1
Domnul a zis lui Samuel: ,,Când vei înceta să plângi pe Saul, pentru că l-am lepădat, ca să nu mai domnească peste Israel? Umple-ţi... cornul cu untdelemn, şi du-te; te voi trimite la Isai, Betleemitul, căci pe unul din fiii lui Mi l-am ales...... ca împărat.``
2
Samuel a zis: ,,Cum să mă duc? Saul are să afle, şi mă va ucide.`` Şi Domnul a zis: ,,Să iei cu tine un viţel, şi să zici: ,Vin să aduc o jertfă Domnului.`
3
Să pofteşti pe Isai la jertfă; Eu îţi voi arăta ce trebuie să faci, şi Îmi vei unge pe acela pe care-ţi voi spune să-l ungi.``
4
Samuel a făcut ce zisese Domnul, şi s-a dus la Betleem. Bătrânii cetăţii au alergat înspăimântaţi înaintea lui şi au zis: ,,Ce vesteşte venirea ta: ceva bun?``
5
El a răspuns: ,,Da; vin să aduc o jertfă Domnului. Sfinţiţi-vă, şi veniţi cu mine la jertfă.`` A sfinţit şi pe Isai cu fiii lui, şi i-a pofitit la jertfă.
6
Când au intrat ei, Samuel, văzând pe Eliab, şi-a zis: ,,Negreşit, unsul Domnului este aici înaintea Lui.``
7
Şi Domnul a zis lui Samuel: ,,Nu te uita la înfăţişarea şi înălţimea staturii lui, căci l-am lepădat. Domnul nu se uită la ce se uită omul; omul se uită la ceea ce izbeşte ochii, dar Domnul se uită la inimă.``
8
Isai a chemat pe Abinadab, şi l-a trecut pe dinaintea lui Samuel; şi Samuel a zis: ,,Nici pe acesta nu l-a ales Domnul.``
9
Isai a trecut pe Şama; şi Samuel a zis: ,,Nici pe acesta nu l-a ales Domnul.``
10
Şi aşa a trecut Isai pe cei şapte fii ai lui pe dinaintea lui Samuel; şi Samuel a zis lui Isai: ,,Domnul n-a ales pe niciunul din ei.``
11
Apoi Samuel a zis lui Isai: ,,Aceştia sânt toţi fiii tăi?``. Şi el a răspuns: ,,A mai rămas cel mai tânăr, dar paşte oile.`` Atunci Samuel a zis lui Isai: ,,Trimite să-l aducă, fiindcă nu vom şedea la masă până nu va veni aici.``
12
Isai a trimes să-l aducă. Şi el era cu păr bălai, cu ochi frumoşi şi faţă frumoasă. Domnul a zis lui Samuel: ,,Scoală-te, şi unge-l, căci el este!``
13
Samuel a luat cornul cu untdelemn, şi l-a uns în mijlocul fraţilor lui. Duhul Domnului a venit peste David, începând din ziua aceea şi în cele următoare. Samuel s-a sculat, şi s-a dus la Rama.
14
Duhul Domnului S-a depărtat dela Saul; şi a fost muncit de un duh rău care venea dela Domnul.
15
Slujitorii lui Saul i-au zis: ,,Iată că un duh rău dela Dumnezeu te munceşte.
16
Poruncească numai domnul nostru! Robii tăi sânt înaintea ta. Ei vor căuta un om care să ştie să cânte cu arfa; şi, când duhul rău trimes de Dumnezeu, va fi peste tine, el va cânta cu mâna, şi vei fi uşurat.``
17
Saul a răspuns slujitorilor săi: ,,Găsiţi-mi dar un om care să cânte bine, şi aduceţi-l la mine.``
18
Unul din slujitori a luat cuvântul, şi a zis: ,,Iată, am văzut pe un fiu al lui Isai, Betleemitul, care ştie să cânte; el este şi un om tare şi voinic, un războinic, vorbeşte bine, este frumos la chip, şi Domnul este cu el.``
19
Saul a trimes nişte oameni la Isai, să-i spună: ,,Trimete-mi pe fiul tău David, care este cu oile.``
20
Isai a luat un măgar, l-a încărcat cu pâne, cu un burduf cu vin şi cu un ied, şi a trimes lui Saul aceste lucruri, prin fiul său David.
21
David a ajuns la Saul, şi s-a înfăţişat înaintea lui; i-a plăcut mult lui Saul, şi a fost pus să-i poarte armele.
22
Saul a trimes vorbă lui Isai, zicând: ,,Te rog să laşi pe David în slujba mea, căci a căpătat trecere înaintea mea.``
23
Şi când duhul trimes de Dumnezeu venea peste Saul, David lua arfa şi cânta cu mâna lui; Saul răsufla atunci mai uşor, se simţea uşurat, şi duhul cel rău pleca dela el.
{"verseMap":{"1":[{"id":41284,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Samuel","title_en":"Samuel","content_ro":"<h3>Samuel<\/h3>\n<p>Samuel lived at the end of the period of the judges and ushered in the period of kingship. He was Israel’s last judge (1 Sam 7:6, 15-17) and was essentially considered Israel’s first prophet (1 Sam 3:20; Acts 3:24; 13:20). He functioned as a priest (see 1 Sam 2:18) and was a great man of faith (Heb 11:32).<\/p>\n<p>Samuel was born in response to his mother Hannah’s prayers. Samuel’s parents traveled annually from Ramah to the sanctuary at Shiloh (1 Sam 1:3). While at the sanctuary, Hannah, who was infertile, prayed for a son and promised to dedicate him to God for full-time service (1 Sam 1:9-11). God answered the prayer, and Samuel was born (1 Sam 1:19-20). When Samuel was weaned, Hannah took him to serve in the sanctuary with Eli, the high priest (1 Sam 1:24-28; 2:11).<\/p>\n<p>Eli’s sons were wicked, but Samuel served the Lord, and soon it became clear that God spoke more intimately with Samuel than with Eli. God spoke to Samuel to warn Eli of the coming disaster upon his family (1 Sam 3:1-18). This prophecy was fulfilled when the Philistines defeated Israel, killed Eli’s sons, and took the Ark of the Covenant (1 Sam 4:1-22). Later, under Samuel’s leadership, the people repented of their sin of idolatry and succeeded in winning an important battle against the Philistines (1 Sam 7:3-17).<\/p>\n<p>But as Samuel grew older, it became obvious that he suffered from the same weakness as Eli before him. Samuel’s sons were evil (1 Sam 8:1-3), and the people did not want them to assume leadership over the nation. Instead, the people requested that Samuel appoint for them a king who could lead them in battle against their enemies (1 Sam 8:4-5). Samuel then anointed Saul as the first king of Israel (1 Sam 9:1–10:24).<\/p>\n<p>The transition from the era of the judges to kingship was turbulent. As priest, Samuel prayed for the people; as prophet, he reproved Saul for impatience and disobedience (1 Sam 13:5-14; 15:12-35). When God rejected Saul as king, Samuel anointed David as God’s chosen one (1 Sam 16:1-13) and protected David from Saul (19:18-24).<\/p>\n<p>Through prayer and perseverance, Samuel was a faithful leader (Jer 15:1; Heb 11:32) who cherished his people’s well-being and courageously rebuked kings and elders. He led Israel from tribal disunity to national solidarity and established the monarchy. He presumably wrote <em>The Record of Samuel the Seer<\/em> (1 Chr 29:29) and defined ideal kingship (1 Sam 10:25). When he died, he was mourned by all Israel. He was buried in Ramah, his hometown (25:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 1:19–2:11; 3:1–4:1; 7:3–16:13; 19:18-24; 25:1; 28:1-25; Ps 99:6; Jer 15:1; Acts 3:24; 13:20; Heb 11:32<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Samuel<\/h3>\n<p>Samuel lived at the end of the period of the judges and ushered in the period of kingship. He was Israel’s last judge (1 Sam 7:6, 15-17) and was essentially considered Israel’s first prophet (1 Sam 3:20; Acts 3:24; 13:20). He functioned as a priest (see 1 Sam 2:18) and was a great man of faith (Heb 11:32).<\/p>\n<p>Samuel was born in response to his mother Hannah’s prayers. Samuel’s parents traveled annually from Ramah to the sanctuary at Shiloh (1 Sam 1:3). While at the sanctuary, Hannah, who was infertile, prayed for a son and promised to dedicate him to God for full-time service (1 Sam 1:9-11). God answered the prayer, and Samuel was born (1 Sam 1:19-20). When Samuel was weaned, Hannah took him to serve in the sanctuary with Eli, the high priest (1 Sam 1:24-28; 2:11).<\/p>\n<p>Eli’s sons were wicked, but Samuel served the Lord, and soon it became clear that God spoke more intimately with Samuel than with Eli. God spoke to Samuel to warn Eli of the coming disaster upon his family (1 Sam 3:1-18). This prophecy was fulfilled when the Philistines defeated Israel, killed Eli’s sons, and took the Ark of the Covenant (1 Sam 4:1-22). Later, under Samuel’s leadership, the people repented of their sin of idolatry and succeeded in winning an important battle against the Philistines (1 Sam 7:3-17).<\/p>\n<p>But as Samuel grew older, it became obvious that he suffered from the same weakness as Eli before him. Samuel’s sons were evil (1 Sam 8:1-3), and the people did not want them to assume leadership over the nation. Instead, the people requested that Samuel appoint for them a king who could lead them in battle against their enemies (1 Sam 8:4-5). Samuel then anointed Saul as the first king of Israel (1 Sam 9:1–10:24).<\/p>\n<p>The transition from the era of the judges to kingship was turbulent. As priest, Samuel prayed for the people; as prophet, he reproved Saul for impatience and disobedience (1 Sam 13:5-14; 15:12-35). When God rejected Saul as king, Samuel anointed David as God’s chosen one (1 Sam 16:1-13) and protected David from Saul (19:18-24).<\/p>\n<p>Through prayer and perseverance, Samuel was a faithful leader (Jer 15:1; Heb 11:32) who cherished his people’s well-being and courageously rebuked kings and elders. He led Israel from tribal disunity to national solidarity and established the monarchy. He presumably wrote <em>The Record of Samuel the Seer<\/em> (1 Chr 29:29) and defined ideal kingship (1 Sam 10:25). When he died, he was mourned by all Israel. He was buried in Ramah, his hometown (25:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 1:19–2:11; 3:1–4:1; 7:3–16:13; 19:18-24; 25:1; 28:1-25; Ps 99:6; Jer 15:1; Acts 3:24; 13:20; Heb 11:32<\/p>","summary_ro":"Samuel Samuel lived at the end of the period of the judges and ushered in the period of kingship. He was Israel’s last judge (1 Sam 7:6, 15-17) and was essentially considered Israel’s first prophet (1 Sam 3:20; Acts 3:24; 13:20). He functioned as a priest (see 1 Sam 2:18) and was a great man of faith (Heb 11:32). Samuel was born in response to his mother Hannah’s prayers. Samuel’s parents traveled annually from Ramah to the sanctuary at Shiloh (1 Sam 1:3). While at the sanctuary, Hannah, who ...","summary_en":"Samuel Samuel lived at the end of the period of the judges and ushered in the period of kingship. He was Israel’s last judge (1 Sam 7:6, 15-17) and was essentially considered Israel’s first prophet (1 Sam 3:20; Acts 3:24; 13:20). He functioned as a priest (see 1 Sam 2:18) and was a great man of faith (Heb 11:32). Samuel was born in response to his mother Hannah’s prayers. Samuel’s parents traveled annually from Ramah to the sanctuary at Shiloh (1 Sam 1:3). While at the sanctuary, Hannah, who ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":41324,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"David","title_en":"David","content_ro":"<h3>David<\/h3>\n<p>David is one of the monumental figures of biblical history. His reign was a high point in God’s plan for Israel, and it had great and lasting significance.<\/p>\n<p>David was born in Bethlehem as Jesse’s youngest son; his lineage is traced back to Judah (Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr 2:3-15; Matt 1:3-6; Luke 3:31-33). At the time of his birth, Jerusalem was occupied by the Jebusites, and large parts of the Promised Land were still occupied by foreign people, most notably the Philistines. God would use David to complete the conquest of the land.<\/p>\n<p>As a youth, David was a simple shepherd, watching his father’s sheep (1 Sam 16:11; 17:14-15). His life took an unexpected turn when the prophet Samuel came to Jesse and anointed David as the next king of Israel. However, David’s kingship was not initiated by a coup or an assassination. In fact, David became a faithful servant to King Saul. David first entered Saul’s service as a musician, playing songs that soothed Saul’s tormented soul (16:14-23). This service anticipated David’s role as the composer of many of the psalms. The youthful David also helped Saul by famously defeating the Philistine champion Goliath in individual combat (17:32-51). This victory anticipated David’s role as a victorious military leader.<\/p>\n<p>Although David was loyal, Saul grew deeply suspicious of him, and David had to flee. He was able to escape with help from Saul’s own children, Jonathan and Michal. David led a virtual kingdom in exile. He had a standing army of six hundred men. The prophet Gad and the priest Abiathar were also with him, providing direction and guidance from the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>God’s long-suffering patience finally ran out with Saul, and Saul died on the battlefield. Yet it was still not easy for David to establish his rule over all Israel. The tribe of Judah immediately proclaimed him its king, but at first the northern tribes chose Ishbosheth, a son of Saul, to be their leader. Ishbosheth was not a powerful or good leader; he only stayed in power because of the protection of his father’s military leader, Abner. However, Ishbosheth foolishly insulted Abner, so the general helped turn the kingdom over to David.<\/p>\n<p>As king over a united Israel, David proceeded to solidify the kingdom. He and his men captured Jerusalem from the Jebusites and made this central city his capital. He also expelled the remaining Philistines from the land. He then brought the Ark of the Covenant into Jerusalem. David wanted to build a permanent temple to God in Jerusalem to replace the Tabernacle. God denied this wish, but he showed his love for David by entering into a covenant with him that established his descendants as a dynasty (2 Sam 7).<\/p>\n<p>David’s life soon took a turn for the worse, however (see 2 Sam 11–12). At a time when he probably should have been on the battlefield with his army, he was lounging around on the palace roof. He saw a beautiful woman named Bathsheba taking a bath. He wanted her, so, like a Near Eastern despot, he took her. She became pregnant, and his attempt to cover up his adultery failed. In a desperate attempt to keep things secret, he had her husband, Uriah, killed. But not even a great king like David can keep secrets from God, and God sent his prophet Nathan to confront David. David repented (see Pss 32, 51), but the consequences of his actions plagued his family and the rest of his reign.<\/p>\n<p>From that point on, David’s family fell apart. David’s son Amnon raped his half sister Tamar (2 Sam 13:1-14). Her brother Absalom then murdered Amnon (2 Sam 13:20-29). Absalom later created a civil war as he tried to steal the throne from his father (2 Sam 15–18). Another son, Adonijah, tried to take the throne from David by having himself proclaimed king while his father was still alive (1 Kgs 1:5-10). But David was able to muster enough strength to ensure that Solomon would succeed him (1 Kgs 1:28-40). David died, Solomon was proclaimed king, and David’s long dynasty began (as promised in 2 Sam 7).<\/p>\n<p>David’s successors seldom measured up. Only rarely did his descendants lead the nation to worship God faithfully; the united monarchy did not even outlive Solomon. In the centuries that followed, the descendants of David ruled only Judah in the south. Eventually, the kingdom of Judah was destroyed. Never again did a descendant of David reign as king in Israel.<\/p>\n<p>What, then, of the promise to David that “your throne will be secure forever” (2 Sam 7:16)? The New Testament points to Jesus. He was the descendant of David, and God proclaimed him the Christ, or Messiah—the anointed king (see Matt 1:1; 9:27; 12:23; Mark 10:47-48; 11:10; 12:35-37; Luke 18:38-39; 20:41-44; John 7:42; Rev 5:5; 22:16). The life and rule of David foreshadows the messianic reign of Jesus Christ, which will last forever (see Luke 1:32-33; Rev 11:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ruth 4:13-22; 1 Sam 16:1–17:58; 18:1–27:12; 29:1–30:31; 2 Sam 1:1–24:25; 1 Kgs 1:1–2:12; 1 Chr 11:1–29:30; Pss 1–32, 34–41, 51–71, 86, 91–110, 122, 124, 131, 133, 138–145; Matt 1:1; 9:27; 22:41-46; Mark 12:35-37; Luke 20:41-44; John 7:40-44; Acts 2:22-37; 13:20-43; Rom 1:3; Rev 22:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>David<\/h3>\n<p>David is one of the monumental figures of biblical history. His reign was a high point in God’s plan for Israel, and it had great and lasting significance.<\/p>\n<p>David was born in Bethlehem as Jesse’s youngest son; his lineage is traced back to Judah (Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr 2:3-15; Matt 1:3-6; Luke 3:31-33). At the time of his birth, Jerusalem was occupied by the Jebusites, and large parts of the Promised Land were still occupied by foreign people, most notably the Philistines. God would use David to complete the conquest of the land.<\/p>\n<p>As a youth, David was a simple shepherd, watching his father’s sheep (1 Sam 16:11; 17:14-15). His life took an unexpected turn when the prophet Samuel came to Jesse and anointed David as the next king of Israel. However, David’s kingship was not initiated by a coup or an assassination. In fact, David became a faithful servant to King Saul. David first entered Saul’s service as a musician, playing songs that soothed Saul’s tormented soul (16:14-23). This service anticipated David’s role as the composer of many of the psalms. The youthful David also helped Saul by famously defeating the Philistine champion Goliath in individual combat (17:32-51). This victory anticipated David’s role as a victorious military leader.<\/p>\n<p>Although David was loyal, Saul grew deeply suspicious of him, and David had to flee. He was able to escape with help from Saul’s own children, Jonathan and Michal. David led a virtual kingdom in exile. He had a standing army of six hundred men. The prophet Gad and the priest Abiathar were also with him, providing direction and guidance from the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>God’s long-suffering patience finally ran out with Saul, and Saul died on the battlefield. Yet it was still not easy for David to establish his rule over all Israel. The tribe of Judah immediately proclaimed him its king, but at first the northern tribes chose Ishbosheth, a son of Saul, to be their leader. Ishbosheth was not a powerful or good leader; he only stayed in power because of the protection of his father’s military leader, Abner. However, Ishbosheth foolishly insulted Abner, so the general helped turn the kingdom over to David.<\/p>\n<p>As king over a united Israel, David proceeded to solidify the kingdom. He and his men captured Jerusalem from the Jebusites and made this central city his capital. He also expelled the remaining Philistines from the land. He then brought the Ark of the Covenant into Jerusalem. David wanted to build a permanent temple to God in Jerusalem to replace the Tabernacle. God denied this wish, but he showed his love for David by entering into a covenant with him that established his descendants as a dynasty (2 Sam 7).<\/p>\n<p>David’s life soon took a turn for the worse, however (see 2 Sam 11–12). At a time when he probably should have been on the battlefield with his army, he was lounging around on the palace roof. He saw a beautiful woman named Bathsheba taking a bath. He wanted her, so, like a Near Eastern despot, he took her. She became pregnant, and his attempt to cover up his adultery failed. In a desperate attempt to keep things secret, he had her husband, Uriah, killed. But not even a great king like David can keep secrets from God, and God sent his prophet Nathan to confront David. David repented (see Pss 32, 51), but the consequences of his actions plagued his family and the rest of his reign.