books of Judith and Esther recount heroic tales of how national fortunes were saved by women. Deborah and Jael were renowned heroines (Jgs 4–5), and the kingdom of Judah was ruled by a vicious woman, Athaliah, for several years (2 Kgs 11). The women who stepped to the forefront of public life were exceptional and few in number. Judith was a rich widow, an unusual thing in Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MaritalSecurity\">Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>The security of a wife’s position improved considerably when she produced her first child, particularly if it was a son. A woman’s primary duty to her husband and his family was procreation (Gn 1:28; 9:1), and until she gave birth to a son, she feared displacement by a second wife or a concubine. Polygamous marriages were by no means rare, especially in wealthy families. They resulted in two ill-defined family groups, controlled by the mothers but under the overall authority of fathers; there were inevitable jealousies and frictions.<\/p>\n<p>The legal status of a woman was consistently poor in Bible times. With no evidence at all, a husband could accuse his wife of adultery, and she was compelled to face a trial by ordeal. She had to abase herself by taking an oath, eating dust and a cereal offering, and drinking bitter water. A priest, meanwhile, made pronouncements regarding the dire results that would come to her if she were guilty: she would become an outcast with no hope of survival. But if she maintained her serenity, and if her thigh did not rot nor her abdomen swell, she was considered to have “proved” her innocence. In such an event she would go free, and her husband bore no blame whatsoever for his false accusation (Nm 5:12-31).<\/p>\n<p>If a woman took a vow, it was legal only as long as her father or husband approved it. If she became a widow, the vow still remained in force and could be used against her (Nm 30:3-15).<\/p>\n<p>A woman in Israel was always under the protection of a male, be it her father, grandfather, great-grandfather, brother, husband, or some other member of her husband’s family. She had few legal rights and, in contrast to Babylonian traditions, could not inherit at her husband’s death. It is small wonder that widows were classed with orphans and the poor. A childless widow could on occasion return to her father’s family (Gn 38:11; Lv 22:13; Ru 1:8), thus becoming subject again to the authority of her father. A Hebrew widow could also remain with her late husband’s family. She would then come under the protection of her “redeemer,” a male relative of her husband’s family who assumed responsibility for her. If a husband died leaving a woman childless, it was the responsibility of the husband’s brother to marry her. The first son born of such a union was then regarded as the heir of the first husband.<\/p>\n<p>It was normal for a brother to accept the obligation for such a marriage (levirate). It could be refused on various grounds, but such refusal was considered dishonorable, for it was a man’s duty to perpetuate his brother’s name and to safeguard the family fortune.<\/p>\n<p>A redeemer’s responsibilities were considerable. In addition to the marriage, he was perhaps involved in avenging the family reputation, and he had to ensure that family property increased and remained within family control.<\/p>\n<p>If an Israelite fell into debt and was forced to sell himself into slavery, he would normally be “redeemed” by one of his relatives (Lv 25:47-49). If in his penury an Israelite had to sell his land or his house, the redeemer had the right of first refusal over all other prospective purchasers. It was as much his duty as his right to prevent family property from passing into the hands of strangers (v 25). The prophet Jeremiah bought his cousin Hanamel’s field under similar circumstances (Jer 32:6-15).<\/p>\n<p>The most familiar OT story of a childless widow, her “redeemer,” and their levirate marriage is recorded in the book of Ruth. One of Naomi’s two sons married Ruth. When Ruth was widowed, her impoverished mother-in-law, Naomi, left her home in Moab and returned to Bethlehem to sell some of the family property. Although a close relative was prepared to buy the land and keep it in the family, he was not ready to marry Ruth as well (Ru 3:12; 4:4). He knew that a son of that union would be deemed a son of the deceased, bearing the dead husband’s name, and thus ultimately inheriting the land (4:4-6). The next relative in order of kinship was Boaz, who became Ruth’s “redeemer.” He was prepared to accept the double obligation of purchasing the land and marrying Ruth (4:9-10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PositionofChildren\">Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>Children were generally well loved, but their childhood was short and they were often regarded as laborers for the house or fields. According to the law of primogeniture, the eldest son received a double portion of the estate as his birthright (Dt 21:17). Thus, he was assured of the position of family head. Even during his father’s lifetime, the eldest son took precedence over his brothers and sisters (Gn 43:33). Where twins were born, the first to emerge from the womb was considered the elder, with all the attendant privileges (25:24-26; 38:27-30).<\/p>\n<p>For a serious offense, the eldest son could lose the right of primogeniture (Gn 35:22; 49:3-4; 1 Chr 5:1), or it could be surrendered voluntarily, as Esau did by selling his birthright to his brother Jacob (Gn 25:29-34). There was a law protecting the eldest son from his father’s favoritism for a younger brother (Dt 21:15-17). Nevertheless, King David gave his kingdom to Solomon, his youngest son (1 Kgs 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>In a family with no sons, a daughter could inherit property (Nm 27:8). Frequently, parents consulted neither sons nor daughters when marriage partners were arranged for them. Marriage was often an alliance or contract between two families, and thus the wishes and concerns of individuals were considered unimportant. Love matches were few, although occasionally a son would marry in defiance of his parents, as Esau did (Gn 26:34-35). Although it was rare for young people to express their feelings and preferences about marriage in an open fashion, Saul’s daughter, Michal, made known her love for David (1 Sm 18:20).<\/p>\n<p>There is no record of legal adoption among the Hebrews, but it was practiced from ancient times in Mesopotamia. It was especially useful as a means of ensuring a childless couple that their land would be tilled and that they would be cared for in their old age. All examples of adoption mentioned in the OT took place outside the land of Israel (Ex 2:10; 1 Kgs 11:20; Est 2:7, 15) and are not examples of true adoption as a lifetime member of a family.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRightsofChildren\">The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>The nature of patriarchal society made for unfortunate distinctions between male and female children. The position of a daughter, who could be sold into slavery or sold to be the concubine of a man and then possibly sold again (Ex 21:7-11), was certainly inferior to that of a son. In the patriarchal period, however, both a son and a daughter could be put to death for disobeying the head of the family. One’s children could also be sacrificed in worship rituals (see Gn 22; Jgs 11). It is probable that infant sacrifice was practiced by nations neighboring Israel, including Canaan and Ammon.<\/p>\n<p>The rights of children were improved considerably with the promulgation of the code of Mosaic law. A father was no longer permitted to put his child to death without referring the case to the elders (Dt 21:18-21). Both sons and daughters could be brought before such authorities and accused of being disobedient, gluttonous, or drunkards. A father’s absolute authority even extended to his married son and family if they were living under his roof. The law also prohibited children from being held responsible for the crimes of their parents (Dt 24:16). In King David’s time a person convicted by the community had the right of appeal to the king (2 Sm 14:4-11).<\/p>\n<p>In Hebrew families both parents were held in high respect. Honor had to be given to both mother and father (Ex 20:12), and the law condemned offenses against either parent (21:17; Lv 20:9; Dt 21:18; 27:16). Respect due to the mother is a recurrent theme in the Wisdom Literature (Prv 19:26; 20:20; cf. Ecclus 3:1-16).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DailyLifeoftheHebrewFamily\">Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>In the everyday affairs of a Hebrew household, it was the father’s responsibility to maintain the family fortune and to be the provider. He might work in the fields, most probably with crops of flax, barley, or wheat. Or he would work at a trade, possibly as a weaver, builder, potter, dyer, fuller, or a worker in copper or bronze. If he lived near the shore, he might be a fisherman.<\/p>\n<p>The father was also responsible for the religious well-being of the family. It was his duty to take over his sons’ education from the mother at an early age, teaching them the tenets of Hebrew religion (Ex 10:2; 12:26; Dt 4:9; 6:7). He also explained all the facets of the law and the interwoven history of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>The father was the disciplinarian of the family, with the rod being used to drive home the lessons taught (Prv 13:24; 22:15; 29:15-17). Though children were loved and valued, they were not pampered (Ecclus 30:9-12). In postexilic times education also took place within the precincts of the synagogue, and shortly before the time of Christ, a general elementary education was introduced. It was also imperative that a father teach his sons a trade, normally his own, for a man without a trade either starved or became a thief. Another important paternal responsibility was to provide wives for male offspring in the household.<\/p>\n<p>The mother was responsible for her sons’ and daughters’ early education (Prv 1:8; 6:20), teaching them religious songs and prayers as soon as they could talk. A father took over the education of his sons, but the mother continued with the daughters, training them to spin, weave, cook, clean, trim the lamps, and generally to become competent in all the household duties (31:13-31).<\/p>\n<p>With little furniture, keeping a house clean meant sweeping the floors to keep them free from dust and dirt. Cooking was at once simple and difficult. It was simple in that much of the food was cooked in the form of a soup or stew, or else made into a cake and cooked on a griddle. It was difficult in that the corn had to be ground by hand and bread was baked daily.<\/p>\n<p>A mother was expected to take wool, card it, spin it, and often weave and make clothes for her family. In addition, she would help her husband in the fields at harvesttime. Because many families had one or more olive trees, a few grapevines, and fig trees, the mother would also assist in picking the fruit. She would sometimes work at the press when the olives or grapes were being processed. Frequently the treading of grapes in the family vat would be done together by husband and wife. Drawing water from the well was considered a menial task and was generally the wife’s responsibility, although sometimes it was assigned to the children (Gn 24:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>As in all societies, there was a time when children laughed and played together (Zec 8:5; Mt 11:16), although childhood and adolescence were not recognized as specific stages of development. Children were considered as sucklings if under three, but were regarded as boys or girls when they were able to take care of themselves. A small child sat on his mother’s lap and was played with (Is 66:12). There is no evidence of organized sports for children. Toys, including whistles, rattles, dolls, and miniature cooking utensils, have been excavated at Palestinian sites.<\/p>\n<p>As soon as a boy was old enough, he took his place in the family and accepted his appointed task. Among other things, children were expected to gather fuel (Jer 7:18). Young boys and girls tended the flocks. The sheep had to be protected from marauding wild beasts, guarded against their own folly when they wandered near crevices, steered toward good pasture and water, and carried home when sick or injured (Gn 29:6; Ex 2:16). The care of cattle was also the responsibility of children (1 Sm 16:11). Of necessity, boys were trained in the various arts of war.<\/p>\n<p>Children sometimes joined their fathers in the fields, and their presence was always welcome. From earliest times, boys in particular would watch their fathers until they too picked up a tool or implement to try their skill; girls watched and learned from their mothers. Young children frequently listened to the talk of the elders at the city gates or in the villages. A visit to a sanctuary at festival time was a family affair, furnishing an ideal learning experience. As a child, Jesus accompanied his parents, Mary and Joseph, to the temple in Jerusalem (Lk 2:42-47).<\/p>\n<p>Young girls were surprisingly free to go about their appointed tasks. They were not secluded or veiled and could visit uninhibited with friends and neighbors (Gn 34:1). They were also able to converse with men without embarrassment (24:15-25; 29:11-12; 1 Sm 9:11-13).<\/p>\n<p>Mealtimes were strictly family times. It is doubtful whether a meal comparable to a breakfast was eaten, and a farmer would probably have a light lunch in the fields. The main meal of the day was prepared by the mother, and it would be eaten in the early evening. Although the variety of food available was limited, its preparation was time-consuming.<\/p>\n<p>Feast times were periods of great religious significance and were also the days when family members participated in the symbolic rituals of their faith. Among the Israelites several kinds of food were fundamental to their religious ritual. Family unity and the national religion were molded together by special meals in the home.<\/p>\n<p>Daylight played an important part in the daily habits of the people in antiquity. Although oil lamps were readily available in later periods, it was customary to rise with the sun and go to bed relatively soon after dark. The wife would probably be up before sunrise and might continue her labor after dark.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InNewTestamentTimes\">In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>By NT times, for those who followed the Greek and Roman style, life became more elegant. Despite that, the status of many family members did not change substantially. Wealthier families had more slaves, and the children were more likely to have formal education, sometimes spending less effort on family chores. Even in Roman times, however, the father still had a legal right to accept or reject his child.<\/p>\n<p>The status of the woman had definitely improved by the NT period. A Roman matron was highly respected and exerted a strong influence over her husband. She was not sequestered in a particular section of the house, as a Greek woman was, but managed and supervised tasks in any part of her home. She helped her husband in business, had her own place in theaters, games, and religious festivals, and sometimes managed her own property. Palestinian women began to enjoy a new status and dignity as the result of Jesus’ attitude toward women and its influence on the early Christian church.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Education; Marriage, Marriage Customs; Sex, Sexuality; Widow; Woman.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS<\/h3>\n<p>In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refer to setting up a separate dwelling as well as establishing a family. In the broader sense, “house” may refer to an entire nation (“house of Israel”). The heads of families returning from Babylon in the postexilic period controlled sometimes several hundred family members (Ezr 8:1-14). The family was a smaller part of a clan and tribe. In nomadic times the responsibilities and allegiances centered on the larger family group.<\/p>\n<p>Those who belonged to the clan knew that they had to work for common interests and accept responsibility for the whole group. All members of the family were to be protected and assisted in time of need.<\/p>\n<p>As the life of the Israelites became more settled, families (in the wider sense of the term) lived in villages surrounded by fields of wheat, barley, and flax, with areas of grazing land for sheep and goats. Each group of villages consisted of an intermarried, interdependent family group, such as that of the Danites of Zorah and Eshtaol (Jgs 18:11). The hard life of those days demanded a sharing of work and the loyal cooperation of the entire family for survival.<\/p>\n<p>As crafts and trades developed, along with a more sedentary lifestyle, sons learned their fathers’ skills and continued the family trade. Consequently, the whole village might follow a particular craft (1 Chr 4:14; Neh 11:35). By specializing in such trades, however, the villagers became less self-sufficient, depending more on farmers for food and on other specialized villages for the production of cloth or pottery (1 Chr 4:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>With the growth of cities, related groups lived together in specific areas. Many members of the tribes of Benjamin and Judah were listed in the census of Jerusalem by Nehemiah (Neh 11:4-8), and by the writer of Chronicles (1 Chr 9:3-9). One consequence of life in the cities was the fragmentation of the family group. As the bonds of the wider family were loosened, the unit consisted increasingly of a husband and wife with their children, living in one house. The size of houses that have been excavated precludes the idea of any larger family unit as the norm in OT societies.<\/p>\n<p>During the kingdom period, King David’s sons Amnon and Absalom set up their own separate houses (2 Sm 13:7-8, 20). At that time there were few slaves in Hebrew society, but they also were considered members of the family. As bonds of the wider family loosened, and the master of the household lost a degree of authority, the society became one in which the king was sovereign and all the people were his subjects.<\/p>\n<p>The early kings of Israel promoted such a change in order to establish a central ruling authority for the entire country. The king’s subjects fell broadly into the categories of employers and employees, corresponding to the rich and poor of society. By the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, members of the wider family no longer worked for the communal good under the authority of the clan’s head; rather, individuals worked primarily for the good of their own immediate family. Hence one’s labor and devotion were focused more narrowly, and the greatest beneficiary was the king, the personal symbol of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>Emphasis on the smaller family unit increased, and old duties that had been willingly accepted by the wider groups in former times came to be neglected. People did not always help relatives in times of need, and they frequently had to be reminded of their obligations, particularly toward widows and orphans (Is 1:17; Jer 7:6). Family feuds also declined because members no longer felt responsible to take vengeance as a way to uphold the honor of the clan (2 Sm 3:27; 16:8; 2 Kgs 9:26). Nevertheless, Nehemiah expected Israelites to fight for their family honor (Neh 4:14). In NT times, the family was such a unit that it could be sold for a debt incurred by one of its members (Mt 18:25).<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew religion’s emphasis on family participation in certain celebrations strengthened the small unit. The Passover, for example, was always celebrated as a family thanksgiving meal (Ex 12:3-4, 46). The prophet Samuel’s parents made a traditional annual pilgrimage to the shrine at Shiloh (1 Sm 2:19). In modern times, a young Jewish boy’s arrival at the threshold of manhood is celebrated with the Bar Mitzvah ceremony. Being so honored in the midst of a religious family preserves the ancient Hebrew tradition of family participation in religious ceremonies.<\/p>\n<p>In his preaching Jesus used the family as a symbol for the relationship of God to his people (Mt 19:14; 23:9; Lk 8:21). From the cross he handed over responsibility for the care of his mother to his disciple John (Jn 19:27).<\/p>\n<p>In NT times, the communion meals in the Jerusalem church took place by households (Acts 2:46). Early Christian meetings were held in the homes of believers because of opposition by the authorities. The book of Acts contains examples of entire families being converted to Christianity (Acts 10:24, 44-48; 16:15, 31-32). Timothy learned the gospel from his grandmother and mother (2 Tm 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>• Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>• Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>• The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>• Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>• In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StatusofFamilyMembers\">Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>From nomadic times, a father’s authority held the family group together in their encampment, and he became the symbol of their security. In ancient patriarchal societies, the father was an absolute master who had the power of life and death over family members, ruling with unchallenged authority. Although he had extensive responsibilities for those under his care, his power was awesome and his status unquestioned.<\/p>\n<p>A man’s possessions included his wife, servants, slaves, and animals (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). In fact, the phrase “to marry a wife” comes from a Hebrew root meaning “to become the master of a wife.” A husband was as much the master of his wife as he was of his home or his fields. Consequently, the wife addressed him in a subservient manner, as a slave would address a master (Gn 18:12; Jgs 19:26). This low status for a woman extended to a daughter’s position in the ancient household. Females were always under the authority of a male relative: first, the father; then a husband. If a woman became a widow, she was subject to her husband’s nearest male relative, who became her “redeemer.” The bride price (Gn 29:18, 27; Ex 22:16-17; 1 Sm 18:25; 2 Sm 3:14) paid by her husband was not exactly a purchase of the woman from her father, but the exchange of money did stigmatize her. The amount of a bride price depended on the father’s status (Gn 34:12). The usual price was probably 20 to 30 shekels of silver. The bride received gifts of jewelry, ornaments, and clothing from her future husband, and she occasionally enjoyed some sort of financial or material return from the bride price for her own use (Jos 15:19; Jgs 1:15). When her father or husband died, the money frequently reverted to her.<\/p>\n<p>An engaged woman was considered her fiancé’s property just as much as if she were already married to him (Dt 22:23-27). The woman left her own family at marriage, to live with and become part of her new husband’s family. Normally, any succeeding marriages would be with members of that family.<\/p>\n<p>Despite the low legal status of the mother of the family, her life was not as bad as one might suppose. She was the legal wife, not an unpaid servant, and she frequently took a strong role as adviser to her husband in family affairs. Her most important function, aside from childbearing, was organization of the household, of which she was generally the respected manager. Even though the wife might have been acquired through capture in war (Dt 21:10-14), she could not be sold as a slave or daughter could (Ex 21:7; Neh 5:5).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, her position was precarious, in that she could be disowned or divorced by her husband as the result of a simple renunciation: “She is no longer my wife, and I am no longer her husband.” Perhaps he had found fault with her culinary skills, or possibly he was casting his eyes on another woman. In any event, a husband knew that if his wife did not obey even a signal or a glance, he was within his rights to obtain a divorce (cf. Ecclus 25:26). The wife, however, obtained a certain degree of protection in the letter of repudiation, by which her freedom was formally restored. Under Jewish tradition, a wife could not divorce her husband.<\/p>\n<p>In matters of domestic protocol, the Hebrew wife was not introduced to her husband’s guests, a tradition that subsequently led to considerable embarrassment for Abraham’s wife, Sarah, and for Rebekah (Gn 20:16). A woman normally remained veiled in public (24:65; 38:14; Is 47:2).<\/p>\n<p>The imagery in Proverbs 19:13 and 27:15 draws a vigorous comparison between a contentious woman and water dripping from a leaky roof. The OT leaves little doubt about the type of behavior expected from a woman. She was expected to be charming, soft-spoken, discreet, and calm (Prv 9:13; 11:16, 22; 21:9). She was also to be responsible, well-organized, intelligent, thoughtful, reverent, and a good manager of both the household and the family purse (31:10-31). A woman should also be pious and beautiful, and in NT tradition, submissive to her husband, as befitted a woman adorned with the priceless jewel of a gentle and quiet spirit (Ti 2:4-5; 1 Pt 3:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The actions of a few women whose roles in life do not seem to fit the pattern of the meek, passive female pictured above, are recorded in the Bible and the Apocrypha. The books of Judith and Esther recount heroic tales of how national fortunes were saved by women. Deborah and Jael were renowned heroines (Jgs 4–5), and the kingdom of Judah was ruled by a vicious woman, Athaliah, for several years (2 Kgs 11). The women who stepped to the forefront of public life were exceptional and few in number. Judith was a rich widow, an unusual thing in Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MaritalSecurity\">Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>The security of a wife’s position improved considerably when she produced her first child, particularly if it was a son. A woman’s primary duty to her husband and his family was procreation (Gn 1:28; 9:1), and until she gave birth to a son, she feared displacement by a second wife or a concubine. Polygamous marriages were by no means rare, especially in wealthy families. They resulted in two ill-defined family groups, controlled by the mothers but under the overall authority of fathers; there were inevitable jealousies and frictions.<\/p>\n<p>The legal status of a woman was consistently poor in Bible times. With no evidence at all, a husband could accuse his wife of adultery, and she was compelled to face a trial by ordeal. She had to abase herself by taking an oath, eating dust and a cereal offering, and drinking bitter water. A priest, meanwhile, made pronouncements regarding the dire results that would come to her if she were guilty: she would become an outcast with no hope of survival. But if she maintained her serenity, and if her thigh did not rot nor her abdomen swell, she was considered to have “proved” her innocence. In such an event she would go free, and her husband bore no blame whatsoever for his false accusation (Nm 5:12-31).<\/p>\n<p>If a woman took a vow, it was legal only as long as her father or husband approved it. If she became a widow, the vow still remained in force and could be used against her (Nm 30:3-15).<\/p>\n<p>A woman in Israel was always under the protection of a male, be it her father, grandfather, great-grandfather, brother, husband, or some other member of her husband’s family. She had few legal rights and, in contrast to Babylonian traditions, could not inherit at her husband’s death. It is small wonder that widows were classed with orphans and the poor. A childless widow could on occasion return to her father’s family (Gn 38:11; Lv 22:13; Ru 1:8), thus becoming subject again to the authority of her father. A Hebrew widow could also remain with her late husband’s family. She would then come under the protection of her “redeemer,” a male relative of her husband’s family who assumed responsibility for her. If a husband died leaving a woman childless, it was the responsibility of the husband’s brother to marry her. The first son born of such a union was then regarded as the heir of the first husband.<\/p>\n<p>It was normal for a brother to accept the obligation for such a marriage (levirate). It could be refused on various grounds, but such refusal was considered dishonorable, for it was a man’s duty to perpetuate his brother’s name and to safeguard the family fortune.<\/p>\n<p>A redeemer’s responsibilities were considerable. In addition to the marriage, he was perhaps involved in avenging the family reputation, and he had to ensure that family property increased and remained within family control.<\/p>\n<p>If an Israelite fell into debt and was forced to sell himself into slavery, he would normally be “redeemed” by one of his relatives (Lv 25:47-49). If in his penury an Israelite had to sell his land or his house, the redeemer had the right of first refusal over all other prospective purchasers. It was as much his duty as his right to prevent family property from passing into the hands of strangers (v 25). The prophet Jeremiah bought his cousin Hanamel’s field under similar circumstances (Jer 32:6-15).<\/p>\n<p>The most familiar OT story of a childless widow, her “redeemer,” and their levirate marriage is recorded in the book of Ruth. One of Naomi’s two sons married Ruth. When Ruth was widowed, her impoverished mother-in-law, Naomi, left her home in Moab and returned to Bethlehem to sell some of the family property. Although a close relative was prepared to buy the land and keep it in the family, he was not ready to marry Ruth as well (Ru 3:12; 4:4). He knew that a son of that union would be deemed a son of the deceased, bearing the dead husband’s name, and thus ultimately inheriting the land (4:4-6). The next relative in order of kinship was Boaz, who became Ruth’s “redeemer.” He was prepared to accept the double obligation of purchasing the land and marrying Ruth (4:9-10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PositionofChildren\">Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>Children were generally well loved, but their childhood was short and they were often regarded as laborers for the house or fields. According to the law of primogeniture, the eldest son received a double portion of the estate as his birthright (Dt 21:17). Thus, he was assured of the position of family head. Even during his father’s lifetime, the eldest son took precedence over his brothers and sisters (Gn 43:33). Where twins were born, the first to emerge from the womb was considered the elder, with all the attendant privileges (25:24-26; 38:27-30).<\/p>\n<p>For a serious offense, the eldest son could lose the right of primogeniture (Gn 35:22; 49:3-4; 1 Chr 5:1), or it could be surrendered voluntarily, as Esau did by selling his birthright to his brother Jacob (Gn 25:29-34). There was a law protecting the eldest son from his father’s favoritism for a younger brother (Dt 21:15-17). Nevertheless, King David gave his kingdom to Solomon, his youngest son (1 Kgs 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>In a family with no sons, a daughter could inherit property (Nm 27:8). Frequently, parents consulted neither sons nor daughters when marriage partners were arranged for them. Marriage was often an alliance or contract between two families, and thus the wishes and concerns of individuals were considered unimportant. Love matches were few, although occasionally a son would marry in defiance of his parents, as Esau did (Gn 26:34-35). Although it was rare for young people to express their feelings and preferences about marriage in an open fashion, Saul’s daughter, Michal, made known her love for David (1 Sm 18:20).<\/p>\n<p>There is no record of legal adoption among the Hebrews, but it was practiced from ancient times in Mesopotamia. It was especially useful as a means of ensuring a childless couple that their land would be tilled and that they would be cared for in their old age. All examples of adoption mentioned in the OT took place outside the land of Israel (Ex 2:10; 1 Kgs 11:20; Est 2:7, 15) and are not examples of true adoption as a lifetime member of a family.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRightsofChildren\">The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>The nature of patriarchal society made for unfortunate distinctions between male and female children. The position of a daughter, who could be sold into slavery or sold to be the concubine of a man and then possibly sold again (Ex 21:7-11), was certainly inferior to that of a son. In the patriarchal period, however, both a son and a daughter could be put to death for disobeying the head of the family. One’s children could also be sacrificed in worship rituals (see Gn 22; Jgs 11). It is probable that infant sacrifice was practiced by nations neighboring Israel, including Canaan and Ammon.<\/p>\n<p>The rights of children were improved considerably with the promulgation of the code of Mosaic law. A father was no longer permitted to put his child to death without referring the case to the elders (Dt 21:18-21). Both sons and daughters could be brought before such authorities and accused of being disobedient, gluttonous, or drunkards. A father’s absolute authority even extended to his married son and family if they were living under his roof. The law also prohibited children from being held responsible for the crimes of their parents (Dt 24:16). In King David’s time a person convicted by the community had the right of appeal to the king (2 Sm 14:4-11).<\/p>\n<p>In Hebrew families both parents were held in high respect. Honor had to be given to both mother and father (Ex 20:12), and the law condemned offenses against either parent (21:17; Lv 20:9; Dt 21:18; 27:16). Respect due to the mother is a recurrent theme in the Wisdom Literature (Prv 19:26; 20:20; cf. Ecclus 3:1-16).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DailyLifeoftheHebrewFamily\">Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>In the everyday affairs of a Hebrew household, it was the father’s responsibility to maintain the family fortune and to be the provider. He might work in the fields, most probably with crops of flax, barley, or wheat. Or he would work at a trade, possibly as a weaver, builder, potter, dyer, fuller, or a worker in copper or bronze. If he lived near the shore, he might be a fisherman.<\/p>\n<p>The father was also responsible for the religious well-being of the family. It was his duty to take over his sons’ education from the mother at an early age, teaching them the tenets of Hebrew religion (Ex 10:2; 12:26; Dt 4:9; 6:7). He also explained all the facets of the law and the interwoven history of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>The father was the disciplinarian of the family, with the rod being used to drive home the lessons taught (Prv 13:24; 22:15; 29:15-17). Though children were loved and valued, they were not pampered (Ecclus 30:9-12). In postexilic times education also took place within the precincts of the synagogue, and shortly before the time of Christ, a general elementary education was introduced. It was also imperative that a father teach his sons a trade, normally his own, for a man without a trade either starved or became a thief. Another important paternal responsibility was to provide wives for male offspring in the household.<\/p>\n<p>The mother was responsible for her sons’ and daughters’ early education (Prv 1:8; 6:20), teaching them religious songs and prayers as soon as they could talk. A father took over the education of his sons, but the mother continued with the daughters, training them to spin, weave, cook, clean, trim the lamps, and generally to become competent in all the household duties (31:13-31).<\/p>\n<p>With little furniture, keeping a house clean meant sweeping the floors to keep them free from dust and dirt. Cooking was at once simple and difficult. It was simple in that much of the food was cooked in the form of a soup or stew, or else made into a cake and cooked on a griddle. It was difficult in that the corn had to be ground by hand and bread was baked daily.<\/p>\n<p>A mother was expected to take wool, card it, spin it, and often weave and make clothes for her family. In addition, she would help her husband in the fields at harvesttime. Because many families had one or more olive trees, a few grapevines, and fig trees, the mother would also assist in picking the fruit. She would sometimes work at the press when the olives or grapes were being processed. Frequently the treading of grapes in the family vat would be done together by husband and wife. Drawing water from the well was considered a menial task and was generally the wife’s responsibility, although sometimes it was assigned to the children (Gn 24:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>As in all societies, there was a time when children laughed and played together (Zec 8:5; Mt 11:16), although childhood and adolescence were not recognized as specific stages of development. Children were considered as sucklings if under three, but were regarded as boys or girls when they were able to take care of themselves. A small child sat on his mother’s lap and was played with (Is 66:12). There is no evidence of organized sports for children. Toys, including whistles, rattles, dolls, and miniature cooking utensils, have been excavated at Palestinian sites.<\/p>\n<p>As soon as a boy was old enough, he took his place in the family and accepted his appointed task. Among other things, children were expected to gather fuel (Jer 7:18). Young boys and girls tended the flocks. The sheep had to be protected from marauding wild beasts, guarded against their own folly when they wandered near crevices, steered toward good pasture and water, and carried home when sick or injured (Gn 29:6; Ex 2:16). The care of cattle was also the responsibility of children (1 Sm 16:11). Of necessity, boys were trained in the various arts of war.<\/p>\n<p>Children sometimes joined their fathers in the fields, and their presence was always welcome. From earliest times, boys in particular would watch their fathers until they too picked up a tool or implement to try their skill; girls watched and learned from their mothers. Young children frequently listened to the talk of the elders at the city gates or in the villages. A visit to a sanctuary at festival time was a family affair, furnishing an ideal learning experience. As a child, Jesus accompanied his parents, Mary and Joseph, to the temple in Jerusalem (Lk 2:42-47).<\/p>\n<p>Young girls were surprisingly free to go about their appointed tasks. They were not secluded or veiled and could visit uninhibited with friends and neighbors (Gn 34:1). They were also able to converse with men without embarrassment (24:15-25; 29:11-12; 1 Sm 9:11-13).<\/p>\n<p>Mealtimes were strictly family times. It is doubtful whether a meal comparable to a breakfast was eaten, and a farmer would probably have a light lunch in the fields. The main meal of the day was prepared by the mother, and it would be eaten in the early evening. Although the variety of food available was limited, its preparation was time-consuming.<\/p>\n<p>Feast times were periods of great religious significance and were also the days when family members participated in the symbolic rituals of their faith. Among the Israelites several kinds of food were fundamental to their religious ritual. Family unity and the national religion were molded together by special meals in the home.<\/p>\n<p>Daylight played an important part in the daily habits of the people in antiquity. Although oil lamps were readily available in later periods, it was customary to rise with the sun and go to bed relatively soon after dark. The wife would probably be up before sunrise and might continue her labor after dark.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InNewTestamentTimes\">In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>By NT times, for those who followed the Greek and Roman style, life became more elegant. Despite that, the status of many family members did not change substantially. Wealthier families had more slaves, and the children were more likely to have formal education, sometimes spending less effort on family chores. Even in Roman times, however, the father still had a legal right to accept or reject his child.<\/p>\n<p>The status of the woman had definitely improved by the NT period. A Roman matron was highly respected and exerted a strong influence over her husband. She was not sequestered in a particular section of the house, as a Greek woman was, but managed and supervised tasks in any part of her home. She helped her husband in business, had her own place in theaters, games, and religious festivals, and sometimes managed her own property. Palestinian women began to enjoy a new status and dignity as the result of Jesus’ attitude toward women and its influence on the early Christian church.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Education; Marriage, Marriage Customs; Sex, Sexuality; Widow; Woman.<\/p>","summary_ro":"FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refe...","summary_en":"FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refe...","source":"Articles\/F.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":12323,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Firstborn","title_en":"Firstborn","content_ro":"<h3>FIRSTBORN<\/h3>\n<p>Term used in the Bible to describe a family’s oldest son or daughter (Gn 22:21; 29:26). Israel was called God’s firstborn because of that nation’s miraculous beginning and special deliverance out of Egypt (Gn 17:5, 15-16; Ex 4:22). As God’s firstborn, Israel had unique privileges over all other nations. Gentiles were “blessed” only in relation to their kindness to Israel (Gn 12:3; Ex 19:6; Dt 4:5-8). The prophet Isaiah foresaw a day when Israel would have a double portion of inheritance (Is 61:7). Thus, being firstborn implies priority or preeminence, as well as an inheritance.<\/p>\n<p>The expression “first-born of the poor,” (Is 14:30, <span>rsv<\/span>) means one who is supremely poor, the poorest of the poor. Another figurative expression, “first-born of death” (Jb 18:13, <span>rsv<\/span>), implied that Job’s disease was fatal.<\/p>\n<p>Because God delivered Israel’s firstborn sons from death in Egypt, he expected each firstborn to be sanctified to him (Ex 11:4-7; 13:12). The first male child was a representative of the entire offspring (Gn 49:3; Ex 22:29; Nm 3:13). The firstborn of all animals used in sacrifice was to be sanctified to the Lord (Ex 13:2, 15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FirstbornandRedemption\">Firstborn and Redemption<\/p>\n<p>The firstborn of every tribe except Levi’s was to be redeemed by a sum not to exceed five shekels (Nm 18:15-16). Redemption implied a previous bondage and was to remind Israel of their redemption from bondage in Egypt (Ex 13:2-8).<\/p>\n<p>The firstborn of ritually clean animals was devoted to the Lord. It was brought to the tabernacle (or later, the temple) within a year from the eighth day after birth. This animal was then sacrificed and its blood sprinkled on the altar. The meat of the sacrificed animal was for the priests (Ex 13:13; 22:30; cf. Nm 18:17). The firstborn of unclean animals could be redeemed with an addition of one-fifth of the value as determined by the priest. If not redeemed, these animals were sold, exchanged, or destroyed by the priests (Lv 27:27). The colt of an ass was to be redeemed with a lamb (Ex 13:13). If not redeemed, it was to be killed. Meat from unclean animals was not eaten.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FirstbornandBirthright\">Firstborn and Birthright<\/p>\n<p>The firstborn acted as priest of the family in the father’s absence or death. Esau and Reuben are both examples (Gn 27:19, 32; 1 Chr 5:1-2). This position of the firstborn ceased when the priesthood was committed to Levi’s tribe (Nm 3:12-13). All the firstborn of succeeding generations had to be redeemed. The redemption money became part of the Levites’ yearly income (8:17; 18:16).<\/p>\n<p>A double portion of the family inheritance was the right of the firstborn. This protected the firstborn when there was a polygamous marriage. The son of a favorite wife could not take the place of the first son born of the household (Dt 21:17).<\/p>\n<p>The title “firstborn” is applied to Christ (Lk 2:7; Rom 8:29; Col 1:15, 18; Heb 1:6; Rv 1:5). It stresses Christ’s preeminence over all because he was the first to rise from the dead. As firstborn, Christ is heir of all things (Heb 1:2) and the head of the church (Eph 1:20-23; Col 1:18, 24; Heb 2:10-12).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Birthright; Heir; Inheritance; Primogeniture.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>FIRSTBORN<\/h3>\n<p>Term used in the Bible to describe a family’s oldest son or daughter (Gn 22:21; 29:26). Israel was called God’s firstborn because of that nation’s miraculous beginning and special deliverance out of Egypt (Gn 17:5, 15-16; Ex 4:22). As God’s firstborn, Israel had unique privileges over all other nations. Gentiles were “blessed” only in relation to their kindness to Israel (Gn 12:3; Ex 19:6; Dt 4:5-8). The prophet Isaiah foresaw a day when Israel would have a double portion of inheritance (Is 61:7). Thus, being firstborn implies priority or preeminence, as well as an inheritance.<\/p>\n<p>The expression “first-born of the poor,” (Is 14:30, <span>rsv<\/span>) means one who is supremely poor, the poorest of the poor. Another figurative expression, “first-born of death” (Jb 18:13, <span>rsv<\/span>), implied that Job’s disease was fatal.<\/p>\n<p>Because God delivered Israel’s firstborn sons from death in Egypt, he expected each firstborn to be sanctified to him (Ex 11:4-7; 13:12). The first male child was a representative of the entire offspring (Gn 49:3; Ex 22:29; Nm 3:13). The firstborn of all animals used in sacrifice was to be sanctified to the Lord (Ex 13:2, 15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FirstbornandRedemption\">Firstborn and Redemption<\/p>\n<p>The firstborn of every tribe except Levi’s was to be redeemed by a sum not to exceed five shekels (Nm 18:15-16). Redemption implied a previous bondage and was to remind Israel of their redemption from bondage in Egypt (Ex 13:2-8).<\/p>\n<p>The firstborn of ritually clean animals was devoted to the Lord. It was brought to the tabernacle (or later, the temple) within a year from the eighth day after birth. This animal was then sacrificed and its blood sprinkled on the altar. The meat of the sacrificed animal was for the priests (Ex 13:13; 22:30; cf. Nm 18:17). The firstborn of unclean animals could be redeemed with an addition of one-fifth of the value as determined by the priest. If not redeemed, these animals were sold, exchanged, or destroyed by the priests (Lv 27:27). The colt of an ass was to be redeemed with a lamb (Ex 13:13). If not redeemed, it was to be killed. Meat from unclean animals was not eaten.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FirstbornandBirthright\">Firstborn and Birthright<\/p>\n<p>The firstborn acted as priest of the family in the father’s absence or death. Esau and Reuben are both examples (Gn 27:19, 32; 1 Chr 5:1-2). This position of the firstborn ceased when the priesthood was committed to Levi’s tribe (Nm 3:12-13). All the firstborn of succeeding generations had to be redeemed. The redemption money became part of the Levites’ yearly income (8:17; 18:16).<\/p>\n<p>A double portion of the family inheritance was the right of the firstborn. This protected the firstborn when there was a polygamous marriage. The son of a favorite wife could not take the place of the first son born of the household (Dt 21:17).<\/p>\n<p>The title “firstborn” is applied to Christ (Lk 2:7; Rom 8:29; Col 1:15, 18; Heb 1:6; Rv 1:5). It stresses Christ’s preeminence over all because he was the first to rise from the dead. As firstborn, Christ is heir of all things (Heb 1:2) and the head of the church (Eph 1:20-23; Col 1:18, 24; Heb 2:10-12).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Birthright; Heir; Inheritance; Primogeniture.<\/p>","summary_ro":"FIRSTBORN Term used in the Bible to describe a family’s oldest son or daughter (Gn 22:21; 29:26). Israel was called God’s firstborn because of that nation’s miraculous beginning and special deliverance out of Egypt (Gn 17:5, 15-16; Ex 4:22). As God’s firstborn, Israel had unique privileges over all other nations. Gentiles were “blessed” only in relation to their kindness to Israel (Gn 12:3; Ex 19:6; Dt 4:5-8). The prophet Isaiah foresaw a day when Israel would have a double portion of inherit...","summary_en":"FIRSTBORN Term used in the Bible to describe a family’s oldest son or daughter (Gn 22:21; 29:26). Israel was called God’s firstborn because of that nation’s miraculous beginning and special deliverance out of Egypt (Gn 17:5, 15-16; Ex 4:22). As God’s firstborn, Israel had unique privileges over all other nations. Gentiles were “blessed” only in relation to their kindness to Israel (Gn 12:3; Ex 19:6; Dt 4:5-8). The prophet Isaiah foresaw a day when Israel would have a double portion of inherit...","source":"Articles\/F.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":47574,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Cronici 5:1","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Cronici 5:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:1-24<\/strong> Chapter 5 records the genealogies for <em>Reuben<\/em> (5:1-10; cp. Gen 46:9), <em>Gad<\/em> (1 Chr 5:11-17), and <em>Manasseh<\/em> (5:23-24), the tribes of Israel that settled in Transjordan (the area east of the Jordan River).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:1-24<\/strong> Chapter 5 records the genealogies for <em>Reuben<\/em> (5:1-10; cp. Gen 46:9), <em>Gad<\/em> (1 Chr 5:11-17), and <em>Manasseh<\/em> (5:23-24), the tribes of Israel that settled in Transjordan (the area east of the Jordan River).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:1-24 Chapter 5 records the genealogies for Reuben (5:1-10; cp. Gen 46:9), Gad (1 Chr 5:11-17), and Manasseh (5:23-24), the tribes of Israel that settled in Transjordan (the area east of the Jordan River).","summary_en":"5:1-24 Chapter 5 records the genealogies for Reuben (5:1-10; cp. Gen 46:9), Gad (1 Chr 5:11-17), and Manasseh (5:23-24), the tribes of Israel that settled in Transjordan (the area east of the Jordan River).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":47575,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Cronici 5:1","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Cronici 5:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:1-2<\/strong> Although <em>Reuben<\/em> was the <em>oldest son of Israel,<\/em> he did not receive <em>his birthright<\/em> because he had sexual relations with his father’s concubine (Gen 35:22). Jacob transferred this right to Joseph when he elevated Ephraim and Manasseh to full membership among the tribes (Gen 48:5). This gave Joseph the double portion that traditionally belonged to the firstborn (Deut 21:15-17). As Jacob foresaw, Judah surpassed his brothers and became the forefather of the ruling tribe (Gen 49:8-10). However, Reuben is still listed first (1 Chr 2:1).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:1-2<\/strong> Although <em>Reuben<\/em> was the <em>oldest son of Israel,<\/em> he did not receive <em>his birthright<\/em> because he had sexual relations with his father’s concubine (Gen 35:22). Jacob transferred this right to Joseph when he elevated Ephraim and Manasseh to full membership among the tribes (Gen 48:5). This gave Joseph the double portion that traditionally belonged to the firstborn (Deut 21:15-17). As Jacob foresaw, Judah surpassed his brothers and became the forefather of the ruling tribe (Gen 49:8-10). However, Reuben is still listed first (1 Chr 2:1).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:1-2 Although Reuben was the oldest son of Israel, he did not receive his birthright because he had sexual relations with his father’s concubine (Gen 35:22). Jacob transferred this right to Joseph when he elevated Ephraim and Manasseh to full membership among the tribes (Gen 48:5). This gave Joseph the double portion that traditionally belonged to the firstborn (Deut 21:15-17). As Jacob foresaw, Judah surpassed his brothers and became the forefather of the ruling tribe (Gen 49:8-10). However...","summary_en":"5:1-2 Although Reuben was the oldest son of Israel, he did not receive his birthright because he had sexual relations with his father’s concubine (Gen 35:22). Jacob transferred this right to Joseph when he elevated Ephraim and Manasseh to full membership among the tribes (Gen 48:5). This gave Joseph the double portion that traditionally belonged to the firstborn (Deut 21:15-17). As Jacob foresaw, Judah surpassed his brothers and became the forefather of the ruling tribe (Gen 49:8-10). However...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75200,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Cronici 5:1","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Cronici 5:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:1-24<\/strong> Chapter 5 records the genealogies for <em>Reuben<\/em> (5:1-10; cp. Gen 46:9), <em>Gad<\/em> (1 Chr 5:11-17), and <em>Manasseh<\/em> (5:23-24), the tribes of Israel that settled in Transjordan (the area east of the Jordan River).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:1-24<\/strong> Chapter 5 records the genealogies for <em>Reuben<\/em> (5:1-10; cp. Gen 46:9), <em>Gad<\/em> (1 Chr 5:11-17), and <em>Manasseh<\/em> (5:23-24), the tribes of Israel that settled in Transjordan (the area east of the Jordan River).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:1-24 Chapter 5 records the genealogies for Reuben (5:1-10; cp. Gen 46:9), Gad (1 Chr 5:11-17), and Manasseh (5:23-24), the tribes of Israel that settled in Transjordan (the area east of the Jordan River).","summary_en":"5:1-24 Chapter 5 records the genealogies for Reuben (5:1-10; cp. Gen 46:9), Gad (1 Chr 5:11-17), and Manasseh (5:23-24), the tribes of Israel that settled in Transjordan (the area east of the Jordan River).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75201,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Cronici 5:1","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Cronici 5:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:1-2<\/strong> Although <em>Reuben<\/em> was the <em>oldest son of Israel,<\/em> he did not receive <em>his birthright<\/em> because he had sexual relations with his father’s concubine (Gen 35:22). Jacob transferred this right to Joseph when he elevated Ephraim and Manasseh to full membership among the tribes (Gen 48:5). This gave Joseph the double portion that traditionally belonged to the firstborn (Deut 21:15-17). As Jacob foresaw, Judah surpassed his brothers and became the forefather of the ruling tribe (Gen 49:8-10). However, Reuben is still listed first (1 Chr 2:1).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:1-2<\/strong> Although <em>Reuben<\/em> was the <em>oldest son of Israel,<\/em> he did not receive <em>his birthright<\/em> because he had sexual relations with his father’s concubine (Gen 35:22). Jacob transferred this right to Joseph when he elevated Ephraim and Manasseh to full membership among the tribes (Gen 48:5). This gave Joseph the double portion that traditionally belonged to the firstborn (Deut 21:15-17). As Jacob foresaw, Judah surpassed his brothers and became the forefather of the ruling tribe (Gen 49:8-10). However, Reuben is still listed first (1 Chr 2:1).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:1-2 Although Reuben was the oldest son of Israel, he did not receive his birthright because he had sexual relations with his father’s concubine (Gen 35:22). Jacob transferred this right to Joseph when he elevated Ephraim and Manasseh to full membership among the tribes (Gen 48:5). This gave Joseph the double portion that traditionally belonged to the firstborn (Deut 21:15-17). As Jacob foresaw, Judah surpassed his brothers and became the forefather of the ruling tribe (Gen 49:8-10). However...","summary_en":"5:1-2 Although Reuben was the oldest son of Israel, he did not receive his birthright because he had sexual relations with his father’s concubine (Gen 35:22). Jacob transferred this right to Joseph when he elevated Ephraim and Manasseh to full membership among the tribes (Gen 48:5). This gave Joseph the double portion that traditionally belonged to the firstborn (Deut 21:15-17). As Jacob foresaw, Judah surpassed his brothers and became the forefather of the ruling tribe (Gen 49:8-10). However...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":102826,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Cronici 5:1","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Cronici 5:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:1-24<\/strong> Chapter 5 records the genealogies for <em>Reuben<\/em> (5:1-10; cp. Gen 46:9), <em>Gad<\/em> (1 Chr 5:11-17), and <em>Manasseh<\/em> (5:23-24), the tribes of Israel that settled in Transjordan (the area east of the Jordan River).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:1-24<\/strong> Chapter 5 records the genealogies for <em>Reuben<\/em> (5:1-10; cp. Gen 46:9), <em>Gad<\/em> (1 Chr 5:11-17), and <em>Manasseh<\/em> (5:23-24), the tribes of Israel that settled in Transjordan (the area east of the Jordan River).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:1-24 Chapter 5 records the genealogies for Reuben (5:1-10; cp. Gen 46:9), Gad (1 Chr 5:11-17), and Manasseh (5:23-24), the tribes of Israel that settled in Transjordan (the area east of the Jordan River).","summary_en":"5:1-24 Chapter 5 records the genealogies for Reuben (5:1-10; cp. Gen 46:9), Gad (1 Chr 5:11-17), and Manasseh (5:23-24), the tribes of Israel that settled in Transjordan (the area east of the Jordan River).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":102827,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Cronici 5:1","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Cronici 5:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:1-2<\/strong> Although <em>Reuben<\/em> was the <em>oldest son of Israel,<\/em> he did not receive <em>his birthright<\/em> because he had sexual relations with his father’s concubine (Gen 35:22). Jacob transferred this right to Joseph when he elevated Ephraim and Manasseh to full membership among the tribes (Gen 48:5). This gave Joseph the double portion that traditionally belonged to the firstborn (Deut 21:15-17). As Jacob foresaw, Judah surpassed his brothers and became the forefather of the ruling tribe (Gen 49:8-10). However, Reuben is still listed first (1 Chr 2:1).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:1-2<\/strong> Although <em>Reuben<\/em> was the <em>oldest son of Israel,<\/em> he did not receive <em>his birthright<\/em> because he had sexual relations with his father’s concubine (Gen 35:22). Jacob transferred this right to Joseph when he elevated Ephraim and Manasseh to full membership among the tribes (Gen 48:5). This gave Joseph the double portion that traditionally belonged to the firstborn (Deut 21:15-17). As Jacob foresaw, Judah surpassed his brothers and became the forefather of the ruling tribe (Gen 49:8-10). However, Reuben is still listed first (1 Chr 2:1).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:1-2 Although Reuben was the oldest son of Israel, he did not receive his birthright because he had sexual relations with his father’s concubine (Gen 35:22). Jacob transferred this right to Joseph when he elevated Ephraim and Manasseh to full membership among the tribes (Gen 48:5). This gave Joseph the double portion that traditionally belonged to the firstborn (Deut 21:15-17). As Jacob foresaw, Judah surpassed his brothers and became the forefather of the ruling tribe (Gen 49:8-10). However...","summary_en":"5:1-2 Although Reuben was the oldest son of Israel, he did not receive his birthright because he had sexual relations with his father’s concubine (Gen 35:22). Jacob transferred this right to Joseph when he elevated Ephraim and Manasseh to full membership among the tribes (Gen 48:5). This gave Joseph the double portion that traditionally belonged to the firstborn (Deut 21:15-17). As Jacob foresaw, Judah surpassed his brothers and became the forefather of the ruling tribe (Gen 49:8-10). However...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":130452,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Cronici 5:1","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Cronici 5:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:1-24<\/strong> Chapter 5 records the genealogies for <em>Reuben<\/em> (5:1-10; cp. Gen 46:9), <em>Gad<\/em> (1 Chr 5:11-17), and <em>Manasseh<\/em> (5:23-24), the tribes of Israel that settled in Transjordan (the area east of the Jordan River).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:1-24<\/strong> Chapter 5 records the genealogies for <em>Reuben<\/em> (5:1-10; cp. Gen 46:9), <em>Gad<\/em> (1 Chr 5:11-17), and <em>Manasseh<\/em> (5:23-24), the tribes of Israel that settled in Transjordan (the area east of the Jordan River).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:1-24 Chapter 5 records the genealogies for Reuben (5:1-10; cp. Gen 46:9), Gad (1 Chr 5:11-17), and Manasseh (5:23-24), the tribes of Israel that settled in Transjordan (the area east of the Jordan River).","summary_en":"5:1-24 Chapter 5 records the genealogies for Reuben (5:1-10; cp. Gen 46:9), Gad (1 Chr 5:11-17), and Manasseh (5:23-24), the tribes of Israel that settled in Transjordan (the area east of the Jordan River).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":130453,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Cronici 5:1","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Cronici 5:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:1-2<\/strong> Although <em>Reuben<\/em> was the <em>oldest son of Israel,<\/em> he did not receive <em>his birthright<\/em> because he had sexual relations with his father’s concubine (Gen 35:22). Jacob transferred this right to Joseph when he elevated Ephraim and Manasseh to full membership among the tribes (Gen 48:5). This gave Joseph the double portion that traditionally belonged to the firstborn (Deut 21:15-17). As Jacob foresaw, Judah surpassed his brothers and became the forefather of the ruling tribe (Gen 49:8-10). However, Reuben is still listed first (1 Chr 2:1).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:1-2<\/strong> Although <em>Reuben<\/em> was the <em>oldest son of Israel,<\/em> he did not receive <em>his birthright<\/em> because he had sexual relations with his father’s concubine (Gen 35:22). Jacob transferred this right to Joseph when he elevated Ephraim and Manasseh to full membership among the tribes (Gen 48:5). This gave Joseph the double portion that traditionally belonged to the firstborn (Deut 21:15-17). As Jacob foresaw, Judah surpassed his brothers and became the forefather of the ruling tribe (Gen 49:8-10). However, Reuben is still listed first (1 Chr 2:1).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:1-2 Although Reuben was the oldest son of Israel, he did not receive his birthright because he had sexual relations with his father’s concubine (Gen 35:22). Jacob transferred this right to Joseph when he elevated Ephraim and Manasseh to full membership among the tribes (Gen 48:5). This gave Joseph the double portion that traditionally belonged to the firstborn (Deut 21:15-17). As Jacob foresaw, Judah surpassed his brothers and became the forefather of the ruling tribe (Gen 49:8-10). However...","summary_en":"5:1-2 Although Reuben was the oldest son of Israel, he did not receive his birthright because he had sexual relations with his father’s concubine (Gen 35:22). Jacob transferred this right to Joseph when he elevated Ephraim and Manasseh to full membership among the tribes (Gen 48:5). This gave Joseph the double portion that traditionally belonged to the firstborn (Deut 21:15-17). As Jacob foresaw, Judah surpassed his brothers and became the forefather of the ruling tribe (Gen 49:8-10). However...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":61883,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Promise of Dynasty","title_en":"The Promise of Dynasty","content_ro":"<h3>The Promise of Dynasty<\/h3>\n<p>God promised David that his dynasty would last forever (2 Sam 7:11-16 <em>\/\/<\/em> 1 Chr 17:9-14). Yet the Chronicler lived at a time when David’s dynasty had apparently ended. Although David’s line of descent continued (see 1 Chr 3:1-24), no descendant of David had been king since the exile of Judah to Babylon over 150 years earlier. As a result, Israel’s hope for the future was in question. The Chronicler wanted to show that God’s promise to David was unconditional and that his throne was indeed “secure forever.” Even the possibility of exile does not remove the hope of God’s promise of a dynasty. The promise would continue for a future time because a future descendant of David would inherit the throne (17:11).<\/p>\n<p>The Chronicler’s hope was not directly “messianic” in the strict sense—he was not primarily focused on the arising of an anointed deliverer. His continuing hope was that the covenant community would again be led by kings descended from David. The Chronicler encouraged the community to look to the future for a new king to improve Israel’s condition.<\/p>\n<p>With the birth of Jesus, the Son of David, the Chronicler’s hope for the community of Israel was finally realized. Jesus is the fulfillment of the Chronicler’s expectation of a new king (see Matt 1:1-17). His Kingdom is for all the nations (Isa 49:6), stretching “from sea to sea and from the Euphrates River to the ends of the earth” (Zech 9:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 49:8-12; 1 Chr 5:1-2; 17:1-15; 22:6-13; 28:4-7; Pss 78:67-72; 132:11-12; Amos 9:11-12; Matt 1:1-17; 22:41-46<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Promise of Dynasty<\/h3>\n<p>God promised David that his dynasty would last forever (2 Sam 7:11-16 <em>\/\/<\/em> 1 Chr 17:9-14). Yet the Chronicler lived at a time when David’s dynasty had apparently ended. Although David’s line of descent continued (see 1 Chr 3:1-24), no descendant of David had been king since the exile of Judah to Babylon over 150 years earlier. As a result, Israel’s hope for the future was in question. The Chronicler wanted to show that God’s promise to David was unconditional and that his throne was indeed “secure forever.” Even the possibility of exile does not remove the hope of God’s promise of a dynasty. The promise would continue for a future time because a future descendant of David would inherit the throne (17:11).<\/p>\n<p>The Chronicler’s hope was not directly “messianic” in the strict sense—he was not primarily focused on the arising of an anointed deliverer. His continuing hope was that the covenant community would again be led by kings descended from David. The Chronicler encouraged the community to look to the future for a new king to improve Israel’s condition.<\/p>\n<p>With the birth of Jesus, the Son of David, the Chronicler’s hope for the community of Israel was finally realized. Jesus is the fulfillment of the Chronicler’s expectation of a new king (see Matt 1:1-17). His Kingdom is for all the nations (Isa 49:6), stretching “from sea to sea and from the Euphrates River to the ends of the earth” (Zech 9:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 49:8-12; 1 Chr 5:1-2; 17:1-15; 22:6-13; 28:4-7; Pss 78:67-72; 132:11-12; Amos 9:11-12; Matt 1:1-17; 22:41-46<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Promise of Dynasty God promised David that his dynasty would last forever (2 Sam 7:11-16 \/\/ 1 Chr 17:9-14). Yet the Chronicler lived at a time when David’s dynasty had apparently ended. Although David’s line of descent continued (see 1 Chr 3:1-24), no descendant of David had been king since the exile of Judah to Babylon over 150 years earlier. As a result, Israel’s hope for the future was in question. The Chronicler wanted to show that God’s promise to David was unconditional and that his...","summary_en":"The Promise of Dynasty God promised David that his dynasty would last forever (2 Sam 7:11-16 \/\/ 1 Chr 17:9-14). Yet the Chronicler lived at a time when David’s dynasty had apparently ended. Although David’s line of descent continued (see 1 Chr 3:1-24), no descendant of David had been king since the exile of Judah to Babylon over 150 years earlier. As a result, Israel’s hope for the future was in question. The Chronicler wanted to show that God’s promise to David was unconditional and that his...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89509,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Promise of Dynasty","title_en":"The Promise of Dynasty","content_ro":"<h3>The Promise of Dynasty<\/h3>\n<p>God promised David that his dynasty would last forever (2 Sam 7:11-16 <em>\/\/<\/em> 1 Chr 17:9-14). Yet the Chronicler lived at a time when David’s dynasty had apparently ended. Although David’s line of descent continued (see 1 Chr 3:1-24), no descendant of David had been king since the exile of Judah to Babylon over 150 years earlier. As a result, Israel’s hope for the future was in question. The Chronicler wanted to show that God’s promise to David was unconditional and that his throne was indeed “secure forever.” Even the possibility of exile does not remove the hope of God’s promise of a dynasty. The promise would continue for a future time because a future descendant of David would inherit the throne (17:11).<\/p>\n<p>The Chronicler’s hope was not directly “messianic” in the strict sense—he was not primarily focused on the arising of an anointed deliverer. His continuing hope was that the covenant community would again be led by kings descended from David. The Chronicler encouraged the community to look to the future for a new king to improve Israel’s condition.<\/p>\n<p>With the birth of Jesus, the Son of David, the Chronicler’s hope for the community of Israel was finally realized. Jesus is the fulfillment of the Chronicler’s expectation of a new king (see Matt 1:1-17). His Kingdom is for all the nations (Isa 49:6), stretching “from sea to sea and from the Euphrates River to the ends of the earth” (Zech 9:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 49:8-12; 1 Chr 5:1-2; 17:1-15; 22:6-13; 28:4-7; Pss 78:67-72; 132:11-12; Amos 9:11-12; Matt 1:1-17; 22:41-46<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Promise of Dynasty<\/h3>\n<p>God promised David that his dynasty would last forever (2 Sam 7:11-16 <em>\/\/<\/em> 1 Chr 17:9-14). Yet the Chronicler lived at a time when David’s dynasty had apparently ended. Although David’s line of descent continued (see 1 Chr 3:1-24), no descendant of David had been king since the exile of Judah to Babylon over 150 years earlier. As a result, Israel’s hope for the future was in question. The Chronicler wanted to show that God’s promise to David was unconditional and that his throne was indeed “secure forever.” Even the possibility of exile does not remove the hope of God’s promise of a dynasty. The promise would continue for a future time because a future descendant of David would inherit the throne (17:11).<\/p>\n<p>The Chronicler’s hope was not directly “messianic” in the strict sense—he was not primarily focused on the arising of an anointed deliverer. His continuing hope was that the covenant community would again be led by kings descended from David. The Chronicler encouraged the community to look to the future for a new king to improve Israel’s condition.<\/p>\n<p>With the birth of Jesus, the Son of David, the Chronicler’s hope for the community of Israel was finally realized. Jesus is the fulfillment of the Chronicler’s expectation of a new king (see Matt 1:1-17). His Kingdom is for all the nations (Isa 49:6), stretching “from sea to sea and from the Euphrates River to the ends of the earth” (Zech 9:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 49:8-12; 1 Chr 5:1-2; 17:1-15; 22:6-13; 28:4-7; Pss 78:67-72; 132:11-12; Amos 9:11-12; Matt 1:1-17; 22:41-46<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Promise of Dynasty God promised David that his dynasty would last forever (2 Sam 7:11-16 \/\/ 1 Chr 17:9-14). Yet the Chronicler lived at a time when David’s dynasty had apparently ended. Although David’s line of descent continued (see 1 Chr 3:1-24), no descendant of David had been king since the exile of Judah to Babylon over 150 years earlier. As a result, Israel’s hope for the future was in question. The Chronicler wanted to show that God’s promise to David was unconditional and that his...","summary_en":"The Promise of Dynasty God promised David that his dynasty would last forever (2 Sam 7:11-16 \/\/ 1 Chr 17:9-14). Yet the Chronicler lived at a time when David’s dynasty had apparently ended. Although David’s line of descent continued (see 1 Chr 3:1-24), no descendant of David had been king since the exile of Judah to Babylon over 150 years earlier. As a result, Israel’s hope for the future was in question. The Chronicler wanted to show that God’s promise to David was unconditional and that his...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117135,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Promise of Dynasty","title_en":"The Promise of Dynasty","content_ro":"<h3>The Promise of Dynasty<\/h3>\n<p>God promised David that his dynasty would last forever (2 Sam 7:11-16 <em>\/\/<\/em> 1 Chr 17:9-14). Yet the Chronicler lived at a time when David’s dynasty had apparently ended. Although David’s line of descent continued (see 1 Chr 3:1-24), no descendant of David had been king since the exile of Judah to Babylon over 150 years earlier. As a result, Israel’s hope for the future was in question. The Chronicler wanted to show that God’s promise to David was unconditional and that his throne was indeed “secure forever.” Even the possibility of exile does not remove the hope of God’s promise of a dynasty. The promise would continue for a future time because a future descendant of David would inherit the throne (17:11).<\/p>\n<p>The Chronicler’s hope was not directly “messianic” in the strict sense—he was not primarily focused on the arising of an anointed deliverer. His continuing hope was that the covenant community would again be led by kings descended from David. The Chronicler encouraged the community to look to the future for a new king to improve Israel’s condition.<\/p>\n<p>With the birth of Jesus, the Son of David, the Chronicler’s hope for the community of Israel was finally realized. Jesus is the fulfillment of the Chronicler’s expectation of a new king (see Matt 1:1-17). His Kingdom is for all the nations (Isa 49:6), stretching “from sea to sea and from the Euphrates River to the ends of the earth” (Zech 9:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 49:8-12; 1 Chr 5:1-2; 17:1-15; 22:6-13; 28:4-7; Pss 78:67-72; 132:11-12; Amos 9:11-12; Matt 1:1-17; 22:41-46<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Promise of Dynasty<\/h3>\n<p>God promised David that his dynasty would last forever (2 Sam 7:11-16 <em>\/\/<\/em> 1 Chr 17:9-14). Yet the Chronicler lived at a time when David’s dynasty had apparently ended. Although David’s line of descent continued (see 1 Chr 3:1-24), no descendant of David had been king since the exile of Judah to Babylon over 150 years earlier. As a result, Israel’s hope for the future was in question. The Chronicler wanted to show that God’s promise to David was unconditional and that his throne was indeed “secure forever.” Even the possibility of exile does not remove the hope of God’s promise of a dynasty. The promise would continue for a future time because a future descendant of David would inherit the throne (17:11).<\/p>\n<p>The Chronicler’s hope was not directly “messianic” in the strict sense—he was not primarily focused on the arising of an anointed deliverer. His continuing hope was that the covenant community would again be led by kings descended from David. The Chronicler encouraged the community to look to the future for a new king to improve Israel’s condition.<\/p>\n<p>With the birth of Jesus, the Son of David, the Chronicler’s hope for the community of Israel was finally realized. Jesus is the fulfillment of the Chronicler’s expectation of a new king (see Matt 1:1-17). His Kingdom is for all the nations (Isa 49:6), stretching “from sea to sea and from the Euphrates River to the ends of the earth” (Zech 9:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 49:8-12; 1 Chr 5:1-2; 17:1-15; 22:6-13; 28:4-7; Pss 78:67-72; 132:11-12; Amos 9:11-12; Matt 1:1-17; 22:41-46<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Promise of Dynasty God promised David that his dynasty would last forever (2 Sam 7:11-16 \/\/ 1 Chr 17:9-14). Yet the Chronicler lived at a time when David’s dynasty had apparently ended. Although David’s line of descent continued (see 1 Chr 3:1-24), no descendant of David had been king since the exile of Judah to Babylon over 150 years earlier. As a result, Israel’s hope for the future was in question. The Chronicler wanted to show that God’s promise to David was unconditional and that his...","summary_en":"The Promise of Dynasty God promised David that his dynasty would last forever (2 Sam 7:11-16 \/\/ 1 Chr 17:9-14). Yet the Chronicler lived at a time when David’s dynasty had apparently ended. Although David’s line of descent continued (see 1 Chr 3:1-24), no descendant of David had been king since the exile of Judah to Babylon over 150 years earlier. As a result, Israel’s hope for the future was in question. The Chronicler wanted to show that God’s promise to David was unconditional and that his...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":144761,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Promise of Dynasty","title_en":"The Promise of Dynasty","content_ro":"<h3>The Promise of Dynasty<\/h3>\n<p>God promised David that his dynasty would last forever (2 Sam 7:11-16 <em>\/\/<\/em> 1 Chr 17:9-14). Yet the Chronicler lived at a time when David’s dynasty had apparently ended. Although David’s line of descent continued (see 1 Chr 3:1-24), no descendant of David had been king since the exile of Judah to Babylon over 150 years earlier. As a result, Israel’s hope for the future was in question. The Chronicler wanted to show that God’s promise to David was unconditional and that his throne was indeed “secure forever.” Even the possibility of exile does not remove the hope of God’s promise of a dynasty. The promise would continue for a future time because a future descendant of David would inherit the throne (17:11).<\/p>\n<p>The Chronicler’s hope was not directly “messianic” in the strict sense—he was not primarily focused on the arising of an anointed deliverer. His continuing hope was that the covenant community would again be led by kings descended from David. The Chronicler encouraged the community to look to the future for a new king to improve Israel’s condition.<\/p>\n<p>With the birth of Jesus, the Son of David, the Chronicler’s hope for the community of Israel was finally realized. Jesus is the fulfillment of the Chronicler’s expectation of a new king (see Matt 1:1-17). His Kingdom is for all the nations (Isa 49:6), stretching “from sea to sea and from the Euphrates River to the ends of the earth” (Zech 9:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 49:8-12; 1 Chr 5:1-2; 17:1-15; 22:6-13; 28:4-7; Pss 78:67-72; 132:11-12; Amos 9:11-12; Matt 1:1-17; 22:41-46<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Promise of Dynasty<\/h3>\n<p>God promised David that his dynasty would last forever (2 Sam 7:11-16 <em>\/\/<\/em> 1 Chr 17:9-14). Yet the Chronicler lived at a time when David’s dynasty had apparently ended. Although David’s line of descent continued (see 1 Chr 3:1-24), no descendant of David had been king since the exile of Judah to Babylon over 150 years earlier. As a result, Israel’s hope for the future was in question. The Chronicler wanted to show that God’s promise to David was unconditional and that his throne was indeed “secure forever.” Even the possibility of exile does not remove the hope of God’s promise of a dynasty. The promise would continue for a future time because a future descendant of David would inherit the throne (17:11).<\/p>\n<p>The Chronicler’s hope was not directly “messianic” in the strict sense—he was not primarily focused on the arising of an anointed deliverer. His continuing hope was that the covenant community would again be led by kings descended from David. The Chronicler encouraged the community to look to the future for a new king to improve Israel’s condition.<\/p>\n<p>With the birth of Jesus, the Son of David, the Chronicler’s hope for the community of Israel was finally realized. Jesus is the fulfillment of the Chronicler’s expectation of a new king (see Matt 1:1-17). His Kingdom is for all the nations (Isa 49:6), stretching “from sea to sea and from the Euphrates River to the ends of the earth” (Zech 9:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 49:8-12; 1 Chr 5:1-2; 17:1-15; 22:6-13; 28:4-7; Pss 78:67-72; 132:11-12; Amos 9:11-12; Matt 1:1-17; 22:41-46<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Promise of Dynasty God promised David that his dynasty would last forever (2 Sam 7:11-16 \/\/ 1 Chr 17:9-14). Yet the Chronicler lived at a time when David’s dynasty had apparently ended. Although David’s line of descent continued (see 1 Chr 3:1-24), no descendant of David had been king since the exile of Judah to Babylon over 150 years earlier. As a result, Israel’s hope for the future was in question. The Chronicler wanted to show that God’s promise to David was unconditional and that his...","summary_en":"The Promise of Dynasty God promised David that his dynasty would last forever (2 Sam 7:11-16 \/\/ 1 Chr 17:9-14). Yet the Chronicler lived at a time when David’s dynasty had apparently ended. Although David’s line of descent continued (see 1 Chr 3:1-24), no descendant of David had been king since the exile of Judah to Babylon over 150 years earlier. As a result, Israel’s hope for the future was in question. The Chronicler wanted to show that God’s promise to David was unconditional and that his...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"2":[{"id":40779,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Judah","title_en":"Judah","content_ro":"<h3>Judah<\/h3>\n<p>Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34).<\/p>\n<p>Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua, a woman from Canaan (Gen 38:1-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins, Perez and Zerah, by his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gen 38:27-30; 1 Chr 2:4). God killed his first two sons, Er and Onan, in Canaan for disobedience (Gen 46:12). Judah eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Exod 1:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gen 38:6-30), Judah took personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and interceded with Joseph for his brothers (44:14-34). When Jacob gave his dying blessing, he granted Judah a position of leadership; the future kings of Israel would come through Judah’s offspring (see 49:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:35; 37:26-27; 38:1-30; 43:1-10; 44:14-34; 46:28; 49:8-12; Ruth 4:12; 1 Chr 2:3-4; 5:2; Ps 108:8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Judah<\/h3>\n<p>Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34).<\/p>\n<p>Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua, a woman from Canaan (Gen 38:1-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins, Perez and Zerah, by his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gen 38:27-30; 1 Chr 2:4). God killed his first two sons, Er and Onan, in Canaan for disobedience (Gen 46:12). Judah eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Exod 1:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gen 38:6-30), Judah took personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and interceded with Joseph for his brothers (44:14-34). When Jacob gave his dying blessing, he granted Judah a position of leadership; the future kings of Israel would come through Judah’s offspring (see 49:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:35; 37:26-27; 38:1-30; 43:1-10; 44:14-34; 46:28; 49:8-12; Ruth 4:12; 1 Chr 2:3-4; 5:2; Ps 108:8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Judah Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34). Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shela...","summary_en":"Judah Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34). Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shela...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68405,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Judah","title_en":"Judah","content_ro":"<h3>Judah<\/h3>\n<p>Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34).<\/p>\n<p>Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua, a woman from Canaan (Gen 38:1-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins, Perez and Zerah, by his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gen 38:27-30; 1 Chr 2:4). God killed his first two sons, Er and Onan, in Canaan for disobedience (Gen 46:12). Judah eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Exod 1:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gen 38:6-30), Judah took personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and interceded with Joseph for his brothers (44:14-34). When Jacob gave his dying blessing, he granted Judah a position of leadership; the future kings of Israel would come through Judah’s offspring (see 49:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:35; 37:26-27; 38:1-30; 43:1-10; 44:14-34; 46:28; 49:8-12; Ruth 4:12; 1 Chr 2:3-4; 5:2; Ps 108:8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Judah<\/h3>\n<p>Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34).<\/p>\n<p>Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua, a woman from Canaan (Gen 38:1-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins, Perez and Zerah, by his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gen 38:27-30; 1 Chr 2:4). God killed his first two sons, Er and Onan, in Canaan for disobedience (Gen 46:12). Judah eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Exod 1:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gen 38:6-30), Judah took personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and interceded with Joseph for his brothers (44:14-34). When Jacob gave his dying blessing, he granted Judah a position of leadership; the future kings of Israel would come through Judah’s offspring (see 49:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:35; 37:26-27; 38:1-30; 43:1-10; 44:14-34; 46:28; 49:8-12; Ruth 4:12; 1 Chr 2:3-4; 5:2; Ps 108:8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Judah Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34). Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shela...","summary_en":"Judah Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34). Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shela...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96031,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Judah","title_en":"Judah","content_ro":"<h3>Judah<\/h3>\n<p>Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34).