<\/p>\n<p>From that point on, David’s family fell apart. David’s son Amnon raped his half sister Tamar (2 Sam 13:1-14). Her brother Absalom then murdered Amnon (2 Sam 13:20-29). Absalom later created a civil war as he tried to steal the throne from his father (2 Sam 15–18). Another son, Adonijah, tried to take the throne from David by having himself proclaimed king while his father was still alive (1 Kgs 1:5-10). But David was able to muster enough strength to ensure that Solomon would succeed him (1 Kgs 1:28-40). David died, Solomon was proclaimed king, and David’s long dynasty began (as promised in 2 Sam 7).<\/p>\n<p>David’s successors seldom measured up. Only rarely did his descendants lead the nation to worship God faithfully; the united monarchy did not even outlive Solomon. In the centuries that followed, the descendants of David ruled only Judah in the south. Eventually, the kingdom of Judah was destroyed. Never again did a descendant of David reign as king in Israel.<\/p>\n<p>What, then, of the promise to David that “your throne will be secure forever” (2 Sam 7:16)? The New Testament points to Jesus. He was the descendant of David, and God proclaimed him the Christ, or Messiah—the anointed king (see Matt 1:1; 9:27; 12:23; Mark 10:47-48; 11:10; 12:35-37; Luke 18:38-39; 20:41-44; John 7:42; Rev 5:5; 22:16). The life and rule of David foreshadows the messianic reign of Jesus Christ, which will last forever (see Luke 1:32-33; Rev 11:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ruth 4:13-22; 1 Sam 16:1–17:58; 18:1–27:12; 29:1–30:31; 2 Sam 1:1–24:25; 1 Kgs 1:1–2:12; 1 Chr 11:1–29:30; Pss 1–32, 34–41, 51–71, 86, 91–110, 122, 124, 131, 133, 138–145; Matt 1:1; 9:27; 22:41-46; Mark 12:35-37; Luke 20:41-44; John 7:40-44; Acts 2:22-37; 13:20-43; Rom 1:3; Rev 22:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"David David is one of the monumental figures of biblical history. His reign was a high point in God’s plan for Israel, and it had great and lasting significance. David was born in Bethlehem as Jesse’s youngest son; his lineage is traced back to Judah (Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr 2:3-15; Matt 1:3-6; Luke 3:31-33). At the time of his birth, Jerusalem was occupied by the Jebusites, and large parts of the Promised Land were still occupied by foreign people, most notably the Philistines. God would use Dav...","summary_en":"David David is one of the monumental figures of biblical history. His reign was a high point in God’s plan for Israel, and it had great and lasting significance. David was born in Bethlehem as Jesse’s youngest son; his lineage is traced back to Judah (Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr 2:3-15; Matt 1:3-6; Luke 3:31-33). At the time of his birth, Jerusalem was occupied by the Jebusites, and large parts of the Promised Land were still occupied by foreign people, most notably the Philistines. God would use Dav...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68910,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Samuel","title_en":"Samuel","content_ro":"<h3>Samuel<\/h3>\n<p>Samuel lived at the end of the period of the judges and ushered in the period of kingship. He was Israel’s last judge (1 Sam 7:6, 15-17) and was essentially considered Israel’s first prophet (1 Sam 3:20; Acts 3:24; 13:20). He functioned as a priest (see 1 Sam 2:18) and was a great man of faith (Heb 11:32).<\/p>\n<p>Samuel was born in response to his mother Hannah’s prayers. Samuel’s parents traveled annually from Ramah to the sanctuary at Shiloh (1 Sam 1:3). While at the sanctuary, Hannah, who was infertile, prayed for a son and promised to dedicate him to God for full-time service (1 Sam 1:9-11). God answered the prayer, and Samuel was born (1 Sam 1:19-20). When Samuel was weaned, Hannah took him to serve in the sanctuary with Eli, the high priest (1 Sam 1:24-28; 2:11).<\/p>\n<p>Eli’s sons were wicked, but Samuel served the Lord, and soon it became clear that God spoke more intimately with Samuel than with Eli. God spoke to Samuel to warn Eli of the coming disaster upon his family (1 Sam 3:1-18). This prophecy was fulfilled when the Philistines defeated Israel, killed Eli’s sons, and took the Ark of the Covenant (1 Sam 4:1-22). Later, under Samuel’s leadership, the people repented of their sin of idolatry and succeeded in winning an important battle against the Philistines (1 Sam 7:3-17).<\/p>\n<p>But as Samuel grew older, it became obvious that he suffered from the same weakness as Eli before him. Samuel’s sons were evil (1 Sam 8:1-3), and the people did not want them to assume leadership over the nation. Instead, the people requested that Samuel appoint for them a king who could lead them in battle against their enemies (1 Sam 8:4-5). Samuel then anointed Saul as the first king of Israel (1 Sam 9:1–10:24).<\/p>\n<p>The transition from the era of the judges to kingship was turbulent. As priest, Samuel prayed for the people; as prophet, he reproved Saul for impatience and disobedience (1 Sam 13:5-14; 15:12-35). When God rejected Saul as king, Samuel anointed David as God’s chosen one (1 Sam 16:1-13) and protected David from Saul (19:18-24).<\/p>\n<p>Through prayer and perseverance, Samuel was a faithful leader (Jer 15:1; Heb 11:32) who cherished his people’s well-being and courageously rebuked kings and elders. He led Israel from tribal disunity to national solidarity and established the monarchy. He presumably wrote <em>The Record of Samuel the Seer<\/em> (1 Chr 29:29) and defined ideal kingship (1 Sam 10:25). When he died, he was mourned by all Israel. He was buried in Ramah, his hometown (25:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 1:19–2:11; 3:1–4:1; 7:3–16:13; 19:18-24; 25:1; 28:1-25; Ps 99:6; Jer 15:1; Acts 3:24; 13:20; Heb 11:32<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Samuel<\/h3>\n<p>Samuel lived at the end of the period of the judges and ushered in the period of kingship. He was Israel’s last judge (1 Sam 7:6, 15-17) and was essentially considered Israel’s first prophet (1 Sam 3:20; Acts 3:24; 13:20). He functioned as a priest (see 1 Sam 2:18) and was a great man of faith (Heb 11:32).<\/p>\n<p>Samuel was born in response to his mother Hannah’s prayers. Samuel’s parents traveled annually from Ramah to the sanctuary at Shiloh (1 Sam 1:3). While at the sanctuary, Hannah, who was infertile, prayed for a son and promised to dedicate him to God for full-time service (1 Sam 1:9-11). God answered the prayer, and Samuel was born (1 Sam 1:19-20). When Samuel was weaned, Hannah took him to serve in the sanctuary with Eli, the high priest (1 Sam 1:24-28; 2:11).<\/p>\n<p>Eli’s sons were wicked, but Samuel served the Lord, and soon it became clear that God spoke more intimately with Samuel than with Eli. God spoke to Samuel to warn Eli of the coming disaster upon his family (1 Sam 3:1-18). This prophecy was fulfilled when the Philistines defeated Israel, killed Eli’s sons, and took the Ark of the Covenant (1 Sam 4:1-22). Later, under Samuel’s leadership, the people repented of their sin of idolatry and succeeded in winning an important battle against the Philistines (1 Sam 7:3-17).<\/p>\n<p>But as Samuel grew older, it became obvious that he suffered from the same weakness as Eli before him. Samuel’s sons were evil (1 Sam 8:1-3), and the people did not want them to assume leadership over the nation. Instead, the people requested that Samuel appoint for them a king who could lead them in battle against their enemies (1 Sam 8:4-5). Samuel then anointed Saul as the first king of Israel (1 Sam 9:1–10:24).<\/p>\n<p>The transition from the era of the judges to kingship was turbulent. As priest, Samuel prayed for the people; as prophet, he reproved Saul for impatience and disobedience (1 Sam 13:5-14; 15:12-35). When God rejected Saul as king, Samuel anointed David as God’s chosen one (1 Sam 16:1-13) and protected David from Saul (19:18-24).<\/p>\n<p>Through prayer and perseverance, Samuel was a faithful leader (Jer 15:1; Heb 11:32) who cherished his people’s well-being and courageously rebuked kings and elders. He led Israel from tribal disunity to national solidarity and established the monarchy. He presumably wrote <em>The Record of Samuel the Seer<\/em> (1 Chr 29:29) and defined ideal kingship (1 Sam 10:25). When he died, he was mourned by all Israel. He was buried in Ramah, his hometown (25:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 1:19–2:11; 3:1–4:1; 7:3–16:13; 19:18-24; 25:1; 28:1-25; Ps 99:6; Jer 15:1; Acts 3:24; 13:20; Heb 11:32<\/p>","summary_ro":"Samuel Samuel lived at the end of the period of the judges and ushered in the period of kingship. He was Israel’s last judge (1 Sam 7:6, 15-17) and was essentially considered Israel’s first prophet (1 Sam 3:20; Acts 3:24; 13:20). He functioned as a priest (see 1 Sam 2:18) and was a great man of faith (Heb 11:32). Samuel was born in response to his mother Hannah’s prayers. Samuel’s parents traveled annually from Ramah to the sanctuary at Shiloh (1 Sam 1:3). While at the sanctuary, Hannah, who ...","summary_en":"Samuel Samuel lived at the end of the period of the judges and ushered in the period of kingship. He was Israel’s last judge (1 Sam 7:6, 15-17) and was essentially considered Israel’s first prophet (1 Sam 3:20; Acts 3:24; 13:20). He functioned as a priest (see 1 Sam 2:18) and was a great man of faith (Heb 11:32). Samuel was born in response to his mother Hannah’s prayers. Samuel’s parents traveled annually from Ramah to the sanctuary at Shiloh (1 Sam 1:3). While at the sanctuary, Hannah, who ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68950,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"David","title_en":"David","content_ro":"<h3>David<\/h3>\n<p>David is one of the monumental figures of biblical history. His reign was a high point in God’s plan for Israel, and it had great and lasting significance.<\/p>\n<p>David was born in Bethlehem as Jesse’s youngest son; his lineage is traced back to Judah (Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr 2:3-15; Matt 1:3-6; Luke 3:31-33). At the time of his birth, Jerusalem was occupied by the Jebusites, and large parts of the Promised Land were still occupied by foreign people, most notably the Philistines. God would use David to complete the conquest of the land.<\/p>\n<p>As a youth, David was a simple shepherd, watching his father’s sheep (1 Sam 16:11; 17:14-15). His life took an unexpected turn when the prophet Samuel came to Jesse and anointed David as the next king of Israel. However, David’s kingship was not initiated by a coup or an assassination. In fact, David became a faithful servant to King Saul. David first entered Saul’s service as a musician, playing songs that soothed Saul’s tormented soul (16:14-23). This service anticipated David’s role as the composer of many of the psalms. The youthful David also helped Saul by famously defeating the Philistine champion Goliath in individual combat (17:32-51). This victory anticipated David’s role as a victorious military leader.<\/p>\n<p>Although David was loyal, Saul grew deeply suspicious of him, and David had to flee. He was able to escape with help from Saul’s own children, Jonathan and Michal. David led a virtual kingdom in exile. He had a standing army of six hundred men. The prophet Gad and the priest Abiathar were also with him, providing direction and guidance from the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>God’s long-suffering patience finally ran out with Saul, and Saul died on the battlefield. Yet it was still not easy for David to establish his rule over all Israel. The tribe of Judah immediately proclaimed him its king, but at first the northern tribes chose Ishbosheth, a son of Saul, to be their leader. Ishbosheth was not a powerful or good leader; he only stayed in power because of the protection of his father’s military leader, Abner. However, Ishbosheth foolishly insulted Abner, so the general helped turn the kingdom over to David.<\/p>\n<p>As king over a united Israel, David proceeded to solidify the kingdom. He and his men captured Jerusalem from the Jebusites and made this central city his capital. He also expelled the remaining Philistines from the land. He then brought the Ark of the Covenant into Jerusalem. David wanted to build a permanent temple to God in Jerusalem to replace the Tabernacle. God denied this wish, but he showed his love for David by entering into a covenant with him that established his descendants as a dynasty (2 Sam 7).<\/p>\n<p>David’s life soon took a turn for the worse, however (see 2 Sam 11–12). At a time when he probably should have been on the battlefield with his army, he was lounging around on the palace roof. He saw a beautiful woman named Bathsheba taking a bath. He wanted her, so, like a Near Eastern despot, he took her. She became pregnant, and his attempt to cover up his adultery failed. In a desperate attempt to keep things secret, he had her husband, Uriah, killed. But not even a great king like David can keep secrets from God, and God sent his prophet Nathan to confront David. David repented (see Pss 32, 51), but the consequences of his actions plagued his family and the rest of his reign.<\/p>\n<p>From that point on, David’s family fell apart. David’s son Amnon raped his half sister Tamar (2 Sam 13:1-14). Her brother Absalom then murdered Amnon (2 Sam 13:20-29). Absalom later created a civil war as he tried to steal the throne from his father (2 Sam 15–18). Another son, Adonijah, tried to take the throne from David by having himself proclaimed king while his father was still alive (1 Kgs 1:5-10). But David was able to muster enough strength to ensure that Solomon would succeed him (1 Kgs 1:28-40). David died, Solomon was proclaimed king, and David’s long dynasty began (as promised in 2 Sam 7).<\/p>\n<p>David’s successors seldom measured up. Only rarely did his descendants lead the nation to worship God faithfully; the united monarchy did not even outlive Solomon. In the centuries that followed, the descendants of David ruled only Judah in the south. Eventually, the kingdom of Judah was destroyed. Never again did a descendant of David reign as king in Israel.<\/p>\n<p>What, then, of the promise to David that “your throne will be secure forever” (2 Sam 7:16)? The New Testament points to Jesus. He was the descendant of David, and God proclaimed him the Christ, or Messiah—the anointed king (see Matt 1:1; 9:27; 12:23; Mark 10:47-48; 11:10; 12:35-37; Luke 18:38-39; 20:41-44; John 7:42; Rev 5:5; 22:16). The life and rule of David foreshadows the messianic reign of Jesus Christ, which will last forever (see Luke 1:32-33; Rev 11:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ruth 4:13-22; 1 Sam 16:1–17:58; 18:1–27:12; 29:1–30:31; 2 Sam 1:1–24:25; 1 Kgs 1:1–2:12; 1 Chr 11:1–29:30; Pss 1–32, 34–41, 51–71, 86, 91–110, 122, 124, 131, 133, 138–145; Matt 1:1; 9:27; 22:41-46; Mark 12:35-37; Luke 20:41-44; John 7:40-44; Acts 2:22-37; 13:20-43; Rom 1:3; Rev 22:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>David<\/h3>\n<p>David is one of the monumental figures of biblical history. His reign was a high point in God’s plan for Israel, and it had great and lasting significance.<\/p>\n<p>David was born in Bethlehem as Jesse’s youngest son; his lineage is traced back to Judah (Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr 2:3-15; Matt 1:3-6; Luke 3:31-33). At the time of his birth, Jerusalem was occupied by the Jebusites, and large parts of the Promised Land were still occupied by foreign people, most notably the Philistines. God would use David to complete the conquest of the land.<\/p>\n<p>As a youth, David was a simple shepherd, watching his father’s sheep (1 Sam 16:11; 17:14-15). His life took an unexpected turn when the prophet Samuel came to Jesse and anointed David as the next king of Israel. However, David’s kingship was not initiated by a coup or an assassination. In fact, David became a faithful servant to King Saul. David first entered Saul’s service as a musician, playing songs that soothed Saul’s tormented soul (16:14-23). This service anticipated David’s role as the composer of many of the psalms. The youthful David also helped Saul by famously defeating the Philistine champion Goliath in individual combat (17:32-51). This victory anticipated David’s role as a victorious military leader.<\/p>\n<p>Although David was loyal, Saul grew deeply suspicious of him, and David had to flee. He was able to escape with help from Saul’s own children, Jonathan and Michal. David led a virtual kingdom in exile. He had a standing army of six hundred men. The prophet Gad and the priest Abiathar were also with him, providing direction and guidance from the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>God’s long-suffering patience finally ran out with Saul, and Saul died on the battlefield. Yet it was still not easy for David to establish his rule over all Israel. The tribe of Judah immediately proclaimed him its king, but at first the northern tribes chose Ishbosheth, a son of Saul, to be their leader. Ishbosheth was not a powerful or good leader; he only stayed in power because of the protection of his father’s military leader, Abner. However, Ishbosheth foolishly insulted Abner, so the general helped turn the kingdom over to David.<\/p>\n<p>As king over a united Israel, David proceeded to solidify the kingdom. He and his men captured Jerusalem from the Jebusites and made this central city his capital. He also expelled the remaining Philistines from the land. He then brought the Ark of the Covenant into Jerusalem. David wanted to build a permanent temple to God in Jerusalem to replace the Tabernacle. God denied this wish, but he showed his love for David by entering into a covenant with him that established his descendants as a dynasty (2 Sam 7).<\/p>\n<p>David’s life soon took a turn for the worse, however (see 2 Sam 11–12). At a time when he probably should have been on the battlefield with his army, he was lounging around on the palace roof. He saw a beautiful woman named Bathsheba taking a bath. He wanted her, so, like a Near Eastern despot, he took her. She became pregnant, and his attempt to cover up his adultery failed. In a desperate attempt to keep things secret, he had her husband, Uriah, killed. But not even a great king like David can keep secrets from God, and God sent his prophet Nathan to confront David. David repented (see Pss 32, 51), but the consequences of his actions plagued his family and the rest of his reign.<\/p>\n<p>From that point on, David’s family fell apart. David’s son Amnon raped his half sister Tamar (2 Sam 13:1-14). Her brother Absalom then murdered Amnon (2 Sam 13:20-29). Absalom later created a civil war as he tried to steal the throne from his father (2 Sam 15–18). Another son, Adonijah, tried to take the throne from David by having himself proclaimed king while his father was still alive (1 Kgs 1:5-10). But David was able to muster enough strength to ensure that Solomon would succeed him (1 Kgs 1:28-40). David died, Solomon was proclaimed king, and David’s long dynasty began (as promised in 2 Sam 7).<\/p>\n<p>David’s successors seldom measured up. Only rarely did his descendants lead the nation to worship God faithfully; the united monarchy did not even outlive Solomon. In the centuries that followed, the descendants of David ruled only Judah in the south. Eventually, the kingdom of Judah was destroyed. Never again did a descendant of David reign as king in Israel.<\/p>\n<p>What, then, of the promise to David that “your throne will be secure forever” (2 Sam 7:16)? The New Testament points to Jesus. He was the descendant of David, and God proclaimed him the Christ, or Messiah—the anointed king (see Matt 1:1; 9:27; 12:23; Mark 10:47-48; 11:10; 12:35-37; Luke 18:38-39; 20:41-44; John 7:42; Rev 5:5; 22:16). The life and rule of David foreshadows the messianic reign of Jesus Christ, which will last forever (see Luke 1:32-33; Rev 11:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ruth 4:13-22; 1 Sam 16:1–17:58; 18:1–27:12; 29:1–30:31; 2 Sam 1:1–24:25; 1 Kgs 1:1–2:12; 1 Chr 11:1–29:30; Pss 1–32, 34–41, 51–71, 86, 91–110, 122, 124, 131, 133, 138–145; Matt 1:1; 9:27; 22:41-46; Mark 12:35-37; Luke 20:41-44; John 7:40-44; Acts 2:22-37; 13:20-43; Rom 1:3; Rev 22:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"David David is one of the monumental figures of biblical history. His reign was a high point in God’s plan for Israel, and it had great and lasting significance. David was born in Bethlehem as Jesse’s youngest son; his lineage is traced back to Judah (Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr 2:3-15; Matt 1:3-6; Luke 3:31-33). At the time of his birth, Jerusalem was occupied by the Jebusites, and large parts of the Promised Land were still occupied by foreign people, most notably the Philistines. God would use Dav...","summary_en":"David David is one of the monumental figures of biblical history. His reign was a high point in God’s plan for Israel, and it had great and lasting significance. David was born in Bethlehem as Jesse’s youngest son; his lineage is traced back to Judah (Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr 2:3-15; Matt 1:3-6; Luke 3:31-33). At the time of his birth, Jerusalem was occupied by the Jebusites, and large parts of the Promised Land were still occupied by foreign people, most notably the Philistines. God would use Dav...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96536,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Samuel","title_en":"Samuel","content_ro":"<h3>Samuel<\/h3>\n<p>Samuel lived at the end of the period of the judges and ushered in the period of kingship. He was Israel’s last judge (1 Sam 7:6, 15-17) and was essentially considered Israel’s first prophet (1 Sam 3:20; Acts 3:24; 13:20). He functioned as a priest (see 1 Sam 2:18) and was a great man of faith (Heb 11:32).<\/p>\n<p>Samuel was born in response to his mother Hannah’s prayers. Samuel’s parents traveled annually from Ramah to the sanctuary at Shiloh (1 Sam 1:3). While at the sanctuary, Hannah, who was infertile, prayed for a son and promised to dedicate him to God for full-time service (1 Sam 1:9-11). God answered the prayer, and Samuel was born (1 Sam 1:19-20). When Samuel was weaned, Hannah took him to serve in the sanctuary with Eli, the high priest (1 Sam 1:24-28; 2:11).<\/p>\n<p>Eli’s sons were wicked, but Samuel served the Lord, and soon it became clear that God spoke more intimately with Samuel than with Eli. God spoke to Samuel to warn Eli of the coming disaster upon his family (1 Sam 3:1-18). This prophecy was fulfilled when the Philistines defeated Israel, killed Eli’s sons, and took the Ark of the Covenant (1 Sam 4:1-22). Later, under Samuel’s leadership, the people repented of their sin of idolatry and succeeded in winning an important battle against the Philistines (1 Sam 7:3-17).<\/p>\n<p>But as Samuel grew older, it became obvious that he suffered from the same weakness as Eli before him. Samuel’s sons were evil (1 Sam 8:1-3), and the people did not want them to assume leadership over the nation. Instead, the people requested that Samuel appoint for them a king who could lead them in battle against their enemies (1 Sam 8:4-5). Samuel then anointed Saul as the first king of Israel (1 Sam 9:1–10:24).<\/p>\n<p>The transition from the era of the judges to kingship was turbulent. As priest, Samuel prayed for the people; as prophet, he reproved Saul for impatience and disobedience (1 Sam 13:5-14; 15:12-35). When God rejected Saul as king, Samuel anointed David as God’s chosen one (1 Sam 16:1-13) and protected David from Saul (19:18-24).<\/p>\n<p>Through prayer and perseverance, Samuel was a faithful leader (Jer 15:1; Heb 11:32) who cherished his people’s well-being and courageously rebuked kings and elders. He led Israel from tribal disunity to national solidarity and established the monarchy. He presumably wrote <em>The Record of Samuel the Seer<\/em> (1 Chr 29:29) and defined ideal kingship (1 Sam 10:25). When he died, he was mourned by all Israel. He was buried in Ramah, his hometown (25:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 1:19–2:11; 3:1–4:1; 7:3–16:13; 19:18-24; 25:1; 28:1-25; Ps 99:6; Jer 15:1; Acts 3:24; 13:20; Heb 11:32<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Samuel<\/h3>\n<p>Samuel lived at the end of the period of the judges and ushered in the period of kingship. He was Israel’s last judge (1 Sam 7:6, 15-17) and was essentially considered Israel’s first prophet (1 Sam 3:20; Acts 3:24; 13:20). He functioned as a priest (see 1 Sam 2:18) and was a great man of faith (Heb 11:32).<\/p>\n<p>Samuel was born in response to his mother Hannah’s prayers. Samuel’s parents traveled annually from Ramah to the sanctuary at Shiloh (1 Sam 1:3). While at the sanctuary, Hannah, who was infertile, prayed for a son and promised to dedicate him to God for full-time service (1 Sam 1:9-11). God answered the prayer, and Samuel was born (1 Sam 1:19-20). When Samuel was weaned, Hannah took him to serve in the sanctuary with Eli, the high priest (1 Sam 1:24-28; 2:11).<\/p>\n<p>Eli’s sons were wicked, but Samuel served the Lord, and soon it became clear that God spoke more intimately with Samuel than with Eli. God spoke to Samuel to warn Eli of the coming disaster upon his family (1 Sam 3:1-18). This prophecy was fulfilled when the Philistines defeated Israel, killed Eli’s sons, and took the Ark of the Covenant (1 Sam 4:1-22). Later, under Samuel’s leadership, the people repented of their sin of idolatry and succeeded in winning an important battle against the Philistines (1 Sam 7:3-17).<\/p>\n<p>But as Samuel grew older, it became obvious that he suffered from the same weakness as Eli before him. Samuel’s sons were evil (1 Sam 8:1-3), and the people did not want them to assume leadership over the nation. Instead, the people requested that Samuel appoint for them a king who could lead them in battle against their enemies (1 Sam 8:4-5). Samuel then anointed Saul as the first king of Israel (1 Sam 9:1–10:24).<\/p>\n<p>The transition from the era of the judges to kingship was turbulent. As priest, Samuel prayed for the people; as prophet, he reproved Saul for impatience and disobedience (1 Sam 13:5-14; 15:12-35). When God rejected Saul as king, Samuel anointed David as God’s chosen one (1 Sam 16:1-13) and protected David from Saul (19:18-24).<\/p>\n<p>Through prayer and perseverance, Samuel was a faithful leader (Jer 15:1; Heb 11:32) who cherished his people’s well-being and courageously rebuked kings and elders. He led Israel from tribal disunity to national solidarity and established the monarchy. He presumably wrote <em>The Record of Samuel the Seer<\/em> (1 Chr 29:29) and defined ideal kingship (1 Sam 10:25). When he died, he was mourned by all Israel. He was buried in Ramah, his hometown (25:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 1:19–2:11; 3:1–4:1; 7:3–16:13; 19:18-24; 25:1; 28:1-25; Ps 99:6; Jer 15:1; Acts 3:24; 13:20; Heb 11:32<\/p>","summary_ro":"Samuel Samuel lived at the end of the period of the judges and ushered in the period of kingship. He was Israel’s last judge (1 Sam 7:6, 15-17) and was essentially considered Israel’s first prophet (1 Sam 3:20; Acts 3:24; 13:20). He functioned as a priest (see 1 Sam 2:18) and was a great man of faith (Heb 11:32). Samuel was born in response to his mother Hannah’s prayers. Samuel’s parents traveled annually from Ramah to the sanctuary at Shiloh (1 Sam 1:3). While at the sanctuary, Hannah, who ...","summary_en":"Samuel Samuel lived at the end of the period of the judges and ushered in the period of kingship. He was Israel’s last judge (1 Sam 7:6, 15-17) and was essentially considered Israel’s first prophet (1 Sam 3:20; Acts 3:24; 13:20). He functioned as a priest (see 1 Sam 2:18) and was a great man of faith (Heb 11:32). Samuel was born in response to his mother Hannah’s prayers. Samuel’s parents traveled annually from Ramah to the sanctuary at Shiloh (1 Sam 1:3). While at the sanctuary, Hannah, who ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96576,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"David","title_en":"David","content_ro":"<h3>David<\/h3>\n<p>David is one of the monumental figures of biblical history. His reign was a high point in God’s plan for Israel, and it had great and lasting significance.<\/p>\n<p>David was born in Bethlehem as Jesse’s youngest son; his lineage is traced back to Judah (Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr 2:3-15; Matt 1:3-6; Luke 3:31-33). At the time of his birth, Jerusalem was occupied by the Jebusites, and large parts of the Promised Land were still occupied by foreign people, most notably the Philistines. God would use David to complete the conquest of the land.<\/p>\n<p>As a youth, David was a simple shepherd, watching his father’s sheep (1 Sam 16:11; 17:14-15). His life took an unexpected turn when the prophet Samuel came to Jesse and anointed David as the next king of Israel. However, David’s kingship was not initiated by a coup or an assassination. In fact, David became a faithful servant to King Saul. David first entered Saul’s service as a musician, playing songs that soothed Saul’s tormented soul (16:14-23). This service anticipated David’s role as the composer of many of the psalms. The youthful David also helped Saul by famously defeating the Philistine champion Goliath in individual combat (17:32-51). This victory anticipated David’s role as a victorious military leader.<\/p>\n<p>Although David was loyal, Saul grew deeply suspicious of him, and David had to flee. He was able to escape with help from Saul’s own children, Jonathan and Michal. David led a virtual kingdom in exile. He had a standing army of six hundred men. The prophet Gad and the priest Abiathar were also with him, providing direction and guidance from the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>God’s long-suffering patience finally ran out with Saul, and Saul died on the battlefield. Yet it was still not easy for David to establish his rule over all Israel. The tribe of Judah immediately proclaimed him its king, but at first the northern tribes chose Ishbosheth, a son of Saul, to be their leader. Ishbosheth was not a powerful or good leader; he only stayed in power because of the protection of his father’s military leader, Abner. However, Ishbosheth foolishly insulted Abner, so the general helped turn the kingdom over to David.<\/p>\n<p>As king over a united Israel, David proceeded to solidify the kingdom. He and his men captured Jerusalem from the Jebusites and made this central city his capital. He also expelled the remaining Philistines from the land. He then brought the Ark of the Covenant into Jerusalem. David wanted to build a permanent temple to God in Jerusalem to replace the Tabernacle. God denied this wish, but he showed his love for David by entering into a covenant with him that established his descendants as a dynasty (2 Sam 7).<\/p>\n<p>David’s life soon took a turn for the worse, however (see 2 Sam 11–12). At a time when he probably should have been on the battlefield with his army, he was lounging around on the palace roof. He saw a beautiful woman named Bathsheba taking a bath. He wanted her, so, like a Near Eastern despot, he took her. She became pregnant, and his attempt to cover up his adultery failed. In a desperate attempt to keep things secret, he had her husband, Uriah, killed. But not even a great king like David can keep secrets from God, and God sent his prophet Nathan to confront David. David repented (see Pss 32, 51), but the consequences of his actions plagued his family and the rest of his reign.<\/p>\n<p>From that point on, David’s family fell apart. David’s son Amnon raped his half sister Tamar (2 Sam 13:1-14). Her brother Absalom then murdered Amnon (2 Sam 13:20-29). Absalom later created a civil war as he tried to steal the throne from his father (2 Sam 15–18). Another son, Adonijah, tried to take the throne from David by having himself proclaimed king while his father was still alive (1 Kgs 1:5-10). But David was able to muster enough strength to ensure that Solomon would succeed him (1 Kgs 1:28-40). David died, Solomon was proclaimed king, and David’s long dynasty began (as promised in 2 Sam 7).<\/p>\n<p>David’s successors seldom measured up. Only rarely did his descendants lead the nation to worship God faithfully; the united monarchy did not even outlive Solomon. In the centuries that followed, the descendants of David ruled only Judah in the south. Eventually, the kingdom of Judah was destroyed. Never again did a descendant of David reign as king in Israel.<\/p>\n<p>What, then, of the promise to David that “your throne will be secure forever” (2 Sam 7:16)? The New Testament points to Jesus. He was the descendant of David, and God proclaimed him the Christ, or Messiah—the anointed king (see Matt 1:1; 9:27; 12:23; Mark 10:47-48; 11:10; 12:35-37; Luke 18:38-39; 20:41-44; John 7:42; Rev 5:5; 22:16). The life and rule of David foreshadows the messianic reign of Jesus Christ, which will last forever (see Luke 1:32-33; Rev 11:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ruth 4:13-22; 1 Sam 16:1–17:58; 18:1–27:12; 29:1–30:31; 2 Sam 1:1–24:25; 1 Kgs 1:1–2:12; 1 Chr 11:1–29:30; Pss 1–32, 34–41, 51–71, 86, 91–110, 122, 124, 131, 133, 138–145; Matt 1:1; 9:27; 22:41-46; Mark 12:35-37; Luke 20:41-44; John 7:40-44; Acts 2:22-37; 13:20-43; Rom 1:3; Rev 22:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>David<\/h3>\n<p>David is one of the monumental figures of biblical history. His reign was a high point in God’s plan for Israel, and it had great and lasting significance.<\/p>\n<p>David was born in Bethlehem as Jesse’s youngest son; his lineage is traced back to Judah (Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr 2:3-15; Matt 1:3-6; Luke 3:31-33). At the time of his birth, Jerusalem was occupied by the Jebusites, and large parts of the Promised Land were still occupied by foreign people, most notably the Philistines. God would use David to complete the conquest of the land.<\/p>\n<p>As a youth, David was a simple shepherd, watching his father’s sheep (1 Sam 16:11; 17:14-15). His life took an unexpected turn when the prophet Samuel came to Jesse and anointed David as the next king of Israel. However, David’s kingship was not initiated by a coup or an assassination. In fact, David became a faithful servant to King Saul. David first entered Saul’s service as a musician, playing songs that soothed Saul’s tormented soul (16:14-23). This service anticipated David’s role as the composer of many of the psalms. The youthful David also helped Saul by famously defeating the Philistine champion Goliath in individual combat (17:32-51). This victory anticipated David’s role as a victorious military leader.<\/p>\n<p>Although David was loyal, Saul grew deeply suspicious of him, and David had to flee. He was able to escape with help from Saul’s own children, Jonathan and Michal. David led a virtual kingdom in exile. He had a standing army of six hundred men. The prophet Gad and the priest Abiathar were also with him, providing direction and guidance from the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>God’s long-suffering patience finally ran out with Saul, and Saul died on the battlefield. Yet it was still not easy for David to establish his rule over all Israel. The tribe of Judah immediately proclaimed him its king, but at first the northern tribes chose Ishbosheth, a son of Saul, to be their leader. Ishbosheth was not a powerful or good leader; he only stayed in power because of the protection of his father’s military leader, Abner. However, Ishbosheth foolishly insulted Abner, so the general helped turn the kingdom over to David.<\/p>\n<p>As king over a united Israel, David proceeded to solidify the kingdom. He and his men captured Jerusalem from the Jebusites and made this central city his capital. He also expelled the remaining Philistines from the land. He then brought the Ark of the Covenant into Jerusalem. David wanted to build a permanent temple to God in Jerusalem to replace the Tabernacle. God denied this wish, but he showed his love for David by entering into a covenant with him that established his descendants as a dynasty (2 Sam 7).<\/p>\n<p>David’s life soon took a turn for the worse, however (see 2 Sam 11–12). At a time when he probably should have been on the battlefield with his army, he was lounging around on the palace roof. He saw a beautiful woman named Bathsheba taking a bath. He wanted her, so, like a Near Eastern despot, he took her. She became pregnant, and his attempt to cover up his adultery failed. In a desperate attempt to keep things secret, he had her husband, Uriah, killed. But not even a great king like David can keep secrets from God, and God sent his prophet Nathan to confront David. David repented (see Pss 32, 51), but the consequences of his actions plagued his family and the rest of his reign.<\/p>\n<p>From that point on, David’s family fell apart. David’s son Amnon raped his half sister Tamar (2 Sam 13:1-14). Her brother Absalom then murdered Amnon (2 Sam 13:20-29). Absalom later created a civil war as he tried to steal the throne from his father (2 Sam 15–18). Another son, Adonijah, tried to take the throne from David by having himself proclaimed king while his father was still alive (1 Kgs 1:5-10). But David was able to muster enough strength to ensure that Solomon would succeed him (1 Kgs 1:28-40). David died, Solomon was proclaimed king, and David’s long dynasty began (as promised in 2 Sam 7).<\/p>\n<p>David’s successors seldom measured up. Only rarely did his descendants lead the nation to worship God faithfully; the united monarchy did not even outlive Solomon. In the centuries that followed, the descendants of David ruled only Judah in the south. Eventually, the kingdom of Judah was destroyed. Never again did a descendant of David reign as king in Israel.