<\/p>\n<p>Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua, a woman from Canaan (Gen 38:1-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins, Perez and Zerah, by his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gen 38:27-30; 1 Chr 2:4). God killed his first two sons, Er and Onan, in Canaan for disobedience (Gen 46:12). Judah eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Exod 1:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gen 38:6-30), Judah took personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and interceded with Joseph for his brothers (44:14-34). When Jacob gave his dying blessing, he granted Judah a position of leadership; the future kings of Israel would come through Judah’s offspring (see 49:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:35; 37:26-27; 38:1-30; 43:1-10; 44:14-34; 46:28; 49:8-12; Ruth 4:12; 1 Chr 2:3-4; 5:2; Ps 108:8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Judah<\/h3>\n<p>Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34).<\/p>\n<p>Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua, a woman from Canaan (Gen 38:1-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins, Perez and Zerah, by his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gen 38:27-30; 1 Chr 2:4). God killed his first two sons, Er and Onan, in Canaan for disobedience (Gen 46:12). Judah eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Exod 1:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gen 38:6-30), Judah took personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and interceded with Joseph for his brothers (44:14-34). When Jacob gave his dying blessing, he granted Judah a position of leadership; the future kings of Israel would come through Judah’s offspring (see 49:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:35; 37:26-27; 38:1-30; 43:1-10; 44:14-34; 46:28; 49:8-12; Ruth 4:12; 1 Chr 2:3-4; 5:2; Ps 108:8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Judah Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34). Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shela...","summary_en":"Judah Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34). Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shela...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123657,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Judah","title_en":"Judah","content_ro":"<h3>Judah<\/h3>\n<p>Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34).<\/p>\n<p>Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua, a woman from Canaan (Gen 38:1-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins, Perez and Zerah, by his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gen 38:27-30; 1 Chr 2:4). God killed his first two sons, Er and Onan, in Canaan for disobedience (Gen 46:12). Judah eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Exod 1:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gen 38:6-30), Judah took personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and interceded with Joseph for his brothers (44:14-34). When Jacob gave his dying blessing, he granted Judah a position of leadership; the future kings of Israel would come through Judah’s offspring (see 49:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:35; 37:26-27; 38:1-30; 43:1-10; 44:14-34; 46:28; 49:8-12; Ruth 4:12; 1 Chr 2:3-4; 5:2; Ps 108:8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Judah<\/h3>\n<p>Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34).<\/p>\n<p>Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shelah by Bathshua, a woman from Canaan (Gen 38:1-5; 1 Chr 2:3); and the twins, Perez and Zerah, by his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gen 38:27-30; 1 Chr 2:4). God killed his first two sons, Er and Onan, in Canaan for disobedience (Gen 46:12). Judah eventually settled his family in Egypt with his father and brothers (Exod 1:1-2).<\/p>\n<p>Though reckless in his behavior with Tamar (Gen 38:6-30), Judah took personal responsibility for Benjamin’s safety in Egypt and interceded with Joseph for his brothers (44:14-34). When Jacob gave his dying blessing, he granted Judah a position of leadership; the future kings of Israel would come through Judah’s offspring (see 49:10).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 29:35; 37:26-27; 38:1-30; 43:1-10; 44:14-34; 46:28; 49:8-12; Ruth 4:12; 1 Chr 2:3-4; 5:2; Ps 108:8<\/p>","summary_ro":"Judah Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34). Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shela...","summary_en":"Judah Judah is remembered most often as the ancestor of King David and of Jesus Christ. Despite his birth as a middle child and his sins as an adult (Gen 38), God chose Judah to carry the line of King David (1 Chr 2:1-17; 3:1-24) and of the Messiah (Gen 49:8-12; Matt 1:1-16; Luke 3:23-34). Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s twelve sons (Gen 35:23; 1 Chr 2:1). Leah, overjoyed to have borne her fourth son, named him Judah, meaning “praise” (Gen 29:35). Judah fathered five sons: Er, Onan, and Shela...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"3":[{"id":6099,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Carmi","title_en":"Carmi","content_ro":"<h3>CARMI<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of Reuben’s sons; he accompanied his grandfather Jacob into Egypt (Gn 46:9; Ex 6:14; 1 Chr 5:3) and founded the family of Carmites (Nm 26:5-7).<\/li>\n<li>2. Achan’s father and a member of Judah’s tribe (Jos 7:1, 18; 1 Chr 2:7; 4:1).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>CARMI<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of Reuben’s sons; he accompanied his grandfather Jacob into Egypt (Gn 46:9; Ex 6:14; 1 Chr 5:3) and founded the family of Carmites (Nm 26:5-7).<\/li>\n<li>2. Achan’s father and a member of Judah’s tribe (Jos 7:1, 18; 1 Chr 2:7; 4:1).<\/li>","summary_ro":"CARMI 1. One of Reuben’s sons; he accompanied his grandfather Jacob into Egypt (Gn 46:9; Ex 6:14; 1 Chr 5:3) and founded the family of Carmites (Nm 26:5-7). 2. Achan’s father and a member of Judah’s tribe (Jos 7:1, 18; 1 Chr 2:7; 4:1).","summary_en":"CARMI 1. One of Reuben’s sons; he accompanied his grandfather Jacob into Egypt (Gn 46:9; Ex 6:14; 1 Chr 5:3) and founded the family of Carmites (Nm 26:5-7). 2. Achan’s father and a member of Judah’s tribe (Jos 7:1, 18; 1 Chr 2:7; 4:1).","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":15301,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hanoch","title_en":"Hanoch","content_ro":"<h3>HANOCH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Midian’s third son, and grandson of Abraham by Keturah (Gn 25:4; 1 Chr 1:33).<\/li>\n<li>2. Reuben’s first son (Gn 46:9; Ex 6:14; 1 Chr 5:3) and ancestor of the Hanochites (Nm 26:5).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>HANOCH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Midian’s third son, and grandson of Abraham by Keturah (Gn 25:4; 1 Chr 1:33).<\/li>\n<li>2. Reuben’s first son (Gn 46:9; Ex 6:14; 1 Chr 5:3) and ancestor of the Hanochites (Nm 26:5).<\/li>","summary_ro":"HANOCH 1. Midian’s third son, and grandson of Abraham by Keturah (Gn 25:4; 1 Chr 1:33). 2. Reuben’s first son (Gn 46:9; Ex 6:14; 1 Chr 5:3) and ancestor of the Hanochites (Nm 26:5).","summary_en":"HANOCH 1. Midian’s third son, and grandson of Abraham by Keturah (Gn 25:4; 1 Chr 1:33). 2. Reuben’s first son (Gn 46:9; Ex 6:14; 1 Chr 5:3) and ancestor of the Hanochites (Nm 26:5).","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":16362,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hezron (Person)","title_en":"Hezron (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>HEZRON (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Reuben’s son (Gn 46:9; Ex 6:14; 1 Chr 5:3) and founder of the Hezronite family in Reuben’s tribe (Nm 26:6).<\/li>\n<li>2. Perez’s son (Gn 46:12; Ru 4:18-19; 1 Chr 2:5-25; 4:1), founder of the Hezronite family in Judah’s tribe (Nm 26:21), and an ancestor of Jesus Christ (Mt 1:3; Lk 3:33).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HEZRON (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Reuben’s son (Gn 46:9; Ex 6:14; 1 Chr 5:3) and founder of the Hezronite family in Reuben’s tribe (Nm 26:6).<\/li>\n<li>2. Perez’s son (Gn 46:12; Ru 4:18-19; 1 Chr 2:5-25; 4:1), founder of the Hezronite family in Judah’s tribe (Nm 26:21), and an ancestor of Jesus Christ (Mt 1:3; Lk 3:33).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Genealogy of Jesus Christ.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HEZRON (Person) 1. Reuben’s son (Gn 46:9; Ex 6:14; 1 Chr 5:3) and founder of the Hezronite family in Reuben’s tribe (Nm 26:6). 2. Perez’s son (Gn 46:12; Ru 4:18-19; 1 Chr 2:5-25; 4:1), founder of the Hezronite family in Judah’s tribe (Nm 26:21), and an ancestor of Jesus Christ (Mt 1:3; Lk 3:33). See also Genealogy of Jesus Christ.","summary_en":"HEZRON (Person) 1. Reuben’s son (Gn 46:9; Ex 6:14; 1 Chr 5:3) and founder of the Hezronite family in Reuben’s tribe (Nm 26:6). 2. Perez’s son (Gn 46:12; Ru 4:18-19; 1 Chr 2:5-25; 4:1), founder of the Hezronite family in Judah’s tribe (Nm 26:21), and an ancestor of Jesus Christ (Mt 1:3; Lk 3:33). See also Genealogy of Jesus Christ.","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":28800,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Palluite Pallu","title_en":"Palluite Pallu","content_ro":"<h3>PALLU, PALLUITE<\/h3>\n<p>Reuben’s son, father of Eliab (Gn 46:9; Ex 6:14; Nm 26:8; 1 Chr 5:3) and the founder of the Palluite family (Nm 26:5).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PALLU, PALLUITE<\/h3>\n<p>Reuben’s son, father of Eliab (Gn 46:9; Ex 6:14; Nm 26:8; 1 Chr 5:3) and the founder of the Palluite family (Nm 26:5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"PALLU, PALLUITE Reuben’s son, father of Eliab (Gn 46:9; Ex 6:14; Nm 26:8; 1 Chr 5:3) and the founder of the Palluite family (Nm 26:5).","summary_en":"PALLU, PALLUITE Reuben’s son, father of Eliab (Gn 46:9; Ex 6:14; Nm 26:8; 1 Chr 5:3) and the founder of the Palluite family (Nm 26:5).","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32863,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Reuben (Person)","title_en":"Reuben (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>REUBEN (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Eldest son of Jacob and Leah (Gn 29:32; 46:8) and forefather of one of the 12 tribes of Israel. Reuben was involved in the mandrake incident (30:14) and had sexual relations with Bilhah, his father’s concubine (35:22). But he emerges into full adulthood as one of the more honorable of Jacob’s sons. Reuben objected to the plot to kill Joseph and planned to rescue him from the pit (37:22-35). He moralized about the brothers’ imprisonment in Egypt (42:22) and guaranteed the safety of Benjamin at immense risk to his own family. Yet at Jacob’s pronouncement of blessing, Reuben is declared unstable and his birthright forfeited (49:3-4). He fathered four sons (1 Chr 5:3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Reuben (Place); Reuben, Tribe of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>REUBEN (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Eldest son of Jacob and Leah (Gn 29:32; 46:8) and forefather of one of the 12 tribes of Israel. Reuben was involved in the mandrake incident (30:14) and had sexual relations with Bilhah, his father’s concubine (35:22). But he emerges into full adulthood as one of the more honorable of Jacob’s sons. Reuben objected to the plot to kill Joseph and planned to rescue him from the pit (37:22-35). He moralized about the brothers’ imprisonment in Egypt (42:22) and guaranteed the safety of Benjamin at immense risk to his own family. Yet at Jacob’s pronouncement of blessing, Reuben is declared unstable and his birthright forfeited (49:3-4). He fathered four sons (1 Chr 5:3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Reuben (Place); Reuben, Tribe of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"REUBEN (Person) Eldest son of Jacob and Leah (Gn 29:32; 46:8) and forefather of one of the 12 tribes of Israel. Reuben was involved in the mandrake incident (30:14) and had sexual relations with Bilhah, his father’s concubine (35:22). But he emerges into full adulthood as one of the more honorable of Jacob’s sons. Reuben objected to the plot to kill Joseph and planned to rescue him from the pit (37:22-35). He moralized about the brothers’ imprisonment in Egypt (42:22) and guaranteed the safet...","summary_en":"REUBEN (Person) Eldest son of Jacob and Leah (Gn 29:32; 46:8) and forefather of one of the 12 tribes of Israel. Reuben was involved in the mandrake incident (30:14) and had sexual relations with Bilhah, his father’s concubine (35:22). But he emerges into full adulthood as one of the more honorable of Jacob’s sons. Reuben objected to the plot to kill Joseph and planned to rescue him from the pit (37:22-35). He moralized about the brothers’ imprisonment in Egypt (42:22) and guaranteed the safet...","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":47576,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Cronici 5:3","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Cronici 5:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:3<\/strong> <em>The sons of Reuben<\/em> are also listed in Gen 46:9; Exod 6:14; Num 26:5-6.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:3<\/strong> <em>The sons of Reuben<\/em> are also listed in Gen 46:9; Exod 6:14; Num 26:5-6.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:3 The sons of Reuben are also listed in Gen 46:9; Exod 6:14; Num 26:5-6.","summary_en":"5:3 The sons of Reuben are also listed in Gen 46:9; Exod 6:14; Num 26:5-6.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75202,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Cronici 5:3","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Cronici 5:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:3<\/strong> <em>The sons of Reuben<\/em> are also listed in Gen 46:9; Exod 6:14; Num 26:5-6.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:3<\/strong> <em>The sons of Reuben<\/em> are also listed in Gen 46:9; Exod 6:14; Num 26:5-6.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:3 The sons of Reuben are also listed in Gen 46:9; Exod 6:14; Num 26:5-6.","summary_en":"5:3 The sons of Reuben are also listed in Gen 46:9; Exod 6:14; Num 26:5-6.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":102828,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Cronici 5:3","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Cronici 5:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:3<\/strong> <em>The sons of Reuben<\/em> are also listed in Gen 46:9; Exod 6:14; Num 26:5-6.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:3<\/strong> <em>The sons of Reuben<\/em> are also listed in Gen 46:9; Exod 6:14; Num 26:5-6.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:3 The sons of Reuben are also listed in Gen 46:9; Exod 6:14; Num 26:5-6.","summary_en":"5:3 The sons of Reuben are also listed in Gen 46:9; Exod 6:14; Num 26:5-6.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":130454,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Cronici 5:3","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Cronici 5:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:3<\/strong> <em>The sons of Reuben<\/em> are also listed in Gen 46:9; Exod 6:14; Num 26:5-6.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:3<\/strong> <em>The sons of Reuben<\/em> are also listed in Gen 46:9; Exod 6:14; Num 26:5-6.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:3 The sons of Reuben are also listed in Gen 46:9; Exod 6:14; Num 26:5-6.","summary_en":"5:3 The sons of Reuben are also listed in Gen 46:9; Exod 6:14; Num 26:5-6.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"4":[{"id":14433,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gog","title_en":"Gog","content_ro":"<h3>GOG<\/h3>\n<li>1. Reubenite, Shemaiah’s son (1 Chr 5:4).<\/li>\n<li>2. Individual described as the prince of Meshech who ruled over the land of Magog (Ez 38:2-21; 39:1-16). Magog was evidently a territory located far from Palestine whose inhabitants would attack Jerusalem in a final attempt to overthrow God’s people. The Lord, through Ezekiel, promised Gog a catastrophic defeat.<\/li>\n<p>Attempts to identify Gog with some historical ruler have not been convincing. Gyges of Lydia, who drove out Cimmerian invaders, has been suggested, but equally probable are Gaga, mentioned in the Amarna tablets, and Gagi, king of the city-state of Sabi. Some have maintained a mythological interpretation, in which Gog is a symbol of evil actively opposing good. Certainly Gog—connected in Scripture with godless nations such as Gomer, Put, Persia, Sheba, and Tarshish—is depicted as leading an alliance of world powers in opposition to God. Gog also appears in Revelation (20:7-9), where Satan mobilizes Gog and Magog (i.e., the nations of the world) against God’s saints in a final battle. A literal view contemplates an attack on Jerusalem by hostile forces (cf. Zec 14), while a symbolic interpretation envisions a climactic conflict between good and evil.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GOG<\/h3>\n<li>1. Reubenite, Shemaiah’s son (1 Chr 5:4).<\/li>\n<li>2. Individual described as the prince of Meshech who ruled over the land of Magog (Ez 38:2-21; 39:1-16). Magog was evidently a territory located far from Palestine whose inhabitants would attack Jerusalem in a final attempt to overthrow God’s people. The Lord, through Ezekiel, promised Gog a catastrophic defeat.<\/li>\n<p>Attempts to identify Gog with some historical ruler have not been convincing. Gyges of Lydia, who drove out Cimmerian invaders, has been suggested, but equally probable are Gaga, mentioned in the Amarna tablets, and Gagi, king of the city-state of Sabi. Some have maintained a mythological interpretation, in which Gog is a symbol of evil actively opposing good. Certainly Gog—connected in Scripture with godless nations such as Gomer, Put, Persia, Sheba, and Tarshish—is depicted as leading an alliance of world powers in opposition to God. Gog also appears in Revelation (20:7-9), where Satan mobilizes Gog and Magog (i.e., the nations of the world) against God’s saints in a final battle. A literal view contemplates an attack on Jerusalem by hostile forces (cf. Zec 14), while a symbolic interpretation envisions a climactic conflict between good and evil.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GOG 1. Reubenite, Shemaiah’s son (1 Chr 5:4). 2. Individual described as the prince of Meshech who ruled over the land of Magog (Ez 38:2-21; 39:1-16). Magog was evidently a territory located far from Palestine whose inhabitants would attack Jerusalem in a final attempt to overthrow God’s people. The Lord, through Ezekiel, promised Gog a catastrophic defeat. Attempts to identify Gog with some historical ruler have not been convincing. Gyges of Lydia, who drove out Cimmerian invaders, has been ...","summary_en":"GOG 1. Reubenite, Shemaiah’s son (1 Chr 5:4). 2. Individual described as the prince of Meshech who ruled over the land of Magog (Ez 38:2-21; 39:1-16). Magog was evidently a territory located far from Palestine whose inhabitants would attack Jerusalem in a final attempt to overthrow God’s people. The Lord, through Ezekiel, promised Gog a catastrophic defeat. Attempts to identify Gog with some historical ruler have not been convincing. Gyges of Lydia, who drove out Cimmerian invaders, has been ...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":20036,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Joel (Person)","title_en":"Joel (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>JOEL (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li> 1. Levite from the family of Kohath. He was Azariah’s son and an ancestor of Elkanah, the father of Samuel the prophet (1 Sm 1:1; 1 Chr 6:36).<\/li>\n<li> 2. Oldest son of Samuel the prophet. He and his brother Abijah so corrupted the office of judge that the elders increased their demands for a king (1 Sm 8:2-5). He was the father of Heman the singer (1 Chr 6:33; 15:17). His name has been mistakenly translated “Vashni” in the <span>kjv<\/span> in 1 Chronicles 6:28.<\/li>\n<li> 3. Prince from one of the Simeonite families that emigrated to the valley of Gedor (1 Chr 4:35).<\/li>\n<li> 4. Member of Reuben’s tribe (1 Chr 5:4, 8).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Chief of Gad’s tribe residing in Bashan (1 Chr 5:12).<\/li>\n<li> 6. Third of Izrahiah’s four named sons and a chief of Issachar’s tribe in David’s time (1 Chr 7:3).<\/li>\n<li> 7. Nathan’s brother and one of David’s mighty men (1 Chr 11:38). He is alternately called Igal the son of Nathan in 2 Samuel 23:36. <em>See<\/em> Igal #2.<\/li>\n<li> 8. Levite from the family of Gershon who participated in the royal procession that brought the ark of God to Jerusalem during David’s reign (1 Chr 15:7-11). He may have administered the treasuries of the temple in Jerusalem (1 Chr 26:22).<\/li>\n<li> 9. Pedaiah’s son, who acted as tribal chieftain over the west half of Manasseh’s tribe during David’s reign (1 Chr 27:20)<\/li>\n<li>10. Levite from the family of Kohath who assisted in King Hezekiah’s reform of the temple in Jerusalem (2 Chr 29:12).<\/li>\n<li>11. Nebo’s son, who was encouraged by Ezra to divorce his foreign wife during the postexilic period (Ezr 10:43).<\/li>\n<li>12. Zicri’s son and the supervisor of 128 Benjaminites who moved to postexilic Jerusalem (Neh 11:9).<\/li>\n<li>13. Prophet who wrote the second book of the Minor Prophets. Little is known about him except that he was Pethuel’s son (Jl 1:1; Acts 2:16). <em>See<\/em> Joel, Book of.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JOEL (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li> 1. Levite from the family of Kohath. He was Azariah’s son and an ancestor of Elkanah, the father of Samuel the prophet (1 Sm 1:1; 1 Chr 6:36).<\/li>\n<li> 2. Oldest son of Samuel the prophet. He and his brother Abijah so corrupted the office of judge that the elders increased their demands for a king (1 Sm 8:2-5). He was the father of Heman the singer (1 Chr 6:33; 15:17). His name has been mistakenly translated “Vashni” in the <span>kjv<\/span> in 1 Chronicles 6:28.<\/li>\n<li> 3. Prince from one of the Simeonite families that emigrated to the valley of Gedor (1 Chr 4:35).<\/li>\n<li> 4. Member of Reuben’s tribe (1 Chr 5:4, 8).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Chief of Gad’s tribe residing in Bashan (1 Chr 5:12).<\/li>\n<li> 6. Third of Izrahiah’s four named sons and a chief of Issachar’s tribe in David’s time (1 Chr 7:3).<\/li>\n<li> 7. Nathan’s brother and one of David’s mighty men (1 Chr 11:38). He is alternately called Igal the son of Nathan in 2 Samuel 23:36. <em>See<\/em> Igal #2.<\/li>\n<li> 8. Levite from the family of Gershon who participated in the royal procession that brought the ark of God to Jerusalem during David’s reign (1 Chr 15:7-11). He may have administered the treasuries of the temple in Jerusalem (1 Chr 26:22).<\/li>\n<li> 9. Pedaiah’s son, who acted as tribal chieftain over the west half of Manasseh’s tribe during David’s reign (1 Chr 27:20)<\/li>\n<li>10. Levite from the family of Kohath who assisted in King Hezekiah’s reform of the temple in Jerusalem (2 Chr 29:12).<\/li>\n<li>11. Nebo’s son, who was encouraged by Ezra to divorce his foreign wife during the postexilic period (Ezr 10:43).<\/li>\n<li>12. Zicri’s son and the supervisor of 128 Benjaminites who moved to postexilic Jerusalem (Neh 11:9).<\/li>\n<li>13. Prophet who wrote the second book of the Minor Prophets. Little is known about him except that he was Pethuel’s son (Jl 1:1; Acts 2:16). <em>See<\/em> Joel, Book of.<\/li>","summary_ro":"JOEL (Person) 1. Levite from the family of Kohath. He was Azariah’s son and an ancestor of Elkanah, the father of Samuel the prophet (1 Sm 1:1; 1 Chr 6:36). 2. Oldest son of Samuel the prophet. He and his brother Abijah so corrupted the office of judge that the elders increased their demands for a king (1 Sm 8:2-5). He was the father of Heman the singer (1 Chr 6:33; 15:17). His name has been mistakenly translated “Vashni” in the kjv in 1 Chronicles 6:28. 3. Prince from one of the Simeonite fa...","summary_en":"JOEL (Person) 1. Levite from the family of Kohath. He was Azariah’s son and an ancestor of Elkanah, the father of Samuel the prophet (1 Sm 1:1; 1 Chr 6:36). 2. Oldest son of Samuel the prophet. He and his brother Abijah so corrupted the office of judge that the elders increased their demands for a king (1 Sm 8:2-5). He was the father of Heman the singer (1 Chr 6:33; 15:17). His name has been mistakenly translated “Vashni” in the kjv in 1 Chronicles 6:28. 3. Prince from one of the Simeonite fa...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34871,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Shema (Person)","title_en":"Shema (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>SHEMA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Judahite, Hebron’s son and a descendant of Caleb (1 Chr 2:43-44).<\/li>\n<li>2. Reubenite and Joel’s son (1 Chr 5:8). He is perhaps identifiable with Shemaiah or Shimei in 1 Chronicles 5:4.<\/li>\n<li>3. Benjaminite and head of a family in Aijalon, who helped defeat the inhabitants of Gath (1 Chr 8:13).<\/li>\n<li>4. Levite who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:4).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>SHEMA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Judahite, Hebron’s son and a descendant of Caleb (1 Chr 2:43-44).<\/li>\n<li>2. Reubenite and Joel’s son (1 Chr 5:8). He is perhaps identifiable with Shemaiah or Shimei in 1 Chronicles 5:4.<\/li>\n<li>3. Benjaminite and head of a family in Aijalon, who helped defeat the inhabitants of Gath (1 Chr 8:13).<\/li>\n<li>4. Levite who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:4).<\/li>","summary_ro":"SHEMA (Person) 1. Judahite, Hebron’s son and a descendant of Caleb (1 Chr 2:43-44). 2. Reubenite and Joel’s son (1 Chr 5:8). He is perhaps identifiable with Shemaiah or Shimei in 1 Chronicles 5:4. 3. Benjaminite and head of a family in Aijalon, who helped defeat the inhabitants of Gath (1 Chr 8:13). 4. Levite who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:4).","summary_en":"SHEMA (Person) 1. Judahite, Hebron’s son and a descendant of Caleb (1 Chr 2:43-44). 2. Reubenite and Joel’s son (1 Chr 5:8). He is perhaps identifiable with Shemaiah or Shimei in 1 Chronicles 5:4. 3. Benjaminite and head of a family in Aijalon, who helped defeat the inhabitants of Gath (1 Chr 8:13). 4. Levite who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:4).","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34885,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Shemaiah","title_en":"Shemaiah","content_ro":"<h3>SHEMAIAH<\/h3>\n<li> 1. Prophet during the reign of Rehoboam, king of Judah (930–913 <span>BC<\/span>). He warned the king not to go to war against Jeroboam and the ten northern tribes of Israel (1 Kgs 12:22-24; 2 Chr 11:2-4). Five years later he spoke words of comfort to a repentant Rehoboam and people of Judah (2 Chr 12:5-7). Shemaiah chronicled the life of Rehoboam in a book that has since been lost.<\/li>\n<li> 2. Son of Shecaniah, the father of six sons and a descendant of David through Rehoboam’s line (1 Chr 3:22).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Simeonite, father of Shimri and an ancestor of Jehu (1 Chr 4:37).<\/li>\n<li> 4. Reubenite and a son of Joel (1 Chr 5:4).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Levite and the son of Hasshub, who returned to Jerusalem after the exile (1 Chr 9:14). He was made a leader in the work of the temple during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 11:15).<\/li>\n<li> 6. Son of Galal and the father of Obadiah, a Levite who returned to Jerusalem following the Babylonian captivity (1 Chr 9:16); called Shammua in Nehemiah 11:17.<\/li>\n<li> 7. Levite and the leader of his father’s house. Shemaiah was summoned by David to help carry the ark from Obed-edom’s house to Jerusalem (1 Chr 15:8-11).<\/li>\n<li> 8. Son of Nethanel and the Levitical scribe who recorded the 24 divisions of the priests during David’s reign in Israel (1000–961 <span>BC<\/span>; 1 Chr 24:6).<\/li>\n<li> 9. Oldest of Obed-edom’s eight sons and the father of sons who served as the gatekeepers of the south gate and storehouse of the sanctuary during David’s reign (1 Chr 26:4-7).<\/li>\n<li>10. One of the Levites sent by King Jehoshaphat of Judah (872–848 <span>BC<\/span>) to teach the law in the cities of Judah (2 Chr 17:8-9).<\/li>\n<li>11. Son of Jeduthun and Uzziel’s brother, who was among the Levites chosen by King Hezekiah of Judah (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>) to cleanse the house of the Lord (2 Chr 29:14-15).<\/li>\n<li>12. One of the Levites assisting Kore with the distribution of the offerings among his fellow priests living in the priestly cities of Judah during the days of King Hezekiah (2 Chr 31:15).<\/li>\n<li>13. One of the Levitical leaders who generously gave animals to the Levites for the celebration of the Passover feast during King Josiah’s reign (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>; 2 Chr 35:9).<\/li>\n<li>14. Son of Adonikam, who returned with Ezra to Judah after the exile during the reign of King Artaxerxes I of Persia (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 8:13).<\/li>\n<li>15. One of the Jewish leaders whom Ezra sent to Iddo at Casiphia to gather Levites and temple servants for the caravan of Jews returning to Palestine from Babylon (Ezr 8:16-17).<\/li>\n<li>16. Priest and one of Harim’s five sons who was encouraged by Ezra to divorce his foreign wife during the postexilic era (Ezr 10:21).<\/li>\n<li>17. Son of another Harim who was encouraged by Ezra to divorce his foreign wife (Ezr 10:31).<\/li>\n<li>18. Son of Shecaniah and the keeper of the East Gate who repaired a section of the Jerusalem wall under Nehemiah’s direction (Neh 3:29).<\/li>\n<li>19. Son of Delaiah and a false prophet hired by Tobiah and Sanballat to frighten Nehemiah and hinder him from rebuilding the Jerusalem wall (Neh 6:10-13).<\/li>\n<li>20. One of the priests who set his seal on the covenant of Ezra (Neh 10:8).<\/li>\n<li>21. One of the leaders of the priests who returned with Zerubbabel and Jeshua to Judah after the exile (Neh 12:6).<\/li>\n<li>22. One of the princes of Judah who participated in the dedication of the Jerusalem wall during the postexilic period (Neh 12:34).<\/li>\n<li>23. Son of Mattaniah, grandfather of Zechariah, and a descendant of Asaph. Zechariah was one of the priests who played a trumpet at the dedication of the Jerusalem wall (Neh 12:35).<\/li>\n<li>24–25. Two priestly musicians who performed at the dedication of the Jerusalem wall (Neh 12:36, 42).<\/li>\n<li>26. Father of Uriah the prophet from Kiriath-jearim. Like Jeremiah, his contemporary, Uriah spoke words of doom against Jerusalem and Judah during the reign of King Jehoiakim of Judah (609–598 <span>BC<\/span>), who deplored Uriah’s message and eventually had him killed (Jer 26:20-21).<\/li>\n<li>27. Nehelamite and a Jew deported to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar, from where he opposed Jeremiah. He sent letters to the priests in Jerusalem that criticized Jeremiah for predicting a long captivity for Judah. Jeremiah exposed Shemaiah as a false prophet and foretold that he and his descendants would not live to see the return to Palestine (Jer 29:24-32).<\/li>\n<li>28. Father of Delaiah, a prince of Judah during the reign of King Jehoiakim (Jer 36:12).<\/li>\n<li>29. A kinsman of Tobit (Tb 5:14); also spelled Shemeliah.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>SHEMAIAH<\/h3>\n<li> 1. Prophet during the reign of Rehoboam, king of Judah (930–913 <span>BC<\/span>). He warned the king not to go to war against Jeroboam and the ten northern tribes of Israel (1 Kgs 12:22-24; 2 Chr 11:2-4). Five years later he spoke words of comfort to a repentant Rehoboam and people of Judah (2 Chr 12:5-7). Shemaiah chronicled the life of Rehoboam in a book that has since been lost.<\/li>\n<li> 2. Son of Shecaniah, the father of six sons and a descendant of David through Rehoboam’s line (1 Chr 3:22).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Simeonite, father of Shimri and an ancestor of Jehu (1 Chr 4:37).<\/li>\n<li> 4. Reubenite and a son of Joel (1 Chr 5:4).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Levite and the son of Hasshub, who returned to Jerusalem after the exile (1 Chr 9:14). He was made a leader in the work of the temple during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 11:15).<\/li>\n<li> 6. Son of Galal and the father of Obadiah, a Levite who returned to Jerusalem following the Babylonian captivity (1 Chr 9:16); called Shammua in Nehemiah 11:17.<\/li>\n<li> 7. Levite and the leader of his father’s house. Shemaiah was summoned by David to help carry the ark from Obed-edom’s house to Jerusalem (1 Chr 15:8-11).<\/li>\n<li> 8. Son of Nethanel and the Levitical scribe who recorded the 24 divisions of the priests during David’s reign in Israel (1000–961 <span>BC<\/span>; 1 Chr 24:6).<\/li>\n<li> 9. Oldest of Obed-edom’s eight sons and the father of sons who served as the gatekeepers of the south gate and storehouse of the sanctuary during David’s reign (1 Chr 26:4-7).<\/li>\n<li>10. One of the Levites sent by King Jehoshaphat of Judah (872–848 <span>BC<\/span>) to teach the law in the cities of Judah (2 Chr 17:8-9).<\/li>\n<li>11. Son of Jeduthun and Uzziel’s brother, who was among the Levites chosen by King Hezekiah of Judah (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>) to cleanse the house of the Lord (2 Chr 29:14-15).<\/li>\n<li>12. One of the Levites assisting Kore with the distribution of the offerings among his fellow priests living in the priestly cities of Judah during the days of King Hezekiah (2 Chr 31:15).<\/li>\n<li>13. One of the Levitical leaders who generously gave animals to the Levites for the celebration of the Passover feast during King Josiah’s reign (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>; 2 Chr 35:9).<\/li>\n<li>14. Son of Adonikam, who returned with Ezra to Judah after the exile during the reign of King Artaxerxes I of Persia (464–424 <span>BC<\/span>; Ezr 8:13).<\/li>\n<li>15. One of the Jewish leaders whom Ezra sent to Iddo at Casiphia to gather Levites and temple servants for the caravan of Jews returning to Palestine from Babylon (Ezr 8:16-17).<\/li>\n<li>16. Priest and one of Harim’s five sons who was encouraged by Ezra to divorce his foreign wife during the postexilic era (Ezr 10:21).<\/li>\n<li>17. Son of another Harim who was encouraged by Ezra to divorce his foreign wife (Ezr 10:31).<\/li>\n<li>18. Son of Shecaniah and the keeper of the East Gate who repaired a section of the Jerusalem wall under Nehemiah’s direction (Neh 3:29).<\/li>\n<li>19. Son of Delaiah and a false prophet hired by Tobiah and Sanballat to frighten Nehemiah and hinder him from rebuilding the Jerusalem wall (Neh 6:10-13).<\/li>\n<li>20. One of the priests who set his seal on the covenant of Ezra (Neh 10:8).<\/li>\n<li>21. One of the leaders of the priests who returned with Zerubbabel and Jeshua to Judah after the exile (Neh 12:6).<\/li>\n<li>22. One of the princes of Judah who participated in the dedication of the Jerusalem wall during the postexilic period (Neh 12:34).<\/li>\n<li>23. Son of Mattaniah, grandfather of Zechariah, and a descendant of Asaph. Zechariah was one of the priests who played a trumpet at the dedication of the Jerusalem wall (Neh 12:35).<\/li>\n<li>24–25. Two priestly musicians who performed at the dedication of the Jerusalem wall (Neh 12:36, 42).<\/li>\n<li>26. Father of Uriah the prophet from Kiriath-jearim. Like Jeremiah, his contemporary, Uriah spoke words of doom against Jerusalem and Judah during the reign of King Jehoiakim of Judah (609–598 <span>BC<\/span>), who deplored Uriah’s message and eventually had him killed (Jer 26:20-21).<\/li>\n<li>27. Nehelamite and a Jew deported to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar, from where he opposed Jeremiah. He sent letters to the priests in Jerusalem that criticized Jeremiah for predicting a long captivity for Judah. Jeremiah exposed Shemaiah as a false prophet and foretold that he and his descendants would not live to see the return to Palestine (Jer 29:24-32).<\/li>\n<li>28. Father of Delaiah, a prince of Judah during the reign of King Jehoiakim (Jer 36:12).<\/li>\n<li>29. A kinsman of Tobit (Tb 5:14); also spelled Shemeliah.<\/li>","summary_ro":"SHEMAIAH 1. Prophet during the reign of Rehoboam, king of Judah (930–913 BC). He warned the king not to go to war against Jeroboam and the ten northern tribes of Israel (1 Kgs 12:22-24; 2 Chr 11:2-4). Five years later he spoke words of comfort to a repentant Rehoboam and people of Judah (2 Chr 12:5-7). Shemaiah chronicled the life of Rehoboam in a book that has since been lost. 2. Son of Shecaniah, the father of six sons and a descendant of David through Rehoboam’s line (1 Chr 3:22). 3. Simeo...","summary_en":"SHEMAIAH 1. Prophet during the reign of Rehoboam, king of Judah (930–913 BC). He warned the king not to go to war against Jeroboam and the ten northern tribes of Israel (1 Kgs 12:22-24; 2 Chr 11:2-4). Five years later he spoke words of comfort to a repentant Rehoboam and people of Judah (2 Chr 12:5-7). Shemaiah chronicled the life of Rehoboam in a book that has since been lost. 2. Son of Shecaniah, the father of six sons and a descendant of David through Rehoboam’s line (1 Chr 3:22). 3. Simeo...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":35112,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Shimei","title_en":"Shimei","content_ro":"<h3>SHIMEI<\/h3>\n<li>1. Son of Gershon, the grandson of Levi, and the brother of Libni (Ex 6:17; Nm 3:18; 1 Chr 6:17). He was the father of four sons and the founder of the Shimeite family (Nm 3:21; 1 Chr 23:7, 10; Zech 12:13).<\/li>\n<li>2. Benjaminite, and the son of Gera from the house of Saul. He met King David at the village of Bahurim during the king’s journey from Jerusalem to Mahanaim. Here Shimei bitterly opposed David, cursing him for the ruin of Saul’s house (2 Sm 16:5-13). Later, Shimei repented of his shameful behavior, entreated David’s forgiveness, and received the king’s pardon (19:16-23). After David’s death, King Solomon ordered Shimei to settle in Jerusalem and never to leave the city for any reason. Shimei disobeyed the decree and was killed (1 Kgs 2:8, 36-44).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Brother of David and the father of Jonathan (2 Sm 21:21); alternately called Shammah in 1 Samuel 16:9. <em>See<\/em> Shammah #2.<\/li>\n<li> 4. One of David’s court officials who did not support Adonijah’s attempt to set himself up as king (1 Kgs 1:8).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Benjaminite, the son of Ela and one of King Solomon’s officials who oversaw the royal household (1 Kgs 4:18); perhaps identical with #4 above.<\/li>\n<li> 6. Judahite, the son of Pedaiah, the brother of Zerubbabel, and a descendant of David through Solomon’s line (1 Chr 3:19).<\/li>\n<li> 7. Simeonite, the son of Zaccur and the father of 16 sons and 6 daughters (1 Chr 4:26-27).<\/li>\n<li> 8. Reubenite, the son of Gog and the father of Micah (1 Chr 5:4).<\/li>\n<li> 9. Son of Libni, the father of Uzzah, and a descendant of Levi through Merari’s line (1 Chr 6:29).<\/li>\n<li>10. Gershonite Levite, the son of Jahath, the father of Zimmah, and an ancestor of Asaph who served as a leader of the musicians in the sanctuary during David’s reign (1 Chr 6:42).<\/li>\n<li>11. Benjaminite, the father of nine sons and a head of his father’s house (1 Chr 8:21); alternately called Shema in verse 13. <em>See<\/em> Shema (Person) #3.<\/li>\n<li>12. Gershonite Levite, and the father of three sons in the house of Ladan (1 Chr 23:9).<\/li>\n<li>13. Son of Jeduthun and the leader of the 10th of 24 divisions of musicians trained for service in the sanctuary during David’s reign (1 Chr 25:3, 17).<\/li>\n<li>14. Ramathite, and a member of King David’s staff who had charge of David’s vineyards (1 Chr 27:27).<\/li>\n<li>15. Son of Heman, the brother of Jehuel, and one of the Levites selected to cleanse the house of the Lord during King Hezekiah’s reign (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>; 2 Chr 29:14).<\/li>\n<li>16. Levite, and the brother of Conaniah appointed by King Hezekiah of Judah to oversee the administration of the temple contributions in Jerusalem (2 Chr 31:12-13).<\/li>\n<li>17–19. Three men, a Levite, Hashum’s son, and Binnui’s son, who were encouraged by Ezra to divorce their foreign wives during the postexilic era (Ezr 10:23, 33, 38)<\/li>\n<li>20. Son of Kish and grandfather of Mordecai (Est 2:5).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>SHIMEI<\/h3>\n<li>1. Son of Gershon, the grandson of Levi, and the brother of Libni (Ex 6:17; Nm 3:18; 1 Chr 6:17). He was the father of four sons and the founder of the Shimeite family (Nm 3:21; 1 Chr 23:7, 10; Zech 12:13).<\/li>\n<li>2. Benjaminite, and the son of Gera from the house of Saul. He met King David at the village of Bahurim during the king’s journey from Jerusalem to Mahanaim. Here Shimei bitterly opposed David, cursing him for the ruin of Saul’s house (2 Sm 16:5-13). Later, Shimei repented of his shameful behavior, entreated David’s forgiveness, and received the king’s pardon (19:16-23). After David’s death, King Solomon ordered Shimei to settle in Jerusalem and never to leave the city for any reason. Shimei disobeyed the decree and was killed (1 Kgs 2:8, 36-44).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Brother of David and the father of Jonathan (2 Sm 21:21); alternately called Shammah in 1 Samuel 16:9. <em>See<\/em> Shammah #2.<\/li>\n<li> 4. One of David’s court officials who did not support Adonijah’s attempt to set himself up as king (1 Kgs 1:8).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Benjaminite, the son of Ela and one of King Solomon’s officials who oversaw the royal household (1 Kgs 4:18); perhaps identical with #4 above.<\/li>\n<li> 6. Judahite, the son of Pedaiah, the brother of Zerubbabel, and a descendant of David through Solomon’s line (1 Chr 3:19).<\/li>\n<li> 7. Simeonite, the son of Zaccur and the father of 16 sons and 6 daughters (1 Chr 4:26-27).<\/li>\n<li> 8. Reubenite, the son of Gog and the father of Micah (1 Chr 5:4).<\/li>\n<li> 9. Son of Libni, the father of Uzzah, and a descendant of Levi through Merari’s line (1 Chr 6:29).<\/li>\n<li>10. Gershonite Levite, the son of Jahath, the father of Zimmah, and an ancestor of Asaph who served as a leader of the musicians in the sanctuary during David’s reign (1 Chr 6:42).<\/li>\n<li>11. Benjaminite, the father of nine sons and a head of his father’s house (1 Chr 8:21); alternately called Shema in verse 13. <em>See<\/em> Shema (Person) #3.<\/li>\n<li>12. Gershonite Levite, and the father of three sons in the house of Ladan (1 Chr 23:9).<\/li>\n<li>13. Son of Jeduthun and the leader of the 10th of 24 divisions of musicians trained for service in the sanctuary during David’s reign (1 Chr 25:3, 17).<\/li>\n<li>14. Ramathite, and a member of King David’s staff who had charge of David’s vineyards (1 Chr 27:27).<\/li>\n<li>15. Son of Heman, the brother of Jehuel, and one of the Levites selected to cleanse the house of the Lord during King Hezekiah’s reign (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>; 2 Chr 29:14).<\/li>\n<li>16. Levite, and the brother of Conaniah appointed by King Hezekiah of Judah to oversee the administration of the temple contributions in Jerusalem (2 Chr 31:12-13).<\/li>\n<li>17–19. Three men, a Levite, Hashum’s son, and Binnui’s son, who were encouraged by Ezra to divorce their foreign wives during the postexilic era (Ezr 10:23, 33, 38)<\/li>\n<li>20. Son of Kish and grandfather of Mordecai (Est 2:5).<\/li>","summary_ro":"SHIMEI 1. Son of Gershon, the grandson of Levi, and the brother of Libni (Ex 6:17; Nm 3:18; 1 Chr 6:17). He was the father of four sons and the founder of the Shimeite family (Nm 3:21; 1 Chr 23:7, 10; Zech 12:13). 2. Benjaminite, and the son of Gera from the house of Saul. He met King David at the village of Bahurim during the king’s journey from Jerusalem to Mahanaim. Here Shimei bitterly opposed David, cursing him for the ruin of Saul’s house (2 Sm 16:5-13). Later, Shimei repented of his sh...","summary_en":"SHIMEI 1. Son of Gershon, the grandson of Levi, and the brother of Libni (Ex 6:17; Nm 3:18; 1 Chr 6:17). He was the father of four sons and the founder of the Shimeite family (Nm 3:21; 1 Chr 23:7, 10; Zech 12:13). 2. Benjaminite, and the son of Gera from the house of Saul. He met King David at the village of Bahurim during the king’s journey from Jerusalem to Mahanaim. Here Shimei bitterly opposed David, cursing him for the ruin of Saul’s house (2 Sm 16:5-13). Later, Shimei repented of his sh...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":47577,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Cronici 5:4","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Cronici 5:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:4-8<\/strong> The exact relationship between <em>the descendants of Joel<\/em> and the rest of the tribe of Reuben is unknown.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:4-8<\/strong> The exact relationship between <em>the descendants of Joel<\/em> and the rest of the tribe of Reuben is unknown.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:4-8 The exact relationship between the descendants of Joel and the rest of the tribe of Reuben is unknown.","summary_en":"5:4-8 The exact relationship between the descendants of Joel and the rest of the tribe of Reuben is unknown.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75203,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Cronici 5:4","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Cronici 5:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:4-8<\/strong> The exact relationship between <em>the descendants of Joel<\/em> and the rest of the tribe of Reuben is unknown.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:4-8<\/strong> The exact relationship between <em>the descendants of Joel<\/em> and the rest of the tribe of Reuben is unknown.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:4-8 The exact relationship between the descendants of Joel and the rest of the tribe of Reuben is unknown.","summary_en":"5:4-8 The exact relationship between the descendants of Joel and the rest of the tribe of Reuben is unknown.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":102829,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Cronici 5:4","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Cronici 5:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:4-8<\/strong> The exact relationship between <em>the descendants of Joel<\/em> and the rest of the tribe of Reuben is unknown.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:4-8<\/strong> The exact relationship between <em>the descendants of Joel<\/em> and the rest of the tribe of Reuben is unknown.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:4-8 The exact relationship between the descendants of Joel and the rest of the tribe of Reuben is unknown.","summary_en":"5:4-8 The exact relationship between the descendants of Joel and the rest of the tribe of Reuben is unknown.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":130455,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Cronici 5:4","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Cronici 5:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:4-8<\/strong> The exact relationship between <em>the descendants of Joel<\/em> and the rest of the tribe of Reuben is unknown.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:4-8<\/strong> The exact relationship between <em>the descendants of Joel<\/em> and the rest of the tribe of Reuben is unknown.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:4-8 The exact relationship between the descendants of Joel and the rest of the tribe of Reuben is unknown.","summary_en":"5:4-8 The exact relationship between the descendants of Joel and the rest of the tribe of Reuben is unknown.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"5":[{"id":3369,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Baal (Person)","title_en":"Baal (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>BAAL (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Reubenite, the son of Reaiah and the father of Beerah (1 Chr 5:5).<\/li>\n<li>2. Benjaminite and one of the ten sons born to Jeiel, the father of Gibeon, by Maacah his wife. His brother was Kish, the father of Saul (1 Chr 8:30; 9:36).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>BAAL (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Reubenite, the son of Reaiah and the father of Beerah (1 Chr 5:5).<\/li>\n<li>2. Benjaminite and one of the ten sons born to Jeiel, the father of Gibeon, by Maacah his wife. His brother was Kish, the father of Saul (1 Chr 8:30; 9:36).<\/li>","summary_ro":"BAAL (Person) 1. Reubenite, the son of Reaiah and the father of Beerah (1 Chr 5:5). 2. Benjaminite and one of the ten sons born to Jeiel, the father of Gibeon, by Maacah his wife. His brother was Kish, the father of Saul (1 Chr 8:30; 9:36).","summary_en":"BAAL (Person) 1. Reubenite, the son of Reaiah and the father of Beerah (1 Chr 5:5). 2. Benjaminite and one of the ten sons born to Jeiel, the father of Gibeon, by Maacah his wife. His brother was Kish, the father of Saul (1 Chr 8:30; 9:36).","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":25536,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Micah (Person)","title_en":"Micah (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>MICAH (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ephraimite judge who had idols made and then hired a Levite to become his priest (Jgs 17–18).<\/li>\n<li>2. Shimei’s descendant from Reuben’s tribe (1 Chr 5:5).<\/li>\n<li>3. Alternate spelling of Mica, Mephibosheth’s son and the great-grandson of King Saul, in 1 Chronicles 8:34-35; 9:40-41. <em>See<\/em> Mica #1.<\/li>\n<li>4. KJV spelling of Mica, Zicri’s son, in 1 Chronicles 9:15. <em>See<\/em> Mica #2.<\/li>\n<li>5. Levite and Uzziel’s son from Kohath’s clan, whose temple responsibilities included care of the furniture and equipment (1 Chr 23:20; 24:24-25).<\/li>\n<li>6. Alternate spelling of Micaiah, Acbor’s father, in 2 Chronicles 34:20. <em>See<\/em> Micaiah #2.<\/li>\n<li>7. Prophet and author of the OT book that bears his name (Mi 1:1). A native of Moresheth, a town about 21 miles (33.8 kilometers) southwest of Jerusalem, Micah prophesied to both northern and southern kingdoms during the reigns of Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah (750–686 <span>BC<\/span>). According to Micah 1:9, he was still prophesying in 701 <span>BC<\/span> when the Assyrian armies under Sennacherib (cf. Is 36–37) besieged Jerusalem. About 100 years later, Micah is used as an example of an early prophet who predicted the destruction of Jerusalem (cf. Jer 26:16-19).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Micah, Book of; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MICAH (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Ephraimite judge who had idols made and then hired a Levite to become his priest (Jgs 17–18).<\/li>\n<li>2. Shimei’s descendant from Reuben’s tribe (1 Chr 5:5).<\/li>\n<li>3. Alternate spelling of Mica, Mephibosheth’s son and the great-grandson of King Saul, in 1 Chronicles 8:34-35; 9:40-41. <em>See<\/em> Mica #1.<\/li>\n<li>4. KJV spelling of Mica, Zicri’s son, in 1 Chronicles 9:15. <em>See<\/em> Mica #2.<\/li>\n<li>5. Levite and Uzziel’s son from Kohath’s clan, whose temple responsibilities included care of the furniture and equipment (1 Chr 23:20; 24:24-25).<\/li>\n<li>6. Alternate spelling of Micaiah, Acbor’s father, in 2 Chronicles 34:20. <em>See<\/em> Micaiah #2.<\/li>\n<li>7. Prophet and author of the OT book that bears his name (Mi 1:1). A native of Moresheth, a town about 21 miles (33.8 kilometers) southwest of Jerusalem, Micah prophesied to both northern and southern kingdoms during the reigns of Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah (750–686 <span>BC<\/span>). According to Micah 1:9, he was still prophesying in 701 <span>BC<\/span> when the Assyrian armies under Sennacherib (cf. Is 36–37) besieged Jerusalem. About 100 years later, Micah is used as an example of an early prophet who predicted the destruction of Jerusalem (cf. Jer 26:16-19).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Micah, Book of; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MICAH (Person) 1. Ephraimite judge who had idols made and then hired a Levite to become his priest (Jgs 17–18). 2. Shimei’s descendant from Reuben’s tribe (1 Chr 5:5). 3. Alternate spelling of Mica, Mephibosheth’s son and the great-grandson of King Saul, in 1 Chronicles 8:34-35; 9:40-41. See Mica #1. 4. KJV spelling of Mica, Zicri’s son, in 1 Chronicles 9:15. See Mica #2. 5. Levite and Uzziel’s son from Kohath’s clan, whose temple responsibilities included care of the furniture and equipment ...","summary_en":"MICAH (Person) 1. Ephraimite judge who had idols made and then hired a Levite to become his priest (Jgs 17–18). 2. Shimei’s descendant from Reuben’s tribe (1 Chr 5:5). 3. Alternate spelling of Mica, Mephibosheth’s son and the great-grandson of King Saul, in 1 Chronicles 8:34-35; 9:40-41. See Mica #1. 4. KJV spelling of Mica, Zicri’s son, in 1 Chronicles 9:15. See Mica #2. 5. Levite and Uzziel’s son from Kohath’s clan, whose temple responsibilities included care of the furniture and equipment ...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32498,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Reaia*","title_en":"Reaia*","content_ro":"<h3>REAIA*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV spelling of Reaiah, Micah’s son, in 1 Chronicles 5:5. <em>See<\/em> Reaiah #2.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>REAIA*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV spelling of Reaiah, Micah’s son, in 1 Chronicles 5:5. <em>See<\/em> Reaiah #2.<\/p>","summary_ro":"REAIA* KJV spelling of Reaiah, Micah’s son, in 1 Chronicles 5:5. See Reaiah #2.","summary_en":"REAIA* KJV spelling of Reaiah, Micah’s son, in 1 Chronicles 5:5. See Reaiah #2.","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32501,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Reaiah","title_en":"Reaiah","content_ro":"<h3>REAIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Shobal’s son and the father of Jahath from the tribe of Judah (1 Chr 4:2), perhaps identifiable with Haroeh (2:52).<\/li>\n<li>2. Reubenite, Micah’s son and the father of Baal (1 Chr 5:5).<\/li>\n<li>3. Head or founder of a family of temple servants who returned with Zerubbabel from captivity in Babylon (Ezr 2:47; Neh 7:50).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>REAIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Shobal’s son and the father of Jahath from the tribe of Judah (1 Chr 4:2), perhaps identifiable with Haroeh (2:52).<\/li>\n<li>2. Reubenite, Micah’s son and the father of Baal (1 Chr 5:5).<\/li>\n<li>3. Head or founder of a family of temple servants who returned with Zerubbabel from captivity in Babylon (Ezr 2:47; Neh 7:50).<\/li>","summary_ro":"REAIAH 1. Shobal’s son and the father of Jahath from the tribe of Judah (1 Chr 4:2), perhaps identifiable with Haroeh (2:52). 2. Reubenite, Micah’s son and the father of Baal (1 Chr 5:5). 3. Head or founder of a family of temple servants who returned with Zerubbabel from captivity in Babylon (Ezr 2:47; Neh 7:50).","summary_en":"REAIAH 1. Shobal’s son and the father of Jahath from the tribe of Judah (1 Chr 4:2), perhaps identifiable with Haroeh (2:52). 2. Reubenite, Micah’s son and the father of Baal (1 Chr 5:5). 3. Head or founder of a family of temple servants who returned with Zerubbabel from captivity in Babylon (Ezr 2:47; Neh 7:50).","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"6":[{"id":4105,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Beerah","title_en":"Beerah","content_ro":"<h3>BEERAH<\/h3>\n<p>Chief of Reuben’s tribe (1 Chr 5:6, 26) taken captive by the Assyrian king Tilgath-pilneser (a later spelling of Tiglath-pileser).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BEERAH<\/h3>\n<p>Chief of Reuben’s tribe (1 Chr 5:6, 26) taken captive by the Assyrian king Tilgath-pilneser (a later spelling of Tiglath-pileser).<\/p>","summary_ro":"BEERAH Chief of Reuben’s tribe (1 Chr 5:6, 26) taken captive by the Assyrian king Tilgath-pilneser (a later spelling of Tiglath-pileser).","summary_en":"BEERAH Chief of Reuben’s tribe (1 Chr 5:6, 26) taken captive by the Assyrian king Tilgath-pilneser (a later spelling of Tiglath-pileser).","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37294,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tiglath-Pileser","title_en":"Tiglath-Pileser","content_ro":"<h3>TIGLATH-PILESER<\/h3>\n<p>Name of three Assyrian kings, the most important of whom was Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>). The name means “my trust is in the son of the temple Esharra,” and appears in various forms (cf. 2 Kgs 15:29; also called Tilgath-pilneser in 1 Chr 5:6; 2 Chr 28:20).<\/p>\n<p>Tiglath-pileser I (1115–1077 <span>BC<\/span>) was the son of Ashur-resh-ishi. Having gained independence from Babylonian overlordship, Tiglath-pileser consolidated his hold over the territory newly acquired in his father’s reign, maintaining control and guarding against counterattacks from the former occupiers. Security brought increased trade and prosperity, and a large temple-building program was undertaken.<\/p>\n<p>Tiglath-pileser II (c. 967–935 <span>BC<\/span>) was a weak king who ruled Assyria during a period of decline. Although he was able to maintain some degree of internal control, he was powerless to prevent outside peoples from encroaching upon Assyrian territory. In particular, the Arameans took advantage of Assyrian weakness to occupy large areas of land, and an Aramean ruler named Kapara built a palace at Guzana (the Gozan of 2 Kgs 17:6). Some of the Arameans who occupied the area have been identified from inscriptions found at the site. This period was of particular importance for the emergence of the Aramean Empire.<\/p>\n<p>Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>) ascended to the throne at a time when he could stem and reverse another decline in Assyrian fortunes. Although not directly in line for the throne, he was probably of royal descent. On occasion, he used the name Pul (2 Kgs 15:19; 1 Chr 5:26), which may have been his real name as opposed to his throne name.<\/p>\n<p>Tiglath-pileser III was a strong, able, resourceful king whose reign is remarkable for the rapid extension of Assyrian boundaries and for the peaceful administration of the newly acquired territories. He assisted Babylon by defeating the Arameans, and by his diplomacy retained Babylonian support while he concentrated his military efforts elsewhere. On the death of the vassal king Nabu-nasir of Babylon in 734 <span>BC<\/span>, Tiglath-pileser gained the support of some of the tribes and finally forced the submission of Marduk-apla-iddina (the Merodach-baladan of Is 39:1). According to the Babylonian Chronicle, he used the name Pul when acceding to the throne of Babylon himself in 729 <span>BC<\/span>. He was the first Assyrian king on the throne of Babylon in 500 years.<\/p>\n<p>His reign, which was marked by a vast increase in territory coupled with a firm and able administration, also had long-term effects far beyond Assyria’s immediate borders. The expansion into Syria and Palestine was bound to lead eventually to conflict with Egypt when that country wished once again to mount a more aggressive foreign policy. Tiglath-pileser was the father of Shalmaneser V (727–722 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Assyria, Assyrians.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TIGLATH-PILESER<\/h3>\n<p>Name of three Assyrian kings, the most important of whom was Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>). The name means “my trust is in the son of the temple Esharra,” and appears in various forms (cf. 2 Kgs 15:29; also called Tilgath-pilneser in 1 Chr 5:6; 2 Chr 28:20).<\/p>\n<p>Tiglath-pileser I (1115–1077 <span>BC<\/span>) was the son of Ashur-resh-ishi. Having gained independence from Babylonian overlordship, Tiglath-pileser consolidated his hold over the territory newly acquired in his father’s reign, maintaining control and guarding against counterattacks from the former occupiers. Security brought increased trade and prosperity, and a large temple-building program was undertaken.<\/p>\n<p>Tiglath-pileser II (c. 967–935 <span>BC<\/span>) was a weak king who ruled Assyria during a period of decline. Although he was able to maintain some degree of internal control, he was powerless to prevent outside peoples from encroaching upon Assyrian territory. In particular, the Arameans took advantage of Assyrian weakness to occupy large areas of land, and an Aramean ruler named Kapara built a palace at Guzana (the Gozan of 2 Kgs 17:6). Some of the Arameans who occupied the area have been identified from inscriptions found at the site. This period was of particular importance for the emergence of the Aramean Empire.<\/p>\n<p>Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>) ascended to the throne at a time when he could stem and reverse another decline in Assyrian fortunes. Although not directly in line for the throne, he was probably of royal descent. On occasion, he used the name Pul (2 Kgs 15:19; 1 Chr 5:26), which may have been his real name as opposed to his throne name.<\/p>\n<p>Tiglath-pileser III was a strong, able, resourceful king whose reign is remarkable for the rapid extension of Assyrian boundaries and for the peaceful administration of the newly acquired territories. He assisted Babylon by defeating the Arameans, and by his diplomacy retained Babylonian support while he concentrated his military efforts elsewhere. On the death of the vassal king Nabu-nasir of Babylon in 734 <span>BC<\/span>, Tiglath-pileser gained the support of some of the tribes and finally forced the submission of Marduk-apla-iddina (the Merodach-baladan of Is 39:1). According to the Babylonian Chronicle, he used the name Pul when acceding to the throne of Babylon himself in 729 <span>BC<\/span>. He was the first Assyrian king on the throne of Babylon in 500 years.<\/p>\n<p>His reign, which was marked by a vast increase in territory coupled with a firm and able administration, also had long-term effects far beyond Assyria’s immediate borders. The expansion into Syria and Palestine was bound to lead eventually to conflict with Egypt when that country wished once again to mount a more aggressive foreign policy. Tiglath-pileser was the father of Shalmaneser V (727–722 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Assyria, Assyrians.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TIGLATH-PILESER Name of three Assyrian kings, the most important of whom was Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 BC). The name means “my trust is in the son of the temple Esharra,” and appears in various forms (cf. 2 Kgs 15:29; also called Tilgath-pilneser in 1 Chr 5:6; 2 Chr 28:20). Tiglath-pileser I (1115–1077 BC) was the son of Ashur-resh-ishi. Having gained independence from Babylonian overlordship, Tiglath-pileser consolidated his hold over the territory newly acquired in his father’s reign, ma...","summary_en":"TIGLATH-PILESER Name of three Assyrian kings, the most important of whom was Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 BC). The name means “my trust is in the son of the temple Esharra,” and appears in various forms (cf. 2 Kgs 15:29; also called Tilgath-pilneser in 1 Chr 5:6; 2 Chr 28:20). Tiglath-pileser I (1115–1077 BC) was the son of Ashur-resh-ishi. Having gained independence from Babylonian overlordship, Tiglath-pileser consolidated his hold over the territory newly acquired in his father’s reign, ma...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37307,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tilgath-Pilneser*","title_en":"Tilgath-Pilneser*","content_ro":"<h3>TILGATH-PILNESER*<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate spelling of the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III’s name in 1 Chronicles 5:6, 26 and 2 Chronicles 28:20. <em>See<\/em> Tiglath-pileser.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TILGATH-PILNESER*<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate spelling of the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III’s name in 1 Chronicles 5:6, 26 and 2 Chronicles 28:20. <em>See<\/em> Tiglath-pileser.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TILGATH-PILNESER* Alternate spelling of the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III’s name in 1 Chronicles 5:6, 26 and 2 Chronicles 28:20. See Tiglath-pileser.","summary_en":"TILGATH-PILNESER* Alternate spelling of the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III’s name in 1 Chronicles 5:6, 26 and 2 Chronicles 28:20. See Tiglath-pileser.","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":47578,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Cronici 5:6","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Cronici 5:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:6<\/strong> <em>Tiglath-pileser<\/em> was king of Assyria (744–727 <span>BC<\/span>); he attacked the tribes of Transjordan during King Pekah’s reign (752–732 <span>BC<\/span>), taking the people <em>into captivity<\/em> (see 5:25-26; 2 Kgs 15:29).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:6<\/strong> <em>Tiglath-pileser<\/em> was king of Assyria (744–727 <span>BC<\/span>); he attacked the tribes of Transjordan during King Pekah’s reign (752–732 <span>BC<\/span>), taking the people <em>into captivity<\/em> (see 5:25-26; 2 Kgs 15:29).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:6 Tiglath-pileser was king of Assyria (744–727 BC); he attacked the tribes of Transjordan during King Pekah’s reign (752–732 BC), taking the people into captivity (see 5:25-26; 2 Kgs 15:29).","summary_en":"5:6 Tiglath-pileser was king of Assyria (744–727 BC); he attacked the tribes of Transjordan during King Pekah’s reign (752–732 BC), taking the people into captivity (see 5:25-26; 2 Kgs 15:29).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75204,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Cronici 5:6","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Cronici 5:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:6<\/strong> <em>Tiglath-pileser<\/em> was king of Assyria (744–727 <span>BC<\/span>); he attacked the tribes of Transjordan during King Pekah’s reign (752–732 <span>BC<\/span>), taking the people <em>into captivity<\/em> (see 5:25-26; 2 Kgs 15:29).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:6<\/strong> <em>Tiglath-pileser<\/em> was king of Assyria (744–727 <span>BC<\/span>); he attacked the tribes of Transjordan during King Pekah’s reign (752–732 <span>BC<\/span>), taking the people <em>into captivity<\/em> (see 5:25-26; 2 Kgs 15:29).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:6 Tiglath-pileser was king of Assyria (744–727 BC); he attacked the tribes of Transjordan during King Pekah’s reign (752–732 BC), taking the people into captivity (see 5:25-26; 2 Kgs 15:29).","summary_en":"5:6 Tiglath-pileser was king of Assyria (744–727 BC); he attacked the tribes of Transjordan during King Pekah’s reign (752–732 BC), taking the people into captivity (see 5:25-26; 2 Kgs 15:29).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":102830,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Cronici 5:6","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Cronici 5:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:6<\/strong> <em>Tiglath-pileser<\/em> was king of Assyria (744–727 <span>BC<\/span>); he attacked the tribes of Transjordan during King Pekah’s reign (752–732 <span>BC<\/span>), taking the people <em>into captivity<\/em> (see 5:25-26; 2 Kgs 15:29).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:6<\/strong> <em>Tiglath-pileser<\/em> was king of Assyria (744–727 <span>BC<\/span>); he attacked the tribes of Transjordan during King Pekah’s reign (752–732 <span>BC<\/span>), taking the people <em>into captivity<\/em> (see 5:25-26; 2 Kgs 15:29).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:6 Tiglath-pileser was king of Assyria (744–727 BC); he attacked the tribes of Transjordan during King Pekah’s reign (752–732 BC), taking the people into captivity (see 5:25-26; 2 Kgs 15:29).","summary_en":"5:6 Tiglath-pileser was king of Assyria (744–727 BC); he attacked the tribes of Transjordan during King Pekah’s reign (752–732 BC), taking the people into captivity (see 5:25-26; 2 Kgs 15:29).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":130456,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Cronici 5:6","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Cronici 5:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:6<\/strong> <em>Tiglath-pileser<\/em> was king of Assyria (744–727 <span>BC<\/span>); he attacked the tribes of Transjordan during King Pekah’s reign (752–732 <span>BC<\/span>), taking the people <em>into captivity<\/em> (see 5:25-26; 2 Kgs 15:29).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:6<\/strong> <em>Tiglath-pileser<\/em> was king of Assyria (744–727 <span>BC<\/span>); he attacked the tribes of Transjordan during King Pekah’s reign (752–732 <span>BC<\/span>), taking the people <em>into captivity<\/em> (see 5:25-26; 2 Kgs 15:29).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:6 Tiglath-pileser was king of Assyria (744–727 BC); he attacked the tribes of Transjordan during King Pekah’s reign (752–732 BC), taking the people into captivity (see 5:25-26; 2 Kgs 15:29).","summary_en":"5:6 Tiglath-pileser was king of Assyria (744–727 BC); he attacked the tribes of Transjordan during King Pekah’s reign (752–732 BC), taking the people into captivity (see 5:25-26; 2 Kgs 15:29).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"7":[{"id":18872,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jeiel","title_en":"Jeiel","content_ro":"<h3>JEIEL<\/h3>\n<li> 1. Chief in Reuben’s tribe (1 Chr 5:7).<\/li>\n<li> 2. Benjamite who lived at Gibeon and an ancestor of Israel’s first king, Saul (1 Chr 8:29; 9:35).<\/li>\n<li> 3. One of David’s mighty men (1 Chr 11:44). He is perhaps identical with #1 above.<\/li>\n<li> 4. Levite gatekeeper in the sanctuary. He seems to have served as a musician also (1 Chr 15:18, 21; 16:5b). The Jeiel of 1 Chronicles 16:5a is probably a different musician.<\/li>\n<li> 5. Levite descended from Asaph and an ancestor of a prophet named Jahaziel (2 Chr 20:14).<\/li>\n<li> 6. Secretary for King Uzziah’s army, who kept or made military “rolls” or “musters” of the king’s troops (2 Chr 26:11).<\/li>\n<li> 7. KJV and <span>nlt<\/span> spelling of Jeuel, Elizaphan’s descendant, in 2 Chronicles 29:13. <em>See<\/em> Jeuel #2.<\/li>\n<li> 8. Levite leader who contributed Passover offerings during King Josiah’s reign (2 Chr 35:9).<\/li>\n<li> 9. KJV spelling of Jeuel, Adonikam’s descendant, in Ezra 8:13. <em>See<\/em> Jeuel #3.<\/li>\n<li>10. Nebo’s descendant who was encouraged to divorce his foreign wife during the postexilic era (Ezr 10:43).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JEIEL<\/h3>\n<li> 1. Chief in Reuben’s tribe (1 Chr 5:7).<\/li>\n<li> 2. Benjamite who lived at Gibeon and an ancestor of Israel’s first king, Saul (1 Chr 8:29; 9:35).<\/li>\n<li> 3. One of David’s mighty men (1 Chr 11:44). He is perhaps identical with #1 above.<\/li>\n<li> 4. Levite gatekeeper in the sanctuary. He seems to have served as a musician also (1 Chr 15:18, 21; 16:5b). The Jeiel of 1 Chronicles 16:5a is probably a different musician.<\/li>\n<li> 5. Levite descended from Asaph and an ancestor of a prophet named Jahaziel (2 Chr 20:14).<\/li>\n<li> 6. Secretary for King Uzziah’s army, who kept or made military “rolls” or “musters” of the king’s troops (2 Chr 26:11).<\/li>\n<li> 7. KJV and <span>nlt<\/span> spelling of Jeuel, Elizaphan’s descendant, in 2 Chronicles 29:13. <em>See<\/em> Jeuel #2.<\/li>\n<li> 8. Levite leader who contributed Passover offerings during King Josiah’s reign (2 Chr 35:9).<\/li>\n<li> 9. KJV spelling of Jeuel, Adonikam’s descendant, in Ezra 8:13. <em>See<\/em> Jeuel #3.<\/li>\n<li>10. Nebo’s descendant who was encouraged to divorce his foreign wife during the postexilic era (Ezr 10:43).<\/li>","summary_ro":"JEIEL 1. Chief in Reuben’s tribe (1 Chr 5:7). 2. Benjamite who lived at Gibeon and an ancestor of Israel’s first king, Saul (1 Chr 8:29; 9:35). 3. One of David’s mighty men (1 Chr 11:44). He is perhaps identical with #1 above. 4. Levite gatekeeper in the sanctuary. He seems to have served as a musician also (1 Chr 15:18, 21; 16:5b). The Jeiel of 1 Chronicles 16:5a is probably a different musician. 5. Levite descended from Asaph and an ancestor of a prophet named Jahaziel (2 Chr 20:14). 6. Sec...","summary_en":"JEIEL 1. Chief in Reuben’s tribe (1 Chr 5:7). 2. Benjamite who lived at Gibeon and an ancestor of Israel’s first king, Saul (1 Chr 8:29; 9:35). 3. One of David’s mighty men (1 Chr 11:44). He is perhaps identical with #1 above. 4. Levite gatekeeper in the sanctuary. He seems to have served as a musician also (1 Chr 15:18, 21; 16:5b). The Jeiel of 1 Chronicles 16:5a is probably a different musician. 5. Levite descended from Asaph and an ancestor of a prophet named Jahaziel (2 Chr 20:14). 6. Sec...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":39020,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Zechariah (Person)","title_en":"Zechariah (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>ZECHARIAH (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Extremely popular name in the Bible; it means “the Lord remembers.”<\/p>\n<p> 1. Son of King Jeroboam II; the 15th king of Israel and the last of Jehu’s dynasty. Beginning his rule in 753 <span>BC<\/span>, the 38th year of Azariah’s reign in Judah (792–740 <span>BC<\/span>), Zechariah ruled in Samaria for only six months before he was murdered at Ibleam in a conspiracy masterminded by Shallum, his successor (2 Kgs 14:29; 15:8-11). The Lord’s promise to Jehu, that his descendants would rule to the fourth generation (10:30), was fulfilled with Zechariah’s reign.<\/p>\n<li> 2. Father of Abi (or Abijah, 2 Chr 29:1). Abi was the mother of Hezekiah, who later ruled Judah for 29 years (2 Kgs 18:2).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Reubenite and leader of his tribe (1 Chr 5:7).<\/li>\n<li> 4. Korahite Levite, firstborn of Meshelemiah’s seven sons and a wise counselor, selected by lot to oversee the gatekeepers of the sanctuary’s northern entrance during David’s reign (1 Chr 9:21; 26:2, 14).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Benjaminite and descendant of Jeiel (1 Chr 9:37). He is alternately called Zeker, perhaps an abbreviation of Zechariah, in 1 Chronicles 8:31.<\/li>\n<li> 6. One of the eight Levites assigned to play a harp before the ark of God in the procession led by David when the ark was brought from Obed-edom’s house to Jerusalem (1 Chr 15:18, 20; 16:5).<\/li>\n<li> 7. One of the priests assigned to blow a trumpet in the procession led by David when the ark was brought to Jerusalem (1 Chr 15:24).<\/li>\n<li> 8. Levite and a descendant of Isshiah, who served in the sanctuary during David’s reign (1 Chr 24:25).<\/li>\n<li> 9. Merarite Levite and Hosah’s son, who served as one of the gatekeepers of the sanctuary’s western entrance, at the gate of Halleketh, during David’s reign (1 Chr 26:11-12, 16).<\/li>\n<li>10. Father of Iddo. Iddo was the chief officer of the half-tribe of Manasseh in Gilead during David’s reign (1 Chr 27:21).<\/li>\n<li>11. One of the officials sent by King Jehoshaphat (872–848 <span>BC<\/span>) to teach the law in the cities of Judah (2 Chr 17:7).<\/li>\n<li>12. Gershonite Levite and Jahaziel’s father (2 Chr 20:14).<\/li>\n<li>13. One of King Jehoshaphat’s seven sons and the brother of Jehoram. Jehoram became sole regent of Judah (848–841 <span>BC<\/span>) at his father’s death (2 Chr 21:2).<\/li>\n<li>14. Son of Jehoiada the priest, who rebuked the princes of Judah for turning against the Lord and worshiping false gods. Enraged by Zechariah’s rebuff, they conspired against him, and at King Joash’s command, stoned him to death in the court of the sanctuary (2 Chr 24:20-22). The Lord, however, avenged Zechariah’s death by allowing the Syrians to defeat Judah, kill the princes, and severely wound Joash, who was subsequently killed by two of his own servants.<\/li>\n<p>In his castigation of his own generation of Jewish leaders, Jesus alluded to Zechariah’s shameful murder in the temple’s sacred precincts: “You will become guilty of murdering all the godly people from righteous Abel to Zechariah son of Barachiah, whom you murdered in the Temple between the altar and the sanctuary” (Mt 23:35, <span>nlt<\/span>). Abel was the first and Zechariah the last of the recorded prophets of God who were unjustly slain, according to the OT.<\/p>\n<li>15. Man who counseled King Uzziah of Judah to walk in the fear of God (2 Chr 26:5).<\/li>\n<li>16. Abijah’s father. Abijah was the mother of King Hezekiah of Judah (2 Chr 29:1).<\/li>\n<li>17. Gershonite Levite descended from Asaph, who along with Mattaniah his kinsman was chosen by King Hezekiah to help cleanse the house of the Lord (2 Chr 29:13).<\/li>\n<li>18. Kohathite Levite who was appointed to oversee the repair of the temple during King Josiah’s reign (2 Chr 34:12).<\/li>\n<li>19. One of the chief officers of the house of God who generously gave animals to the priests for the celebration of the Passover feast during King Josiah’s reign (2 Chr 35:8).<\/li>\n<li>20. Prophet, Berechiah’s son and the grandson of Iddo, who began prophesying as a young man in 520 <span>BC<\/span> during the reign of King Darius I of Persia (Zec 1:1; cf. 2:4). Little is known about the prophet. He ministered with Haggai, his contemporary, in postexilic Jerusalem during the days of Zerubbabel, the governor, and Jeshua, the high priest (Ezr 5:1). He exhorted the Jews to finish building the second temple (6:14) and headed Iddo’s priestly family during Joiakim’s term as high priest (Neh 12:16). Like Jeremiah and Ezekiel, Zechariah served as both priest and prophet (Zec 1:1, 7; 7:1, 8).<\/li>\n<p>Numerous suggestions have been offered to resolve the discrepancy of Zechariah’s pedigree. In the Ezra and Nehemiah passages, Iddo is listed as his father, whereas in Zechariah, Berechiah is the father. Some conclude that Berechiah and Iddo were different names for the same person, or that Berechiah’s name (Zec 1:1, 7) was a later scribal emendation that confused Jeberechiah’s son with Iddo’s son (cf. Is 8:2). A more plausible theory identifies Iddo as Zechariah’s grandfather, the renowned head of his family, who returned to Jerusalem from exile in 538 <span>BC<\/span>. Either by Berechiah’s early death or by the precedence of his grandfather’s name, Zechariah was considered Iddo’s successor.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Prophet, Prophetess; Zechariah, Book of.<\/p>\n<li>21. Parosh’s descendant and the head of his father’s household. He returned with Ezra to Judah following the exile during the reign of King Artaxerxes I of Persia (Ezr 8:3).<\/li>\n<li>22. Bebai’s son and the head of a household. He returned with Ezra to Judah following the exile during the reign of King Artaxerxes I of Persia (Ezr 8:11).<\/li>\n<li>23. One of the Jewish leaders whom Ezra sent to Iddo, the man in charge at Casiphia, to gather Levites and temple servants for the caravan of Jews returning to Palestine from Babylon (Ezr 8:15-17).<\/li>\n<li>24. One of the six descendants of Elam who was encouraged by Ezra to divorce his foreign wife during the postexilic period (Ezr 10:26).<\/li>\n<li>25. One of the men who stood to Ezra’s left when Ezra read the law to the people (Neh 8:4).<\/li>\n<li>26. Descendant of Perez and an ancestor of a Judahite family headed by Athaiah living in Jerusalem during the postexilic period (Neh 11:4).<\/li>\n<li>27. Descendant of Shelah and an ancestor of a Judahite family headed by Maaseiah living in Jerusalem during the postexilic era (Neh 11:5).<\/li>\n<li>28. Priest, descendant of Malkijah and an ancestor of a family of priests headed by Adaiah living in Jerusalem during the postexilic period (Neh 11:12).<\/li>\n<li>29. Jonathan’s son, a descendant of Asaph. He led a group of the priestly musicians who played trumpets at the dedication of the Jerusalem wall in Nehemiah’s day (Neh 12:35).<\/li>\n<li>30. Priest who played a trumpet at the Jerusalem wall’s dedication (Neh 12:41).<\/li>\n<li>31. Jeberechiah’s son and undoubtedly a man of distinction who, along with Uriah the priest, publicly witnessed Isaiah’s writing of the puzzling expression “Maher-shalal-hash-baz,” which later prophetically revealed God’s intended judgment on Damascus and Samaria (Is 8:2).<\/li>\n<li>32. John the Baptist’s father, priest of Abijah’s division, and the husband of Elizabeth, a woman of priestly descent. His story is recounted in Luke 1. They lived in the Judean hill country during King Herod the Great’s reign (37–4 <span>BC<\/span>; Lk 1:5). Zechariah and Elizabeth both lived righteous and pious lives; however, they were advanced in years and still had no children.<\/li>\n<p>As priest, Zechariah was one of the men chosen to represent his division in its yearly appointed session of service in the Jerusalem temple (the priests of Israel were divided into 24 orders, each being assigned an annual two-week period of service in the temple). One day while serving in Jerusalem, Zechariah was selected by lot to burn incense in the temple’s Holy Place, a privilege granted to a priest only once in his lifetime. While performing this temple duty, the angel Gabriel appeared to him, telling him that Elizabeth his wife, though barren, would bear him a son, whose name would be called John and who would prepare the way for the Messiah. As a sign confirming the angel’s report, Zechariah was made mute for his disbelief that, in their old age, he and Elizabeth would produce a child. When Zechariah returned to the temple court, the gathered multitude perceived that the gesturing priest had seen a vision.<\/p>\n<p>Elizabeth became pregnant as promised and in her sixth month was visited by her relative Mary, who was also with child. Later, shortly after the baby’s birth, Zechariah affirmed that his son’s name would be John, at which time his speech was restored and he was filled with the Holy Spirit, prophesying and praising God for the work that he was about to do in Israel.<\/p>\n<li>33. Original name proposed for John the Baptist after his father’s name (Lk 1:59). <em>See<\/em> John the Baptist.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ZECHARIAH (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Extremely popular name in the Bible; it means “the Lord remembers.”<\/p>\n<p> 1. Son of King Jeroboam II; the 15th king of Israel and the last of Jehu’s dynasty. Beginning his rule in 753 <span>BC<\/span>, the 38th year of Azariah’s reign in Judah (792–740 <span>BC<\/span>), Zechariah ruled in Samaria for only six months before he was murdered at Ibleam in a conspiracy masterminded by Shallum, his successor (2 Kgs 14:29; 15:8-11). The Lord’s promise to Jehu, that his descendants would rule to the fourth generation (10:30), was fulfilled with Zechariah’s reign.<\/p>\n<li> 2. Father of Abi (or Abijah, 2 Chr 29:1). Abi was the mother of Hezekiah, who later ruled Judah for 29 years (2 Kgs 18:2).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Reubenite and leader of his tribe (1 Chr 5:7).<\/li>\n<li> 4. Korahite Levite, firstborn of Meshelemiah’s seven sons and a wise counselor, selected by lot to oversee the gatekeepers of the sanctuary’s northern entrance during David’s reign (1 Chr 9:21; 26:2, 14).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Benjaminite and descendant of Jeiel (1 Chr 9:37). He is alternately called Zeker, perhaps an abbreviation of Zechariah, in 1 Chronicles 8:31.<\/li>\n<li> 6. One of the eight Levites assigned to play a harp before the ark of God in the procession led by David when the ark was brought from Obed-edom’s house to Jerusalem (1 Chr 15:18, 20; 16:5).<\/li>\n<li> 7. One of the priests assigned to blow a trumpet in the procession led by David when the ark was brought to Jerusalem (1 Chr 15:24).<\/li>\n<li> 8. Levite and a descendant of Isshiah, who served in the sanctuary during David’s reign (1 Chr 24:25).<\/li>\n<li> 9. Merarite Levite and Hosah’s son, who served as one of the gatekeepers of the sanctuary’s western entrance, at the gate of Halleketh, during David’s reign (1 Chr 26:11-12, 16).<\/li>\n<li>10. Father of Iddo. Iddo was the chief officer of the half-tribe of Manasseh in Gilead during David’s reign (1 Chr 27:21).<\/li>\n<li>11. One of the officials sent by King Jehoshaphat (872–848 <span>BC<\/span>) to teach the law in the cities of Judah (2 Chr 17:7).<\/li>\n<li>12. Gershonite Levite and Jahaziel’s father (2 Chr 20:14).<\/li>\n<li>13. One of King Jehoshaphat’s seven sons and the brother of Jehoram. Jehoram became sole regent of Judah (848–841 <span>BC<\/span>) at his father’s death (2 Chr 21:2).<\/li>\n<li>14. Son of Jehoiada the priest, who rebuked the princes of Judah for turning against the Lord and worshiping false gods. Enraged by Zechariah’s rebuff, they conspired against him, and at King Joash’s command, stoned him to death in the court of the sanctuary (2 Chr 24:20-22). The Lord, however, avenged Zechariah’s death by allowing the Syrians to defeat Judah, kill the princes, and severely wound Joash, who was subsequently killed by two of his own servants.<\/li>\n<p>In his castigation of his own generation of Jewish leaders, Jesus alluded to Zechariah’s shameful murder in the temple’s sacred precincts: “You will become guilty of murdering all the godly people from righteous Abel to Zechariah son of Barachiah, whom you murdered in the Temple between the altar and the sanctuary” (Mt 23:35, <span>nlt<\/span>). Abel was the first and Zechariah the last of the recorded prophets of God who were unjustly slain, according to the OT.<\/p>\n<li>15. Man who counseled King Uzziah of Judah to walk in the fear of God (2 Chr 26:5).<\/li>\n<li>16. Abijah’s father. Abijah was the mother of King Hezekiah of Judah (2 Chr 29:1).<\/li>\n<li>17. Gershonite Levite descended from Asaph, who along with Mattaniah his kinsman was chosen by King Hezekiah to help cleanse the house of the Lord (2 Chr 29:13).<\/li>\n<li>18. Kohathite Levite who was appointed to oversee the repair of the temple during King Josiah’s reign (2 Chr 34:12).<\/li>\n<li>19. One of the chief officers of the house of God who generously gave animals to the priests for the celebration of the Passover feast during King Josiah’s reign (2 Chr 35:8).<\/li>\n<li>20. Prophet, Berechiah’s son and the grandson of Iddo, who began prophesying as a young man in 520 <span>BC<\/span> during the reign of King Darius I of Persia (Zec 1:1; cf. 2:4). Little is known about the prophet. He ministered with Haggai, his contemporary, in postexilic Jerusalem during the days of Zerubbabel, the governor, and Jeshua, the high priest (Ezr 5:1). He exhorted the Jews to finish building the second temple (6:14) and headed Iddo’s priestly family during Joiakim’s term as high priest (Neh 12:16). Like Jeremiah and Ezekiel, Zechariah served as both priest and prophet (Zec 1:1, 7; 7:1, 8).<\/li>\n<p>Numerous suggestions have been offered to resolve the discrepancy of Zechariah’s pedigree. In the Ezra and Nehemiah passages, Iddo is listed as his father, whereas in Zechariah, Berechiah is the father. Some conclude that Berechiah and Iddo were different names for the same person, or that Berechiah’s name (Zec 1:1, 7) was a later scribal emendation that confused Jeberechiah’s son with Iddo’s son (cf. Is 8:2). A more plausible theory identifies Iddo as Zechariah’s grandfather, the renowned head of his family, who returned to Jerusalem from exile in 538 <span>BC<\/span>. Either by Berechiah’s early death or by the precedence of his grandfather’s name, Zechariah was considered Iddo’s successor.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Prophet, Prophetess; Zechariah, Book of.<\/p>\n<li>21. Parosh’s descendant and the head of his father’s household. He returned with Ezra to Judah following the exile during the reign of King Artaxerxes I of Persia (Ezr 8:3).<\/li>\n<li>22. Bebai’s son and the head of a household. He returned with Ezra to Judah following the exile during the reign of King Artaxerxes I of Persia (Ezr 8:11).