<\/p>\n<p>What, then, of the promise to David that “your throne will be secure forever” (2 Sam 7:16)? The New Testament points to Jesus. He was the descendant of David, and God proclaimed him the Christ, or Messiah—the anointed king (see Matt 1:1; 9:27; 12:23; Mark 10:47-48; 11:10; 12:35-37; Luke 18:38-39; 20:41-44; John 7:42; Rev 5:5; 22:16). The life and rule of David foreshadows the messianic reign of Jesus Christ, which will last forever (see Luke 1:32-33; Rev 11:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ruth 4:13-22; 1 Sam 16:1–17:58; 18:1–27:12; 29:1–30:31; 2 Sam 1:1–24:25; 1 Kgs 1:1–2:12; 1 Chr 11:1–29:30; Pss 1–32, 34–41, 51–71, 86, 91–110, 122, 124, 131, 133, 138–145; Matt 1:1; 9:27; 22:41-46; Mark 12:35-37; Luke 20:41-44; John 7:40-44; Acts 2:22-37; 13:20-43; Rom 1:3; Rev 22:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"David David is one of the monumental figures of biblical history. His reign was a high point in God’s plan for Israel, and it had great and lasting significance. David was born in Bethlehem as Jesse’s youngest son; his lineage is traced back to Judah (Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr 2:3-15; Matt 1:3-6; Luke 3:31-33). At the time of his birth, Jerusalem was occupied by the Jebusites, and large parts of the Promised Land were still occupied by foreign people, most notably the Philistines. God would use Dav...","summary_en":"David David is one of the monumental figures of biblical history. His reign was a high point in God’s plan for Israel, and it had great and lasting significance. David was born in Bethlehem as Jesse’s youngest son; his lineage is traced back to Judah (Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr 2:3-15; Matt 1:3-6; Luke 3:31-33). At the time of his birth, Jerusalem was occupied by the Jebusites, and large parts of the Promised Land were still occupied by foreign people, most notably the Philistines. God would use Dav...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":124162,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Samuel","title_en":"Samuel","content_ro":"<h3>Samuel<\/h3>\n<p>Samuel lived at the end of the period of the judges and ushered in the period of kingship. He was Israel’s last judge (1 Sam 7:6, 15-17) and was essentially considered Israel’s first prophet (1 Sam 3:20; Acts 3:24; 13:20). He functioned as a priest (see 1 Sam 2:18) and was a great man of faith (Heb 11:32).<\/p>\n<p>Samuel was born in response to his mother Hannah’s prayers. Samuel’s parents traveled annually from Ramah to the sanctuary at Shiloh (1 Sam 1:3). While at the sanctuary, Hannah, who was infertile, prayed for a son and promised to dedicate him to God for full-time service (1 Sam 1:9-11). God answered the prayer, and Samuel was born (1 Sam 1:19-20). When Samuel was weaned, Hannah took him to serve in the sanctuary with Eli, the high priest (1 Sam 1:24-28; 2:11).<\/p>\n<p>Eli’s sons were wicked, but Samuel served the Lord, and soon it became clear that God spoke more intimately with Samuel than with Eli. God spoke to Samuel to warn Eli of the coming disaster upon his family (1 Sam 3:1-18). This prophecy was fulfilled when the Philistines defeated Israel, killed Eli’s sons, and took the Ark of the Covenant (1 Sam 4:1-22). Later, under Samuel’s leadership, the people repented of their sin of idolatry and succeeded in winning an important battle against the Philistines (1 Sam 7:3-17).<\/p>\n<p>But as Samuel grew older, it became obvious that he suffered from the same weakness as Eli before him. Samuel’s sons were evil (1 Sam 8:1-3), and the people did not want them to assume leadership over the nation. Instead, the people requested that Samuel appoint for them a king who could lead them in battle against their enemies (1 Sam 8:4-5). Samuel then anointed Saul as the first king of Israel (1 Sam 9:1–10:24).<\/p>\n<p>The transition from the era of the judges to kingship was turbulent. As priest, Samuel prayed for the people; as prophet, he reproved Saul for impatience and disobedience (1 Sam 13:5-14; 15:12-35). When God rejected Saul as king, Samuel anointed David as God’s chosen one (1 Sam 16:1-13) and protected David from Saul (19:18-24).<\/p>\n<p>Through prayer and perseverance, Samuel was a faithful leader (Jer 15:1; Heb 11:32) who cherished his people’s well-being and courageously rebuked kings and elders. He led Israel from tribal disunity to national solidarity and established the monarchy. He presumably wrote <em>The Record of Samuel the Seer<\/em> (1 Chr 29:29) and defined ideal kingship (1 Sam 10:25). When he died, he was mourned by all Israel. He was buried in Ramah, his hometown (25:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 1:19–2:11; 3:1–4:1; 7:3–16:13; 19:18-24; 25:1; 28:1-25; Ps 99:6; Jer 15:1; Acts 3:24; 13:20; Heb 11:32<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Samuel<\/h3>\n<p>Samuel lived at the end of the period of the judges and ushered in the period of kingship. He was Israel’s last judge (1 Sam 7:6, 15-17) and was essentially considered Israel’s first prophet (1 Sam 3:20; Acts 3:24; 13:20). He functioned as a priest (see 1 Sam 2:18) and was a great man of faith (Heb 11:32).<\/p>\n<p>Samuel was born in response to his mother Hannah’s prayers. Samuel’s parents traveled annually from Ramah to the sanctuary at Shiloh (1 Sam 1:3). While at the sanctuary, Hannah, who was infertile, prayed for a son and promised to dedicate him to God for full-time service (1 Sam 1:9-11). God answered the prayer, and Samuel was born (1 Sam 1:19-20). When Samuel was weaned, Hannah took him to serve in the sanctuary with Eli, the high priest (1 Sam 1:24-28; 2:11).<\/p>\n<p>Eli’s sons were wicked, but Samuel served the Lord, and soon it became clear that God spoke more intimately with Samuel than with Eli. God spoke to Samuel to warn Eli of the coming disaster upon his family (1 Sam 3:1-18). This prophecy was fulfilled when the Philistines defeated Israel, killed Eli’s sons, and took the Ark of the Covenant (1 Sam 4:1-22). Later, under Samuel’s leadership, the people repented of their sin of idolatry and succeeded in winning an important battle against the Philistines (1 Sam 7:3-17).<\/p>\n<p>But as Samuel grew older, it became obvious that he suffered from the same weakness as Eli before him. Samuel’s sons were evil (1 Sam 8:1-3), and the people did not want them to assume leadership over the nation. Instead, the people requested that Samuel appoint for them a king who could lead them in battle against their enemies (1 Sam 8:4-5). Samuel then anointed Saul as the first king of Israel (1 Sam 9:1–10:24).<\/p>\n<p>The transition from the era of the judges to kingship was turbulent. As priest, Samuel prayed for the people; as prophet, he reproved Saul for impatience and disobedience (1 Sam 13:5-14; 15:12-35). When God rejected Saul as king, Samuel anointed David as God’s chosen one (1 Sam 16:1-13) and protected David from Saul (19:18-24).<\/p>\n<p>Through prayer and perseverance, Samuel was a faithful leader (Jer 15:1; Heb 11:32) who cherished his people’s well-being and courageously rebuked kings and elders. He led Israel from tribal disunity to national solidarity and established the monarchy. He presumably wrote <em>The Record of Samuel the Seer<\/em> (1 Chr 29:29) and defined ideal kingship (1 Sam 10:25). When he died, he was mourned by all Israel. He was buried in Ramah, his hometown (25:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 1:19–2:11; 3:1–4:1; 7:3–16:13; 19:18-24; 25:1; 28:1-25; Ps 99:6; Jer 15:1; Acts 3:24; 13:20; Heb 11:32<\/p>","summary_ro":"Samuel Samuel lived at the end of the period of the judges and ushered in the period of kingship. He was Israel’s last judge (1 Sam 7:6, 15-17) and was essentially considered Israel’s first prophet (1 Sam 3:20; Acts 3:24; 13:20). He functioned as a priest (see 1 Sam 2:18) and was a great man of faith (Heb 11:32). Samuel was born in response to his mother Hannah’s prayers. Samuel’s parents traveled annually from Ramah to the sanctuary at Shiloh (1 Sam 1:3). While at the sanctuary, Hannah, who ...","summary_en":"Samuel Samuel lived at the end of the period of the judges and ushered in the period of kingship. He was Israel’s last judge (1 Sam 7:6, 15-17) and was essentially considered Israel’s first prophet (1 Sam 3:20; Acts 3:24; 13:20). He functioned as a priest (see 1 Sam 2:18) and was a great man of faith (Heb 11:32). Samuel was born in response to his mother Hannah’s prayers. Samuel’s parents traveled annually from Ramah to the sanctuary at Shiloh (1 Sam 1:3). While at the sanctuary, Hannah, who ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":124202,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"David","title_en":"David","content_ro":"<h3>David<\/h3>\n<p>David is one of the monumental figures of biblical history. His reign was a high point in God’s plan for Israel, and it had great and lasting significance.<\/p>\n<p>David was born in Bethlehem as Jesse’s youngest son; his lineage is traced back to Judah (Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr 2:3-15; Matt 1:3-6; Luke 3:31-33). At the time of his birth, Jerusalem was occupied by the Jebusites, and large parts of the Promised Land were still occupied by foreign people, most notably the Philistines. God would use David to complete the conquest of the land.<\/p>\n<p>As a youth, David was a simple shepherd, watching his father’s sheep (1 Sam 16:11; 17:14-15). His life took an unexpected turn when the prophet Samuel came to Jesse and anointed David as the next king of Israel. However, David’s kingship was not initiated by a coup or an assassination. In fact, David became a faithful servant to King Saul. David first entered Saul’s service as a musician, playing songs that soothed Saul’s tormented soul (16:14-23). This service anticipated David’s role as the composer of many of the psalms. The youthful David also helped Saul by famously defeating the Philistine champion Goliath in individual combat (17:32-51). This victory anticipated David’s role as a victorious military leader.<\/p>\n<p>Although David was loyal, Saul grew deeply suspicious of him, and David had to flee. He was able to escape with help from Saul’s own children, Jonathan and Michal. David led a virtual kingdom in exile. He had a standing army of six hundred men. The prophet Gad and the priest Abiathar were also with him, providing direction and guidance from the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>God’s long-suffering patience finally ran out with Saul, and Saul died on the battlefield. Yet it was still not easy for David to establish his rule over all Israel. The tribe of Judah immediately proclaimed him its king, but at first the northern tribes chose Ishbosheth, a son of Saul, to be their leader. Ishbosheth was not a powerful or good leader; he only stayed in power because of the protection of his father’s military leader, Abner. However, Ishbosheth foolishly insulted Abner, so the general helped turn the kingdom over to David.<\/p>\n<p>As king over a united Israel, David proceeded to solidify the kingdom. He and his men captured Jerusalem from the Jebusites and made this central city his capital. He also expelled the remaining Philistines from the land. He then brought the Ark of the Covenant into Jerusalem. David wanted to build a permanent temple to God in Jerusalem to replace the Tabernacle. God denied this wish, but he showed his love for David by entering into a covenant with him that established his descendants as a dynasty (2 Sam 7).<\/p>\n<p>David’s life soon took a turn for the worse, however (see 2 Sam 11–12). At a time when he probably should have been on the battlefield with his army, he was lounging around on the palace roof. He saw a beautiful woman named Bathsheba taking a bath. He wanted her, so, like a Near Eastern despot, he took her. She became pregnant, and his attempt to cover up his adultery failed. In a desperate attempt to keep things secret, he had her husband, Uriah, killed. But not even a great king like David can keep secrets from God, and God sent his prophet Nathan to confront David. David repented (see Pss 32, 51), but the consequences of his actions plagued his family and the rest of his reign.<\/p>\n<p>From that point on, David’s family fell apart. David’s son Amnon raped his half sister Tamar (2 Sam 13:1-14). Her brother Absalom then murdered Amnon (2 Sam 13:20-29). Absalom later created a civil war as he tried to steal the throne from his father (2 Sam 15–18). Another son, Adonijah, tried to take the throne from David by having himself proclaimed king while his father was still alive (1 Kgs 1:5-10). But David was able to muster enough strength to ensure that Solomon would succeed him (1 Kgs 1:28-40). David died, Solomon was proclaimed king, and David’s long dynasty began (as promised in 2 Sam 7).<\/p>\n<p>David’s successors seldom measured up. Only rarely did his descendants lead the nation to worship God faithfully; the united monarchy did not even outlive Solomon. In the centuries that followed, the descendants of David ruled only Judah in the south. Eventually, the kingdom of Judah was destroyed. Never again did a descendant of David reign as king in Israel.<\/p>\n<p>What, then, of the promise to David that “your throne will be secure forever” (2 Sam 7:16)? The New Testament points to Jesus. He was the descendant of David, and God proclaimed him the Christ, or Messiah—the anointed king (see Matt 1:1; 9:27; 12:23; Mark 10:47-48; 11:10; 12:35-37; Luke 18:38-39; 20:41-44; John 7:42; Rev 5:5; 22:16). The life and rule of David foreshadows the messianic reign of Jesus Christ, which will last forever (see Luke 1:32-33; Rev 11:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ruth 4:13-22; 1 Sam 16:1–17:58; 18:1–27:12; 29:1–30:31; 2 Sam 1:1–24:25; 1 Kgs 1:1–2:12; 1 Chr 11:1–29:30; Pss 1–32, 34–41, 51–71, 86, 91–110, 122, 124, 131, 133, 138–145; Matt 1:1; 9:27; 22:41-46; Mark 12:35-37; Luke 20:41-44; John 7:40-44; Acts 2:22-37; 13:20-43; Rom 1:3; Rev 22:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>David<\/h3>\n<p>David is one of the monumental figures of biblical history. His reign was a high point in God’s plan for Israel, and it had great and lasting significance.<\/p>\n<p>David was born in Bethlehem as Jesse’s youngest son; his lineage is traced back to Judah (Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr 2:3-15; Matt 1:3-6; Luke 3:31-33). At the time of his birth, Jerusalem was occupied by the Jebusites, and large parts of the Promised Land were still occupied by foreign people, most notably the Philistines. God would use David to complete the conquest of the land.<\/p>\n<p>As a youth, David was a simple shepherd, watching his father’s sheep (1 Sam 16:11; 17:14-15). His life took an unexpected turn when the prophet Samuel came to Jesse and anointed David as the next king of Israel. However, David’s kingship was not initiated by a coup or an assassination. In fact, David became a faithful servant to King Saul. David first entered Saul’s service as a musician, playing songs that soothed Saul’s tormented soul (16:14-23). This service anticipated David’s role as the composer of many of the psalms. The youthful David also helped Saul by famously defeating the Philistine champion Goliath in individual combat (17:32-51). This victory anticipated David’s role as a victorious military leader.<\/p>\n<p>Although David was loyal, Saul grew deeply suspicious of him, and David had to flee. He was able to escape with help from Saul’s own children, Jonathan and Michal. David led a virtual kingdom in exile. He had a standing army of six hundred men. The prophet Gad and the priest Abiathar were also with him, providing direction and guidance from the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>God’s long-suffering patience finally ran out with Saul, and Saul died on the battlefield. Yet it was still not easy for David to establish his rule over all Israel. The tribe of Judah immediately proclaimed him its king, but at first the northern tribes chose Ishbosheth, a son of Saul, to be their leader. Ishbosheth was not a powerful or good leader; he only stayed in power because of the protection of his father’s military leader, Abner. However, Ishbosheth foolishly insulted Abner, so the general helped turn the kingdom over to David.<\/p>\n<p>As king over a united Israel, David proceeded to solidify the kingdom. He and his men captured Jerusalem from the Jebusites and made this central city his capital. He also expelled the remaining Philistines from the land. He then brought the Ark of the Covenant into Jerusalem. David wanted to build a permanent temple to God in Jerusalem to replace the Tabernacle. God denied this wish, but he showed his love for David by entering into a covenant with him that established his descendants as a dynasty (2 Sam 7).<\/p>\n<p>David’s life soon took a turn for the worse, however (see 2 Sam 11–12). At a time when he probably should have been on the battlefield with his army, he was lounging around on the palace roof. He saw a beautiful woman named Bathsheba taking a bath. He wanted her, so, like a Near Eastern despot, he took her. She became pregnant, and his attempt to cover up his adultery failed. In a desperate attempt to keep things secret, he had her husband, Uriah, killed. But not even a great king like David can keep secrets from God, and God sent his prophet Nathan to confront David. David repented (see Pss 32, 51), but the consequences of his actions plagued his family and the rest of his reign.<\/p>\n<p>From that point on, David’s family fell apart. David’s son Amnon raped his half sister Tamar (2 Sam 13:1-14). Her brother Absalom then murdered Amnon (2 Sam 13:20-29). Absalom later created a civil war as he tried to steal the throne from his father (2 Sam 15–18). Another son, Adonijah, tried to take the throne from David by having himself proclaimed king while his father was still alive (1 Kgs 1:5-10). But David was able to muster enough strength to ensure that Solomon would succeed him (1 Kgs 1:28-40). David died, Solomon was proclaimed king, and David’s long dynasty began (as promised in 2 Sam 7).<\/p>\n<p>David’s successors seldom measured up. Only rarely did his descendants lead the nation to worship God faithfully; the united monarchy did not even outlive Solomon. In the centuries that followed, the descendants of David ruled only Judah in the south. Eventually, the kingdom of Judah was destroyed. Never again did a descendant of David reign as king in Israel.<\/p>\n<p>What, then, of the promise to David that “your throne will be secure forever” (2 Sam 7:16)? The New Testament points to Jesus. He was the descendant of David, and God proclaimed him the Christ, or Messiah—the anointed king (see Matt 1:1; 9:27; 12:23; Mark 10:47-48; 11:10; 12:35-37; Luke 18:38-39; 20:41-44; John 7:42; Rev 5:5; 22:16). The life and rule of David foreshadows the messianic reign of Jesus Christ, which will last forever (see Luke 1:32-33; Rev 11:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ruth 4:13-22; 1 Sam 16:1–17:58; 18:1–27:12; 29:1–30:31; 2 Sam 1:1–24:25; 1 Kgs 1:1–2:12; 1 Chr 11:1–29:30; Pss 1–32, 34–41, 51–71, 86, 91–110, 122, 124, 131, 133, 138–145; Matt 1:1; 9:27; 22:41-46; Mark 12:35-37; Luke 20:41-44; John 7:40-44; Acts 2:22-37; 13:20-43; Rom 1:3; Rev 22:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"David David is one of the monumental figures of biblical history. His reign was a high point in God’s plan for Israel, and it had great and lasting significance. David was born in Bethlehem as Jesse’s youngest son; his lineage is traced back to Judah (Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr 2:3-15; Matt 1:3-6; Luke 3:31-33). At the time of his birth, Jerusalem was occupied by the Jebusites, and large parts of the Promised Land were still occupied by foreign people, most notably the Philistines. God would use Dav...","summary_en":"David David is one of the monumental figures of biblical history. His reign was a high point in God’s plan for Israel, and it had great and lasting significance. David was born in Bethlehem as Jesse’s youngest son; his lineage is traced back to Judah (Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr 2:3-15; Matt 1:3-6; Luke 3:31-33). At the time of his birth, Jerusalem was occupied by the Jebusites, and large parts of the Promised Land were still occupied by foreign people, most notably the Philistines. God would use Dav...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":2066,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Animals","title_en":"Animals","content_ro":"<h3>ANIMALS<\/h3>\n<p>In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals as object lessons.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical approach to classification of animals is somewhat different from the system of classification used by biologists today. The present system of classification, which traces back to Carolus Linnaeus (an 18th-century Swedish botanist), is based on structure, both internal and external. The biblical basis of classification is habitat. Thus Genesis 1 speaks of aquatic organisms (v 20); aerial organisms (v 21); animals that crawl on the ground (v 24); cattle or domesticated animals (animals that live in association with humans) (v 24); and wild animals (v 24). The same system of classification is followed in Leviticus 11 and throughout Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Because of the divergence between systems of classification, the various animals of the Bible will be listed here in alphabetical order—including reptiles, fish, and even invertebrates such as insects, spiders, worms, and sponges. Birds are discussed in a separate article.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Adder<\/p>\n<p>• Ant<\/p>\n<p>• Antelope<\/p>\n<p>• Ape<\/p>\n<p>• Asp<\/p>\n<p>• Ass<\/p>\n<p>• Badger<\/p>\n<p>• Bat<\/p>\n<p>• Bear<\/p>\n<p>• Bee<\/p>\n<p>• Behemoth<\/p>\n<p>• Camel<\/p>\n<p>• Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>• Cattle<\/p>\n<p>• Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>• Coral<\/p>\n<p>• Cricket<\/p>\n<p>• Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>• Deer<\/p>\n<p>• Dog<\/p>\n<p>• Donkey<\/p>\n<p>• Dragon<\/p>\n<p>• Fish<\/p>\n<p>• Flea<\/p>\n<p>• Fly<\/p>\n<p>• Fox<\/p>\n<p>• Frog<\/p>\n<p>• Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>• Gecko<\/p>\n<p>• Gnat<\/p>\n<p>• Goat<\/p>\n<p>• Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>• Hare<\/p>\n<p>• Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>• Horse<\/p>\n<p>• Hyena<\/p>\n<p>• Jackal<\/p>\n<p>• Leech<\/p>\n<p>• Leopard<\/p>\n<p>• Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>• Lion<\/p>\n<p>• Lizard<\/p>\n<p>• Locust<\/p>\n<p>• Mole<\/p>\n<p>• Moth<\/p>\n<p>• Mouse<\/p>\n<p>• Mule<\/p>\n<p>• Pig<\/p>\n<p>• Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>• Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>• Sheep<\/p>\n<p>• Snail<\/p>\n<p>• Snake<\/p>\n<p>• Spider<\/p>\n<p>• Sponge<\/p>\n<p>• Unicorn<\/p>\n<p>• Wasp<\/p>\n<p>• Whale<\/p>\n<p>• Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>• Wolf<\/p>\n<p>• Worm<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Adder\">Adder<\/p>\n<p>One of the 20 poisonous snakes found in Israel and surrounding countries, also referred to as cockatrice and viper. True vipers (genus <em>Cerastes, Echis colorata,<\/em> and <em>Vipera palestina<\/em>) also exist there, poisonous snakes with curved fangs that spring into position when the snake strikes. The horned viper <em>(Cerastes hasselquistii)<\/em> may attack horses. It is 12 to 18 inches (30 to 46 centimeters) long and often lies in ambush in the sand with only its eyes and the hornlike protrusions on its head visible.<\/p>\n<p>Both Jesus and John the Baptist referred to the viper several times (Mt 3:7; 12:34; 23:33). The reference in Acts 28:3 is probably to a small viper <em>(Vipera aspis)<\/em> that strikes rapidly and is very pugnacious. It is found in southern Europe and hisses each time it inhales and exhales. The poison of vipers attacks the respiratory system and disintegrates red blood cells.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ant\">Ant<\/p>\n<p>Mentioned only twice in the Bible, both times in the book of Proverbs. For many years Solomon was charged with a biological error when he referred to the ant as providing her meat in the summer and gathering her food in the harvest (Prv 6:8). Critics of the Bible were quick to point out that, so far as was then known, ants do not store up food. They assumed that Solomon had probably kicked open an ant hill and mistaken the pupal cases (pods in which immature ants grow to maturity) for grain or had observed ants carrying bits of grain, leaves, and other matter to their nests.<\/p>\n<p>At least three species of grain-storing ants are now known—two occur in Israel and the other in Mediterranean countries. The particular species referred to by Solomon (Prv 6:6-8; 30:24-25) is probably the harvester ant <em>(Messor semirufus).<\/em> Its granaries are flat chambers connected by galleries irregularly scattered over an area about six feet (1.8 meters) in diameter and about a foot (.3 meter) deep in the ground. Seeds are collected from the ground or picked from plants. The head, or radicle, which is the softest part of the kernel, is bitten off to prevent germination, and the chaff and empty capsules are discarded on kitchen middens (refuse piles) outside the nest. Individual granaries may be 5 inches (12.7 centimeters) in diameter and a half inch (1.2 centimeters) high. Some nests are known to be 40 feet (12 meters) in diameter and 6 to 7 feet (approx. 2 meters) deep with several entrances.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Antelope\">Antelope<\/p>\n<p>Several antelope-like creatures are referred to in the Scriptures. One seems to be the white oryx <em>(Oryx leucoryx),<\/em> referred to in Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild ox”; <span>rsv<\/span> “antelope”) and Isaiah 51:20 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild bull”; <span>RSV <\/span>“antelope”). The oryx was probably the antelope, commonly used for food because its long horns made it relatively easy to catch.<\/p>\n<p>Another antelope mentioned in the Bible is the addax <em>(Addax nasomaculatus),<\/em> probably the “pygarg” of Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span>). It is a native of North Africa with grayish white hinder parts, a white patch on the forehead, and twisted and ringed horns. The word “pygarg” comes from a Greek word meaning “white rump.” The addax is about the size of a donkey. Its body is closely covered with short hair. It has a short mane on the underside of its neck that makes the head look somewhat like that of a goat. The hooves are broad and flat, and the tail resembles that of a donkey. It is common in Africa and in Arabia, where Arabs hunt it with falcons and dogs.<\/p>\n<p>Antelopes are very graceful and run with their heads held high. Both sexes have long, permanent, hollow horns. With the oryx the horns go straight back; addax horns are twisted and ringed. Antelope are alert, wary, and keen sighted. They are usually found in herds of from two to a dozen. If injured or brought to bay, an antelope attacks with its head lowered so that the sharp horns point forward. Antelopes feed on grasses and shrubs, drinking from streams and water holes. When water is scarce, they eat melons and succulent bulbs. Both addax and oryx were ceremonially clean in Jewish law.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ape\">Ape<\/p>\n<p>Primate not native to Palestine. The two references to apes in the OT (1 Kgs 10:22; 2 Chr 9:21) refer to their importation by King Solomon with other treasures on board the ships of his mercantile fleet. There is some question concerning the origin of those primates. Some believe that the mention of “ivory” in the same verses suggests they came from East Africa and that they were indeed apes, that is, tailless primates. Others, believing they came from India or Ceylon, suggest that they were actually monkeys. There the baboon (genus Papeio), a large monkey, was considered sacred to the god Thoth. Males of that genus were kept in temples, and the more docile females were often kept as house pets. Such baboons frequently had some of their teeth removed or ground down to lessen the danger of their biting. A number of mummified baboons have been found in Egypt, indicating the high regard in which they were held.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Asp\">Asp<\/p>\n<p>Poisonous snake. Most biblical references to the asp (Dt 32:33) seem to be to the Egyptian cobra <em>(Naja haje),<\/em> which conceals itself in holes, walls, and rocks and has the ability to expand its neck by raising its anterior ribs so as to enlarge the front of its breast into the shape of a flat disc. Its potent poison can cause death in 30 minutes. It attains a length of about 80 inches (2 meters). The fangs are permanently erect, not movable as in the vipers (the common poisonous snakes of North America; only the coral snake in America has permanently erect fangs). Cobra poison attacks the nervous system, causing muscular paralysis. The Egyptians looked upon it as a sacred creature; they regarded it as a protector since it fed on the rodents that ate their crops. The “fiery serpents” (Nm 21:6; Dt 8:15, both <span>rsv<\/span>) may have been cobras; “fiery” probably refers to the burning fever caused by their venom. Isaiah 14:29 and 30:6 (“flying serpent”) may refer to the hood of the cobra.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ass\">Ass<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Donkey (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Badger\">Badger<\/p>\n<p>Small hoofed mammal. What the <span>kjv<\/span> calls a “coney,” modern translations name “rock badger” (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7; Ps 104:18; Prv 30:26). The rock badger spoken of in the Bible is probably the Syrian rock hyrax <em>(Hyrax syriaca),<\/em> the only species of hyrax found outside Africa. This small ungulate (having hooflike toenails) lives among rocks from the Dead Sea valley to Mt Hermon. It is strictly a herbivorous (plant-eating) animal about the size of a rabbit. It resembles a guinea pig more than a rabbit, having quite inconspicuous ears and a very small tail. It has broad nails with four toes on its forelegs and three on its hind legs, the toes being connected with skin almost like a web. Pads acting as sucking discs under its feet enable it to keep its footing on slippery rocks. With its yellow and brown fur, it is sometimes called the bear rat because of its resemblance to a tailless rat. It is also equipped with black whiskers that may be seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p>These rock badgers, or hyraxes, live together in colonies of from 6 to 50 animals, often sunning themselves on rocks. They are difficult to catch. Guards are posted, and if approaching danger is sighted, the whole group will scurry for cover, warned by the sharp whistles of the guards. Thus they are commended for taking refuge in the rocks (Ps 104:18) and are called wise for making “their houses in the rocks” (Prv 30:24, 26, <span>kjv<\/span>). The badger is not a ruminant (does not chew its cud), but the motion of its jaws may suggest that it chews its cud. That is probably why it was included with other cud-chewing animals in the Jewish food laws (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7). It was forbidden to the Jews as food because it did not have cloven hooves. Some Arabs eat and even prize its meat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bat\">Bat<\/p>\n<p>Flying mammals according to modern classification. They have hair and provide milk for their young. The Bible classifies them with other aerial creatures. Bats take shelter in caves, crevices, tree cavities, buildings, and also in exposed places on trees. In colder areas they hibernate or migrate. The normal resting position for a bat is hanging head downward. Bats “swim” through the air rather than fly because they move with their legs as well as with their wings.<\/p>\n<p>The bat’s thumb is free and terminates in a single hook claw used for climbing and hanging. The hind feet have five toes, all pointing the same way. The large chest accommodates the powerful muscles needed for flying. Because they orient themselves by echo location, the sense of hearing is very well developed.<\/p>\n<p>Most bats are insect eaters, seizing insects in flight. Many insectivorous bats also eat some fruit. Other bats feed exclusively, usually in groups, on fruit and green vegetation. Fruit-eating bats generally live in the tropics where fruit is constantly ripening, although some have been found in the Holy Land. These bats tend to be larger than the insectivores, having a wingspread of up to five feet (1.5 meters).<\/p>\n<p>A third group includes flower-eating bats that feed on pollen and nectar. These small bats with long pointed heads and long tongues are found only in tropical and semitropical regions. Three species of vampire bats, which do not occur in the Holy Land, eat blood by making a small incision and lapping it up. Carnivorous (meat-eating) bats prey on birds, lizards, and frogs. Fish-eating bats catch fish at or near the water surface.<\/p>\n<p>Eight varieties of bats are known in the Holy Land. One of them, the little brown bat (genus <em>Myotis<\/em>), is worldwide in its distribution. It is insectivorous and probably has the widest distribution of any nonhuman terrestrial mammal. Brown bats are mostly cave dwellers. The females form maternity colonies that may number in the tens of thousands.<\/p>\n<p>Two species of mouse-tailed bats (genus <em>Rhinopoma<\/em>) are found in the Holy Land. Their tails are nearly as long as the head and body combined. They are colonial, roosting in caves, rock clefts, wells, pyramids, palaces, and houses. Like the brown bat, they are insectivorous. The slit-faced or hollow-faced bats (genus <em>Nycteris<\/em>) are also found in the Holy Land. They are insectivorous and roost in groups from 6 to 20.<\/p>\n<p>The bats found in the Holy Land vary in size from that of a mouse to the size of a rat; the largest species measures more than 20 inches (51 centimeters) across the wings. The bat was unclean to the Jews (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bear\">Bear<\/p>\n<p>Large, heavy, big-headed mammal with short, powerful limbs, a short tail, and small eyes and ears. Bears have a “plantigrade” walk: they walk on both the sole and heel as humans do. The Palestinian bear is a Syrian version of the brown bear <em>(Ursus arctos syriacus).<\/em> It can grow to a height of 6 feet (1.8 meters) and may weigh as much as 500 pounds (227 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>Bears have an excellent sense of smell but less developed senses of sight and hearing. They are omnivorous (eating any kind of food); they subsist largely on vegetation, fruits, insects, and fish.<\/p>\n<p>Bears are usually peaceful and inoffensive, but if they think they must defend themselves (Lam 3:10) or their young (2 Sm 17:8; Prv 17:12; Hos 13:8), they may be formidable and dangerous adversaries. David boasted of his role as a bear killer (1 Sm 17:34-37). Since a blow from a bear’s paw can be fatal, David’s courage and strength as a young shepherd in running after a bear and wrenching one of his father’s sheep from its jaws were noteworthy.<\/p>\n<p>Some biblical passages seem to imply that bears attacked for no apparent reason (e.g., Prv 28:15; Am 5:19). At other times they were God’s instruments of punishment, as in the story of Elisha and the two she-bears (2 Kgs 2:24). The bear and the lion, often mentioned together in the Bible (1 Sm 17:37), were the two largest and strongest beasts of prey in the Holy Land. Thus they symbolized both strength and terror (Am 5:19).<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times bears seem to have roamed all over Palestine. Today they are found only in the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Mountains, and even there they are rare.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bee\">Bee<\/p>\n<p>One of two domesticated insects <em>(Apis mellifica),<\/em> the other being the silkworm. Bees gather nectar from flowers, transferring pollen from one flower to another in the process. It is believed that they convey the location of sources of nectar to other bees through a bee “dance,” which may indicate both distance and direction. Bees are sensitive to four colors: blue-green, yellow-green, blue-violet, and ultra-violet (invisible to humans).<\/p>\n<p>The wild bees of the Holy Land are especially noted for their ferocity in attack. Only the female “worker” bees sting people and animals, the virulence of their venom increasing in warm weather. A number of biblical passages allude to the irritable, vindictive nature of bees and to the painful stings they inflict (Dt 1:44; Ps 118:12; Is 7:18).<\/p>\n<p>One reference calls attention to the fact that in semidesert regions a dead animal’s carcass, stripped to the bone by jackals or vultures and dried in the sun, can provide wild bees an excellent place to start a new colony (Jgs 14:5-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptians considered the bee sacred. In ancient Greece candles were made from beeswax. In the Holy Land, beekeeping was probably not practiced until the Hellenistic period (second century <span>BC<\/span>), although Ezekiel 27:17 suggests that it may have been practiced earlier. If domestic honey was not available to the Hebrews, wild honey certainly was, and travelers would be on the lookout for caches of honey in rocky clefts and other likely places. The Philistines and the Hittites practiced beekeeping in their cities.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible contains many references to bees and bee products. A bee swarm was a valuable asset, though the price of honey itself was low. Honey was sometimes eaten with the honeycomb (Sg 5:1). Honey also had uses other than food, e.g., in embalming.<\/p>\n<p>The land of Israel was described as a land flowing with milk and honey. Honey was a major source of sweetening in the ancient Near East—hence, its importance (cf. Jgs 14:8-9). Actually the Hebrew word for “honey” may include not only bee honey but also the sweet syrup extracted from such fruits as figs, dates, and grapes. Thus “a land flowing with milk and honey” (Ex 3:8, <span>rsv<\/span>) does not necessarily stand for a land of bees but for a land rich in sweetness.