<\/li>\n<li>23. One of the Jewish leaders whom Ezra sent to Iddo, the man in charge at Casiphia, to gather Levites and temple servants for the caravan of Jews returning to Palestine from Babylon (Ezr 8:15-17).<\/li>\n<li>24. One of the six descendants of Elam who was encouraged by Ezra to divorce his foreign wife during the postexilic period (Ezr 10:26).<\/li>\n<li>25. One of the men who stood to Ezra’s left when Ezra read the law to the people (Neh 8:4).<\/li>\n<li>26. Descendant of Perez and an ancestor of a Judahite family headed by Athaiah living in Jerusalem during the postexilic period (Neh 11:4).<\/li>\n<li>27. Descendant of Shelah and an ancestor of a Judahite family headed by Maaseiah living in Jerusalem during the postexilic era (Neh 11:5).<\/li>\n<li>28. Priest, descendant of Malkijah and an ancestor of a family of priests headed by Adaiah living in Jerusalem during the postexilic period (Neh 11:12).<\/li>\n<li>29. Jonathan’s son, a descendant of Asaph. He led a group of the priestly musicians who played trumpets at the dedication of the Jerusalem wall in Nehemiah’s day (Neh 12:35).<\/li>\n<li>30. Priest who played a trumpet at the Jerusalem wall’s dedication (Neh 12:41).<\/li>\n<li>31. Jeberechiah’s son and undoubtedly a man of distinction who, along with Uriah the priest, publicly witnessed Isaiah’s writing of the puzzling expression “Maher-shalal-hash-baz,” which later prophetically revealed God’s intended judgment on Damascus and Samaria (Is 8:2).<\/li>\n<li>32. John the Baptist’s father, priest of Abijah’s division, and the husband of Elizabeth, a woman of priestly descent. His story is recounted in Luke 1. They lived in the Judean hill country during King Herod the Great’s reign (37–4 <span>BC<\/span>; Lk 1:5). Zechariah and Elizabeth both lived righteous and pious lives; however, they were advanced in years and still had no children.<\/li>\n<p>As priest, Zechariah was one of the men chosen to represent his division in its yearly appointed session of service in the Jerusalem temple (the priests of Israel were divided into 24 orders, each being assigned an annual two-week period of service in the temple). One day while serving in Jerusalem, Zechariah was selected by lot to burn incense in the temple’s Holy Place, a privilege granted to a priest only once in his lifetime. While performing this temple duty, the angel Gabriel appeared to him, telling him that Elizabeth his wife, though barren, would bear him a son, whose name would be called John and who would prepare the way for the Messiah. As a sign confirming the angel’s report, Zechariah was made mute for his disbelief that, in their old age, he and Elizabeth would produce a child. When Zechariah returned to the temple court, the gathered multitude perceived that the gesturing priest had seen a vision.<\/p>\n<p>Elizabeth became pregnant as promised and in her sixth month was visited by her relative Mary, who was also with child. Later, shortly after the baby’s birth, Zechariah affirmed that his son’s name would be John, at which time his speech was restored and he was filled with the Holy Spirit, prophesying and praising God for the work that he was about to do in Israel.<\/p>\n<li>33. Original name proposed for John the Baptist after his father’s name (Lk 1:59). <em>See<\/em> John the Baptist.<\/li>","summary_ro":"ZECHARIAH (Person) Extremely popular name in the Bible; it means “the Lord remembers.” 1. Son of King Jeroboam II; the 15th king of Israel and the last of Jehu’s dynasty. Beginning his rule in 753 BC, the 38th year of Azariah’s reign in Judah (792–740 BC), Zechariah ruled in Samaria for only six months before he was murdered at Ibleam in a conspiracy masterminded by Shallum, his successor (2 Kgs 14:29; 15:8-11). The Lord’s promise to Jehu, that his descendants would rule to the fourth generat...","summary_en":"ZECHARIAH (Person) Extremely popular name in the Bible; it means “the Lord remembers.” 1. Son of King Jeroboam II; the 15th king of Israel and the last of Jehu’s dynasty. Beginning his rule in 753 BC, the 38th year of Azariah’s reign in Judah (792–740 BC), Zechariah ruled in Samaria for only six months before he was murdered at Ibleam in a conspiracy masterminded by Shallum, his successor (2 Kgs 14:29; 15:8-11). The Lord’s promise to Jehu, that his descendants would rule to the fourth generat...","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"8":[{"id":3299,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Azaz","title_en":"Azaz","content_ro":"<h3>AZAZ<\/h3>\n<p>Shema’s son and Bela’s father from Reuben’s tribe (1 Chr 5:8).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>AZAZ<\/h3>\n<p>Shema’s son and Bela’s father from Reuben’s tribe (1 Chr 5:8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"AZAZ Shema’s son and Bela’s father from Reuben’s tribe (1 Chr 5:8).","summary_en":"AZAZ Shema’s son and Bela’s father from Reuben’s tribe (1 Chr 5:8).","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":3400,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Baal-Meon","title_en":"Baal-Meon","content_ro":"<h3>BAAL-MEON<\/h3>\n<p>City in northern Moab assigned to Reuben’s tribe (Nm 32:38; 1 Chr 5:8). It is called Beth-baal-meon in Joshua 13:17, Beth-meon in Jeremiah 48:23, and Beon in Numbers 32:3. About 830 <span>BC<\/span> it was held by Mesha, king of Moab, and was still in Moabite hands in the sixth century <span>BC<\/span> (Jer 48:23; Ez 25:9) but may have been in Israelite possession during part of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BAAL-MEON<\/h3>\n<p>City in northern Moab assigned to Reuben’s tribe (Nm 32:38; 1 Chr 5:8). It is called Beth-baal-meon in Joshua 13:17, Beth-meon in Jeremiah 48:23, and Beon in Numbers 32:3. About 830 <span>BC<\/span> it was held by Mesha, king of Moab, and was still in Moabite hands in the sixth century <span>BC<\/span> (Jer 48:23; Ez 25:9) but may have been in Israelite possession during part of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BAAL-MEON City in northern Moab assigned to Reuben’s tribe (Nm 32:38; 1 Chr 5:8). It is called Beth-baal-meon in Joshua 13:17, Beth-meon in Jeremiah 48:23, and Beon in Numbers 32:3. About 830 BC it was held by Mesha, king of Moab, and was still in Moabite hands in the sixth century BC (Jer 48:23; Ez 25:9) but may have been in Israelite possession during part of the eighth century BC.","summary_en":"BAAL-MEON City in northern Moab assigned to Reuben’s tribe (Nm 32:38; 1 Chr 5:8). It is called Beth-baal-meon in Joshua 13:17, Beth-meon in Jeremiah 48:23, and Beon in Numbers 32:3. About 830 BC it was held by Mesha, king of Moab, and was still in Moabite hands in the sixth century BC (Jer 48:23; Ez 25:9) but may have been in Israelite possession during part of the eighth century BC.","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":4174,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bela (Person)","title_en":"Bela (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>BELA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Beor’s son, a king of Edom who ruled before Israel had a king (Gn 36:31-33). Because Balaam, the pagan prophet from north Syria, also had a father named Beor (Nm 22:5), some ancients and a number of modern critical scholars have confused the Edomite Bela with Balaam.<\/li>\n<li>2. Benjamin’s oldest son (Gn 46:21; 1 Chr 8:1), whose descendants were called Belaites (Nm 26:38).<\/li>\n<li>3. Azaz’s son, a descendant of Reuben who lived in Gilead in Transjordan. So vast were his family’s holdings that they pastured their cattle as far east as the Euphrates River (1 Chr 5:8-9). In the reign of Saul, his family successfully held their land against Hagrite opposition.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>BELA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Beor’s son, a king of Edom who ruled before Israel had a king (Gn 36:31-33). Because Balaam, the pagan prophet from north Syria, also had a father named Beor (Nm 22:5), some ancients and a number of modern critical scholars have confused the Edomite Bela with Balaam.<\/li>\n<li>2. Benjamin’s oldest son (Gn 46:21; 1 Chr 8:1), whose descendants were called Belaites (Nm 26:38).<\/li>\n<li>3. Azaz’s son, a descendant of Reuben who lived in Gilead in Transjordan. So vast were his family’s holdings that they pastured their cattle as far east as the Euphrates River (1 Chr 5:8-9). In the reign of Saul, his family successfully held their land against Hagrite opposition.<\/li>","summary_ro":"BELA (Person) 1. Beor’s son, a king of Edom who ruled before Israel had a king (Gn 36:31-33). Because Balaam, the pagan prophet from north Syria, also had a father named Beor (Nm 22:5), some ancients and a number of modern critical scholars have confused the Edomite Bela with Balaam. 2. Benjamin’s oldest son (Gn 46:21; 1 Chr 8:1), whose descendants were called Belaites (Nm 26:38). 3. Azaz’s son, a descendant of Reuben who lived in Gilead in Transjordan. So vast were his family’s holdings that...","summary_en":"BELA (Person) 1. Beor’s son, a king of Edom who ruled before Israel had a king (Gn 36:31-33). Because Balaam, the pagan prophet from north Syria, also had a father named Beor (Nm 22:5), some ancients and a number of modern critical scholars have confused the Edomite Bela with Balaam. 2. Benjamin’s oldest son (Gn 46:21; 1 Chr 8:1), whose descendants were called Belaites (Nm 26:38). 3. Azaz’s son, a descendant of Reuben who lived in Gilead in Transjordan. So vast were his family’s holdings that...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27144,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nebo (Place)","title_en":"Nebo (Place)","content_ro":"<h3>NEBO (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. City located on the pastoral tablelands of the Transjordan and desired by the sons of Gad and Reuben (Nm 32:3). Reuben was apportioned this town (Nm 32:38; 1 Chr 5:8) but eventually lost it to King Mesha of Moab around 850 <span>BC<\/span>. Later, Isaiah (Is 15:2) and Jeremiah (Jer 48:1, 22) predicted Nebo’s destruction as part of God’s judgment against Moab.<\/li>\n<li>2. Summit in the Pisgah portion of the Abarim mountain range, situated eight miles (12.9 kilometers) east of the Jordan River at the northeastern corner of the Dead Sea, atop of which Moses viewed the Promised Land of Canaan before he died (Dt 32:49; 34:1). Its site has been variously identified with Jebel en Neba or with Khirbet el-Mekhaiyet.<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Nebo, Mount.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NEBO (P<span>lace<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. City located on the pastoral tablelands of the Transjordan and desired by the sons of Gad and Reuben (Nm 32:3). Reuben was apportioned this town (Nm 32:38; 1 Chr 5:8) but eventually lost it to King Mesha of Moab around 850 <span>BC<\/span>. Later, Isaiah (Is 15:2) and Jeremiah (Jer 48:1, 22) predicted Nebo’s destruction as part of God’s judgment against Moab.<\/li>\n<li>2. Summit in the Pisgah portion of the Abarim mountain range, situated eight miles (12.9 kilometers) east of the Jordan River at the northeastern corner of the Dead Sea, atop of which Moses viewed the Promised Land of Canaan before he died (Dt 32:49; 34:1). Its site has been variously identified with Jebel en Neba or with Khirbet el-Mekhaiyet.<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Nebo, Mount.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NEBO (Place) 1. City located on the pastoral tablelands of the Transjordan and desired by the sons of Gad and Reuben (Nm 32:3). Reuben was apportioned this town (Nm 32:38; 1 Chr 5:8) but eventually lost it to King Mesha of Moab around 850 BC. Later, Isaiah (Is 15:2) and Jeremiah (Jer 48:1, 22) predicted Nebo’s destruction as part of God’s judgment against Moab. 2. Summit in the Pisgah portion of the Abarim mountain range, situated eight miles (12.9 kilometers) east of the Jordan River at the ...","summary_en":"NEBO (Place) 1. City located on the pastoral tablelands of the Transjordan and desired by the sons of Gad and Reuben (Nm 32:3). Reuben was apportioned this town (Nm 32:38; 1 Chr 5:8) but eventually lost it to King Mesha of Moab around 850 BC. Later, Isaiah (Is 15:2) and Jeremiah (Jer 48:1, 22) predicted Nebo’s destruction as part of God’s judgment against Moab. 2. Summit in the Pisgah portion of the Abarim mountain range, situated eight miles (12.9 kilometers) east of the Jordan River at the ...","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34870,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Shema (Person)","title_en":"Shema (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>SHEMA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Judahite, Hebron’s son and a descendant of Caleb (1 Chr 2:43-44).<\/li>\n<li>2. Reubenite and Joel’s son (1 Chr 5:8). He is perhaps identifiable with Shemaiah or Shimei in 1 Chronicles 5:4.<\/li>\n<li>3. Benjaminite and head of a family in Aijalon, who helped defeat the inhabitants of Gath (1 Chr 8:13).<\/li>\n<li>4. Levite who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:4).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>SHEMA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Judahite, Hebron’s son and a descendant of Caleb (1 Chr 2:43-44).<\/li>\n<li>2. Reubenite and Joel’s son (1 Chr 5:8). He is perhaps identifiable with Shemaiah or Shimei in 1 Chronicles 5:4.<\/li>\n<li>3. Benjaminite and head of a family in Aijalon, who helped defeat the inhabitants of Gath (1 Chr 8:13).<\/li>\n<li>4. Levite who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:4).<\/li>","summary_ro":"SHEMA (Person) 1. Judahite, Hebron’s son and a descendant of Caleb (1 Chr 2:43-44). 2. Reubenite and Joel’s son (1 Chr 5:8). He is perhaps identifiable with Shemaiah or Shimei in 1 Chronicles 5:4. 3. Benjaminite and head of a family in Aijalon, who helped defeat the inhabitants of Gath (1 Chr 8:13). 4. Levite who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:4).","summary_en":"SHEMA (Person) 1. Judahite, Hebron’s son and a descendant of Caleb (1 Chr 2:43-44). 2. Reubenite and Joel’s son (1 Chr 5:8). He is perhaps identifiable with Shemaiah or Shimei in 1 Chronicles 5:4. 3. Benjaminite and head of a family in Aijalon, who helped defeat the inhabitants of Gath (1 Chr 8:13). 4. Levite who explained to the people passages from the law read by Ezra (Neh 8:4).","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"10":[{"id":15056,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hagrite","title_en":"Hagrite","content_ro":"<h3>HAGRITE<\/h3>\n<p>Arabian tribe descended from Hagar, Abraham’s concubine. Being nomads, the Hagrites roamed the desert east of Gilead. Relations between Israel and the Hagrites were usually hostile. During Saul’s reign, Reuben’s tribe fought them and were defeated (1 Chr 5:10). Later, however, with the help of Gad and the half-tribe of Manasseh, Reuben was able to take their land and hold it until the exile (1 Chr 5:19-20). In the light of that hostility, it is easy to understand Asaph’s prayer against them in Psalm 83:6. David, on the other hand, made a Hagrite, Jaziz, the steward of all his flocks (1 Chr 27:31).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HAGRITE<\/h3>\n<p>Arabian tribe descended from Hagar, Abraham’s concubine. Being nomads, the Hagrites roamed the desert east of Gilead. Relations between Israel and the Hagrites were usually hostile. During Saul’s reign, Reuben’s tribe fought them and were defeated (1 Chr 5:10). Later, however, with the help of Gad and the half-tribe of Manasseh, Reuben was able to take their land and hold it until the exile (1 Chr 5:19-20). In the light of that hostility, it is easy to understand Asaph’s prayer against them in Psalm 83:6. David, on the other hand, made a Hagrite, Jaziz, the steward of all his flocks (1 Chr 27:31).<\/p>","summary_ro":"HAGRITE Arabian tribe descended from Hagar, Abraham’s concubine. Being nomads, the Hagrites roamed the desert east of Gilead. Relations between Israel and the Hagrites were usually hostile. During Saul’s reign, Reuben’s tribe fought them and were defeated (1 Chr 5:10). Later, however, with the help of Gad and the half-tribe of Manasseh, Reuben was able to take their land and hold it until the exile (1 Chr 5:19-20). In the light of that hostility, it is easy to understand Asaph’s prayer agains...","summary_en":"HAGRITE Arabian tribe descended from Hagar, Abraham’s concubine. Being nomads, the Hagrites roamed the desert east of Gilead. Relations between Israel and the Hagrites were usually hostile. During Saul’s reign, Reuben’s tribe fought them and were defeated (1 Chr 5:10). Later, however, with the help of Gad and the half-tribe of Manasseh, Reuben was able to take their land and hold it until the exile (1 Chr 5:19-20). In the light of that hostility, it is easy to understand Asaph’s prayer agains...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":47579,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Cronici 5:10","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Cronici 5:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:10<\/strong> The tribes of Transjordan, including the <em>Reubenites<\/em><em>,<\/em> expanded their settlements to the north and east in conjunction with their war with the <em>Hagrites<\/em> in the days of Saul (see 5:18-22; Ps 83:6). Later, the Hagrites were among David’s men (see 1 Chr 11:38; 27:31).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:10<\/strong> The tribes of Transjordan, including the <em>Reubenites<\/em><em>,<\/em> expanded their settlements to the north and east in conjunction with their war with the <em>Hagrites<\/em> in the days of Saul (see 5:18-22; Ps 83:6). Later, the Hagrites were among David’s men (see 1 Chr 11:38; 27:31).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:10 The tribes of Transjordan, including the Reubenites, expanded their settlements to the north and east in conjunction with their war with the Hagrites in the days of Saul (see 5:18-22; Ps 83:6). Later, the Hagrites were among David’s men (see 1 Chr 11:38; 27:31).","summary_en":"5:10 The tribes of Transjordan, including the Reubenites, expanded their settlements to the north and east in conjunction with their war with the Hagrites in the days of Saul (see 5:18-22; Ps 83:6). Later, the Hagrites were among David’s men (see 1 Chr 11:38; 27:31).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75205,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Cronici 5:10","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Cronici 5:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:10<\/strong> The tribes of Transjordan, including the <em>Reubenites<\/em><em>,<\/em> expanded their settlements to the north and east in conjunction with their war with the <em>Hagrites<\/em> in the days of Saul (see 5:18-22; Ps 83:6). Later, the Hagrites were among David’s men (see 1 Chr 11:38; 27:31).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:10<\/strong> The tribes of Transjordan, including the <em>Reubenites<\/em><em>,<\/em> expanded their settlements to the north and east in conjunction with their war with the <em>Hagrites<\/em> in the days of Saul (see 5:18-22; Ps 83:6). Later, the Hagrites were among David’s men (see 1 Chr 11:38; 27:31).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:10 The tribes of Transjordan, including the Reubenites, expanded their settlements to the north and east in conjunction with their war with the Hagrites in the days of Saul (see 5:18-22; Ps 83:6). Later, the Hagrites were among David’s men (see 1 Chr 11:38; 27:31).","summary_en":"5:10 The tribes of Transjordan, including the Reubenites, expanded their settlements to the north and east in conjunction with their war with the Hagrites in the days of Saul (see 5:18-22; Ps 83:6). Later, the Hagrites were among David’s men (see 1 Chr 11:38; 27:31).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":102831,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Cronici 5:10","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Cronici 5:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:10<\/strong> The tribes of Transjordan, including the <em>Reubenites<\/em><em>,<\/em> expanded their settlements to the north and east in conjunction with their war with the <em>Hagrites<\/em> in the days of Saul (see 5:18-22; Ps 83:6). Later, the Hagrites were among David’s men (see 1 Chr 11:38; 27:31).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:10<\/strong> The tribes of Transjordan, including the <em>Reubenites<\/em><em>,<\/em> expanded their settlements to the north and east in conjunction with their war with the <em>Hagrites<\/em> in the days of Saul (see 5:18-22; Ps 83:6). Later, the Hagrites were among David’s men (see 1 Chr 11:38; 27:31).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:10 The tribes of Transjordan, including the Reubenites, expanded their settlements to the north and east in conjunction with their war with the Hagrites in the days of Saul (see 5:18-22; Ps 83:6). Later, the Hagrites were among David’s men (see 1 Chr 11:38; 27:31).","summary_en":"5:10 The tribes of Transjordan, including the Reubenites, expanded their settlements to the north and east in conjunction with their war with the Hagrites in the days of Saul (see 5:18-22; Ps 83:6). Later, the Hagrites were among David’s men (see 1 Chr 11:38; 27:31).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":130457,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Cronici 5:10","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Cronici 5:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:10<\/strong> The tribes of Transjordan, including the <em>Reubenites<\/em><em>,<\/em> expanded their settlements to the north and east in conjunction with their war with the <em>Hagrites<\/em> in the days of Saul (see 5:18-22; Ps 83:6). Later, the Hagrites were among David’s men (see 1 Chr 11:38; 27:31).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:10<\/strong> The tribes of Transjordan, including the <em>Reubenites<\/em><em>,<\/em> expanded their settlements to the north and east in conjunction with their war with the <em>Hagrites<\/em> in the days of Saul (see 5:18-22; Ps 83:6). Later, the Hagrites were among David’s men (see 1 Chr 11:38; 27:31).<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:10 The tribes of Transjordan, including the Reubenites, expanded their settlements to the north and east in conjunction with their war with the Hagrites in the days of Saul (see 5:18-22; Ps 83:6). Later, the Hagrites were among David’s men (see 1 Chr 11:38; 27:31).","summary_en":"5:10 The tribes of Transjordan, including the Reubenites, expanded their settlements to the north and east in conjunction with their war with the Hagrites in the days of Saul (see 5:18-22; Ps 83:6). Later, the Hagrites were among David’s men (see 1 Chr 11:38; 27:31).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"11":[{"id":33549,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Salcah*, Salchah*, Salecah","title_en":"Salcah*, Salchah*, Salecah","content_ro":"<h3>SALCAH*, SALCHAH*, SALECAH<\/h3>\n<p>City or district that formed the northeastern extremity of the Amorite kingdom of Og in Bashan, east of the Jordan River. Salecah (variously spelled Salcah and Salchah in the <span>kjv<\/span>) was located near the city of Edrei (Jos 12:5). The Israelites gained possession of this city when they defeated Og (Dt 3:10). Later, Salecah was included in the land received by Gad’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 13:11; 1 Chr 5:11). The city is identifiable with the modern town of Salkhad.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SALCAH*, SALCHAH*, SALECAH<\/h3>\n<p>City or district that formed the northeastern extremity of the Amorite kingdom of Og in Bashan, east of the Jordan River. Salecah (variously spelled Salcah and Salchah in the <span>kjv<\/span>) was located near the city of Edrei (Jos 12:5). The Israelites gained possession of this city when they defeated Og (Dt 3:10). Later, Salecah was included in the land received by Gad’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 13:11; 1 Chr 5:11). The city is identifiable with the modern town of Salkhad.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SALCAH*, SALCHAH*, SALECAH City or district that formed the northeastern extremity of the Amorite kingdom of Og in Bashan, east of the Jordan River. Salecah (variously spelled Salcah and Salchah in the kjv) was located near the city of Edrei (Jos 12:5). The Israelites gained possession of this city when they defeated Og (Dt 3:10). Later, Salecah was included in the land received by Gad’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 13:11; 1 Chr 5:11). The city is identifiable with the modern town of Salkhad.","summary_en":"SALCAH*, SALCHAH*, SALECAH City or district that formed the northeastern extremity of the Amorite kingdom of Og in Bashan, east of the Jordan River. Salecah (variously spelled Salcah and Salchah in the kjv) was located near the city of Edrei (Jos 12:5). The Israelites gained possession of this city when they defeated Og (Dt 3:10). Later, Salecah was included in the land received by Gad’s tribe for an inheritance (Jos 13:11; 1 Chr 5:11). The city is identifiable with the modern town of Salkhad.","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"12":[{"id":18157,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jaanai*","title_en":"Jaanai*","content_ro":"<h3>JAANAI*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV form of Janai, a Gadite, in 1 Chronicles 5:12. <em>See<\/em> Janai.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JAANAI*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV form of Janai, a Gadite, in 1 Chronicles 5:12. <em>See<\/em> Janai.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JAANAI* KJV form of Janai, a Gadite, in 1 Chronicles 5:12. See Janai.","summary_en":"JAANAI* KJV form of Janai, a Gadite, in 1 Chronicles 5:12. See Janai.","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":18489,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Janai","title_en":"Janai","content_ro":"<h3>JANAI<\/h3>\n<p>Gadite chief who settled, along with his kinsmen, in the land of Bashan (1 Chr 5:12).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JANAI<\/h3>\n<p>Gadite chief who settled, along with his kinsmen, in the land of Bashan (1 Chr 5:12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"JANAI Gadite chief who settled, along with his kinsmen, in the land of Bashan (1 Chr 5:12).","summary_en":"JANAI Gadite chief who settled, along with his kinsmen, in the land of Bashan (1 Chr 5:12).","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":20037,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Joel (Person)","title_en":"Joel (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>JOEL (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li> 1. Levite from the family of Kohath. He was Azariah’s son and an ancestor of Elkanah, the father of Samuel the prophet (1 Sm 1:1; 1 Chr 6:36).<\/li>\n<li> 2. Oldest son of Samuel the prophet. He and his brother Abijah so corrupted the office of judge that the elders increased their demands for a king (1 Sm 8:2-5). He was the father of Heman the singer (1 Chr 6:33; 15:17). His name has been mistakenly translated “Vashni” in the <span>kjv<\/span> in 1 Chronicles 6:28.<\/li>\n<li> 3. Prince from one of the Simeonite families that emigrated to the valley of Gedor (1 Chr 4:35).<\/li>\n<li> 4. Member of Reuben’s tribe (1 Chr 5:4, 8).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Chief of Gad’s tribe residing in Bashan (1 Chr 5:12).<\/li>\n<li> 6. Third of Izrahiah’s four named sons and a chief of Issachar’s tribe in David’s time (1 Chr 7:3).<\/li>\n<li> 7. Nathan’s brother and one of David’s mighty men (1 Chr 11:38). He is alternately called Igal the son of Nathan in 2 Samuel 23:36. <em>See<\/em> Igal #2.<\/li>\n<li> 8. Levite from the family of Gershon who participated in the royal procession that brought the ark of God to Jerusalem during David’s reign (1 Chr 15:7-11). He may have administered the treasuries of the temple in Jerusalem (1 Chr 26:22).<\/li>\n<li> 9. Pedaiah’s son, who acted as tribal chieftain over the west half of Manasseh’s tribe during David’s reign (1 Chr 27:20)<\/li>\n<li>10. Levite from the family of Kohath who assisted in King Hezekiah’s reform of the temple in Jerusalem (2 Chr 29:12).<\/li>\n<li>11. Nebo’s son, who was encouraged by Ezra to divorce his foreign wife during the postexilic period (Ezr 10:43).<\/li>\n<li>12. Zicri’s son and the supervisor of 128 Benjaminites who moved to postexilic Jerusalem (Neh 11:9).<\/li>\n<li>13. Prophet who wrote the second book of the Minor Prophets. Little is known about him except that he was Pethuel’s son (Jl 1:1; Acts 2:16). <em>See<\/em> Joel, Book of.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JOEL (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li> 1. Levite from the family of Kohath. He was Azariah’s son and an ancestor of Elkanah, the father of Samuel the prophet (1 Sm 1:1; 1 Chr 6:36).<\/li>\n<li> 2. Oldest son of Samuel the prophet. He and his brother Abijah so corrupted the office of judge that the elders increased their demands for a king (1 Sm 8:2-5). He was the father of Heman the singer (1 Chr 6:33; 15:17). His name has been mistakenly translated “Vashni” in the <span>kjv<\/span> in 1 Chronicles 6:28.<\/li>\n<li> 3. Prince from one of the Simeonite families that emigrated to the valley of Gedor (1 Chr 4:35).<\/li>\n<li> 4. Member of Reuben’s tribe (1 Chr 5:4, 8).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Chief of Gad’s tribe residing in Bashan (1 Chr 5:12).<\/li>\n<li> 6. Third of Izrahiah’s four named sons and a chief of Issachar’s tribe in David’s time (1 Chr 7:3).<\/li>\n<li> 7. Nathan’s brother and one of David’s mighty men (1 Chr 11:38). He is alternately called Igal the son of Nathan in 2 Samuel 23:36. <em>See<\/em> Igal #2.<\/li>\n<li> 8. Levite from the family of Gershon who participated in the royal procession that brought the ark of God to Jerusalem during David’s reign (1 Chr 15:7-11). He may have administered the treasuries of the temple in Jerusalem (1 Chr 26:22).<\/li>\n<li> 9. Pedaiah’s son, who acted as tribal chieftain over the west half of Manasseh’s tribe during David’s reign (1 Chr 27:20)<\/li>\n<li>10. Levite from the family of Kohath who assisted in King Hezekiah’s reform of the temple in Jerusalem (2 Chr 29:12).<\/li>\n<li>11. Nebo’s son, who was encouraged by Ezra to divorce his foreign wife during the postexilic period (Ezr 10:43).<\/li>\n<li>12. Zicri’s son and the supervisor of 128 Benjaminites who moved to postexilic Jerusalem (Neh 11:9).<\/li>\n<li>13. Prophet who wrote the second book of the Minor Prophets. Little is known about him except that he was Pethuel’s son (Jl 1:1; Acts 2:16). <em>See<\/em> Joel, Book of.<\/li>","summary_ro":"JOEL (Person) 1. Levite from the family of Kohath. He was Azariah’s son and an ancestor of Elkanah, the father of Samuel the prophet (1 Sm 1:1; 1 Chr 6:36). 2. Oldest son of Samuel the prophet. He and his brother Abijah so corrupted the office of judge that the elders increased their demands for a king (1 Sm 8:2-5). He was the father of Heman the singer (1 Chr 6:33; 15:17). His name has been mistakenly translated “Vashni” in the kjv in 1 Chronicles 6:28. 3. Prince from one of the Simeonite fa...","summary_en":"JOEL (Person) 1. Levite from the family of Kohath. He was Azariah’s son and an ancestor of Elkanah, the father of Samuel the prophet (1 Sm 1:1; 1 Chr 6:36). 2. Oldest son of Samuel the prophet. He and his brother Abijah so corrupted the office of judge that the elders increased their demands for a king (1 Sm 8:2-5). He was the father of Heman the singer (1 Chr 6:33; 15:17). His name has been mistakenly translated “Vashni” in the kjv in 1 Chronicles 6:28. 3. Prince from one of the Simeonite fa...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34644,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Shapham","title_en":"Shapham","content_ro":"<h3>SHAPHAM<\/h3>\n<p>Leader in Gad’s tribe (1 Chr 5:12). He is believed to have lived in Bashan and served during the days of Jotham, king of Judah (v 17).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SHAPHAM<\/h3>\n<p>Leader in Gad’s tribe (1 Chr 5:12). He is believed to have lived in Bashan and served during the days of Jotham, king of Judah (v 17).<\/p>","summary_ro":"SHAPHAM Leader in Gad’s tribe (1 Chr 5:12). He is believed to have lived in Bashan and served during the days of Jotham, king of Judah (v 17).","summary_en":"SHAPHAM Leader in Gad’s tribe (1 Chr 5:12). He is believed to have lived in Bashan and served during the days of Jotham, king of Judah (v 17).","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34663,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Shaphat","title_en":"Shaphat","content_ro":"<h3>SHAPHAT<\/h3>\n<li>1. Simeonite, Hori’s son and one of the 12 spies sent by Moses to search out the land of Canaan (Nm 13:5).<\/li>\n<li>2. Father of the prophet Elisha from the town of Abel-meholah (1 Kgs 19:16, 19; 2 Kgs 3:11; 6:31).<\/li>\n<li>3. Youngest of Shemaiah’s six sons from Judah’s tribe and a descendant of David (1 Chr 3:22).<\/li>\n<li>4. Gadite chief in Bashan, a region west of the Jordan River (1 Chr 5:12).<\/li>\n<li>5. Adlai’s son and a member of King David’s staff. Shaphat had charge of David’s cattle in the valleys (1 Chr 27:29).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>SHAPHAT<\/h3>\n<li>1. Simeonite, Hori’s son and one of the 12 spies sent by Moses to search out the land of Canaan (Nm 13:5).<\/li>\n<li>2. Father of the prophet Elisha from the town of Abel-meholah (1 Kgs 19:16, 19; 2 Kgs 3:11; 6:31).<\/li>\n<li>3. Youngest of Shemaiah’s six sons from Judah’s tribe and a descendant of David (1 Chr 3:22).<\/li>\n<li>4. Gadite chief in Bashan, a region west of the Jordan River (1 Chr 5:12).<\/li>\n<li>5. Adlai’s son and a member of King David’s staff. Shaphat had charge of David’s cattle in the valleys (1 Chr 27:29).<\/li>","summary_ro":"SHAPHAT 1. Simeonite, Hori’s son and one of the 12 spies sent by Moses to search out the land of Canaan (Nm 13:5). 2. Father of the prophet Elisha from the town of Abel-meholah (1 Kgs 19:16, 19; 2 Kgs 3:11; 6:31). 3. Youngest of Shemaiah’s six sons from Judah’s tribe and a descendant of David (1 Chr 3:22). 4. Gadite chief in Bashan, a region west of the Jordan River (1 Chr 5:12). 5. Adlai’s son and a member of King David’s staff. Shaphat had charge of David’s cattle in the valleys (1 Chr 27:29).","summary_en":"SHAPHAT 1. Simeonite, Hori’s son and one of the 12 spies sent by Moses to search out the land of Canaan (Nm 13:5). 2. Father of the prophet Elisha from the town of Abel-meholah (1 Kgs 19:16, 19; 2 Kgs 3:11; 6:31). 3. Youngest of Shemaiah’s six sons from Judah’s tribe and a descendant of David (1 Chr 3:22). 4. Gadite chief in Bashan, a region west of the Jordan River (1 Chr 5:12). 5. Adlai’s son and a member of King David’s staff. Shaphat had charge of David’s cattle in the valleys (1 Chr 27:29).","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"13":[{"id":9999,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Eber","title_en":"Eber","content_ro":"<h3>EBER<\/h3>\n<li>1. Abraham’s ancestor (Gn 10:21-25; 11:14-17; 1 Chr 1:18-25; Lk 3:35) from whom the word “Hebrew” may be derived. Eber lived 464 years and was the ancestor of the “sons of Eber,” a phrase possibly equal to the “Hebrews,” as “sons of Heth” equals the “Hittites” (Gn 23:10, <span>nasb<\/span>). However, the term “Hebrew” may be an indication of social class rather than of descent from Eber. Eber had a son in whose time the earth was divided, a division possibly into nomadic and sedentary groups.<\/li>\n<li>2. Gadite leader registered during the reigns of Jothan, king of Judah (950–932 <span>BC<\/span>), and Jeroboam II, king of Israel (993–953 <span>BC<\/span>; 1 Chr 5:13, <span>kjv<\/span> “Heber”).<\/li>\n<li>3. Benjamite and Elpaal’s descendant (1 Chr 8:12).<\/li>\n<li>4. Benjamite and Shashak’s descendant (1 Chr 8:22).<\/li>\n<li>5. Head of Amok’s priestly family during the days of the high priest Joiakim (Neh 12:20).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>EBER<\/h3>\n<li>1. Abraham’s ancestor (Gn 10:21-25; 11:14-17; 1 Chr 1:18-25; Lk 3:35) from whom the word “Hebrew” may be derived. Eber lived 464 years and was the ancestor of the “sons of Eber,” a phrase possibly equal to the “Hebrews,” as “sons of Heth” equals the “Hittites” (Gn 23:10, <span>nasb<\/span>). However, the term “Hebrew” may be an indication of social class rather than of descent from Eber. Eber had a son in whose time the earth was divided, a division possibly into nomadic and sedentary groups.<\/li>\n<li>2. Gadite leader registered during the reigns of Jothan, king of Judah (950–932 <span>BC<\/span>), and Jeroboam II, king of Israel (993–953 <span>BC<\/span>; 1 Chr 5:13, <span>kjv<\/span> “Heber”).<\/li>\n<li>3. Benjamite and Elpaal’s descendant (1 Chr 8:12).<\/li>\n<li>4. Benjamite and Shashak’s descendant (1 Chr 8:22).<\/li>\n<li>5. Head of Amok’s priestly family during the days of the high priest Joiakim (Neh 12:20).<\/li>","summary_ro":"EBER 1. Abraham’s ancestor (Gn 10:21-25; 11:14-17; 1 Chr 1:18-25; Lk 3:35) from whom the word “Hebrew” may be derived. Eber lived 464 years and was the ancestor of the “sons of Eber,” a phrase possibly equal to the “Hebrews,” as “sons of Heth” equals the “Hittites” (Gn 23:10, nasb). However, the term “Hebrew” may be an indication of social class rather than of descent from Eber. Eber had a son in whose time the earth was divided, a division possibly into nomadic and sedentary groups. 2. Gadit...","summary_en":"EBER 1. Abraham’s ancestor (Gn 10:21-25; 11:14-17; 1 Chr 1:18-25; Lk 3:35) from whom the word “Hebrew” may be derived. Eber lived 464 years and was the ancestor of the “sons of Eber,” a phrase possibly equal to the “Hebrews,” as “sons of Heth” equals the “Hittites” (Gn 23:10, nasb). However, the term “Hebrew” may be an indication of social class rather than of descent from Eber. Eber had a son in whose time the earth was divided, a division possibly into nomadic and sedentary groups. 2. Gadit...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":15857,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Heber","title_en":"Heber","content_ro":"<h3>HEBER<\/h3>\n<li>1. Descendant of Jacob through Asher and Beriah (Gn 46:17) and father of the family of Heberites (Nm 26:45; 1 Chr 7:31-32).<\/li>\n<li>2. Husband of Jael, the woman who deceptively killed Sisera, known as Heber the Kenite (Jgs 4:11-21; 5:24).<\/li>\n<li>3. Judahite, Mered’s son and the father of Soco (1 Chr 4:18).<\/li>\n<li>4. Elpaal’s son from Judah’s tribe (1 Chr 8:17).<\/li>\n<li>5. KJV spelling for Eber in 1 Chronicles 5:13; 8:22; and Luke 3:35. <em>See<\/em> Eber #1, #2, #4.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>HEBER<\/h3>\n<li>1. Descendant of Jacob through Asher and Beriah (Gn 46:17) and father of the family of Heberites (Nm 26:45; 1 Chr 7:31-32).<\/li>\n<li>2. Husband of Jael, the woman who deceptively killed Sisera, known as Heber the Kenite (Jgs 4:11-21; 5:24).<\/li>\n<li>3. Judahite, Mered’s son and the father of Soco (1 Chr 4:18).<\/li>\n<li>4. Elpaal’s son from Judah’s tribe (1 Chr 8:17).<\/li>\n<li>5. KJV spelling for Eber in 1 Chronicles 5:13; 8:22; and Luke 3:35. <em>See<\/em> Eber #1, #2, #4.<\/li>","summary_ro":"HEBER 1. Descendant of Jacob through Asher and Beriah (Gn 46:17) and father of the family of Heberites (Nm 26:45; 1 Chr 7:31-32). 2. Husband of Jael, the woman who deceptively killed Sisera, known as Heber the Kenite (Jgs 4:11-21; 5:24). 3. Judahite, Mered’s son and the father of Soco (1 Chr 4:18). 4. Elpaal’s son from Judah’s tribe (1 Chr 8:17). 5. KJV spelling for Eber in 1 Chronicles 5:13; 8:22; and Luke 3:35. See Eber #1, #2, #4.","summary_en":"HEBER 1. Descendant of Jacob through Asher and Beriah (Gn 46:17) and father of the family of Heberites (Nm 26:45; 1 Chr 7:31-32). 2. Husband of Jael, the woman who deceptively killed Sisera, known as Heber the Kenite (Jgs 4:11-21; 5:24). 3. Judahite, Mered’s son and the father of Soco (1 Chr 4:18). 4. Elpaal’s son from Judah’s tribe (1 Chr 8:17). 5. KJV spelling for Eber in 1 Chronicles 5:13; 8:22; and Luke 3:35. See Eber #1, #2, #4.","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":18203,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jacan, Jachan*","title_en":"Jacan, Jachan*","content_ro":"<h3>JACAN, JACHAN*<\/h3>\n<p>Member of Gad’s tribe who lived in Bashan during the reign of Jotham, king of Judah (1 Chr 5:13).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JACAN, JACHAN*<\/h3>\n<p>Member of Gad’s tribe who lived in Bashan during the reign of Jotham, king of Judah (1 Chr 5:13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"JACAN, JACHAN* Member of Gad’s tribe who lived in Bashan during the reign of Jotham, king of Judah (1 Chr 5:13).","summary_en":"JACAN, JACHAN* Member of Gad’s tribe who lived in Bashan during the reign of Jotham, king of Judah (1 Chr 5:13).","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":20508,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jorai","title_en":"Jorai","content_ro":"<h3>JORAI<\/h3>\n<p>Member of Gad’s tribe (1 Chr 5:13).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JORAI<\/h3>\n<p>Member of Gad’s tribe (1 Chr 5:13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"JORAI Member of Gad’s tribe (1 Chr 5:13).","summary_en":"JORAI Member of Gad’s tribe (1 Chr 5:13).","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":25312,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Meshullam","title_en":"Meshullam","content_ro":"<h3>MESHULLAM<\/h3>\n<li> 1. Forefather of Shaphan, the royal secretary to King Josiah of Judah (2 Kgs 22:3).<\/li>\n<li> 2. Zerubbabel’s son and a descendant of David (1 Chr 3:19).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Gadite leader registered during the reigns of Jotham, king of Judah (950–932 <span>BC<\/span>), and Jeroboam II, king of Israel (993–953 <span>BC<\/span>; 1 Chr 5:13).<\/li>\n<li> 4. Benjamite and a descendant of Elpaal (1 Chr 8:17).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Benjamite and the father of Sallu, a resident in Jerusalem during the postexilic period (1 Chr 9:7; Neh 11:7).<\/li>\n<li> 6. Benjamite and the son of Shephatiah, who resided in Jerusalem during the postexilic period (1 Chr 9:8).<\/li>\n<li> 7. Priest, the son of Zadok and the father of Hilkiah, whose descendants served in Jerusalem’s sanctuary during the postexilic era (1 Chr 9:11; Neh 11:11). He is probably identical with Shallum in 1 Chronicles 6:12-13.<\/li>\n<li> 8. Priest, the son of Meshillemith and a forefather of Adaiah. Adaiah served in Jerusalem’s sanctuary during the postexilic era (1 Chr 9:12).<\/li>\n<li> 9. Kohathite Levite who was appointed to oversee the repair of the temple during King Josiah’s reign (2 Chr 34:12).<\/li>\n<li>10. One of the Jewish leaders whom Ezra sent to Iddo at Casiphia to gather Levites and temple servants for the caravan of Jews returning to Palestine from Babylonia (Ezr 8:16).<\/li>\n<li>11. One who opposed Ezra’s suggestion that the sons of Israel should divorce the foreign women they had married since returning to Palestine from exile (Ezr 10:15).<\/li>\n<li>12. Bani’s son, who was encouraged by Ezra to divorce his foreign wife during the postexilic era (Ezr 10:29).<\/li>\n<li>13. Berekiah’s son, who rebuilt a section of the Jerusalem wall during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 3:4, 30). His daughter married Jehohanan, the son of Tobiah the Ammonite (6:18).<\/li>\n<li>14. Besodeiah’s son, who with Joiada repaired the Old Gate in the Jerusalem wall (Neh 3:6).<\/li>\n<li>15. One of the men who stood to Ezra’s left when Ezra read the law to the people (Neh 8:4).<\/li>\n<li>16. One of the priests who set his seal on the covenant of Ezra (Neh 10:7).<\/li>\n<li>17. One of the leaders of Israel who set his seal on the covenant of Ezra (Neh 10:20).<\/li>\n<li>18. Head of Ezra’s priestly family during the days of Joiakim, the high priest, in postexilic Jerusalem (Neh 12:13).<\/li>\n<li>19. Head of Ginnethon’s priestly family during the days of Joiakim (Neh 12:16).<\/li>\n<li>20. One of the gatekeepers during the days of the high priest Joiakim (Neh 12:25); perhaps identifiable with Shallum in 1 Chronicles 9:17.<\/li>\n<li>21. One of the princes of Judah who participated in the dedication of the Jerusalem wall during the postexilic era (Neh 12:33).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>MESHULLAM<\/h3>\n<li> 1. Forefather of Shaphan, the royal secretary to King Josiah of Judah (2 Kgs 22:3).<\/li>\n<li> 2. Zerubbabel’s son and a descendant of David (1 Chr 3:19).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Gadite leader registered during the reigns of Jotham, king of Judah (950–932 <span>BC<\/span>), and Jeroboam II, king of Israel (993–953 <span>BC<\/span>; 1 Chr 5:13).<\/li>\n<li> 4. Benjamite and a descendant of Elpaal (1 Chr 8:17).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Benjamite and the father of Sallu, a resident in Jerusalem during the postexilic period (1 Chr 9:7; Neh 11:7).<\/li>\n<li> 6. Benjamite and the son of Shephatiah, who resided in Jerusalem during the postexilic period (1 Chr 9:8).<\/li>\n<li> 7. Priest, the son of Zadok and the father of Hilkiah, whose descendants served in Jerusalem’s sanctuary during the postexilic era (1 Chr 9:11; Neh 11:11). He is probably identical with Shallum in 1 Chronicles 6:12-13.<\/li>\n<li> 8. Priest, the son of Meshillemith and a forefather of Adaiah. Adaiah served in Jerusalem’s sanctuary during the postexilic era (1 Chr 9:12).<\/li>\n<li> 9. Kohathite Levite who was appointed to oversee the repair of the temple during King Josiah’s reign (2 Chr 34:12).<\/li>\n<li>10. One of the Jewish leaders whom Ezra sent to Iddo at Casiphia to gather Levites and temple servants for the caravan of Jews returning to Palestine from Babylonia (Ezr 8:16).<\/li>\n<li>11. One who opposed Ezra’s suggestion that the sons of Israel should divorce the foreign women they had married since returning to Palestine from exile (Ezr 10:15).<\/li>\n<li>12. Bani’s son, who was encouraged by Ezra to divorce his foreign wife during the postexilic era (Ezr 10:29).<\/li>\n<li>13. Berekiah’s son, who rebuilt a section of the Jerusalem wall during the days of Nehemiah (Neh 3:4, 30). His daughter married Jehohanan, the son of Tobiah the Ammonite (6:18).<\/li>\n<li>14. Besodeiah’s son, who with Joiada repaired the Old Gate in the Jerusalem wall (Neh 3:6).<\/li>\n<li>15. One of the men who stood to Ezra’s left when Ezra read the law to the people (Neh 8:4).<\/li>\n<li>16. One of the priests who set his seal on the covenant of Ezra (Neh 10:7).<\/li>\n<li>17. One of the leaders of Israel who set his seal on the covenant of Ezra (Neh 10:20).<\/li>\n<li>18. Head of Ezra’s priestly family during the days of Joiakim, the high priest, in postexilic Jerusalem (Neh 12:13).<\/li>\n<li>19. Head of Ginnethon’s priestly family during the days of Joiakim (Neh 12:16).<\/li>\n<li>20. One of the gatekeepers during the days of the high priest Joiakim (Neh 12:25); perhaps identifiable with Shallum in 1 Chronicles 9:17.<\/li>\n<li>21. One of the princes of Judah who participated in the dedication of the Jerusalem wall during the postexilic era (Neh 12:33).<\/li>","summary_ro":"MESHULLAM 1. Forefather of Shaphan, the royal secretary to King Josiah of Judah (2 Kgs 22:3). 2. Zerubbabel’s son and a descendant of David (1 Chr 3:19). 3. Gadite leader registered during the reigns of Jotham, king of Judah (950–932 BC), and Jeroboam II, king of Israel (993–953 BC; 1 Chr 5:13). 4. Benjamite and a descendant of Elpaal (1 Chr 8:17). 5. Benjamite and the father of Sallu, a resident in Jerusalem during the postexilic period (1 Chr 9:7; Neh 11:7). 6. Benjamite and the son of Shep...","summary_en":"MESHULLAM 1. Forefather of Shaphan, the royal secretary to King Josiah of Judah (2 Kgs 22:3). 2. Zerubbabel’s son and a descendant of David (1 Chr 3:19). 3. Gadite leader registered during the reigns of Jotham, king of Judah (950–932 BC), and Jeroboam II, king of Israel (993–953 BC; 1 Chr 5:13). 4. Benjamite and a descendant of Elpaal (1 Chr 8:17). 5. Benjamite and the father of Sallu, a resident in Jerusalem during the postexilic period (1 Chr 9:7; Neh 11:7). 6. Benjamite and the son of Shep...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":25620,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Michael","title_en":"Michael","content_ro":"<h3>MICHAEL<\/h3>\n<p>Name meaning “Who is like God?” used of 10 men in Scripture and also of one who is described as an archangel.<\/p>\n<p>1. Father of one of the spies sent by Moses into Canaan (Nm 13:13).<\/p>\n<li>2–3. Gadites named in the lists of those who settled in the land of Bashan (1 Chr 5:13-14).<\/li>\n<li>4. Forefather of Asaph, a temple singer in the days of David (1 Chr 6:40).<\/li>\n<li>5. Chief man of Issachar in the temple lists (1 Chr 7:3).<\/li>\n<li>6. Benjamite named in the temple lists (1 Chr 8:16).<\/li>\n<li>7. Man of Manasseh who joined David in Ziklag when he was fleeing from Saul (1 Chr 12:20).<\/li>\n<li>8. Father of Omri, a top political officer in the days of David (1 Chr 27:18).<\/li>\n<li> 9. Son of King Jehoshaphat of Judah (2 Chr 21:2).<\/li>\n<li>10. Father of Zebadiah, a returnee with Ezra to Jerusalem (Ezr 8:8).<\/li>\n<li>11. Angel in the OT, intertestamental literature, and the NT. In Daniel 10:13 it is said that “the spirit prince of the kingdom of Persia” sought to oppose the purpose of God, but Michael, “one of the archangels,” contended against this evil spirit at the Lord’s side (Dn 10:21). His conflict on behalf of Israel is referred to further in Daniel 12:1.<\/li>\n<p>In the book of Enoch, Michael is one of four (Enoch 9:1; 40:9) or of seven (20:1-7) special angels or “archangels.” In Enoch, in the War Scroll (of the Dead Sea Scrolls), and in other intertestamental literature, Michael regularly is presented either as the champion of the cause of the righteous or as the patron angel of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Jude, apparently alluding to the Assumption of Moses, speaks of the archangel Michael as having contended with the devil in a dispute about the body of Moses (Jude 1:9; cf. 2 Pt 2:10-11; see also the reference to “the archangel” in 1 Thes 4:16). The only other reference to Michael in the NT is Revelation 12:7-8, where it is said, “Then there was war in heaven. Michael and the angels under his command fought the dragon and his angels. And the dragon lost the battle and was forced out of heaven” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Angel.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MICHAEL<\/h3>\n<p>Name meaning “Who is like God?” used of 10 men in Scripture and also of one who is described as an archangel.<\/p>\n<p>1. Father of one of the spies sent by Moses into Canaan (Nm 13:13).<\/p>\n<li>2–3. Gadites named in the lists of those who settled in the land of Bashan (1 Chr 5:13-14).<\/li>\n<li>4. Forefather of Asaph, a temple singer in the days of David (1 Chr 6:40).<\/li>\n<li>5. Chief man of Issachar in the temple lists (1 Chr 7:3).<\/li>\n<li>6. Benjamite named in the temple lists (1 Chr 8:16).<\/li>\n<li>7. Man of Manasseh who joined David in Ziklag when he was fleeing from Saul (1 Chr 12:20).<\/li>\n<li>8. Father of Omri, a top political officer in the days of David (1 Chr 27:18).<\/li>\n<li> 9. Son of King Jehoshaphat of Judah (2 Chr 21:2).<\/li>\n<li>10. Father of Zebadiah, a returnee with Ezra to Jerusalem (Ezr 8:8).<\/li>\n<li>11. Angel in the OT, intertestamental literature, and the NT. In Daniel 10:13 it is said that “the spirit prince of the kingdom of Persia” sought to oppose the purpose of God, but Michael, “one of the archangels,” contended against this evil spirit at the Lord’s side (Dn 10:21). His conflict on behalf of Israel is referred to further in Daniel 12:1.<\/li>\n<p>In the book of Enoch, Michael is one of four (Enoch 9:1; 40:9) or of seven (20:1-7) special angels or “archangels.” In Enoch, in the War Scroll (of the Dead Sea Scrolls), and in other intertestamental literature, Michael regularly is presented either as the champion of the cause of the righteous or as the patron angel of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Jude, apparently alluding to the Assumption of Moses, speaks of the archangel Michael as having contended with the devil in a dispute about the body of Moses (Jude 1:9; cf. 2 Pt 2:10-11; see also the reference to “the archangel” in 1 Thes 4:16). The only other reference to Michael in the NT is Revelation 12:7-8, where it is said, “Then there was war in heaven. Michael and the angels under his command fought the dragon and his angels. And the dragon lost the battle and was forced out of heaven” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Angel.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MICHAEL Name meaning “Who is like God?” used of 10 men in Scripture and also of one who is described as an archangel. 1. Father of one of the spies sent by Moses into Canaan (Nm 13:13). 2–3. Gadites named in the lists of those who settled in the land of Bashan (1 Chr 5:13-14). 4. Forefather of Asaph, a temple singer in the days of David (1 Chr 6:40). 5. Chief man of Issachar in the temple lists (1 Chr 7:3). 6. Benjamite named in the temple lists (1 Chr 8:16). 7. Man of Manasseh who joined Dav...","summary_en":"MICHAEL Name meaning “Who is like God?” used of 10 men in Scripture and also of one who is described as an archangel. 1. Father of one of the spies sent by Moses into Canaan (Nm 13:13). 2–3. Gadites named in the lists of those who settled in the land of Bashan (1 Chr 5:13-14). 4. Forefather of Asaph, a temple singer in the days of David (1 Chr 6:40). 5. Chief man of Issachar in the temple lists (1 Chr 7:3). 6. Benjamite named in the temple lists (1 Chr 8:16). 7. Man of Manasseh who joined Dav...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34714,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Sheba (Person)","title_en":"Sheba (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>SHEBA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Son of Raamah, the brother of Dedan and a descendant of Noah through Ham’s line (Gn 10:7; 1 Chr 1:9).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the 13 sons of Joktan and a descendant of Noah through Shem’s line (Gn 10:28; 1 Chr 1:22).<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of Jokshan, the brother of Dedan and the grandson of Abraham and Keturah (Gn 25:3; 1 Chr 1:32).<\/li>\n<li>4. Benjaminite and the son of Bicri. After the death of Absalom, Sheba incited Israel to rebel against David. Under the command of Joab, the revolt was subdued and Sheba was beheaded at Abel-beth-maacah (2 Sm 20:1-22).<\/li>\n<li>5. One of the Gadite leaders ruling in Bashan, registered during the reigns of Jotham king of Judah (750–732 <span>BC<\/span>) and Jeroboam II king of Israel (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>); <em>see<\/em> 1 Chr 5:13, 16-17.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>SHEBA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Son of Raamah, the brother of Dedan and a descendant of Noah through Ham’s line (Gn 10:7; 1 Chr 1:9).<\/li>\n<li>2. One of the 13 sons of Joktan and a descendant of Noah through Shem’s line (Gn 10:28; 1 Chr 1:22).<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of Jokshan, the brother of Dedan and the grandson of Abraham and Keturah (Gn 25:3; 1 Chr 1:32).<\/li>\n<li>4. Benjaminite and the son of Bicri. After the death of Absalom, Sheba incited Israel to rebel against David. Under the command of Joab, the revolt was subdued and Sheba was beheaded at Abel-beth-maacah (2 Sm 20:1-22).<\/li>\n<li>5. One of the Gadite leaders ruling in Bashan, registered during the reigns of Jotham king of Judah (750–732 <span>BC<\/span>) and Jeroboam II king of Israel (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>); <em>see<\/em> 1 Chr 5:13, 16-17.<\/li>","summary_ro":"SHEBA (Person) 1. Son of Raamah, the brother of Dedan and a descendant of Noah through Ham’s line (Gn 10:7; 1 Chr 1:9). 2. One of the 13 sons of Joktan and a descendant of Noah through Shem’s line (Gn 10:28; 1 Chr 1:22). 3. Son of Jokshan, the brother of Dedan and the grandson of Abraham and Keturah (Gn 25:3; 1 Chr 1:32). 4. Benjaminite and the son of Bicri. After the death of Absalom, Sheba incited Israel to rebel against David. Under the command of Joab, the revolt was subdued and Sheba was...","summary_en":"SHEBA (Person) 1. Son of Raamah, the brother of Dedan and a descendant of Noah through Ham’s line (Gn 10:7; 1 Chr 1:9). 2. One of the 13 sons of Joktan and a descendant of Noah through Shem’s line (Gn 10:28; 1 Chr 1:22). 3. Son of Jokshan, the brother of Dedan and the grandson of Abraham and Keturah (Gn 25:3; 1 Chr 1:32). 4. Benjaminite and the son of Bicri. After the death of Absalom, Sheba incited Israel to rebel against David. Under the command of Joab, the revolt was subdued and Sheba was...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":39292,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Zia","title_en":"Zia","content_ro":"<h3>ZIA<\/h3>\n<p>One of the clan leaders of Gad’s tribe dwelling in Bashan (1 Chr 5:13).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ZIA<\/h3>\n<p>One of the clan leaders of Gad’s tribe dwelling in Bashan (1 Chr 5:13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ZIA One of the clan leaders of Gad’s tribe dwelling in Bashan (1 Chr 5:13).","summary_en":"ZIA One of the clan leaders of Gad’s tribe dwelling in Bashan (1 Chr 5:13).","source":"Articles\/Z.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"14":[{"id":163,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Abihail","title_en":"Abihail","content_ro":"<h3>ABIHAIL<\/h3>\n<p>Name used for both men and women in the OT.<\/p>\n<p>1. Zuriel’s father and a leader of the Merari family of Levites in Israel’s wilderness community (Nm 3:35).<\/p>\n<li>2. Abishur’s wife, and mother of Ahban and Molid (1 Chr 2:29).<\/li>\n<li>3. Huri’s son, a descendant of Gad, living in Gilead and Bashan (1 Chr 5:14).<\/li>\n<li>4. Woman named in 2 Chronicles 11:18 whose relationship to King Rehoboam is not clear from the Hebrew text. In some translations, Abihail seems to be the second wife of Rehoboam. However, only one wife is mentioned at first, so Abihail was probably the mother of Rehoboam’s first wife, Mahalath. This Abihail was thus a daughter of Eliab, David’s eldest brother. She married her cousin Jerimoth, one of David’s sons.<\/li>\n<li>5. Esther’s father, and uncle of Mordecai (Est 2:15; 9:29).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ABIHAIL<\/h3>\n<p>Name used for both men and women in the OT.<\/p>\n<p>1. Zuriel’s father and a leader of the Merari family of Levites in Israel’s wilderness community (Nm 3:35).<\/p>\n<li>2. Abishur’s wife, and mother of Ahban and Molid (1 Chr 2:29).<\/li>\n<li>3. Huri’s son, a descendant of Gad, living in Gilead and Bashan (1 Chr 5:14).<\/li>\n<li>4. Woman named in 2 Chronicles 11:18 whose relationship to King Rehoboam is not clear from the Hebrew text. In some translations, Abihail seems to be the second wife of Rehoboam. However, only one wife is mentioned at first, so Abihail was probably the mother of Rehoboam’s first wife, Mahalath. This Abihail was thus a daughter of Eliab, David’s eldest brother. She married her cousin Jerimoth, one of David’s sons.<\/li>\n<li>5. Esther’s father, and uncle of Mordecai (Est 2:15; 9:29).<\/li>","summary_ro":"ABIHAIL Name used for both men and women in the OT. 1. Zuriel’s father and a leader of the Merari family of Levites in Israel’s wilderness community (Nm 3:35). 2. Abishur’s wife, and mother of Ahban and Molid (1 Chr 2:29). 3. Huri’s son, a descendant of Gad, living in Gilead and Bashan (1 Chr 5:14). 4. Woman named in 2 Chronicles 11:18 whose relationship to King Rehoboam is not clear from the Hebrew text. In some translations, Abihail seems to be the second wife of Rehoboam. However, only one...","summary_en":"ABIHAIL Name used for both men and women in the OT. 1. Zuriel’s father and a leader of the Merari family of Levites in Israel’s wilderness community (Nm 3:35). 2. Abishur’s wife, and mother of Ahban and Molid (1 Chr 2:29). 3. Huri’s son, a descendant of Gad, living in Gilead and Bashan (1 Chr 5:14). 4. Woman named in 2 Chronicles 11:18 whose relationship to King Rehoboam is not clear from the Hebrew text. In some translations, Abihail seems to be the second wife of Rehoboam. However, only one...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":5879,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Buz (Person)","title_en":"Buz (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>BUZ (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Abraham’s nephew, and one of Nahor’s eight sons (Gn 22:21).<\/li>\n<li>2. Member of Gad’s tribe (1 Chr 5:14).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>BUZ (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Abraham’s nephew, and one of Nahor’s eight sons (Gn 22:21).<\/li>\n<li>2. Member of Gad’s tribe (1 Chr 5:14).<\/li>","summary_ro":"BUZ (Person) 1. Abraham’s nephew, and one of Nahor’s eight sons (Gn 22:21). 2. Member of Gad’s tribe (1 Chr 5:14).","summary_en":"BUZ (Person) 1. Abraham’s nephew, and one of Nahor’s eight sons (Gn 22:21). 2. Member of Gad’s tribe (1 Chr 5:14).","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13847,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gilead (Person)","title_en":"Gilead (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>GILEAD (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Makir’s son from Manasseh’s tribe (Nm 26:29-33) and head of the clan of his descendants (26:29; 27:1) during the time of Moses (36:1).<\/li>\n<li>2. Father of Jephthah during the period of the judges (Jgs 11:1-2). Jephthah was the head of the Gileadites and judge over Israel.<\/li>\n<li>3. Michael’s son from Gad’s tribe, who lived in Bashan during the initial settlement of Palestine (1 Chr 5:14).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>GILEAD (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Makir’s son from Manasseh’s tribe (Nm 26:29-33) and head of the clan of his descendants (26:29; 27:1) during the time of Moses (36:1).<\/li>\n<li>2. Father of Jephthah during the period of the judges (Jgs 11:1-2). Jephthah was the head of the Gileadites and judge over Israel.<\/li>\n<li>3. Michael’s son from Gad’s tribe, who lived in Bashan during the initial settlement of Palestine (1 Chr 5:14).<\/li>","summary_ro":"GILEAD (Person) 1. Makir’s son from Manasseh’s tribe (Nm 26:29-33) and head of the clan of his descendants (26:29; 27:1) during the time of Moses (36:1). 2. Father of Jephthah during the period of the judges (Jgs 11:1-2). Jephthah was the head of the Gileadites and judge over Israel. 3. Michael’s son from Gad’s tribe, who lived in Bashan during the initial settlement of Palestine (1 Chr 5:14).","summary_en":"GILEAD (Person) 1. Makir’s son from Manasseh’s tribe (Nm 26:29-33) and head of the clan of his descendants (26:29; 27:1) during the time of Moses (36:1). 2. Father of Jephthah during the period of the judges (Jgs 11:1-2). Jephthah was the head of the Gileadites and judge over Israel. 3. Michael’s son from Gad’s tribe, who lived in Bashan during the initial settlement of Palestine (1 Chr 5:14).","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":17027,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Huri","title_en":"Huri","content_ro":"<h3>HURI<\/h3>\n<p>Abihail’s father from Gad’s tribe who inhabited Gilead in Bashan (1 Chr 5:14).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HURI<\/h3>\n<p>Abihail’s father from Gad’s tribe who inhabited Gilead in Bashan (1 Chr 5:14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"HURI Abihail’s father from Gad’s tribe who inhabited Gilead in Bashan (1 Chr 5:14).","summary_en":"HURI Abihail’s father from Gad’s tribe who inhabited Gilead in Bashan (1 Chr 5:14).","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":18326,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jahdo","title_en":"Jahdo","content_ro":"<h3>JAHDO<\/h3>\n<p>Gadite, son of Buz and a forefather of a number of valiant men who were registered during the reigns of King Jeroboam of Israel (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>) and King Jotham of Judah (750–735 <span>BC<\/span>; 1 Chr 5:14).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JAHDO<\/h3>\n<p>Gadite, son of Buz and a forefather of a number of valiant men who were registered during the reigns of King Jeroboam of Israel (793–753 <span>BC<\/span>) and King Jotham of Judah (750–735 <span>BC<\/span>; 1 Chr 5:14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"JAHDO Gadite, son of Buz and a forefather of a number of valiant men who were registered during the reigns of King Jeroboam of Israel (793–753 BC) and King Jotham of Judah (750–735 BC; 1 Chr 5:14).","summary_en":"JAHDO Gadite, son of Buz and a forefather of a number of valiant men who were registered during the reigns of King Jeroboam of Israel (793–753 BC) and King Jotham of Judah (750–735 BC; 1 Chr 5:14).","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":18533,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jaroah","title_en":"Jaroah","content_ro":"<h3>JAROAH<\/h3>\n<p>Gilead’s son from Gad’s tribe (1 Chr 5:14).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JAROAH<\/h3>\n<p>Gilead’s son from Gad’s tribe (1 Chr 5:14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"JAROAH Gilead’s son from Gad’s tribe (1 Chr 5:14).","summary_en":"JAROAH Gilead’s son from Gad’s tribe (1 Chr 5:14).","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":19328,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jeshishai","title_en":"Jeshishai","content_ro":"<h3>JESHISHAI<\/h3>\n<p>Descendant of Gad in the days of Jotham, king of Judah (1 Chr 5:14).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JESHISHAI<\/h3>\n<p>Descendant of Gad in the days of Jotham, king of Judah (1 Chr 5:14).<\/p>","summary_ro":"JESHISHAI Descendant of Gad in the days of Jotham, king of Judah (1 Chr 5:14).","summary_en":"JESHISHAI Descendant of Gad in the days of Jotham, king of Judah (1 Chr 5:14).","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"15":[{"id":77,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Abdiel","title_en":"Abdiel","content_ro":"<h3>ABDIEL<\/h3>\n<p>Guni’s son and father of Ahi (1 Chr 5:15). Ahi was a clan leader in Gad’s tribe during the reigns of King Jotham of Judah and King Jeroboam II of Israel (1 Chr 5:15-17).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ABDIEL<\/h3>\n<p>Guni’s son and father of Ahi (1 Chr 5:15). Ahi was a clan leader in Gad’s tribe during the reigns of King Jotham of Judah and King Jeroboam II of Israel (1 Chr 5:15-17).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ABDIEL Guni’s son and father of Ahi (1 Chr 5:15). Ahi was a clan leader in Gad’s tribe during the reigns of King Jotham of Judah and King Jeroboam II of Israel (1 Chr 5:15-17).","summary_en":"ABDIEL Guni’s son and father of Ahi (1 Chr 5:15). Ahi was a clan leader in Gad’s tribe during the reigns of King Jotham of Judah and King Jeroboam II of Israel (1 Chr 5:15-17).","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":858,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ahi","title_en":"Ahi","content_ro":"<h3>AHI<\/h3>\n<li>1. Abdiel’s son, a clan leader in Gad’s tribe (1 Chr 5:15).<\/li>\n<li>2. Shemer’s brother and therefore a member of Asher’s tribe (1 Chr 7:34). The word “Ahi” in this verse, however, is probably not a name and should be translated “brother,” as in most modern translations.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>AHI<\/h3>\n<li>1. Abdiel’s son, a clan leader in Gad’s tribe (1 Chr 5:15).<\/li>\n<li>2. Shemer’s brother and therefore a member of Asher’s tribe (1 Chr 7:34). The word “Ahi” in this verse, however, is probably not a name and should be translated “brother,” as in most modern translations.<\/li>","summary_ro":"AHI 1. Abdiel’s son, a clan leader in Gad’s tribe (1 Chr 5:15). 2. Shemer’s brother and therefore a member of Asher’s tribe (1 Chr 7:34). The word “Ahi” in this verse, however, is probably not a name and should be translated “brother,” as in most modern translations.","summary_en":"AHI 1. Abdiel’s son, a clan leader in Gad’s tribe (1 Chr 5:15). 2. Shemer’s brother and therefore a member of Asher’s tribe (1 Chr 7:34). The word “Ahi” in this verse, however, is probably not a name and should be translated “brother,” as in most modern translations.","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13938,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gizon, Gizonite*","title_en":"Gizon, Gizonite*","content_ro":"<h3>GIZON, GIZONITE*<\/h3>\n<p>Designation for Hashem (Jashen, <span>nlt<\/span>), one of David’s mighty men (1 Chr 11:34). Gizon may have been an ancient Canaanite settlement. Some scholars have emended the text to read “Gunite” (cf. 1 Chr 5:15; 7:13) or “from Gimzo” (cf. 2 Chr 28:18).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GIZON, GIZONITE*<\/h3>\n<p>Designation for Hashem (Jashen, <span>nlt<\/span>), one of David’s mighty men (1 Chr 11:34). Gizon may have been an ancient Canaanite settlement. Some scholars have emended the text to read “Gunite” (cf. 1 Chr 5:15; 7:13) or “from Gimzo” (cf. 2 Chr 28:18).<\/p>","summary_ro":"GIZON, GIZONITE* Designation for Hashem (Jashen, nlt), one of David’s mighty men (1 Chr 11:34). Gizon may have been an ancient Canaanite settlement. Some scholars have emended the text to read “Gunite” (cf. 1 Chr 5:15; 7:13) or “from Gimzo” (cf. 2 Chr 28:18).","summary_en":"GIZON, GIZONITE* Designation for Hashem (Jashen, nlt), one of David’s mighty men (1 Chr 11:34). Gizon may have been an ancient Canaanite settlement. Some scholars have emended the text to read “Gunite” (cf. 1 Chr 5:15; 7:13) or “from Gimzo” (cf. 2 Chr 28:18).","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":14872,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Guni","title_en":"Guni","content_ro":"<h3>GUNI<\/h3>\n<li>1. Naphtali’s son and the grandson of Jacob (Gn 46:24; 1 Chr 7:13).<\/li>\n<li>2. Abdiel’s father from Gad’s tribe (1 Chr 5:15).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>GUNI<\/h3>\n<li>1. Naphtali’s son and the grandson of Jacob (Gn 46:24; 1 Chr 7:13).<\/li>\n<li>2. Abdiel’s father from Gad’s tribe (1 Chr 5:15).<\/li>","summary_ro":"GUNI 1. Naphtali’s son and the grandson of Jacob (Gn 46:24; 1 Chr 7:13). 2. Abdiel’s father from Gad’s tribe (1 Chr 5:15).","summary_en":"GUNI 1. Naphtali’s son and the grandson of Jacob (Gn 46:24; 1 Chr 7:13). 2. Abdiel’s father from Gad’s tribe (1 Chr 5:15).","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"16":[{"id":34680,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Sharon","title_en":"Sharon","content_ro":"<h3>SHARON<\/h3>\n<li>1. Section of the plain on the Mediterranean coast of Israel. It extends from Joppa in the south to the Crocodile River, which serves as the northern border and separates it from the plain of Dor. The largest of the northern coastal plains, it is 50 miles (80 kilometers) from north to south and 10 miles (16.1 kilometers) wide. Its shore is straight and consists of beach and cliffs. There are no natural harbors along the coast, so the plain had no large trading ports. The Via Maris, a major north-south trading route, skirted the eastern edge of the plain.<\/li>\n<p>Five streams or wadis cross the Sharon Plain: Nahal Tanninim (Crocodile River), Nahal Hadera, Nahal Alexander, Nahal Poleg, and Nahal Yarqon. These streams drain water from the Samaritan hills and empty into the Mediterranean. Until recent times, the streams formed extensive swamps that were infested with malaria-carrying mosquitoes. Sharon also has sand dune hills that rise to an elevation of 180 feet (54.9 meters) above sea level in the central part of the plain. In biblical times the elevated areas of Sharon were covered with oak trees. The combination of swamps, sand dunes, and forests made the area almost impenetrable. The plain was granted to Manasseh’s tribe by Joshua (Jos 17), but it was not effectively controlled by Israel until the time of David (1 Chr 27:29), and even then it was only used for pasturage.<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Isaiah, Sharon is ranked with the regions of Carmel and Lebanon for its fertility and luxuriance (Is 33:9; 35:2). When Isaiah speaks of the final restoration, he refers to the Sharon pastures as the place for flocks (65:10). The “rose of Sharon” (Sg 2:1) may have been one of several varieties of red flowering plants that grow in the plain. The beauty of the rose is contrasted with the dense bramblelike underbrush characteristic of the plain.<\/p>\n<li>2. Place perhaps identical with the town of Lasharon in Joshua 12:18. <em>See<\/em> Lasharon.<\/li>\n<li>3. Area east of the Jordan called “the pasture lands of Sharon” in 1 Chronicles 5:16.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>SHARON<\/h3>\n<li>1. Section of the plain on the Mediterranean coast of Israel. It extends from Joppa in the south to the Crocodile River, which serves as the northern border and separates it from the plain of Dor. The largest of the northern coastal plains, it is 50 miles (80 kilometers) from north to south and 10 miles (16.1 kilometers) wide. Its shore is straight and consists of beach and cliffs. There are no natural harbors along the coast, so the plain had no large trading ports. The Via Maris, a major north-south trading route, skirted the eastern edge of the plain.<\/li>\n<p>Five streams or wadis cross the Sharon Plain: Nahal Tanninim (Crocodile River), Nahal Hadera, Nahal Alexander, Nahal Poleg, and Nahal Yarqon. These streams drain water from the Samaritan hills and empty into the Mediterranean. Until recent times, the streams formed extensive swamps that were infested with malaria-carrying mosquitoes. Sharon also has sand dune hills that rise to an elevation of 180 feet (54.9 meters) above sea level in the central part of the plain. In biblical times the elevated areas of Sharon were covered with oak trees. The combination of swamps, sand dunes, and forests made the area almost impenetrable. The plain was granted to Manasseh’s tribe by Joshua (Jos 17), but it was not effectively controlled by Israel until the time of David (1 Chr 27:29), and even then it was only used for pasturage.<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Isaiah, Sharon is ranked with the regions of Carmel and Lebanon for its fertility and luxuriance (Is 33:9; 35:2). When Isaiah speaks of the final restoration, he refers to the Sharon pastures as the place for flocks (65:10). The “rose of Sharon” (Sg 2:1) may have been one of several varieties of red flowering plants that grow in the plain. The beauty of the rose is contrasted with the dense bramblelike underbrush characteristic of the plain.<\/p>\n<li>2. Place perhaps identical with the town of Lasharon in Joshua 12:18. <em>See<\/em> Lasharon.<\/li>\n<li>3. Area east of the Jordan called “the pasture lands of Sharon” in 1 Chronicles 5:16.<\/li>","summary_ro":"SHARON 1. Section of the plain on the Mediterranean coast of Israel. It extends from Joppa in the south to the Crocodile River, which serves as the northern border and separates it from the plain of Dor. The largest of the northern coastal plains, it is 50 miles (80 kilometers) from north to south and 10 miles (16.1 kilometers) wide. Its shore is straight and consists of beach and cliffs. There are no natural harbors along the coast, so the plain had no large trading ports. The Via Maris, a m...","summary_en":"SHARON 1. Section of the plain on the Mediterranean coast of Israel. It extends from Joppa in the south to the Crocodile River, which serves as the northern border and separates it from the plain of Dor. The largest of the northern coastal plains, it is 50 miles (80 kilometers) from north to south and 10 miles (16.1 kilometers) wide. Its shore is straight and consists of beach and cliffs. There are no natural harbors along the coast, so the plain had no large trading ports. The Via Maris, a m...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"17":[{"id":20917,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jotham","title_en":"Jotham","content_ro":"<h3>JOTHAM<\/h3>\n<li>1. Youngest of Gideon’s 70 sons and the only survivor of Abimelech’s slaughter of Jotham’s brothers at Ophrah (Jgs 9:5). Upon learning of Abimelech’s intrigue with the Shechemites, which led to the death of his brothers, Jotham traveled to Shechem and addressed its people from atop nearby Mt Gerizim. Using a parable, he portrayed Abimelech’s rise as king and concluded his denunciation by issuing a curse on both his half brother (see 8:31) and the people of Shechem for their treachery (9:7). Jotham then fled to Beer for fear of a reprisal from Abimelech (v 21). Later, God fulfilled Jotham’s curse; the people of Shechem were killed in a revolt and Abimelech was struck down at the hands of a woman (v 57).<\/li>\n<li>2. Eleventh king of Judah (750–735 <span>BC<\/span>). He was the son of King Azariah (Uzziah) of Judah and Jerusa, daughter of Zadok (2 Kgs 15:7; 2 Chr 26:21; 27:1), and the father of Ahaz. Jotham, at 25 years of age, ascended Judah’s throne in the second year of King Pekah of Israel (752–732 <span>BC<\/span>) and ruled for 16 years in Jerusalem. Initially he reigned as co-regent with Azariah, who was stricken with leprosy for tolerating pagan worship, until his father’s death (2 Kgs 15:5).<\/li>\n<p>Jotham was considered a righteous king in the eyes of the Lord. However, he also failed to cleanse the temple of its pagan influences, and subsequently the people of Judah continued in their evil ways (2 Chr 27:2-6). His building projects included the Upper Gate of the temple, work on the wall of Ophel, and the fortification of numerous towns in Judah’s hill country (vv 3-4). Jotham also defeated the troublesome Ammonites in battle (v 5) and registered by genealogy the families of Gad living east of the Jordan (1 Chr 5:17). He was buried in Jerusalem after his death (2 Chr 27:9). The prophets Isaiah and Micah ministered to Judah, and Hosea to Israel, during his tenure as king. Jotham is listed as an ancestor of Jesus Christ in Matthew’s genealogy (Mt 1:9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Genealogy of Jesus Christ; Israel, History of.<\/p>\n<li>3. Second of Jahdai’s five sons (1 Chr 2:47).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JOTHAM<\/h3>\n<li>1. Youngest of Gideon’s 70 sons and the only survivor of Abimelech’s slaughter of Jotham’s brothers at Ophrah (Jgs 9:5). Upon learning of Abimelech’s intrigue with the Shechemites, which led to the death of his brothers, Jotham traveled to Shechem and addressed its people from atop nearby Mt Gerizim. Using a parable, he portrayed Abimelech’s rise as king and concluded his denunciation by issuing a curse on both his half brother (see 8:31) and the people of Shechem for their treachery (9:7). Jotham then fled to Beer for fear of a reprisal from Abimelech (v 21). Later, God fulfilled Jotham’s curse; the people of Shechem were killed in a revolt and Abimelech was struck down at the hands of a woman (v 57).<\/li>\n<li>2. Eleventh king of Judah (750–735 <span>BC<\/span>). He was the son of King Azariah (Uzziah) of Judah and Jerusa, daughter of Zadok (2 Kgs 15:7; 2 Chr 26:21; 27:1), and the father of Ahaz. Jotham, at 25 years of age, ascended Judah’s throne in the second year of King Pekah of Israel (752–732 <span>BC<\/span>) and ruled for 16 years in Jerusalem. Initially he reigned as co-regent with Azariah, who was stricken with leprosy for tolerating pagan worship, until his father’s death (2 Kgs 15:5).<\/li>\n<p>Jotham was considered a righteous king in the eyes of the Lord. However, he also failed to cleanse the temple of its pagan influences, and subsequently the people of Judah continued in their evil ways (2 Chr 27:2-6). His building projects included the Upper Gate of the temple, work on the wall of Ophel, and the fortification of numerous towns in Judah’s hill country (vv 3-4). Jotham also defeated the troublesome Ammonites in battle (v 5) and registered by genealogy the families of Gad living east of the Jordan (1 Chr 5:17). He was buried in Jerusalem after his death (2 Chr 27:9). The prophets Isaiah and Micah ministered to Judah, and Hosea to Israel, during his tenure as king. Jotham is listed as an ancestor of Jesus Christ in Matthew’s genealogy (Mt 1:9).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Genealogy of Jesus Christ; Israel, History of.<\/p>\n<li>3. Second of Jahdai’s five sons (1 Chr 2:47).<\/li>","summary_ro":"JOTHAM 1. Youngest of Gideon’s 70 sons and the only survivor of Abimelech’s slaughter of Jotham’s brothers at Ophrah (Jgs 9:5). Upon learning of Abimelech’s intrigue with the Shechemites, which led to the death of his brothers, Jotham traveled to Shechem and addressed its people from atop nearby Mt Gerizim. Using a parable, he portrayed Abimelech’s rise as king and concluded his denunciation by issuing a curse on both his half brother (see 8:31) and the people of Shechem for their treachery (...","summary_en":"JOTHAM 1. Youngest of Gideon’s 70 sons and the only survivor of Abimelech’s slaughter of Jotham’s brothers at Ophrah (Jgs 9:5). Upon learning of Abimelech’s intrigue with the Shechemites, which led to the death of his brothers, Jotham traveled to Shechem and addressed its people from atop nearby Mt Gerizim. Using a parable, he portrayed Abimelech’s rise as king and concluded his denunciation by issuing a curse on both his half brother (see 8:31) and the people of Shechem for their treachery (...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34645,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Shapham","title_en":"Shapham","content_ro":"<h3>SHAPHAM<\/h3>\n<p>Leader in Gad’s tribe (1 Chr 5:12). He is believed to have lived in Bashan and served during the days of Jotham, king of Judah (v 17).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SHAPHAM<\/h3>\n<p>Leader in Gad’s tribe (1 Chr 5:12). He is believed to have lived in Bashan and served during the days of Jotham, king of Judah (v 17).<\/p>","summary_ro":"SHAPHAM Leader in Gad’s tribe (1 Chr 5:12). He is believed to have lived in Bashan and served during the days of Jotham, king of Judah (v 17).","summary_en":"SHAPHAM Leader in Gad’s tribe (1 Chr 5:12). He is believed to have lived in Bashan and served during the days of Jotham, king of Judah (v 17).","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"18":[{"id":47580,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Cronici 5:18","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Cronici 5:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:18-22<\/strong> The account of the <em>war against the Hagrites<\/em> develops the elements introduced in 5:10. It was a struggle among shepherds over grazing territory. All three tribes were participants; the Chronicler details their prowess, military qualifications, and numbers. With <em>God . . . fighting against<\/em> the enemy, the victory resulted in enormous spoils and total possession of the territory.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:18-22<\/strong> The account of the <em>war against the Hagrites<\/em> develops the elements introduced in 5:10. It was a struggle among shepherds over grazing territory. All three tribes were participants; the Chronicler details their prowess, military qualifications, and numbers. With <em>God . . . fighting against<\/em> the enemy, the victory resulted in enormous spoils and total possession of the territory.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:18-22 The account of the war against the Hagrites develops the elements introduced in 5:10. It was a struggle among shepherds over grazing territory. All three tribes were participants; the Chronicler details their prowess, military qualifications, and numbers. With God . . . fighting against the enemy, the victory resulted in enormous spoils and total possession of the territory.","summary_en":"5:18-22 The account of the war against the Hagrites develops the elements introduced in 5:10. It was a struggle among shepherds over grazing territory. All three tribes were participants; the Chronicler details their prowess, military qualifications, and numbers. With God . . . fighting against the enemy, the victory resulted in enormous spoils and total possession of the territory.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75206,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Cronici 5:18","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Cronici 5:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:18-22<\/strong> The account of the <em>war against the Hagrites<\/em> develops the elements introduced in 5:10. It was a struggle among shepherds over grazing territory. All three tribes were participants; the Chronicler details their prowess, military qualifications, and numbers. With <em>God . . . fighting against<\/em> the enemy, the victory resulted in enormous spoils and total possession of the territory.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:18-22<\/strong> The account of the <em>war against the Hagrites<\/em> develops the elements introduced in 5:10. It was a struggle among shepherds over grazing territory. All three tribes were participants; the Chronicler details their prowess, military qualifications, and numbers. With <em>God . . . fighting against<\/em> the enemy, the victory resulted in enormous spoils and total possession of the territory.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:18-22 The account of the war against the Hagrites develops the elements introduced in 5:10. It was a struggle among shepherds over grazing territory. All three tribes were participants; the Chronicler details their prowess, military qualifications, and numbers. With God . . . fighting against the enemy, the victory resulted in enormous spoils and total possession of the territory.","summary_en":"5:18-22 The account of the war against the Hagrites develops the elements introduced in 5:10. It was a struggle among shepherds over grazing territory. All three tribes were participants; the Chronicler details their prowess, military qualifications, and numbers. With God . . . fighting against the enemy, the victory resulted in enormous spoils and total possession of the territory.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":102832,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Cronici 5:18","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Cronici 5:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:18-22<\/strong> The account of the <em>war against the Hagrites<\/em> develops the elements introduced in 5:10. It was a struggle among shepherds over grazing territory. All three tribes were participants; the Chronicler details their prowess, military qualifications, and numbers. With <em>God . . . fighting against<\/em> the enemy, the victory resulted in enormous spoils and total possession of the territory.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:18-22<\/strong> The account of the <em>war against the Hagrites<\/em> develops the elements introduced in 5:10. It was a struggle among shepherds over grazing territory. All three tribes were participants; the Chronicler details their prowess, military qualifications, and numbers. With <em>God . . . fighting against<\/em> the enemy, the victory resulted in enormous spoils and total possession of the territory.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:18-22 The account of the war against the Hagrites develops the elements introduced in 5:10. It was a struggle among shepherds over grazing territory. All three tribes were participants; the Chronicler details their prowess, military qualifications, and numbers. With God . . . fighting against the enemy, the victory resulted in enormous spoils and total possession of the territory.","summary_en":"5:18-22 The account of the war against the Hagrites develops the elements introduced in 5:10. It was a struggle among shepherds over grazing territory. All three tribes were participants; the Chronicler details their prowess, military qualifications, and numbers. With God . . . fighting against the enemy, the victory resulted in enormous spoils and total possession of the territory.