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Food and Food Preparation; Honey.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Behemoth\">Behemoth<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Hippopotamus (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Camel\">Camel<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of burden. Unintelligent, ill-natured, and quarrelsome, the camel <em>(Camelus dromedarius)<\/em> is nevertheless a blessing to people living in the desert and on its borders because it is especially adapted to that habitat. It has been called the ship of the desert. Having thick elastic pads of fibrous tissue on its feet, it can walk on hot desert sands. It can go without water for long periods and can subsist on vegetation growing on the saline soils. The camel’s nostrils are pinched together and can be closed at will to prevent penetration of sand during violent sandstorms.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are used for transporting both goods and people. A person riding a camel can cover from 60 to 75 miles (96.5 to 121 kilometers) in a day. A camel can carry a load weighing 600 pounds (272 kilograms) or more. Camels were used heavily in the spice trade (Gn 37:25) and traveled regularly in camel trains between Arabia, Egypt, and Assyria. They were also ridden in time of war (Jgs 6:5). A camel can even be hitched to a plow in areas where the land is cultivated.<\/p>\n<p>The hair shed by camels during the early spring is preserved and used in weaving cloth and making tents. As much as 10 pounds (4.5 kilograms) of hair can be obtained from one camel. A rough cloak of camel’s hair, as worn by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4), is still worn by Bedouins today. A camel’s hair garment was also the sign of the prophetic office (Zec 13:4).<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of camel occur within the one-humped species, the slow burden-bearing camel referred to in Genesis 37:25 and the fast dromedary of 1 Samuel 30:17. The dromedary can stand seven feet (2.1 meters) tall and measure as much as nine feet (2.7 meters) from the muzzle to the tip of the tail. With its three-chambered stomach, which can hold from 15 to 30 quarts (14.2 to 28.4 liters) of liquid, it can go for as long as 5 days during the summer or 25 days in winter without drinking. The camel’s hump is a reserve store of fat, making it possible for the animal to subsist on very little food during a desert journey.<\/p>\n<p>Another species of camel, the Bactrian camel <em>(Camelus bactrianus),<\/em> is also resident in the Holy Land. It has two humps. It is heavier, bigger, and has longer hair than the one-humped camel and is slower than the swift dromedary. Isaiah 21:7 may refer to the Bactrian camel; both kinds of camel are referred to in Esther 8:10 (<span>kjv<\/span>). Camels ranked in importance with sheep, cattle, and asses in OT times. A third of the 66 biblical references to the camel lists it with other animals.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are ruminants (cud-chewing mammals) but do not have cloven hooves. Thus, they were included in the list of unclean beasts, forbidden by the Israelites as food (Lv 11:4; Dt 14:7). They are eaten by Arabs, however, who also drink their milk (cf. Gn 32:15).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham had camels in Egypt (Gn 12:16). At first Job had 3,000 camels (Jb 1:3) and after his recovery, 6,000 (Jb 42:12). Although wide use of camels does not seem to have begun until shortly before 1000 <span>BC<\/span> (Jgs 6:5), Sumerian texts from the Old Babylonian period list camels and indicate that they had been domesticated. Camel bones and figurines have been found at various eastern archaeological sites dating from well before 1200 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Caterpillar\">Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>Larval stage of insects characterized by complete metamorphosis. Such insects pass through four stages: egg, larva or caterpillar, pupa, and adult. Bees, flies, moths, and butterflies all pass through a larval or caterpillar stage.<\/p>\n<p>The word “caterpillar” occurs three times in the <span>nlt<\/span> (1 Kgs 8:37; 2 Chr 6:28; Ps 78:46). In the book of Joel that same Hebrew word is translated “locust” (1:4; 2:25, <span>nlt<\/span>). The locust and grasshopper to which the Hebrew word refers have an incomplete type of metamorphosis with only three stages: egg, nymph, and adult. The nymph is a miniature adult in which the wings are not fully developed, though their outline may be present. There are several nymph stages known as instars. The reference is to one of the last instars, in which the wing structures are still folded together and enclosed in a sac but are nevertheless clearly recognizable. That form of the insect is about an inch (2.5 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cattle\">Cattle<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animals of the bovine species <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> The OT often emphasized the beauty of cattle. Egypt was rich in cattle, especially in the Nile River delta area (Goshen), where the Hebrews settled under Joseph.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars believe that milk rather than meat was the foremost consideration in the domestication of cattle and that in early civilizations meat supplies came chiefly from wild game. Cattle also supplied strong hides that supplanted wood in the manufacture of shields. Their dung was a source of fuel when wood was scarce (Ez 4:15). They were used as beasts of burden and for plowing. Development of wheeled transportation was associated more closely with cattle than with any other animal.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical term “cattle” often refers to all domesticated animals or livestock (Gn 1:24; 2:20; 7:23; 47:6, 16-17; Ex 9:3-7; Nm 3:41, 45). Occasionally, the term was used to refer to all large domestic animals (Nm 31:9; 32:26), although sometimes the word as used in the <span>kjv<\/span> refers only to sheep and goats (Gn 30:32, 39, 43; 31:8, 10; Is 7:25; 43:23).<\/p>\n<p>Probably several kinds of cattle were domesticated in the Holy Land. Small, short-legged, black or brown shorthorn cattle were found in the southern part of Judah; that type submitted easily to the yoke and was prominent in agricultural operations. Along the coast a larger variety was found, and the wild districts east of the Jordan River were populated with a breed of huge black cattle.<\/p>\n<p>Cattle breeding was widely practiced by the patriarchs (cf. Gn 32:15; Jb 21:10). Strict laws in Mesopotamia, as well as in Israel, penalized the owner of a bull that gored a man or other cattle (Ex 21:28-36). Bulls were sometimes employed figuratively as pictures of strength or violence (Dt 33:17; Pss 22:12; 68:30; Is 10:13). For breeding purposes one bull is normally adequate for about 30 cows, but many more were kept since bulls were widely used in Israel for sacrifices. They might be used as a general sacrifice (Lv 22:23; Nm 23:1) or for special sacrifices (Jgs 6:25; 1 Sm 1:24). Particular sacrifices were offered at the consecration of priests (Ex 29:1), consecration of an altar (Nm 7), purification of the Levites (Nm 8), sin offerings (Lv 16), day of the new moon (Nm 28:11-14), Passover (Nm 28:19), Feast of Weeks (Nm 28:27), Feast of Trumpets (Nm 29:1-2), Day of Atonement (Nm 29:7-9), and the Feast of Tabernacles (Nm 29:12-38). The Feast of Tabernacles required the largest number of bulls for burnt offerings of all the annual feasts, with a total of 71 being slaughtered during the course of eight days.<\/p>\n<p>Calves were sometimes referred to as “sons of the herd” in the original Hebrew (Gn 18:8; 1 Sm 6:7; 14:32). The calf, a symbol of peacefulness (Is 11:6), was also used figuratively to refer to the weak (Ps 68:30). A calf’s head decorated the back of Solomon’s throne (1 Kgs 10:19). Calves were sometimes fattened in stalls to keep them from running off weight in the field (Am 6:4; Mal 4:2; Lk 15:23) or were kept around the house; the witch of Endor kept a calf in her house that she killed and served to Saul and his men (1 Sm 28:24-25). Calves supplied veal (Gn 18:7), considered a delicacy by the wealthy; Amos referred to stall-fattened calves in a denunciation of luxurious and careless living (Am 6:4). Calves also supplied meat for all Saul’s armies at the great slaughter of the Philistines (1 Sm 14:32). The “fatted calf” served roasted or boiled was gourmet fare, suitable for the finest banquet (Gn 18:7; Mt 22:4; Lk 15:23).<\/p>\n<p>Cattle were subject to the law of firstlings (Ex 13:12). They were a mark of wealth (Gn 13:2) and were considered proper booty of war (Jos 8:2). Aaron, the first high priest, made a golden calf as a rival to the ark of the covenant (Ex 32; Dt 9:16, 21). Even though he represented the calf as an image of the invisible God, it was especially offensive because the calf was a fertility symbol related to Egyptian and Canaanite practices. Two calves were later made by Jeroboam I of Israel (930–909 <span>BC<\/span>) for his shrines at Bethel and Dan (1 Kgs 12:28-33). Hosea’s prophetic denunciations of calf worship were directed at those shrines (Hos 8:5-6; 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>An ox is an adult castrated bull. A steer is a young ox. Oxen were used to do work (Nm 7:3; Dt 22:10; 25:4), though for moving heavy objects, cows were typically favored over bulls because of their more docile nature. Oxen were also used as pack animals (1 Chr 12:40, although they did not have the endurance of the ass, camel, or mule. They usually fed on grass (Nm 22:4; Ps 106:20), but they also ate straw (Is 11:7) and salted fodder (Is 30:24) and could be kept in a stable (Lk 13:15). Oxen could not be offered as sacrifices because they had been castrated (Lv 22:24). They could be used for food but were rarely eaten. Possession of an ox and an ass was regarded as the bare minimum for existence in the ancient Palestinian agriculture economy (Jb 24:3; cf. Ex 20:17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Agriculture; Food and Food Preparation; Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chameleon\">Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>Lizard characterized by its ability to change color according to its surroundings <em>(Chameleon vulgaris).<\/em> To the Israelites the chameleon was ritually unclean (Lv 11:30). The Hebrew word for chameleon is derived from a word meaning “to pant.” A lizard’s lungs are very large, and in ancient times lizards were believed to live on air. A chameleon’s eyes move independently of each other; so at times one eye may be turned upward and the other downward. Chameleons live in trees and bushes, clinging to branches with their long tails.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Coral\">Coral<\/p>\n<p>Calcareous (lime-containing) skeletons of relatively simple marine organisms <em>(Corallium rubrum).<\/em> Red coral from the Mediterranean and Red Seas is widely used for jewelry and for medicinal purposes. While the animal is alive, the coral is green in color and shrublike in appearance, looking rather like an underwater plant since the coral animals are immobil. When the coral is removed from the water, it becomes hard and red in color.<\/p>\n<p>In ancient times coral was sometimes used as money, along with precious stones, pearls, and gold. Some believe the biblical reference in Lamentations 4:7 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is to pearls rather than to coral, but it is probable that the references in Job 28:18 and Ezekiel 27:16 are to the red coral (see <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cricket\">Cricket<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the order Orthptera related to grasshoppers and locusts. According to Leviticus 11:22, the cricket was edible. The reference may be to one of the growth stages of the locust.<\/p>\n<p>The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word as “beetle.” Beetles are insects with chewing mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the fore pair being hard and sheathlike and the hind pair being membranous and folded under the fore pair. Some beetles are carnivorous, others are chiefly herbivorous. Some are aquatic, some produce a secretion that blisters the skin, some damage fabrics, some damage crops, and some feed on other insects that are harmful to humans. In ancient Egypt the beetle, or sacred scarab, was a symbol of the sun god Ra. Scarab seals and amulets were extremely popular in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Crocodile\">Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all existing reptiles <em>(Crocodilus vulgaris),<\/em> attaining a length of well over 20 feet (6 meters). Crocodiles are characterized by large lizardlike bodies supported by short legs. The head terminates in a flattened snout armed with strong conical teeth, each of which is implanted in a distinct socket. New teeth growing from beneath continually replace those in use. The toes are webbed. The back and tail are protected by quadrangular horny shields of varying sizes arranged in regular rows and in contact with one another at the edges. The eyes are covered with movable lids that can be closed when the animal enters the water.<\/p>\n<p>The crocodile spends most of its time in the water where it feeds mainly on fish but also on aquatic birds and even small animals that come down to the water’s edge to drink. It is surprisingly fast and agile on dry land, even though its legs are so short that its belly and tail drag across the earth leaving a distinct path.<\/p>\n<p>Until the beginning of the 20th century, the crocodile was found in the marshes and small coastal rivers of western Palestine. A first-century Roman writer, Pliny, referred to a place in the Holy Land called Crocodeilopolis (“crocodile city”) to the south of Mt Carmel, and visitors to the Holy Land as late as the 19th century reported seeing crocodiles in that general region.<\/p>\n<p>The description of “Leviathan” in Job 41 seems to be based on the crocodile (thus the translation of the <span>nlt<\/span>). The “dragon” of Ezekiel 29:3, used figuratively of the Egyptian pharaoh, may be a reference to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Deer\">Deer<\/p>\n<p>Large ruminant (cud-chewing) animals. Only the males have antlers (branching horns). Deer antlers grow annually and are solid, in contrast to those of the antelope and the gazelle. Fully developed antlers are devoid of any covering of skin or horn and, for all practical purposes, may be regarded as a mass of dead bone carried for a certain time by the living animal.<\/p>\n<p>The end of the deer’s muzzle is naked in all species. The stomach is divided into a series of compartments, some of which are used to store partly chewed food. The food is later regurgitated, rechewed, and finally swallowed into a section of the stomach where true digestion takes place.<\/p>\n<p>Three species of deer were known in Palestine: the red deer <em>(Cervus elaphus),<\/em> the Persian fallow deer <em>(Dama mesopotamica),<\/em> and the roe deer <em>(Capreolus capreolus).<\/em> All are now extinct there. The last deer were hunted in the Holy Land in 1914. The red deer referred to in the Bible as “hart” (male), “stag” (male), or “hind” (female) stood about four feet (1.2 meters) high at the shoulder. It was gregarious (living in herds or flocks), each group remaining in a definite territory. Red deer grazed and browsed during the morning and late afternoon (Lam 1:6). The sexes remained in separate herds. The red deer was known for its leaping (Is 35:6) and sure-footedness in the mountains (Ps 18:33; Sg 2:8-9, 17; 8:14; Hb 3:19).<\/p>\n<p>The antlers of the Persian fallow deer (1 Kgs 4:23) were large, flattened, and palmated (shaped like an open palm with fingers extended), and its coat was a yellowbrown. It traveled in small groups, feeding mainly on grass in the morning and evening.<\/p>\n<p>The roe deer (Dt 14:5; 1 Kgs 4:23) was a small, graceful animal, dark reddish brown in summer and yellowish gray in winter. Its antlers were about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and had three points. The roe deer preferred sparsely wooded valleys and the lower slopes of mountains, grazing in open grasslands. It usually associated in family groups made up of the doe and her offspring. They were shy, yet very curious. The roe deer barked like a dog when disturbed, and they were excellent swimmers.<\/p>\n<p>There is some question as to whether the roe deer is actually referred to in such passages as 1 Kings 4:23; references may be to the fallow deer, although that animal does not seem to have lived in the southern part of Palestine around the Sinai Desert because of its need for ample amounts of food and water. Fallow deer were found in northern Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The hart (the male red deer) was listed among the clean beasts that Jewish law permitted as food (Dt 12:15, 22; 14:5), but deer were not listed among the animals appropriate for sacrifice. The hind (female red deer) normally gave birth to one calf at a time, though twins were born with some degree of regularity (Jb 39:1; Ps 29:9, <span>kjv<\/span>; Jer 14:5). The gestation period was about 40 weeks. When it was about to give birth, the hind looked for a secure hiding place, preferably in the dense undergrowth of the forest where it could find natural protection for the tiny calf. During the first few days after birth, the mother never went far from her young. The fawn was able to stand on its own legs a few hours after birth. The solicitous care by the hind for her calf during the first days of its life is hinted at in a touching way in Jeremiah 14:4-5, where only a severe drought is said to drive the hind from her calf. Job 39:1-4 describes the calving of the hinds. The hind illustrated grace and charm (Gn 49:21; Prv 5:19), and its dark, gentle eyes and graceful limbs were used to describe the beauty of a woman (Prv 5:18-19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dog\">Dog<\/p>\n<p>Probably the earliest domesticated animal <em>(Canis familiaris),<\/em> used very early in hunting. The modern dog is believed to have come from the Indian wolf <em>(Canis lupus pallipes).<\/em> The dogs of biblical times probably looked like a modern German shepherd, with short pointed ears, a pointed nose, and a long tail.<\/p>\n<p>The dog was generally looked down upon in biblical times (Prv 26:11; 2 Pt 2:22). The biblical writers did not share modern sentiments about dogs being man’s best friends. The dog was pictured as a scavenger, haunting streets and dumps (Ex 22:31; 1 Kgs 22:38; Mt 15:26; Lk 16:21). Human corpses could become the spoil of dogs (2 Kgs 9:35-36). In general, dogs served the same function as vultures and other birds of prey. Most of the 41 references in the Scriptures to dogs show strong disfavor. Dogs were considered cowardly, filthy creatures.