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":130458,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Cronici 5:18","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Cronici 5:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:18-22<\/strong> The account of the <em>war against the Hagrites<\/em> develops the elements introduced in 5:10. It was a struggle among shepherds over grazing territory. All three tribes were participants; the Chronicler details their prowess, military qualifications, and numbers. With <em>God . . . fighting against<\/em> the enemy, the victory resulted in enormous spoils and total possession of the territory.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:18-22<\/strong> The account of the <em>war against the Hagrites<\/em> develops the elements introduced in 5:10. It was a struggle among shepherds over grazing territory. All three tribes were participants; the Chronicler details their prowess, military qualifications, and numbers. With <em>God . . . fighting against<\/em> the enemy, the victory resulted in enormous spoils and total possession of the territory.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:18-22 The account of the war against the Hagrites develops the elements introduced in 5:10. It was a struggle among shepherds over grazing territory. All three tribes were participants; the Chronicler details their prowess, military qualifications, and numbers. With God . . . fighting against the enemy, the victory resulted in enormous spoils and total possession of the territory.","summary_en":"5:18-22 The account of the war against the Hagrites develops the elements introduced in 5:10. It was a struggle among shepherds over grazing territory. All three tribes were participants; the Chronicler details their prowess, military qualifications, and numbers. With God . . . fighting against the enemy, the victory resulted in enormous spoils and total possession of the territory.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"19":[{"id":15057,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hagrite","title_en":"Hagrite","content_ro":"<h3>HAGRITE<\/h3>\n<p>Arabian tribe descended from Hagar, Abraham’s concubine. Being nomads, the Hagrites roamed the desert east of Gilead. Relations between Israel and the Hagrites were usually hostile. During Saul’s reign, Reuben’s tribe fought them and were defeated (1 Chr 5:10). Later, however, with the help of Gad and the half-tribe of Manasseh, Reuben was able to take their land and hold it until the exile (1 Chr 5:19-20). In the light of that hostility, it is easy to understand Asaph’s prayer against them in Psalm 83:6. David, on the other hand, made a Hagrite, Jaziz, the steward of all his flocks (1 Chr 27:31).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HAGRITE<\/h3>\n<p>Arabian tribe descended from Hagar, Abraham’s concubine. Being nomads, the Hagrites roamed the desert east of Gilead. Relations between Israel and the Hagrites were usually hostile. During Saul’s reign, Reuben’s tribe fought them and were defeated (1 Chr 5:10). Later, however, with the help of Gad and the half-tribe of Manasseh, Reuben was able to take their land and hold it until the exile (1 Chr 5:19-20). In the light of that hostility, it is easy to understand Asaph’s prayer against them in Psalm 83:6. David, on the other hand, made a Hagrite, Jaziz, the steward of all his flocks (1 Chr 27:31).<\/p>","summary_ro":"HAGRITE Arabian tribe descended from Hagar, Abraham’s concubine. Being nomads, the Hagrites roamed the desert east of Gilead. Relations between Israel and the Hagrites were usually hostile. During Saul’s reign, Reuben’s tribe fought them and were defeated (1 Chr 5:10). Later, however, with the help of Gad and the half-tribe of Manasseh, Reuben was able to take their land and hold it until the exile (1 Chr 5:19-20). In the light of that hostility, it is easy to understand Asaph’s prayer agains...","summary_en":"HAGRITE Arabian tribe descended from Hagar, Abraham’s concubine. Being nomads, the Hagrites roamed the desert east of Gilead. Relations between Israel and the Hagrites were usually hostile. During Saul’s reign, Reuben’s tribe fought them and were defeated (1 Chr 5:10). Later, however, with the help of Gad and the half-tribe of Manasseh, Reuben was able to take their land and hold it until the exile (1 Chr 5:19-20). In the light of that hostility, it is easy to understand Asaph’s prayer agains...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":18112,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ituraea*, Iturea, Itureans*","title_en":"Ituraea*, Iturea, Itureans*","content_ro":"<h3>ITURAEA*, ITUREA, ITUREANS*<\/h3>\n<p>Small province mentioned with Trachonitis as forming the tetrarchy of Philip, brother of Herod the Great, during the reign of Tiberius Caesar (Lk 3:1). A reasonable assumption places Iturea northeast of the Sea of Galilee and in the area of Mt Hermon, but its location and boundaries have been much disputed. The name almost certainly comes from Jetur, a son of Ishmael (Gn 25:15), whose descendants were among those conquered by the Israelites east of the Jordan (1 Chr 5:19-20). Thereafter, the Itureans virtually drop from sight until Josephus records another defeat inflicted on them by Aristobulus in 105–104 <span>BC<\/span>, at which time many of them were faced with a choice between circumcision and exile.<\/p>\n<p>There are frequent mentions by classical writers of Itureans, sometimes described as Syrians or Arabians—skilled bowmen with the predatory tendencies often associated with groups unable or unwilling to settle for long in any one area. In view of this, it is not surprising that we know more about Itureans than we do about Iturea.<\/p>\n<p>Strabo speaks of them as inhabitants of a mountainous country; Dio Cassius a little later tells us that they had a king. Any attempt to understand their history is complicated by divisions in the Roman Empire that affected them, but by the end of the first century <span>AD<\/span>, many Itureans were to be found under the provincial rule of Syria.<\/p>\n<p>It is easier, then, to discuss the people than the place. Some scholars, indeed, hold that Luke could not have used the noun “Iturea,” for this was a form unknown until three centuries later, and that the adjectival form better fits the case. This prompts another question: Was this Iturean territory within Philip’s tetrarchy? Could Luke have made a slip and anticipated a later regional regrouping? Josephus at one point lists the constituent parts of Philip’s tetrarchy without including Iturea.<\/p>\n<p>Three facts are clear: (1) there is a certain flexibility and overlapping in descriptions of territorial demarcation; (2) the data we have is insufficient for exact conclusions about Iturea; and (3) the evidence is clear from other parts of Scripture that Luke is a careful and reliable writer.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ITURAEA*, ITUREA, ITUREANS*<\/h3>\n<p>Small province mentioned with Trachonitis as forming the tetrarchy of Philip, brother of Herod the Great, during the reign of Tiberius Caesar (Lk 3:1). A reasonable assumption places Iturea northeast of the Sea of Galilee and in the area of Mt Hermon, but its location and boundaries have been much disputed. The name almost certainly comes from Jetur, a son of Ishmael (Gn 25:15), whose descendants were among those conquered by the Israelites east of the Jordan (1 Chr 5:19-20). Thereafter, the Itureans virtually drop from sight until Josephus records another defeat inflicted on them by Aristobulus in 105–104 <span>BC<\/span>, at which time many of them were faced with a choice between circumcision and exile.<\/p>\n<p>There are frequent mentions by classical writers of Itureans, sometimes described as Syrians or Arabians—skilled bowmen with the predatory tendencies often associated with groups unable or unwilling to settle for long in any one area. In view of this, it is not surprising that we know more about Itureans than we do about Iturea.<\/p>\n<p>Strabo speaks of them as inhabitants of a mountainous country; Dio Cassius a little later tells us that they had a king. Any attempt to understand their history is complicated by divisions in the Roman Empire that affected them, but by the end of the first century <span>AD<\/span>, many Itureans were to be found under the provincial rule of Syria.<\/p>\n<p>It is easier, then, to discuss the people than the place. Some scholars, indeed, hold that Luke could not have used the noun “Iturea,” for this was a form unknown until three centuries later, and that the adjectival form better fits the case. This prompts another question: Was this Iturean territory within Philip’s tetrarchy? Could Luke have made a slip and anticipated a later regional regrouping? Josephus at one point lists the constituent parts of Philip’s tetrarchy without including Iturea.<\/p>\n<p>Three facts are clear: (1) there is a certain flexibility and overlapping in descriptions of territorial demarcation; (2) the data we have is insufficient for exact conclusions about Iturea; and (3) the evidence is clear from other parts of Scripture that Luke is a careful and reliable writer.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ITURAEA*, ITUREA, ITUREANS* Small province mentioned with Trachonitis as forming the tetrarchy of Philip, brother of Herod the Great, during the reign of Tiberius Caesar (Lk 3:1). A reasonable assumption places Iturea northeast of the Sea of Galilee and in the area of Mt Hermon, but its location and boundaries have been much disputed. The name almost certainly comes from Jetur, a son of Ishmael (Gn 25:15), whose descendants were among those conquered by the Israelites east of the Jordan (1 Ch...","summary_en":"ITURAEA*, ITUREA, ITUREANS* Small province mentioned with Trachonitis as forming the tetrarchy of Philip, brother of Herod the Great, during the reign of Tiberius Caesar (Lk 3:1). A reasonable assumption places Iturea northeast of the Sea of Galilee and in the area of Mt Hermon, but its location and boundaries have been much disputed. The name almost certainly comes from Jetur, a son of Ishmael (Gn 25:15), whose descendants were among those conquered by the Israelites east of the Jordan (1 Ch...","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":19751,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jeturites Jetur","title_en":"Jeturites Jetur","content_ro":"<h3>JETUR, JETURITES<\/h3>\n<p>Son of Ishmael and his descendants (Gn 25:15; 1 Chr 1:31); the Israelite tribes who settled east of the Jordan had to fight them (1 Chr 5:19). Also called Itureans, they survived into NT times, giving their name to Iturea, an area northeast of Galilee (Lk 3:1). <em>See<\/em> Ituraea, Iturea, Itureans.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JETUR, JETURITES<\/h3>\n<p>Son of Ishmael and his descendants (Gn 25:15; 1 Chr 1:31); the Israelite tribes who settled east of the Jordan had to fight them (1 Chr 5:19). Also called Itureans, they survived into NT times, giving their name to Iturea, an area northeast of Galilee (Lk 3:1). <em>See<\/em> Ituraea, Iturea, Itureans.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JETUR, JETURITES Son of Ishmael and his descendants (Gn 25:15; 1 Chr 1:31); the Israelite tribes who settled east of the Jordan had to fight them (1 Chr 5:19). Also called Itureans, they survived into NT times, giving their name to Iturea, an area northeast of Galilee (Lk 3:1). See Ituraea, Iturea, Itureans.","summary_en":"JETUR, JETURITES Son of Ishmael and his descendants (Gn 25:15; 1 Chr 1:31); the Israelite tribes who settled east of the Jordan had to fight them (1 Chr 5:19). Also called Itureans, they survived into NT times, giving their name to Iturea, an area northeast of Galilee (Lk 3:1). See Ituraea, Iturea, Itureans.","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26953,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Naphish","title_en":"Naphish","content_ro":"<h3>NAPHISH<\/h3>\n<p>Eleventh of Ishmael’s 12 sons (Gn 25:15; 1 Chr 1:31) and the founder of a tribe that later went to war against the tribes of Israel living east of the Jordan (1 Chr 5:19).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NAPHISH<\/h3>\n<p>Eleventh of Ishmael’s 12 sons (Gn 25:15; 1 Chr 1:31) and the founder of a tribe that later went to war against the tribes of Israel living east of the Jordan (1 Chr 5:19).<\/p>","summary_ro":"NAPHISH Eleventh of Ishmael’s 12 sons (Gn 25:15; 1 Chr 1:31) and the founder of a tribe that later went to war against the tribes of Israel living east of the Jordan (1 Chr 5:19).","summary_en":"NAPHISH Eleventh of Ishmael’s 12 sons (Gn 25:15; 1 Chr 1:31) and the founder of a tribe that later went to war against the tribes of Israel living east of the Jordan (1 Chr 5:19).","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27320,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nephish*","title_en":"Nephish*","content_ro":"<h3>NEPHISH*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV spelling of Naphish, Ishmael’s son (1 Chr 5:19). <em>See<\/em> Naphish.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NEPHISH*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV spelling of Naphish, Ishmael’s son (1 Chr 5:19). <em>See<\/em> Naphish.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NEPHISH* KJV spelling of Naphish, Ishmael’s son (1 Chr 5:19). See Naphish.","summary_en":"NEPHISH* KJV spelling of Naphish, Ishmael’s son (1 Chr 5:19). See Naphish.","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":27649,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nodab*, Nodabites","title_en":"Nodab*, Nodabites","content_ro":"<h3>NODAB*, NODABITES<\/h3>\n<p>Forefather of an Arabian tribe that joined forces with the Hagarites to fight against the tribes of Israel who were living east of the Jordan (1 Chr 5:19). Though not included in the list of Ishmael’s sons (cf. Gn 25:13-15), he was perhaps a distant relation.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NODAB*, NODABITES<\/h3>\n<p>Forefather of an Arabian tribe that joined forces with the Hagarites to fight against the tribes of Israel who were living east of the Jordan (1 Chr 5:19). Though not included in the list of Ishmael’s sons (cf. Gn 25:13-15), he was perhaps a distant relation.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NODAB*, NODABITES Forefather of an Arabian tribe that joined forces with the Hagarites to fight against the tribes of Israel who were living east of the Jordan (1 Chr 5:19). Though not included in the list of Ishmael’s sons (cf. Gn 25:13-15), he was perhaps a distant relation.","summary_en":"NODAB*, NODABITES Forefather of an Arabian tribe that joined forces with the Hagarites to fight against the tribes of Israel who were living east of the Jordan (1 Chr 5:19). Though not included in the list of Ishmael’s sons (cf. Gn 25:13-15), he was perhaps a distant relation.","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"21":[{"id":2059,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Animals","title_en":"Animals","content_ro":"<h3>ANIMALS<\/h3>\n<p>In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals as object lessons.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical approach to classification of animals is somewhat different from the system of classification used by biologists today. The present system of classification, which traces back to Carolus Linnaeus (an 18th-century Swedish botanist), is based on structure, both internal and external. The biblical basis of classification is habitat. Thus Genesis 1 speaks of aquatic organisms (v 20); aerial organisms (v 21); animals that crawl on the ground (v 24); cattle or domesticated animals (animals that live in association with humans) (v 24); and wild animals (v 24). The same system of classification is followed in Leviticus 11 and throughout Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Because of the divergence between systems of classification, the various animals of the Bible will be listed here in alphabetical order—including reptiles, fish, and even invertebrates such as insects, spiders, worms, and sponges. Birds are discussed in a separate article.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Adder<\/p>\n<p>• Ant<\/p>\n<p>• Antelope<\/p>\n<p>• Ape<\/p>\n<p>• Asp<\/p>\n<p>• Ass<\/p>\n<p>• Badger<\/p>\n<p>• Bat<\/p>\n<p>• Bear<\/p>\n<p>• Bee<\/p>\n<p>• Behemoth<\/p>\n<p>• Camel<\/p>\n<p>• Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>• Cattle<\/p>\n<p>• Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>• Coral<\/p>\n<p>• Cricket<\/p>\n<p>• Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>• Deer<\/p>\n<p>• Dog<\/p>\n<p>• Donkey<\/p>\n<p>• Dragon<\/p>\n<p>• Fish<\/p>\n<p>• Flea<\/p>\n<p>• Fly<\/p>\n<p>• Fox<\/p>\n<p>• Frog<\/p>\n<p>• Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>• Gecko<\/p>\n<p>• Gnat<\/p>\n<p>• Goat<\/p>\n<p>• Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>• Hare<\/p>\n<p>• Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>• Horse<\/p>\n<p>• Hyena<\/p>\n<p>• Jackal<\/p>\n<p>• Leech<\/p>\n<p>• Leopard<\/p>\n<p>• Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>• Lion<\/p>\n<p>• Lizard<\/p>\n<p>• Locust<\/p>\n<p>• Mole<\/p>\n<p>• Moth<\/p>\n<p>• Mouse<\/p>\n<p>• Mule<\/p>\n<p>• Pig<\/p>\n<p>• Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>• Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>• Sheep<\/p>\n<p>• Snail<\/p>\n<p>• Snake<\/p>\n<p>• Spider<\/p>\n<p>• Sponge<\/p>\n<p>• Unicorn<\/p>\n<p>• Wasp<\/p>\n<p>• Whale<\/p>\n<p>• Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>• Wolf<\/p>\n<p>• Worm<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Adder\">Adder<\/p>\n<p>One of the 20 poisonous snakes found in Israel and surrounding countries, also referred to as cockatrice and viper. True vipers (genus <em>Cerastes, Echis colorata,<\/em> and <em>Vipera palestina<\/em>) also exist there, poisonous snakes with curved fangs that spring into position when the snake strikes. The horned viper <em>(Cerastes hasselquistii)<\/em> may attack horses. It is 12 to 18 inches (30 to 46 centimeters) long and often lies in ambush in the sand with only its eyes and the hornlike protrusions on its head visible.<\/p>\n<p>Both Jesus and John the Baptist referred to the viper several times (Mt 3:7; 12:34; 23:33). The reference in Acts 28:3 is probably to a small viper <em>(Vipera aspis)<\/em> that strikes rapidly and is very pugnacious. It is found in southern Europe and hisses each time it inhales and exhales. The poison of vipers attacks the respiratory system and disintegrates red blood cells.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ant\">Ant<\/p>\n<p>Mentioned only twice in the Bible, both times in the book of Proverbs. For many years Solomon was charged with a biological error when he referred to the ant as providing her meat in the summer and gathering her food in the harvest (Prv 6:8). Critics of the Bible were quick to point out that, so far as was then known, ants do not store up food. They assumed that Solomon had probably kicked open an ant hill and mistaken the pupal cases (pods in which immature ants grow to maturity) for grain or had observed ants carrying bits of grain, leaves, and other matter to their nests.<\/p>\n<p>At least three species of grain-storing ants are now known—two occur in Israel and the other in Mediterranean countries. The particular species referred to by Solomon (Prv 6:6-8; 30:24-25) is probably the harvester ant <em>(Messor semirufus).<\/em> Its granaries are flat chambers connected by galleries irregularly scattered over an area about six feet (1.8 meters) in diameter and about a foot (.3 meter) deep in the ground. Seeds are collected from the ground or picked from plants. The head, or radicle, which is the softest part of the kernel, is bitten off to prevent germination, and the chaff and empty capsules are discarded on kitchen middens (refuse piles) outside the nest. Individual granaries may be 5 inches (12.7 centimeters) in diameter and a half inch (1.2 centimeters) high. Some nests are known to be 40 feet (12 meters) in diameter and 6 to 7 feet (approx. 2 meters) deep with several entrances.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Antelope\">Antelope<\/p>\n<p>Several antelope-like creatures are referred to in the Scriptures. One seems to be the white oryx <em>(Oryx leucoryx),<\/em> referred to in Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild ox”; <span>rsv<\/span> “antelope”) and Isaiah 51:20 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild bull”; <span>RSV <\/span>“antelope”). The oryx was probably the antelope, commonly used for food because its long horns made it relatively easy to catch.<\/p>\n<p>Another antelope mentioned in the Bible is the addax <em>(Addax nasomaculatus),<\/em> probably the “pygarg” of Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span>). It is a native of North Africa with grayish white hinder parts, a white patch on the forehead, and twisted and ringed horns. The word “pygarg” comes from a Greek word meaning “white rump.” The addax is about the size of a donkey. Its body is closely covered with short hair. It has a short mane on the underside of its neck that makes the head look somewhat like that of a goat. The hooves are broad and flat, and the tail resembles that of a donkey. It is common in Africa and in Arabia, where Arabs hunt it with falcons and dogs.<\/p>\n<p>Antelopes are very graceful and run with their heads held high. Both sexes have long, permanent, hollow horns. With the oryx the horns go straight back; addax horns are twisted and ringed. Antelope are alert, wary, and keen sighted. They are usually found in herds of from two to a dozen. If injured or brought to bay, an antelope attacks with its head lowered so that the sharp horns point forward. Antelopes feed on grasses and shrubs, drinking from streams and water holes. When water is scarce, they eat melons and succulent bulbs. Both addax and oryx were ceremonially clean in Jewish law.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ape\">Ape<\/p>\n<p>Primate not native to Palestine. The two references to apes in the OT (1 Kgs 10:22; 2 Chr 9:21) refer to their importation by King Solomon with other treasures on board the ships of his mercantile fleet. There is some question concerning the origin of those primates. Some believe that the mention of “ivory” in the same verses suggests they came from East Africa and that they were indeed apes, that is, tailless primates. Others, believing they came from India or Ceylon, suggest that they were actually monkeys. There the baboon (genus Papeio), a large monkey, was considered sacred to the god Thoth. Males of that genus were kept in temples, and the more docile females were often kept as house pets. Such baboons frequently had some of their teeth removed or ground down to lessen the danger of their biting. A number of mummified baboons have been found in Egypt, indicating the high regard in which they were held.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Asp\">Asp<\/p>\n<p>Poisonous snake. Most biblical references to the asp (Dt 32:33) seem to be to the Egyptian cobra <em>(Naja haje),<\/em> which conceals itself in holes, walls, and rocks and has the ability to expand its neck by raising its anterior ribs so as to enlarge the front of its breast into the shape of a flat disc. Its potent poison can cause death in 30 minutes. It attains a length of about 80 inches (2 meters). The fangs are permanently erect, not movable as in the vipers (the common poisonous snakes of North America; only the coral snake in America has permanently erect fangs). Cobra poison attacks the nervous system, causing muscular paralysis. The Egyptians looked upon it as a sacred creature; they regarded it as a protector since it fed on the rodents that ate their crops. The “fiery serpents” (Nm 21:6; Dt 8:15, both <span>rsv<\/span>) may have been cobras; “fiery” probably refers to the burning fever caused by their venom. Isaiah 14:29 and 30:6 (“flying serpent”) may refer to the hood of the cobra.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ass\">Ass<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Donkey (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Badger\">Badger<\/p>\n<p>Small hoofed mammal. What the <span>kjv<\/span> calls a “coney,” modern translations name “rock badger” (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7; Ps 104:18; Prv 30:26). The rock badger spoken of in the Bible is probably the Syrian rock hyrax <em>(Hyrax syriaca),<\/em> the only species of hyrax found outside Africa. This small ungulate (having hooflike toenails) lives among rocks from the Dead Sea valley to Mt Hermon. It is strictly a herbivorous (plant-eating) animal about the size of a rabbit. It resembles a guinea pig more than a rabbit, having quite inconspicuous ears and a very small tail. It has broad nails with four toes on its forelegs and three on its hind legs, the toes being connected with skin almost like a web. Pads acting as sucking discs under its feet enable it to keep its footing on slippery rocks. With its yellow and brown fur, it is sometimes called the bear rat because of its resemblance to a tailless rat. It is also equipped with black whiskers that may be seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p>These rock badgers, or hyraxes, live together in colonies of from 6 to 50 animals, often sunning themselves on rocks. They are difficult to catch. Guards are posted, and if approaching danger is sighted, the whole group will scurry for cover, warned by the sharp whistles of the guards. Thus they are commended for taking refuge in the rocks (Ps 104:18) and are called wise for making “their houses in the rocks” (Prv 30:24, 26, <span>kjv<\/span>). The badger is not a ruminant (does not chew its cud), but the motion of its jaws may suggest that it chews its cud. That is probably why it was included with other cud-chewing animals in the Jewish food laws (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7). It was forbidden to the Jews as food because it did not have cloven hooves. Some Arabs eat and even prize its meat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bat\">Bat<\/p>\n<p>Flying mammals according to modern classification. They have hair and provide milk for their young. The Bible classifies them with other aerial creatures. Bats take shelter in caves, crevices, tree cavities, buildings, and also in exposed places on trees. In colder areas they hibernate or migrate. The normal resting position for a bat is hanging head downward. Bats “swim” through the air rather than fly because they move with their legs as well as with their wings.<\/p>\n<p>The bat’s thumb is free and terminates in a single hook claw used for climbing and hanging. The hind feet have five toes, all pointing the same way. The large chest accommodates the powerful muscles needed for flying. Because they orient themselves by echo location, the sense of hearing is very well developed.<\/p>\n<p>Most bats are insect eaters, seizing insects in flight. Many insectivorous bats also eat some fruit. Other bats feed exclusively, usually in groups, on fruit and green vegetation. Fruit-eating bats generally live in the tropics where fruit is constantly ripening, although some have been found in the Holy Land. These bats tend to be larger than the insectivores, having a wingspread of up to five feet (1.5 meters).<\/p>\n<p>A third group includes flower-eating bats that feed on pollen and nectar. These small bats with long pointed heads and long tongues are found only in tropical and semitropical regions. Three species of vampire bats, which do not occur in the Holy Land, eat blood by making a small incision and lapping it up. Carnivorous (meat-eating) bats prey on birds, lizards, and frogs. Fish-eating bats catch fish at or near the water surface.<\/p>\n<p>Eight varieties of bats are known in the Holy Land. One of them, the little brown bat (genus <em>Myotis<\/em>), is worldwide in its distribution. It is insectivorous and probably has the widest distribution of any nonhuman terrestrial mammal. Brown bats are mostly cave dwellers. The females form maternity colonies that may number in the tens of thousands.<\/p>\n<p>Two species of mouse-tailed bats (genus <em>Rhinopoma<\/em>) are found in the Holy Land. Their tails are nearly as long as the head and body combined. They are colonial, roosting in caves, rock clefts, wells, pyramids, palaces, and houses. Like the brown bat, they are insectivorous. The slit-faced or hollow-faced bats (genus <em>Nycteris<\/em>) are also found in the Holy Land. They are insectivorous and roost in groups from 6 to 20.<\/p>\n<p>The bats found in the Holy Land vary in size from that of a mouse to the size of a rat; the largest species measures more than 20 inches (51 centimeters) across the wings. The bat was unclean to the Jews (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bear\">Bear<\/p>\n<p>Large, heavy, big-headed mammal with short, powerful limbs, a short tail, and small eyes and ears. Bears have a “plantigrade” walk: they walk on both the sole and heel as humans do. The Palestinian bear is a Syrian version of the brown bear <em>(Ursus arctos syriacus).<\/em> It can grow to a height of 6 feet (1.8 meters) and may weigh as much as 500 pounds (227 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>Bears have an excellent sense of smell but less developed senses of sight and hearing. They are omnivorous (eating any kind of food); they subsist largely on vegetation, fruits, insects, and fish.<\/p>\n<p>Bears are usually peaceful and inoffensive, but if they think they must defend themselves (Lam 3:10) or their young (2 Sm 17:8; Prv 17:12; Hos 13:8), they may be formidable and dangerous adversaries. David boasted of his role as a bear killer (1 Sm 17:34-37). Since a blow from a bear’s paw can be fatal, David’s courage and strength as a young shepherd in running after a bear and wrenching one of his father’s sheep from its jaws were noteworthy.<\/p>\n<p>Some biblical passages seem to imply that bears attacked for no apparent reason (e.g., Prv 28:15; Am 5:19). At other times they were God’s instruments of punishment, as in the story of Elisha and the two she-bears (2 Kgs 2:24). The bear and the lion, often mentioned together in the Bible (1 Sm 17:37), were the two largest and strongest beasts of prey in the Holy Land. Thus they symbolized both strength and terror (Am 5:19).<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times bears seem to have roamed all over Palestine. Today they are found only in the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Mountains, and even there they are rare.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bee\">Bee<\/p>\n<p>One of two domesticated insects <em>(Apis mellifica),<\/em> the other being the silkworm. Bees gather nectar from flowers, transferring pollen from one flower to another in the process. It is believed that they convey the location of sources of nectar to other bees through a bee “dance,” which may indicate both distance and direction. Bees are sensitive to four colors: blue-green, yellow-green, blue-violet, and ultra-violet (invisible to humans).<\/p>\n<p>The wild bees of the Holy Land are especially noted for their ferocity in attack. Only the female “worker” bees sting people and animals, the virulence of their venom increasing in warm weather. A number of biblical passages allude to the irritable, vindictive nature of bees and to the painful stings they inflict (Dt 1:44; Ps 118:12; Is 7:18).<\/p>\n<p>One reference calls attention to the fact that in semidesert regions a dead animal’s carcass, stripped to the bone by jackals or vultures and dried in the sun, can provide wild bees an excellent place to start a new colony (Jgs 14:5-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptians considered the bee sacred. In ancient Greece candles were made from beeswax. In the Holy Land, beekeeping was probably not practiced until the Hellenistic period (second century <span>BC<\/span>), although Ezekiel 27:17 suggests that it may have been practiced earlier. If domestic honey was not available to the Hebrews, wild honey certainly was, and travelers would be on the lookout for caches of honey in rocky clefts and other likely places. The Philistines and the Hittites practiced beekeeping in their cities.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible contains many references to bees and bee products. A bee swarm was a valuable asset, though the price of honey itself was low. Honey was sometimes eaten with the honeycomb (Sg 5:1). Honey also had uses other than food, e.g., in embalming.<\/p>\n<p>The land of Israel was described as a land flowing with milk and honey. Honey was a major source of sweetening in the ancient Near East—hence, its importance (cf. Jgs 14:8-9). Actually the Hebrew word for “honey” may include not only bee honey but also the sweet syrup extracted from such fruits as figs, dates, and grapes. Thus “a land flowing with milk and honey” (Ex 3:8, <span>rsv<\/span>) does not necessarily stand for a land of bees but for a land rich in sweetness.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Food and Food Preparation; Honey.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Behemoth\">Behemoth<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Hippopotamus (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Camel\">Camel<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of burden. Unintelligent, ill-natured, and quarrelsome, the camel <em>(Camelus dromedarius)<\/em> is nevertheless a blessing to people living in the desert and on its borders because it is especially adapted to that habitat. It has been called the ship of the desert. Having thick elastic pads of fibrous tissue on its feet, it can walk on hot desert sands. It can go without water for long periods and can subsist on vegetation growing on the saline soils. The camel’s nostrils are pinched together and can be closed at will to prevent penetration of sand during violent sandstorms.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are used for transporting both goods and people. A person riding a camel can cover from 60 to 75 miles (96.5 to 121 kilometers) in a day. A camel can carry a load weighing 600 pounds (272 kilograms) or more. Camels were used heavily in the spice trade (Gn 37:25) and traveled regularly in camel trains between Arabia, Egypt, and Assyria. They were also ridden in time of war (Jgs 6:5). A camel can even be hitched to a plow in areas where the land is cultivated.<\/p>\n<p>The hair shed by camels during the early spring is preserved and used in weaving cloth and making tents. As much as 10 pounds (4.5 kilograms) of hair can be obtained from one camel. A rough cloak of camel’s hair, as worn by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4), is still worn by Bedouins today. A camel’s hair garment was also the sign of the prophetic office (Zec 13:4).<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of camel occur within the one-humped species, the slow burden-bearing camel referred to in Genesis 37:25 and the fast dromedary of 1 Samuel 30:17. The dromedary can stand seven feet (2.1 meters) tall and measure as much as nine feet (2.7 meters) from the muzzle to the tip of the tail. With its three-chambered stomach, which can hold from 15 to 30 quarts (14.2 to 28.4 liters) of liquid, it can go for as long as 5 days during the summer or 25 days in winter without drinking. The camel’s hump is a reserve store of fat, making it possible for the animal to subsist on very little food during a desert journey.<\/p>\n<p>Another species of camel, the Bactrian camel <em>(Camelus bactrianus),<\/em> is also resident in the Holy Land. It has two humps. It is heavier, bigger, and has longer hair than the one-humped camel and is slower than the swift dromedary. Isaiah 21:7 may refer to the Bactrian camel; both kinds of camel are referred to in Esther 8:10 (<span>kjv<\/span>). Camels ranked in importance with sheep, cattle, and asses in OT times. A third of the 66 biblical references to the camel lists it with other animals.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are ruminants (cud-chewing mammals) but do not have cloven hooves. Thus, they were included in the list of unclean beasts, forbidden by the Israelites as food (Lv 11:4; Dt 14:7). They are eaten by Arabs, however, who also drink their milk (cf. Gn 32:15).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham had camels in Egypt (Gn 12:16). At first Job had 3,000 camels (Jb 1:3) and after his recovery, 6,000 (Jb 42:12). Although wide use of camels does not seem to have begun until shortly before 1000 <span>BC<\/span> (Jgs 6:5), Sumerian texts from the Old Babylonian period list camels and indicate that they had been domesticated. Camel bones and figurines have been found at various eastern archaeological sites dating from well before 1200 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Caterpillar\">Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>Larval stage of insects characterized by complete metamorphosis. Such insects pass through four stages: egg, larva or caterpillar, pupa, and adult. Bees, flies, moths, and butterflies all pass through a larval or caterpillar stage.<\/p>\n<p>The word “caterpillar” occurs three times in the <span>nlt<\/span> (1 Kgs 8:37; 2 Chr 6:28; Ps 78:46). In the book of Joel that same Hebrew word is translated “locust” (1:4; 2:25, <span>nlt<\/span>). The locust and grasshopper to which the Hebrew word refers have an incomplete type of metamorphosis with only three stages: egg, nymph, and adult. The nymph is a miniature adult in which the wings are not fully developed, though their outline may be present. There are several nymph stages known as instars. The reference is to one of the last instars, in which the wing structures are still folded together and enclosed in a sac but are nevertheless clearly recognizable. That form of the insect is about an inch (2.5 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cattle\">Cattle<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animals of the bovine species <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> The OT often emphasized the beauty of cattle. Egypt was rich in cattle, especially in the Nile River delta area (Goshen), where the Hebrews settled under Joseph.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars believe that milk rather than meat was the foremost consideration in the domestication of cattle and that in early civilizations meat supplies came chiefly from wild game. Cattle also supplied strong hides that supplanted wood in the manufacture of shields. Their dung was a source of fuel when wood was scarce (Ez 4:15). They were used as beasts of burden and for plowing. Development of wheeled transportation was associated more closely with cattle than with any other animal.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical term “cattle” often refers to all domesticated animals or livestock (Gn 1:24; 2:20; 7:23; 47:6, 16-17; Ex 9:3-7; Nm 3:41, 45). Occasionally, the term was used to refer to all large domestic animals (Nm 31:9; 32:26), although sometimes the word as used in the <span>kjv<\/span> refers only to sheep and goats (Gn 30:32, 39, 43; 31:8, 10; Is 7:25; 43:23).<\/p>\n<p>Probably several kinds of cattle were domesticated in the Holy Land. Small, short-legged, black or brown shorthorn cattle were found in the southern part of Judah; that type submitted easily to the yoke and was prominent in agricultural operations. Along the coast a larger variety was found, and the wild districts east of the Jordan River were populated with a breed of huge black cattle.<\/p>\n<p>Cattle breeding was widely practiced by the patriarchs (cf. Gn 32:15; Jb 21:10). Strict laws in Mesopotamia, as well as in Israel, penalized the owner of a bull that gored a man or other cattle (Ex 21:28-36). Bulls were sometimes employed figuratively as pictures of strength or violence (Dt 33:17; Pss 22:12; 68:30; Is 10:13). For breeding purposes one bull is normally adequate for about 30 cows, but many more were kept since bulls were widely used in Israel for sacrifices. They might be used as a general sacrifice (Lv 22:23; Nm 23:1) or for special sacrifices (Jgs 6:25; 1 Sm 1:24). Particular sacrifices were offered at the consecration of priests (Ex 29:1), consecration of an altar (Nm 7), purification of the Levites (Nm 8), sin offerings (Lv 16), day of the new moon (Nm 28:11-14), Passover (Nm 28:19), Feast of Weeks (Nm 28:27), Feast of Trumpets (Nm 29:1-2), Day of Atonement (Nm 29:7-9), and the Feast of Tabernacles (Nm 29:12-38). The Feast of Tabernacles required the largest number of bulls for burnt offerings of all the annual feasts, with a total of 71 being slaughtered during the course of eight days.<\/p>\n<p>Calves were sometimes referred to as “sons of the herd” in the original Hebrew (Gn 18:8; 1 Sm 6:7; 14:32). The calf, a symbol of peacefulness (Is 11:6), was also used figuratively to refer to the weak (Ps 68:30). A calf’s head decorated the back of Solomon’s throne (1 Kgs 10:19). Calves were sometimes fattened in stalls to keep them from running off weight in the field (Am 6:4; Mal 4:2; Lk 15:23) or were kept around the house; the witch of Endor kept a calf in her house that she killed and served to Saul and his men (1 Sm 28:24-25). Calves supplied veal (Gn 18:7), considered a delicacy by the wealthy; Amos referred to stall-fattened calves in a denunciation of luxurious and careless living (Am 6:4). Calves also supplied meat for all Saul’s armies at the great slaughter of the Philistines (1 Sm 14:32). The “fatted calf” served roasted or boiled was gourmet fare, suitable for the finest banquet (Gn 18:7; Mt 22:4; Lk 15:23).<\/p>\n<p>Cattle were subject to the law of firstlings (Ex 13:12). They were a mark of wealth (Gn 13:2) and were considered proper booty of war (Jos 8:2). Aaron, the first high priest, made a golden calf as a rival to the ark of the covenant (Ex 32; Dt 9:16, 21). Even though he represented the calf as an image of the invisible God, it was especially offensive because the calf was a fertility symbol related to Egyptian and Canaanite practices. Two calves were later made by Jeroboam I of Israel (930–909 <span>BC<\/span>) for his shrines at Bethel and Dan (1 Kgs 12:28-33). Hosea’s prophetic denunciations of calf worship were directed at those shrines (Hos 8:5-6; 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>An ox is an adult castrated bull. A steer is a young ox. Oxen were used to do work (Nm 7:3; Dt 22:10; 25:4), though for moving heavy objects, cows were typically favored over bulls because of their more docile nature. Oxen were also used as pack animals (1 Chr 12:40, although they did not have the endurance of the ass, camel, or mule. They usually fed on grass (Nm 22:4; Ps 106:20), but they also ate straw (Is 11:7) and salted fodder (Is 30:24) and could be kept in a stable (Lk 13:15). Oxen could not be offered as sacrifices because they had been castrated (Lv 22:24). They could be used for food but were rarely eaten. Possession of an ox and an ass was regarded as the bare minimum for existence in the ancient Palestinian agriculture economy (Jb 24:3; cf. Ex 20:17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Agriculture; Food and Food Preparation; Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chameleon\">Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>Lizard characterized by its ability to change color according to its surroundings <em>(Chameleon vulgaris).<\/em> To the Israelites the chameleon was ritually unclean (Lv 11:30). The Hebrew word for chameleon is derived from a word meaning “to pant.” A lizard’s lungs are very large, and in ancient times lizards were believed to live on air. A chameleon’s eyes move independently of each other; so at times one eye may be turned upward and the other downward. Chameleons live in trees and bushes, clinging to branches with their long tails.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Coral\">Coral<\/p>\n<p>Calcareous (lime-containing) skeletons of relatively simple marine organisms <em>(Corallium rubrum).<\/em> Red coral from the Mediterranean and Red Seas is widely used for jewelry and for medicinal purposes. While the animal is alive, the coral is green in color and shrublike in appearance, looking rather like an underwater plant since the coral animals are immobil. When the coral is removed from the water, it becomes hard and red in color.<\/p>\n<p>In ancient times coral was sometimes used as money, along with precious stones, pearls, and gold. Some believe the biblical reference in Lamentations 4:7 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is to pearls rather than to coral, but it is probable that the references in Job 28:18 and Ezekiel 27:16 are to the red coral (see <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cricket\">Cricket<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the order Orthptera related to grasshoppers and locusts. According to Leviticus 11:22, the cricket was edible. The reference may be to one of the growth stages of the locust.<\/p>\n<p>The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word as “beetle.” Beetles are insects with chewing mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the fore pair being hard and sheathlike and the hind pair being membranous and folded under the fore pair. Some beetles are carnivorous, others are chiefly herbivorous. Some are aquatic, some produce a secretion that blisters the skin, some damage fabrics, some damage crops, and some feed on other insects that are harmful to humans. In ancient Egypt the beetle, or sacred scarab, was a symbol of the sun god Ra. Scarab seals and amulets were extremely popular in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Crocodile\">Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all existing reptiles <em>(Crocodilus vulgaris),<\/em> attaining a length of well over 20 feet (6 meters). Crocodiles are characterized by large lizardlike bodies supported by short legs. The head terminates in a flattened snout armed with strong conical teeth, each of which is implanted in a distinct socket. New teeth growing from beneath continually replace those in use. The toes are webbed. The back and tail are protected by quadrangular horny shields of varying sizes arranged in regular rows and in contact with one another at the edges. The eyes are covered with movable lids that can be closed when the animal enters the water.<\/p>\n<p>The crocodile spends most of its time in the water where it feeds mainly on fish but also on aquatic birds and even small animals that come down to the water’s edge to drink. It is surprisingly fast and agile on dry land, even though its legs are so short that its belly and tail drag across the earth leaving a distinct path.<\/p>\n<p>Until the beginning of the 20th century, the crocodile was found in the marshes and small coastal rivers of western Palestine. A first-century Roman writer, Pliny, referred to a place in the Holy Land called Crocodeilopolis (“crocodile city”) to the south of Mt Carmel, and visitors to the Holy Land as late as the 19th century reported seeing crocodiles in that general region.<\/p>\n<p>The description of “Leviathan” in Job 41 seems to be based on the crocodile (thus the translation of the <span>nlt<\/span>). The “dragon” of Ezekiel 29:3, used figuratively of the Egyptian pharaoh, may be a reference to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Deer\">Deer<\/p>\n<p>Large ruminant (cud-chewing) animals. Only the males have antlers (branching horns). Deer antlers grow annually and are solid, in contrast to those of the antelope and the gazelle. Fully developed antlers are devoid of any covering of skin or horn and, for all practical purposes, may be regarded as a mass of dead bone carried for a certain time by the living animal.<\/p>\n<p>The end of the deer’s muzzle is naked in all species. The stomach is divided into a series of compartments, some of which are used to store partly chewed food. The food is later regurgitated, rechewed, and finally swallowed into a section of the stomach where true digestion takes place.<\/p>\n<p>Three species of deer were known in Palestine: the red deer <em>(Cervus elaphus),<\/em> the Persian fallow deer <em>(Dama mesopotamica),<\/em> and the roe deer <em>(Capreolus capreolus).<\/em> All are now extinct there. The last deer were hunted in the Holy Land in 1914. The red deer referred to in the Bible as “hart” (male), “stag” (male), or “hind” (female) stood about four feet (1.2 meters) high at the shoulder. It was gregarious (living in herds or flocks), each group remaining in a definite territory. Red deer grazed and browsed during the morning and late afternoon (Lam 1:6). The sexes remained in separate herds. The red deer was known for its leaping (Is 35:6) and sure-footedness in the mountains (Ps 18:33; Sg 2:8-9, 17; 8:14; Hb 3:19).<\/p>\n<p>The antlers of the Persian fallow deer (1 Kgs 4:23) were large, flattened, and palmated (shaped like an open palm with fingers extended), and its coat was a yellowbrown. It traveled in small groups, feeding mainly on grass in the morning and evening.<\/p>\n<p>The roe deer (Dt 14:5; 1 Kgs 4:23) was a small, graceful animal, dark reddish brown in summer and yellowish gray in winter. Its antlers were about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and had three points. The roe deer preferred sparsely wooded valleys and the lower slopes of mountains, grazing in open grasslands. It usually associated in family groups made up of the doe and her offspring. They were shy, yet very curious. The roe deer barked like a dog when disturbed, and they were excellent swimmers.<\/p>\n<p>There is some question as to whether the roe deer is actually referred to in such passages as 1 Kings 4:23; references may be to the fallow deer, although that animal does not seem to have lived in the southern part of Palestine around the Sinai Desert because of its need for ample amounts of food and water. Fallow deer were found in northern Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The hart (the male red deer) was listed among the clean beasts that Jewish law permitted as food (Dt 12:15, 22; 14:5), but deer were not listed among the animals appropriate for sacrifice. The hind (female red deer) normally gave birth to one calf at a time, though twins were born with some degree of regularity (Jb 39:1; Ps 29:9, <span>kjv<\/span>; Jer 14:5). The gestation period was about 40 weeks. When it was about to give birth, the hind looked for a secure hiding place, preferably in the dense undergrowth of the forest where it could find natural protection for the tiny calf. During the first few days after birth, the mother never went far from her young. The fawn was able to stand on its own legs a few hours after birth. The solicitous care by the hind for her calf during the first days of its life is hinted at in a touching way in Jeremiah 14:4-5, where only a severe drought is said to drive the hind from her calf. Job 39:1-4 describes the calving of the hinds. The hind illustrated grace and charm (Gn 49:21; Prv 5:19), and its dark, gentle eyes and graceful limbs were used to describe the beauty of a woman (Prv 5:18-19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dog\">Dog<\/p>\n<p>Probably the earliest domesticated animal <em>(Canis familiaris),<\/em> used very early in hunting. The modern dog is believed to have come from the Indian wolf <em>(Canis lupus pallipes).<\/em> The dogs of biblical times probably looked like a modern German shepherd, with short pointed ears, a pointed nose, and a long tail.<\/p>\n<p>The dog was generally looked down upon in biblical times (Prv 26:11; 2 Pt 2:22). The biblical writers did not share modern sentiments about dogs being man’s best friends. The dog was pictured as a scavenger, haunting streets and dumps (Ex 22:31; 1 Kgs 22:38; Mt 15:26; Lk 16:21). Human corpses could become the spoil of dogs (2 Kgs 9:35-36). In general, dogs served the same function as vultures and other birds of prey. Most of the 41 references in the Scriptures to dogs show strong disfavor. Dogs were considered cowardly, filthy creatures.<\/p>\n<p>Dogs used in hunting occur in paintings in Egyptian tombs, and there is a reference to dogs herding sheep in Job 30:1. One good quality of dogs highly esteemed by the Israelites was watchfulness (Is 56:10). In general, however, in biblical times “dog” was a term of contempt (1 Sm 17:43; 2 Sm 16:9) and was used of overly submissive persons (2 Sm 9:8; 2 Kgs 8:13) and of evil persons (Is 56:10-11; Mt 7:6; Phil 3:2; Rv 22:15).<\/p>\n<p>Dogs, like pigs, were voracious and omnivorous (eating any kind of food). In response to a Gentile woman’s request that he heal her daughter, Jesus used the metaphor of throwing household food scraps to dogs (Mt 15:22-28; Mk 7:25-30). At the time of Jesus, the word “dog” was a standard Jewish term of contempt for Gentiles who, like dogs, were considered unclean, although the diminutive form of the word, used by Jesus, softened this considerably. Seeing her faith, Jesus granted the woman’s request, giving a non-Jew some of “the children’s bread.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Donkey\">Donkey<\/p>\n<p>Beast of burden. The donkey of the Holy Land <em>(Equus asinus)<\/em> was quite different from the European donkey of today, which is usually a small, stubborn animal. In biblical times the donkey was a beautiful, stately, friendly animal. Its color was usually reddish brown. Three wild races have been described, all from Africa. The race from northwest Africa is extinct; the one from northeast Africa, if not extinct, is close to extinction; the Somalian race, which survives, did not play an important part in domestication. The northeast African race, the Nubian donkey, was evidently domesticated in the Nile River region in early historic times. The donkey was used as a mount from the time of domestication on. It is first mentioned in the Bible among the animals that Abraham acquired in Egypt (Gn 12:16). The donkey was primarily a beast of burden, driven but not bridled. From the time of the Middle Kingdom on (c. 2040 <span>BC<\/span>), it was used for riding in Egypt, but only the Jews and Nubians rode donkeys regularly. The donkey was also used for threshing grain and for pulling the plow. In Arab countries today peasants plow with a donkey and a cow or camel hitched together. In Israel the law forbade plowing with a donkey and an ox hitched together (Dt 22:10). Until the time of Solomon (960 <span>BC<\/span>), horses were not used in Palestine. From that time on, the horse was ridden by warriors; the donkey was used by those who were traveling peaceably.<\/p>\n<p>The donkey was held in high regard by the Jews and was considered an economic asset. An individual had to have a donkey for minimum existence (Jb 24:3), and wealth was frequently counted by the number of donkeys one possessed (Gn 12:16; 24:35). The donkey was considered an acceptable gift (Gn 32:13-15). It was allowed to rest on the Sabbath (Dt 5:14). Women in biblical times often used the donkey as a riding animal (Jos 15:18; 1 Sm 25:23; 2 Kgs 4:24); often a special driver would help a woman guide the animal, running along at its side. If a married couple possessed only one donkey, the husband usually walked alongside while the wife rode (Ex 4:20).<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel returning from Babylon had ten times as many donkeys as horses and camels (Ezr 2:66-67; Neh 7:68-69). Job’s wealth was indicated by the fact that he had 500 she-donkeys before catastrophe hit him (Jb 1:3); after his recovery he had 1,000 donkeys (Jb 42:12). Joseph’s brothers used donkeys to transport the grain they purchased in Egypt (Gn 42:26; 43:24). Abigail transported food on donkeys to David and his troops during their conflict with Saul (1 Sm 25:18). David assigned one of the 12 managers of his royal estates to look after his donkeys exclusively (1 Chr 27:30).<\/p>\n<p>The onager, or Syrian wild donkey <em>(Equus hemionus hemihippus)<\/em>, is an intermediate between the true horse and the true donkey. Its ears are longer than those of a horse but shorter than those of a donkey. The front hooves are narrow; there are chestnuts (callouslike spots on the inside of the knees) on the front legs only, and the tail is short haired for a long distance from its root so that it appears to be tufted.<\/p>\n<p>The Sumerians (ancient Mesopotamians) were able to domesticate the onager, which was eventually replaced by the horse. It was used to draw chariots in Ur; a number of onagers were buried with their vehicles in a royal grave that dates from about 2500 <span>BC<\/span>. Later the wild onager was a favorite hunter’s prize for Babylonian and Assyrian kings.<\/p>\n<p>The onager was very common in the steppe lands near Israel, where it was described as a freedom-loving desert animal (Jb 24:5; 39:5-8; Ps 104:11; Is 32:14; Jer 2:24; Hos 8:9). Ishmael was described as “free and untamed as a wild donkey” (Gn 16:12, <span>nlt<\/span>)—that is, one who could not adjust to domestic life. Drought seems to have been responsible for the population decline of the onager in biblical times (Jer 14:6). The modern onager <em>(Equus hemionus onager)<\/em> is slightly larger than the Syrian wild donkey that is extinct.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dragon\">Dragon<\/p>\n<p>Any one of a number of monstrous land and sea creatures. In biblical usage, “dragon” does not refer to the huge, fire-breathing, winged reptile of European folklore. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> used the term to translate two Hebrew words that are usually rendered more precisely in modern translations. One word referred to desert animals; most scholars agree with the <span>niv<\/span> that “jackals” is its proper meaning (Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; Jer 9:11; Mal 1:3). <em>See<\/em> Jackal (below).<\/p>\n<p>The other Hebrew word translated “dragon” is harder to define. It was frequently used in reference to serpents (so translated in the <span>rsv<\/span>: Ex 7:9-12; Dt 32:33; Ps 91:13). In other <span>rsv<\/span> passages it is translated “sea monster” (Gn 1:21; Jb 7:12; Ps 148:7). The exact identity of such sea monsters is not known. Several <span>rsv<\/span> passages retain the English “dragon.” In two of them (Ps 74:13; Is 27:1), the context indicates that sea monsters are meant. In three others (Is 51:9; Ez 29:3; 32:2) “dragon” seems to refer to the crocodile, a figurative reference to the Egyptian pharaoh at the time of the exodus. Jeremiah 51:34 (translated “monster” in the <span>rsv<\/span>) may also refer to a voracious creature such as a crocodile. <em>See<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p>Babylonian myths described monsters and dragons in primordial conflict with the god Marduk; they represented the principle of evil. In its figurative usages in Scripture, “dragon” has a similar significance, especially in the prophetic books. In the book of Revelation it is a symbol of Satan, the archenemy of God and his people (Rv 12:3-17; 13:2, 4, 11; 16:13; 20:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fish\">Fish<\/p>\n<p>Aquatic animals frequently mentioned in the Bible without names or descriptions that enable us to identify the particular species. Since time immemorial, fish have constituted one of the staple foods of humanity, and they still serve as the chief source of protein in many parts of the world. The trade in fish was highly developed in biblical times. For example, one of the gates in Jerusalem was called the Fish Gate (Neh 3:3; Zep 1:10). The law in Leviticus 11:9-12 permitted the Jews to eat fish, but only those having both fins and scales. Scaleless fish such as catfish were forbidden, even though they had fins.<\/p>\n<p>Egyptian paintings depict various methods of fishing, and the Philistines fished in the Mediterranean Sea. Since the people of Israel were not a seafaring nation, it is safe to assume that most of their fish came from freshwater lakes and rivers, especially the Sea of Galilee. Some 36 species of fish have been identified in that lake, including varieties of perch, carp, barbel, “sardine,” and catfish.<\/p>\n<p>The method of fishing characteristic of NT times was the dragnet. After a boat had put out into the deep (Lk 5:4), a large net would be thrown out from it and then dragged toward shore by the rowers in the boat, possibly with the help of a crew in another boat. The catch was sorted out on shore (Mt 13:47-48). Fishing was usually carried out at night when the coolness of the water brought fish closer to the surface and when they could not see the approaching nets.<\/p>\n<p>The Jews also fished by hook and line (Mt 17:27), a few by spear (Jb 41:7), and some by the throw net (Ez 47:10). Habakkuk refers to hook-and-line fishing, netting, and seining (1:15).<\/p>\n<p>Very early in the history of the Christian church the fish became a symbol for Christ and the faith. It was scratched on the walls of Roman catacombs and may be seen today decorating walls, altars, pews, and vestments. The symbol came into use because the Greek word for “fish” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ichthus<\/span><em>)<\/em> is composed of the first letter of each word in the Greek phrase “Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior.” <em>See<\/em> Whale (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Flea\">Flea<\/p>\n<p>Tiny, irritating insect (1 Sm 24:14; 26:20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Many species of fleas occur in Palestine, the most common being <em>Pulex irritans.<\/em> About a thousand species are known around the world. Fleas are wingless parasites that have sharp jaws and suck out blood from the bodies of humans and animals. The body is wedge shaped, enabling the flea to burrow into folds of skin and hide there. The eggs, laid by the female in dust heaps in the corners of rooms, hatch into small, white larvae that pupate (a nonfeeding stage) in a cocoon. Soon adult fleas appear that immediately attach themselves to the body of a host. The female requires blood for the development of her eggs.<\/p>\n<p>A flea bite is painful and causes some swelling and itching. Fleas are attracted by warmth. With favorable moisture and temperature, adult fleas can live a year or longer without food, but they are voracious feeders. The most dangerous fleas are those of the rat that transmit the organism responsible for bubonic plague. There were 41 recorded epidemics of bubonic plague before the Christian era.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fly\">Fly<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the order Diptera, which have one pair of wings. Many winged insects of other orders, however, are also called flies, such as the dragonfly or butterfly.<\/p>\n<p>As in almost all parts of the world, flies are abundant in Palestine. One of the most numerous is the common housefly <em>(Musca domestica),<\/em> found chiefly around dung heaps and garbage. The female lays her eggs, out of which emerge white maggots that feed on refuse. After a few days the maggot develops into a cocoon out of which emerges the adult housefly. In the summer the whole cycle lasts about 12 days, so that a fly can breed about 20 generations a year.<\/p>\n<p>Another fly common to Palestine is the botfly (family Oestridae). It causes much discomfort among livestock by irritating them and spreading diseases. Tabanid flies (family Tabanidae), including the horsefly (genus <em>Tabanus<\/em>) and related species, are also found in Palestine. Both the botfly and horsefly are known as gadflies because of the persistent distress they inflict. Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar is spoken of as a gadfly in view of his invasion of Egypt (Jer 46:20).<\/p>\n<p>The fourth plague in Egypt just before the exodus featured “swarms of flies” (Ex 8:21-31, <span>nlt<\/span>; cf. Pss 78:45; 105:31). Those swarms may have been made up of any or all the flies mentioned above. The maggots mentioned in Job 25:6 and Isaiah 14:11 and the worms in Exodus 16:24 and Job 7:5 and 17:14 were probably fly larvae.<\/p>\n<p>A proverb quoted in Ecclesiastes 10:1 probably refers to the housefly, which would be attracted to an open, perfumed ointment bottle. Once inside it would drown and eventually decay, causing the ointment to spoil and stink. The fly is also referred to in Isaiah 7:18 where it symbolizes Egypt. Isaiah may have had in mind a horsefly <em>(Tabanus arenivagus)<\/em> that attacks both humans and animals.<\/p>\n<p>Philistine inhabitants of the city of Ekron worshiped a god named Baal-zebul, meaning “Lord of the high places.” The Hebrews mockingly spoke of Baal-zebub, meaning “Lord of the flies” (2 Kgs 1:2). The NT form is Beelzebub (e.g., Mt 10:25; 12:24, 27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fox\">Fox<\/p>\n<p>Small, doglike carnivore with a bushy tail that is about half its body length. The red fox of the Holy Land <em>(Vulpes palaetinae)<\/em> is similar to the North American red fox; it is smaller than a wolf and is normally a nocturnal solitary animal. The omnivorous fox eats almost any kind of food—fruits, plants, mice, beetles, and birds—but seldom touches carrion. It loves the sweet juice of grapes, but it also burrows underground tunnels that can destroy the vines (Sg 2:15). The fox is intelligent and known for its slyness (Lk 13:32). It has considerable endurance and can run at speeds up to 30 miles (48 kilometers) per hour. The Jews rebuilding Jerusalem’s wall were taunted by the wisecrack that even a fox jumping on their wall would knock it over (Neh 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptian fox <em>(Vulpes niloticus)<\/em> is found in the central and southern parts of the Holy Land. It is somewhat smaller than the common red fox. Its back is rust colored and its belly light. The Syrian fox <em>(Vulpes flavescens)<\/em> that lives in the northern part of the Holy Land is shiny gold in color.<\/p>\n<p>Some OT references such as Psalm 63:10 and Lamentations 5:18 are translated “fox” in the <span>kjv<\/span> but probably refer to jackals. Jackals, not foxes, hunt in packs and tend to act as scavengers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Frog\">Frog<\/p>\n<p>Amphibian (genus <em>Rana<\/em>), living part of its life in the water and part on land.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs and toads are covered with soft, hairless skin and lack a tail in the adult stage. The hind legs are much longer and more powerfully developed than the forelegs so that the animals are able to jump large distances. It has been suggested that the frog referred to in Scripture is an edible one, <em>Rana ridibunda,<\/em> one of the aquatic frogs found in Egypt and in the stagnant waters of the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The female frog lays her eggs in the water; after about a week the eggs hatch into tadpoles. Gradually through metamorphosis the tail is lost and limbs are acquired. Frogs must maintain a moist skin since they take oxygen through the skin as well as through their lungs; thus they must always remain close to water. They feed on insects and worms.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs are found throughout the Palestinian lowlands, where their croaking is heard in the spring and on summer evenings. The Israelites seem to have associated frogs primarily with sliminess and foulness. They fell into the category of creeping or swarming creatures, which in general were ritually unclean (Lv 11:29-31). Since the frog was not specifically listed, however, rabbis did not consider it one of the animals that defiled human beings through contact.<\/p>\n<p>In Revelation 16:13 certain foul spirits are said to look like frogs. The ancient Egyptians made the frog a symbol of life and birth and an image of Heqet, the patron goddess of birth. She is depicted with a frog’s head giving life to the newborn. Thus that deity was discredited when the power of God afflicted Egypt in the second of the ten plagues on the Egyptians with the very animal that was her symbol (Ex 8:1-14; Pss 78:45; 105:30). The frog in question may have been the spotted frog of Egypt <em>(Rana punctata,<\/em> or <em>Rana ridibunda).<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gazelle\">Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>Small, dainty, graceful antelope with hollow recurved horns on both sexes. Two varieties exist in the Holy Land, the dorcas gazelle <em>(Gazella dorcas),<\/em> which is pale fawn in color and up to 22 inches (56 centimeters) tall, and the Arabian gazelle <em>(Gazella arabica),<\/em> which is a dark smoky color and up to 25 inches (63.5 centimeters) tall.<\/p>\n<p>Gazelles are still quite common throughout the desert and steppe areas of the Holy Land, especially in the Negev Desert. Herds usually consist of from 5 to 10 animals, but some varieties assemble in large migratory herds in the fall to relocate to lower elevations and new feeding grounds. Gazelles are herbivorous (plant eating). They are very shy and post guards to warn the herd of approaching danger.<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times the gazelle was probably the game animal most hunted by the Jews (Prv 6:5; Is 13:14). Pharaoh Tutankhamen hunted gazelles and ostriches. The gazelle is said to have graced Solomon’s table (1 Kgs 4:23). Gazelles were not easy to catch because of their great speed (2 Sm 2:18; 1 Chr 12:8; Prv 6:5); they surpass the deer in swiftness. They were trapped in various ways—encircled with nets, driven into enclosures with pitfalls, or forced into narrow valleys and shot with arrows. The Bedouin hunt gazelle with falcons and dogs; the falcon annoys the gazelle, striking it on the head and injuring it so that the dogs can overtake it.<\/p>\n<p>The gazelle is referred to in Song of Songs 2:9, 17; 4:5; 7:3; 8:14, where it is an image of feminine beauty.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gecko\">Gecko<\/p>\n<p>Reptile of the family Gekkonidae, referred to in Leviticus 11:30. In Jewish food law it was a ritually unclean lizard. There are seven species of geckos in the Holy Land (including <em>Hemidactylus turcicus<\/em> and <em>Ptyodactylus hasselquistii,<\/em> all insectivorous—insect eating). The gecko makes a low mourning sound by vibrating its tongue rapidly against the roof of its mouth. In legend the gecko was said to cause leprosy by crawling across a person’s body.<\/p>\n<p>Another name for the gecko is the wall lizard, so named because it can walk upside down on ceilings with the aid of the suction discs on its toes—but it often plops down into the middle of the home. Since it was considered unclean, such an intrusion would have been a disgusting nuisance to Jewish households (Lv 11:31-38).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gnat\">Gnat<\/p>\n<p>Any very small fly, in common and biblical usage. According to the <span>nlt<\/span>, the third plague in Egypt before the exodus consisted of gnats (Ex 8:16-18; Ps 105:31). The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word there as “lice,” but the breeding pattern described in Exodus 8—insects rising from the dust—seems to fit gnats better than lice. Since “gnat” is a general term, the small flies of that plague may have included several small species such as mosquitos, harvester gnats, midges, or sand flies.<\/p>\n<p>The sand fly inflicts a far more painful bite than the mosquito. Further, it does not betray itself by a buzzing noise in flight and is so small that it penetrates most mosquito netting.<\/p>\n<p>Gnats were drawn to wine while it was fermenting. The Pharisees in particular would strain their wine to avoid consuming unclean insects (Mt 23:24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Goat\">Goat<\/p>\n<p>Cloven-hooved mammals (genus <em>Capra<\/em>) with large eyes and big, floppy ears that constantly twitch. Both males and females have backward arching horns. The Palestinian goat is a ruminant (cud-chewing animal) of lighter build than the sheep.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was probably the earliest ruminant to be domesticated. Its wild ancestor seems to have been the Gezoar goat <em>(Capra aegagrus).<\/em> Wild goats are believed to have been domesticated very early in Palestine. The goat of Bible times was probably the Syrian or Mamber variety <em>(Capra hircus mambrica).<\/em> Domesticated goats may have as many as four kids in a litter, whereas wild goats bear only one or two.<\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian goat was commonly black. Speckled and spotted goats were a rarity, and for that reason Jacob’s request for those goats in Genesis 30:32 appeared very modest. There may also have been red goats (cf. 1 Sm 16:12; 19:13, where goat’s hair was used to imitate David’s hair, which was “ruddy” or auburn).<\/p>\n<p>Almost every part of the goat was used by the Israelites. The whole goat was used for sacrifice. Its flesh served as meat (Lv 7:23; Dt 14:4), and it was the principal source of milk (Prv 27:27). Goats were sheared in the late spring, and the goat hair was used for weaving tent cloth and for various domestic purposes (Ex 36:14; 1 Sm 19:13, 16). The tabernacle at Mt Sinai was made of goat’s hair blankets (Ex 26:7).<\/p>\n<p>Adult male goats were generally not eaten because of their strong flavor and toughness and also because they were necessary to insure the flock’s increase. Young kids, however, were usually the chief meat for a feast and were offered to visitors as a symbol of hospitality. Goat milk is richer than the milk of cows and sheep and evidently had broader uses. A good goat gives three quarts of milk a day, from which a rich butter and buttermilk can be made. The average Hebrew family could have lived almost entirely on a single goat’s production.<\/p>\n<p>Goatskin was tanned as leather, and the whole hide was turned into a skin bottle by sewing shut leg and neck apertures (Gn 21:14; Jos 9:4). Goatskin had many uses, including the construction of Hebrew musical instruments. The nebal, a large harp, was made with goatskin for its base sound. Drums had goatskin coverings.<\/p>\n<p>Goats were herded with sheep in biblical times, but each group remained separate following its own bell-laden leader. Jesus was evidently referring to their common herding in his description of the Last Judgment (Mt 25:31-46).<\/p>\n<p>Because of their wool, sheep are valued more than goats. However, where pasture and water are scarce and thorny shrubs dominate over grass, sheep are difficult to keep and goats become important. They can live under conditions that suit neither cows nor sheep, producing large quantities of milk. The goat does not supply fat as the sheep does, and since its hair is coarse its wool is rather scarce. Goat-hair cloth called cilicium was used to make tents.<\/p>\n<p>Goats have voracious appetites. They also were responsible for much damage done to the land of Palestine, breaking down terraces, destroying forests, and bringing about soil erosion by eating off all cover.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was recognized as a form of wealth, subject to the law of firstlings (Nm 18:17). It had to be eight days old before it could be offered as a sacrifice. A year-old male goat was one of the animals offered at the Passover (28:22), and two goats were offered on the Day of Atonement (Lv 16:7-10). The goat was also used for other specific sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p>The ibex, a type of wild goat <em>(Capra ibex nubiana),<\/em> still lives in small numbers on the cliffs close to the Dead Sea. That it was known in ancient times is evident from rock carvings. It is distinguished from the true wild goat by having a more compact rump and horns that are slender and curved back. Its slender legs and sharp cloven hooves enable it to cling to narrow rock ledges, to jump between them, and to climb steep cliffs.<\/p>\n<p>Usually the ibex is found in rugged mountain country among rocky crags and meadows just below the snow line (Ps 104:18). In Job 39:1 they are referred to as “mountain goats.” They frequently gather in herds of 5 to 20. They graze and browse, being active in the afternoon and sometimes feeding through the night. The large horn of the ibex was at one period made into the shofar that was blown in the second Jerusalem temple to announce the new year and the jubilee year.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was often used in a figurative and symbolic sense by the writers of the Bible: in Song of Songs 4:1 and 6:5 for the bride’s black hair; in Matthew 25:31-46 for the wicked; and in Ezekiel 34:17 and Daniel 8:5-8 for various human leaders.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Grasshopper\">Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>Large insects of the Orthoptera order. They have chewing or biting mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the front pair of which is narrow and somewhat thickened and the hind pair membranous and used for flying. When not in use the flight wings are folded beneath the protective front wings like a fan against the body. By rubbing their wings together, male grasshoppers produce sounds that both males and females can detect. Grasshoppers pass through a partial metamorphosis; the egg hatches into a juvenile nymph that looks like an adult except for its smaller size and undeveloped wings. After several months the nymph becomes a winged adult.<\/p>\n<p>The terms “grasshopper” and “locust” are often used interchangeably. Actually the locust is a kind of grasshopper. Also confusing is the fact that other insects such as cicadas are sometimes called locusts. The difference between grasshoppers and locusts depends more on behavior than appearance. Grasshoppers are individual insects that lead solitary lives and do not migrate. The same insects when migrating in a swarm are called migratory grasshoppers or locusts. Elimination of their food supply by drought, flood, or fire may lead to migration. Climatic factors such as a warm dry winter also stimulate migrations.<\/p>\n<p>Grasshoppers and locusts have been a staple food in the Middle East and also among the Indians of the American Southwest. To the Israelites the grasshopper was considered ritually clean and could be eaten (Lv 11:22).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hare\">Hare<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the genus and species <em>Lepus europaeus judaeus, Lepus capensis,<\/em> and <em>Lepus arabicus.<\/em> It is found in open country, often near or on cultivated lands, and in woods, usually deciduous rather than evergreen. It is an herbivorous rodent and is different from the rabbit, which is not found in Palestine. Although it is not a true ruminant according to modern classification (because it does not have a four-chambered stomach), the hare does rechew its food. It has a process of partial regurgitation of material too hard for the cells in the stomach to absorb initially; thus, the hare actually chews food previously swallowed.<\/p>\n<p>Near Eastern hares have very long ears and large hind feet; their feet are well furred. They are similar to American jackrabbits, which are true hares. Hares do not dig or occupy burrows the way rabbits do. Hares are mainly nocturnal and spend their inactive hours hiding in vegetation. They eat grasses and herbaceous matter as well as twigs and young bark of woody plants. Hares breed with great rapidity—the young attaining sexual maturity at six months after birth.<\/p>\n<p>The hare was ceremonially unclean (Lv 11:6; Dt 14:7), evidently because although it appeared to chew its cud, it did not have cloven hooves. Consumption of hares has also been forbidden among the Arabs, Chinese, and Lapps, but the hare was widely hunted by other people in ancient and modern times. Its great speed, prolific breeding, timidity, and caution have saved it from extermination by its many enemies.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hippopotamus\">Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of problematic interpretation. Some early interpreters thought it referred to the elephant, others to the wild ox, the mammoth, or any large animal. It was called “behemoth” by the <span>kjv<\/span> translators. Today it is generally agreed that the reference is to the hippopotamus <em>(Hippopotamus amphibius),<\/em> a large, thick-skinned, amphibious mammal, an ungulate (having hooflike toenails) with a large head, a bulky, hairless body, and short legs.<\/p>\n<p>The description in Job 40:15-24 fits closely the modern hippopotamus (see <span>nlt<\/span>), except for the depiction of the tail. At present the hippopotamus is found only in the rivers of Africa, but there is fossil evidence that it has existed in the Holy Land, perhaps in the swamps of northern Galilee and the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\n<p>The hippopotamus has highly developed sense organs, placed in such a way that it can see, hear, and smell almost without being seen; its eyes, ears, and nostrils can reach above water while the rest of the animal lies submerged. It has a large mouth, large tusks, and a short, heavy throat. The strong legs are so short that the belly almost reaches the ground when the animal is on the land. The hippopotamus lives on plants and herbs growing in rivers, but if food is scarce there, it forages on land, usually at night. In spite of its heavy body it is surprisingly agile on land.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Horse\">Horse<\/p>\n<p>Przewalski’s horse (<em>Equus przewalskii,<\/em> an eastern race that roamed about Mongolia until modern firearms destroyed most of them after World War I) and the tarpan (a western race of southern Russia that became extinct in the Ukraine in 1851). The domesticated horse <em>(Equus caballus)<\/em> seems to have been derived from the tarpan. The original site of domestication is believed to have been Turkestan, a region north of Afghanistan and India, now in Russia. The horse differs from the donkey in that it has shorter ears, a longer mane with a forelock, a long hairy tail, and a soft, sensitive muzzle.<\/p>\n<p>Horses were used in war not only for riding but also for pulling the heavy, springless war chariots. Two kinds of horses were needed for these different purposes, and the Hebrews distinguished between chariot horses and cavalry horses.<\/p>\n\n<p>The Lord warned the early Israelites against unnecessarily amassing military strength in the form of horses and thereby following the oppressive tactics of the powerful Egyptians (Dt 17:14-16), but the demands of war caused both David and Solomon to import horses from Egypt into their kingdoms and to breed them. Solomon greatly increased the number of horses in the Jewish kingdom and maintained large stables at various cities (1 Kgs 10:26) such as the regional defense centers of Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer (1 Kgs 9:15-19). Ahab’s horses are mentioned in 1 Kings 18:5, and records of Shalmaneser III state that Ahab furnished 2,000 chariots to a coalition against Assyria.<\/p>\n<p>In early Israel, the horse was opposed as a symbol of pagan luxury and of dependence on physical power for defense (Dt 17:16; 1 Sm 8:11; Ps 20:7; Is 31:1). Horse trading, mentioned as early as Genesis 47:17, was carried on by Solomon between Egypt and the Syro-Hittite principalities (1 Kgs 10:28-29). Most biblical references to horses refer to their use in war, but horses were also used for transportation. Riding seems to have been less popular than the use of chariots. Cavalry units were not introduced until the 12th century <span>BC<\/span> by the Medes. Joseph rode in Pharaoh’s second horse-drawn chariot (Gn 41:43), and Absalom made a display by riding a horse-drawn chariot (2 Sm 15:1). Naaman traveled by horse and chariot (2 Kgs 5:9). Later, horses were so common in Jerusalem that the royal palace had a special horse gate (2 Chr 23:15), and a gate of the city itself was known as the Horse Gate (Neh 3:28; Jer 31:40). Mordecai rode a royal horse of King Xerxes as a sign of honor (Est 6:8-11). Horses are often spoken of figuratively (Ps 32:9; “mare,” Sg 1:9; “stallions,” Jer 5:8; 12:5), especially in the context of judgment (Hb 3:8; Zec 1:8; 6:1-8; Rv 6:2-8; 9:17; 19:11-16).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Warfare; Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyena\">Hyena<\/p>\n<p>Stocky carnivore <em>(Hyaena hyaena)<\/em> with coarse hair, an erect mane, and long hairs along the neck and back. Hyenas live in holes among rocks and banks. They are mainly nocturnal but are ordinarily neither noisy nor aggressive. Their cry, however, is a disagreeable, unearthly sound. Hyenas usually feed on carrion, crushing bones with their powerful jaws. If the carrion supply is inadequate, they will kill sheep, goats, or other small animals. When threatened, hyenas growl and erect their mane, but they rarely fight. They are massively built with forelegs longer than the hind legs.<\/p>\n<p>Known as scavengers in Africa, hyenas eat domestic refuse in the villages. In Palestine the striped hyena is a common predator, preferring rocky territory and even rock tombs. Since hyenas were notorious for raiding the graves of the dead, all Israelites who could afford it arranged for burial in tombs protected by massive stone doors. Absalom, King David’s son who was killed by Joab in the wild, was buried under a huge pile of stones to protect his corpse from molestation by hyenas (2 Sm 18:17).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Jackal\">Jackal<\/p>\n<p>Carnivore <em>(Canis aureus)<\/em> smaller than the true wolf and with a shorter tail. It is similar to the fox but has a broader head, shorter ears, and longer legs. The fox is solitary; the jackal tends to be gregarious. Its tail can be drooping or erect, compared with the long horizontal tail of the fox. Jackals usually prowl at night, either singly, in pairs, or in packs through open savannah country. They eat small mammals, poultry, fruit, vegetables, and carrion. They spend their days in thickets and clumps of vegetation. Often they obtain scraps from kills by larger carnivores. Jackals can run at speeds of about 33 miles (53 kilometers) per hour.<\/p>\n<p>The jackal can reach a height of about 20 inches (51 centimeters), roughly the size of a German shepherd dog. Its back is pale yellow with dark, almost black, flanks. Its lips are black and its ears white on the inside. The howl of the jackal sounds like the crying of a child or the heartrending wail of the bereaved (Mi 1:8; cf. Jb 30:29). To other jackals the howl is merely an invitation calling the pack together for its nocturnal hunting.<\/p>\n<p>OT references are chiefly to jackals prowling around ruined cities and wilderness areas (Neh 2:13; Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; 34:13; 35:7; Jer 9:11; 14:6; 49:33; 51:37; Lam 4:3; 5:18; Mal 1:3). Many such references are translated “dragon” in the <span>kjv<\/span>, but “jackal” is more appropriate.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leech\">Leech<\/p>\n<p>Segmented worm (class Hirundinea) up to five inches (12.7 centimeters) long with a flat body equipped with suction pads at each end. The mouth, located at the bottom of the front suction pad, has three teeth that the leech uses to pierce the skin of its host. The leech feeds on blood, and its glands secrete an anticoagulant to prevent the blood from clotting. The ordinary medicinal leech (Hirudo medicinalis) is abundant in springs and ponds from the Negev Desert to Galilee. It adheres to the bodies of human beings and animals that submerge themselves in water, injects its anticoagulant, and sucks their blood.<\/p>\n<p>The reference in Proverbs 30:15 is uncertain (see <span>nlt<\/span>) but may be to the parasitic and greedy nature of the horse leech (genus <em>Haemopis<\/em>). The small horse leech enters its host’s mouth and nostrils from water while the animal is drinking. A leech weighing one-half ounce (14.2 grams) has been known to gorge itself with two and a half ounces (71 grams) of concentrated blood and then to exist for 15 months with no more to eat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leopard\">Leopard<\/p>\n<p>Called <em>Panthera pardus tulliana,<\/em> it is the most widespread of all the large wildcats. In rocky areas it lives in caves, but in forested regions it lives in thick vegetation. In OT times many lived in the vicinity of Mt Hermon (Sg 4:8).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is somewhat smaller than the tiger, measuring up to 5 feet (1.5 meters) in length with a tail of about 30 inches (.8 meter). Its body is better proportioned than that of the tiger. The leopard takes its victim by surprise from a silent ambush, often concealing itself near villages or watering places and waiting for its prey, remaining in one spot for long spans of time. The leopard is swift on the ground (Hb 1:8), agile in trees, and very graceful in its movements. Its color is yellowish speckled with black spots (Jer 13:23). Daniel and John saw visions in which leopards were symbols of world powers (Dn 7:6; Rv 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is a wary and cunning animal, formidable and ferocious (Jer 5:6; Hos 13:7; cf. Is 11:6). The leopard is dangerous not only to domestic animals but also to humans. With its natural camouflage it can hide on the forest floor, blending into the changing light and shadows. The Israelites were terrified of the leopard because it constantly ravaged their sheep and goats. Several biblical place names suggest that they were known for the leopards in their vicinity: Nimrah, Beth-nimrah, and Nimrim, a district northeast of the Dead Sea. It has survived in the Holy Land into the present century; a few leopards still exist in remote areas near Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leviathan\">Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>Sea monster mentioned several times in the Bible (Pss 74:14; 104:26; Is 27:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). It may refer to any of the larger marine animals such as large jellyfish, whales, or sharks, or to a large reptile like the crocodile. Some scholars think “Leviathan” may refer to animals now extinct, such as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs (marine reptiles similar to dinosaurs). The scriptural term might also refer to certain dinosaurs that spent part of their lives half-submerged in shallow lakes and oceans. Other scholars believe that most of the references are to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lion\">Lion<\/p>\n<p>Large, tawny-colored carnivore <em>(Panthera leo)<\/em> that preys chiefly on hoofed mammals and charges by a series of leaps and bounds. Within historic times the lion ranged in Africa, Europe, and the Holy Land. In ancient times the territories of the African and Persian lions met in the Middle East. The lion of the Holy Land was the Asiatic or Persian lion <em>(Panthera leo persica).<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The males have heavy manes that stop at the shoulders but cover much of the chest. The Persian lion cannot climb and is mainly nocturnal, returning to its lair or a thicket by day (Jer 4:7; 25:38; Na 2:11-12). This lion is about 5 feet (1.5 meters) long with a tasseled tail 30 inches (.8 meter) or so long; its shoulders may reach a height of 35 inches (.9 meter). It is one of the smallest of the lion breeds.<\/p>\n<p>Lions are usually found in pairs, though sometimes in larger numbers. A small group is known as a pride. They generally prefer open country but in Palestine evidently prowled the subtropical vegetation of the Jordan River valley. Lions, which usually hunt at dusk, kill smaller animals by a blow of the paw, larger ones by a bite in the throat. A lion does not remain in the same place for more than a few days. The animal is in its prime at about seven years of age, when it weighs from 400 to 600 pounds (181.6 to 272.4 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>The lion does not characteristically attack humans, though like other great cats it may become a man-eater (1 Kgs 13:24-28; 20:36; 2 Kgs 17:25-26; Ps 57:4; Dn 6:7-27). Ordinarily, it attacks only out of great hunger or in self-defense. A very young lion that attacks humans can become dangerous if it develops a taste for human flesh. A very old lion, expelled from the pride because it can no longer keep up in the pursuit of antelope or gazelles, may choose humans as a relatively slow-moving prey.<\/p>\n<p>A lion generally roars only on a full stomach—that is, after it has consumed its prey (Ps 22:13; Ez 22:25; Am 3:4). Nevertheless, its roaring arouses fear (Am 3:8; 1 Pt 5:8). The lion is a bold (2 Sm 17:10; Prv 28:1), destructive animal (Ps 7:2; Jer 2:30; Hos 5:14; Mi 5:8), and the enemy of flocks (Am 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>Lions were common in biblical times in all parts of the Holy Land. Hebrew has at least seven words for lion and young lion. The lion is referred to about 130 times in the OT—more than any other wild animal. Lions were evidently much less common in NT times. After gradually declining, they became extinct in Palestine shortly after <span>AD<\/span> 1300. The lion was present in Mesopotamia, however, until the end of the 19th century.<\/p>\n<p>Lions played an important part in the political and religious symbolism of the Near East (1 Kgs 10:19-20). In Assyria and Babylonia the lion was regarded as a royal beast (Dn 7:4). Oriental monarchs maintained artificial lion pits as places of execution (Ez 19:1-9; Dn 6:7-16). Animals for these were captured in camouflaged nets or pits. To the Jews, the lion was the mightiest of beasts (Prv 30:29-31). Thus, it symbolized leadership (Gn 49:9-10; Nm 24:9) and hence eventually became a title for Christ (Rv 5:5). It was also the ensign of Judah’s tribe and was used by King Solomon in the decoration of his house and the temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lizard\">Lizard<\/p>\n<p>Reptiles of the suborder Lacertilia. Their skin is covered with scales. The lizard is a useful creature because it captures harmful insects and worms. Like other reptiles, it lays eggs with shells softer than those of a bird and with no clear division between the yolk and the white. Lizards are “cold-blooded” organisms without a temperature-maintenance mechanism; hence, they become inactive in cold weather.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards can survive in barren parched countryside. In the Near East they are encountered in great numbers in the Arabian Desert, the Sinai Peninsula, and the Judean wilderness. There may be as many as 44 different species of lizards in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The Dabb lizard (genus <em>Uromastyx<\/em>), which attains a length of about 24 inches (61 centimeters), is found in the Negev Desert. It is omnivorous, an unusual trait since most lizards are insectivorous. It has a hard, rough skin, green with brown spots; a short, rounded head; and a powerful tail encircled with a row of strong spines that it uses as a weapon of defense.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards are listed as ceremonially unclean in Jewish law (Lv 11:29-31). The fact that lizards crawl on their bellies made them unclean. Contact with a lizard’s carcass defiled a law-abiding Jew (Lv 11:32-36). The <span>nlt<\/span> translates the “lizards” of Leviticus 11 as “great lizard,” “gecko,” “monitor lizard,” “sand lizard,” and “chameleon.” The monitor lizard is a large lizard that lives in the deserts of southern Palestine, Sinai, and Egypt. It is up to 55 inches (1.4 meters) long with a long snout and sharp teeth. Other translators and commentators render the original Hebrew in a wide variety of ways, including “tortoise,” “ferret,” “lizard,” “snail,” “mole,” and even “water hen.” The fact that most of the original Hebrew words occur only once in Scripture makes it very difficult to be certain about their appropriate translation.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Gecko (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Locust\">Locust<\/p>\n<p>An insect of the family <em>Acridiidae.<\/em> It is referred to by at least 12 different names in Scripture. The various Hebrew words may refer to different stages of its development from larva to adult or to the type of damage that it causes. Locusts are characterized by swarming and mass migration. In modern times they have caused extensive and disastrous destruction to vegetation. Grasshoppers do not swarm or migrate en masse, differentiating them from the true locusts.<\/p>\n<p>The OT mentions several different species of locusts. Leviticus 11:22 seems to refer to the slant-faced (bald) locust and also to the katydid, or long-horned grasshopper. The reference in Deuteronomy 28:42 may be to the mole cricket. In Joel 1:4 and 2:25 and in Nahum 3:16-17, successive stages of the insect’s development are described. The cutting locust (<span>kjv<\/span> “palmerworm”) of Joel is probably the first instar (stage of development), the swarming locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “locust”) are middle stages, and the hopping locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “cankerworm”) later instars but not yet fully matured insects. In the adult stage, called destroying locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “caterpillar”), the color of the locust is reddish brown, which turns to yellow with a brownish network on the wings.<\/p>\n<p>Only three of the hundreds of varieties of locusts found in Bible lands are capable of multiplying into great swarms, and only the desert locust <em>(Schistocerca gergaria)<\/em> can be considered widespread in all the Bible lands. The desert locust is native to the Sudan (Africa). It is a little over two inches (5 centimeters) long and has a wingspread of some five inches (12.7 centimeters). It shows two phases, a solitary phase and a gregarious phase, with a possible third phase known as transiens. There are differences in the immature and adult forms of the phases in color and physiology.<\/p>\n<p>The quantity and distribution of rains are important factors in the extent of swarming. Moist soil is needed for depositing the eggs and permitting them to develop. Each female deposits from one to six egg pods, containing 28 to 146 eggs each. The larvae emerge in 15 to 43 days.<\/p>\n<p>In the gregarious phase (from the second stage of metamorphosis onward), the locust is driven by a strong wandering instinct. Masses of them form a random procession of overflowing locust bodies that ignore any obstruction. They swarm over everything (Jl 2:4-9). The only regulator of their activities is temperature; they are immobilized by high or low temperatures. Taking to wing they may move 1,200 miles (1,930.8 kilometers) from their native home. They fly in compact formations large enough to blot out the light of the sun. Their movement seems to be controlled by hormones, but the direction is influenced by the wind. The swarms consume almost every plant in their path, sparing only the carob, sycamore, castor tree, and oleander bush.<\/p>\n<p>A locust plague was one of the most severe evils to come upon the ancient world (Dt 28:38). Joel 2:1-11 describes a locust plague in graphic terms, using it as a symbol of God’s destroying judgment. Special days of prayer, fasting, and trumpet blowing were prescribed to remove locust plagues (1 Kgs 8:37-38; 2 Chr 6:28-29; Jl 2:12-17). Locusts symbolized powerful and merciless enemies that completely destroyed the earnings of human toil (Jgs 6:5; Is 33:4; Jer 46:23; 51:27; Na 3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Bedouins eat locusts raw, roasted, or boiled, preserving them by drying and threading. They are also crushed and ground, and the grist used in cooking or eaten with bread, sometimes mixed with honey and dates. Such was the diet of John the Baptist (Mk 1:6). The Greeks ground locusts in stone mortars to make flour of them.<\/p>\n<p>The ancients considered the two large hind legs, or jumping legs, as separate limbs and had a special name for them. Hence locusts were described as having four legs, a reference to the four smaller walking legs. “Going on all fours” thus referred to creeping or walking as opposed to jumping and did not mean that the unclean insects had only four legs in all. Because of its two hind jumping legs, the locust was exempted from the prohibition against unclean insects (Lv 11:20-23).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mole\">Mole<\/p>\n<p>Rodent <em>(Spalax ehrenbergi)<\/em> from six to nine inches (15 to 23 centimeters) long, which burrows in any area where the soil is suitable for digging; it should be called a mole rat. Common in the Holy Land, large numbers are found in the vicinity of Jerusalem. Isaiah 2:20 refers to the mole, as does Leviticus 11:29-30 (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The mole rat has no tail and is molelike in appearance, but neither true moles nor shrews have ever been found in the Holy Land. The mole rat’s teeth are strong and protruding like those of a squirrel. The neck is short and thick with a plump body shaped like a sausage. The short legs have broad paws with claws adapted for burrowing. The fur is soft, thick, and ashen gray. Its ears and almost sightless eyes, which are no larger than poppyseeds, are hidden in the fur. Folklore taught that touching a mole rat would result in blindness.<\/p>\n<p>In the wet winter season the mole rat builds breeding mounds resembling those of pocket gophers. It builds less complex resting mounds in the summer, although both have rather elaborate tunnel systems. The mole rat feeds on roots, bulbs, tubers, and various other subterranean plant parts, often doing extensive damage to agriculture.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Moth\">Moth<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the genus <em>Tineola<\/em> that lays its eggs on wool or furs, its larvae feeding on those materials. The destructive qualities of moths are referred to in several biblical passages (Jb 13:28; Ps 39:11; Is 50:9; Hos 5:12; Mt 6:19-20; Lk 12:33; Jas 5:2). In Isaiah 51:8 “worm” (<span>nlt<\/span>) refers specifically to the larva of the clothes moth. The moth symbolizes disintegration, decay, and weakening. It is only the larvae that do the damage. The adult is quite harmless and feeds mainly on the nectar of flowers. It is easily crushed (Jb 4:19). The clothes moth reproduces in May or June. It enters human dwellings in the evening. A week after the eggs are laid the larvae appear and immediately begin their work of destruction, eating anything within reach made of animal fibers.<\/p>\n<p>The moth’s destructive activity is done in secret without any sound and without any dramatic appearance, such as a swarm that blots out the sun. In an age when wealth was counted more in possessions than in money, and when among those possessions wool clothing was highly valued, moths could literally cause economic disaster; hence the words of Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount (Mt 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p>There are hundreds of species of moths other than the clothes moth in the Holy Land; they are harmless to leaves, flowers, fruit, trees, and seeds. As with the clothes moth, the larvae inflict the damage.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mouse\">Mouse<\/p>\n<p>Rodent of the family Muridae, especially genus <em>Mus.<\/em> The mouse was regarded as unclean because, being short legged, it was considered one of the creeping creatures (Lv 11:29). Mice known as commensals live in dwellings and tend to have longer tails and to be darker in color than wild mice, which are active chiefly at night. Mice are good climbers and even good swimmers. Wild mice eat many kinds of vegetation, including seeds, fleshy roots, leaves, and stems. At times they store food.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word for “mouse” (Lv 11:29; 1 Sm 6:4-5; Is 66:17) is probably a general term for various rats and mice. The root meaning of the Hebrew word “mouse” is “destruction of corn,” a reference to the damage mice do to field crops. At least 23 varieties of mouselike rodents are known in the Holy Land. They cause food spoilage, damage household articles, and transport the host fleas that spread typhus, spotted fever, and bubonic plague. Plague bacteria may have caused the tumors or swellings among the Philistines (1 Sm 6:5). Isaiah 66:17 refers to a pre-exilic Canaanite cultic practice in which mice were eaten; the reference may actually be to the hamster. A number of rodents are eaten by Arabs of the Near East; the gerbil is considered a special delicacy. <em>See<\/em> Mole (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mule\">Mule<\/p>\n<p>Hybrid offspring of a male ass and a female horse <em>(Equus asinus mulus),<\/em> ordinarily sterile. The offspring of a female donkey and a stallion (male horse) is known as a hinny and is of little value because of its inferior size.<\/p>\n<p>Because crossbreeding was forbidden in the law (Lv 19:19), the Israelites procured mules from the Gentiles, perhaps from the Phoenicians, since Tyre (a Phoenician seaport in what is now southern Lebanon) imported horses and mules (Ez 27:14). Mules did not appear in Israel until David’s reign (2 Sm 13:29), possibly because of the rarity of horses among the Hebrews. Mules were used chiefly by members of the royal court and by other nobles. King David rode on a mule, and Solomon rode to his inaugaration on King David’s mule (1 Kgs 1:33). Absalom met his death riding on a mule (2 Sm 18:9). Mules were less common than horses, camels, and asses in the postexilic community (Ezr 2:66). In antiquity Asia Minor was especially noted for breeding fine mules.<\/p>\n<p>Mules have long enjoyed a reputation for obstinacy, but that trait is not mentioned in the Bible. The mule is prized for riding and for carrying heavy burdens, especially in warm mountainous regions. They are sure-footed and thrive best in hot, dry climates. The mule has the frugality, endurance, and steady gait of an ass along with the size, strength, swiftness, and courage of a horse. Mules are almost never sick. They live longer than horses. They can carry a load of up to 300 pounds (136 kilograms) as far as 30 miles (48.3 kilometers) a day.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pig\">Pig<\/p>\n<p>Most properly, newborn swine. “Swine” is technically the better name for the species, but it is rarely used in common speech today. The domestic pigs of the Middle East derived from the wild pig <em>(Sus scrofa).<\/em> The pig is the most prolific and abundant supplier of meat and fat for food. A thick layer of fat just under the skin is especially pronounced in domestic breeds. Pigs cannot be driven, so they are of value only to the settled farmer. The Hebrews were originally a nomadic people; therefore, they had little use for an animal closely associated with settled life. An Egyptian prince of about 1500 <span>BC<\/span>, however, is recorded as owning a herd of 1,500 swine.<\/p>\n<p>The pig is clumsily built, yet lively and able to move with agility and speed. The most conspicuous characteristic of the pig is a truncated, mobile snout terminating in a disc-shaped surface on which the nostrils are located. Most pigs have large tusks in both jaws which grow continuously in life. The tusks of the upper jaw are unique in that they curve upward instead of pointing downward as in most animals. The excrement of a pig has an almost unbearable odor, which clings not only to the pig itself but also to swineherds, who can be identified a long way off.<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were never raised in the Holy Land by Jews. The great herd into which Jesus drove the unclean spirits was encountered in the land of the Gadarenes, a non-Jewish area east of the Jordan. The Gadarene demons took refuge in a herd of pigs feeding on a bluff overlooking the Sea of Galilee (Mt 8:28-32).<\/p>\n<p>Wild pigs were found in the Holy Land as in many countries today. Psalm 80:13 refers to the destructiveness of a wild boar (the male, or hog) attacking growing crops. A party of wild boars can destroy an entire vineyard or a field of crops in a single night. They devour, trample, and ravage everything within reach.<\/p>\n<p>Boar hunts were common in ancient Mesopotamia. Wild boars do not attack unless molested, but they are dangerous when aroused. They travel in bands of from 6 to 50 and are most active in the evening and early morning hours. The body is covered with stiff bristles and usually some finer hair, but the body covering is often quite scanty. Wild pigs are mainly vegetarian, feeding on roots, nuts, grains, and plant stems. Wild boars were particularly abundant in the mountainous regions of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, in the Jordan River valley, and in wooded sections such as Mt Tabor.<\/p>\n<p>Strict Jews would not even mention swine by name but would always substitute the term “the abomination.” Israelites considered themselves polluted if they were even touched by a swine’s bristle. To the Jews, the pig symbolized filth and ugliness. Pigs will eat fecal material, vermin, rodents, carrion, and the like (2 Pt 2:22). Proverbs 11:22 refers to the incongruity of a golden ring in the nose of an animal showing such characteristics. A similar metaphor occurs in Jesus’ statement about casting pearls before swine (Mt 7:6). The prodigal son’s degeneration was shown by his being forced in his poverty to feed pigs and eat their food (Lk 15:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>Eating the flesh of pigs was forbidden to the Jews (Lv 11:7; Dt 14:8). The Canaanites in the Holy Land killed and ate pigs freely. In intertestamental times Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), a Syrian king whose territories included Israel, used the pig to “Hellenize” the Jews. He first tested their loyalty to the Jewish faith by requiring the consumption of pork, considered a delicacy by the Greeks (2 Macc 6:18). The act of desecration that drove the Jews to rebellion, however, was the sprinkling of pig blood on the temple altar in a sacrifice to Zeus (1 Macc 1:47).<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were frequently used in pagan worship (Is 65:4; 66:3, 17), which may account for their being forbidden to the Jews as food. Evidence in the Holy Land shows that pigs were sacrificed long before Hellenistic times. Pig bones were found in a grotto below the rock-cut place of sacrifice at Gezer. A similar underground chamber with vessels containing piglet bones at Tirzah dates to the middle Bronze Age (about 2000 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Alabaster fragments of a statuette of a pig ready to be sacrificed have been unearthed. Swine were sacrificed to Aphrodite (Venus) in Greece and Asia Minor. In addition, pigs were sacrificed in connection with oaths and treaties; in the <em>Iliad,<\/em> Agamemnon sacrificed a boar to Zeus and Helios. So it is not surprising that among the Jews the pig became a symbol of filthiness and paganism.<\/p>\n<p>It is possible that eating pork was forbidden primarily because the pig may carry many worm parasites such as trichina, though that is also true of some “clean” animals. Another reason for forbidding their consumption may have been that pigs eat carrion. Some people are allergic to pork in hot weather—another suggested reason behind the Jewish taboo. The same taboo exists among the Muslims and existed in certain social strata in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Porcupine\">Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>Rodent, <em>Hystrix cristata,<\/em> which lives in forested areas, rocky hills, ravines, and valleys. The porcupine is still found in the Holy Land today. It has long quills that can be raised to give the appearance of a crest. It is almost entirely nocturnal. It burrows by day into a natural cavity or crevice. The Old World porcupine rarely climbed trees, although the New World porcupine frequently does. A porcupine may weigh as much as 60 pounds (27.2 kilograms). It eats fruit, bark, roots, and other vegetation, and carrion as well. Although its flesh is edible, the porcupine was not classed among the clean animals for the Israelites. The reference in Isaiah 34:11 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is probably to the porcupine, as is Isaiah 14:23 in the <span>nlt<\/span>. <em>See<\/em> Hedgehog.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Scorpion\">Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>Arthropod of the same group as spiders (arachnids). A dozen species of scorpions (order Scorpionida) are found in the Holy Land, but 90 percent of the scorpions are yellow scorpions, usually three to five inches (7.6 to 12.7 centimeters) long. The rock scorpion, also common to the Holy Land, is as thick as a man’s finger and from five to seven inches (12.7 to 17.8 centimeters) in length. Scorpions are slow, nocturnal invertebrates that rest beneath stones by day and prey on insects and other arachnids by night. At the end of its long tail the scorpion carries a poisonous sting that is fatal to most prey and extremely painful to humans (Rv 9:3, 5, 10; cf. 1 Kgs 12:11, 14). Scorpions symbolize Ezekiel’s evil countrymen (Ez 2:6) and the demonic forces of Satan (Lk 10:19). The scorpion is referred to as frequenting the Sinai Desert (Dt 8:15).<\/p>\n<p>A scorpion has from six to eight eyes. It has eight legs like a spider and two lobsterlike claws with which it catches and holds its prey. It feeds particularly on locusts and beetles. In many species the female scorpion eats the male after mating. Scorpions lay eggs that hatch very shortly after laying. Scorpions prefer warmer climates, and because of their desire for warmth, enter houses, especially at night, hiding in beds, blankets, footwear, and clothing.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sheep\">Sheep<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animal, <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> referred to directly or by some term such as ewe, lamb, ram, or by some fact concerning them over 700 times in Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Sheep represented the chief wealth and total livelihood of pastoral peoples, providing food to eat, milk to drink, wool for the making of cloth, and hides and bones for other uses. In addition, the sheep was a medium of exchange and a sacrificial animal. The number of sheep raised in ancient times was prodigious. Mesha, king of Moab, paid a tribute annually of 100,000 lambs and the wool of 100,000 rams (2 Kgs 3:4). The Israelites took 250,000 sheep from the Hagrites (1 Chr 5:21).<\/p>\n<p>Sheep shearing was often done for festivals (2 Sm 13:23). The sheep was held down on its side and its legs were tied together; then it lay docilely while its wool was clipped (Is 53:7). Sheep reserved for burnt offerings were not shorn; nothing could be held back from a sacrifice to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Wool had to be processed before it could be used for clothing. First it was washed, sometimes while still on the sheep, then carded and perhaps weighed for the market. The spinning of wool was regarded as a woman’s work (Prv 31:19), but weaving the spun thread into cloth on a loom was primarily a man’s occupation.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible reports that Abel kept sheep (Gn 4:2). The first sheep to be domesticated was probably the argali <em>(Ovis ammon),<\/em> a variety of the urial <em>(Ovis vignei),<\/em> a mountainous species still existing in Turkestan and Mongolia. Five breeds had reached Mesopotamia by 2000 <span>BC<\/span>; all were of the urial stock.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep known in Israel was the broad-tailed sheep <em>(Ovis orientalis vignei<\/em> or <em>laticaudata),<\/em> of which the tail weighs from 10 to 15 pounds (4.5 to 6.8 kilograms) and has always been considered a delicacy. Thus the Lord asked for this choice part as a sacrifice (Ex 29:22-25).<\/p>\n<p>Only the ram of the broad-tailed sheep has horns, but in other varieties of sheep in the Holy Land the ewe also has horns. The horns, two to three inches (5 to 8 centimeters) in diameter, can be potent weapons. Rams’ horns could be used as trumpets (Jos 6:4) or as oil containers (1 Sm 16:1).<\/p>\n<p>Although the sheep is very similar to the goat, it is differentiated by a lower forehead, its angulated spiral horns marked with transverse wrinkles and curved slightly outward, its covering of wool, and its lack of a “goatee.” Most sheep are white (Ps 147:16; Is 1:18; Dn 7:9; Rv 1:14).<\/p>\n<p>The flesh of sheep was a luxury in the biblical culture. King Solomon required a daily provision of 100 sheep for his table (1 Kgs 4:23), but the common people ate lamb or mutton only on festive occasions. A young ram was usually chosen because the ewes were more important to the future prospects of the herd. The meat was boiled in large caldrons. The milk of the sheep is extremely rich; in biblical times it was usually allowed to curdle before drinking. Possibly some Israelites kept lambs in their houses as pets (2 Sm 12:3-4).<\/p>\n<p>To protect the flock at night against predatory attacks, the shepherd tried to provide a fold. In meadows near villages, folds were built and watchmen were hired to relieve the shepherds. The shepherds of the nativity story were out in the field (Lk 2:8); they had no fold but probably had set up a tent for shelter, consisting simply of goat-hair blankets spread across sapling supports. The scarcity of springs in the Holy Land made the watering of the flock a crucial problem for the shepherd (Gn 13:8-11).<\/p>\n<p>Wild mountain sheep, varieties of <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> are known in the Mediterranean area (Dt 14:5). The Deuteronomy passage (<span>kjv<\/span> “chamois”) might also refer to <em>Ovis traelaphus,<\/em> a sheep about five feet high (1.5 meters) with long, curved horns. Another possibility is the Barbary sheep that lives in small flocks in rugged mountain areas in Barbary, Egypt, and Mt Sinai. The true chamois is unknown in Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep is also used figuratively in Scripture. The ram represented great strength and fittingly symbolized Medo-Persia in Daniel’s vision (Dn 8:3). It is the nature of sheep to be gentle and submissive (Is 53:7; Jer 11:19), defenseless (Mi 5:8; Mt 10:16), and in constant need of guidance and care (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36). Such qualities are regarded as desirable in the lives of believers in Christ; hence the many figurative references to sheep in the NT and to Jesus as shepherd (Mk 6:34; Jn 10:1-30; Rom 8:35-37; Heb 13:20-21; 1 Pt 2:25). The resurrected Christ told the apostle Peter to “feed my lambs” and “tend my sheep” (Jn 21:15-17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snail\">Snail<\/p>\n<p>Invertebrate gastropods (mollusks). Land snails are very numerous in the Near East. Some freshwater forms serve as hosts for the schistosome worm, the fluke parasite causing the dread disease bilharzia (schistosomiasis).<\/p>\n<p>Purple dyes of all shades were highly valued in the ancient world. A royal purple dye was obtained from secretions of a sea snail <em>(Murex trunculus<\/em> and <em>Murex brandaris).<\/em> Evidently, that process was developed by Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Assyrians as early as 1500 <span>BC<\/span>. The “purple” fishermen had their own guild during the time of the Roman Empire. The snails were harvested during the fall and winter seasons; in the spring, when egg laying took place, little dye was available. The snails tended to remain concealed in the summer. They inhabited the waters off Crete and Phoenicia. Tyrian purple, produced in the Phoenician city of Tyre, the center of the purple-dye industry, was obtained by a double dyeing. Large deposits of murex shells from dyeing operations have been found along the Mediterranean shoreline. The Israelites had to import purple goods (Ez 27:16). Lydia was a “seller of purple” or of cloth so dyed (Acts 16:14). Purple was a sign of distinction, royalty, and wealth (cf. Ex 25:4; 28:5-6, 15; Nm 15:38; 2 Chr 2:7; Est 8:15; Prv 31:22; Sg 3:10; Ez 27:7; Dn 5:7).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 30:34-35 refers to “onycha,” which was an important ingredient of incense. Onycha is the horny, clawlike operculum (the plate that closes off the opening of its shell when a snail is retracted) of a Near Eastern member of the molluskan family Strombidae. The operculum is sometimes used for offense or locomotion as well as for defense. When burned, the operculum gives off a sharp, strong scent, and when mixed with more fragrant but less powerful substances is even more potent. The name “onycha” is derived from a Greek word <em>(onyx)<\/em> for a fingernail or a claw.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snake\">Snake<\/p>\n<p>Various species of snake, suborder Ophidia (Serpentes). In the Bible nine Hebrew words and four Greek ones refer to snakes. The most common Hebrew word is onomatopoeic—that is, it is an imitation of a snake hissing or of the sound it produces as it scrapes its scales along the ground (cf. Jer 46:22). Many types of snakes lay eggs (Is 59:5), although some retain the eggs in the body until ready to hatch.<\/p>\n<p>Snakes are among the most widespread reptiles and are found on all continents except Antarctica; they decrease in numbers and species toward the poles but increase as one approaches the equator. Thirty-three species of snakes are known in Palestine and neighboring countries, 20 of which are poisonous. Two dangerous characteristics of the snake noted by biblical writers are its inconspicuous way of moving and the ease with which it hides itself.<\/p>\n<p>Many snakes are able to swallow animals several times their own diameter because of their unusually flexible jaw mechanism. They lack not only legs but also movable eyelids. Snakes periodically shed their skins. The tongue is actually a hearing apparatus sensitive to airborne vibrations and probably to heat waves.<\/p>\n<p>The venom of poisonous species is a clear, thin secretion, transmitted to the victim’s bloodstream by means of fangs. Two types of venom are known: that of the vipers, which affects respiration and disintegrates red blood cells, and that of the cobras, which paralyzes the nervous system.<\/p>\n<p>The “asp” referred to in the Bible is probably the cobra; the “adder” is the viper. The “cockatrice” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is probably the adder. Serpents were associated with worship in Canaanite religion and symbolized evil deities among many other peoples. Steles (upright stones bearing inscriptions) have been unearthed at several sites in the Holy Land and Syria depicting a god or worshiper with a snake winding about the legs or body. Because the Israelites were burning incense in pagan worship of Moses’ bronze serpent (Nm 21:8-9), King Hezekiah destroyed it in his religious reform (2 Kgs 18:4).<\/p>\n<p>Although snakes have been an object of veneration in some religions, in the Judeo-Christian tradition snakes represent evil and, more specifically, the devil. That association began in the Garden of Eden (Gn 3:1-15) and is also found in the book of Revelation (12:9; 20:2-3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adder (above); Asp (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Spider\">Spider<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the order Araneida. Between 600 and 700 different species inhabit the Holy Land. Spiders are different from insects in that, like scorpions, they have four pairs of legs instead of three. Spiders are equipped with poison glands—the effectiveness varying from species to species. A few can kill only insects, but others can also kill birds and mice.<\/p>\n<p>Most spiders have a pair of spinnerets attached to silk glands on the underside of the abdomen; from them a web is extruded. In the Bible the spider’s web is referred to as a symbol of frailty and insecurity (Jb 8:14; Is 59:5-6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sponge\">Sponge<\/p>\n<p>Simple marine animals, phylum Porifera. The term “sponge” also refers to those animals’ skeletal remains. The sponge has a porous body composed of tubules and cells.<\/p>\n<p>Sponge fishing was well known in the Mediterranean area in ancient times. It was practiced particularly along the Anatolian and Syrian coasts. Sponges were harvested by divers. The use of sponges in absorbing liquids is referred to in the Bible (Mt 27:48; Mk 15:36).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Unicorn\">Unicorn<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Wild Ox (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wasp\">Wasp<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the family Vespidae. Hornets are social wasps that build large aerial apartment houses in which 1,000 or more individuals may live. In the Bible the hornet is used as a metaphor for God’s use of military forces (Ex 23:28; Dt 7:20; Jos 24:12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Whale\">Whale<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all living creatures, including those that have become extinct. Whales are air-breathing mammals of the order Cetacea.<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of whales visit the shores of the Holy Land at times. The finback whale <em>(Balaenoptera physalus)<\/em> weighs about 200 tons (181 metric tons) and lives mainly in the Arctic region but sometimes passes through the Straits of Gibraltar to reach the eastern Mediterranean Sea. It feeds on small marine organisms that it strains through its whale bone; it does not have teeth. The finback whale’s esophagus is narrow.<\/p>\n<p>The sperm whale <em>(Physeter catodon),<\/em> about 60 feet (18.3 meters) long, has a curiously shaped head that looks like a battering ram. The teeth in the lower jaw of the male sperm whale are about seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long. It feeds on big fish, even on sharks. It has a large throat opening.<\/p>\n<p>Whales are referred to in Genesis 1:21 and Job 7:12 (<span>kjv<\/span> only). The “great fish” of Jonah 2:1 need not have been a whale but could have been a large shark, such as the whale shark <em>(Rhineodon),<\/em> which grows 70 feet (21.3 meters) long and lacks the terrible teeth of other sharks. Whatever the actual marine organism, Jonah’s deliverance was miraculous. The Greek word for “whale” is sometimes used as a general term for “sea monster” or huge fish and may be used in that sense in Matthew 12:40.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WildOx\">Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>Large, fierce, fleet, intractable animal <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> It had a long, lean rump with a straight back and a long, narrow head. The animal described in Job 39:9-12 is clearly the wild ox. The two horns (Dt 33:17), its outstanding characteristic, were straight and as long as the head (Nm 23:22; 24:8; Ps 22:21). Kings often symbolized their dominion by wearing a helmet with two wild ox horns (cf. Pss 92:10; 132:17-18). The horns were often used as drinking vessels by the Israelites; some were large enough to hold four gallons (15 liters).<\/p>\n<p>Hunting the wild ox was a favorite sport of Assyrian kings. Tiglath-pileser I hunted it in the Lebanon Mountains about 1100 <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Ps 29:6). At one time the animal referred to in Job 39:9-12 was thought to be the oryx or antelope because of the similarity between the Hebrew word in Job and the Arabian name for oryx. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> called the wild ox a “unicorn” because of representations found on Babylonian mosaics and Egyptian drawings. Those representations showed it in strict profile, showing only one horn—hence, “unicorn.” Jerome’s Vulgate, a Latin Bible translation (fourth century <span>AD<\/span>) and Martin Luther’s German version translated it similarly.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wolf\">Wolf<\/p>\n<p>Large doglike mammal <em>(Canis lupus)<\/em> that travels in bands of up to 30 animals. From the nose to the rump, the wolf measures about 3 feet (.9 meter); its drooping tail is about 18 inches (.5 meter) long. It looks much like a skinny German shepherd dog. The grayish yellow pelt is coarse and short haired.<\/p>\n<p>Wolves hunt singly or in relays, usually at night (Jer 5:6). Wolves have acute hearing and sight but rely chiefly on scent and usually catch their prey in a swift, open chase. The wolf has a reputation for boldness, fierceness, and voracity (Gn 49:27; Hb 1:8). It commonly kills more than it can eat or drag away and thus is known for its greediness.<\/p>\n<p>The wolf is a restless animal, always on the move; hunger drives it from one place to another in constant search of new hunting grounds. During spring and fall, wolves usually roam singly or in pairs, whereas in summer they may travel in family groups. In winter, several such groups may join to form a large pack. Wolves are intelligent, social creatures, faithful to their own kind. They mate for life. Individually, the wolf is a rather timid animal; it would much rather avoid human beings. But collectively wolves can be among the most dangerous animals alive.<\/p>\n<p>In Egypt, Rome, and Greece the wolf was considered sacred. Wolves were well known in the Holy Land and are still found there and also in many places in Asia Minor. Shepherds continually battled with wolves that plundered their flocks (Jn 10:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible refers to wolves in a literal sense in only three places (Is 11:6; 65:25; Jn 10:12), all other references being figurative. Usually the wolf is a symbol of enemies or the wicked (e.g., Ez 22:27; Zep 3:3; Acts 20:29). Both the wolf’s courage and its cruelty were probably in the mind of the patriarch Jacob when he predicted the fate of Benjamin’s tribe (Gn 49:27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Worm\">Worm<\/p>\n<p>Actually insect larvae in most biblical references, usually maggots, the larvae of flies (see Fly, above). For example, maggots are evidently referred to in accounts of worms feeding on spoiled manna (Ex 16:19-20), corpses (Jb 21:26; Is 14:11), or open wounds (Jb 7:5). Mark 9:48 refers to a maggot that eats dead flesh. In Acts 12:23 a fatal, worm-induced abdominal disease of King Herod is mentioned. In other cases, the reference is to the larvae of other insects (Is 51:8). In Deuteronomy 28:39 and Jonah 4:7 the vine weevil <em>(Cochylis ambiguella)<\/em> is probably referred to; it destroys vines by boring into their stems. Comparing a man to a worm is a metaphor for abasement (Jb 25:6; Ps 22:6).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ANIMALS<\/h3>\n<p>In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals as object lessons.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical approach to classification of animals is somewhat different from the system of classification used by biologists today. The present system of classification, which traces back to Carolus Linnaeus (an 18th-century Swedish botanist), is based on structure, both internal and external. The biblical basis of classification is habitat. Thus Genesis 1 speaks of aquatic organisms (v 20); aerial organisms (v 21); animals that crawl on the ground (v 24); cattle or domesticated animals (animals that live in association with humans) (v 24); and wild animals (v 24). The same system of classification is followed in Leviticus 11 and throughout Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Because of the divergence between systems of classification, the various animals of the Bible will be listed here in alphabetical order—including reptiles, fish, and even invertebrates such as insects, spiders, worms, and sponges. Birds are discussed in a separate article.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Adder<\/p>\n<p>• Ant<\/p>\n<p>• Antelope<\/p>\n<p>• Ape<\/p>\n<p>• Asp<\/p>\n<p>• Ass<\/p>\n<p>• Badger<\/p>\n<p>• Bat<\/p>\n<p>• Bear<\/p>\n<p>• Bee<\/p>\n<p>• Behemoth<\/p>\n<p>• Camel<\/p>\n<p>• Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>• Cattle<\/p>\n<p>• Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>• Coral<\/p>\n<p>• Cricket<\/p>\n<p>• Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>• Deer<\/p>\n<p>• Dog<\/p>\n<p>• Donkey<\/p>\n<p>• Dragon<\/p>\n<p>• Fish<\/p>\n<p>• Flea<\/p>\n<p>• Fly<\/p>\n<p>• Fox<\/p>\n<p>• Frog<\/p>\n<p>• Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>• Gecko<\/p>\n<p>• Gnat<\/p>\n<p>• Goat<\/p>\n<p>• Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>• Hare<\/p>\n<p>• Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>• Horse<\/p>\n<p>• Hyena<\/p>\n<p>• Jackal<\/p>\n<p>• Leech<\/p>\n<p>• Leopard<\/p>\n<p>• Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>• Lion<\/p>\n<p>• Lizard<\/p>\n<p>• Locust<\/p>\n<p>• Mole<\/p>\n<p>• Moth<\/p>\n<p>• Mouse<\/p>\n<p>• Mule<\/p>\n<p>• Pig<\/p>\n<p>• Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>• Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>• Sheep<\/p>\n<p>• Snail<\/p>\n<p>• Snake<\/p>\n<p>• Spider<\/p>\n<p>• Sponge<\/p>\n<p>• Unicorn<\/p>\n<p>• Wasp<\/p>\n<p>• Whale<\/p>\n<p>• Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>• Wolf<\/p>\n<p>• Worm<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Adder\">Adder<\/p>\n<p>One of the 20 poisonous snakes found in Israel and surrounding countries, also referred to as cockatrice and viper. True vipers (genus <em>Cerastes, Echis colorata,<\/em> and <em>Vipera palestina<\/em>) also exist there, poisonous snakes with curved fangs that spring into position when the snake strikes. The horned viper <em>(Cerastes hasselquistii)<\/em> may attack horses. It is 12 to 18 inches (30 to 46 centimeters) long and often lies in ambush in the sand with only its eyes and the hornlike protrusions on its head visible.<\/p>\n<p>Both Jesus and John the Baptist referred to the viper several times (Mt 3:7; 12:34; 23:33). The reference in Acts 28:3 is probably to a small viper <em>(Vipera aspis)<\/em> that strikes rapidly and is very pugnacious. It is found in southern Europe and hisses each time it inhales and exhales. The poison of vipers attacks the respiratory system and disintegrates red blood cells.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ant\">Ant<\/p>\n<p>Mentioned only twice in the Bible, both times in the book of Proverbs. For many years Solomon was charged with a biological error when he referred to the ant as providing her meat in the summer and gathering her food in the harvest (Prv 6:8). Critics of the Bible were quick to point out that, so far as was then known, ants do not store up food. They assumed that Solomon had probably kicked open an ant hill and mistaken the pupal cases (pods in which immature ants grow to maturity) for grain or had observed ants carrying bits of grain, leaves, and other matter to their nests.<\/p>\n<p>At least three species of grain-storing ants are now known—two occur in Israel and the other in Mediterranean countries. The particular species referred to by Solomon (Prv 6:6-8; 30:24-25) is probably the harvester ant <em>(Messor semirufus).<\/em> Its granaries are flat chambers connected by galleries irregularly scattered over an area about six feet (1.8 meters) in diameter and about a foot (.3 meter) deep in the ground. Seeds are collected from the ground or picked from plants. The head, or radicle, which is the softest part of the kernel, is bitten off to prevent germination, and the chaff and empty capsules are discarded on kitchen middens (refuse piles) outside the nest. Individual granaries may be 5 inches (12.7 centimeters) in diameter and a half inch (1.2 centimeters) high. Some nests are known to be 40 feet (12 meters) in diameter and 6 to 7 feet (approx. 2 meters) deep with several entrances.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Antelope\">Antelope<\/p>\n<p>Several antelope-like creatures are referred to in the Scriptures. One seems to be the white oryx <em>(Oryx leucoryx),<\/em> referred to in Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild ox”; <span>rsv<\/span> “antelope”) and Isaiah 51:20 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild bull”; <span>RSV <\/span>“antelope”). The oryx was probably the antelope, commonly used for food because its long horns made it relatively easy to catch.<\/p>\n<p>Another antelope mentioned in the Bible is the addax <em>(Addax nasomaculatus),<\/em> probably the “pygarg” of Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span>). It is a native of North Africa with grayish white hinder parts, a white patch on the forehead, and twisted and ringed horns. The word “pygarg” comes from a Greek word meaning “white rump.” The addax is about the size of a donkey. Its body is closely covered with short hair. It has a short mane on the underside of its neck that makes the head look somewhat like that of a goat. The hooves are broad and flat, and the tail resembles that of a donkey. It is common in Africa and in Arabia, where Arabs hunt it with falcons and dogs.<\/p>\n<p>Antelopes are very graceful and run with their heads held high. Both sexes have long, permanent, hollow horns. With the oryx the horns go straight back; addax horns are twisted and ringed. Antelope are alert, wary, and keen sighted. They are usually found in herds of from two to a dozen. If injured or brought to bay, an antelope attacks with its head lowered so that the sharp horns point forward. Antelopes feed on grasses and shrubs, drinking from streams and water holes. When water is scarce, they eat melons and succulent bulbs. Both addax and oryx were ceremonially clean in Jewish law.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ape\">Ape<\/p>\n<p>Primate not native to Palestine. The two references to apes in the OT (1 Kgs 10:22; 2 Chr 9:21) refer to their importation by King Solomon with other treasures on board the ships of his mercantile fleet. There is some question concerning the origin of those primates. Some believe that the mention of “ivory” in the same verses suggests they came from East Africa and that they were indeed apes, that is, tailless primates. Others, believing they came from India or Ceylon, suggest that they were actually monkeys. There the baboon (genus Papeio), a large monkey, was considered sacred to the god Thoth. Males of that genus were kept in temples, and the more docile females were often kept as house pets. Such baboons frequently had some of their teeth removed or ground down to lessen the danger of their biting. A number of mummified baboons have been found in Egypt, indicating the high regard in which they were held.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Asp\">Asp<\/p>\n<p>Poisonous snake. Most biblical references to the asp (Dt 32:33) seem to be to the Egyptian cobra <em>(Naja haje),<\/em> which conceals itself in holes, walls, and rocks and has the ability to expand its neck by raising its anterior ribs so as to enlarge the front of its breast into the shape of a flat disc. Its potent poison can cause death in 30 minutes. It attains a length of about 80 inches (2 meters). The fangs are permanently erect, not movable as in the vipers (the common poisonous snakes of North America; only the coral snake in America has permanently erect fangs). Cobra poison attacks the nervous system, causing muscular paralysis. The Egyptians looked upon it as a sacred creature; they regarded it as a protector since it fed on the rodents that ate their crops. The “fiery serpents” (Nm 21:6; Dt 8:15, both <span>rsv<\/span>) may have been cobras; “fiery” probably refers to the burning fever caused by their venom. Isaiah 14:29 and 30:6 (“flying serpent”) may refer to the hood of the cobra.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ass\">Ass<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Donkey (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Badger\">Badger<\/p>\n<p>Small hoofed mammal. What the <span>kjv<\/span> calls a “coney,” modern translations name “rock badger” (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7; Ps 104:18; Prv 30:26). The rock badger spoken of in the Bible is probably the Syrian rock hyrax <em>(Hyrax syriaca),<\/em> the only species of hyrax found outside Africa. This small ungulate (having hooflike toenails) lives among rocks from the Dead Sea valley to Mt Hermon. It is strictly a herbivorous (plant-eating) animal about the size of a rabbit. It resembles a guinea pig more than a rabbit, having quite inconspicuous ears and a very small tail. It has broad nails with four toes on its forelegs and three on its hind legs, the toes being connected with skin almost like a web. Pads acting as sucking discs under its feet enable it to keep its footing on slippery rocks. With its yellow and brown fur, it is sometimes called the bear rat because of its resemblance to a tailless rat. It is also equipped with black whiskers that may be seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p>These rock badgers, or hyraxes, live together in colonies of from 6 to 50 animals, often sunning themselves on rocks. They are difficult to catch. Guards are posted, and if approaching danger is sighted, the whole group will scurry for cover, warned by the sharp whistles of the guards. Thus they are commended for taking refuge in the rocks (Ps 104:18) and are called wise for making “their houses in the rocks” (Prv 30:24, 26, <span>kjv<\/span>). The badger is not a ruminant (does not chew its cud), but the motion of its jaws may suggest that it chews its cud. That is probably why it was included with other cud-chewing animals in the Jewish food laws (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7). It was forbidden to the Jews as food because it did not have cloven hooves. Some Arabs eat and even prize its meat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bat\">Bat<\/p>\n<p>Flying mammals according to modern classification. They have hair and provide milk for their young. The Bible classifies them with other aerial creatures. Bats take shelter in caves, crevices, tree cavities, buildings, and also in exposed places on trees. In colder areas they hibernate or migrate. The normal resting position for a bat is hanging head downward. Bats “swim” through the air rather than fly because they move with their legs as well as with their wings.<\/p>\n<p>The bat’s thumb is free and terminates in a single hook claw used for climbing and hanging. The hind feet have five toes, all pointing the same way. The large chest accommodates the powerful muscles needed for flying. Because they orient themselves by echo location, the sense of hearing is very well developed.<\/p>\n<p>Most bats are insect eaters, seizing insects in flight. Many insectivorous bats also eat some fruit. Other bats feed exclusively, usually in groups, on fruit and green vegetation. Fruit-eating bats generally live in the tropics where fruit is constantly ripening, although some have been found in the Holy Land. These bats tend to be larger than the insectivores, having a wingspread of up to five feet (1.5 meters).<\/p>\n<p>A third group includes flower-eating bats that feed on pollen and nectar. These small bats with long pointed heads and long tongues are found only in tropical and semitropical regions. Three species of vampire bats, which do not occur in the Holy Land, eat blood by making a small incision and lapping it up. Carnivorous (meat-eating) bats prey on birds, lizards, and frogs. Fish-eating bats catch fish at or near the water surface.<\/p>\n<p>Eight varieties of bats are known in the Holy Land. One of them, the little brown bat (genus <em>Myotis<\/em>), is worldwide in its distribution. It is insectivorous and probably has the widest distribution of any nonhuman terrestrial mammal. Brown bats are mostly cave dwellers. The females form maternity colonies that may number in the tens of thousands.<\/p>\n<p>Two species of mouse-tailed bats (genus <em>Rhinopoma<\/em>) are found in the Holy Land. Their tails are nearly as long as the head and body combined. They are colonial, roosting in caves, rock clefts, wells, pyramids, palaces, and houses. Like the brown bat, they are insectivorous. The slit-faced or hollow-faced bats (genus <em>Nycteris<\/em>) are also found in the Holy Land. They are insectivorous and roost in groups from 6 to 20.<\/p>\n<p>The bats found in the Holy Land vary in size from that of a mouse to the size of a rat; the largest species measures more than 20 inches (51 centimeters) across the wings. The bat was unclean to the Jews (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bear\">Bear<\/p>\n<p>Large, heavy, big-headed mammal with short, powerful limbs, a short tail, and small eyes and ears. Bears have a “plantigrade” walk: they walk on both the sole and heel as humans do. The Palestinian bear is a Syrian version of the brown bear <em>(Ursus arctos syriacus).<\/em> It can grow to a height of 6 feet (1.8 meters) and may weigh as much as 500 pounds (227 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>Bears have an excellent sense of smell but less developed senses of sight and hearing. They are omnivorous (eating any kind of food); they subsist largely on vegetation, fruits, insects, and fish.<\/p>\n<p>Bears are usually peaceful and inoffensive, but if they think they must defend themselves (Lam 3:10) or their young (2 Sm 17:8; Prv 17:12; Hos 13:8), they may be formidable and dangerous adversaries. David boasted of his role as a bear killer (1 Sm 17:34-37). Since a blow from a bear’s paw can be fatal, David’s courage and strength as a young shepherd in running after a bear and wrenching one of his father’s sheep from its jaws were noteworthy.<\/p>\n<p>Some biblical passages seem to imply that bears attacked for no apparent reason (e.g., Prv 28:15; Am 5:19). At other times they were God’s instruments of punishment, as in the story of Elisha and the two she-bears (2 Kgs 2:24). The bear and the lion, often mentioned together in the Bible (1 Sm 17:37), were the two largest and strongest beasts of prey in the Holy Land. Thus they symbolized both strength and terror (Am 5:19).<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times bears seem to have roamed all over Palestine. Today they are found only in the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Mountains, and even there they are rare.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bee\">Bee<\/p>\n<p>One of two domesticated insects <em>(Apis mellifica),<\/em> the other being the silkworm. Bees gather nectar from flowers, transferring pollen from one flower to another in the process. It is believed that they convey the location of sources of nectar to other bees through a bee “dance,” which may indicate both distance and direction. Bees are sensitive to four colors: blue-green, yellow-green, blue-violet, and ultra-violet (invisible to humans).<\/p>\n<p>The wild bees of the Holy Land are especially noted for their ferocity in attack. Only the female “worker” bees sting people and animals, the virulence of their venom increasing in warm weather. A number of biblical passages allude to the irritable, vindictive nature of bees and to the painful stings they inflict (Dt 1:44; Ps 118:12; Is 7:18).<\/p>\n<p>One reference calls attention to the fact that in semidesert regions a dead animal’s carcass, stripped to the bone by jackals or vultures and dried in the sun, can provide wild bees an excellent place to start a new colony (Jgs 14:5-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptians considered the bee sacred. In ancient Greece candles were made from beeswax. In the Holy Land, beekeeping was probably not practiced until the Hellenistic period (second century <span>BC<\/span>), although Ezekiel 27:17 suggests that it may have been practiced earlier. If domestic honey was not available to the Hebrews, wild honey certainly was, and travelers would be on the lookout for caches of honey in rocky clefts and other likely places. The Philistines and the Hittites practiced beekeeping in their cities.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible contains many references to bees and bee products. A bee swarm was a valuable asset, though the price of honey itself was low. Honey was sometimes eaten with the honeycomb (Sg 5:1). Honey also had uses other than food, e.g., in embalming.<\/p>\n<p>The land of Israel was described as a land flowing with milk and honey. Honey was a major source of sweetening in the ancient Near East—hence, its importance (cf. Jgs 14:8-9). Actually the Hebrew word for “honey” may include not only bee honey but also the sweet syrup extracted from such fruits as figs, dates, and grapes. Thus “a land flowing with milk and honey” (Ex 3:8, <span>rsv<\/span>) does not necessarily stand for a land of bees but for a land rich in sweetness.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Food and Food Preparation; Honey.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Behemoth\">Behemoth<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Hippopotamus (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Camel\">Camel<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of burden. Unintelligent, ill-natured, and quarrelsome, the camel <em>(Camelus dromedarius)<\/em> is nevertheless a blessing to people living in the desert and on its borders because it is especially adapted to that habitat. It has been called the ship of the desert. Having thick elastic pads of fibrous tissue on its feet, it can walk on hot desert sands. It can go without water for long periods and can subsist on vegetation growing on the saline soils. The camel’s nostrils are pinched together and can be closed at will to prevent penetration of sand during violent sandstorms.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are used for transporting both goods and people. A person riding a camel can cover from 60 to 75 miles (96.5 to 121 kilometers) in a day. A camel can carry a load weighing 600 pounds (272 kilograms) or more. Camels were used heavily in the spice trade (Gn 37:25) and traveled regularly in camel trains between Arabia, Egypt, and Assyria. They were also ridden in time of war (Jgs 6:5). A camel can even be hitched to a plow in areas where the land is cultivated.<\/p>\n<p>The hair shed by camels during the early spring is preserved and used in weaving cloth and making tents. As much as 10 pounds (4.5 kilograms) of hair can be obtained from one camel. A rough cloak of camel’s hair, as worn by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4), is still worn by Bedouins today. A camel’s hair garment was also the sign of the prophetic office (Zec 13:4).<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of camel occur within the one-humped species, the slow burden-bearing camel referred to in Genesis 37:25 and the fast dromedary of 1 Samuel 30:17. The dromedary can stand seven feet (2.1 meters) tall and measure as much as nine feet (2.7 meters) from the muzzle to the tip of the tail. With its three-chambered stomach, which can hold from 15 to 30 quarts (14.2 to 28.4 liters) of liquid, it can go for as long as 5 days during the summer or 25 days in winter without drinking. The camel’s hump is a reserve store of fat, making it possible for the animal to subsist on very little food during a desert journey.<\/p>\n<p>Another species of camel, the Bactrian camel <em>(Camelus bactrianus),<\/em> is also resident in the Holy Land. It has two humps. It is heavier, bigger, and has longer hair than the one-humped camel and is slower than the swift dromedary. Isaiah 21:7 may refer to the Bactrian camel; both kinds of camel are referred to in Esther 8:10 (<span>kjv<\/span>). Camels ranked in importance with sheep, cattle, and asses in OT times. A third of the 66 biblical references to the camel lists it with other animals.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are ruminants (cud-chewing mammals) but do not have cloven hooves. Thus, they were included in the list of unclean beasts, forbidden by the Israelites as food (Lv 11:4; Dt 14:7). They are eaten by Arabs, however, who also drink their milk (cf. Gn 32:15).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham had camels in Egypt (Gn 12:16). At first Job had 3,000 camels (Jb 1:3) and after his recovery, 6,000 (Jb 42:12). Although wide use of camels does not seem to have begun until shortly before 1000 <span>BC<\/span> (Jgs 6:5), Sumerian texts from the Old Babylonian period list camels and indicate that they had been domesticated. Camel bones and figurines have been found at various eastern archaeological sites dating from well before 1200 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Caterpillar\">Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>Larval stage of insects characterized by complete metamorphosis. Such insects pass through four stages: egg, larva or caterpillar, pupa, and adult. Bees, flies, moths, and butterflies all pass through a larval or caterpillar stage.<\/p>\n<p>The word “caterpillar” occurs three times in the <span>nlt<\/span> (1 Kgs 8:37; 2 Chr 6:28; Ps 78:46). In the book of Joel that same Hebrew word is translated “locust” (1:4; 2:25, <span>nlt<\/span>). The locust and grasshopper to which the Hebrew word refers have an incomplete type of metamorphosis with only three stages: egg, nymph, and adult. The nymph is a miniature adult in which the wings are not fully developed, though their outline may be present. There are several nymph stages known as instars. The reference is to one of the last instars, in which the wing structures are still folded together and enclosed in a sac but are nevertheless clearly recognizable. That form of the insect is about an inch (2.5 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cattle\">Cattle<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animals of the bovine species <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> The OT often emphasized the beauty of cattle. Egypt was rich in cattle, especially in the Nile River delta area (Goshen), where the Hebrews settled under Joseph.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars believe that milk rather than meat was the foremost consideration in the domestication of cattle and that in early civilizations meat supplies came chiefly from wild game. Cattle also supplied strong hides that supplanted wood in the manufacture of shields. Their dung was a source of fuel when wood was scarce (Ez 4:15). They were used as beasts of burden and for plowing. Development of wheeled transportation was associated more closely with cattle than with any other animal.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical term “cattle” often refers to all domesticated animals or livestock (Gn 1:24; 2:20; 7:23; 47:6, 16-17; Ex 9:3-7; Nm 3:41, 45). Occasionally, the term was used to refer to all large domestic animals (Nm 31:9; 32:26), although sometimes the word as used in the <span>kjv<\/span> refers only to sheep and goats (Gn 30:32, 39, 43; 31:8, 10; Is 7:25; 43:23).<\/p>\n<p>Probably several kinds of cattle were domesticated in the Holy Land. Small, short-legged, black or brown shorthorn cattle were found in the southern part of Judah; that type submitted easily to the yoke and was prominent in agricultural operations. Along the coast a larger variety was found, and the wild districts east of the Jordan River were populated with a breed of huge black cattle.<\/p>\n<p>Cattle breeding was widely practiced by the patriarchs (cf. Gn 32:15; Jb 21:10). Strict laws in Mesopotamia, as well as in Israel, penalized the owner of a bull that gored a man or other cattle (Ex 21:28-36). Bulls were sometimes employed figuratively as pictures of strength or violence (Dt 33:17; Pss 22:12; 68:30; Is 10:13). For breeding purposes one bull is normally adequate for about 30 cows, but many more were kept since bulls were widely used in Israel for sacrifices. They might be used as a general sacrifice (Lv 22:23; Nm 23:1) or for special sacrifices (Jgs 6:25; 1 Sm 1:24). Particular sacrifices were offered at the consecration of priests (Ex 29:1), consecration of an altar (Nm 7), purification of the Levites (Nm 8), sin offerings (Lv 16), day of the new moon (Nm 28:11-14), Passover (Nm 28:19), Feast of Weeks (Nm 28:27), Feast of Trumpets (Nm 29:1-2), Day of Atonement (Nm 29:7-9), and the Feast of Tabernacles (Nm 29:12-38). The Feast of Tabernacles required the largest number of bulls for burnt offerings of all the annual feasts, with a total of 71 being slaughtered during the course of eight days.<\/p>\n<p>Calves were sometimes referred to as “sons of the herd” in the original Hebrew (Gn 18:8; 1 Sm 6:7; 14:32). The calf, a symbol of peacefulness (Is 11:6), was also used figuratively to refer to the weak (Ps 68:30). A calf’s head decorated the back of Solomon’s throne (1 Kgs 10:19). Calves were sometimes fattened in stalls to keep them from running off weight in the field (Am 6:4; Mal 4:2; Lk 15:23) or were kept around the house; the witch of Endor kept a calf in her house that she killed and served to Saul and his men (1 Sm 28:24-25). Calves supplied veal (Gn 18:7), considered a delicacy by the wealthy; Amos referred to stall-fattened calves in a denunciation of luxurious and careless living (Am 6:4). Calves also supplied meat for all Saul’s armies at the great slaughter of the Philistines (1 Sm 14:32). The “fatted calf” served roasted or boiled was gourmet fare, suitable for the finest banquet (Gn 18:7; Mt 22:4; Lk 15:23).<\/p>\n<p>Cattle were subject to the law of firstlings (Ex 13:12). They were a mark of wealth (Gn 13:2) and were considered proper booty of war (Jos 8:2). Aaron, the first high priest, made a golden calf as a rival to the ark of the covenant (Ex 32; Dt 9:16, 21). Even though he represented the calf as an image of the invisible God, it was especially offensive because the calf was a fertility symbol related to Egyptian and Canaanite practices. Two calves were later made by Jeroboam I of Israel (930–909 <span>BC<\/span>) for his shrines at Bethel and Dan (1 Kgs 12:28-33). Hosea’s prophetic denunciations of calf worship were directed at those shrines (Hos 8:5-6; 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>An ox is an adult castrated bull. A steer is a young ox. Oxen were used to do work (Nm 7:3; Dt 22:10; 25:4), though for moving heavy objects, cows were typically favored over bulls because of their more docile nature. Oxen were also used as pack animals (1 Chr 12:40, although they did not have the endurance of the ass, camel, or mule. They usually fed on grass (Nm 22:4; Ps 106:20), but they also ate straw (Is 11:7) and salted fodder (Is 30:24) and could be kept in a stable (Lk 13:15). Oxen could not be offered as sacrifices because they had been castrated (Lv 22:24). They could be used for food but were rarely eaten. Possession of an ox and an ass was regarded as the bare minimum for existence in the ancient Palestinian agriculture economy (Jb 24:3; cf. Ex 20:17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Agriculture; Food and Food Preparation; Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chameleon\">Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>Lizard characterized by its ability to change color according to its surroundings <em>(Chameleon vulgaris).<\/em> To the Israelites the chameleon was ritually unclean (Lv 11:30). The Hebrew word for chameleon is derived from a word meaning “to pant.” A lizard’s lungs are very large, and in ancient times lizards were believed to live on air. A chameleon’s eyes move independently of each other; so at times one eye may be turned upward and the other downward. Chameleons live in trees and bushes, clinging to branches with their long tails.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Coral\">Coral<\/p>\n<p>Calcareous (lime-containing) skeletons of relatively simple marine organisms <em>(Corallium rubrum).<\/em> Red coral from the Mediterranean and Red Seas is widely used for jewelry and for medicinal purposes. While the animal is alive, the coral is green in color and shrublike in appearance, looking rather like an underwater plant since the coral animals are immobil. When the coral is removed from the water, it becomes hard and red in color.<\/p>\n<p>In ancient times coral was sometimes used as money, along with precious stones, pearls, and gold. Some believe the biblical reference in Lamentations 4:7 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is to pearls rather than to coral, but it is probable that the references in Job 28:18 and Ezekiel 27:16 are to the red coral (see <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cricket\">Cricket<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the order Orthptera related to grasshoppers and locusts. According to Leviticus 11:22, the cricket was edible. The reference may be to one of the growth stages of the locust.<\/p>\n<p>The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word as “beetle.” Beetles are insects with chewing mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the fore pair being hard and sheathlike and the hind pair being membranous and folded under the fore pair. Some beetles are carnivorous, others are chiefly herbivorous. Some are aquatic, some produce a secretion that blisters the skin, some damage fabrics, some damage crops, and some feed on other insects that are harmful to humans. In ancient Egypt the beetle, or sacred scarab, was a symbol of the sun god Ra. Scarab seals and amulets were extremely popular in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Crocodile\">Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all existing reptiles <em>(Crocodilus vulgaris),<\/em> attaining a length of well over 20 feet (6 meters). Crocodiles are characterized by large lizardlike bodies supported by short legs. The head terminates in a flattened snout armed with strong conical teeth, each of which is implanted in a distinct socket. New teeth growing from beneath continually replace those in use. The toes are webbed. The back and tail are protected by quadrangular horny shields of varying sizes arranged in regular rows and in contact with one another at the edges. The eyes are covered with movable lids that can be closed when the animal enters the water.<\/p>\n<p>The crocodile spends most of its time in the water where it feeds mainly on fish but also on aquatic birds and even small animals that come down to the water’s edge to drink. It is surprisingly fast and agile on dry land, even though its legs are so short that its belly and tail drag across the earth leaving a distinct path.<\/p>\n<p>Until the beginning of the 20th century, the crocodile was found in the marshes and small coastal rivers of western Palestine. A first-century Roman writer, Pliny, referred to a place in the Holy Land called Crocodeilopolis (“crocodile city”) to the south of Mt Carmel, and visitors to the Holy Land as late as the 19th century reported seeing crocodiles in that general region.<\/p>\n<p>The description of “Leviathan” in Job 41 seems to be based on the crocodile (thus the translation of the <span>nlt<\/span>). The “dragon” of Ezekiel 29:3, used figuratively of the Egyptian pharaoh, may be a reference to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Deer\">Deer<\/p>\n<p>Large ruminant (cud-chewing) animals. Only the males have antlers (branching horns). Deer antlers grow annually and are solid, in contrast to those of the antelope and the gazelle. Fully developed antlers are devoid of any covering of skin or horn and, for all practical purposes, may be regarded as a mass of dead bone carried for a certain time by the living animal.<\/p>\n<p>The end of the deer’s muzzle is naked in all species. The stomach is divided into a series of compartments, some of which are used to store partly chewed food. The food is later regurgitated, rechewed, and finally swallowed into a section of the stomach where true digestion takes place.<\/p>\n<p>Three species of deer were known in Palestine: the red deer <em>(Cervus elaphus),<\/em> the Persian fallow deer <em>(Dama mesopotamica),<\/em> and the roe deer <em>(Capreolus capreolus).<\/em> All are now extinct there. The last deer were hunted in the Holy Land in 1914. The red deer referred to in the Bible as “hart” (male), “stag” (male), or “hind” (female) stood about four feet (1.2 meters) high at the shoulder. It was gregarious (living in herds or flocks), each group remaining in a definite territory. Red deer grazed and browsed during the morning and late afternoon (Lam 1:6). The sexes remained in separate herds. The red deer was known for its leaping (Is 35:6) and sure-footedness in the mountains (Ps 18:33; Sg 2:8-9, 17; 8:14; Hb 3:19).<\/p>\n<p>The antlers of the Persian fallow deer (1 Kgs 4:23) were large, flattened, and palmated (shaped like an open palm with fingers extended), and its coat was a yellowbrown. It traveled in small groups, feeding mainly on grass in the morning and evening.<\/p>\n<p>The roe deer (Dt 14:5; 1 Kgs 4:23) was a small, graceful animal, dark reddish brown in summer and yellowish gray in winter. Its antlers were about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and had three points. The roe deer preferred sparsely wooded valleys and the lower slopes of mountains, grazing in open grasslands. It usually associated in family groups made up of the doe and her offspring. They were shy, yet very curious. The roe deer barked like a dog when disturbed, and they were excellent swimmers.<\/p>\n<p>There is some question as to whether the roe deer is actually referred to in such passages as 1 Kings 4:23; references may be to the fallow deer, although that animal does not seem to have lived in the southern part of Palestine around the Sinai Desert because of its need for ample amounts of food and water. Fallow deer were found in northern Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The hart (the male red deer) was listed among the clean beasts that Jewish law permitted as food (Dt 12:15, 22; 14:5), but deer were not listed among the animals appropriate for sacrifice. The hind (female red deer) normally gave birth to one calf at a time, though twins were born with some degree of regularity (Jb 39:1; Ps 29:9, <span>kjv<\/span>; Jer 14:5). The gestation period was about 40 weeks. When it was about to give birth, the hind looked for a secure hiding place, preferably in the dense undergrowth of the forest where it could find natural protection for the tiny calf. During the first few days after birth, the mother never went far from her young. The fawn was able to stand on its own legs a few hours after birth. The solicitous care by the hind for her calf during the first days of its life is hinted at in a touching way in Jeremiah 14:4-5, where only a severe drought is said to drive the hind from her calf. Job 39:1-4 describes the calving of the hinds. The hind illustrated grace and charm (Gn 49:21; Prv 5:19), and its dark, gentle eyes and graceful limbs were used to describe the beauty of a woman (Prv 5:18-19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dog\">Dog<\/p>\n<p>Probably the earliest domesticated animal <em>(Canis familiaris),<\/em> used very early in hunting. The modern dog is believed to have come from the Indian wolf <em>(Canis lupus pallipes).<\/em> The dogs of biblical times probably looked like a modern German shepherd, with short pointed ears, a pointed nose, and a long tail.<\/p>\n<p>The dog was generally looked down upon in biblical times (Prv 26:11; 2 Pt 2:22). The biblical writers did not share modern sentiments about dogs being man’s best friends. The dog was pictured as a scavenger, haunting streets and dumps (Ex 22:31; 1 Kgs 22:38; Mt 15:26; Lk 16:21). Human corpses could become the spoil of dogs (2 Kgs 9:35-36). In general, dogs served the same function as vultures and other birds of prey. Most of the 41 references in the Scriptures to dogs show strong disfavor. Dogs were considered cowardly, filthy creatures.<\/p>\n<p>Dogs used in hunting occur in paintings in Egyptian tombs, and there is a reference to dogs herding sheep in Job 30:1. One good quality of dogs highly esteemed by the Israelites was watchfulness (Is 56:10). In general, however, in biblical times “dog” was a term of contempt (1 Sm 17:43; 2 Sm 16:9) and was used of overly submissive persons (2 Sm 9:8; 2 Kgs 8:13) and of evil persons (Is 56:10-11; Mt 7:6; Phil 3:2; Rv 22:15).<\/p>\n<p>Dogs, like pigs, were voracious and omnivorous (eating any kind of food). In response to a Gentile woman’s request that he heal her daughter, Jesus used the metaphor of throwing household food scraps to dogs (Mt 15:22-28; Mk 7:25-30). At the time of Jesus, the word “dog” was a standard Jewish term of contempt for Gentiles who, like dogs, were considered unclean, although the diminutive form of the word, used by Jesus, softened this considerably. Seeing her faith, Jesus granted the woman’s request, giving a non-Jew some of “the children’s bread.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Donkey\">Donkey<\/p>\n<p>Beast of burden. The donkey of the Holy Land <em>(Equus asinus)<\/em> was quite different from the European donkey of today, which is usually a small, stubborn animal. In biblical times the donkey was a beautiful, stately, friendly animal. Its color was usually reddish brown. Three wild races have been described, all from Africa. The race from northwest Africa is extinct; the one from northeast Africa, if not extinct, is close to extinction; the Somalian race, which survives, did not play an important part in domestication. The northeast African race, the Nubian donkey, was evidently domesticated in the Nile River region in early historic times. The donkey was used as a mount from the time of domestication on. It is first mentioned in the Bible among the animals that Abraham acquired in Egypt (Gn 12:16). The donkey was primarily a beast of burden, driven but not bridled. From the time of the Middle Kingdom on (c. 2040 <span>BC<\/span>), it was used for riding in Egypt, but only the Jews and Nubians rode donkeys regularly. The donkey was also used for threshing grain and for pulling the plow. In Arab countries today peasants plow with a donkey and a cow or camel hitched together. In Israel the law forbade plowing with a donkey and an ox hitched together (Dt 22:10). Until the time of Solomon (960 <span>BC<\/span>), horses were not used in Palestine. From that time on, the horse was ridden by warriors; the donkey was used by those who were traveling peaceably.<\/p>\n<p>The donkey was held in high regard by the Jews and was considered an economic asset. An individual had to have a donkey for minimum existence (Jb 24:3), and wealth was frequently counted by the number of donkeys one possessed (Gn 12:16; 24:35). The donkey was considered an acceptable gift (Gn 32:13-15). It was allowed to rest on the Sabbath (Dt 5:14). Women in biblical times often used the donkey as a riding animal (Jos 15:18; 1 Sm 25:23; 2 Kgs 4:24); often a special driver would help a woman guide the animal, running along at its side. If a married couple possessed only one donkey, the husband usually walked alongside while the wife rode (Ex 4:20).<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel returning from Babylon had ten times as many donkeys as horses and camels (Ezr 2:66-67; Neh 7:68-69). Job’s wealth was indicated by the fact that he had 500 she-donkeys before catastrophe hit him (Jb 1:3); after his recovery he had 1,000 donkeys (Jb 42:12). Joseph’s brothers used donkeys to transport the grain they purchased in Egypt (Gn 42:26; 43:24). Abigail transported food on donkeys to David and his troops during their conflict with Saul (1 Sm 25:18). David assigned one of the 12 managers of his royal estates to look after his donkeys exclusively (1 Chr 27:30).<\/p>\n<p>The onager, or Syrian wild donkey <em>(Equus hemionus hemihippus)<\/em>, is an intermediate between the true horse and the true donkey. Its ears are longer than those of a horse but shorter than those of a donkey. The front hooves are narrow; there are chestnuts (callouslike spots on the inside of the knees) on the front legs only, and the tail is short haired for a long distance from its root so that it appears to be tufted.<\/p>\n<p>The Sumerians (ancient Mesopotamians) were able to domesticate the onager, which was eventually replaced by the horse. It was used to draw chariots in Ur; a number of onagers were buried with their vehicles in a royal grave that dates from about 2500 <span>BC<\/span>. Later the wild onager was a favorite hunter’s prize for Babylonian and Assyrian kings.<\/p>\n<p>The onager was very common in the steppe lands near Israel, where it was described as a freedom-loving desert animal (Jb 24:5; 39:5-8; Ps 104:11; Is 32:14; Jer 2:24; Hos 8:9). Ishmael was described as “free and untamed as a wild donkey” (Gn 16:12, <span>nlt<\/span>)—that is, one who could not adjust to domestic life. Drought seems to have been responsible for the population decline of the onager in biblical times (Jer 14:6). The modern onager <em>(Equus hemionus onager)<\/em> is slightly larger than the Syrian wild donkey that is extinct.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dragon\">Dragon<\/p>\n<p>Any one of a number of monstrous land and sea creatures. In biblical usage, “dragon” does not refer to the huge, fire-breathing, winged reptile of European folklore. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> used the term to translate two Hebrew words that are usually rendered more precisely in modern translations. One word referred to desert animals; most scholars agree with the <span>niv<\/span> that “jackals” is its proper meaning (Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; Jer 9:11; Mal 1:3). <em>See<\/em> Jackal (below).<\/p>\n<p>The other Hebrew word translated “dragon” is harder to define. It was frequently used in reference to serpents (so translated in the <span>rsv<\/span>: Ex 7:9-12; Dt 32:33; Ps 91:13). In other <span>rsv<\/span> passages it is translated “sea monster” (Gn 1:21; Jb 7:12; Ps 148:7). The exact identity of such sea monsters is not known. Several <span>rsv<\/span> passages retain the English “dragon.” In two of them (Ps 74:13; Is 27:1), the context indicates that sea monsters are meant. In three others (Is 51:9; Ez 29:3; 32:2) “dragon” seems to refer to the crocodile, a figurative reference to the Egyptian pharaoh at the time of the exodus. Jeremiah 51:34 (translated “monster” in the <span>rsv<\/span>) may also refer to a voracious creature such as a crocodile. <em>See<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p>Babylonian myths described monsters and dragons in primordial conflict with the god Marduk; they represented the principle of evil. In its figurative usages in Scripture, “dragon” has a similar significance, especially in the prophetic books. In the book of Revelation it is a symbol of Satan, the archenemy of God and his people (Rv 12:3-17; 13:2, 4, 11; 16:13; 20:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fish\">Fish<\/p>\n<p>Aquatic animals frequently mentioned in the Bible without names or descriptions that enable us to identify the particular species. Since time immemorial, fish have constituted one of the staple foods of humanity, and they still serve as the chief source of protein in many parts of the world. The trade in fish was highly developed in biblical times. For example, one of the gates in Jerusalem was called the Fish Gate (Neh 3:3; Zep 1:10). The law in Leviticus 11:9-12 permitted the Jews to eat fish, but only those having both fins and scales. Scaleless fish such as catfish were forbidden, even though they had fins.<\/p>\n<p>Egyptian paintings depict various methods of fishing, and the Philistines fished in the Mediterranean Sea. Since the people of Israel were not a seafaring nation, it is safe to assume that most of their fish came from freshwater lakes and rivers, especially the Sea of Galilee. Some 36 species of fish have been identified in that lake, including varieties of perch, carp, barbel, “sardine,” and catfish.<\/p>\n<p>The method of fishing characteristic of NT times was the dragnet. After a boat had put out into the deep (Lk 5:4), a large net would be thrown out from it and then dragged toward shore by the rowers in the boat, possibly with the help of a crew in another boat. The catch was sorted out on shore (Mt 13:47-48). Fishing was usually carried out at night when the coolness of the water brought fish closer to the surface and when they could not see the approaching nets.