<\/p>\n<p>Dogs used in hunting occur in paintings in Egyptian tombs, and there is a reference to dogs herding sheep in Job 30:1. One good quality of dogs highly esteemed by the Israelites was watchfulness (Is 56:10). In general, however, in biblical times “dog” was a term of contempt (1 Sm 17:43; 2 Sm 16:9) and was used of overly submissive persons (2 Sm 9:8; 2 Kgs 8:13) and of evil persons (Is 56:10-11; Mt 7:6; Phil 3:2; Rv 22:15).<\/p>\n<p>Dogs, like pigs, were voracious and omnivorous (eating any kind of food). In response to a Gentile woman’s request that he heal her daughter, Jesus used the metaphor of throwing household food scraps to dogs (Mt 15:22-28; Mk 7:25-30). At the time of Jesus, the word “dog” was a standard Jewish term of contempt for Gentiles who, like dogs, were considered unclean, although the diminutive form of the word, used by Jesus, softened this considerably. Seeing her faith, Jesus granted the woman’s request, giving a non-Jew some of “the children’s bread.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Donkey\">Donkey<\/p>\n<p>Beast of burden. The donkey of the Holy Land <em>(Equus asinus)<\/em> was quite different from the European donkey of today, which is usually a small, stubborn animal. In biblical times the donkey was a beautiful, stately, friendly animal. Its color was usually reddish brown. Three wild races have been described, all from Africa. The race from northwest Africa is extinct; the one from northeast Africa, if not extinct, is close to extinction; the Somalian race, which survives, did not play an important part in domestication. The northeast African race, the Nubian donkey, was evidently domesticated in the Nile River region in early historic times. The donkey was used as a mount from the time of domestication on. It is first mentioned in the Bible among the animals that Abraham acquired in Egypt (Gn 12:16). The donkey was primarily a beast of burden, driven but not bridled. From the time of the Middle Kingdom on (c. 2040 <span>BC<\/span>), it was used for riding in Egypt, but only the Jews and Nubians rode donkeys regularly. The donkey was also used for threshing grain and for pulling the plow. In Arab countries today peasants plow with a donkey and a cow or camel hitched together. In Israel the law forbade plowing with a donkey and an ox hitched together (Dt 22:10). Until the time of Solomon (960 <span>BC<\/span>), horses were not used in Palestine. From that time on, the horse was ridden by warriors; the donkey was used by those who were traveling peaceably.<\/p>\n<p>The donkey was held in high regard by the Jews and was considered an economic asset. An individual had to have a donkey for minimum existence (Jb 24:3), and wealth was frequently counted by the number of donkeys one possessed (Gn 12:16; 24:35). The donkey was considered an acceptable gift (Gn 32:13-15). It was allowed to rest on the Sabbath (Dt 5:14). Women in biblical times often used the donkey as a riding animal (Jos 15:18; 1 Sm 25:23; 2 Kgs 4:24); often a special driver would help a woman guide the animal, running along at its side. If a married couple possessed only one donkey, the husband usually walked alongside while the wife rode (Ex 4:20).<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel returning from Babylon had ten times as many donkeys as horses and camels (Ezr 2:66-67; Neh 7:68-69). Job’s wealth was indicated by the fact that he had 500 she-donkeys before catastrophe hit him (Jb 1:3); after his recovery he had 1,000 donkeys (Jb 42:12). Joseph’s brothers used donkeys to transport the grain they purchased in Egypt (Gn 42:26; 43:24). Abigail transported food on donkeys to David and his troops during their conflict with Saul (1 Sm 25:18). David assigned one of the 12 managers of his royal estates to look after his donkeys exclusively (1 Chr 27:30).<\/p>\n<p>The onager, or Syrian wild donkey <em>(Equus hemionus hemihippus)<\/em>, is an intermediate between the true horse and the true donkey. Its ears are longer than those of a horse but shorter than those of a donkey. The front hooves are narrow; there are chestnuts (callouslike spots on the inside of the knees) on the front legs only, and the tail is short haired for a long distance from its root so that it appears to be tufted.<\/p>\n<p>The Sumerians (ancient Mesopotamians) were able to domesticate the onager, which was eventually replaced by the horse. It was used to draw chariots in Ur; a number of onagers were buried with their vehicles in a royal grave that dates from about 2500 <span>BC<\/span>. Later the wild onager was a favorite hunter’s prize for Babylonian and Assyrian kings.<\/p>\n<p>The onager was very common in the steppe lands near Israel, where it was described as a freedom-loving desert animal (Jb 24:5; 39:5-8; Ps 104:11; Is 32:14; Jer 2:24; Hos 8:9). Ishmael was described as “free and untamed as a wild donkey” (Gn 16:12, <span>nlt<\/span>)—that is, one who could not adjust to domestic life. Drought seems to have been responsible for the population decline of the onager in biblical times (Jer 14:6). The modern onager <em>(Equus hemionus onager)<\/em> is slightly larger than the Syrian wild donkey that is extinct.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dragon\">Dragon<\/p>\n<p>Any one of a number of monstrous land and sea creatures. In biblical usage, “dragon” does not refer to the huge, fire-breathing, winged reptile of European folklore. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> used the term to translate two Hebrew words that are usually rendered more precisely in modern translations. One word referred to desert animals; most scholars agree with the <span>niv<\/span> that “jackals” is its proper meaning (Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; Jer 9:11; Mal 1:3). <em>See<\/em> Jackal (below).<\/p>\n<p>The other Hebrew word translated “dragon” is harder to define. It was frequently used in reference to serpents (so translated in the <span>rsv<\/span>: Ex 7:9-12; Dt 32:33; Ps 91:13). In other <span>rsv<\/span> passages it is translated “sea monster” (Gn 1:21; Jb 7:12; Ps 148:7). The exact identity of such sea monsters is not known. Several <span>rsv<\/span> passages retain the English “dragon.” In two of them (Ps 74:13; Is 27:1), the context indicates that sea monsters are meant. In three others (Is 51:9; Ez 29:3; 32:2) “dragon” seems to refer to the crocodile, a figurative reference to the Egyptian pharaoh at the time of the exodus. Jeremiah 51:34 (translated “monster” in the <span>rsv<\/span>) may also refer to a voracious creature such as a crocodile. <em>See<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p>Babylonian myths described monsters and dragons in primordial conflict with the god Marduk; they represented the principle of evil. In its figurative usages in Scripture, “dragon” has a similar significance, especially in the prophetic books. In the book of Revelation it is a symbol of Satan, the archenemy of God and his people (Rv 12:3-17; 13:2, 4, 11; 16:13; 20:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fish\">Fish<\/p>\n<p>Aquatic animals frequently mentioned in the Bible without names or descriptions that enable us to identify the particular species. Since time immemorial, fish have constituted one of the staple foods of humanity, and they still serve as the chief source of protein in many parts of the world. The trade in fish was highly developed in biblical times. For example, one of the gates in Jerusalem was called the Fish Gate (Neh 3:3; Zep 1:10). The law in Leviticus 11:9-12 permitted the Jews to eat fish, but only those having both fins and scales. Scaleless fish such as catfish were forbidden, even though they had fins.<\/p>\n<p>Egyptian paintings depict various methods of fishing, and the Philistines fished in the Mediterranean Sea. Since the people of Israel were not a seafaring nation, it is safe to assume that most of their fish came from freshwater lakes and rivers, especially the Sea of Galilee. Some 36 species of fish have been identified in that lake, including varieties of perch, carp, barbel, “sardine,” and catfish.<\/p>\n<p>The method of fishing characteristic of NT times was the dragnet. After a boat had put out into the deep (Lk 5:4), a large net would be thrown out from it and then dragged toward shore by the rowers in the boat, possibly with the help of a crew in another boat. The catch was sorted out on shore (Mt 13:47-48). Fishing was usually carried out at night when the coolness of the water brought fish closer to the surface and when they could not see the approaching nets.<\/p>\n<p>The Jews also fished by hook and line (Mt 17:27), a few by spear (Jb 41:7), and some by the throw net (Ez 47:10). Habakkuk refers to hook-and-line fishing, netting, and seining (1:15).<\/p>\n<p>Very early in the history of the Christian church the fish became a symbol for Christ and the faith. It was scratched on the walls of Roman catacombs and may be seen today decorating walls, altars, pews, and vestments. The symbol came into use because the Greek word for “fish” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ichthus<\/span><em>)<\/em> is composed of the first letter of each word in the Greek phrase “Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior.” <em>See<\/em> Whale (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Flea\">Flea<\/p>\n<p>Tiny, irritating insect (1 Sm 24:14; 26:20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Many species of fleas occur in Palestine, the most common being <em>Pulex irritans.<\/em> About a thousand species are known around the world. Fleas are wingless parasites that have sharp jaws and suck out blood from the bodies of humans and animals. The body is wedge shaped, enabling the flea to burrow into folds of skin and hide there. The eggs, laid by the female in dust heaps in the corners of rooms, hatch into small, white larvae that pupate (a nonfeeding stage) in a cocoon. Soon adult fleas appear that immediately attach themselves to the body of a host. The female requires blood for the development of her eggs.<\/p>\n<p>A flea bite is painful and causes some swelling and itching. Fleas are attracted by warmth. With favorable moisture and temperature, adult fleas can live a year or longer without food, but they are voracious feeders. The most dangerous fleas are those of the rat that transmit the organism responsible for bubonic plague. There were 41 recorded epidemics of bubonic plague before the Christian era.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fly\">Fly<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the order Diptera, which have one pair of wings. Many winged insects of other orders, however, are also called flies, such as the dragonfly or butterfly.<\/p>\n<p>As in almost all parts of the world, flies are abundant in Palestine. One of the most numerous is the common housefly <em>(Musca domestica),<\/em> found chiefly around dung heaps and garbage. The female lays her eggs, out of which emerge white maggots that feed on refuse. After a few days the maggot develops into a cocoon out of which emerges the adult housefly. In the summer the whole cycle lasts about 12 days, so that a fly can breed about 20 generations a year.<\/p>\n<p>Another fly common to Palestine is the botfly (family Oestridae). It causes much discomfort among livestock by irritating them and spreading diseases. Tabanid flies (family Tabanidae), including the horsefly (genus <em>Tabanus<\/em>) and related species, are also found in Palestine. Both the botfly and horsefly are known as gadflies because of the persistent distress they inflict. Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar is spoken of as a gadfly in view of his invasion of Egypt (Jer 46:20).<\/p>\n<p>The fourth plague in Egypt just before the exodus featured “swarms of flies” (Ex 8:21-31, <span>nlt<\/span>; cf. Pss 78:45; 105:31). Those swarms may have been made up of any or all the flies mentioned above. The maggots mentioned in Job 25:6 and Isaiah 14:11 and the worms in Exodus 16:24 and Job 7:5 and 17:14 were probably fly larvae.<\/p>\n<p>A proverb quoted in Ecclesiastes 10:1 probably refers to the housefly, which would be attracted to an open, perfumed ointment bottle. Once inside it would drown and eventually decay, causing the ointment to spoil and stink. The fly is also referred to in Isaiah 7:18 where it symbolizes Egypt. Isaiah may have had in mind a horsefly <em>(Tabanus arenivagus)<\/em> that attacks both humans and animals.<\/p>\n<p>Philistine inhabitants of the city of Ekron worshiped a god named Baal-zebul, meaning “Lord of the high places.” The Hebrews mockingly spoke of Baal-zebub, meaning “Lord of the flies” (2 Kgs 1:2). The NT form is Beelzebub (e.g., Mt 10:25; 12:24, 27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fox\">Fox<\/p>\n<p>Small, doglike carnivore with a bushy tail that is about half its body length. The red fox of the Holy Land <em>(Vulpes palaetinae)<\/em> is similar to the North American red fox; it is smaller than a wolf and is normally a nocturnal solitary animal. The omnivorous fox eats almost any kind of food—fruits, plants, mice, beetles, and birds—but seldom touches carrion. It loves the sweet juice of grapes, but it also burrows underground tunnels that can destroy the vines (Sg 2:15). The fox is intelligent and known for its slyness (Lk 13:32). It has considerable endurance and can run at speeds up to 30 miles (48 kilometers) per hour. The Jews rebuilding Jerusalem’s wall were taunted by the wisecrack that even a fox jumping on their wall would knock it over (Neh 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptian fox <em>(Vulpes niloticus)<\/em> is found in the central and southern parts of the Holy Land. It is somewhat smaller than the common red fox. Its back is rust colored and its belly light. The Syrian fox <em>(Vulpes flavescens)<\/em> that lives in the northern part of the Holy Land is shiny gold in color.<\/p>\n<p>Some OT references such as Psalm 63:10 and Lamentations 5:18 are translated “fox” in the <span>kjv<\/span> but probably refer to jackals. Jackals, not foxes, hunt in packs and tend to act as scavengers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Frog\">Frog<\/p>\n<p>Amphibian (genus <em>Rana<\/em>), living part of its life in the water and part on land.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs and toads are covered with soft, hairless skin and lack a tail in the adult stage. The hind legs are much longer and more powerfully developed than the forelegs so that the animals are able to jump large distances. It has been suggested that the frog referred to in Scripture is an edible one, <em>Rana ridibunda,<\/em> one of the aquatic frogs found in Egypt and in the stagnant waters of the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The female frog lays her eggs in the water; after about a week the eggs hatch into tadpoles. Gradually through metamorphosis the tail is lost and limbs are acquired. Frogs must maintain a moist skin since they take oxygen through the skin as well as through their lungs; thus they must always remain close to water. They feed on insects and worms.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs are found throughout the Palestinian lowlands, where their croaking is heard in the spring and on summer evenings. The Israelites seem to have associated frogs primarily with sliminess and foulness. They fell into the category of creeping or swarming creatures, which in general were ritually unclean (Lv 11:29-31). Since the frog was not specifically listed, however, rabbis did not consider it one of the animals that defiled human beings through contact.<\/p>\n<p>In Revelation 16:13 certain foul spirits are said to look like frogs. The ancient Egyptians made the frog a symbol of life and birth and an image of Heqet, the patron goddess of birth. She is depicted with a frog’s head giving life to the newborn. Thus that deity was discredited when the power of God afflicted Egypt in the second of the ten plagues on the Egyptians with the very animal that was her symbol (Ex 8:1-14; Pss 78:45; 105:30). The frog in question may have been the spotted frog of Egypt <em>(Rana punctata,<\/em> or <em>Rana ridibunda).<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gazelle\">Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>Small, dainty, graceful antelope with hollow recurved horns on both sexes. Two varieties exist in the Holy Land, the dorcas gazelle <em>(Gazella dorcas),<\/em> which is pale fawn in color and up to 22 inches (56 centimeters) tall, and the Arabian gazelle <em>(Gazella arabica),<\/em> which is a dark smoky color and up to 25 inches (63.5 centimeters) tall.<\/p>\n<p>Gazelles are still quite common throughout the desert and steppe areas of the Holy Land, especially in the Negev Desert. Herds usually consist of from 5 to 10 animals, but some varieties assemble in large migratory herds in the fall to relocate to lower elevations and new feeding grounds. Gazelles are herbivorous (plant eating). They are very shy and post guards to warn the herd of approaching danger.<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times the gazelle was probably the game animal most hunted by the Jews (Prv 6:5; Is 13:14). Pharaoh Tutankhamen hunted gazelles and ostriches. The gazelle is said to have graced Solomon’s table (1 Kgs 4:23). Gazelles were not easy to catch because of their great speed (2 Sm 2:18; 1 Chr 12:8; Prv 6:5); they surpass the deer in swiftness. They were trapped in various ways—encircled with nets, driven into enclosures with pitfalls, or forced into narrow valleys and shot with arrows. The Bedouin hunt gazelle with falcons and dogs; the falcon annoys the gazelle, striking it on the head and injuring it so that the dogs can overtake it.<\/p>\n<p>The gazelle is referred to in Song of Songs 2:9, 17; 4:5; 7:3; 8:14, where it is an image of feminine beauty.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gecko\">Gecko<\/p>\n<p>Reptile of the family Gekkonidae, referred to in Leviticus 11:30. In Jewish food law it was a ritually unclean lizard. There are seven species of geckos in the Holy Land (including <em>Hemidactylus turcicus<\/em> and <em>Ptyodactylus hasselquistii,<\/em> all insectivorous—insect eating). The gecko makes a low mourning sound by vibrating its tongue rapidly against the roof of its mouth. In legend the gecko was said to cause leprosy by crawling across a person’s body.<\/p>\n<p>Another name for the gecko is the wall lizard, so named because it can walk upside down on ceilings with the aid of the suction discs on its toes—but it often plops down into the middle of the home. Since it was considered unclean, such an intrusion would have been a disgusting nuisance to Jewish households (Lv 11:31-38).