<\/p>\n<p>The Jews also fished by hook and line (Mt 17:27), a few by spear (Jb 41:7), and some by the throw net (Ez 47:10). Habakkuk refers to hook-and-line fishing, netting, and seining (1:15).<\/p>\n<p>Very early in the history of the Christian church the fish became a symbol for Christ and the faith. It was scratched on the walls of Roman catacombs and may be seen today decorating walls, altars, pews, and vestments. The symbol came into use because the Greek word for “fish” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ichthus<\/span><em>)<\/em> is composed of the first letter of each word in the Greek phrase “Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior.” <em>See<\/em> Whale (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Flea\">Flea<\/p>\n<p>Tiny, irritating insect (1 Sm 24:14; 26:20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Many species of fleas occur in Palestine, the most common being <em>Pulex irritans.<\/em> About a thousand species are known around the world. Fleas are wingless parasites that have sharp jaws and suck out blood from the bodies of humans and animals. The body is wedge shaped, enabling the flea to burrow into folds of skin and hide there. The eggs, laid by the female in dust heaps in the corners of rooms, hatch into small, white larvae that pupate (a nonfeeding stage) in a cocoon. Soon adult fleas appear that immediately attach themselves to the body of a host. The female requires blood for the development of her eggs.<\/p>\n<p>A flea bite is painful and causes some swelling and itching. Fleas are attracted by warmth. With favorable moisture and temperature, adult fleas can live a year or longer without food, but they are voracious feeders. The most dangerous fleas are those of the rat that transmit the organism responsible for bubonic plague. There were 41 recorded epidemics of bubonic plague before the Christian era.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fly\">Fly<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the order Diptera, which have one pair of wings. Many winged insects of other orders, however, are also called flies, such as the dragonfly or butterfly.<\/p>\n<p>As in almost all parts of the world, flies are abundant in Palestine. One of the most numerous is the common housefly <em>(Musca domestica),<\/em> found chiefly around dung heaps and garbage. The female lays her eggs, out of which emerge white maggots that feed on refuse. After a few days the maggot develops into a cocoon out of which emerges the adult housefly. In the summer the whole cycle lasts about 12 days, so that a fly can breed about 20 generations a year.<\/p>\n<p>Another fly common to Palestine is the botfly (family Oestridae). It causes much discomfort among livestock by irritating them and spreading diseases. Tabanid flies (family Tabanidae), including the horsefly (genus <em>Tabanus<\/em>) and related species, are also found in Palestine. Both the botfly and horsefly are known as gadflies because of the persistent distress they inflict. Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar is spoken of as a gadfly in view of his invasion of Egypt (Jer 46:20).<\/p>\n<p>The fourth plague in Egypt just before the exodus featured “swarms of flies” (Ex 8:21-31, <span>nlt<\/span>; cf. Pss 78:45; 105:31). Those swarms may have been made up of any or all the flies mentioned above. The maggots mentioned in Job 25:6 and Isaiah 14:11 and the worms in Exodus 16:24 and Job 7:5 and 17:14 were probably fly larvae.<\/p>\n<p>A proverb quoted in Ecclesiastes 10:1 probably refers to the housefly, which would be attracted to an open, perfumed ointment bottle. Once inside it would drown and eventually decay, causing the ointment to spoil and stink. The fly is also referred to in Isaiah 7:18 where it symbolizes Egypt. Isaiah may have had in mind a horsefly <em>(Tabanus arenivagus)<\/em> that attacks both humans and animals.<\/p>\n<p>Philistine inhabitants of the city of Ekron worshiped a god named Baal-zebul, meaning “Lord of the high places.” The Hebrews mockingly spoke of Baal-zebub, meaning “Lord of the flies” (2 Kgs 1:2). The NT form is Beelzebub (e.g., Mt 10:25; 12:24, 27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fox\">Fox<\/p>\n<p>Small, doglike carnivore with a bushy tail that is about half its body length. The red fox of the Holy Land <em>(Vulpes palaetinae)<\/em> is similar to the North American red fox; it is smaller than a wolf and is normally a nocturnal solitary animal. The omnivorous fox eats almost any kind of food—fruits, plants, mice, beetles, and birds—but seldom touches carrion. It loves the sweet juice of grapes, but it also burrows underground tunnels that can destroy the vines (Sg 2:15). The fox is intelligent and known for its slyness (Lk 13:32). It has considerable endurance and can run at speeds up to 30 miles (48 kilometers) per hour. The Jews rebuilding Jerusalem’s wall were taunted by the wisecrack that even a fox jumping on their wall would knock it over (Neh 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptian fox <em>(Vulpes niloticus)<\/em> is found in the central and southern parts of the Holy Land. It is somewhat smaller than the common red fox. Its back is rust colored and its belly light. The Syrian fox <em>(Vulpes flavescens)<\/em> that lives in the northern part of the Holy Land is shiny gold in color.<\/p>\n<p>Some OT references such as Psalm 63:10 and Lamentations 5:18 are translated “fox” in the <span>kjv<\/span> but probably refer to jackals. Jackals, not foxes, hunt in packs and tend to act as scavengers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Frog\">Frog<\/p>\n<p>Amphibian (genus <em>Rana<\/em>), living part of its life in the water and part on land.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs and toads are covered with soft, hairless skin and lack a tail in the adult stage. The hind legs are much longer and more powerfully developed than the forelegs so that the animals are able to jump large distances. It has been suggested that the frog referred to in Scripture is an edible one, <em>Rana ridibunda,<\/em> one of the aquatic frogs found in Egypt and in the stagnant waters of the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The female frog lays her eggs in the water; after about a week the eggs hatch into tadpoles. Gradually through metamorphosis the tail is lost and limbs are acquired. Frogs must maintain a moist skin since they take oxygen through the skin as well as through their lungs; thus they must always remain close to water. They feed on insects and worms.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs are found throughout the Palestinian lowlands, where their croaking is heard in the spring and on summer evenings. The Israelites seem to have associated frogs primarily with sliminess and foulness. They fell into the category of creeping or swarming creatures, which in general were ritually unclean (Lv 11:29-31). Since the frog was not specifically listed, however, rabbis did not consider it one of the animals that defiled human beings through contact.<\/p>\n<p>In Revelation 16:13 certain foul spirits are said to look like frogs. The ancient Egyptians made the frog a symbol of life and birth and an image of Heqet, the patron goddess of birth. She is depicted with a frog’s head giving life to the newborn. Thus that deity was discredited when the power of God afflicted Egypt in the second of the ten plagues on the Egyptians with the very animal that was her symbol (Ex 8:1-14; Pss 78:45; 105:30). The frog in question may have been the spotted frog of Egypt <em>(Rana punctata,<\/em> or <em>Rana ridibunda).<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gazelle\">Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>Small, dainty, graceful antelope with hollow recurved horns on both sexes. Two varieties exist in the Holy Land, the dorcas gazelle <em>(Gazella dorcas),<\/em> which is pale fawn in color and up to 22 inches (56 centimeters) tall, and the Arabian gazelle <em>(Gazella arabica),<\/em> which is a dark smoky color and up to 25 inches (63.5 centimeters) tall.<\/p>\n<p>Gazelles are still quite common throughout the desert and steppe areas of the Holy Land, especially in the Negev Desert. Herds usually consist of from 5 to 10 animals, but some varieties assemble in large migratory herds in the fall to relocate to lower elevations and new feeding grounds. Gazelles are herbivorous (plant eating). They are very shy and post guards to warn the herd of approaching danger.<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times the gazelle was probably the game animal most hunted by the Jews (Prv 6:5; Is 13:14). Pharaoh Tutankhamen hunted gazelles and ostriches. The gazelle is said to have graced Solomon’s table (1 Kgs 4:23). Gazelles were not easy to catch because of their great speed (2 Sm 2:18; 1 Chr 12:8; Prv 6:5); they surpass the deer in swiftness. They were trapped in various ways—encircled with nets, driven into enclosures with pitfalls, or forced into narrow valleys and shot with arrows. The Bedouin hunt gazelle with falcons and dogs; the falcon annoys the gazelle, striking it on the head and injuring it so that the dogs can overtake it.<\/p>\n<p>The gazelle is referred to in Song of Songs 2:9, 17; 4:5; 7:3; 8:14, where it is an image of feminine beauty.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gecko\">Gecko<\/p>\n<p>Reptile of the family Gekkonidae, referred to in Leviticus 11:30. In Jewish food law it was a ritually unclean lizard. There are seven species of geckos in the Holy Land (including <em>Hemidactylus turcicus<\/em> and <em>Ptyodactylus hasselquistii,<\/em> all insectivorous—insect eating). The gecko makes a low mourning sound by vibrating its tongue rapidly against the roof of its mouth. In legend the gecko was said to cause leprosy by crawling across a person’s body.<\/p>\n<p>Another name for the gecko is the wall lizard, so named because it can walk upside down on ceilings with the aid of the suction discs on its toes—but it often plops down into the middle of the home. Since it was considered unclean, such an intrusion would have been a disgusting nuisance to Jewish households (Lv 11:31-38).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gnat\">Gnat<\/p>\n<p>Any very small fly, in common and biblical usage. According to the <span>nlt<\/span>, the third plague in Egypt before the exodus consisted of gnats (Ex 8:16-18; Ps 105:31). The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word there as “lice,” but the breeding pattern described in Exodus 8—insects rising from the dust—seems to fit gnats better than lice. Since “gnat” is a general term, the small flies of that plague may have included several small species such as mosquitos, harvester gnats, midges, or sand flies.<\/p>\n<p>The sand fly inflicts a far more painful bite than the mosquito. Further, it does not betray itself by a buzzing noise in flight and is so small that it penetrates most mosquito netting.<\/p>\n<p>Gnats were drawn to wine while it was fermenting. The Pharisees in particular would strain their wine to avoid consuming unclean insects (Mt 23:24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Goat\">Goat<\/p>\n<p>Cloven-hooved mammals (genus <em>Capra<\/em>) with large eyes and big, floppy ears that constantly twitch. Both males and females have backward arching horns. The Palestinian goat is a ruminant (cud-chewing animal) of lighter build than the sheep.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was probably the earliest ruminant to be domesticated. Its wild ancestor seems to have been the Gezoar goat <em>(Capra aegagrus).<\/em> Wild goats are believed to have been domesticated very early in Palestine. The goat of Bible times was probably the Syrian or Mamber variety <em>(Capra hircus mambrica).<\/em> Domesticated goats may have as many as four kids in a litter, whereas wild goats bear only one or two.<\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian goat was commonly black. Speckled and spotted goats were a rarity, and for that reason Jacob’s request for those goats in Genesis 30:32 appeared very modest. There may also have been red goats (cf. 1 Sm 16:12; 19:13, where goat’s hair was used to imitate David’s hair, which was “ruddy” or auburn).<\/p>\n<p>Almost every part of the goat was used by the Israelites. The whole goat was used for sacrifice. Its flesh served as meat (Lv 7:23; Dt 14:4), and it was the principal source of milk (Prv 27:27). Goats were sheared in the late spring, and the goat hair was used for weaving tent cloth and for various domestic purposes (Ex 36:14; 1 Sm 19:13, 16). The tabernacle at Mt Sinai was made of goat’s hair blankets (Ex 26:7).<\/p>\n<p>Adult male goats were generally not eaten because of their strong flavor and toughness and also because they were necessary to insure the flock’s increase. Young kids, however, were usually the chief meat for a feast and were offered to visitors as a symbol of hospitality. Goat milk is richer than the milk of cows and sheep and evidently had broader uses. A good goat gives three quarts of milk a day, from which a rich butter and buttermilk can be made. The average Hebrew family could have lived almost entirely on a single goat’s production.<\/p>\n<p>Goatskin was tanned as leather, and the whole hide was turned into a skin bottle by sewing shut leg and neck apertures (Gn 21:14; Jos 9:4). Goatskin had many uses, including the construction of Hebrew musical instruments. The nebal, a large harp, was made with goatskin for its base sound. Drums had goatskin coverings.<\/p>\n<p>Goats were herded with sheep in biblical times, but each group remained separate following its own bell-laden leader. Jesus was evidently referring to their common herding in his description of the Last Judgment (Mt 25:31-46).<\/p>\n<p>Because of their wool, sheep are valued more than goats. However, where pasture and water are scarce and thorny shrubs dominate over grass, sheep are difficult to keep and goats become important. They can live under conditions that suit neither cows nor sheep, producing large quantities of milk. The goat does not supply fat as the sheep does, and since its hair is coarse its wool is rather scarce. Goat-hair cloth called cilicium was used to make tents.<\/p>\n<p>Goats have voracious appetites. They also were responsible for much damage done to the land of Palestine, breaking down terraces, destroying forests, and bringing about soil erosion by eating off all cover.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was recognized as a form of wealth, subject to the law of firstlings (Nm 18:17). It had to be eight days old before it could be offered as a sacrifice. A year-old male goat was one of the animals offered at the Passover (28:22), and two goats were offered on the Day of Atonement (Lv 16:7-10). The goat was also used for other specific sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p>The ibex, a type of wild goat <em>(Capra ibex nubiana),<\/em> still lives in small numbers on the cliffs close to the Dead Sea. That it was known in ancient times is evident from rock carvings. It is distinguished from the true wild goat by having a more compact rump and horns that are slender and curved back. Its slender legs and sharp cloven hooves enable it to cling to narrow rock ledges, to jump between them, and to climb steep cliffs.<\/p>\n<p>Usually the ibex is found in rugged mountain country among rocky crags and meadows just below the snow line (Ps 104:18). In Job 39:1 they are referred to as “mountain goats.” They frequently gather in herds of 5 to 20. They graze and browse, being active in the afternoon and sometimes feeding through the night. The large horn of the ibex was at one period made into the shofar that was blown in the second Jerusalem temple to announce the new year and the jubilee year.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was often used in a figurative and symbolic sense by the writers of the Bible: in Song of Songs 4:1 and 6:5 for the bride’s black hair; in Matthew 25:31-46 for the wicked; and in Ezekiel 34:17 and Daniel 8:5-8 for various human leaders.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Grasshopper\">Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>Large insects of the Orthoptera order. They have chewing or biting mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the front pair of which is narrow and somewhat thickened and the hind pair membranous and used for flying. When not in use the flight wings are folded beneath the protective front wings like a fan against the body. By rubbing their wings together, male grasshoppers produce sounds that both males and females can detect. Grasshoppers pass through a partial metamorphosis; the egg hatches into a juvenile nymph that looks like an adult except for its smaller size and undeveloped wings. After several months the nymph becomes a winged adult.<\/p>\n<p>The terms “grasshopper” and “locust” are often used interchangeably. Actually the locust is a kind of grasshopper. Also confusing is the fact that other insects such as cicadas are sometimes called locusts. The difference between grasshoppers and locusts depends more on behavior than appearance. Grasshoppers are individual insects that lead solitary lives and do not migrate. The same insects when migrating in a swarm are called migratory grasshoppers or locusts. Elimination of their food supply by drought, flood, or fire may lead to migration. Climatic factors such as a warm dry winter also stimulate migrations.<\/p>\n<p>Grasshoppers and locusts have been a staple food in the Middle East and also among the Indians of the American Southwest. To the Israelites the grasshopper was considered ritually clean and could be eaten (Lv 11:22).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hare\">Hare<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the genus and species <em>Lepus europaeus judaeus, Lepus capensis,<\/em> and <em>Lepus arabicus.<\/em> It is found in open country, often near or on cultivated lands, and in woods, usually deciduous rather than evergreen. It is an herbivorous rodent and is different from the rabbit, which is not found in Palestine. Although it is not a true ruminant according to modern classification (because it does not have a four-chambered stomach), the hare does rechew its food. It has a process of partial regurgitation of material too hard for the cells in the stomach to absorb initially; thus, the hare actually chews food previously swallowed.<\/p>\n<p>Near Eastern hares have very long ears and large hind feet; their feet are well furred. They are similar to American jackrabbits, which are true hares. Hares do not dig or occupy burrows the way rabbits do. Hares are mainly nocturnal and spend their inactive hours hiding in vegetation. They eat grasses and herbaceous matter as well as twigs and young bark of woody plants. Hares breed with great rapidity—the young attaining sexual maturity at six months after birth.<\/p>\n<p>The hare was ceremonially unclean (Lv 11:6; Dt 14:7), evidently because although it appeared to chew its cud, it did not have cloven hooves. Consumption of hares has also been forbidden among the Arabs, Chinese, and Lapps, but the hare was widely hunted by other people in ancient and modern times. Its great speed, prolific breeding, timidity, and caution have saved it from extermination by its many enemies.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hippopotamus\">Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of problematic interpretation. Some early interpreters thought it referred to the elephant, others to the wild ox, the mammoth, or any large animal. It was called “behemoth” by the <span>kjv<\/span> translators. Today it is generally agreed that the reference is to the hippopotamus <em>(Hippopotamus amphibius),<\/em> a large, thick-skinned, amphibious mammal, an ungulate (having hooflike toenails) with a large head, a bulky, hairless body, and short legs.<\/p>\n<p>The description in Job 40:15-24 fits closely the modern hippopotamus (see <span>nlt<\/span>), except for the depiction of the tail. At present the hippopotamus is found only in the rivers of Africa, but there is fossil evidence that it has existed in the Holy Land, perhaps in the swamps of northern Galilee and the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\n<p>The hippopotamus has highly developed sense organs, placed in such a way that it can see, hear, and smell almost without being seen; its eyes, ears, and nostrils can reach above water while the rest of the animal lies submerged. It has a large mouth, large tusks, and a short, heavy throat. The strong legs are so short that the belly almost reaches the ground when the animal is on the land. The hippopotamus lives on plants and herbs growing in rivers, but if food is scarce there, it forages on land, usually at night. In spite of its heavy body it is surprisingly agile on land.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Horse\">Horse<\/p>\n<p>Przewalski’s horse (<em>Equus przewalskii,<\/em> an eastern race that roamed about Mongolia until modern firearms destroyed most of them after World War I) and the tarpan (a western race of southern Russia that became extinct in the Ukraine in 1851). The domesticated horse <em>(Equus caballus)<\/em> seems to have been derived from the tarpan. The original site of domestication is believed to have been Turkestan, a region north of Afghanistan and India, now in Russia. The horse differs from the donkey in that it has shorter ears, a longer mane with a forelock, a long hairy tail, and a soft, sensitive muzzle.<\/p>\n<p>Horses were used in war not only for riding but also for pulling the heavy, springless war chariots. Two kinds of horses were needed for these different purposes, and the Hebrews distinguished between chariot horses and cavalry horses.<\/p>\n\n<p>The Lord warned the early Israelites against unnecessarily amassing military strength in the form of horses and thereby following the oppressive tactics of the powerful Egyptians (Dt 17:14-16), but the demands of war caused both David and Solomon to import horses from Egypt into their kingdoms and to breed them. Solomon greatly increased the number of horses in the Jewish kingdom and maintained large stables at various cities (1 Kgs 10:26) such as the regional defense centers of Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer (1 Kgs 9:15-19). Ahab’s horses are mentioned in 1 Kings 18:5, and records of Shalmaneser III state that Ahab furnished 2,000 chariots to a coalition against Assyria.<\/p>\n<p>In early Israel, the horse was opposed as a symbol of pagan luxury and of dependence on physical power for defense (Dt 17:16; 1 Sm 8:11; Ps 20:7; Is 31:1). Horse trading, mentioned as early as Genesis 47:17, was carried on by Solomon between Egypt and the Syro-Hittite principalities (1 Kgs 10:28-29). Most biblical references to horses refer to their use in war, but horses were also used for transportation. Riding seems to have been less popular than the use of chariots. Cavalry units were not introduced until the 12th century <span>BC<\/span> by the Medes. Joseph rode in Pharaoh’s second horse-drawn chariot (Gn 41:43), and Absalom made a display by riding a horse-drawn chariot (2 Sm 15:1). Naaman traveled by horse and chariot (2 Kgs 5:9). Later, horses were so common in Jerusalem that the royal palace had a special horse gate (2 Chr 23:15), and a gate of the city itself was known as the Horse Gate (Neh 3:28; Jer 31:40). Mordecai rode a royal horse of King Xerxes as a sign of honor (Est 6:8-11). Horses are often spoken of figuratively (Ps 32:9; “mare,” Sg 1:9; “stallions,” Jer 5:8; 12:5), especially in the context of judgment (Hb 3:8; Zec 1:8; 6:1-8; Rv 6:2-8; 9:17; 19:11-16).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Warfare; Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyena\">Hyena<\/p>\n<p>Stocky carnivore <em>(Hyaena hyaena)<\/em> with coarse hair, an erect mane, and long hairs along the neck and back. Hyenas live in holes among rocks and banks. They are mainly nocturnal but are ordinarily neither noisy nor aggressive. Their cry, however, is a disagreeable, unearthly sound. Hyenas usually feed on carrion, crushing bones with their powerful jaws. If the carrion supply is inadequate, they will kill sheep, goats, or other small animals. When threatened, hyenas growl and erect their mane, but they rarely fight. They are massively built with forelegs longer than the hind legs.<\/p>\n<p>Known as scavengers in Africa, hyenas eat domestic refuse in the villages. In Palestine the striped hyena is a common predator, preferring rocky territory and even rock tombs. Since hyenas were notorious for raiding the graves of the dead, all Israelites who could afford it arranged for burial in tombs protected by massive stone doors. Absalom, King David’s son who was killed by Joab in the wild, was buried under a huge pile of stones to protect his corpse from molestation by hyenas (2 Sm 18:17).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Jackal\">Jackal<\/p>\n<p>Carnivore <em>(Canis aureus)<\/em> smaller than the true wolf and with a shorter tail. It is similar to the fox but has a broader head, shorter ears, and longer legs. The fox is solitary; the jackal tends to be gregarious. Its tail can be drooping or erect, compared with the long horizontal tail of the fox. Jackals usually prowl at night, either singly, in pairs, or in packs through open savannah country. They eat small mammals, poultry, fruit, vegetables, and carrion. They spend their days in thickets and clumps of vegetation. Often they obtain scraps from kills by larger carnivores. Jackals can run at speeds of about 33 miles (53 kilometers) per hour.<\/p>\n<p>The jackal can reach a height of about 20 inches (51 centimeters), roughly the size of a German shepherd dog. Its back is pale yellow with dark, almost black, flanks. Its lips are black and its ears white on the inside. The howl of the jackal sounds like the crying of a child or the heartrending wail of the bereaved (Mi 1:8; cf. Jb 30:29). To other jackals the howl is merely an invitation calling the pack together for its nocturnal hunting.<\/p>\n<p>OT references are chiefly to jackals prowling around ruined cities and wilderness areas (Neh 2:13; Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; 34:13; 35:7; Jer 9:11; 14:6; 49:33; 51:37; Lam 4:3; 5:18; Mal 1:3). Many such references are translated “dragon” in the <span>kjv<\/span>, but “jackal” is more appropriate.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leech\">Leech<\/p>\n<p>Segmented worm (class Hirundinea) up to five inches (12.7 centimeters) long with a flat body equipped with suction pads at each end. The mouth, located at the bottom of the front suction pad, has three teeth that the leech uses to pierce the skin of its host. The leech feeds on blood, and its glands secrete an anticoagulant to prevent the blood from clotting. The ordinary medicinal leech (Hirudo medicinalis) is abundant in springs and ponds from the Negev Desert to Galilee. It adheres to the bodies of human beings and animals that submerge themselves in water, injects its anticoagulant, and sucks their blood.<\/p>\n<p>The reference in Proverbs 30:15 is uncertain (see <span>nlt<\/span>) but may be to the parasitic and greedy nature of the horse leech (genus <em>Haemopis<\/em>). The small horse leech enters its host’s mouth and nostrils from water while the animal is drinking. A leech weighing one-half ounce (14.2 grams) has been known to gorge itself with two and a half ounces (71 grams) of concentrated blood and then to exist for 15 months with no more to eat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leopard\">Leopard<\/p>\n<p>Called <em>Panthera pardus tulliana,<\/em> it is the most widespread of all the large wildcats. In rocky areas it lives in caves, but in forested regions it lives in thick vegetation. In OT times many lived in the vicinity of Mt Hermon (Sg 4:8).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is somewhat smaller than the tiger, measuring up to 5 feet (1.5 meters) in length with a tail of about 30 inches (.8 meter). Its body is better proportioned than that of the tiger. The leopard takes its victim by surprise from a silent ambush, often concealing itself near villages or watering places and waiting for its prey, remaining in one spot for long spans of time. The leopard is swift on the ground (Hb 1:8), agile in trees, and very graceful in its movements. Its color is yellowish speckled with black spots (Jer 13:23). Daniel and John saw visions in which leopards were symbols of world powers (Dn 7:6; Rv 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is a wary and cunning animal, formidable and ferocious (Jer 5:6; Hos 13:7; cf. Is 11:6). The leopard is dangerous not only to domestic animals but also to humans. With its natural camouflage it can hide on the forest floor, blending into the changing light and shadows. The Israelites were terrified of the leopard because it constantly ravaged their sheep and goats. Several biblical place names suggest that they were known for the leopards in their vicinity: Nimrah, Beth-nimrah, and Nimrim, a district northeast of the Dead Sea. It has survived in the Holy Land into the present century; a few leopards still exist in remote areas near Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leviathan\">Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>Sea monster mentioned several times in the Bible (Pss 74:14; 104:26; Is 27:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). It may refer to any of the larger marine animals such as large jellyfish, whales, or sharks, or to a large reptile like the crocodile. Some scholars think “Leviathan” may refer to animals now extinct, such as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs (marine reptiles similar to dinosaurs). The scriptural term might also refer to certain dinosaurs that spent part of their lives half-submerged in shallow lakes and oceans. Other scholars believe that most of the references are to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lion\">Lion<\/p>\n<p>Large, tawny-colored carnivore <em>(Panthera leo)<\/em> that preys chiefly on hoofed mammals and charges by a series of leaps and bounds. Within historic times the lion ranged in Africa, Europe, and the Holy Land. In ancient times the territories of the African and Persian lions met in the Middle East. The lion of the Holy Land was the Asiatic or Persian lion <em>(Panthera leo persica).<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The males have heavy manes that stop at the shoulders but cover much of the chest. The Persian lion cannot climb and is mainly nocturnal, returning to its lair or a thicket by day (Jer 4:7; 25:38; Na 2:11-12). This lion is about 5 feet (1.5 meters) long with a tasseled tail 30 inches (.8 meter) or so long; its shoulders may reach a height of 35 inches (.9 meter). It is one of the smallest of the lion breeds.<\/p>\n<p>Lions are usually found in pairs, though sometimes in larger numbers. A small group is known as a pride. They generally prefer open country but in Palestine evidently prowled the subtropical vegetation of the Jordan River valley. Lions, which usually hunt at dusk, kill smaller animals by a blow of the paw, larger ones by a bite in the throat. A lion does not remain in the same place for more than a few days. The animal is in its prime at about seven years of age, when it weighs from 400 to 600 pounds (181.6 to 272.4 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>The lion does not characteristically attack humans, though like other great cats it may become a man-eater (1 Kgs 13:24-28; 20:36; 2 Kgs 17:25-26; Ps 57:4; Dn 6:7-27). Ordinarily, it attacks only out of great hunger or in self-defense. A very young lion that attacks humans can become dangerous if it develops a taste for human flesh. A very old lion, expelled from the pride because it can no longer keep up in the pursuit of antelope or gazelles, may choose humans as a relatively slow-moving prey.<\/p>\n<p>A lion generally roars only on a full stomach—that is, after it has consumed its prey (Ps 22:13; Ez 22:25; Am 3:4). Nevertheless, its roaring arouses fear (Am 3:8; 1 Pt 5:8). The lion is a bold (2 Sm 17:10; Prv 28:1), destructive animal (Ps 7:2; Jer 2:30; Hos 5:14; Mi 5:8), and the enemy of flocks (Am 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>Lions were common in biblical times in all parts of the Holy Land. Hebrew has at least seven words for lion and young lion. The lion is referred to about 130 times in the OT—more than any other wild animal. Lions were evidently much less common in NT times. After gradually declining, they became extinct in Palestine shortly after <span>AD<\/span> 1300. The lion was present in Mesopotamia, however, until the end of the 19th century.<\/p>\n<p>Lions played an important part in the political and religious symbolism of the Near East (1 Kgs 10:19-20). In Assyria and Babylonia the lion was regarded as a royal beast (Dn 7:4). Oriental monarchs maintained artificial lion pits as places of execution (Ez 19:1-9; Dn 6:7-16). Animals for these were captured in camouflaged nets or pits. To the Jews, the lion was the mightiest of beasts (Prv 30:29-31). Thus, it symbolized leadership (Gn 49:9-10; Nm 24:9) and hence eventually became a title for Christ (Rv 5:5). It was also the ensign of Judah’s tribe and was used by King Solomon in the decoration of his house and the temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lizard\">Lizard<\/p>\n<p>Reptiles of the suborder Lacertilia. Their skin is covered with scales. The lizard is a useful creature because it captures harmful insects and worms. Like other reptiles, it lays eggs with shells softer than those of a bird and with no clear division between the yolk and the white. Lizards are “cold-blooded” organisms without a temperature-maintenance mechanism; hence, they become inactive in cold weather.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards can survive in barren parched countryside. In the Near East they are encountered in great numbers in the Arabian Desert, the Sinai Peninsula, and the Judean wilderness. There may be as many as 44 different species of lizards in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The Dabb lizard (genus <em>Uromastyx<\/em>), which attains a length of about 24 inches (61 centimeters), is found in the Negev Desert. It is omnivorous, an unusual trait since most lizards are insectivorous. It has a hard, rough skin, green with brown spots; a short, rounded head; and a powerful tail encircled with a row of strong spines that it uses as a weapon of defense.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards are listed as ceremonially unclean in Jewish law (Lv 11:29-31). The fact that lizards crawl on their bellies made them unclean. Contact with a lizard’s carcass defiled a law-abiding Jew (Lv 11:32-36). The <span>nlt<\/span> translates the “lizards” of Leviticus 11 as “great lizard,” “gecko,” “monitor lizard,” “sand lizard,” and “chameleon.” The monitor lizard is a large lizard that lives in the deserts of southern Palestine, Sinai, and Egypt. It is up to 55 inches (1.4 meters) long with a long snout and sharp teeth. Other translators and commentators render the original Hebrew in a wide variety of ways, including “tortoise,” “ferret,” “lizard,” “snail,” “mole,” and even “water hen.” The fact that most of the original Hebrew words occur only once in Scripture makes it very difficult to be certain about their appropriate translation.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Gecko (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Locust\">Locust<\/p>\n<p>An insect of the family <em>Acridiidae.<\/em> It is referred to by at least 12 different names in Scripture. The various Hebrew words may refer to different stages of its development from larva to adult or to the type of damage that it causes. Locusts are characterized by swarming and mass migration. In modern times they have caused extensive and disastrous destruction to vegetation. Grasshoppers do not swarm or migrate en masse, differentiating them from the true locusts.<\/p>\n<p>The OT mentions several different species of locusts. Leviticus 11:22 seems to refer to the slant-faced (bald) locust and also to the katydid, or long-horned grasshopper. The reference in Deuteronomy 28:42 may be to the mole cricket. In Joel 1:4 and 2:25 and in Nahum 3:16-17, successive stages of the insect’s development are described. The cutting locust (<span>kjv<\/span> “palmerworm”) of Joel is probably the first instar (stage of development), the swarming locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “locust”) are middle stages, and the hopping locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “cankerworm”) later instars but not yet fully matured insects. In the adult stage, called destroying locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “caterpillar”), the color of the locust is reddish brown, which turns to yellow with a brownish network on the wings.<\/p>\n<p>Only three of the hundreds of varieties of locusts found in Bible lands are capable of multiplying into great swarms, and only the desert locust <em>(Schistocerca gergaria)<\/em> can be considered widespread in all the Bible lands. The desert locust is native to the Sudan (Africa). It is a little over two inches (5 centimeters) long and has a wingspread of some five inches (12.7 centimeters). It shows two phases, a solitary phase and a gregarious phase, with a possible third phase known as transiens. There are differences in the immature and adult forms of the phases in color and physiology.<\/p>\n<p>The quantity and distribution of rains are important factors in the extent of swarming. Moist soil is needed for depositing the eggs and permitting them to develop. Each female deposits from one to six egg pods, containing 28 to 146 eggs each. The larvae emerge in 15 to 43 days.<\/p>\n<p>In the gregarious phase (from the second stage of metamorphosis onward), the locust is driven by a strong wandering instinct. Masses of them form a random procession of overflowing locust bodies that ignore any obstruction. They swarm over everything (Jl 2:4-9). The only regulator of their activities is temperature; they are immobilized by high or low temperatures. Taking to wing they may move 1,200 miles (1,930.8 kilometers) from their native home. They fly in compact formations large enough to blot out the light of the sun. Their movement seems to be controlled by hormones, but the direction is influenced by the wind. The swarms consume almost every plant in their path, sparing only the carob, sycamore, castor tree, and oleander bush.<\/p>\n<p>A locust plague was one of the most severe evils to come upon the ancient world (Dt 28:38). Joel 2:1-11 describes a locust plague in graphic terms, using it as a symbol of God’s destroying judgment. Special days of prayer, fasting, and trumpet blowing were prescribed to remove locust plagues (1 Kgs 8:37-38; 2 Chr 6:28-29; Jl 2:12-17). Locusts symbolized powerful and merciless enemies that completely destroyed the earnings of human toil (Jgs 6:5; Is 33:4; Jer 46:23; 51:27; Na 3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Bedouins eat locusts raw, roasted, or boiled, preserving them by drying and threading. They are also crushed and ground, and the grist used in cooking or eaten with bread, sometimes mixed with honey and dates. Such was the diet of John the Baptist (Mk 1:6). The Greeks ground locusts in stone mortars to make flour of them.<\/p>\n<p>The ancients considered the two large hind legs, or jumping legs, as separate limbs and had a special name for them. Hence locusts were described as having four legs, a reference to the four smaller walking legs. “Going on all fours” thus referred to creeping or walking as opposed to jumping and did not mean that the unclean insects had only four legs in all. Because of its two hind jumping legs, the locust was exempted from the prohibition against unclean insects (Lv 11:20-23).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mole\">Mole<\/p>\n<p>Rodent <em>(Spalax ehrenbergi)<\/em> from six to nine inches (15 to 23 centimeters) long, which burrows in any area where the soil is suitable for digging; it should be called a mole rat. Common in the Holy Land, large numbers are found in the vicinity of Jerusalem. Isaiah 2:20 refers to the mole, as does Leviticus 11:29-30 (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The mole rat has no tail and is molelike in appearance, but neither true moles nor shrews have ever been found in the Holy Land. The mole rat’s teeth are strong and protruding like those of a squirrel. The neck is short and thick with a plump body shaped like a sausage. The short legs have broad paws with claws adapted for burrowing. The fur is soft, thick, and ashen gray. Its ears and almost sightless eyes, which are no larger than poppyseeds, are hidden in the fur. Folklore taught that touching a mole rat would result in blindness.<\/p>\n<p>In the wet winter season the mole rat builds breeding mounds resembling those of pocket gophers. It builds less complex resting mounds in the summer, although both have rather elaborate tunnel systems. The mole rat feeds on roots, bulbs, tubers, and various other subterranean plant parts, often doing extensive damage to agriculture.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Moth\">Moth<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the genus <em>Tineola<\/em> that lays its eggs on wool or furs, its larvae feeding on those materials. The destructive qualities of moths are referred to in several biblical passages (Jb 13:28; Ps 39:11; Is 50:9; Hos 5:12; Mt 6:19-20; Lk 12:33; Jas 5:2). In Isaiah 51:8 “worm” (<span>nlt<\/span>) refers specifically to the larva of the clothes moth. The moth symbolizes disintegration, decay, and weakening. It is only the larvae that do the damage. The adult is quite harmless and feeds mainly on the nectar of flowers. It is easily crushed (Jb 4:19). The clothes moth reproduces in May or June. It enters human dwellings in the evening. A week after the eggs are laid the larvae appear and immediately begin their work of destruction, eating anything within reach made of animal fibers.<\/p>\n<p>The moth’s destructive activity is done in secret without any sound and without any dramatic appearance, such as a swarm that blots out the sun. In an age when wealth was counted more in possessions than in money, and when among those possessions wool clothing was highly valued, moths could literally cause economic disaster; hence the words of Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount (Mt 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p>There are hundreds of species of moths other than the clothes moth in the Holy Land; they are harmless to leaves, flowers, fruit, trees, and seeds. As with the clothes moth, the larvae inflict the damage.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mouse\">Mouse<\/p>\n<p>Rodent of the family Muridae, especially genus <em>Mus.<\/em> The mouse was regarded as unclean because, being short legged, it was considered one of the creeping creatures (Lv 11:29). Mice known as commensals live in dwellings and tend to have longer tails and to be darker in color than wild mice, which are active chiefly at night. Mice are good climbers and even good swimmers. Wild mice eat many kinds of vegetation, including seeds, fleshy roots, leaves, and stems. At times they store food.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word for “mouse” (Lv 11:29; 1 Sm 6:4-5; Is 66:17) is probably a general term for various rats and mice. The root meaning of the Hebrew word “mouse” is “destruction of corn,” a reference to the damage mice do to field crops. At least 23 varieties of mouselike rodents are known in the Holy Land. They cause food spoilage, damage household articles, and transport the host fleas that spread typhus, spotted fever, and bubonic plague. Plague bacteria may have caused the tumors or swellings among the Philistines (1 Sm 6:5). Isaiah 66:17 refers to a pre-exilic Canaanite cultic practice in which mice were eaten; the reference may actually be to the hamster. A number of rodents are eaten by Arabs of the Near East; the gerbil is considered a special delicacy. <em>See<\/em> Mole (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mule\">Mule<\/p>\n<p>Hybrid offspring of a male ass and a female horse <em>(Equus asinus mulus),<\/em> ordinarily sterile. The offspring of a female donkey and a stallion (male horse) is known as a hinny and is of little value because of its inferior size.<\/p>\n<p>Because crossbreeding was forbidden in the law (Lv 19:19), the Israelites procured mules from the Gentiles, perhaps from the Phoenicians, since Tyre (a Phoenician seaport in what is now southern Lebanon) imported horses and mules (Ez 27:14). Mules did not appear in Israel until David’s reign (2 Sm 13:29), possibly because of the rarity of horses among the Hebrews. Mules were used chiefly by members of the royal court and by other nobles. King David rode on a mule, and Solomon rode to his inaugaration on King David’s mule (1 Kgs 1:33). Absalom met his death riding on a mule (2 Sm 18:9). Mules were less common than horses, camels, and asses in the postexilic community (Ezr 2:66). In antiquity Asia Minor was especially noted for breeding fine mules.<\/p>\n<p>Mules have long enjoyed a reputation for obstinacy, but that trait is not mentioned in the Bible. The mule is prized for riding and for carrying heavy burdens, especially in warm mountainous regions. They are sure-footed and thrive best in hot, dry climates. The mule has the frugality, endurance, and steady gait of an ass along with the size, strength, swiftness, and courage of a horse. Mules are almost never sick. They live longer than horses. They can carry a load of up to 300 pounds (136 kilograms) as far as 30 miles (48.3 kilometers) a day.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pig\">Pig<\/p>\n<p>Most properly, newborn swine. “Swine” is technically the better name for the species, but it is rarely used in common speech today. The domestic pigs of the Middle East derived from the wild pig <em>(Sus scrofa).<\/em> The pig is the most prolific and abundant supplier of meat and fat for food. A thick layer of fat just under the skin is especially pronounced in domestic breeds. Pigs cannot be driven, so they are of value only to the settled farmer. The Hebrews were originally a nomadic people; therefore, they had little use for an animal closely associated with settled life. An Egyptian prince of about 1500 <span>BC<\/span>, however, is recorded as owning a herd of 1,500 swine.<\/p>\n<p>The pig is clumsily built, yet lively and able to move with agility and speed. The most conspicuous characteristic of the pig is a truncated, mobile snout terminating in a disc-shaped surface on which the nostrils are located. Most pigs have large tusks in both jaws which grow continuously in life. The tusks of the upper jaw are unique in that they curve upward instead of pointing downward as in most animals. The excrement of a pig has an almost unbearable odor, which clings not only to the pig itself but also to swineherds, who can be identified a long way off.<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were never raised in the Holy Land by Jews. The great herd into which Jesus drove the unclean spirits was encountered in the land of the Gadarenes, a non-Jewish area east of the Jordan. The Gadarene demons took refuge in a herd of pigs feeding on a bluff overlooking the Sea of Galilee (Mt 8:28-32).<\/p>\n<p>Wild pigs were found in the Holy Land as in many countries today. Psalm 80:13 refers to the destructiveness of a wild boar (the male, or hog) attacking growing crops. A party of wild boars can destroy an entire vineyard or a field of crops in a single night. They devour, trample, and ravage everything within reach.<\/p>\n<p>Boar hunts were common in ancient Mesopotamia. Wild boars do not attack unless molested, but they are dangerous when aroused. They travel in bands of from 6 to 50 and are most active in the evening and early morning hours. The body is covered with stiff bristles and usually some finer hair, but the body covering is often quite scanty. Wild pigs are mainly vegetarian, feeding on roots, nuts, grains, and plant stems. Wild boars were particularly abundant in the mountainous regions of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, in the Jordan River valley, and in wooded sections such as Mt Tabor.<\/p>\n<p>Strict Jews would not even mention swine by name but would always substitute the term “the abomination.” Israelites considered themselves polluted if they were even touched by a swine’s bristle. To the Jews, the pig symbolized filth and ugliness. Pigs will eat fecal material, vermin, rodents, carrion, and the like (2 Pt 2:22). Proverbs 11:22 refers to the incongruity of a golden ring in the nose of an animal showing such characteristics. A similar metaphor occurs in Jesus’ statement about casting pearls before swine (Mt 7:6). The prodigal son’s degeneration was shown by his being forced in his poverty to feed pigs and eat their food (Lk 15:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>Eating the flesh of pigs was forbidden to the Jews (Lv 11:7; Dt 14:8). The Canaanites in the Holy Land killed and ate pigs freely. In intertestamental times Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), a Syrian king whose territories included Israel, used the pig to “Hellenize” the Jews. He first tested their loyalty to the Jewish faith by requiring the consumption of pork, considered a delicacy by the Greeks (2 Macc 6:18). The act of desecration that drove the Jews to rebellion, however, was the sprinkling of pig blood on the temple altar in a sacrifice to Zeus (1 Macc 1:47).<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were frequently used in pagan worship (Is 65:4; 66:3, 17), which may account for their being forbidden to the Jews as food. Evidence in the Holy Land shows that pigs were sacrificed long before Hellenistic times. Pig bones were found in a grotto below the rock-cut place of sacrifice at Gezer. A similar underground chamber with vessels containing piglet bones at Tirzah dates to the middle Bronze Age (about 2000 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Alabaster fragments of a statuette of a pig ready to be sacrificed have been unearthed. Swine were sacrificed to Aphrodite (Venus) in Greece and Asia Minor. In addition, pigs were sacrificed in connection with oaths and treaties; in the <em>Iliad,<\/em> Agamemnon sacrificed a boar to Zeus and Helios. So it is not surprising that among the Jews the pig became a symbol of filthiness and paganism.<\/p>\n<p>It is possible that eating pork was forbidden primarily because the pig may carry many worm parasites such as trichina, though that is also true of some “clean” animals. Another reason for forbidding their consumption may have been that pigs eat carrion. Some people are allergic to pork in hot weather—another suggested reason behind the Jewish taboo. The same taboo exists among the Muslims and existed in certain social strata in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Porcupine\">Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>Rodent, <em>Hystrix cristata,<\/em> which lives in forested areas, rocky hills, ravines, and valleys. The porcupine is still found in the Holy Land today. It has long quills that can be raised to give the appearance of a crest. It is almost entirely nocturnal. It burrows by day into a natural cavity or crevice. The Old World porcupine rarely climbed trees, although the New World porcupine frequently does. A porcupine may weigh as much as 60 pounds (27.2 kilograms). It eats fruit, bark, roots, and other vegetation, and carrion as well. Although its flesh is edible, the porcupine was not classed among the clean animals for the Israelites. The reference in Isaiah 34:11 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is probably to the porcupine, as is Isaiah 14:23 in the <span>nlt<\/span>. <em>See<\/em> Hedgehog.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Scorpion\">Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>Arthropod of the same group as spiders (arachnids). A dozen species of scorpions (order Scorpionida) are found in the Holy Land, but 90 percent of the scorpions are yellow scorpions, usually three to five inches (7.6 to 12.7 centimeters) long. The rock scorpion, also common to the Holy Land, is as thick as a man’s finger and from five to seven inches (12.7 to 17.8 centimeters) in length. Scorpions are slow, nocturnal invertebrates that rest beneath stones by day and prey on insects and other arachnids by night. At the end of its long tail the scorpion carries a poisonous sting that is fatal to most prey and extremely painful to humans (Rv 9:3, 5, 10; cf. 1 Kgs 12:11, 14). Scorpions symbolize Ezekiel’s evil countrymen (Ez 2:6) and the demonic forces of Satan (Lk 10:19). The scorpion is referred to as frequenting the Sinai Desert (Dt 8:15).<\/p>\n<p>A scorpion has from six to eight eyes. It has eight legs like a spider and two lobsterlike claws with which it catches and holds its prey. It feeds particularly on locusts and beetles. In many species the female scorpion eats the male after mating. Scorpions lay eggs that hatch very shortly after laying. Scorpions prefer warmer climates, and because of their desire for warmth, enter houses, especially at night, hiding in beds, blankets, footwear, and clothing.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sheep\">Sheep<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animal, <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> referred to directly or by some term such as ewe, lamb, ram, or by some fact concerning them over 700 times in Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Sheep represented the chief wealth and total livelihood of pastoral peoples, providing food to eat, milk to drink, wool for the making of cloth, and hides and bones for other uses. In addition, the sheep was a medium of exchange and a sacrificial animal. The number of sheep raised in ancient times was prodigious. Mesha, king of Moab, paid a tribute annually of 100,000 lambs and the wool of 100,000 rams (2 Kgs 3:4). The Israelites took 250,000 sheep from the Hagrites (1 Chr 5:21).<\/p>\n<p>Sheep shearing was often done for festivals (2 Sm 13:23). The sheep was held down on its side and its legs were tied together; then it lay docilely while its wool was clipped (Is 53:7). Sheep reserved for burnt offerings were not shorn; nothing could be held back from a sacrifice to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Wool had to be processed before it could be used for clothing. First it was washed, sometimes while still on the sheep, then carded and perhaps weighed for the market. The spinning of wool was regarded as a woman’s work (Prv 31:19), but weaving the spun thread into cloth on a loom was primarily a man’s occupation.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible reports that Abel kept sheep (Gn 4:2). The first sheep to be domesticated was probably the argali <em>(Ovis ammon),<\/em> a variety of the urial <em>(Ovis vignei),<\/em> a mountainous species still existing in Turkestan and Mongolia. Five breeds had reached Mesopotamia by 2000 <span>BC<\/span>; all were of the urial stock.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep known in Israel was the broad-tailed sheep <em>(Ovis orientalis vignei<\/em> or <em>laticaudata),<\/em> of which the tail weighs from 10 to 15 pounds (4.5 to 6.8 kilograms) and has always been considered a delicacy. Thus the Lord asked for this choice part as a sacrifice (Ex 29:22-25).<\/p>\n<p>Only the ram of the broad-tailed sheep has horns, but in other varieties of sheep in the Holy Land the ewe also has horns. The horns, two to three inches (5 to 8 centimeters) in diameter, can be potent weapons. Rams’ horns could be used as trumpets (Jos 6:4) or as oil containers (1 Sm 16:1).<\/p>\n<p>Although the sheep is very similar to the goat, it is differentiated by a lower forehead, its angulated spiral horns marked with transverse wrinkles and curved slightly outward, its covering of wool, and its lack of a “goatee.” Most sheep are white (Ps 147:16; Is 1:18; Dn 7:9; Rv 1:14).<\/p>\n<p>The flesh of sheep was a luxury in the biblical culture. King Solomon required a daily provision of 100 sheep for his table (1 Kgs 4:23), but the common people ate lamb or mutton only on festive occasions. A young ram was usually chosen because the ewes were more important to the future prospects of the herd. The meat was boiled in large caldrons. The milk of the sheep is extremely rich; in biblical times it was usually allowed to curdle before drinking. Possibly some Israelites kept lambs in their houses as pets (2 Sm 12:3-4).<\/p>\n<p>To protect the flock at night against predatory attacks, the shepherd tried to provide a fold. In meadows near villages, folds were built and watchmen were hired to relieve the shepherds. The shepherds of the nativity story were out in the field (Lk 2:8); they had no fold but probably had set up a tent for shelter, consisting simply of goat-hair blankets spread across sapling supports. The scarcity of springs in the Holy Land made the watering of the flock a crucial problem for the shepherd (Gn 13:8-11).<\/p>\n<p>Wild mountain sheep, varieties of <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> are known in the Mediterranean area (Dt 14:5). The Deuteronomy passage (<span>kjv<\/span> “chamois”) might also refer to <em>Ovis traelaphus,<\/em> a sheep about five feet high (1.5 meters) with long, curved horns. Another possibility is the Barbary sheep that lives in small flocks in rugged mountain areas in Barbary, Egypt, and Mt Sinai. The true chamois is unknown in Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep is also used figuratively in Scripture. The ram represented great strength and fittingly symbolized Medo-Persia in Daniel’s vision (Dn 8:3). It is the nature of sheep to be gentle and submissive (Is 53:7; Jer 11:19), defenseless (Mi 5:8; Mt 10:16), and in constant need of guidance and care (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36). Such qualities are regarded as desirable in the lives of believers in Christ; hence the many figurative references to sheep in the NT and to Jesus as shepherd (Mk 6:34; Jn 10:1-30; Rom 8:35-37; Heb 13:20-21; 1 Pt 2:25). The resurrected Christ told the apostle Peter to “feed my lambs” and “tend my sheep” (Jn 21:15-17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snail\">Snail<\/p>\n<p>Invertebrate gastropods (mollusks). Land snails are very numerous in the Near East. Some freshwater forms serve as hosts for the schistosome worm, the fluke parasite causing the dread disease bilharzia (schistosomiasis).<\/p>\n<p>Purple dyes of all shades were highly valued in the ancient world. A royal purple dye was obtained from secretions of a sea snail <em>(Murex trunculus<\/em> and <em>Murex brandaris).<\/em> Evidently, that process was developed by Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Assyrians as early as 1500 <span>BC<\/span>. The “purple” fishermen had their own guild during the time of the Roman Empire. The snails were harvested during the fall and winter seasons; in the spring, when egg laying took place, little dye was available. The snails tended to remain concealed in the summer. They inhabited the waters off Crete and Phoenicia. Tyrian purple, produced in the Phoenician city of Tyre, the center of the purple-dye industry, was obtained by a double dyeing. Large deposits of murex shells from dyeing operations have been found along the Mediterranean shoreline. The Israelites had to import purple goods (Ez 27:16). Lydia was a “seller of purple” or of cloth so dyed (Acts 16:14). Purple was a sign of distinction, royalty, and wealth (cf. Ex 25:4; 28:5-6, 15; Nm 15:38; 2 Chr 2:7; Est 8:15; Prv 31:22; Sg 3:10; Ez 27:7; Dn 5:7).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 30:34-35 refers to “onycha,” which was an important ingredient of incense. Onycha is the horny, clawlike operculum (the plate that closes off the opening of its shell when a snail is retracted) of a Near Eastern member of the molluskan family Strombidae. The operculum is sometimes used for offense or locomotion as well as for defense. When burned, the operculum gives off a sharp, strong scent, and when mixed with more fragrant but less powerful substances is even more potent. The name “onycha” is derived from a Greek word <em>(onyx)<\/em> for a fingernail or a claw.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snake\">Snake<\/p>\n<p>Various species of snake, suborder Ophidia (Serpentes). In the Bible nine Hebrew words and four Greek ones refer to snakes. The most common Hebrew word is onomatopoeic—that is, it is an imitation of a snake hissing or of the sound it produces as it scrapes its scales along the ground (cf. Jer 46:22). Many types of snakes lay eggs (Is 59:5), although some retain the eggs in the body until ready to hatch.<\/p>\n<p>Snakes are among the most widespread reptiles and are found on all continents except Antarctica; they decrease in numbers and species toward the poles but increase as one approaches the equator. Thirty-three species of snakes are known in Palestine and neighboring countries, 20 of which are poisonous. Two dangerous characteristics of the snake noted by biblical writers are its inconspicuous way of moving and the ease with which it hides itself.<\/p>\n<p>Many snakes are able to swallow animals several times their own diameter because of their unusually flexible jaw mechanism. They lack not only legs but also movable eyelids. Snakes periodically shed their skins. The tongue is actually a hearing apparatus sensitive to airborne vibrations and probably to heat waves.<\/p>\n<p>The venom of poisonous species is a clear, thin secretion, transmitted to the victim’s bloodstream by means of fangs. Two types of venom are known: that of the vipers, which affects respiration and disintegrates red blood cells, and that of the cobras, which paralyzes the nervous system.<\/p>\n<p>The “asp” referred to in the Bible is probably the cobra; the “adder” is the viper. The “cockatrice” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is probably the adder. Serpents were associated with worship in Canaanite religion and symbolized evil deities among many other peoples. Steles (upright stones bearing inscriptions) have been unearthed at several sites in the Holy Land and Syria depicting a god or worshiper with a snake winding about the legs or body. Because the Israelites were burning incense in pagan worship of Moses’ bronze serpent (Nm 21:8-9), King Hezekiah destroyed it in his religious reform (2 Kgs 18:4).<\/p>\n<p>Although snakes have been an object of veneration in some religions, in the Judeo-Christian tradition snakes represent evil and, more specifically, the devil. That association began in the Garden of Eden (Gn 3:1-15) and is also found in the book of Revelation (12:9; 20:2-3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adder (above); Asp (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Spider\">Spider<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the order Araneida. Between 600 and 700 different species inhabit the Holy Land. Spiders are different from insects in that, like scorpions, they have four pairs of legs instead of three. Spiders are equipped with poison glands—the effectiveness varying from species to species. A few can kill only insects, but others can also kill birds and mice.<\/p>\n<p>Most spiders have a pair of spinnerets attached to silk glands on the underside of the abdomen; from them a web is extruded. In the Bible the spider’s web is referred to as a symbol of frailty and insecurity (Jb 8:14; Is 59:5-6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sponge\">Sponge<\/p>\n<p>Simple marine animals, phylum Porifera. The term “sponge” also refers to those animals’ skeletal remains. The sponge has a porous body composed of tubules and cells.<\/p>\n<p>Sponge fishing was well known in the Mediterranean area in ancient times. It was practiced particularly along the Anatolian and Syrian coasts. Sponges were harvested by divers. The use of sponges in absorbing liquids is referred to in the Bible (Mt 27:48; Mk 15:36).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Unicorn\">Unicorn<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Wild Ox (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wasp\">Wasp<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the family Vespidae. Hornets are social wasps that build large aerial apartment houses in which 1,000 or more individuals may live. In the Bible the hornet is used as a metaphor for God’s use of military forces (Ex 23:28; Dt 7:20; Jos 24:12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Whale\">Whale<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all living creatures, including those that have become extinct. Whales are air-breathing mammals of the order Cetacea.<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of whales visit the shores of the Holy Land at times. The finback whale <em>(Balaenoptera physalus)<\/em> weighs about 200 tons (181 metric tons) and lives mainly in the Arctic region but sometimes passes through the Straits of Gibraltar to reach the eastern Mediterranean Sea. It feeds on small marine organisms that it strains through its whale bone; it does not have teeth. The finback whale’s esophagus is narrow.<\/p>\n<p>The sperm whale <em>(Physeter catodon),<\/em> about 60 feet (18.3 meters) long, has a curiously shaped head that looks like a battering ram. The teeth in the lower jaw of the male sperm whale are about seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long. It feeds on big fish, even on sharks. It has a large throat opening.<\/p>\n<p>Whales are referred to in Genesis 1:21 and Job 7:12 (<span>kjv<\/span> only). The “great fish” of Jonah 2:1 need not have been a whale but could have been a large shark, such as the whale shark <em>(Rhineodon),<\/em> which grows 70 feet (21.3 meters) long and lacks the terrible teeth of other sharks. Whatever the actual marine organism, Jonah’s deliverance was miraculous. The Greek word for “whale” is sometimes used as a general term for “sea monster” or huge fish and may be used in that sense in Matthew 12:40.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WildOx\">Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>Large, fierce, fleet, intractable animal <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> It had a long, lean rump with a straight back and a long, narrow head. The animal described in Job 39:9-12 is clearly the wild ox. The two horns (Dt 33:17), its outstanding characteristic, were straight and as long as the head (Nm 23:22; 24:8; Ps 22:21). Kings often symbolized their dominion by wearing a helmet with two wild ox horns (cf. Pss 92:10; 132:17-18). The horns were often used as drinking vessels by the Israelites; some were large enough to hold four gallons (15 liters).<\/p>\n<p>Hunting the wild ox was a favorite sport of Assyrian kings. Tiglath-pileser I hunted it in the Lebanon Mountains about 1100 <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Ps 29:6). At one time the animal referred to in Job 39:9-12 was thought to be the oryx or antelope because of the similarity between the Hebrew word in Job and the Arabian name for oryx. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> called the wild ox a “unicorn” because of representations found on Babylonian mosaics and Egyptian drawings. Those representations showed it in strict profile, showing only one horn—hence, “unicorn.” Jerome’s Vulgate, a Latin Bible translation (fourth century <span>AD<\/span>) and Martin Luther’s German version translated it similarly.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wolf\">Wolf<\/p>\n<p>Large doglike mammal <em>(Canis lupus)<\/em> that travels in bands of up to 30 animals. From the nose to the rump, the wolf measures about 3 feet (.9 meter); its drooping tail is about 18 inches (.5 meter) long. It looks much like a skinny German shepherd dog. The grayish yellow pelt is coarse and short haired.<\/p>\n<p>Wolves hunt singly or in relays, usually at night (Jer 5:6). Wolves have acute hearing and sight but rely chiefly on scent and usually catch their prey in a swift, open chase. The wolf has a reputation for boldness, fierceness, and voracity (Gn 49:27; Hb 1:8). It commonly kills more than it can eat or drag away and thus is known for its greediness.<\/p>\n<p>The wolf is a restless animal, always on the move; hunger drives it from one place to another in constant search of new hunting grounds. During spring and fall, wolves usually roam singly or in pairs, whereas in summer they may travel in family groups. In winter, several such groups may join to form a large pack. Wolves are intelligent, social creatures, faithful to their own kind. They mate for life. Individually, the wolf is a rather timid animal; it would much rather avoid human beings. But collectively wolves can be among the most dangerous animals alive.<\/p>\n<p>In Egypt, Rome, and Greece the wolf was considered sacred. Wolves were well known in the Holy Land and are still found there and also in many places in Asia Minor. Shepherds continually battled with wolves that plundered their flocks (Jn 10:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible refers to wolves in a literal sense in only three places (Is 11:6; 65:25; Jn 10:12), all other references being figurative. Usually the wolf is a symbol of enemies or the wicked (e.g., Ez 22:27; Zep 3:3; Acts 20:29). Both the wolf’s courage and its cruelty were probably in the mind of the patriarch Jacob when he predicted the fate of Benjamin’s tribe (Gn 49:27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Worm\">Worm<\/p>\n<p>Actually insect larvae in most biblical references, usually maggots, the larvae of flies (see Fly, above). For example, maggots are evidently referred to in accounts of worms feeding on spoiled manna (Ex 16:19-20), corpses (Jb 21:26; Is 14:11), or open wounds (Jb 7:5). Mark 9:48 refers to a maggot that eats dead flesh. In Acts 12:23 a fatal, worm-induced abdominal disease of King Herod is mentioned. In other cases, the reference is to the larvae of other insects (Is 51:8). In Deuteronomy 28:39 and Jonah 4:7 the vine weevil <em>(Cochylis ambiguella)<\/em> is probably referred to; it destroys vines by boring into their stems. Comparing a man to a worm is a metaphor for abasement (Jb 25:6; Ps 22:6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ANIMALS In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals ...","summary_en":"ANIMALS In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals ...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"23":[{"id":2214,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Anti-Lebanon","title_en":"Anti-Lebanon","content_ro":"<h3>ANTI-LEBANON<\/h3>\n<p>Mountain range (Jdt 1:7) stretching from Mt Hermon, its southern extremity, toward the north-northeast, running parallel to the Lebanon range west of it. Drainage from the two ranges provides most of the water for the Jordan River. The range was known in OT times as Sirion (Dt 3:9; 4:48; Ps 29:6) or Senir (1 Chr 5:23; Sg 4:8; Ez 27:5).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ANTI-LEBANON<\/h3>\n<p>Mountain range (Jdt 1:7) stretching from Mt Hermon, its southern extremity, toward the north-northeast, running parallel to the Lebanon range west of it. Drainage from the two ranges provides most of the water for the Jordan River. The range was known in OT times as Sirion (Dt 3:9; 4:48; Ps 29:6) or Senir (1 Chr 5:23; Sg 4:8; Ez 27:5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ANTI-LEBANON Mountain range (Jdt 1:7) stretching from Mt Hermon, its southern extremity, toward the north-northeast, running parallel to the Lebanon range west of it. Drainage from the two ranges provides most of the water for the Jordan River. The range was known in OT times as Sirion (Dt 3:9; 4:48; Ps 29:6) or Senir (1 Chr 5:23; Sg 4:8; Ez 27:5).","summary_en":"ANTI-LEBANON Mountain range (Jdt 1:7) stretching from Mt Hermon, its southern extremity, toward the north-northeast, running parallel to the Lebanon range west of it. Drainage from the two ranges provides most of the water for the Jordan River. The range was known in OT times as Sirion (Dt 3:9; 4:48; Ps 29:6) or Senir (1 Chr 5:23; Sg 4:8; Ez 27:5).","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":3335,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Azriel","title_en":"Azriel","content_ro":"<h3>AZRIEL<\/h3>\n<li>1. Family chief in the half-tribe of Manasseh that settled east of the Jordan River. Azriel was taken captive along with others by the king of Assyria (1 Chr 5:23-26).<\/li>\n<li>2. Jeremoth’s father. Jeremoth was an official over Naphtali’s tribe under King David (1 Chr 27:19).<\/li>\n<li>3. Seraiah’s father in the reign of King Jehoiakim. Seraiah was sent by the king to arrest Jeremiah and Baruch for prophesying against the evil ways of Israel and Judah (Jer 36:26).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>AZRIEL<\/h3>\n<li>1. Family chief in the half-tribe of Manasseh that settled east of the Jordan River. Azriel was taken captive along with others by the king of Assyria (1 Chr 5:23-26).<\/li>\n<li>2. Jeremoth’s father. Jeremoth was an official over Naphtali’s tribe under King David (1 Chr 27:19).<\/li>\n<li>3. Seraiah’s father in the reign of King Jehoiakim. Seraiah was sent by the king to arrest Jeremiah and Baruch for prophesying against the evil ways of Israel and Judah (Jer 36:26).<\/li>","summary_ro":"AZRIEL 1. Family chief in the half-tribe of Manasseh that settled east of the Jordan River. Azriel was taken captive along with others by the king of Assyria (1 Chr 5:23-26). 2. Jeremoth’s father. Jeremoth was an official over Naphtali’s tribe under King David (1 Chr 27:19). 3. Seraiah’s father in the reign of King Jehoiakim. Seraiah was sent by the king to arrest Jeremiah and Baruch for prophesying against the evil ways of Israel and Judah (Jer 36:26).","summary_en":"AZRIEL 1. Family chief in the half-tribe of Manasseh that settled east of the Jordan River. Azriel was taken captive along with others by the king of Assyria (1 Chr 5:23-26). 2. Jeremoth’s father. Jeremoth was an official over Naphtali’s tribe under King David (1 Chr 27:19). 3. Seraiah’s father in the reign of King Jehoiakim. Seraiah was sent by the king to arrest Jeremiah and Baruch for prophesying against the evil ways of Israel and Judah (Jer 36:26).","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":16258,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Mount Hermon","title_en":"Mount Hermon","content_ro":"<h3>HERMON, Mount<\/h3>\n<p>Mountain often mentioned as the northern extremity of the territory conquered by Joshua and Moses in Transjordan; it is also the northern boundary of the inheritance of the half-tribe of Manasseh as well as of Israel in general (Dt 3:8; 4:48; Jos 11:17; 12:1, 5; 13:11; 1 Chr 5:23). Hermon is said to tower over the valley of Lebanon (Jos 11:17; 13:5) and over the land of Mizpah in the valley of Mizpah, to which Joshua pursued the kings of Canaan after his victory over them at the waters of Merom (Jos 11:3, 8). Biblical poetry praises Hermon for its height and for causing dew on Zion (Ps 133:3), and it was famed for its wildlife (Sg 4:8). It also appears in tandem with Mt Tabor (Ps 89:12) and with the Jordan (Ps 42:6). The mountain itself is about 13 miles (21 kilometers) long and rises to a height of 9,166 feet (2.8 kilometers).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HERMON, Mount<\/h3>\n<p>Mountain often mentioned as the northern extremity of the territory conquered by Joshua and Moses in Transjordan; it is also the northern boundary of the inheritance of the half-tribe of Manasseh as well as of Israel in general (Dt 3:8; 4:48; Jos 11:17; 12:1, 5; 13:11; 1 Chr 5:23). Hermon is said to tower over the valley of Lebanon (Jos 11:17; 13:5) and over the land of Mizpah in the valley of Mizpah, to which Joshua pursued the kings of Canaan after his victory over them at the waters of Merom (Jos 11:3, 8). Biblical poetry praises Hermon for its height and for causing dew on Zion (Ps 133:3), and it was famed for its wildlife (Sg 4:8). It also appears in tandem with Mt Tabor (Ps 89:12) and with the Jordan (Ps 42:6). The mountain itself is about 13 miles (21 kilometers) long and rises to a height of 9,166 feet (2.8 kilometers).<\/p>","summary_ro":"HERMON, Mount Mountain often mentioned as the northern extremity of the territory conquered by Joshua and Moses in Transjordan; it is also the northern boundary of the inheritance of the half-tribe of Manasseh as well as of Israel in general (Dt 3:8; 4:48; Jos 11:17; 12:1, 5; 13:11; 1 Chr 5:23). Hermon is said to tower over the valley of Lebanon (Jos 11:17; 13:5) and over the land of Mizpah in the valley of Mizpah, to which Joshua pursued the kings of Canaan after his victory over them at the...","summary_en":"HERMON, Mount Mountain often mentioned as the northern extremity of the territory conquered by Joshua and Moses in Transjordan; it is also the northern boundary of the inheritance of the half-tribe of Manasseh as well as of Israel in general (Dt 3:8; 4:48; Jos 11:17; 12:1, 5; 13:11; 1 Chr 5:23). Hermon is said to tower over the valley of Lebanon (Jos 11:17; 13:5) and over the land of Mizpah in the valley of Mizpah, to which Joshua pursued the kings of Canaan after his victory over them at the...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":18981,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jeremiah (Person)","title_en":"Jeremiah (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>JEREMIAH (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Prophet to Judah before its fall in 586 <span>BC<\/span>; his name is also spelled “Jeremias” (Mt 16:14) and “Jeremy” (Mt 2:17; 27:9) in the <span>kjv<\/span>.<\/li>\n<p>Jeremiah was born in the village of Anathoth, about three miles (4.8 kilometers) northeast of Jerusalem. His father’s name was Hilkiah, and he belonged to the tribe of Benjamin. His call came in the 13th year of King Josiah (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>). He refers to himself as “a child” when called (Jer 1:6), but the Hebrew word is not the same as used in Jeremiah 30:6 and 31:8 and cannot be limited to preadolescence. He was probably referring to his inexperience rather than to his age. Jeremiah was born about 657 <span>BC<\/span> during the reign of the wicked king Manasseh, while the great Ashurbanipal, who had shaken the world by sacking the ancient Egyptian city of Thebes in 663 <span>BC<\/span>, ruled a world empire from Assyria.<\/p>\n<p>God informed Jeremiah that he had consecrated and appointed him before birth (Jer 1:4-5). Jeremiah first shrank with a sense of inadequacy and fear: “O Sovereign <span>Lord<\/span>, . . . I can’t speak for you! I’m too young!” (v 6, <span>nlt<\/span>). God would not allow Jeremiah to excuse himself. He was assured that words would be given him to speak, and guidance given for the way (v 7). He was promised protection (v 18) and deliverance (v 8) despite opposition (v 19). God touched his mouth, signifying divine inspiration of his words, and gave the sign of a branch from an almond tree, explaining that the Lord is watching (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg). The third sign was the boiling pot (v 13) facing from the north, picturing the source and fury of impending disaster.<\/p>\n<p>Thus the tone of Jeremiah’s life ministry was set: judgment, disaster, danger, defeat, and impending death for the nation.<\/p>\n<p>Early Ministry<\/p>\n<p>The messages given by Jeremiah during his first five years of ministry may have been instrumental in the great revival of 622 <span>BC<\/span>. Those cooperating with King Josiah in the reformation and friendly with Jeremiah included Ahikam and his father, Shaphan (Jer 26:24); Gedaliah, Ahikam’s son (39:14), who later became governor; Acbor, son of Micaiah, also called Abdon, whose son Elnathan joined the opposition (26:22) but later repented (36:25); and Asaiah (2 Chr 34:20). The prophets Nahum and Zephaniah also influenced the reform movement, which must have climaxed under the preaching of Habakkuk and Jeremiah, the priestly ministry of Hilkiah, and the prophecies of Huldah the prophetess. During the reign of King Josiah, Jeremiah spoke without the fear of persecution that plagued his later ministry. Though the content of the book of Jeremiah sometimes appears to be fragmentary, most of chapters 1–19 date to the time of Josiah.<\/p>\n<p>The finding of the lost Book of the Covenant in the temple debris may be the reason for the words in Jeremiah 15:16: “Your words are what sustain me. They bring me great joy and are my heart’s delight” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The words “So be it, <span>Lord<\/span>” (Jer 11:5) in a context recalling the words of Moses in the Torah may be Jeremiah’s response after hearing King Josiah read the newly found book.<\/p>\n<p>Small towns and rural areas, including his hometown, heard Jeremiah’s denunciation of high places and idolatry. They sought to kill the young prophet, or at least to intimidate him (11:21). Instead of being silent, Jeremiah asserted that his motivation was for their good and condemned their resistance to the truth as their greatest danger.<\/p>\n<p>Shortly after Jeremiah began his ministry, a number of world-changing events took place. Ashurbanipal died and the Assyrian Empire rapidly declined. Nabopolassar began a 21-year reign in Babylon, leading an expansion that culminated in his son Nebuchadnezzar’s subjugation of the known world. As the world news filtered in, Jeremiah turned more toward Jerusalem. His first temple speeches (chs 7–10) may have been uttered at this time.<\/p>\n<p>Nabopolassar felt his strength sufficient to launch an attack against Assyrian territory in 616 <span>BC<\/span>, but he advanced cautiously because Psamtik I (Psammetichus) of Egypt appeared ready to aid Assyria. Cyaxares of Media pounced on Assyria when Babylon hesitated and took its most sacred city, Asshur, in 614 <span>BC<\/span>. Babylon joined Media, along with Scythia, and waged an assault against Nineveh, which fell late in the summer of 612 <span>BC<\/span>. The Assyrian Empire had shriveled to two small holdings, Haran and Carchemish.<\/p>\n<p>Nabopolassar took Haran in 610, and Ashuruballit, having escaped, appealed to Egypt for help at Carchemish. Neco, who had become pharaoh within the year, responded immediately. He marched through Judah without giving Josiah prior notice and asked that the Jews not bother him in view of his haste to go northward (2 Chr 35:21). Ignoring the request, Josiah pursued them to Megiddo and was wounded in the ensuing battle; he died in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>Ministry during the Reign of Jehoiakim<\/p>\n<p>In place of Jehoahaz, Josiah’s fourth son, who reigned only three months, Pharaoh Neco enthroned Jehoiakim (Eliakim). Neco demanded heavy indemnity payments from Judah and took Jehoahaz prisoner as collateral to assure payment (2 Kgs 23:31-33).<\/p>\n<p>Early in the reign of Jehoiakim, Jeremiah, moved by God’s Spirit, delivered his third temple speech (Jer 26) on the occasion of one of the annual Jewish feasts. He called for the people to repent and to act on the basis of the revelation they had heard repeatedly from the Book of the Law. The barb of the sermon came in the warning: “This is what the <span>Lord<\/span> says: If you will not listen to me and obey the law I have given you, and if you will not listen to my servants, the prophets—for I sent them again and again to warn you, but you would not listen to them—then I will destroy this Temple as I destroyed Shiloh, the place where the Tabernacle was located. And I will make Jerusalem an object of cursing in every nation on earth” (26:4-6, <span>nlt<\/span>). Shiloh had been the heart of Jewish worship from Joshua to Samuel, but after being destroyed by the Philistines, it never revived. It served as an example of complete desolation following God’s judgment in the days of Eli.<\/p>\n<p>Crowds gathered rapidly and reacted angrily against Jeremiah. Priests and princes hurried to the New Gate, where a court was established to bring order and to control violence. Jehoiakim would be no help to Jeremiah, for he had refused to listen to God’s messages (Jer 22:21). The priests and false prophets spoke against Jeremiah, calling him a traitor. Then some of the elders spoke to the people about Uriah, who had prophesied the same message. Rather than risk disaster, Ahikam persuaded the court to spare Jeremiah.<\/p>\n<p>Egypt controlled Palestine and Syria after the decay of the Assyrian Empire. In 606 <span>BC<\/span> Egypt succeeded in annihilating a garrison city of Babylonian soldiers south of Carchemish and then reoccupied Carchemish to await the return blow from Babylon. This Egyptian victory meant persecution for Jeremiah, who was often accused of false prophecy (cf. Jer 20).<\/p>\n<p>Jeremiah never had confidence in Egypt. Each time a Jewish leader would call for a new alliance with Egypt, Jeremiah repeated God’s message against it. Whenever a Jewish group fled to Egypt for security, Jeremiah warned of worse things in that land of false refuge (see Jer 44:26-27). Jeremiah’s ode and prophecy in chapter 46 poetically describe Egypt’s defeat at Carchemish, when Nabopolassar sent his son Nebuchadnezzar to destroy them (605 <span>BC<\/span>). After smashing the Egyptian army at Carchemish, Nebuchadnezzar pursued the enemy through Judah. “Not a single man escaped to his own country,” reads the exaggerated Babylonian record. His father’s death, however, prevented him from invading Egypt, and he returned to Babylon to assume the throne. The following year Nebuchadnezzar, now king of Babylonia, returned to accept the homage of the rulers of Judah, Syria, and Phoenicia. On this occasion God gave Jeremiah his great 70-year prophecy (Jer 25:11-12), which became the basis of Daniel 9:2, 24-27.<\/p>\n<p>A year after the decisive battle at Carchemish, Baruch, Jeremiah’s scribe, finished recording all the dictated words of Jeremiah and was reading from this scroll at the temple. A report reached the king, who sent Jehudi, a servant, to fetch the scroll and read it to him. When this was done, Jehoiakim burned the scroll in spite of his counselors, who pleaded that the king not do it (Jer 36:23-25). God’s message, soon rewritten, added a promise of fearful judgment on Jehoiakim (vv 27-31).<\/p>\n<p>Ambitious young Nebuchadnezzar determined to add Egypt to his dominion. In 601 <span>BC<\/span> he led his forces through Judah again, but Neco had advance warning and was prepared for the onslaught. In the desert of Shur, Nebuchadnezzar suffered defeat. Encouraged by this display of Egyptian defensive strength, the pro-Egyptian parties in Judah asserted themselves, persuading Jehoiakim to lead them to freedom from Babylon by making an alliance with Egypt (2 Kgs 24:1). But help from Egypt did not come (v 7).<\/p>\n<p>In 599 <span>BC<\/span>, Nebuchadnezzar armed those surrounding the rebel Jewish kingdom to harass the Jews, which they willingly did (2 Kgs 24:2). Evidently Jehoiakim lost his life in one of these raids. Since the people despised him, his body was thrown out without honorable burial, as Jeremiah had predicted (Jer 22:19).<\/p>\n<p>Ministry during the Reign of Zedekiah<\/p>\n<p>Nebuchadnezzar’s siege of Jerusalem in 598 <span>BC<\/span> lasted only a short time because the new king, Jehoiachin, crowned at age 18, knew resistance was useless. He gave himself up, with all his family and court, in March of 597 <span>BC<\/span>, after serving as king about three months. The Babylonian Chronicle reads: “He [Nebuchadnezzar] seized the city and captured the king.”<\/p>\n<p>Jehoiachin was carried to Babylon along with 8,000 (2 Kgs 24:16; cf. v 14) officers, artisans, and executives (Ezekiel among them) and much booty. In his place Nebuchadnezzar appointed Zedekiah, Jehoiachin’s uncle, to rule. Zedekiah proceeded to organize his government with the less capable and inexperienced help left after the deportation.<\/p>\n<p>Jeremiah took up his thankless ministry, calling on the Jews to believe God, obey the laws of Babylon, and reject false hopes in Egypt. Zedekiah turned a deaf ear to these appeals, listening rather to the unwise advice of his counselors (Jer 37:1-2). During the first year of Zedekiah’s rule, Jeremiah received the vision of the two baskets of figs. The Jews carried to Babylon were like good figs, while Zedekiah and those who trusted in Egypt were like rotten figs (24:1-8). The reason for this reproachful description was that the Jews began plotting rebellion against Babylon along with Edom, Moab, Ammon, Tyre, and Sidon from the beginning of the reign of Zedekiah (27:1-3), thus breaking their oath of loyalty to Nebuchadnezzar and repudiating God’s message through Jeremiah.<\/p>\n<p>In Egypt the pharaoh began to renew plans to organize dissidents within the Babylonian Empire to revolt. He hired Jewish soldiers to aid him in protecting his southern border. The Jewish soldiers settled on a Nile island called Elephantine, or Yeb (593–410 <span>BC<\/span>). Jeremiah addressed an oracle to these Jews (ch 44). The treaty for Jews to help in Egypt evidently also assumed that Egyptians would aid Israel. When the Babylonians besieged Jerusalem in 589, Pharaoh Hophra came to the aid of Zedekiah. Nebuchadnezzar, ruling from Riblah, commanded that the siege against Jerusalem be lifted in order to make a surprise attack on Hophra (37:5). The release gave Jeremiah an opportunity to journey to Anathoth to secure some family property (v 12). However, Irijah, captain of the guard, arrested Jeremiah in the Gate of Benjamin for defecting to the enemy, and he was beaten and flung into a dungeon. King Zedekiah brought him out after many days to obtain a prognostication. With characteristic boldness, Jeremiah told the king he would shortly become a captive. At the same time, Jeremiah requested relief from injustice for himself. He gained part of his request but continued as prisoner in the court of the guard.<\/p>\n<p>The Babylonian army chased Pharaoh Hophra back to Egypt and returned to crush Jerusalem without further mercy. The siege, which began in 589 <span>BC<\/span>, was restored with rigor in January of 588, Zedekiah’s ninth year (39:1). During this time, the Lord gave Jeremiah foreknowledge of a visit from a cousin who wished to sell a field near Anathoth (32:7-9; cf. 37:12). Jeremiah bought the field as an object lesson to verify the message of restoration after a captivity of 70 years (29:10).<\/p>\n<p>The armies of Babylon cut off all supplies from Jerusalem and were able to destroy the last two outlying Jewish fortresses of Lachish and Azekah (34:7). Food became scarce. Disease spread. Undisposed-of sewage and impure cistern water caused pestilence. With increased distress came Jeremiah’s increased appeal for the city to surrender.<\/p>\n<p>Jeremiah remained in the prison court until the Babylonians breached the city wall in July of 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The king escaped by night and succeeded in reaching the plains of Jericho but was captured there and taken to Riblah. Zedekiah’s family and counselors were killed; he himself was blinded and taken in chains to Babylon, where he died soon after (39:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Back in Jerusalem, Nebuzaradan, the Babylonian general, sent most of the Jews into captivity. Jeremiah, however, was granted special consideration; after being released from prison, he was placed under the care of Gedaliah, son of Ahikam.<\/p>\n<p>After the Fall of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>A month after the fall of Jerusalem, the city was burned and the walls broken down. Gedaliah was appointed governor of the remaining agricultural community, with headquarters at Mizpah. Jeremiah returned to Jerusalem, where, according to tradition, he took up his abode in a grotto near what is now known as Gordon’s Calvary. There he wrote the book of Lamentations.<\/p>\n<p>The Ammonite king Baalis, plotting rebellion against Babylon, instigated the murder of Gedaliah (40:13). In the reaction that followed, the remaining people followed the leader Johanan ben Kareah to a camp near Bethlehem, intending to go to Egypt. They asked Jeremiah, at Jerusalem, to give guidance from the Lord, promising obedience. Jeremiah’s message required that they remain in Israel and not go to Egypt. Disobedience was complete and immediate. Fearing Babylon, they departed from Judah, taking Jeremiah with them, and entered Egypt (41:16–43:7).<\/p>\n<p>Jeremiah did not stop his ministry in Egypt. His message at Tahpanhes (43:8-12) assured a victorious conquest of the land by Nebuchadnezzar, which took place in 568–567 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Jews from all parts of Egypt gathered to discuss their future as exiles. Jeremiah took the opportunity to denounce their idolatry. Jewish women as well as men argued that they had enjoyed prosperity while serving idols but had suffered since stopping. Jeremiah condemned their obdurate blindness to reality and gave God’s indictment. For a verifying sign, Jeremiah predicted that Pharaoh Hophra of Egypt would be assassinated (44:30), which happened in 466 <span>BC<\/span>. No later record of Jeremiah’s acts exists in the Bible. Tradition says Jeremiah was stoned to death by the people of the Jewish exile settlement in Tahpanhes.<\/p>\n<p>Though Jeremiah suffered continued rejection during his life, he has been honored by numerous apocryphal and traditional embellishments to his history. Jesus could well have had Jeremiah in mind when he said, “You build tombs for the prophets your ancestors killed and decorate the graves of the godly people your ancestors destroyed. . . . [You are] the descendants of those who murdered the prophets” (Mt 23:29-31, <span>nlt<\/span>). <em>See<\/em> Israel, History of; Jeremiah, Book of; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>\n<li>2. Family head in the Transjordan portion of Manasseh whom Tiglath-pileser took captive (1 Chr 5:23-26; cf. 2 Kgs 15:29).<\/li>\n<li>3. Father of Hamutal, a wife of King Josiah (2 Kgs 23:31; 24:18).<\/li>\n<li>4. Ambidextrous Benjamite bowman and slinger who joined David at Ziklag (1 Chr 12:4).<\/li>\n<li>5, 6. Two Gadite soldiers who joined David’s army (1 Chr 12:10, 13).<\/li>\n<li>7. Postexilic priest who with Nehemiah set his seal to the covenant, renewing the people’s promise to obey God’s laws (Neh 10:2). He is mentioned again (12:34) as part of the procession for the dedication of the new wall of Jerusalem.<\/li>\n<li>8. Priest who returned from exile with Zerubbabel (Neh 12:1) and became head of a family of priests (v 12).<\/li>\n<li>9. Father of Jaazaniah, a Recabite who refused to drink wine (Jer 35:3).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JEREMIAH (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. Prophet to Judah before its fall in 586 <span>BC<\/span>; his name is also spelled “Jeremias” (Mt 16:14) and “Jeremy” (Mt 2:17; 27:9) in the <span>kjv<\/span>.<\/li>\n<p>Jeremiah was born in the village of Anathoth, about three miles (4.8 kilometers) northeast of Jerusalem. His father’s name was Hilkiah, and he belonged to the tribe of Benjamin. His call came in the 13th year of King Josiah (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>). He refers to himself as “a child” when called (Jer 1:6), but the Hebrew word is not the same as used in Jeremiah 30:6 and 31:8 and cannot be limited to preadolescence. He was probably referring to his inexperience rather than to his age. Jeremiah was born about 657 <span>BC<\/span> during the reign of the wicked king Manasseh, while the great Ashurbanipal, who had shaken the world by sacking the ancient Egyptian city of Thebes in 663 <span>BC<\/span>, ruled a world empire from Assyria.<\/p>\n<p>God informed Jeremiah that he had consecrated and appointed him before birth (Jer 1:4-5). Jeremiah first shrank with a sense of inadequacy and fear: “O Sovereign <span>Lord<\/span>, . . . I can’t speak for you! I’m too young!” (v 6, <span>nlt<\/span>). God would not allow Jeremiah to excuse himself. He was assured that words would be given him to speak, and guidance given for the way (v 7). He was promised protection (v 18) and deliverance (v 8) despite opposition (v 19). God touched his mouth, signifying divine inspiration of his words, and gave the sign of a branch from an almond tree, explaining that the Lord is watching (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg). The third sign was the boiling pot (v 13) facing from the north, picturing the source and fury of impending disaster.<\/p>\n<p>Thus the tone of Jeremiah’s life ministry was set: judgment, disaster, danger, defeat, and impending death for the nation.<\/p>\n<p>Early Ministry<\/p>\n<p>The messages given by Jeremiah during his first five years of ministry may have been instrumental in the great revival of 622 <span>BC<\/span>. Those cooperating with King Josiah in the reformation and friendly with Jeremiah included Ahikam and his father, Shaphan (Jer 26:24); Gedaliah, Ahikam’s son (39:14), who later became governor; Acbor, son of Micaiah, also called Abdon, whose son Elnathan joined the opposition (26:22) but later repented (36:25); and Asaiah (2 Chr 34:20). The prophets Nahum and Zephaniah also influenced the reform movement, which must have climaxed under the preaching of Habakkuk and Jeremiah, the priestly ministry of Hilkiah, and the prophecies of Huldah the prophetess. During the reign of King Josiah, Jeremiah spoke without the fear of persecution that plagued his later ministry. Though the content of the book of Jeremiah sometimes appears to be fragmentary, most of chapters 1–19 date to the time of Josiah.<\/p>\n<p>The finding of the lost Book of the Covenant in the temple debris may be the reason for the words in Jeremiah 15:16: “Your words are what sustain me. They bring me great joy and are my heart’s delight” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The words “So be it, <span>Lord<\/span>” (Jer 11:5) in a context recalling the words of Moses in the Torah may be Jeremiah’s response after hearing King Josiah read the newly found book.<\/p>\n<p>Small towns and rural areas, including his hometown, heard Jeremiah’s denunciation of high places and idolatry. They sought to kill the young prophet, or at least to intimidate him (11:21). Instead of being silent, Jeremiah asserted that his motivation was for their good and condemned their resistance to the truth as their greatest danger.<\/p>\n<p>Shortly after Jeremiah began his ministry, a number of world-changing events took place. Ashurbanipal died and the Assyrian Empire rapidly declined. Nabopolassar began a 21-year reign in Babylon, leading an expansion that culminated in his son Nebuchadnezzar’s subjugation of the known world. As the world news filtered in, Jeremiah turned more toward Jerusalem. His first temple speeches (chs 7–10) may have been uttered at this time.<\/p>\n<p>Nabopolassar felt his strength sufficient to launch an attack against Assyrian territory in 616 <span>BC<\/span>, but he advanced cautiously because Psamtik I (Psammetichus) of Egypt appeared ready to aid Assyria. Cyaxares of Media pounced on Assyria when Babylon hesitated and took its most sacred city, Asshur, in 614 <span>BC<\/span>. Babylon joined Media, along with Scythia, and waged an assault against Nineveh, which fell late in the summer of 612 <span>BC<\/span>. The Assyrian Empire had shriveled to two small holdings, Haran and Carchemish.<\/p>\n<p>Nabopolassar took Haran in 610, and Ashuruballit, having escaped, appealed to Egypt for help at Carchemish. Neco, who had become pharaoh within the year, responded immediately. He marched through Judah without giving Josiah prior notice and asked that the Jews not bother him in view of his haste to go northward (2 Chr 35:21). Ignoring the request, Josiah pursued them to Megiddo and was wounded in the ensuing battle; he died in Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>Ministry during the Reign of Jehoiakim<\/p>\n<p>In place of Jehoahaz, Josiah’s fourth son, who reigned only three months, Pharaoh Neco enthroned Jehoiakim (Eliakim). Neco demanded heavy indemnity payments from Judah and took Jehoahaz prisoner as collateral to assure payment (2 Kgs 23:31-33).<\/p>\n<p>Early in the reign of Jehoiakim, Jeremiah, moved by God’s Spirit, delivered his third temple speech (Jer 26) on the occasion of one of the annual Jewish feasts. He called for the people to repent and to act on the basis of the revelation they had heard repeatedly from the Book of the Law. The barb of the sermon came in the warning: “This is what the <span>Lord<\/span> says: If you will not listen to me and obey the law I have given you, and if you will not listen to my servants, the prophets—for I sent them again and again to warn you, but you would not listen to them—then I will destroy this Temple as I destroyed Shiloh, the place where the Tabernacle was located. And I will make Jerusalem an object of cursing in every nation on earth” (26:4-6, <span>nlt<\/span>). Shiloh had been the heart of Jewish worship from Joshua to Samuel, but after being destroyed by the Philistines, it never revived. It served as an example of complete desolation following God’s judgment in the days of Eli.<\/p>\n<p>Crowds gathered rapidly and reacted angrily against Jeremiah. Priests and princes hurried to the New Gate, where a court was established to bring order and to control violence. Jehoiakim would be no help to Jeremiah, for he had refused to listen to God’s messages (Jer 22:21). The priests and false prophets spoke against Jeremiah, calling him a traitor. Then some of the elders spoke to the people about Uriah, who had prophesied the same message. Rather than risk disaster, Ahikam persuaded the court to spare Jeremiah.<\/p>\n<p>Egypt controlled Palestine and Syria after the decay of the Assyrian Empire. In 606 <span>BC<\/span> Egypt succeeded in annihilating a garrison city of Babylonian soldiers south of Carchemish and then reoccupied Carchemish to await the return blow from Babylon. This Egyptian victory meant persecution for Jeremiah, who was often accused of false prophecy (cf. Jer 20).<\/p>\n<p>Jeremiah never had confidence in Egypt. Each time a Jewish leader would call for a new alliance with Egypt, Jeremiah repeated God’s message against it. Whenever a Jewish group fled to Egypt for security, Jeremiah warned of worse things in that land of false refuge (see Jer 44:26-27). Jeremiah’s ode and prophecy in chapter 46 poetically describe Egypt’s defeat at Carchemish, when Nabopolassar sent his son Nebuchadnezzar to destroy them (605 <span>BC<\/span>). After smashing the Egyptian army at Carchemish, Nebuchadnezzar pursued the enemy through Judah. “Not a single man escaped to his own country,” reads the exaggerated Babylonian record. His father’s death, however, prevented him from invading Egypt, and he returned to Babylon to assume the throne. The following year Nebuchadnezzar, now king of Babylonia, returned to accept the homage of the rulers of Judah, Syria, and Phoenicia. On this occasion God gave Jeremiah his great 70-year prophecy (Jer 25:11-12), which became the basis of Daniel 9:2, 24-27.<\/p>\n<p>A year after the decisive battle at Carchemish, Baruch, Jeremiah’s scribe, finished recording all the dictated words of Jeremiah and was reading from this scroll at the temple. A report reached the king, who sent Jehudi, a servant, to fetch the scroll and read it to him. When this was done, Jehoiakim burned the scroll in spite of his counselors, who pleaded that the king not do it (Jer 36:23-25). God’s message, soon rewritten, added a promise of fearful judgment on Jehoiakim (vv 27-31).<\/p>\n<p>Ambitious young Nebuchadnezzar determined to add Egypt to his dominion. In 601 <span>BC<\/span> he led his forces through Judah again, but Neco had advance warning and was prepared for the onslaught. In the desert of Shur, Nebuchadnezzar suffered defeat. Encouraged by this display of Egyptian defensive strength, the pro-Egyptian parties in Judah asserted themselves, persuading Jehoiakim to lead them to freedom from Babylon by making an alliance with Egypt (2 Kgs 24:1). But help from Egypt did not come (v 7).<\/p>\n<p>In 599 <span>BC<\/span>, Nebuchadnezzar armed those surrounding the rebel Jewish kingdom to harass the Jews, which they willingly did (2 Kgs 24:2). Evidently Jehoiakim lost his life in one of these raids. Since the people despised him, his body was thrown out without honorable burial, as Jeremiah had predicted (Jer 22:19).<\/p>\n<p>Ministry during the Reign of Zedekiah<\/p>\n<p>Nebuchadnezzar’s siege of Jerusalem in 598 <span>BC<\/span> lasted only a short time because the new king, Jehoiachin, crowned at age 18, knew resistance was useless. He gave himself up, with all his family and court, in March of 597 <span>BC<\/span>, after serving as king about three months. The Babylonian Chronicle reads: “He [Nebuchadnezzar] seized the city and captured the king.”<\/p>\n<p>Jehoiachin was carried to Babylon along with 8,000 (2 Kgs 24:16; cf. v 14) officers, artisans, and executives (Ezekiel among them) and much booty. In his place Nebuchadnezzar appointed Zedekiah, Jehoiachin’s uncle, to rule. Zedekiah proceeded to organize his government with the less capable and inexperienced help left after the deportation.<\/p>\n<p>Jeremiah took up his thankless ministry, calling on the Jews to believe God, obey the laws of Babylon, and reject false hopes in Egypt. Zedekiah turned a deaf ear to these appeals, listening rather to the unwise advice of his counselors (Jer 37:1-2). During the first year of Zedekiah’s rule, Jeremiah received the vision of the two baskets of figs. The Jews carried to Babylon were like good figs, while Zedekiah and those who trusted in Egypt were like rotten figs (24:1-8). The reason for this reproachful description was that the Jews began plotting rebellion against Babylon along with Edom, Moab, Ammon, Tyre, and Sidon from the beginning of the reign of Zedekiah (27:1-3), thus breaking their oath of loyalty to Nebuchadnezzar and repudiating God’s message through Jeremiah.<\/p>\n<p>In Egypt the pharaoh began to renew plans to organize dissidents within the Babylonian Empire to revolt. He hired Jewish soldiers to aid him in protecting his southern border. The Jewish soldiers settled on a Nile island called Elephantine, or Yeb (593–410 <span>BC<\/span>). Jeremiah addressed an oracle to these Jews (ch 44). The treaty for Jews to help in Egypt evidently also assumed that Egyptians would aid Israel. When the Babylonians besieged Jerusalem in 589, Pharaoh Hophra came to the aid of Zedekiah. Nebuchadnezzar, ruling from Riblah, commanded that the siege against Jerusalem be lifted in order to make a surprise attack on Hophra (37:5). The release gave Jeremiah an opportunity to journey to Anathoth to secure some family property (v 12). However, Irijah, captain of the guard, arrested Jeremiah in the Gate of Benjamin for defecting to the enemy, and he was beaten and flung into a dungeon. King Zedekiah brought him out after many days to obtain a prognostication. With characteristic boldness, Jeremiah told the king he would shortly become a captive. At the same time, Jeremiah requested relief from injustice for himself. He gained part of his request but continued as prisoner in the court of the guard.<\/p>\n<p>The Babylonian army chased Pharaoh Hophra back to Egypt and returned to crush Jerusalem without further mercy. The siege, which began in 589 <span>BC<\/span>, was restored with rigor in January of 588, Zedekiah’s ninth year (39:1). During this time, the Lord gave Jeremiah foreknowledge of a visit from a cousin who wished to sell a field near Anathoth (32:7-9; cf. 37:12). Jeremiah bought the field as an object lesson to verify the message of restoration after a captivity of 70 years (29:10).<\/p>\n<p>The armies of Babylon cut off all supplies from Jerusalem and were able to destroy the last two outlying Jewish fortresses of Lachish and Azekah (34:7). Food became scarce. Disease spread. Undisposed-of sewage and impure cistern water caused pestilence. With increased distress came Jeremiah’s increased appeal for the city to surrender.<\/p>\n<p>Jeremiah remained in the prison court until the Babylonians breached the city wall in July of 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The king escaped by night and succeeded in reaching the plains of Jericho but was captured there and taken to Riblah. Zedekiah’s family and counselors were killed; he himself was blinded and taken in chains to Babylon, where he died soon after (39:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Back in Jerusalem, Nebuzaradan, the Babylonian general, sent most of the Jews into captivity. Jeremiah, however, was granted special consideration; after being released from prison, he was placed under the care of Gedaliah, son of Ahikam.<\/p>\n<p>After the Fall of Jerusalem<\/p>\n<p>A month after the fall of Jerusalem, the city was burned and the walls broken down. Gedaliah was appointed governor of the remaining agricultural community, with headquarters at Mizpah. Jeremiah returned to Jerusalem, where, according to tradition, he took up his abode in a grotto near what is now known as Gordon’s Calvary. There he wrote the book of Lamentations.<\/p>\n<p>The Ammonite king Baalis, plotting rebellion against Babylon, instigated the murder of Gedaliah (40:13). In the reaction that followed, the remaining people followed the leader Johanan ben Kareah to a camp near Bethlehem, intending to go to Egypt. They asked Jeremiah, at Jerusalem, to give guidance from the Lord, promising obedience. Jeremiah’s message required that they remain in Israel and not go to Egypt. Disobedience was complete and immediate. Fearing Babylon, they departed from Judah, taking Jeremiah with them, and entered Egypt (41:16–43:7).<\/p>\n<p>Jeremiah did not stop his ministry in Egypt. His message at Tahpanhes (43:8-12) assured a victorious conquest of the land by Nebuchadnezzar, which took place in 568–567 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Jews from all parts of Egypt gathered to discuss their future as exiles. Jeremiah took the opportunity to denounce their idolatry. Jewish women as well as men argued that they had enjoyed prosperity while serving idols but had suffered since stopping. Jeremiah condemned their obdurate blindness to reality and gave God’s indictment. For a verifying sign, Jeremiah predicted that Pharaoh Hophra of Egypt would be assassinated (44:30), which happened in 466 <span>BC<\/span>. No later record of Jeremiah’s acts exists in the Bible. Tradition says Jeremiah was stoned to death by the people of the Jewish exile settlement in Tahpanhes.<\/p>\n<p>Though Jeremiah suffered continued rejection during his life, he has been honored by numerous apocryphal and traditional embellishments to his history. Jesus could well have had Jeremiah in mind when he said, “You build tombs for the prophets your ancestors killed and decorate the graves of the godly people your ancestors destroyed. . . . [You are] the descendants of those who murdered the prophets” (Mt 23:29-31, <span>nlt<\/span>). <em>See<\/em> Israel, History of; Jeremiah, Book of; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>\n<li>2. Family head in the Transjordan portion of Manasseh whom Tiglath-pileser took captive (1 Chr 5:23-26; cf. 2 Kgs 15:29).<\/li>\n<li>3. Father of Hamutal, a wife of King Josiah (2 Kgs 23:31; 24:18).<\/li>\n<li>4. Ambidextrous Benjamite bowman and slinger who joined David at Ziklag (1 Chr 12:4).<\/li>\n<li>5, 6. Two Gadite soldiers who joined David’s army (1 Chr 12:10, 13).<\/li>\n<li>7. Postexilic priest who with Nehemiah set his seal to the covenant, renewing the people’s promise to obey God’s laws (Neh 10:2). He is mentioned again (12:34) as part of the procession for the dedication of the new wall of Jerusalem.<\/li>\n<li>8. Priest who returned from exile with Zerubbabel (Neh 12:1) and became head of a family of priests (v 12).<\/li>\n<li>9. Father of Jaazaniah, a Recabite who refused to drink wine (Jer 35:3).<\/li>","summary_ro":"JEREMIAH (Person) 1. Prophet to Judah before its fall in 586 BC; his name is also spelled “Jeremias” (Mt 16:14) and “Jeremy” (Mt 2:17; 27:9) in the kjv. Jeremiah was born in the village of Anathoth, about three miles (4.8 kilometers) northeast of Jerusalem. His father’s name was Hilkiah, and he belonged to the tribe of Benjamin. His call came in the 13th year of King Josiah (640–609 BC). He refers to himself as “a child” when called (Jer 1:6), but the Hebrew word is not the same as used in Je...","summary_en":"JEREMIAH (Person) 1. Prophet to Judah before its fall in 586 BC; his name is also spelled “Jeremias” (Mt 16:14) and “Jeremy” (Mt 2:17; 27:9) in the kjv. Jeremiah was born in the village of Anathoth, about three miles (4.8 kilometers) northeast of Jerusalem. His father’s name was Hilkiah, and he belonged to the tribe of Benjamin. His call came in the 13th year of King Josiah (640–609 BC). He refers to himself as “a child” when called (Jer 1:6), but the Hebrew word is not the same as used in Je...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":24245,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tribe of Manasseh","title_en":"Tribe of Manasseh","content_ro":"<h3>MANASSEH, Tribe of<\/h3>\n<p>Geographically, the largest of the 12 tribes of Israel, and unique in having two territories, a half-tribe in each. Isolated from each other by the Jordan River valley, they developed separately. The half-tribe west of the Jordan was more important, both in OT and NT times, because it was the main tribe of the northern kingdom of Israel (931–722 <span>BC<\/span>) and one of the main ancestral stocks of the Samaritans.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"EarlyHistory\">Early History<\/p>\n<h5>Its Roots<\/h5>\n<p>Its families traced their origins back to Joseph’s elder son Manasseh, to Manasseh’s son Makir or grandson Gilead, or to later descendants such as Zelophehad and Jair. A fair harmony can be constructed from the biblical genealogical data in Gn 48:5-6; Nm 26:28-34; Jos 17:1-3; 1 Chr 2:21-23; and 7:14-19, a text corrupted by several copyists’ errors. The mention of Asriel in 1 Chronicles 7:14 seems to be a copyist’s mistake; otherwise, the accounts are capable of being reconciled, even if each list preserved different data and none is complete in itself.<\/p>\n<h5>Its Size<\/h5>\n<p>One year after the exodus, Manasseh had the smallest army, according to Moses’ first census (Nm 1:34-35). On the eve of the conquest of Canaan, after wandering 38 years in the Sinai wilderness and then conquering Transjordan, it had the sixth largest fighting force, according to a second census (Nm 26:28-34)—52,700 men.<\/p>\n<h5>Its First Settlements<\/h5>\n<p>The soldiers of the eastern half-tribe of Manasseh settled their families in Gilead, which they captured under Moses’ leadership from the Amorite king Og (Nm 21:32-35; 32:39-42; Dt 3:1-15). Then, under Joshua, they crossed the Jordan to help the other tribes conquer Canaan (Nm 32:1-32; Jos 1:12-18). Subsequently, the western half-tribe received its allotment and began to settle in the central hill country (Jos 16:1-9; ch 17). After the remaining tribes received their shares of land, the army from the eastern half-tribe returned home (22:1-9). En route to their families in Gilead, they helped to build an altar by the Jordan River. This act was intended to preserve national unity, but it nearly started a civil war (vv 10-34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheEasternHalf-Tribe\">The Eastern Half-Tribe<\/p>\n<h5>Its Territory<\/h5>\n<p>Moses allotted the eastern half-tribe nearly 3,000 square miles (7,770 square kilometers) of territory in three geographical regions (northern Gilead, Bashan, and Mt Hermon), but it succeeded in controlling only about 800 square miles (2,072 square kilometers)—the half of Gilead north of the Jabbok River (and south of the Yarmuk River)—despite successful initial conquests (Nm 32:39-42; Dt 3:12-15; Jos 13:8-13) and gradual northern expansion much later (1 Chr 5:23).<\/p>\n<p>The territory occupied was mostly a high plateau with a mountainous center. It was watered well by rains in winter and by a heavy dew in summer. Olive trees, grapevines, and wheat thrived, and goats and sheep could find adequate pasture on the eastern slopes, which merged gradually into the desert to the east.<\/p>\n<h5>People and Places<\/h5>\n<p>Prominent citizens of the eastern half-tribe included the “judges” Jair and Jephthah (Jgs 10:3-5; 11:6-12) and David’s benefactor Barzillai (2 Sm 19:31-39). Principal cities were Jabeth-gilead and Ramoth-gilead, a city of refuge and a Levitical city, respectively (originally in Gad—Jos 20:8; 21:38).<\/p>\n<p>The eastern territory was usually called simply “the half-tribe of Manasseh,” until David (c. 1000–961 <span>BC<\/span>) made it an administrative district (1 Chr 27:21). Solomon (970–930 <span>BC<\/span>) divided and incorporated it into two new districts (1 Kgs 4:13-14). Under Jeroboam I (930–909 <span>BC<\/span>), it joined, on equal terms, with eight other tribes and with the western half-tribe, to form a confederacy of ten tribes—the northern kingdom of Israel—in 930 <span>BC<\/span>. Syria and Assyria both held eastern Manasseh temporarily, in the ninth and eighth centuries <span>BC<\/span> (cf. 2 Kgs 10:32-33; 13:7 with 14:25; and 2 Kgs 15:29 with 2 Chr 34:6-7). King Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>) of Assyria invaded the area, conquered it, deported its people, and scattered them throughout his empire (1 Chr 5:26; cf. 2 Kgs 15:29) about ten years before the rest of the northern kingdom fell to the Assyrians in 722 <span>BC<\/span>. Most of the western Manassites who were left behind intermarried with the foreigners, began to worship pagan gods, and became ancestors of the Samaritans (2 Kgs 17:24-41). Subsequently, the region was known as Gilead. By NT times the region was partly in the Decapolis and partly in Perea.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MANASSEH, Tribe of<\/h3>\n<p>Geographically, the largest of the 12 tribes of Israel, and unique in having two territories, a half-tribe in each. Isolated from each other by the Jordan River valley, they developed separately. The half-tribe west of the Jordan was more important, both in OT and NT times, because it was the main tribe of the northern kingdom of Israel (931–722 <span>BC<\/span>) and one of the main ancestral stocks of the Samaritans.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"EarlyHistory\">Early History<\/p>\n<h5>Its Roots<\/h5>\n<p>Its families traced their origins back to Joseph’s elder son Manasseh, to Manasseh’s son Makir or grandson Gilead, or to later descendants such as Zelophehad and Jair. A fair harmony can be constructed from the biblical genealogical data in Gn 48:5-6; Nm 26:28-34; Jos 17:1-3; 1 Chr 2:21-23; and 7:14-19, a text corrupted by several copyists’ errors. The mention of Asriel in 1 Chronicles 7:14 seems to be a copyist’s mistake; otherwise, the accounts are capable of being reconciled, even if each list preserved different data and none is complete in itself.<\/p>\n<h5>Its Size<\/h5>\n<p>One year after the exodus, Manasseh had the smallest army, according to Moses’ first census (Nm 1:34-35). On the eve of the conquest of Canaan, after wandering 38 years in the Sinai wilderness and then conquering Transjordan, it had the sixth largest fighting force, according to a second census (Nm 26:28-34)—52,700 men.<\/p>\n<h5>Its First Settlements<\/h5>\n<p>The soldiers of the eastern half-tribe of Manasseh settled their families in Gilead, which they captured under Moses’ leadership from the Amorite king Og (Nm 21:32-35; 32:39-42; Dt 3:1-15). Then, under Joshua, they crossed the Jordan to help the other tribes conquer Canaan (Nm 32:1-32; Jos 1:12-18). Subsequently, the western half-tribe received its allotment and began to settle in the central hill country (Jos 16:1-9; ch 17). After the remaining tribes received their shares of land, the army from the eastern half-tribe returned home (22:1-9). En route to their families in Gilead, they helped to build an altar by the Jordan River. This act was intended to preserve national unity, but it nearly started a civil war (vv 10-34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheEasternHalf-Tribe\">The Eastern Half-Tribe<\/p>\n<h5>Its Territory<\/h5>\n<p>Moses allotted the eastern half-tribe nearly 3,000 square miles (7,770 square kilometers) of territory in three geographical regions (northern Gilead, Bashan, and Mt Hermon), but it succeeded in controlling only about 800 square miles (2,072 square kilometers)—the half of Gilead north of the Jabbok River (and south of the Yarmuk River)—despite successful initial conquests (Nm 32:39-42; Dt 3:12-15; Jos 13:8-13) and gradual northern expansion much later (1 Chr 5:23).<\/p>\n<p>The territory occupied was mostly a high plateau with a mountainous center. It was watered well by rains in winter and by a heavy dew in summer. Olive trees, grapevines, and wheat thrived, and goats and sheep could find adequate pasture on the eastern slopes, which merged gradually into the desert to the east.<\/p>\n<h5>People and Places<\/h5>\n<p>Prominent citizens of the eastern half-tribe included the “judges” Jair and Jephthah (Jgs 10:3-5; 11:6-12) and David’s benefactor Barzillai (2 Sm 19:31-39). Principal cities were Jabeth-gilead and Ramoth-gilead, a city of refuge and a Levitical city, respectively (originally in Gad—Jos 20:8; 21:38).<\/p>\n<p>The eastern territory was usually called simply “the half-tribe of Manasseh,” until David (c. 1000–961 <span>BC<\/span>) made it an administrative district (1 Chr 27:21). Solomon (970–930 <span>BC<\/span>) divided and incorporated it into two new districts (1 Kgs 4:13-14). Under Jeroboam I (930–909 <span>BC<\/span>), it joined, on equal terms, with eight other tribes and with the western half-tribe, to form a confederacy of ten tribes—the northern kingdom of Israel—in 930 <span>BC<\/span>. Syria and Assyria both held eastern Manasseh temporarily, in the ninth and eighth centuries <span>BC<\/span> (cf. 2 Kgs 10:32-33; 13:7 with 14:25; and 2 Kgs 15:29 with 2 Chr 34:6-7). King Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>) of Assyria invaded the area, conquered it, deported its people, and scattered them throughout his empire (1 Chr 5:26; cf. 2 Kgs 15:29) about ten years before the rest of the northern kingdom fell to the Assyrians in 722 <span>BC<\/span>. Most of the western Manassites who were left behind intermarried with the foreigners, began to worship pagan gods, and became ancestors of the Samaritans (2 Kgs 17:24-41). Subsequently, the region was known as Gilead. By NT times the region was partly in the Decapolis and partly in Perea.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MANASSEH, Tribe of Geographically, the largest of the 12 tribes of Israel, and unique in having two territories, a half-tribe in each. Isolated from each other by the Jordan River valley, they developed separately. The half-tribe west of the Jordan was more important, both in OT and NT times, because it was the main tribe of the northern kingdom of Israel (931–722 BC) and one of the main ancestral stocks of the Samaritans. Early History Its Roots Its families traced their origins back to Jose...","summary_en":"MANASSEH, Tribe of Geographically, the largest of the 12 tribes of Israel, and unique in having two territories, a half-tribe in each. Isolated from each other by the Jordan River valley, they developed separately. The half-tribe west of the Jordan was more important, both in OT and NT times, because it was the main tribe of the northern kingdom of Israel (931–722 BC) and one of the main ancestral stocks of the Samaritans. Early History Its Roots Its families traced their origins back to Jose...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"24":[{"id":10535,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Eliel","title_en":"Eliel","content_ro":"<h3>ELIEL<\/h3>\n<li>1. Warrior and head of a family of the half-tribe of Manasseh that lived east of the Jordan River (1 Chr 5:24).<\/li>\n<li>2. Tola’s son, a Kohathite who was one of the Levitical singers in the time of David (1 Chr 6:34); possibly the same as Eliab (1 Chr 6:27).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Shimei’s son and a chief of Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 8:20).<\/li>\n<li> 4. Shashak’s son and a chief of Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 8:22).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Warrior among David’s mighty men (1 Chr 11:46), called a Mahavite.<\/li>\n<li> 6. Another warrior among David’s mighty men (1 Chr 11:47).<\/li>\n<li> 7. Warrior from the Gadites who joined David at Ziklag in his struggle against King Saul. Eliel was one of those experts with a shield and spear. Whether the Eliel of 1 Chronicles 12:11 should be equated with either of the two Eliels of 1 Chronicles 11:46-47 is impossible to say.<\/li>\n<li> 8. Levite and chief of the family of Hebron, who was involved in bringing the ark to Jerusalem in David’s time (1 Chr 15:9).<\/li>\n<li> 9. Priest who assisted in bringing the ark to Jerusalem (1 Chr 15:11); possibly the same as #8 above.<\/li>\n<li>10. Levite who assisted Conaniah in the administration of the tithes, contributions, and dedicated things given to the temple during Hezekiah’s reign (2 Chr 31:13).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ELIEL<\/h3>\n<li>1. Warrior and head of a family of the half-tribe of Manasseh that lived east of the Jordan River (1 Chr 5:24).<\/li>\n<li>2. Tola’s son, a Kohathite who was one of the Levitical singers in the time of David (1 Chr 6:34); possibly the same as Eliab (1 Chr 6:27).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Shimei’s son and a chief of Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 8:20).<\/li>\n<li> 4. Shashak’s son and a chief of Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 8:22).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Warrior among David’s mighty men (1 Chr 11:46), called a Mahavite.<\/li>\n<li> 6. Another warrior among David’s mighty men (1 Chr 11:47).<\/li>\n<li> 7. Warrior from the Gadites who joined David at Ziklag in his struggle against King Saul. Eliel was one of those experts with a shield and spear. Whether the Eliel of 1 Chronicles 12:11 should be equated with either of the two Eliels of 1 Chronicles 11:46-47 is impossible to say.<\/li>\n<li> 8. Levite and chief of the family of Hebron, who was involved in bringing the ark to Jerusalem in David’s time (1 Chr 15:9).<\/li>\n<li> 9. Priest who assisted in bringing the ark to Jerusalem (1 Chr 15:11); possibly the same as #8 above.<\/li>\n<li>10. Levite who assisted Conaniah in the administration of the tithes, contributions, and dedicated things given to the temple during Hezekiah’s reign (2 Chr 31:13).<\/li>","summary_ro":"ELIEL 1. Warrior and head of a family of the half-tribe of Manasseh that lived east of the Jordan River (1 Chr 5:24). 2. Tola’s son, a Kohathite who was one of the Levitical singers in the time of David (1 Chr 6:34); possibly the same as Eliab (1 Chr 6:27). 3. Shimei’s son and a chief of Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 8:20). 4. Shashak’s son and a chief of Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 8:22). 5. Warrior among David’s mighty men (1 Chr 11:46), called a Mahavite. 6. Another warrior among David’s mighty men ...","summary_en":"ELIEL 1. Warrior and head of a family of the half-tribe of Manasseh that lived east of the Jordan River (1 Chr 5:24). 2. Tola’s son, a Kohathite who was one of the Levitical singers in the time of David (1 Chr 6:34); possibly the same as Eliab (1 Chr 6:27). 3. Shimei’s son and a chief of Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 8:20). 4. Shashak’s son and a chief of Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 8:22). 5. Warrior among David’s mighty men (1 Chr 11:46), called a Mahavite. 6. Another warrior among David’s mighty men ...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":10863,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Epher","title_en":"Epher","content_ro":"<h3>EPHER<\/h3>\n<li>1. Son of Midian and grandson of Abraham through his concubine Keturah, whose tribe was sent to the east. Some were supportive of Abraham’s descendants and others became enemies (Gn 25:4; 1 Chr 1:33).<\/li>\n<li>2. Son of Ezrah from Judah’s tribe (1 Chr 4:17).<\/li>\n<li>3. Head of a household and a great warrior in the half-tribe of Manasseh. He lived between Bashan and Mt Hermon (1 Chr 5:24).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>EPHER<\/h3>\n<li>1. Son of Midian and grandson of Abraham through his concubine Keturah, whose tribe was sent to the east. Some were supportive of Abraham’s descendants and others became enemies (Gn 25:4; 1 Chr 1:33).<\/li>\n<li>2. Son of Ezrah from Judah’s tribe (1 Chr 4:17).<\/li>\n<li>3. Head of a household and a great warrior in the half-tribe of Manasseh. He lived between Bashan and Mt Hermon (1 Chr 5:24).<\/li>","summary_ro":"EPHER 1. Son of Midian and grandson of Abraham through his concubine Keturah, whose tribe was sent to the east. Some were supportive of Abraham’s descendants and others became enemies (Gn 25:4; 1 Chr 1:33). 2. Son of Ezrah from Judah’s tribe (1 Chr 4:17). 3. Head of a household and a great warrior in the half-tribe of Manasseh. He lived between Bashan and Mt Hermon (1 Chr 5:24).","summary_en":"EPHER 1. Son of Midian and grandson of Abraham through his concubine Keturah, whose tribe was sent to the east. Some were supportive of Abraham’s descendants and others became enemies (Gn 25:4; 1 Chr 1:33). 2. Son of Ezrah from Judah’s tribe (1 Chr 4:17). 3. Head of a household and a great warrior in the half-tribe of Manasseh. He lived between Bashan and Mt Hermon (1 Chr 5:24).","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":16499,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hodaviah","title_en":"Hodaviah","content_ro":"<h3>HODAVIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Postexilic descendant of David (1 Chr 3:24).<\/li>\n<li>2. Chieftain of Manasseh’s half-tribe east of the Jordan (1 Chr 5:24).<\/li>\n<li>3. Hassenuah’s son and the father of Meshullam from Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 9:7).<\/li>\n<li>4. Progenitor of a family of Levites who returned with the exiles from Babylon (Ezr 2:40); alternately called Judah in Ezra 3:9 and Hodevah in Nehemiah 7:43.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>HODAVIAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Postexilic descendant of David (1 Chr 3:24).<\/li>\n<li>2. Chieftain of Manasseh’s half-tribe east of the Jordan (1 Chr 5:24).<\/li>\n<li>3. Hassenuah’s son and the father of Meshullam from Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 9:7).<\/li>\n<li>4. Progenitor of a family of Levites who returned with the exiles from Babylon (Ezr 2:40); alternately called Judah in Ezra 3:9 and Hodevah in Nehemiah 7:43.<\/li>","summary_ro":"HODAVIAH 1. Postexilic descendant of David (1 Chr 3:24). 2. Chieftain of Manasseh’s half-tribe east of the Jordan (1 Chr 5:24). 3. Hassenuah’s son and the father of Meshullam from Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 9:7). 4. Progenitor of a family of Levites who returned with the exiles from Babylon (Ezr 2:40); alternately called Judah in Ezra 3:9 and Hodevah in Nehemiah 7:43.","summary_en":"HODAVIAH 1. Postexilic descendant of David (1 Chr 3:24). 2. Chieftain of Manasseh’s half-tribe east of the Jordan (1 Chr 5:24). 3. Hassenuah’s son and the father of Meshullam from Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 9:7). 4. Progenitor of a family of Levites who returned with the exiles from Babylon (Ezr 2:40); alternately called Judah in Ezra 3:9 and Hodevah in Nehemiah 7:43.","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":17917,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ishi","title_en":"Ishi","content_ro":"<h3>ISHI<\/h3>\n<li>1. Appaim’s son, the father of Sheshan and a descendant of Judah through Jerahmeel’s line (1 Chr 2:31).<\/li>\n<li>2. Man from Judah’s tribe whose descendants were Zoheth and Ben-zoheth (1 Chr 4:20).<\/li>\n<li>3. Simeonite whose four sons led 500 men to Mt Seir, where they destroyed the remnant Amalekites and settled their own people (1 Chr 4:42).<\/li>\n<li>4. One of the leaders of the half-tribe of Manasseh east of the Jordan (1 Chr 5:24).<\/li>\n<li>5. Name of God, meaning “my husband,” by which Israel will one day address him (Hos 2:16).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> God, Names of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ISHI<\/h3>\n<li>1. Appaim’s son, the father of Sheshan and a descendant of Judah through Jerahmeel’s line (1 Chr 2:31).<\/li>\n<li>2. Man from Judah’s tribe whose descendants were Zoheth and Ben-zoheth (1 Chr 4:20).<\/li>\n<li>3. Simeonite whose four sons led 500 men to Mt Seir, where they destroyed the remnant Amalekites and settled their own people (1 Chr 4:42).<\/li>\n<li>4. One of the leaders of the half-tribe of Manasseh east of the Jordan (1 Chr 5:24).<\/li>\n<li>5. Name of God, meaning “my husband,” by which Israel will one day address him (Hos 2:16).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> God, Names of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ISHI 1. Appaim’s son, the father of Sheshan and a descendant of Judah through Jerahmeel’s line (1 Chr 2:31). 2. Man from Judah’s tribe whose descendants were Zoheth and Ben-zoheth (1 Chr 4:20). 3. Simeonite whose four sons led 500 men to Mt Seir, where they destroyed the remnant Amalekites and settled their own people (1 Chr 4:42). 4. One of the leaders of the half-tribe of Manasseh east of the Jordan (1 Chr 5:24). 5. Name of God, meaning “my husband,” by which Israel will one day address him...","summary_en":"ISHI 1. Appaim’s son, the father of Sheshan and a descendant of Judah through Jerahmeel’s line (1 Chr 2:31). 2. Man from Judah’s tribe whose descendants were Zoheth and Ben-zoheth (1 Chr 4:20). 3. Simeonite whose four sons led 500 men to Mt Seir, where they destroyed the remnant Amalekites and settled their own people (1 Chr 4:42). 4. One of the leaders of the half-tribe of Manasseh east of the Jordan (1 Chr 5:24). 5. Name of God, meaning “my husband,” by which Israel will one day address him...","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":18325,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jahdiel","title_en":"Jahdiel","content_ro":"<h3>JAHDIEL<\/h3>\n<p>One of the family heads of Manasseh’s tribe dwelling east of the Jordan following the allotment of the land (1 Chr 5:24). He was noted as one of the mighty warriors in his tribe.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JAHDIEL<\/h3>\n<p>One of the family heads of Manasseh’s tribe dwelling east of the Jordan following the allotment of the land (1 Chr 5:24). He was noted as one of the mighty warriors in his tribe.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JAHDIEL One of the family heads of Manasseh’s tribe dwelling east of the Jordan following the allotment of the land (1 Chr 5:24). He was noted as one of the mighty warriors in his tribe.","summary_en":"JAHDIEL One of the family heads of Manasseh’s tribe dwelling east of the Jordan following the allotment of the land (1 Chr 5:24). He was noted as one of the mighty warriors in his tribe.","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"25":[{"id":47581,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Cronici 5:25","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Cronici 5:25","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:25-26<\/strong> The tribes of <em>Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh<\/em> went into permanent exile because of unfaithfulness.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:25-26<\/strong> The tribes of <em>Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh<\/em> went into permanent exile because of unfaithfulness.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:25-26 The tribes of Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh went into permanent exile because of unfaithfulness.","summary_en":"5:25-26 The tribes of Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh went into permanent exile because of unfaithfulness.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":75207,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Cronici 5:25","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Cronici 5:25","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:25-26<\/strong> The tribes of <em>Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh<\/em> went into permanent exile because of unfaithfulness.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:25-26<\/strong> The tribes of <em>Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh<\/em> went into permanent exile because of unfaithfulness.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:25-26 The tribes of Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh went into permanent exile because of unfaithfulness.","summary_en":"5:25-26 The tribes of Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh went into permanent exile because of unfaithfulness.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":102833,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Cronici 5:25","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Cronici 5:25","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:25-26<\/strong> The tribes of <em>Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh<\/em> went into permanent exile because of unfaithfulness.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:25-26<\/strong> The tribes of <em>Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh<\/em> went into permanent exile because of unfaithfulness.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:25-26 The tribes of Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh went into permanent exile because of unfaithfulness.","summary_en":"5:25-26 The tribes of Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh went into permanent exile because of unfaithfulness.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":130459,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Cronici 5:25","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Cronici 5:25","content_ro":"<p><strong>5:25-26<\/strong> The tribes of <em>Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh<\/em> went into permanent exile because of unfaithfulness.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>5:25-26<\/strong> The tribes of <em>Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh<\/em> went into permanent exile because of unfaithfulness.<\/p>","summary_ro":"5:25-26 The tribes of Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh went into permanent exile because of unfaithfulness.","summary_en":"5:25-26 The tribes of Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh went into permanent exile because of unfaithfulness.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"26":[{"id":3088,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Assyrians Assyria","title_en":"Assyrians Assyria","content_ro":"<h3>ASSYRIA, ASSYRIANS<\/h3>\n<p>Ancient empire considered the symbol of terror and tyranny in the Near East for more than three centuries. Assyria received its name from the tiny city-state Asshur, on the western bank of the Tigris River in northern Mesopotamia (modern Iraq). The city was the seat of worship of the sun god Asshur (also spelled Ashur). The Hebrew name occurs frequently in the Bible and is translated Assyria (Gn 2:14), Assur (Ezr 4:2; Ps 83:8), or left as Asshur (Gn 10:11, <span>kjv<\/span>). The form of the name comes originally from the Akkadian language.<\/p>\n<p>Originally, Assyria was a small district in northern Mesopotamia, lying in a rough triangle between the Tigris River and the Upper Zab, a tributary of the Tigris. Eventually Assyria gained control of northern Syria, securing an outlet to the Mediterranean Sea, and took possession of the fertile Mesopotamian plain, extending Assyrian domain over all of Babylonia to the Persian Gulf.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"History\">History<\/p>\n<h5>Before the Eighth Century <span>BC<\/span><\/h5>\n<p>By the end of the third millennium <span>BC<\/span>, the Sumerians were trading with Assyria and influencing its people culturally. Periodically Sumerian kings would claim political control over Assyria. Sargon of Agade (c. 2350 <span>BC<\/span>) brought Assyria within the sphere of his political and commercial activities, and when the Amorites overthrew the third dynasty of Ur and established their own states, one of them incorporated Assyria into its territory. During the period of Hammurabi, one of the last great kings of the first Babylonian dynasty (c. 2360–1600 <span>BC<\/span>), the Assyrians supplied building materials and other goods for the Babylonian kingdom.<\/p>\n<p>Trade between Asshur and the Assyrian colony of Kanish in Anatolia began at a very early time in Assyrian history. Goods were transported by caravans of up to 200 donkeys at a time. The wealth pouring in from such a trade put Assyria in a very strong position economically.<\/p>\n<p>The early phase of Assyrian commercial development was followed by a long period of decline, culminating in the 15th century <span>BC<\/span>. At that time Assyria was reduced to a state of vassalage by a non-Semitic people, the Hurrians (biblical Horites) of the state of Mitanni. In the 14th century another non-Semitic people, the Hittites, overthrew the power of Mitanni. Assyria was gradually able to rise again and assume the role of a great power in the ancient Near East, largely through the policies of a shrewd prince, Asshur-uballit. His reign marked the beginning of a long process by which Assyria ultimately rose to supremacy.<\/p>\n<p>Enlil-nirari (1329–1320 <span>BC<\/span>), son and successor of Asshur-uballit, attacked Babylon and defeated Kurigalzu II, the Kassite king of Babylon (1345–1324 <span>BC<\/span>). Adad-nirari I (1307–1275 <span>BC<\/span>) extended Assyria’s influence by winning victories over the Kassites in Babylonia. He also added territory to the northwest.<\/p>\n<p>The period of consolidation and expansion in the first Assyrian Empire culminated in the capture of Babylon by Tukulti-ninurta I (1244–1208 <span>BC<\/span>), which for the first time placed Babylon under Assyrian rule. After that climax, however, Assyrian power declined.<\/p>\n<p>The three centuries from about 1200 to 900 <span>BC<\/span> were marked by movements of different peoples such as the Greeks, Philistines, Arameans, and Hebrews. Under pressure of people migrating from Europe, the Hittite Empire, which formerly had given political stability to Asia Minor and protected the trade routes, crumbled rapidly. By 1200 <span>BC<\/span> it fell to attacks by the Sea Peoples from the Greek mainland.<\/p>\n<p>During the tenth century <span>BC<\/span>, Assyria began to make a slow recovery. In the reign of Adad-nirari II (911–891 <span>BC<\/span>), Assyria again launched upon a period of conspicuous economic and military expansion. For the next 60 years Assyrian kings followed a consistent policy of consolidating the work of Adad-nirari II. Ashurnasirpal II (885–860 <span>BC<\/span>) is considered the first great monarch of that new era in Assyrian history. He possessed all the qualities and defects of his successors to the extreme. He had the ambition, energy, courage, vanity, and magnificence of a ruthless, indefatigable empire builder. Ashurnasirpal’s first activities were directed to the mountain area to the east, where he extended Assyria’s control among the mountain people. In the west he subdued the Arameans with characteristic cruelty and did likewise in Asia Minor.<\/p>\n<p>Shalmaneser III is well known to historians of the biblical world for the battle of Qarqar (853 <span>BC<\/span>), considered the most fully documented event from the ancient world. He launched an invasion of Syria that was met by a coalition led by Ben-hadad of Damascus and supported by King Ahab of Israel and several other states. Since Shalmaneser was unable to rout the 60,000 troops opposing him, it was many years before the Assyrians were able to conquer Damascus and Samaria. King Jehu of Israel (841–814 <span>BC<\/span>), who later chose to pay tribute rather than fight, is represented, perhaps by an envoy, on the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III, excavated at Shalmaneser’s capital city, Calah (now called Nimrud). Jehu is depicted as kissing the ground at the Assyrian monarch’s feet and offering a tribute of silver, gold, and lead vessels.<\/p>\n<p>Toward the end of his reign Shalmaneser had to put down a rebellion by some of the principal Assyrian cities. He was succeeded by his heir, Shamshi-adad V (823–811 <span>BC<\/span>). Shamshi-adad’s son Adad-nirari III (810–782 <span>BC<\/span>) built a new palace at Calah and attacked King Hazael of Damascus (Syria) in 804 <span>BC<\/span>. Assyrian pressure on the Syrians undoubtedly was a relief to Israel, which had been oppressed by Hazael (2 Kgs 13:22-25).<\/p>\n<h5>From the Eighth Century to the Battle of Carchemish (605 <span>BC<\/span>)<\/h5>\n<p>Beginning about 800 <span>BC<\/span> the influence of Urartu (Ararat) began to expand, especially in north Syria, at the expense of Assyria. The next half century saw a drastic decline in Assyria’s fortunes. In 746 <span>BC<\/span>, during a revolt in the city of Calah, the entire royal family was murdered.<\/p>\n<p>The final phase of Assyrian power was instituted by the usurper Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>), known also by his adopted Babylonian throne-name Pul (2 Kgs 15:19; 1 Chr 5:26). His reign began the process by which Assyria recovered and consolidated control of all its territories and established itself firmly as the dominant military and economic power in the Near East. Tiglath-pileser first secured control of the mountain passes in the north in order to eliminate the threat of invasion from that direction. Next he subjected Syria and Palestine in the west and took control of the road to Egypt and the Mediterranean Sea. Finally, through diplomacy, he gained the throne of Babylonia also. Under the name of Pul he governed Babylonia, creating the remarkable situation of two crowns united in one ruler bearing two different names. His political prudence was not usually found in the ruthless Assyrian monarchs.<\/p>\n<p>From the year 743 <span>BC<\/span> Tiglath-pileser III waged a number of campaigns in Syria and Palestine. King Menahem of Israel (752–742 <span>BC<\/span>) paid him tribute (2 Kgs 15:19-20), as did Tyre, Byblos, and Damascus. In 738 he subjugated the north central state of Hamath. Responding to an appeal from King Ahaz of Judah (735–715 <span>BC<\/span>) to help resist the pressures of a proposed anti-Assyrian coalition, Tiglath-pileser conquered Damascus in 732 and Samaria, capital of the northern kingdom of Israel, a decade later. On both occasions deportations of people to Assyria took place. The fall of Samaria in 722 <span>BC<\/span> marked the end of the kingdom of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Sargon II (722–705 <span>BC<\/span>) claimed to be the Assyrian ruler who captured Samaria, but the biblical record attributed the capture to Shalmaneser (2 Kgs 17:2-6). To the policy of deportation, Sargon and his successors added that of colonization. To replace the peoples carried into captivity, these Assyrian kings brought tribes from Babylonia, Elam, Syria, and Arabia and settled them in Samaria and surrounding territory. The new arrivals intermingled with the indigenous people remaining in the land after the deportation and became the Samaritans.<\/p>\n<p>After 10 years of warfare against his enemies to the west in Syria and Asia Minor, and to the north in Urartu, Sargon concentrated his efforts on Babylonia. He chased Merodach-baladan II (721–710 <span>BC<\/span>; cf. 2 Kgs 20:12-19; Is 39:1) to Elam and made himself king of Babylon in 709. He started building a new capital city for himself, Dur-Sharrukin (Khorsabad) near Nineveh but was killed in battle before it was finished.<\/p>\n<p>Sargon was succeeded by his son Sennacherib (705–681 <span>BC<\/span>), who was occupied throughout his reign in a series of bitter wars. He is especially known in biblical studies for his campaign against Judah and siege of Jerusalem during the reign of King Hezekiah (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>) and the ministry of the prophet Isaiah (2 Kgs 18:13–19:37; Is 36–37). It was during that crisis that the celebrated Siloam Tunnel was constructed to bring water into the beleaguered capital from the spring of Gihon, outside the city wall, to the pool of Siloam (2 Kgs 20:20).<\/p>\n<p>Sennacherib was murdered in 681 <span>BC<\/span> and was succeeded by Esarhaddon, who tried unsuccessfully to establish Assyrian control over Egypt. Esarhaddon was succeeded by Ashurbanipal (669–626? <span>BC<\/span>), who managed to capture No-amon (Thebes), thereby realizing the greatest victory in Assyrian history (cf. Na 3:3-10). Ashurbanipal established a great library in Nineveh, which was excavated in 1860. Many tablets made of the finest clay and ranging in size from 1 to 15 inches (2.5 to 38 centimeters) were found, containing a vast selection of Akkadian material. Some of the tablets contain historical records; others, astronomical reports, mathematical calculations, and private or public letters. A considerable part of the collection deals with astrology and medicine. Many of the tablets contain prayers, incantations, psalms, and religious texts in general. A copy of the Babylonian account of creation was also found. This library is now one of the principal treasures of the British Museum in London.<\/p>\n<p>Very little is known about Ashurbanipal’s reign after 639 <span>BC<\/span> since his annals do not extend beyond that year. However, some information on events of his last 13 years can be gleaned from allusions in state correspondence, commercial documents, and prayers addressed to the gods. Evidently the situation in Assyria was becoming increasingly serious, and when Ashurbanipal died in 626 his empire declined quickly.<\/p>\n<p>The Medes had entered the Assyrian annals during the reign of Esarhaddon, when they still consisted of a large number of associated but separate tribes. Later those tribes began to be welded into a single kingdom. Herodotus states that Phraortes, their king, attacked Assyria but lost his life on the battlefield and was succeeded by his son Cyaxeres.<\/p>\n<p>The year 626 <span>BC<\/span> marked several important events in the ancient world. Nabopolassar, a Chaldean prince, became king of Babylon (626–605 <span>BC<\/span>) toward the end of that year. An alliance between the Medes and Nabopolassar was concluded, and from that time on, the success of Nabopolassar against Assyria was almost inevitable. By the year 617 <span>BC<\/span> he had cleared Babylonia of all Assyrian garrisons. He then marched up the Euphrates to the Aramean districts that had been part of the Assyrian Empire for two and a half centuries. The plan was for Nabopolassar to attack Nineveh from the west and the Medes to attack it at the same time from the east; however, the combined forces of the Assyrians and Egyptians, now allies, compelled Nabopolassar to withdraw to Babylon.<\/p>\n<p>In 614 <span>BC<\/span> the Medes carried out a massive attack on Assyria. Although Nineveh was too strong to yield to the attack, the Medes captured some of the neighboring cities, including Asshur, the ancient capital. At that point Nabopolassar arrived with the Babylonian forces. He met Cyaxeres at Asshur, and they established mutual friendship and peace. Their alliance was later confirmed by the marriage of Nebuchadnezzar, Nabopolassar’s son, to Amytis, daughter of Cyaxeres. In 612 <span>BC<\/span> their combined forces launched a final assault against Nineveh, and after three months of siege the mighty city fell (Na 1:8).<\/p>\n<p>Despite the loss of their capital, a weakened Assyrian kingdom survived for three more years. The Assyrian troops who could escape from Nineveh fled westward to Haran, where an Assyrian prince, Asshur-uballit, was made king and sought Egypt’s help to restore the kingship of Assyria. Necho II (609–593 <span>BC<\/span>), known in the Bible as Neco, responded and set off with his Egyptian troops to Haran to fight against the Babylonians, who by now had annihilated Assyria. King Josiah of Judah (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>), who evidently considered himself a vassal of Assyria’s heir, Neo-Babylonia, marched to oppose the Egyptian advance and was mortally wounded by an arrow on the battlefield of Megiddo (2 Kgs 23:29-30; 2 Chr 35:20-24).<\/p>\n<p>When Nabopolassar and his allies attacked Haran in 610 <span>BC<\/span>, Asshur-uballit did not attempt to defend it but fled southwest to await Necho and his troops. The joint forces of the Egyptians and the Assyrians returned to mount an assault upon Haran with some initial success. But Nabopolassar’s army compelled the Assyrian-Egyptian forces to abandon the siege and withdraw to Carchemish (present-day Jarablus). There, under the leadership of Nebuchadnezzar, the Babylonians made a direct attack on the powerful army. The resultant carnage on both sides was graphically depicted by the prophet Jeremiah (46:1-12). Nebuchadnezzar emerged victorious in the battle of Carchemish (605 <span>BC<\/span>). However, because of the death of his father, he did not pursue his victory but returned to Babylon to assume the throne.<\/p>\n<p>There is a tradition in the Assyrian Christian church that after the collapse of the Assyrian Empire under the onslaught of the Medes and Neo-Babylonians, a remnant of the Assyrian people—chiefly princes, noblemen, and warriors—took refuge in the mountains of Kurdistan. There they built a number of armed fortresses. Alexander the Great (336–323 <span>BC<\/span>), his successors, and the Roman legions made no attempt to conquer these tribes. Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117) marched at the head of the Roman armies through Armenia, touching the northern region of Kurdistan, on his way to Persia. It is asserted that the wise men, or magi, who visited the newly born king in Bethlehem, the baby Jesus, came from Edessa. According to this tradition, the magi, on returning from Bethlehem, proclaimed the amazing things they had heard and seen on their visit to the king. A Christian church was founded among the Assyrians that has survived throughout the centuries.<\/p>\n<p>The region that was Assyria, including all of Mesopotamia, is within present-day Iraq, an Arabic-speaking country predominantly Muslim in religion.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Kings, Books of First and Second; Mesopotamia.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ASSYRIA, ASSYRIANS<\/h3>\n<p>Ancient empire considered the symbol of terror and tyranny in the Near East for more than three centuries. Assyria received its name from the tiny city-state Asshur, on the western bank of the Tigris River in northern Mesopotamia (modern Iraq). The city was the seat of worship of the sun god Asshur (also spelled Ashur). The Hebrew name occurs frequently in the Bible and is translated Assyria (Gn 2:14), Assur (Ezr 4:2; Ps 83:8), or left as Asshur (Gn 10:11, <span>kjv<\/span>). The form of the name comes originally from the Akkadian language.<\/p>\n<p>Originally, Assyria was a small district in northern Mesopotamia, lying in a rough triangle between the Tigris River and the Upper Zab, a tributary of the Tigris. Eventually Assyria gained control of northern Syria, securing an outlet to the Mediterranean Sea, and took possession of the fertile Mesopotamian plain, extending Assyrian domain over all of Babylonia to the Persian Gulf.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"History\">History<\/p>\n<h5>Before the Eighth Century <span>BC<\/span><\/h5>\n<p>By the end of the third millennium <span>BC<\/span>, the Sumerians were trading with Assyria and influencing its people culturally. Periodically Sumerian kings would claim political control over Assyria. Sargon of Agade (c. 2350 <span>BC<\/span>) brought Assyria within the sphere of his political and commercial activities, and when the Amorites overthrew the third dynasty of Ur and established their own states, one of them incorporated Assyria into its territory. During the period of Hammurabi, one of the last great kings of the first Babylonian dynasty (c. 2360–1600 <span>BC<\/span>), the Assyrians supplied building materials and other goods for the Babylonian kingdom.<\/p>\n<p>Trade between Asshur and the Assyrian colony of Kanish in Anatolia began at a very early time in Assyrian history. Goods were transported by caravans of up to 200 donkeys at a time. The wealth pouring in from such a trade put Assyria in a very strong position economically.<\/p>\n<p>The early phase of Assyrian commercial development was followed by a long period of decline, culminating in the 15th century <span>BC<\/span>. At that time Assyria was reduced to a state of vassalage by a non-Semitic people, the Hurrians (biblical Horites) of the state of Mitanni. In the 14th century another non-Semitic people, the Hittites, overthrew the power of Mitanni. Assyria was gradually able to rise again and assume the role of a great power in the ancient Near East, largely through the policies of a shrewd prince, Asshur-uballit. His reign marked the beginning of a long process by which Assyria ultimately rose to supremacy.<\/p>\n<p>Enlil-nirari (1329–1320 <span>BC<\/span>), son and successor of Asshur-uballit, attacked Babylon and defeated Kurigalzu II, the Kassite king of Babylon (1345–1324 <span>BC<\/span>). Adad-nirari I (1307–1275 <span>BC<\/span>) extended Assyria’s influence by winning victories over the Kassites in Babylonia. He also added territory to the northwest.<\/p>\n<p>The period of consolidation and expansion in the first Assyrian Empire culminated in the capture of Babylon by Tukulti-ninurta I (1244–1208 <span>BC<\/span>), which for the first time placed Babylon under Assyrian rule. After that climax, however, Assyrian power declined.<\/p>\n<p>The three centuries from about 1200 to 900 <span>BC<\/span> were marked by movements of different peoples such as the Greeks, Philistines, Arameans, and Hebrews. Under pressure of people migrating from Europe, the Hittite Empire, which formerly had given political stability to Asia Minor and protected the trade routes, crumbled rapidly. By 1200 <span>BC<\/span> it fell to attacks by the Sea Peoples from the Greek mainland.<\/p>\n<p>During the tenth century <span>BC<\/span>, Assyria began to make a slow recovery. In the reign of Adad-nirari II (911–891 <span>BC<\/span>), Assyria again launched upon a period of conspicuous economic and military expansion. For the next 60 years Assyrian kings followed a consistent policy of consolidating the work of Adad-nirari II. Ashurnasirpal II (885–860 <span>BC<\/span>) is considered the first great monarch of that new era in Assyrian history. He possessed all the qualities and defects of his successors to the extreme. He had the ambition, energy, courage, vanity, and magnificence of a ruthless, indefatigable empire builder. Ashurnasirpal’s first activities were directed to the mountain area to the east, where he extended Assyria’s control among the mountain people. In the west he subdued the Arameans with characteristic cruelty and did likewise in Asia Minor.<\/p>\n<p>Shalmaneser III is well known to historians of the biblical world for the battle of Qarqar (853 <span>BC<\/span>), considered the most fully documented event from the ancient world. He launched an invasion of Syria that was met by a coalition led by Ben-hadad of Damascus and supported by King Ahab of Israel and several other states. Since Shalmaneser was unable to rout the 60,000 troops opposing him, it was many years before the Assyrians were able to conquer Damascus and Samaria. King Jehu of Israel (841–814 <span>BC<\/span>), who later chose to pay tribute rather than fight, is represented, perhaps by an envoy, on the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III, excavated at Shalmaneser’s capital city, Calah (now called Nimrud). Jehu is depicted as kissing the ground at the Assyrian monarch’s feet and offering a tribute of silver, gold, and lead vessels.<\/p>\n<p>Toward the end of his reign Shalmaneser had to put down a rebellion by some of the principal Assyrian cities. He was succeeded by his heir, Shamshi-adad V (823–811 <span>BC<\/span>). Shamshi-adad’s son Adad-nirari III (810–782 <span>BC<\/span>) built a new palace at Calah and attacked King Hazael of Damascus (Syria) in 804 <span>BC<\/span>. Assyrian pressure on the Syrians undoubtedly was a relief to Israel, which had been oppressed by Hazael (2 Kgs 13:22-25).<\/p>\n<h5>From the Eighth Century to the Battle of Carchemish (605 <span>BC<\/span>)<\/h5>\n<p>Beginning about 800 <span>BC<\/span> the influence of Urartu (Ararat) began to expand, especially in north Syria, at the expense of Assyria. The next half century saw a drastic decline in Assyria’s fortunes. In 746 <span>BC<\/span>, during a revolt in the city of Calah, the entire royal family was murdered.<\/p>\n<p>The final phase of Assyrian power was instituted by the usurper Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>), known also by his adopted Babylonian throne-name Pul (2 Kgs 15:19; 1 Chr 5:26). His reign began the process by which Assyria recovered and consolidated control of all its territories and established itself firmly as the dominant military and economic power in the Near East. Tiglath-pileser first secured control of the mountain passes in the north in order to eliminate the threat of invasion from that direction. Next he subjected Syria and Palestine in the west and took control of the road to Egypt and the Mediterranean Sea. Finally, through diplomacy, he gained the throne of Babylonia also. Under the name of Pul he governed Babylonia, creating the remarkable situation of two crowns united in one ruler bearing two different names. His political prudence was not usually found in the ruthless Assyrian monarchs.<\/p>\n<p>From the year 743 <span>BC<\/span> Tiglath-pileser III waged a number of campaigns in Syria and Palestine. King Menahem of Israel (752–742 <span>BC<\/span>) paid him tribute (2 Kgs 15:19-20), as did Tyre, Byblos, and Damascus. In 738 he subjugated the north central state of Hamath. Responding to an appeal from King Ahaz of Judah (735–715 <span>BC<\/span>) to help resist the pressures of a proposed anti-Assyrian coalition, Tiglath-pileser conquered Damascus in 732 and Samaria, capital of the northern kingdom of Israel, a decade later. On both occasions deportations of people to Assyria took place. The fall of Samaria in 722 <span>BC<\/span> marked the end of the kingdom of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Sargon II (722–705 <span>BC<\/span>) claimed to be the Assyrian ruler who captured Samaria, but the biblical record attributed the capture to Shalmaneser (2 Kgs 17:2-6). To the policy of deportation, Sargon and his successors added that of colonization. To replace the peoples carried into captivity, these Assyrian kings brought tribes from Babylonia, Elam, Syria, and Arabia and settled them in Samaria and surrounding territory. The new arrivals intermingled with the indigenous people remaining in the land after the deportation and became the Samaritans.<\/p>\n<p>After 10 years of warfare against his enemies to the west in Syria and Asia Minor, and to the north in Urartu, Sargon concentrated his efforts on Babylonia. He chased Merodach-baladan II (721–710 <span>BC<\/span>; cf. 2 Kgs 20:12-19; Is 39:1) to Elam and made himself king of Babylon in 709. He started building a new capital city for himself, Dur-Sharrukin (Khorsabad) near Nineveh but was killed in battle before it was finished.<\/p>\n<p>Sargon was succeeded by his son Sennacherib (705–681 <span>BC<\/span>), who was occupied throughout his reign in a series of bitter wars. He is especially known in biblical studies for his campaign against Judah and siege of Jerusalem during the reign of King Hezekiah (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>) and the ministry of the prophet Isaiah (2 Kgs 18:13–19:37; Is 36–37). It was during that crisis that the celebrated Siloam Tunnel was constructed to bring water into the beleaguered capital from the spring of Gihon, outside the city wall, to the pool of Siloam (2 Kgs 20:20).<\/p>\n<p>Sennacherib was murdered in 681 <span>BC<\/span> and was succeeded by Esarhaddon, who tried unsuccessfully to establish Assyrian control over Egypt. Esarhaddon was succeeded by Ashurbanipal (669–626? <span>BC<\/span>), who managed to capture No-amon (Thebes), thereby realizing the greatest victory in Assyrian history (cf. Na 3:3-10). Ashurbanipal established a great library in Nineveh, which was excavated in 1860. Many tablets made of the finest clay and ranging in size from 1 to 15 inches (2.5 to 38 centimeters) were found, containing a vast selection of Akkadian material. Some of the tablets contain historical records; others, astronomical reports, mathematical calculations, and private or public letters. A considerable part of the collection deals with astrology and medicine. Many of the tablets contain prayers, incantations, psalms, and religious texts in general. A copy of the Babylonian account of creation was also found. This library is now one of the principal treasures of the British Museum in London.<\/p>\n<p>Very little is known about Ashurbanipal’s reign after 639 <span>BC<\/span> since his annals do not extend beyond that year. However, some information on events of his last 13 years can be gleaned from allusions in state correspondence, commercial documents, and prayers addressed to the gods. Evidently the situation in Assyria was becoming increasingly serious, and when Ashurbanipal died in 626 his empire declined quickly.<\/p>\n<p>The Medes had entered the Assyrian annals during the reign of Esarhaddon, when they still consisted of a large number of associated but separate tribes. Later those tribes began to be welded into a single kingdom. Herodotus states that Phraortes, their king, attacked Assyria but lost his life on the battlefield and was succeeded by his son Cyaxeres.<\/p>\n<p>The year 626 <span>BC<\/span> marked several important events in the ancient world. Nabopolassar, a Chaldean prince, became king of Babylon (626–605 <span>BC<\/span>) toward the end of that year. An alliance between the Medes and Nabopolassar was concluded, and from that time on, the success of Nabopolassar against Assyria was almost inevitable. By the year 617 <span>BC<\/span> he had cleared Babylonia of all Assyrian garrisons. He then marched up the Euphrates to the Aramean districts that had been part of the Assyrian Empire for two and a half centuries. The plan was for Nabopolassar to attack Nineveh from the west and the Medes to attack it at the same time from the east; however, the combined forces of the Assyrians and Egyptians, now allies, compelled Nabopolassar to withdraw to Babylon.<\/p>\n<p>In 614 <span>BC<\/span> the Medes carried out a massive attack on Assyria. Although Nineveh was too strong to yield to the attack, the Medes captured some of the neighboring cities, including Asshur, the ancient capital. At that point Nabopolassar arrived with the Babylonian forces. He met Cyaxeres at Asshur, and they established mutual friendship and peace. Their alliance was later confirmed by the marriage of Nebuchadnezzar, Nabopolassar’s son, to Amytis, daughter of Cyaxeres. In 612 <span>BC<\/span> their combined forces launched a final assault against Nineveh, and after three months of siege the mighty city fell (Na 1:8).<\/p>\n<p>Despite the loss of their capital, a weakened Assyrian kingdom survived for three more years. The Assyrian troops who could escape from Nineveh fled westward to Haran, where an Assyrian prince, Asshur-uballit, was made king and sought Egypt’s help to restore the kingship of Assyria. Necho II (609–593 <span>BC<\/span>), known in the Bible as Neco, responded and set off with his Egyptian troops to Haran to fight against the Babylonians, who by now had annihilated Assyria. King Josiah of Judah (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>), who evidently considered himself a vassal of Assyria’s heir, Neo-Babylonia, marched to oppose the Egyptian advance and was mortally wounded by an arrow on the battlefield of Megiddo (2 Kgs 23:29-30; 2 Chr 35:20-24).<\/p>\n<p>When Nabopolassar and his allies attacked Haran in 610 <span>BC<\/span>, Asshur-uballit did not attempt to defend it but fled southwest to await Necho and his troops. The joint forces of the Egyptians and the Assyrians returned to mount an assault upon Haran with some initial success. But Nabopolassar’s army compelled the Assyrian-Egyptian forces to abandon the siege and withdraw to Carchemish (present-day Jarablus). There, under the leadership of Nebuchadnezzar, the Babylonians made a direct attack on the powerful army. The resultant carnage on both sides was graphically depicted by the prophet Jeremiah (46:1-12). Nebuchadnezzar emerged victorious in the battle of Carchemish (605 <span>BC<\/span>). However, because of the death of his father, he did not pursue his victory but returned to Babylon to assume the throne.<\/p>\n<p>There is a tradition in the Assyrian Christian church that after the collapse of the Assyrian Empire under the onslaught of the Medes and Neo-Babylonians, a remnant of the Assyrian people—chiefly princes, noblemen, and warriors—took refuge in the mountains of Kurdistan. There they built a number of armed fortresses. Alexander the Great (336–323 <span>BC<\/span>), his successors, and the Roman legions made no attempt to conquer these tribes. Trajan (<span>AD<\/span> 98–117) marched at the head of the Roman armies through Armenia, touching the northern region of Kurdistan, on his way to Persia. It is asserted that the wise men, or magi, who visited the newly born king in Bethlehem, the baby Jesus, came from Edessa. According to this tradition, the magi, on returning from Bethlehem, proclaimed the amazing things they had heard and seen on their visit to the king. A Christian church was founded among the Assyrians that has survived throughout the centuries.<\/p>\n<p>The region that was Assyria, including all of Mesopotamia, is within present-day Iraq, an Arabic-speaking country predominantly Muslim in religion.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Kings, Books of First and Second; Mesopotamia.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ASSYRIA, ASSYRIANS Ancient empire considered the symbol of terror and tyranny in the Near East for more than three centuries. Assyria received its name from the tiny city-state Asshur, on the western bank of the Tigris River in northern Mesopotamia (modern Iraq). The city was the seat of worship of the sun god Asshur (also spelled Ashur). The Hebrew name occurs frequently in the Bible and is translated Assyria (Gn 2:14), Assur (Ezr 4:2; Ps 83:8), or left as Asshur (Gn 10:11, kjv). The form of...","summary_en":"ASSYRIA, ASSYRIANS Ancient empire considered the symbol of terror and tyranny in the Near East for more than three centuries. Assyria received its name from the tiny city-state Asshur, on the western bank of the Tigris River in northern Mesopotamia (modern Iraq). The city was the seat of worship of the sun god Asshur (also spelled Ashur). The Hebrew name occurs frequently in the Bible and is translated Assyria (Gn 2:14), Assur (Ezr 4:2; Ps 83:8), or left as Asshur (Gn 10:11, kjv). The form of...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":8569,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Daniel","title_en":"Book of Daniel","content_ro":"<h3>DANIEL, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Fourth book of the Major Prophets in the OT, characterized by vivid symbolism and reflecting heroic historical events during the Babylonian exile of the Jewish people. Because Daniel is not an easy book to understand, its interpretation requires careful study and reflection. Daniel himself wrote, when reflecting on the meaning of one of his visions, “I was greatly troubled by the vision and could not understand it” (Dn 8:27, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In the old Jewish division of the OT, Daniel is part of the third section, called the Writings, along with such books as Psalms, Proverbs, and Job. It was not included in the second section of the OT, called the Prophets. Although portions of his book may be interpreted from a prophetic perspective, Daniel is never explicitly identified as a prophet. The book’s two major divisions are narratives about Daniel’s life (1–6) and Daniel’s visions (7–12).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Language<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content: Stories about Daniel (1–6)<\/p>\n<p>• Content: Daniel’s Visions (7–12)<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>In terms of having a known author, the book of Daniel is anonymous, as are many books coming from the ancient world. The existing text bears only a title, “Daniel,” identifying the key subject matter of the book: the man himself.<\/p>\n<p>The first six chapters of the book contain information about Daniel written in the third person; beginning in Daniel 7:2, however, the book purports to contain words written by Daniel in the first person. Although the traditional view within Judaism, later adopted by Christianity, was that Daniel wrote the entire book named for him, there is little confirming evidence. Jesus’ words about things “spoken of by the prophet Daniel” (Mt 24:15) do not clarify who wrote the whole book, since the words in question appear in the second half of the book of Daniel, explicitly identified as his words. Thus the problem of who wrote the first part remains.<\/p>\n<p>Whether or not Daniel wrote the entire book, he is definitely the key character. The only source of information about him is the book itself. Daniel was a Hebrew from Judah, probably of royal lineage, born late in the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>. As a young boy, he was taken from his homeland to Babylon (in what is now southern Iraq) around 605 <span>BC<\/span>. There, after three years of formal education in language and literature (Dn 1:4-5), he became an official in the royal household. The first six chapters tell of particular incidents in Daniel’s life but do not provide a comprehensive biography of his life and times.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s name means “God is my judge.” As a foreign resident in Babylon, he was given another name, Belteshazzar, which may have meant “may Bel (god) protect his life” in the Babylonian language.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Uncertainty about the authorship of the book of Daniel naturally contributes to uncertainty about the date of its writing. If Daniel was the author of the whole book, a date in the second half of the sixth century <span>BC<\/span> is likely. If he was not the author, a later date is possible. The conservative interpretation has usually been that the book was written in the sixth century <span>BC<\/span>. An alternative position is that the book was written about 165 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Evidence exists to support both the early and late dates of Daniel. Those who argue for a late date and an author besides Daniel normally use two lines of argument, one historical and the other linguistic. But those espousing an earlier date have counterarguments, all of which are discussed below.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Argument<\/h5>\n<p>According to the historical argument, the writer was thoroughly familiar with the history of Near Eastern imperial power from the sixth to the second centuries, but had an incomplete, erroneous view of the historical details in the second half of the sixth century, Daniel’s era. Such an imbalance in knowledge implies a late date of writing.<\/p>\n<p>The first part of the historical argument must be conceded by those holding a more conservative view. The book of Daniel does present a remarkable knowledge of Near Eastern history. The critical question is whether that knowledge was normal human knowledge, gained after the events, or special knowledge revealed to Daniel beforehand. That question is answered in different ways by different people, depending on their view of prophecy and other factors.<\/p>\n<p>The second part of the historical argument is technically more complex. Was the writer’s knowledge of history in the late sixth century <span>BC<\/span> really erroneous? The most significant problem is that of the identity of Darius the Mede (Dn 5:30-31). The book of Daniel says that Darius the Mede conquered Babylon and was succeeded at a later date by Cyrus. External historical sources contain no reference to a Darius at the time, but show clearly that it was Cyrus who conquered Babylon. Advocates of a late date consider that strong evidence. Those who advocate an early date have no simple solution to the problem. One proposed solution is that Darius and Cyrus are two names for the same person. A basis for that hypothesis is that Daniel 6:28 can be translated: “Daniel prospered in the reign of Darius, even [that is] the reign of Cyrus the Persian.” An analogy appears in the use of the names Pul and Tiglath-pileser in 1 Chronicles 5:26. In summary, the dating of Daniel on the basis of the writer’s historical knowledge is difficult, whether one suggests an early or late date.<\/p>\n<h5>Linguistic Argument<\/h5>\n<p>The linguistic arguments for the date of Daniel are also complex, especially for a person not familiar with the original languages of the book (Hebrew and Aramaic). Advocates of a late date use three related arguments: (1) the Aramaic language of the book is typical of late Aramaic (second century <span>BC<\/span> and later); (2) the presence of Persian loan words is a further indication of the late date of the book’s Aramaic; and (3) the presence of Greek loan words in the Aramaic shows that the language must be dated after the time of Alexander the Great’s conquest of the Orient (c. 330 <span>BC<\/span>). For the advocates of a late date for the book’s composition, the last argument is most compelling. It would be impossible, they affirm, to find Greek loan words in Aramaic two centuries before Alexander’s time.<\/p>\n<p>Although the arguments are at first convincing, on closer examination they are less persuasive to those who hold the conservative view. Each of the three parts of the argument has been answered.<\/p>\n<p>1. Aramaic was in common use in the Near East from about the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>, being recognized as an official language in Assyria from the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>. Ninety percent of the Aramaic words in Daniel were used in that older language, in both the Old and Imperial Aramaic dialects. The remaining 10 percent, known only in later texts in the light of present evidence, might indicate a late date, but they could equally be early uses of the words in question.<\/p>\n<li>2. The evidence of Persian loan words in Aramaic can function like a boomerang. It is true that later Aramaic has many Persian loan words (about 19 appear in Daniel), but one can give an alternative explanation for Persian loan words in Daniel at an early date. The story of Daniel is set, in part, in the context of life in a Persian-controlled court. The Persians used Aramaic in their administrative control of the empire, and their own language inevitably penetrated Aramaic. If one assumes an early date for the book of Daniel, then it was being written in precisely the period when Persian would be having its greatest influence on Aramaic.<\/li>\n<li>3. The evidence of Greek words in Daniel’s Aramaic (a total of three) is not altogether compelling. Greek (or “Ionian”) traders traveled in various parts of the Near East from the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> onward. Greek mercenaries fought for Near Eastern states in and after the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>. In Daniel’s lifetime King Nebuchadnezzar is known to have employed Greek artisans in the city of Babylon. Thus, it is unnecessary to limit the possibilities of Greek penetration of the Aramaic language to the period after Alexander. The conqueror was by no means the first Greek to set foot in the Orient.<\/li>\n<h5>Conclusion<\/h5>\n<p>The historical and linguistic arguments for the date of Daniel are inconclusive for either an early or late date of writing. To a large extent, dating the book depends on other matters, such as authorship, intention, and the extent to which one takes a “prophetic” interpretation of portions of the book. To postulate that Daniel was the author is consistent with the evidence currently available. Further, evidence provided by some of the Daniel material from the Dead Sea Scrolls at Qumran does not support a late date for the book. All Daniel manuscripts and fragments are second-century <span>BC<\/span> copies, thus requiring an earlier date for the original. One manuscript, related paleographically to the large Isaiah Scroll, must have come originally from the same period—estimated to be several centuries before the Qumran copy of Isaiah. Other manuscripts from Qumran show that no OT canonical material was composed later than the Persian period. Thus, no manuscript evidence exists for a second-century <span>BC<\/span> date for Daniel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Language\">Language<\/p>\n<p>One of the most interesting features of the book of Daniel is not immediately evident to a reader of the English Bible. The book is bilingual. Daniel 1:1–2:4a and Daniel 8–12 are written in Hebrew, the language of the other OT books. The middle section (Dn 2:4b–7:28), however, is written in Aramaic, a different but related language. Various explanations have been offered for this phenomenon. Some have suggested that an original Aramaic book was expanded by a Hebrew writer, with additions to the original book at the beginning and the end. Others suggest that a portion of the original Hebrew book was lost, so the missing section was replaced from a surviving Aramaic translation. More complex and ingenious suggestions have also been made, but none has been commonly accepted.<\/p>\n<p>Another suggestion is possible. The book of Daniel (whatever date one prefers) may simply reflect the bilingual character of its cultural setting. (As a modern example, consider the many written materials in Canada that appear in both English and French.) Finally, one can regard the bilingual character as another of the mysterious aspects of the book that make its interpretation difficult.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The background of the book of Daniel can be examined from two perspectives. It may be viewed from the perspective of the Babylonian exile, of which Daniel was a part (early sixth century <span>BC<\/span>), or in the light of future historical events (second century <span>BC<\/span>), toward which the visions in the book’s second half seem to point.<\/p>\n<h5>The Babylonian Exile<\/h5>\n<p>Although Daniel himself was exiled about 605 <span>BC<\/span>, the major phase of the Babylonian exile began in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, following the defeat of the kingdom of Judah and the destruction of Jerusalem. The account extends through the reigns of Nebuchadnezzar (properly Nebuchadrezzar) and Belshazzar, culminating in the early years of the Persian king Cyrus, who took over the city of Babylon in 539 <span>BC<\/span>. For the Jews the exile was a time of hardship but also a time of renewed theological understanding. Both aspects are reflected in the book of Daniel.<\/p>\n<h5>The Seleucid Period in Palestine<\/h5>\n<p>Daniel’s visions in the latter half of the book appear to refer to the Seleucid period in Palestine, specifically the time when the Jews were ruled by Antiochus Epiphanes, a member of the Seleucid dynasty (175–163 <span>BC<\/span>). Whether the visions were prophetic anticipations of future events or reflections of contemporary culture, the Seleucid period is important to a full understanding of the book.<\/p>\n<p>Under Antiochus, Palestinian Jews experienced a time of considerable hardship. The ancient faith was severely undermined, the high priesthood in Jerusalem was sold to the highest bidder, and the temple was desecrated in several ways. Pressure was exerted on the Jews to adapt their lives and faith to Hellenistic (Greek-influenced) culture. Although some capitulated, others refused and steadfastly held firm to the old faith. A rebellion against the oppressive measures of Antiochus began in 168 <span>BC<\/span>. By 164 the rebels had largely succeeded in getting rid of the objectionable practices. But the Seleucid period was generally a bad time for faithful Jews, when all the forces of history seemed to work against the true faith. Part of the book of Daniel’s greatness lies in its theological understanding of history, which enabled men and women to continue living in faith through a time of terrible crisis.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The scriptural section of the OT called the Writings served a variety of purposes. The psalms, for example, were used primarily in Israel’s worship. The proverbs may have been part of Israel’s school curriculum. The book of Job addressed a specific human and theological problem.<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the book of Daniel is not so easy to determine, since it is essentially a story, a partial biography of Daniel. It is not strictly a prophetic book, nor is it history in the modern sense. Much of it is concerned with dreams and their interpretations.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, the word “history” provides a clue to its purpose. Daniel seeks to provide theological understanding of history. The first six chapters tell about Daniel and his companions, not merely to satisfy historical curiosity but to teach the reader. OT theology insisted that the God of Israel participated in human life and history. To read biblical history, therefore, is to discover God’s participation in human affairs and to learn how God and human beings relate to each other. In the opening chapters of Daniel one reads of events in the life of a man of remarkable faith, the kind of history from which one may learn how to live.<\/p>\n<p>The last six chapters focus on Daniel’s dreams. Although neither the dreams nor the interpretations are easy to understand, it is possible to see the theme of history emerging again. The emphasis in chapters 7–12 is not on history as a record of past events but on the meaning of history and the world’s future. In the biblical perspective, the movements of human societies in the present and future matter as much as past history. Though Daniel’s visions are dominated by nations and superpowers, they have a more basic theme: God’s power over human beings and nations. History often appears to be a conglomeration of chaos and human conflict. Yet God ultimately controls history and moves it toward a goal. In spite of ambiguous details at the end of the book, Daniel provides hope for people living in a time of crisis. Even if what is said about the “time of the end” cannot be understood now (Dn 12:9), the end of history is full of hope for those with faith in God (v 13). The purpose of the book of Daniel thus has to do with the meaning of history, both what can be learned from the past and what can be hoped for in the present and future.<\/p>\n<p>The book also contains specific theological statements on such matters as human faith, divine salvation, and the nature of revelation. One theological matter in Daniel deserves particular attention: the doctrine of resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>The NT’s clear doctrine of resurrection followed by judgment is not a central theme in the OT. For the most part, the Hebrews’ faith was fixed on the realities of earthly life. Hope for life beyond the grave is hinted at in many texts but remains implicit. Only in the later writings of the OT, especially those of Ezekiel and Daniel, does a more explicit doctrine of resurrection develop.<\/p>\n\n<p>The focal point of that doctrine in the book of Daniel is 12:2: “Many of those whose bodies lie dead and buried will rise up, some to everlasting life and some to shame and everlasting contempt” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The doctrine of personal resurrection provides a basis for individual hope within an understanding of present and future history. Nations move against nations in apparent turmoil. God is believed to be in ultimate control, but what becomes of all the people who die while history is still in motion? The dead shall rise again, says Daniel, and in their resurrection bodies shall be judged according to their deeds. Some will be rewarded with everlasting life, but others will be condemned to shame.<\/p>\n<p>To the readers of the book of Daniel, the doctrine of resurrection provided hope in an otherwise bleak and hopeless world. It was a reminder that the actions of earthly life are important—they form the basis of future judgment. The world has a larger horizon of life beyond the body’s death. Ultimately, there will be justice, even though justice is rarely seen in the present existence. Evildoers may live without ever being punished. Yet beyond the death of the body lies a final judgment characterized by God’s justice.<\/p>\n<p>So the book of Daniel is about history and hope. Life must be lived now; for that, the book offers in the first six chapters the insight of Daniel’s experience. Life is lived in the context of war and international chaos; for that, chapters 7–12 depict God’s sovereignty and his purposes in history. Individual life moves toward death; for that, the writer speaks of resurrection and judgment.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ContentStoriesaboutDaniel16\">Content: Stories about Daniel (1–6)<\/p>\n<h5>Daniel and His Companions (1:1-21)<\/h5>\n<p>Daniel and his companions—Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah—were exiled to Babylon some 19 years before the main exile following the destruction of Jerusalem. The four healthy young men, selected from among many Jewish exiles, were at the command of King Nebuchadnezzar assigned to a special three-year training program to make them court aides.<\/p>\n<p>As soon as the four Jewish youths entered Babylon’s high society, they faced a dietary problem. The king provided them with the best food and wine from the royal kitchens, but a Jew’s diet was restricted by the laws of God (see Dt 14). The four asked for a diet of vegetables and water, not to be fussy or ungrateful, but to remain faithful to their God. The story tells how the dietary situation worked out and sees them through their education and Daniel’s appointment as a royal counselor.<\/p>\n<p>The first episode thus focuses on a key issue faced by all Jewish exiles: How could one live in a foreign land, with foreign food and customs, yet remain faithful to God and his laws? Daniel provided a model. He was courageous enough not to compromise, but wise enough to seek a solution acceptable to all. His faithfulness was rewarded by God. By the end of the episode, Daniel is seen as a person with special wisdom and gifts from God. The rest of his life was marked by the exercise of those gifts.<\/p>\n<h5>Nebuchadnezzar’s Dream (2:1-49)<\/h5>\n<p>The king had a dream and, although he could not remember its substance, it weighed heavily on his mind. When his corps of professional interpreters could do nothing for him, he ordered that they be executed. The king’s order included Daniel and his companions, whose training qualified them as interpreters. Daniel obtained a stay of execution by offering to interpret the dream. After prayer, Daniel received from God both the substance of the dream and its interpretation, which he relayed to the king. The grateful Nebuchadnezzar promoted Daniel and his companions to important positions in Babylon.<\/p>\n<p>Although the writer recorded both the king’s dream and Daniel’s interpretation, the problem for a modern reader is how to interpret the interpretation. The king saw in his dream a statue, with head of gold, chest and arms of silver, belly and thighs of brass, legs of iron, and feet of part iron and part clay. The interpretation identified Nebuchadnezzar as the head of gold. His kingdom would be followed by three other kingdoms, each represented by the statue’s parts and substances. At that point modern interpretations begin to diverge.<\/p>\n<p>A common interpretation of the four sequential kingdoms is as follows: Chaldean Empire (gold), MedoPersian Empire (silver), Greece (brass), Rome (iron and clay). Others suggest an alternative interpretation: Chaldean Empire (gold), Media (silver), Persia (brass), Greece (iron and clay). To focus too much attention on identifying the four kingdoms can result in failure to see the chapter’s key feature. From the midst of those human kingdoms, “During the reigns of those kings, the God of heaven will set up a kingdom that will never be destroyed; no one will ever conquer it. It will shatter all these kingdoms into nothingness, but it will stand forever” (2:44, <span>nlt<\/span>). The Babylonian king’s dream anticipated the coming of a greater kingdom, that of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<h5>The Fiery Furnace (3:1-30)<\/h5>\n<p>The story continues, focusing on Daniel’s three friends and using their Babylonian names—Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego. King Nebuchadnezzar constructed a massive gold statue, 90 feet (27.4 meters) high. At its dedication ceremony everyone was required to bow down and worship as a band began to play. The three young Hebrews, who refused to worship, were summoned before the king. Their continued firm refusal led to a sentence of execution, and they were thrown into a fiercely burning furnace. Remarkably, they did not burn, and a fourth being appeared with them in the furnace. As they emerged unharmed from the ordeal, the king acknowledged God’s power of salvation and rewarded them.<\/p>\n<p>The story illustrates a second dilemma of the Jews in exile. Faithfulness to God’s first commandment, “You shall have no other gods before me” (Dt 5:7), could lead to death. The three young men were faithful—not out of confidence that God would rescue them, but whether or not he chose to spare their lives (Dn 3:17-18). As it happened, God delivered them; they were tossed into the furnace bound, but they came out free men. The message was profound: certainly the Jews should believe in a God able to deliver from the flames of persecution, but they should believe and hold fast even if no deliverance could be seen beyond the trial.<\/p>\n<h5>Nebuchadnezzar’s Second Dream and Madness (4:1-37)<\/h5>\n<p>On two occasions Nebuchadnezzar had confessed faith in the living God: when Daniel had interpreted his dream of the statue (2:47), and on the release of Daniel’s three companions from the furnace (3:28). Nonetheless, the king’s faith was shallow. The story in chapter 4 recounts a lapse of faith that brought terrible consequences. After eight years, when those consequences had run their course, the king again acknowledged God (4:37).<\/p>\n<p>The entire story is presented in the form of a proclamation, written by Nebuchadnezzar and widely circulated after the events in the story had transpired. The king dreamed of a tall tree growing in a field to ever greater heights. A divine messenger ordered the tree cut down, with only a stump and roots left in the ground. The stump and roots then took the form of a man, but the man’s mind was replaced with that of an animal. For seven years that semihuman creature behaved like a beast.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel showed the king how the dream applied to the king himself. Nebuchadnezzar was the great tree that would be cut down; he would behave like a beast in the field for seven years. One year after the king had been told that interpretation, the judgment came. For seven years he behaved like an animal until his sanity returned.<\/p>\n<p>The moral of the king’s story is that his madness was no accident but rather divine judgment. His arrogant belief that he had the power of God led to heavy retribution (4:30). The king was probably afflicted with a rare and peculiar form of mental illness today called “boanthropy.” The true meaning of the story lies at a deeper level: to think that one is God, having absolute power and control of one’s own life, is madness. That kind of madness can be cured and overcome only with the realization that absolute power and authority belong to God alone.<\/p>\n<h5>Belshazzar’s Feast (5:1-31)<\/h5>\n<p>The scene shifts to the reign of a later king in Babylon, Belshazzar. The son of Nabonidus, he was probably co-regent with Nabonidus (555?–539 <span>BC<\/span>), with special authority in the region of Babylon. The theme of his story is similar to that of chapter 4. Belshazzar, in the course of an enormous feast, called for the sacred vessels captured from the temple in Jerusalem. With the sacred vessels the Babylonians toasted the local gods, a sacrilegious act that invited divine judgment. It came in the form of words written on the wall by a hand, which Daniel interpreted for the king as words of judgment (5:26-28). Although he praised Daniel for the interpretation, the king missed both the true meaning of the words and the lesson taught to Nebuchadnezzar, his predecessor (vv 18-22). Belshazzar was killed that very night when Darius the Mede entered the city and captured it. The theme continues remorselessly: human pride and arrogance do not pass unnoticed by the God of history, who controls and directs human events toward the fulfillment of his purpose.<\/p>\n<h5>The Den of Lions (6:1-28)<\/h5>\n<p>The theme of chapter 6 is similar to that of chapter 3, but with Daniel as the story’s central figure. He is portrayed as one unwilling to compromise, fully obedient to Darius as long as that was possible, but unwilling to disobey the law of God. Hence, Daniel knowingly disobeyed a royal decree that prohibited prayer to anyone other than the king himself. Although he was aware of the consequences, Daniel remained faithful to God. The immediate outcome, when his enemies reported him, was an order of execution—Daniel was thrown to the lions. He was delivered from the hungry cats, and the king, relieved of a terrible predicament, had the plotters punished.<\/p>\n<p>A double message emerges from the story. On the one hand, God’s servant must be faithful in prayer and worship, regardless of the outcome; God delivers, and in that case did deliver Daniel from disaster. On the other hand, the effect of Daniel’s faithfulness was that the king, who had ordered his subjects to worship him, learned about true worship (6:25-27). The effects of faithfulness, like ripples from a pebble tossed in a pool, spread far beyond the one who is faithful.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ContentDanielsVisions712\">Content: Daniel’s Visions (7–12)<\/p>\n<p>With the beginning of chapter 7 the chronological sequence of the book of Daniel changes; Daniel’s first vision goes back to the first year of Belshazzar (7:1), but subsequent visions take place as late as the reign of Cyrus, the Persian king (10:1). Chapters 7–12 emphasize the meaning of history and God’s sovereignty in history, expressed in the mysterious symbolism of dreams. The whole section can be divided as follows: (1) vision of four beasts (7:1-28); (2) vision of the ram and the goat (8:1-27); (3) Daniel’s prayer (9:1-27); (4) vision of the end times (10:1–12:13).<\/p>\n<p>The first vision again takes up the theme of four kingdoms, already seen in Nebuchadnezzar’s dream (ch 2). In the second vision the focus is narrowed down to two kingdoms, Persia and Greece. Much of the final vision of the end times deals with events occurring during the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes in the second century <span>BC<\/span>. All the visions play on the same theme. Although human kingdoms may exert their might in a chaotic world, the sovereign God acts through history’s apparent chaos toward an ultimate goal of salvation.<\/p>\n<p>The primary interpretation of the visions can be perceived in past historical events, but a further messianic dimension can be seen in the light of the NT. That dimension is most evident in chapter 7. In the context of the four kingdoms, a divine court of judgment is established, presided over by the “Ancient of Days”—the almighty God (7:9). Then Daniel sees the arrival of “one like a son of man” (7:13). Though the phrase “son of man” was later perceived to be a messianic title, it did not technically have that meaning in the book of Daniel. Daniel 7:13 is a principal source for the title “Son of Man,” which Jesus commonly used to designate himself. His most significant use of that term was at his trial, where he directly associated his title with Daniel 7 (Mt 26:63-64).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Daniel (Person) #3; Diaspora of the Jews; Israel, History of; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DANIEL, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Fourth book of the Major Prophets in the OT, characterized by vivid symbolism and reflecting heroic historical events during the Babylonian exile of the Jewish people. Because Daniel is not an easy book to understand, its interpretation requires careful study and reflection. Daniel himself wrote, when reflecting on the meaning of one of his visions, “I was greatly troubled by the vision and could not understand it” (Dn 8:27, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>In the old Jewish division of the OT, Daniel is part of the third section, called the Writings, along with such books as Psalms, Proverbs, and Job. It was not included in the second section of the OT, called the Prophets. Although portions of his book may be interpreted from a prophetic perspective, Daniel is never explicitly identified as a prophet. The book’s two major divisions are narratives about Daniel’s life (1–6) and Daniel’s visions (7–12).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Language<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content: Stories about Daniel (1–6)<\/p>\n<p>• Content: Daniel’s Visions (7–12)<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>In terms of having a known author, the book of Daniel is anonymous, as are many books coming from the ancient world. The existing text bears only a title, “Daniel,” identifying the key subject matter of the book: the man himself.<\/p>\n<p>The first six chapters of the book contain information about Daniel written in the third person; beginning in Daniel 7:2, however, the book purports to contain words written by Daniel in the first person. Although the traditional view within Judaism, later adopted by Christianity, was that Daniel wrote the entire book named for him, there is little confirming evidence. Jesus’ words about things “spoken of by the prophet Daniel” (Mt 24:15) do not clarify who wrote the whole book, since the words in question appear in the second half of the book of Daniel, explicitly identified as his words. Thus the problem of who wrote the first part remains.<\/p>\n<p>Whether or not Daniel wrote the entire book, he is definitely the key character. The only source of information about him is the book itself. Daniel was a Hebrew from Judah, probably of royal lineage, born late in the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>. As a young boy, he was taken from his homeland to Babylon (in what is now southern Iraq) around 605 <span>BC<\/span>. There, after three years of formal education in language and literature (Dn 1:4-5), he became an official in the royal household. The first six chapters tell of particular incidents in Daniel’s life but do not provide a comprehensive biography of his life and times.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel’s name means “God is my judge.” As a foreign resident in Babylon, he was given another name, Belteshazzar, which may have meant “may Bel (god) protect his life” in the Babylonian language.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Uncertainty about the authorship of the book of Daniel naturally contributes to uncertainty about the date of its writing. If Daniel was the author of the whole book, a date in the second half of the sixth century <span>BC<\/span> is likely. If he was not the author, a later date is possible. The conservative interpretation has usually been that the book was written in the sixth century <span>BC<\/span>. An alternative position is that the book was written about 165 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Evidence exists to support both the early and late dates of Daniel. Those who argue for a late date and an author besides Daniel normally use two lines of argument, one historical and the other linguistic. But those espousing an earlier date have counterarguments, all of which are discussed below.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Argument<\/h5>\n<p>According to the historical argument, the writer was thoroughly familiar with the history of Near Eastern imperial power from the sixth to the second centuries, but had an incomplete, erroneous view of the historical details in the second half of the sixth century, Daniel’s era. Such an imbalance in knowledge implies a late date of writing.<\/p>\n<p>The first part of the historical argument must be conceded by those holding a more conservative view. The book of Daniel does present a remarkable knowledge of Near Eastern history. The critical question is whether that knowledge was normal human knowledge, gained after the events, or special knowledge revealed to Daniel beforehand. That question is answered in different ways by different people, depending on their view of prophecy and other factors.<\/p>\n<p>The second part of the historical argument is technically more complex. Was the writer’s knowledge of history in the late sixth century <span>BC<\/span> really erroneous? The most significant problem is that of the identity of Darius the Mede (Dn 5:30-31). The book of Daniel says that Darius the Mede conquered Babylon and was succeeded at a later date by Cyrus. External historical sources contain no reference to a Darius at the time, but show clearly that it was Cyrus who conquered Babylon. Advocates of a late date consider that strong evidence. Those who advocate an early date have no simple solution to the problem. One proposed solution is that Darius and Cyrus are two names for the same person. A basis for that hypothesis is that Daniel 6:28 can be translated: “Daniel prospered in the reign of Darius, even [that is] the reign of Cyrus the Persian.” An analogy appears in the use of the names Pul and Tiglath-pileser in 1 Chronicles 5:26. In summary, the dating of Daniel on the basis of the writer’s historical knowledge is difficult, whether one suggests an early or late date.<\/p>\n<h5>Linguistic Argument<\/h5>\n<p>The linguistic arguments for the date of Daniel are also complex, especially for a person not familiar with the original languages of the book (Hebrew and Aramaic). Advocates of a late date use three related arguments: (1) the Aramaic language of the book is typical of late Aramaic (second century <span>BC<\/span> and later); (2) the presence of Persian loan words is a further indication of the late date of the book’s Aramaic; and (3) the presence of Greek loan words in the Aramaic shows that the language must be dated after the time of Alexander the Great’s conquest of the Orient (c. 330 <span>BC<\/span>). For the advocates of a late date for the book’s composition, the last argument is most compelling. It would be impossible, they affirm, to find Greek loan words in Aramaic two centuries before Alexander’s time.<\/p>\n<p>Although the arguments are at first convincing, on closer examination they are less persuasive to those who hold the conservative view. Each of the three parts of the argument has been answered.<\/p>\n<p>1. Aramaic was in common use in the Near East from about the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>, being recognized as an official language in Assyria from the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>. Ninety percent of the Aramaic words in Daniel were used in that older language, in both the Old and Imperial Aramaic dialects. The remaining 10 percent, known only in later texts in the light of present evidence, might indicate a late date, but they could equally be early uses of the words in question.<\/p>\n<li>2. The evidence of Persian loan words in Aramaic can function like a boomerang. It is true that later Aramaic has many Persian loan words (about 19 appear in Daniel), but one can give an alternative explanation for Persian loan words in Daniel at an early date. The story of Daniel is set, in part, in the context of life in a Persian-controlled court. The Persians used Aramaic in their administrative control of the empire, and their own language inevitably penetrated Aramaic. If one assumes an early date for the book of Daniel, then it was being written in precisely the period when Persian would be having its greatest influence on Aramaic.<\/li>\n<li>3. The evidence of Greek words in Daniel’s Aramaic (a total of three) is not altogether compelling. Greek (or “Ionian”) traders traveled in various parts of the Near East from the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> onward. Greek mercenaries fought for Near Eastern states in and after the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>. In Daniel’s lifetime King Nebuchadnezzar is known to have employed Greek artisans in the city of Babylon. Thus, it is unnecessary to limit the possibilities of Greek penetration of the Aramaic language to the period after Alexander. The conqueror was by no means the first Greek to set foot in the Orient.<\/li>\n<h5>Conclusion<\/h5>\n<p>The historical and linguistic arguments for the date of Daniel are inconclusive for either an early or late date of writing. To a large extent, dating the book depends on other matters, such as authorship, intention, and the extent to which one takes a “prophetic” interpretation of portions of the book. To postulate that Daniel was the author is consistent with the evidence currently available. Further, evidence provided by some of the Daniel material from the Dead Sea Scrolls at Qumran does not support a late date for the book. All Daniel manuscripts and fragments are second-century <span>BC<\/span> copies, thus requiring an earlier date for the original. One manuscript, related paleographically to the large Isaiah Scroll, must have come originally from the same period—estimated to be several centuries before the Qumran copy of Isaiah. Other manuscripts from Qumran show that no OT canonical material was composed later than the Persian period. Thus, no manuscript evidence exists for a second-century <span>BC<\/span> date for Daniel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Language\">Language<\/p>\n<p>One of the most interesting features of the book of Daniel is not immediately evident to a reader of the English Bible. The book is bilingual. Daniel 1:1–2:4a and Daniel 8–12 are written in Hebrew, the language of the other OT books. The middle section (Dn 2:4b–7:28), however, is written in Aramaic, a different but related language. Various explanations have been offered for this phenomenon. Some have suggested that an original Aramaic book was expanded by a Hebrew writer, with additions to the original book at the beginning and the end. Others suggest that a portion of the original Hebrew book was lost, so the missing section was replaced from a surviving Aramaic translation. More complex and ingenious suggestions have also been made, but none has been commonly accepted.<\/p>\n<p>Another suggestion is possible. The book of Daniel (whatever date one prefers) may simply reflect the bilingual character of its cultural setting. (As a modern example, consider the many written materials in Canada that appear in both English and French.) Finally, one can regard the bilingual character as another of the mysterious aspects of the book that make its interpretation difficult.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The background of the book of Daniel can be examined from two perspectives. It may be viewed from the perspective of the Babylonian exile, of which Daniel was a part (early sixth century <span>BC<\/span>), or in the light of future historical events (second century <span>BC<\/span>), toward which the visions in the book’s second half seem to point.<\/p>\n<h5>The Babylonian Exile<\/h5>\n<p>Although Daniel himself was exiled about 605 <span>BC<\/span>, the major phase of the Babylonian exile began in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, following the defeat of the kingdom of Judah and the destruction of Jerusalem. The account extends through the reigns of Nebuchadnezzar (properly Nebuchadrezzar) and Belshazzar, culminating in the early years of the Persian king Cyrus, who took over the city of Babylon in 539 <span>BC<\/span>. For the Jews the exile was a time of hardship but also a time of renewed theological understanding. Both aspects are reflected in the book of Daniel.<\/p>\n<h5>The Seleucid Period in Palestine<\/h5>\n<p>Daniel’s visions in the latter half of the book appear to refer to the Seleucid period in Palestine, specifically the time when the Jews were ruled by Antiochus Epiphanes, a member of the Seleucid dynasty (175–163 <span>BC<\/span>). Whether the visions were prophetic anticipations of future events or reflections of contemporary culture, the Seleucid period is important to a full understanding of the book.<\/p>\n<p>Under Antiochus, Palestinian Jews experienced a time of considerable hardship. The ancient faith was severely undermined, the high priesthood in Jerusalem was sold to the highest bidder, and the temple was desecrated in several ways. Pressure was exerted on the Jews to adapt their lives and faith to Hellenistic (Greek-influenced) culture. Although some capitulated, others refused and steadfastly held firm to the old faith. A rebellion against the oppressive measures of Antiochus began in 168 <span>BC<\/span>. By 164 the rebels had largely succeeded in getting rid of the objectionable practices. But the Seleucid period was generally a bad time for faithful Jews, when all the forces of history seemed to work against the true faith. Part of the book of Daniel’s greatness lies in its theological understanding of history, which enabled men and women to continue living in faith through a time of terrible crisis.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The scriptural section of the OT called the Writings served a variety of purposes. The psalms, for example, were used primarily in Israel’s worship. The proverbs may have been part of Israel’s school curriculum. The book of Job addressed a specific human and theological problem.<\/p>\n<p>The purpose of the book of Daniel is not so easy to determine, since it is essentially a story, a partial biography of Daniel. It is not strictly a prophetic book, nor is it history in the modern sense. Much of it is concerned with dreams and their interpretations.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, the word “history” provides a clue to its purpose. Daniel seeks to provide theological understanding of history. The first six chapters tell about Daniel and his companions, not merely to satisfy historical curiosity but to teach the reader. OT theology insisted that the God of Israel participated in human life and history. To read biblical history, therefore, is to discover God’s participation in human affairs and to learn how God and human beings relate to each other. In the opening chapters of Daniel one reads of events in the life of a man of remarkable faith, the kind of history from which one may learn how to live.<\/p>\n<p>The last six chapters focus on Daniel’s dreams. Although neither the dreams nor the interpretations are easy to understand, it is possible to see the theme of history emerging again. The emphasis in chapters 7–12 is not on history as a record of past events but on the meaning of history and the world’s future. In the biblical perspective, the movements of human societies in the present and future matter as much as past history. Though Daniel’s visions are dominated by nations and superpowers, they have a more basic theme: God’s power over human beings and nations. History often appears to be a conglomeration of chaos and human conflict. Yet God ultimately controls history and moves it toward a goal. In spite of ambiguous details at the end of the book, Daniel provides hope for people living in a time of crisis. Even if what is said about the “time of the end” cannot be understood now (Dn 12:9), the end of history is full of hope for those with faith in God (v 13). The purpose of the book of Daniel thus has to do with the meaning of history, both what can be learned from the past and what can be hoped for in the present and future.<\/p>\n<p>The book also contains specific theological statements on such matters as human faith, divine salvation, and the nature of revelation. One theological matter in Daniel deserves particular attention: the doctrine of resurrection.<\/p>\n<p>The NT’s clear doctrine of resurrection followed by judgment is not a central theme in the OT. For the most part, the Hebrews’ faith was fixed on the realities of earthly life. Hope for life beyond the grave is hinted at in many texts but remains implicit. Only in the later writings of the OT, especially those of Ezekiel and Daniel, does a more explicit doctrine of resurrection develop.<\/p>\n\n<p>The focal point of that doctrine in the book of Daniel is 12:2: “Many of those whose bodies lie dead and buried will rise up, some to everlasting life and some to shame and everlasting contempt” (<span>nlt<\/span>). The doctrine of personal resurrection provides a basis for individual hope within an understanding of present and future history. Nations move against nations in apparent turmoil. God is believed to be in ultimate control, but what becomes of all the people who die while history is still in motion? The dead shall rise again, says Daniel, and in their resurrection bodies shall be judged according to their deeds. Some will be rewarded with everlasting life, but others will be condemned to shame.<\/p>\n<p>To the readers of the book of Daniel, the doctrine of resurrection provided hope in an otherwise bleak and hopeless world. It was a reminder that the actions of earthly life are important—they form the basis of future judgment. The world has a larger horizon of life beyond the body’s death. Ultimately, there will be justice, even though justice is rarely seen in the present existence. Evildoers may live without ever being punished. Yet beyond the death of the body lies a final judgment characterized by God’s justice.<\/p>\n<p>So the book of Daniel is about history and hope. Life must be lived now; for that, the book offers in the first six chapters the insight of Daniel’s experience. Life is lived in the context of war and international chaos; for that, chapters 7–12 depict God’s sovereignty and his purposes in history. Individual life moves toward death; for that, the writer speaks of resurrection and judgment.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ContentStoriesaboutDaniel16\">Content: Stories about Daniel (1–6)<\/p>\n<h5>Daniel and His Companions (1:1-21)<\/h5>\n<p>Daniel and his companions—Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah—were exiled to Babylon some 19 years before the main exile following the destruction of Jerusalem. The four healthy young men, selected from among many Jewish exiles, were at the command of King Nebuchadnezzar assigned to a special three-year training program to make them court aides.<\/p>\n<p>As soon as the four Jewish youths entered Babylon’s high society, they faced a dietary problem. The king provided them with the best food and wine from the royal kitchens, but a Jew’s diet was restricted by the laws of God (see Dt 14). The four asked for a diet of vegetables and water, not to be fussy or ungrateful, but to remain faithful to their God. The story tells how the dietary situation worked out and sees them through their education and Daniel’s appointment as a royal counselor.<\/p>\n<p>The first episode thus focuses on a key issue faced by all Jewish exiles: How could one live in a foreign land, with foreign food and customs, yet remain faithful to God and his laws? Daniel provided a model. He was courageous enough not to compromise, but wise enough to seek a solution acceptable to all. His faithfulness was rewarded by God. By the end of the episode, Daniel is seen as a person with special wisdom and gifts from God. The rest of his life was marked by the exercise of those gifts.<\/p>\n<h5>Nebuchadnezzar’s Dream (2:1-49)<\/h5>\n<p>The king had a dream and, although he could not remember its substance, it weighed heavily on his mind. When his corps of professional interpreters could do nothing for him, he ordered that they be executed. The king’s order included Daniel and his companions, whose training qualified them as interpreters. Daniel obtained a stay of execution by offering to interpret the dream. After prayer, Daniel received from God both the substance of the dream and its interpretation, which he relayed to the king. The grateful Nebuchadnezzar promoted Daniel and his companions to important positions in Babylon.<\/p>\n<p>Although the writer recorded both the king’s dream and Daniel’s interpretation, the problem for a modern reader is how to interpret the interpretation. The king saw in his dream a statue, with head of gold, chest and arms of silver, belly and thighs of brass, legs of iron, and feet of part iron and part clay. The interpretation identified Nebuchadnezzar as the head of gold. His kingdom would be followed by three other kingdoms, each represented by the statue’s parts and substances. At that point modern interpretations begin to diverge.<\/p>\n<p>A common interpretation of the four sequential kingdoms is as follows: Chaldean Empire (gold), MedoPersian Empire (silver), Greece (brass), Rome (iron and clay). Others suggest an alternative interpretation: Chaldean Empire (gold), Media (silver), Persia (brass), Greece (iron and clay). To focus too much attention on identifying the four kingdoms can result in failure to see the chapter’s key feature. From the midst of those human kingdoms, “During the reigns of those kings, the God of heaven will set up a kingdom that will never be destroyed; no one will ever conquer it. It will shatter all these kingdoms into nothingness, but it will stand forever” (2:44, <span>nlt<\/span>). The Babylonian king’s dream anticipated the coming of a greater kingdom, that of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<h5>The Fiery Furnace (3:1-30)<\/h5>\n<p>The story continues, focusing on Daniel’s three friends and using their Babylonian names—Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego. King Nebuchadnezzar constructed a massive gold statue, 90 feet (27.4 meters) high. At its dedication ceremony everyone was required to bow down and worship as a band began to play. The three young Hebrews, who refused to worship, were summoned before the king. Their continued firm refusal led to a sentence of execution, and they were thrown into a fiercely burning furnace. Remarkably, they did not burn, and a fourth being appeared with them in the furnace. As they emerged unharmed from the ordeal, the king acknowledged God’s power of salvation and rewarded them.<\/p>\n<p>The story illustrates a second dilemma of the Jews in exile. Faithfulness to God’s first commandment, “You shall have no other gods before me” (Dt 5:7), could lead to death. The three young men were faithful—not out of confidence that God would rescue them, but whether or not he chose to spare their lives (Dn 3:17-18). As it happened, God delivered them; they were tossed into the furnace bound, but they came out free men. The message was profound: certainly the Jews should believe in a God able to deliver from the flames of persecution, but they should believe and hold fast even if no deliverance could be seen beyond the trial.<\/p>\n<h5>Nebuchadnezzar’s Second Dream and Madness (4:1-37)<\/h5>\n<p>On two occasions Nebuchadnezzar had confessed faith in the living God: when Daniel had interpreted his dream of the statue (2:47), and on the release of Daniel’s three companions from the furnace (3:28). Nonetheless, the king’s faith was shallow. The story in chapter 4 recounts a lapse of faith that brought terrible consequences. After eight years, when those consequences had run their course, the king again acknowledged God (4:37).<\/p>\n<p>The entire story is presented in the form of a proclamation, written by Nebuchadnezzar and widely circulated after the events in the story had transpired. The king dreamed of a tall tree growing in a field to ever greater heights. A divine messenger ordered the tree cut down, with only a stump and roots left in the ground. The stump and roots then took the form of a man, but the man’s mind was replaced with that of an animal. For seven years that semihuman creature behaved like a beast.<\/p>\n<p>Daniel showed the king how the dream applied to the king himself. Nebuchadnezzar was the great tree that would be cut down; he would behave like a beast in the field for seven years. One year after the king had been told that interpretation, the judgment came. For seven years he behaved like an animal until his sanity returned.<\/p>\n<p>The moral of the king’s story is that his madness was no accident but rather divine judgment. His arrogant belief that he had the power of God led to heavy retribution (4:30). The king was probably afflicted with a rare and peculiar form of mental illness today called “boanthropy.” The true meaning of the story lies at a deeper level: to think that one is God, having absolute power and control of one’s own life, is madness. That kind of madness can be cured and overcome only with the realization that absolute power and authority belong to God alone.<\/p>\n<h5>Belshazzar’s Feast (5:1-31)<\/h5>\n<p>The scene shifts to the reign of a later king in Babylon, Belshazzar. The son of Nabonidus, he was probably co-regent with Nabonidus (555?–539 <span>BC<\/span>), with special authority in the region of Babylon. The theme of his story is similar to that of chapter 4. Belshazzar, in the course of an enormous feast, called for the sacred vessels captured from the temple in Jerusalem. With the sacred vessels the Babylonians toasted the local gods, a sacrilegious act that invited divine judgment. It came in the form of words written on the wall by a hand, which Daniel interpreted for the king as words of judgment (5:26-28). Although he praised Daniel for the interpretation, the king missed both the true meaning of the words and the lesson taught to Nebuchadnezzar, his predecessor (vv 18-22). Belshazzar was killed that very night when Darius the Mede entered the city and captured it. The theme continues remorselessly: human pride and arrogance do not pass unnoticed by the God of history, who controls and directs human events toward the fulfillment of his purpose.<\/p>\n<h5>The Den of Lions (6:1-28)<\/h5>\n<p>The theme of chapter 6 is similar to that of chapter 3, but with Daniel as the story’s central figure. He is portrayed as one unwilling to compromise, fully obedient to Darius as long as that was possible, but unwilling to disobey the law of God. Hence, Daniel knowingly disobeyed a royal decree that prohibited prayer to anyone other than the king himself. Although he was aware of the consequences, Daniel remained faithful to God. The immediate outcome, when his enemies reported him, was an order of execution—Daniel was thrown to the lions. He was delivered from the hungry cats, and the king, relieved of a terrible predicament, had the plotters punished.<\/p>\n<p>A double message emerges from the story. On the one hand, God’s servant must be faithful in prayer and worship, regardless of the outcome; God delivers, and in that case did deliver Daniel from disaster. On the other hand, the effect of Daniel’s faithfulness was that the king, who had ordered his subjects to worship him, learned about true worship (6:25-27). The effects of faithfulness, like ripples from a pebble tossed in a pool, spread far beyond the one who is faithful.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ContentDanielsVisions712\">Content: Daniel’s Visions (7–12)<\/p>\n<p>With the beginning of chapter 7 the chronological sequence of the book of Daniel changes; Daniel’s first vision goes back to the first year of Belshazzar (7:1), but subsequent visions take place as late as the reign of Cyrus, the Persian king (10:1). Chapters 7–12 emphasize the meaning of history and God’s sovereignty in history, expressed in the mysterious symbolism of dreams. The whole section can be divided as follows: (1) vision of four beasts (7:1-28); (2) vision of the ram and the goat (8:1-27); (3) Daniel’s prayer (9:1-27); (4) vision of the end times (10:1–12:13).<\/p>\n<p>The first vision again takes up the theme of four kingdoms, already seen in Nebuchadnezzar’s dream (ch 2). In the second vision the focus is narrowed down to two kingdoms, Persia and Greece. Much of the final vision of the end times deals with events occurring during the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes in the second century <span>BC<\/span>. All the visions play on the same theme. Although human kingdoms may exert their might in a chaotic world, the sovereign God acts through history’s apparent chaos toward an ultimate goal of salvation.<\/p>\n<p>The primary interpretation of the visions can be perceived in past historical events, but a further messianic dimension can be seen in the light of the NT. That dimension is most evident in chapter 7. In the context of the four kingdoms, a divine court of judgment is established, presided over by the “Ancient of Days”—the almighty God (7:9). Then Daniel sees the arrival of “one like a son of man” (7:13). Though the phrase “son of man” was later perceived to be a messianic title, it did not technically have that meaning in the book of Daniel. Daniel 7:13 is a principal source for the title “Son of Man,” which Jesus commonly used to designate himself. His most significant use of that term was at his trial, where he directly associated his title with Daniel 7 (Mt 26:63-64).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Daniel (Person) #3; Diaspora of the Jews; Israel, History of; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DANIEL, Book of Fourth book of the Major Prophets in the OT, characterized by vivid symbolism and reflecting heroic historical events during the Babylonian exile of the Jewish people. Because Daniel is not an easy book to understand, its interpretation requires careful study and reflection. Daniel himself wrote, when reflecting on the meaning of one of his visions, “I was greatly troubled by the vision and could not understand it” (Dn 8:27, nlt). In the old Jewish division of the OT, Daniel i...","summary_en":"DANIEL, Book of Fourth book of the Major Prophets in the OT, characterized by vivid symbolism and reflecting heroic historical events during the Babylonian exile of the Jewish people. Because Daniel is not an easy book to understand, its interpretation requires careful study and reflection. Daniel himself wrote, when reflecting on the meaning of one of his visions, “I was greatly troubled by the vision and could not understand it” (Dn 8:27, nlt). In the old Jewish division of the OT, Daniel i...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13056,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tribe of Gad","title_en":"Tribe of Gad","content_ro":"<h3>GAD, Tribe of<\/h3>\n<p>Descendants of Jacob’s seventh son Gad (Gn 30:11; Nm 1:24-25), and eighth largest of the 12 tribes that came out of Egypt with Moses (according to the number of warriors in Nm 1:1-3, 24-25). They raised livestock and had a reputation for being fierce in battle (Nm 32:1; Dt 33:20).<\/p>\n<p>During the wilderness period, they were led by Eliasaph’s son Deuel (Nm 1:14; 2:14; 7:42; 10:20). When Israel encamped, Gad was located south of the tabernacle behind the tribes of Reuben and Simeon (2:14-15). They are mentioned at the tribal offering to the tabernacle, and after the plague, which God brought upon Israel (7:42-47; 26:15, 18). Maki’s son Geuel represented the tribe as one of the 12 spies sent by Moses into Canaan (13:15).<\/p>\n<p>At the close of the wilderness period, Gad, Reuben, and half of Manasseh’s tribe requested permission to settle east of the Jordan, for it had good pastureland (Nm 32:1-2). This was permitted on the condition that they would help in the conquest of Canaan (Nm 32:20-22; Jos 1:12-18).<\/p>\n<p>During the Conquest under Joshua, Gad is mentioned only at the battle of Jericho (Jos 4:12). After the end of the conflict, Gad, Reuben, and half of Manasseh settled their land east of the Jordan (cf. Nm 34:13-14; Jos 12:6; 13:8).<\/p>\n<p>Gad’s inheritance was between Manasseh’s tribe to the north and Reuben’s to the south. The Arabian Desert formed its eastern border and the Jordan River its western. There seem to have been no fixed borders between the two and a half tribes, and the whole area was often referred to as Gilead and Bashan (2 Kgs 10:33). Its land ran north to the Sea of Chinnereth (Galilee), but among the mountains it seems to have run eastward only as far as the Jabbok River. To the south, the cities of Aroer and Heshbon mark their southern limits (Dt 3:12-13; Jos 12:1-6; 13:24-28).<\/p>\n<p>The history of Gad from its settlement to the Captivity was closely tied with the two neighboring Hebrew tribes. Shortly after returning to their lands, these two and a half tribes almost started a civil war by erecting a large altar (Jos 22:10-34). During the time of the judges, Gilead (including Gad) was threatened, if not occupied, by the Ammonites until they were defeated by Jephthah (Jgs 11). Some Gadites joined David at Ziklag during his exile (1 Chr 12:14, 37). In the 14th year of David’s reign the two and a half tribes were formally brought together under an overseer named Jerijah (and his brothers, 26:30-32).<\/p>\n<p>During the time of the divided kingdom, the tribes east of the Jordan were constantly under attack. During Jehu’s reign (841–814 <span>BC<\/span>), Hazael annexed all the land east of the Jordan, and they were later carried off into captivity by Tiglath-pileser, king of Assyria (2 Kgs 15:29; 1 Chr 5:26-27). Subsequently, the Ammonites occupied Gad’s land (Jer 49:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the postexilic period Gad is mentioned only once—in Ezekiel’s vision of the restoration of Israel (Ez 48:1, 27-28, 34). In the NT, Gad is mentioned only in the book of Revelation, in the list of the tribes sealed by God (Rv 7:5).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Gad (Person) #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GAD, Tribe of<\/h3>\n<p>Descendants of Jacob’s seventh son Gad (Gn 30:11; Nm 1:24-25), and eighth largest of the 12 tribes that came out of Egypt with Moses (according to the number of warriors in Nm 1:1-3, 24-25). They raised livestock and had a reputation for being fierce in battle (Nm 32:1; Dt 33:20).<\/p>\n<p>During the wilderness period, they were led by Eliasaph’s son Deuel (Nm 1:14; 2:14; 7:42; 10:20). When Israel encamped, Gad was located south of the tabernacle behind the tribes of Reuben and Simeon (2:14-15). They are mentioned at the tribal offering to the tabernacle, and after the plague, which God brought upon Israel (7:42-47; 26:15, 18). Maki’s son Geuel represented the tribe as one of the 12 spies sent by Moses into Canaan (13:15).<\/p>\n<p>At the close of the wilderness period, Gad, Reuben, and half of Manasseh’s tribe requested permission to settle east of the Jordan, for it had good pastureland (Nm 32:1-2). This was permitted on the condition that they would help in the conquest of Canaan (Nm 32:20-22; Jos 1:12-18).<\/p>\n<p>During the Conquest under Joshua, Gad is mentioned only at the battle of Jericho (Jos 4:12). After the end of the conflict, Gad, Reuben, and half of Manasseh settled their land east of the Jordan (cf. Nm 34:13-14; Jos 12:6; 13:8).<\/p>\n<p>Gad’s inheritance was between Manasseh’s tribe to the north and Reuben’s to the south. The Arabian Desert formed its eastern border and the Jordan River its western. There seem to have been no fixed borders between the two and a half tribes, and the whole area was often referred to as Gilead and Bashan (2 Kgs 10:33). Its land ran north to the Sea of Chinnereth (Galilee), but among the mountains it seems to have run eastward only as far as the Jabbok River. To the south, the cities of Aroer and Heshbon mark their southern limits (Dt 3:12-13; Jos 12:1-6; 13:24-28).<\/p>\n<p>The history of Gad from its settlement to the Captivity was closely tied with the two neighboring Hebrew tribes. Shortly after returning to their lands, these two and a half tribes almost started a civil war by erecting a large altar (Jos 22:10-34). During the time of the judges, Gilead (including Gad) was threatened, if not occupied, by the Ammonites until they were defeated by Jephthah (Jgs 11). Some Gadites joined David at Ziklag during his exile (1 Chr 12:14, 37). In the 14th year of David’s reign the two and a half tribes were formally brought together under an overseer named Jerijah (and his brothers, 26:30-32).<\/p>\n<p>During the time of the divided kingdom, the tribes east of the Jordan were constantly under attack. During Jehu’s reign (841–814 <span>BC<\/span>), Hazael annexed all the land east of the Jordan, and they were later carried off into captivity by Tiglath-pileser, king of Assyria (2 Kgs 15:29; 1 Chr 5:26-27). Subsequently, the Ammonites occupied Gad’s land (Jer 49:1).<\/p>\n<p>In the postexilic period Gad is mentioned only once—in Ezekiel’s vision of the restoration of Israel (Ez 48:1, 27-28, 34). In the NT, Gad is mentioned only in the book of Revelation, in the list of the tribes sealed by God (Rv 7:5).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Gad (Person) #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GAD, Tribe of Descendants of Jacob’s seventh son Gad (Gn 30:11; Nm 1:24-25), and eighth largest of the 12 tribes that came out of Egypt with Moses (according to the number of warriors in Nm 1:1-3, 24-25). They raised livestock and had a reputation for being fierce in battle (Nm 32:1; Dt 33:20). During the wilderness period, they were led by Eliasaph’s son Deuel (Nm 1:14; 2:14; 7:42; 10:20). When Israel encamped, Gad was located south of the tabernacle behind the tribes of Reuben and Simeon (2...","summary_en":"GAD, Tribe of Descendants of Jacob’s seventh son Gad (Gn 30:11; Nm 1:24-25), and eighth largest of the 12 tribes that came out of Egypt with Moses (according to the number of warriors in Nm 1:1-3, 24-25). They raised livestock and had a reputation for being fierce in battle (Nm 32:1; Dt 33:20). During the wilderness period, they were led by Eliasaph’s son Deuel (Nm 1:14; 2:14; 7:42; 10:20). When Israel encamped, Gad was located south of the tabernacle behind the tribes of Reuben and Simeon (2...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":14927,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Habor","title_en":"Habor","content_ro":"<h3>HABOR<\/h3>\n<p>Modern Habur (Chaboras) River. The Habor River runs from the mountains in north-central Assyria, in Gozan, into the Euphrates River at a junction about 250 miles (402 kilometers) south and west of Nineveh. Numerous tributaries feed the Habor farther to the north. The OT names the river as the site to which King Shalmaneser carried the captive Israelites (2 Kgs 17:6; 18:11; 1 Chr 5:26).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HABOR<\/h3>\n<p>Modern Habur (Chaboras) River. The Habor River runs from the mountains in north-central Assyria, in Gozan, into the Euphrates River at a junction about 250 miles (402 kilometers) south and west of Nineveh. Numerous tributaries feed the Habor farther to the north. The OT names the river as the site to which King Shalmaneser carried the captive Israelites (2 Kgs 17:6; 18:11; 1 Chr 5:26).<\/p>","summary_ro":"HABOR Modern Habur (Chaboras) River. The Habor River runs from the mountains in north-central Assyria, in Gozan, into the Euphrates River at a junction about 250 miles (402 kilometers) south and west of Nineveh. Numerous tributaries feed the Habor farther to the north. The OT names the river as the site to which King Shalmaneser carried the captive Israelites (2 Kgs 17:6; 18:11; 1 Chr 5:26).","summary_en":"HABOR Modern Habur (Chaboras) River. The Habor River runs from the mountains in north-central Assyria, in Gozan, into the Euphrates River at a junction about 250 miles (402 kilometers) south and west of Nineveh. Numerous tributaries feed the Habor farther to the north. The OT names the river as the site to which King Shalmaneser carried the captive Israelites (2 Kgs 17:6; 18:11; 1 Chr 5:26).","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":15082,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Halah","title_en":"Halah","content_ro":"<h3>HALAH<\/h3>\n<p>Place in Assyria where the inhabitants of Samaria were taken after its fall in 722 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 17:6; 18:11; cf. 1 Chr 5:26).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HALAH<\/h3>\n<p>Place in Assyria where the inhabitants of Samaria were taken after its fall in 722 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 17:6; 18:11; cf. 1 Chr 5:26).<\/p>","summary_ro":"HALAH Place in Assyria where the inhabitants of Samaria were taken after its fall in 722 BC (2 Kgs 17:6; 18:11; cf. 1 Chr 5:26).","summary_en":"HALAH Place in Assyria where the inhabitants of Samaria were taken after its fall in 722 BC (2 Kgs 17:6; 18:11; cf. 1 Chr 5:26).","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":15312,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Hara","title_en":"Hara","content_ro":"<h3>HARA<\/h3>\n<p>Place where Tiglath-pileser of Assyria exiled Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh (1 Chr 5:26). A possible miscopying of 2 Kings 17:6 and 18:11 may have substituted Hara for “cities of Media.” The Greek version reads “mountains of Media,” indicating an area east of the Tigris Valley. A district rather than a single site seems to be indicated.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HARA<\/h3>\n<p>Place where Tiglath-pileser of Assyria exiled Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh (1 Chr 5:26). A possible miscopying of 2 Kings 17:6 and 18:11 may have substituted Hara for “cities of Media.” The Greek version reads “mountains of Media,” indicating an area east of the Tigris Valley. A district rather than a single site seems to be indicated.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HARA Place where Tiglath-pileser of Assyria exiled Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh (1 Chr 5:26). A possible miscopying of 2 Kings 17:6 and 18:11 may have substituted Hara for “cities of Media.” The Greek version reads “mountains of Media,” indicating an area east of the Tigris Valley. A district rather than a single site seems to be indicated.","summary_en":"HARA Place where Tiglath-pileser of Assyria exiled Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh (1 Chr 5:26). A possible miscopying of 2 Kings 17:6 and 18:11 may have substituted Hara for “cities of Media.” The Greek version reads “mountains of Media,” indicating an area east of the Tigris Valley. A district rather than a single site seems to be indicated.","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":24258,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tribe of Manasseh","title_en":"Tribe of Manasseh","content_ro":"<h3>MANASSEH, Tribe of<\/h3>\n<p>Geographically, the largest of the 12 tribes of Israel, and unique in having two territories, a half-tribe in each. Isolated from each other by the Jordan River valley, they developed separately. The half-tribe west of the Jordan was more important, both in OT and NT times, because it was the main tribe of the northern kingdom of Israel (931–722 <span>BC<\/span>) and one of the main ancestral stocks of the Samaritans.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"EarlyHistory\">Early History<\/p>\n<h5>Its Roots<\/h5>\n<p>Its families traced their origins back to Joseph’s elder son Manasseh, to Manasseh’s son Makir or grandson Gilead, or to later descendants such as Zelophehad and Jair. A fair harmony can be constructed from the biblical genealogical data in Gn 48:5-6; Nm 26:28-34; Jos 17:1-3; 1 Chr 2:21-23; and 7:14-19, a text corrupted by several copyists’ errors. The mention of Asriel in 1 Chronicles 7:14 seems to be a copyist’s mistake; otherwise, the accounts are capable of being reconciled, even if each list preserved different data and none is complete in itself.<\/p>\n<h5>Its Size<\/h5>\n<p>One year after the exodus, Manasseh had the smallest army, according to Moses’ first census (Nm 1:34-35). On the eve of the conquest of Canaan, after wandering 38 years in the Sinai wilderness and then conquering Transjordan, it had the sixth largest fighting force, according to a second census (Nm 26:28-34)—52,700 men.<\/p>\n<h5>Its First Settlements<\/h5>\n<p>The soldiers of the eastern half-tribe of Manasseh settled their families in Gilead, which they captured under Moses’ leadership from the Amorite king Og (Nm 21:32-35; 32:39-42; Dt 3:1-15). Then, under Joshua, they crossed the Jordan to help the other tribes conquer Canaan (Nm 32:1-32; Jos 1:12-18). Subsequently, the western half-tribe received its allotment and began to settle in the central hill country (Jos 16:1-9; ch 17). After the remaining tribes received their shares of land, the army from the eastern half-tribe returned home (22:1-9). En route to their families in Gilead, they helped to build an altar by the Jordan River. This act was intended to preserve national unity, but it nearly started a civil war (vv 10-34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheEasternHalf-Tribe\">The Eastern Half-Tribe<\/p>\n<h5>Its Territory<\/h5>\n<p>Moses allotted the eastern half-tribe nearly 3,000 square miles (7,770 square kilometers) of territory in three geographical regions (northern Gilead, Bashan, and Mt Hermon), but it succeeded in controlling only about 800 square miles (2,072 square kilometers)—the half of Gilead north of the Jabbok River (and south of the Yarmuk River)—despite successful initial conquests (Nm 32:39-42; Dt 3:12-15; Jos 13:8-13) and gradual northern expansion much later (1 Chr 5:23).<\/p>\n<p>The territory occupied was mostly a high plateau with a mountainous center. It was watered well by rains in winter and by a heavy dew in summer. Olive trees, grapevines, and wheat thrived, and goats and sheep could find adequate pasture on the eastern slopes, which merged gradually into the desert to the east.<\/p>\n<h5>People and Places<\/h5>\n<p>Prominent citizens of the eastern half-tribe included the “judges” Jair and Jephthah (Jgs 10:3-5; 11:6-12) and David’s benefactor Barzillai (2 Sm 19:31-39). Principal cities were Jabeth-gilead and Ramoth-gilead, a city of refuge and a Levitical city, respectively (originally in Gad—Jos 20:8; 21:38).<\/p>\n<p>The eastern territory was usually called simply “the half-tribe of Manasseh,” until David (c. 1000–961 <span>BC<\/span>) made it an administrative district (1 Chr 27:21). Solomon (970–930 <span>BC<\/span>) divided and incorporated it into two new districts (1 Kgs 4:13-14). Under Jeroboam I (930–909 <span>BC<\/span>), it joined, on equal terms, with eight other tribes and with the western half-tribe, to form a confederacy of ten tribes—the northern kingdom of Israel—in 930 <span>BC<\/span>. Syria and Assyria both held eastern Manasseh temporarily, in the ninth and eighth centuries <span>BC<\/span> (cf. 2 Kgs 10:32-33; 13:7 with 14:25; and 2 Kgs 15:29 with 2 Chr 34:6-7). King Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>) of Assyria invaded the area, conquered it, deported its people, and scattered them throughout his empire (1 Chr 5:26; cf. 2 Kgs 15:29) about ten years before the rest of the northern kingdom fell to the Assyrians in 722 <span>BC<\/span>. Most of the western Manassites who were left behind intermarried with the foreigners, began to worship pagan gods, and became ancestors of the Samaritans (2 Kgs 17:24-41). Subsequently, the region was known as Gilead. By NT times the region was partly in the Decapolis and partly in Perea.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MANASSEH, Tribe of<\/h3>\n<p>Geographically, the largest of the 12 tribes of Israel, and unique in having two territories, a half-tribe in each. Isolated from each other by the Jordan River valley, they developed separately. The half-tribe west of the Jordan was more important, both in OT and NT times, because it was the main tribe of the northern kingdom of Israel (931–722 <span>BC<\/span>) and one of the main ancestral stocks of the Samaritans.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"EarlyHistory\">Early History<\/p>\n<h5>Its Roots<\/h5>\n<p>Its families traced their origins back to Joseph’s elder son Manasseh, to Manasseh’s son Makir or grandson Gilead, or to later descendants such as Zelophehad and Jair. A fair harmony can be constructed from the biblical genealogical data in Gn 48:5-6; Nm 26:28-34; Jos 17:1-3; 1 Chr 2:21-23; and 7:14-19, a text corrupted by several copyists’ errors. The mention of Asriel in 1 Chronicles 7:14 seems to be a copyist’s mistake; otherwise, the accounts are capable of being reconciled, even if each list preserved different data and none is complete in itself.<\/p>\n<h5>Its Size<\/h5>\n<p>One year after the exodus, Manasseh had the smallest army, according to Moses’ first census (Nm 1:34-35). On the eve of the conquest of Canaan, after wandering 38 years in the Sinai wilderness and then conquering Transjordan, it had the sixth largest fighting force, according to a second census (Nm 26:28-34)—52,700 men.<\/p>\n<h5>Its First Settlements<\/h5>\n<p>The soldiers of the eastern half-tribe of Manasseh settled their families in Gilead, which they captured under Moses’ leadership from the Amorite king Og (Nm 21:32-35; 32:39-42; Dt 3:1-15). Then, under Joshua, they crossed the Jordan to help the other tribes conquer Canaan (Nm 32:1-32; Jos 1:12-18). Subsequently, the western half-tribe received its allotment and began to settle in the central hill country (Jos 16:1-9; ch 17). After the remaining tribes received their shares of land, the army from the eastern half-tribe returned home (22:1-9). En route to their families in Gilead, they helped to build an altar by the Jordan River. This act was intended to preserve national unity, but it nearly started a civil war (vv 10-34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheEasternHalf-Tribe\">The Eastern Half-Tribe<\/p>\n<h5>Its Territory<\/h5>\n<p>Moses allotted the eastern half-tribe nearly 3,000 square miles (7,770 square kilometers) of territory in three geographical regions (northern Gilead, Bashan, and Mt Hermon), but it succeeded in controlling only about 800 square miles (2,072 square kilometers)—the half of Gilead north of the Jabbok River (and south of the Yarmuk River)—despite successful initial conquests (Nm 32:39-42; Dt 3:12-15; Jos 13:8-13) and gradual northern expansion much later (1 Chr 5:23).<\/p>\n<p>The territory occupied was mostly a high plateau with a mountainous center. It was watered well by rains in winter and by a heavy dew in summer. Olive trees, grapevines, and wheat thrived, and goats and sheep could find adequate pasture on the eastern slopes, which merged gradually into the desert to the east.<\/p>\n<h5>People and Places<\/h5>\n<p>Prominent citizens of the eastern half-tribe included the “judges” Jair and Jephthah (Jgs 10:3-5; 11:6-12) and David’s benefactor Barzillai (2 Sm 19:31-39). Principal cities were Jabeth-gilead and Ramoth-gilead, a city of refuge and a Levitical city, respectively (originally in Gad—Jos 20:8; 21:38).<\/p>\n<p>The eastern territory was usually called simply “the half-tribe of Manasseh,” until David (c. 1000–961 <span>BC<\/span>) made it an administrative district (1 Chr 27:21). Solomon (970–930 <span>BC<\/span>) divided and incorporated it into two new districts (1 Kgs 4:13-14). Under Jeroboam I (930–909 <span>BC<\/span>), it joined, on equal terms, with eight other tribes and with the western half-tribe, to form a confederacy of ten tribes—the northern kingdom of Israel—in 930 <span>BC<\/span>. Syria and Assyria both held eastern Manasseh temporarily, in the ninth and eighth centuries <span>BC<\/span> (cf. 2 Kgs 10:32-33; 13:7 with 14:25; and 2 Kgs 15:29 with 2 Chr 34:6-7). King Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>) of Assyria invaded the area, conquered it, deported its people, and scattered them throughout his empire (1 Chr 5:26; cf. 2 Kgs 15:29) about ten years before the rest of the northern kingdom fell to the Assyrians in 722 <span>BC<\/span>. Most of the western Manassites who were left behind intermarried with the foreigners, began to worship pagan gods, and became ancestors of the Samaritans (2 Kgs 17:24-41). Subsequently, the region was known as Gilead. By NT times the region was partly in the Decapolis and partly in Perea.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MANASSEH, Tribe of Geographically, the largest of the 12 tribes of Israel, and unique in having two territories, a half-tribe in each. Isolated from each other by the Jordan River valley, they developed separately. The half-tribe west of the Jordan was more important, both in OT and NT times, because it was the main tribe of the northern kingdom of Israel (931–722 BC) and one of the main ancestral stocks of the Samaritans. Early History Its Roots Its families traced their origins back to Jose...","summary_en":"MANASSEH, Tribe of Geographically, the largest of the 12 tribes of Israel, and unique in having two territories, a half-tribe in each. Isolated from each other by the Jordan River valley, they developed separately. The half-tribe west of the Jordan was more important, both in OT and NT times, because it was the main tribe of the northern kingdom of Israel (931–722 BC) and one of the main ancestral stocks of the Samaritans. Early History Its Roots Its families traced their origins back to Jose...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32173,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Pul","title_en":"Pul","content_ro":"<h3>PUL<\/h3>\n<li>1. Name given to Tiglath-pileser, the Assyrian ruler (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>), when he became king of Babylon (729–727 <span>BC<\/span>; 2 Kgs 15:19; 1 Chr 5:26). The meaning of the name is unknown, and Assyrian manuscripts do not mention it, suggesting to some scholars that Pul was Tiglath-pileser’s original name. <em>See<\/em> Tiglath-pileser.<\/li>\n<li>2. African people mentioned only in Isaiah 66:19 (<span>kjv<\/span>). Their connection with Tarshish and Lud has strongly suggested that Pul is a copyist’s error for Put (as in various Greek manuscripts), a people related to the Egyptians and possibly a subculture of Libyans. <em>See<\/em> Put (Place).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>PUL<\/h3>\n<li>1. Name given to Tiglath-pileser, the Assyrian ruler (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>), when he became king of Babylon (729–727 <span>BC<\/span>; 2 Kgs 15:19; 1 Chr 5:26). The meaning of the name is unknown, and Assyrian manuscripts do not mention it, suggesting to some scholars that Pul was Tiglath-pileser’s original name. <em>See<\/em> Tiglath-pileser.<\/li>\n<li>2. African people mentioned only in Isaiah 66:19 (<span>kjv<\/span>). Their connection with Tarshish and Lud has strongly suggested that Pul is a copyist’s error for Put (as in various Greek manuscripts), a people related to the Egyptians and possibly a subculture of Libyans. <em>See<\/em> Put (Place).<\/li>","summary_ro":"PUL 1. Name given to Tiglath-pileser, the Assyrian ruler (745–727 BC), when he became king of Babylon (729–727 BC; 2 Kgs 15:19; 1 Chr 5:26). The meaning of the name is unknown, and Assyrian manuscripts do not mention it, suggesting to some scholars that Pul was Tiglath-pileser’s original name. See Tiglath-pileser. 2. African people mentioned only in Isaiah 66:19 (kjv). Their connection with Tarshish and Lud has strongly suggested that Pul is a copyist’s error for Put (as in various Greek manu...","summary_en":"PUL 1. Name given to Tiglath-pileser, the Assyrian ruler (745–727 BC), when he became king of Babylon (729–727 BC; 2 Kgs 15:19; 1 Chr 5:26). The meaning of the name is unknown, and Assyrian manuscripts do not mention it, suggesting to some scholars that Pul was Tiglath-pileser’s original name. See Tiglath-pileser. 2. African people mentioned only in Isaiah 66:19 (kjv). Their connection with Tarshish and Lud has strongly suggested that Pul is a copyist’s error for Put (as in various Greek manu...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37298,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tiglath-Pileser","title_en":"Tiglath-Pileser","content_ro":"<h3>TIGLATH-PILESER<\/h3>\n<p>Name of three Assyrian kings, the most important of whom was Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>). The name means “my trust is in the son of the temple Esharra,” and appears in various forms (cf. 2 Kgs 15:29; also called Tilgath-pilneser in 1 Chr 5:6; 2 Chr 28:20).<\/p>\n<p>Tiglath-pileser I (1115–1077 <span>BC<\/span>) was the son of Ashur-resh-ishi. Having gained independence from Babylonian overlordship, Tiglath-pileser consolidated his hold over the territory newly acquired in his father’s reign, maintaining control and guarding against counterattacks from the former occupiers. Security brought increased trade and prosperity, and a large temple-building program was undertaken.<\/p>\n<p>Tiglath-pileser II (c. 967–935 <span>BC<\/span>) was a weak king who ruled Assyria during a period of decline. Although he was able to maintain some degree of internal control, he was powerless to prevent outside peoples from encroaching upon Assyrian territory. In particular, the Arameans took advantage of Assyrian weakness to occupy large areas of land, and an Aramean ruler named Kapara built a palace at Guzana (the Gozan of 2 Kgs 17:6). Some of the Arameans who occupied the area have been identified from inscriptions found at the site. This period was of particular importance for the emergence of the Aramean Empire.<\/p>\n<p>Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>) ascended to the throne at a time when he could stem and reverse another decline in Assyrian fortunes. Although not directly in line for the throne, he was probably of royal descent. On occasion, he used the name Pul (2 Kgs 15:19; 1 Chr 5:26), which may have been his real name as opposed to his throne name.<\/p>\n<p>Tiglath-pileser III was a strong, able, resourceful king whose reign is remarkable for the rapid extension of Assyrian boundaries and for the peaceful administration of the newly acquired territories. He assisted Babylon by defeating the Arameans, and by his diplomacy retained Babylonian support while he concentrated his military efforts elsewhere. On the death of the vassal king Nabu-nasir of Babylon in 734 <span>BC<\/span>, Tiglath-pileser gained the support of some of the tribes and finally forced the submission of Marduk-apla-iddina (the Merodach-baladan of Is 39:1). According to the Babylonian Chronicle, he used the name Pul when acceding to the throne of Babylon himself in 729 <span>BC<\/span>. He was the first Assyrian king on the throne of Babylon in 500 years.<\/p>\n<p>His reign, which was marked by a vast increase in territory coupled with a firm and able administration, also had long-term effects far beyond Assyria’s immediate borders. The expansion into Syria and Palestine was bound to lead eventually to conflict with Egypt when that country wished once again to mount a more aggressive foreign policy. Tiglath-pileser was the father of Shalmaneser V (727–722 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Assyria, Assyrians.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TIGLATH-PILESER<\/h3>\n<p>Name of three Assyrian kings, the most important of whom was Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>). The name means “my trust is in the son of the temple Esharra,” and appears in various forms (cf. 2 Kgs 15:29; also called Tilgath-pilneser in 1 Chr 5:6; 2 Chr 28:20).<\/p>\n<p>Tiglath-pileser I (1115–1077 <span>BC<\/span>) was the son of Ashur-resh-ishi. Having gained independence from Babylonian overlordship, Tiglath-pileser consolidated his hold over the territory newly acquired in his father’s reign, maintaining control and guarding against counterattacks from the former occupiers. Security brought increased trade and prosperity, and a large temple-building program was undertaken.<\/p>\n<p>Tiglath-pileser II (c. 967–935 <span>BC<\/span>) was a weak king who ruled Assyria during a period of decline. Although he was able to maintain some degree of internal control, he was powerless to prevent outside peoples from encroaching upon Assyrian territory. In particular, the Arameans took advantage of Assyrian weakness to occupy large areas of land, and an Aramean ruler named Kapara built a palace at Guzana (the Gozan of 2 Kgs 17:6). Some of the Arameans who occupied the area have been identified from inscriptions found at the site. This period was of particular importance for the emergence of the Aramean Empire.<\/p>\n<p>Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>) ascended to the throne at a time when he could stem and reverse another decline in Assyrian fortunes. Although not directly in line for the throne, he was probably of royal descent. On occasion, he used the name Pul (2 Kgs 15:19; 1 Chr 5:26), which may have been his real name as opposed to his throne name.<\/p>\n<p>Tiglath-pileser III was a strong, able, resourceful king whose reign is remarkable for the rapid extension of Assyrian boundaries and for the peaceful administration of the newly acquired territories. He assisted Babylon by defeating the Arameans, and by his diplomacy retained Babylonian support while he concentrated his military efforts elsewhere. On the death of the vassal king Nabu-nasir of Babylon in 734 <span>BC<\/span>, Tiglath-pileser gained the support of some of the tribes and finally forced the submission of Marduk-apla-iddina (the Merodach-baladan of Is 39:1). According to the Babylonian Chronicle, he used the name Pul when acceding to the throne of Babylon himself in 729 <span>BC<\/span>. He was the first Assyrian king on the throne of Babylon in 500 years.<\/p>\n<p>His reign, which was marked by a vast increase in territory coupled with a firm and able administration, also had long-term effects far beyond Assyria’s immediate borders. The expansion into Syria and Palestine was bound to lead eventually to conflict with Egypt when that country wished once again to mount a more aggressive foreign policy. Tiglath-pileser was the father of Shalmaneser V (727–722 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Assyria, Assyrians.<\/p>","summary_ro":"TIGLATH-PILESER Name of three Assyrian kings, the most important of whom was Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 BC). The name means “my trust is in the son of the temple Esharra,” and appears in various forms (cf. 2 Kgs 15:29; also called Tilgath-pilneser in 1 Chr 5:6; 2 Chr 28:20). Tiglath-pileser I (1115–1077 BC) was the son of Ashur-resh-ishi. Having gained independence from Babylonian overlordship, Tiglath-pileser consolidated his hold over the territory newly acquired in his father’s reign, ma...","summary_en":"TIGLATH-PILESER Name of three Assyrian kings, the most important of whom was Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 BC). The name means “my trust is in the son of the temple Esharra,” and appears in various forms (cf. 2 Kgs 15:29; also called Tilgath-pilneser in 1 Chr 5:6; 2 Chr 28:20). Tiglath-pileser I (1115–1077 BC) was the son of Ashur-resh-ishi. Having gained independence from Babylonian overlordship, Tiglath-pileser consolidated his hold over the territory newly acquired in his father’s reign, ma...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}
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