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gnat\">Gnat<\/p>\n<p>Any very small fly, in common and biblical usage. According to the <span>nlt<\/span>, the third plague in Egypt before the exodus consisted of gnats (Ex 8:16-18; Ps 105:31). The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word there as “lice,” but the breeding pattern described in Exodus 8—insects rising from the dust—seems to fit gnats better than lice. Since “gnat” is a general term, the small flies of that plague may have included several small species such as mosquitos, harvester gnats, midges, or sand flies.<\/p>\n<p>The sand fly inflicts a far more painful bite than the mosquito. Further, it does not betray itself by a buzzing noise in flight and is so small that it penetrates most mosquito netting.<\/p>\n<p>Gnats were drawn to wine while it was fermenting. The Pharisees in particular would strain their wine to avoid consuming unclean insects (Mt 23:24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Goat\">Goat<\/p>\n<p>Cloven-hooved mammals (genus <em>Capra<\/em>) with large eyes and big, floppy ears that constantly twitch. Both males and females have backward arching horns. The Palestinian goat is a ruminant (cud-chewing animal) of lighter build than the sheep.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was probably the earliest ruminant to be domesticated. Its wild ancestor seems to have been the Gezoar goat <em>(Capra aegagrus).<\/em> Wild goats are believed to have been domesticated very early in Palestine. The goat of Bible times was probably the Syrian or Mamber variety <em>(Capra hircus mambrica).<\/em> Domesticated goats may have as many as four kids in a litter, whereas wild goats bear only one or two.<\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian goat was commonly black. Speckled and spotted goats were a rarity, and for that reason Jacob’s request for those goats in Genesis 30:32 appeared very modest. There may also have been red goats (cf. 1 Sm 16:12; 19:13, where goat’s hair was used to imitate David’s hair, which was “ruddy” or auburn).<\/p>\n<p>Almost every part of the goat was used by the Israelites. The whole goat was used for sacrifice. Its flesh served as meat (Lv 7:23; Dt 14:4), and it was the principal source of milk (Prv 27:27). Goats were sheared in the late spring, and the goat hair was used for weaving tent cloth and for various domestic purposes (Ex 36:14; 1 Sm 19:13, 16). The tabernacle at Mt Sinai was made of goat’s hair blankets (Ex 26:7).<\/p>\n<p>Adult male goats were generally not eaten because of their strong flavor and toughness and also because they were necessary to insure the flock’s increase. Young kids, however, were usually the chief meat for a feast and were offered to visitors as a symbol of hospitality. Goat milk is richer than the milk of cows and sheep and evidently had broader uses. A good goat gives three quarts of milk a day, from which a rich butter and buttermilk can be made. The average Hebrew family could have lived almost entirely on a single goat’s production.<\/p>\n<p>Goatskin was tanned as leather, and the whole hide was turned into a skin bottle by sewing shut leg and neck apertures (Gn 21:14; Jos 9:4). Goatskin had many uses, including the construction of Hebrew musical instruments. The nebal, a large harp, was made with goatskin for its base sound. Drums had goatskin coverings.<\/p>\n<p>Goats were herded with sheep in biblical times, but each group remained separate following its own bell-laden leader. Jesus was evidently referring to their common herding in his description of the Last Judgment (Mt 25:31-46).<\/p>\n<p>Because of their wool, sheep are valued more than goats. However, where pasture and water are scarce and thorny shrubs dominate over grass, sheep are difficult to keep and goats become important. They can live under conditions that suit neither cows nor sheep, producing large quantities of milk. The goat does not supply fat as the sheep does, and since its hair is coarse its wool is rather scarce. Goat-hair cloth called cilicium was used to make tents.<\/p>\n<p>Goats have voracious appetites. They also were responsible for much damage done to the land of Palestine, breaking down terraces, destroying forests, and bringing about soil erosion by eating off all cover.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was recognized as a form of wealth, subject to the law of firstlings (Nm 18:17). It had to be eight days old before it could be offered as a sacrifice. A year-old male goat was one of the animals offered at the Passover (28:22), and two goats were offered on the Day of Atonement (Lv 16:7-10). The goat was also used for other specific sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p>The ibex, a type of wild goat <em>(Capra ibex nubiana),<\/em> still lives in small numbers on the cliffs close to the Dead Sea. That it was known in ancient times is evident from rock carvings. It is distinguished from the true wild goat by having a more compact rump and horns that are slender and curved back. Its slender legs and sharp cloven hooves enable it to cling to narrow rock ledges, to jump between them, and to climb steep cliffs.<\/p>\n<p>Usually the ibex is found in rugged mountain country among rocky crags and meadows just below the snow line (Ps 104:18). In Job 39:1 they are referred to as “mountain goats.” They frequently gather in herds of 5 to 20. They graze and browse, being active in the afternoon and sometimes feeding through the night. The large horn of the ibex was at one period made into the shofar that was blown in the second Jerusalem temple to announce the new year and the jubilee year.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was often used in a figurative and symbolic sense by the writers of the Bible: in Song of Songs 4:1 and 6:5 for the bride’s black hair; in Matthew 25:31-46 for the wicked; and in Ezekiel 34:17 and Daniel 8:5-8 for various human leaders.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Grasshopper\">Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>Large insects of the Orthoptera order. They have chewing or biting mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the front pair of which is narrow and somewhat thickened and the hind pair membranous and used for flying. When not in use the flight wings are folded beneath the protective front wings like a fan against the body. By rubbing their wings together, male grasshoppers produce sounds that both males and females can detect. Grasshoppers pass through a partial metamorphosis; the egg hatches into a juvenile nymph that looks like an adult except for its smaller size and undeveloped wings. After several months the nymph becomes a winged adult.<\/p>\n<p>The terms “grasshopper” and “locust” are often used interchangeably. Actually the locust is a kind of grasshopper. Also confusing is the fact that other insects such as cicadas are sometimes called locusts. The difference between grasshoppers and locusts depends more on behavior than appearance. Grasshoppers are individual insects that lead solitary lives and do not migrate. The same insects when migrating in a swarm are called migratory grasshoppers or locusts. Elimination of their food supply by drought, flood, or fire may lead to migration. Climatic factors such as a warm dry winter also stimulate migrations.<\/p>\n<p>Grasshoppers and locusts have been a staple food in the Middle East and also among the Indians of the American Southwest. To the Israelites the grasshopper was considered ritually clean and could be eaten (Lv 11:22).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hare\">Hare<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the genus and species <em>Lepus europaeus judaeus, Lepus capensis,<\/em> and <em>Lepus arabicus.<\/em> It is found in open country, often near or on cultivated lands, and in woods, usually deciduous rather than evergreen. It is an herbivorous rodent and is different from the rabbit, which is not found in Palestine. Although it is not a true ruminant according to modern classification (because it does not have a four-chambered stomach), the hare does rechew its food. It has a process of partial regurgitation of material too hard for the cells in the stomach to absorb initially; thus, the hare actually chews food previously swallowed.<\/p>\n<p>Near Eastern hares have very long ears and large hind feet; their feet are well furred. They are similar to American jackrabbits, which are true hares. Hares do not dig or occupy burrows the way rabbits do. Hares are mainly nocturnal and spend their inactive hours hiding in vegetation. They eat grasses and herbaceous matter as well as twigs and young bark of woody plants. Hares breed with great rapidity—the young attaining sexual maturity at six months after birth.<\/p>\n<p>The hare was ceremonially unclean (Lv 11:6; Dt 14:7), evidently because although it appeared to chew its cud, it did not have cloven hooves. Consumption of hares has also been forbidden among the Arabs, Chinese, and Lapps, but the hare was widely hunted by other people in ancient and modern times. Its great speed, prolific breeding, timidity, and caution have saved it from extermination by its many enemies.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hippopotamus\">Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of problematic interpretation. Some early interpreters thought it referred to the elephant, others to the wild ox, the mammoth, or any large animal. It was called “behemoth” by the <span>kjv<\/span> translators. Today it is generally agreed that the reference is to the hippopotamus <em>(Hippopotamus amphibius),<\/em> a large, thick-skinned, amphibious mammal, an ungulate (having hooflike toenails) with a large head, a bulky, hairless body, and short legs.<\/p>\n<p>The description in Job 40:15-24 fits closely the modern hippopotamus (see <span>nlt<\/span>), except for the depiction of the tail. At present the hippopotamus is found only in the rivers of Africa, but there is fossil evidence that it has existed in the Holy Land, perhaps in the swamps of northern Galilee and the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\n<p>The hippopotamus has highly developed sense organs, placed in such a way that it can see, hear, and smell almost without being seen; its eyes, ears, and nostrils can reach above water while the rest of the animal lies submerged. It has a large mouth, large tusks, and a short, heavy throat. The strong legs are so short that the belly almost reaches the ground when the animal is on the land. The hippopotamus lives on plants and herbs growing in rivers, but if food is scarce there, it forages on land, usually at night. In spite of its heavy body it is surprisingly agile on land.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Horse\">Horse<\/p>\n<p>Przewalski’s horse (<em>Equus przewalskii,<\/em> an eastern race that roamed about Mongolia until modern firearms destroyed most of them after World War I) and the tarpan (a western race of southern Russia that became extinct in the Ukraine in 1851). The domesticated horse <em>(Equus caballus)<\/em> seems to have been derived from the tarpan. The original site of domestication is believed to have been Turkestan, a region north of Afghanistan and India, now in Russia. The horse differs from the donkey in that it has shorter ears, a longer mane with a forelock, a long hairy tail, and a soft, sensitive muzzle.<\/p>\n<p>Horses were used in war not only for riding but also for pulling the heavy, springless war chariots. Two kinds of horses were needed for these different purposes, and the Hebrews distinguished between chariot horses and cavalry horses.<\/p>\n\n<p>The Lord warned the early Israelites against unnecessarily amassing military strength in the form of horses and thereby following the oppressive tactics of the powerful Egyptians (Dt 17:14-16), but the demands of war caused both David and Solomon to import horses from Egypt into their kingdoms and to breed them. Solomon greatly increased the number of horses in the Jewish kingdom and maintained large stables at various cities (1 Kgs 10:26) such as the regional defense centers of Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer (1 Kgs 9:15-19). Ahab’s horses are mentioned in 1 Kings 18:5, and records of Shalmaneser III state that Ahab furnished 2,000 chariots to a coalition against Assyria.<\/p>\n<p>In early Israel, the horse was opposed as a symbol of pagan luxury and of dependence on physical power for defense (Dt 17:16; 1 Sm 8:11; Ps 20:7; Is 31:1). Horse trading, mentioned as early as Genesis 47:17, was carried on by Solomon between Egypt and the Syro-Hittite principalities (1 Kgs 10:28-29). Most biblical references to horses refer to their use in war, but horses were also used for transportation. Riding seems to have been less popular than the use of chariots. Cavalry units were not introduced until the 12th century <span>BC<\/span> by the Medes. Joseph rode in Pharaoh’s second horse-drawn chariot (Gn 41:43), and Absalom made a display by riding a horse-drawn chariot (2 Sm 15:1). Naaman traveled by horse and chariot (2 Kgs 5:9). Later, horses were so common in Jerusalem that the royal palace had a special horse gate (2 Chr 23:15), and a gate of the city itself was known as the Horse Gate (Neh 3:28; Jer 31:40). Mordecai rode a royal horse of King Xerxes as a sign of honor (Est 6:8-11). Horses are often spoken of figuratively (Ps 32:9; “mare,” Sg 1:9; “stallions,” Jer 5:8; 12:5), especially in the context of judgment (Hb 3:8; Zec 1:8; 6:1-8; Rv 6:2-8; 9:17; 19:11-16).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Warfare; Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyena\">Hyena<\/p>\n<p>Stocky carnivore <em>(Hyaena hyaena)<\/em> with coarse hair, an erect mane, and long hairs along the neck and back. Hyenas live in holes among rocks and banks. They are mainly nocturnal but are ordinarily neither noisy nor aggressive. Their cry, however, is a disagreeable, unearthly sound. Hyenas usually feed on carrion, crushing bones with their powerful jaws. If the carrion supply is inadequate, they will kill sheep, goats, or other small animals. When threatened, hyenas growl and erect their mane, but they rarely fight. They are massively built with forelegs longer than the hind legs.<\/p>\n<p>Known as scavengers in Africa, hyenas eat domestic refuse in the villages. In Palestine the striped hyena is a common predator, preferring rocky territory and even rock tombs. Since hyenas were notorious for raiding the graves of the dead, all Israelites who could afford it arranged for burial in tombs protected by massive stone doors. Absalom, King David’s son who was killed by Joab in the wild, was buried under a huge pile of stones to protect his corpse from molestation by hyenas (2 Sm 18:17).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Jackal\">Jackal<\/p>\n<p>Carnivore <em>(Canis aureus)<\/em> smaller than the true wolf and with a shorter tail. It is similar to the fox but has a broader head, shorter ears, and longer legs. The fox is solitary; the jackal tends to be gregarious. Its tail can be drooping or erect, compared with the long horizontal tail of the fox. Jackals usually prowl at night, either singly, in pairs, or in packs through open savannah country. They eat small mammals, poultry, fruit, vegetables, and carrion. They spend their days in thickets and clumps of vegetation. Often they obtain scraps from kills by larger carnivores. Jackals can run at speeds of about 33 miles (53 kilometers) per hour.<\/p>\n<p>The jackal can reach a height of about 20 inches (51 centimeters), roughly the size of a German shepherd dog. Its back is pale yellow with dark, almost black, flanks. Its lips are black and its ears white on the inside. The howl of the jackal sounds like the crying of a child or the heartrending wail of the bereaved (Mi 1:8; cf. Jb 30:29). To other jackals the howl is merely an invitation calling the pack together for its nocturnal hunting.<\/p>\n<p>OT references are chiefly to jackals prowling around ruined cities and wilderness areas (Neh 2:13; Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; 34:13; 35:7; Jer 9:11; 14:6; 49:33; 51:37; Lam 4:3; 5:18; Mal 1:3). Many such references are translated “dragon” in the <span>kjv<\/span>, but “jackal” is more appropriate.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leech\">Leech<\/p>\n<p>Segmented worm (class Hirundinea) up to five inches (12.7 centimeters) long with a flat body equipped with suction pads at each end. The mouth, located at the bottom of the front suction pad, has three teeth that the leech uses to pierce the skin of its host. The leech feeds on blood, and its glands secrete an anticoagulant to prevent the blood from clotting. The ordinary medicinal leech (Hirudo medicinalis) is abundant in springs and ponds from the Negev Desert to Galilee. It adheres to the bodies of human beings and animals that submerge themselves in water, injects its anticoagulant, and sucks their blood.<\/p>\n<p>The reference in Proverbs 30:15 is uncertain (see <span>nlt<\/span>) but may be to the parasitic and greedy nature of the horse leech (genus <em>Haemopis<\/em>). The small horse leech enters its host’s mouth and nostrils from water while the animal is drinking. A leech weighing one-half ounce (14.2 grams) has been known to gorge itself with two and a half ounces (71 grams) of concentrated blood and then to exist for 15 months with no more to eat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leopard\">Leopard<\/p>\n<p>Called <em>Panthera pardus tulliana,<\/em> it is the most widespread of all the large wildcats. In rocky areas it lives in caves, but in forested regions it lives in thick vegetation. In OT times many lived in the vicinity of Mt Hermon (Sg 4:8).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is somewhat smaller than the tiger, measuring up to 5 feet (1.5 meters) in length with a tail of about 30 inches (.8 meter). Its body is better proportioned than that of the tiger. The leopard takes its victim by surprise from a silent ambush, often concealing itself near villages or watering places and waiting for its prey, remaining in one spot for long spans of time. The leopard is swift on the ground (Hb 1:8), agile in trees, and very graceful in its movements. Its color is yellowish speckled with black spots (Jer 13:23). Daniel and John saw visions in which leopards were symbols of world powers (Dn 7:6; Rv 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is a wary and cunning animal, formidable and ferocious (Jer 5:6; Hos 13:7; cf. Is 11:6). The leopard is dangerous not only to domestic animals but also to humans. With its natural camouflage it can hide on the forest floor, blending into the changing light and shadows. The Israelites were terrified of the leopard because it constantly ravaged their sheep and goats. Several biblical place names suggest that they were known for the leopards in their vicinity: Nimrah, Beth-nimrah, and Nimrim, a district northeast of the Dead Sea. It has survived in the Holy Land into the present century; a few leopards still exist in remote areas near Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leviathan\">Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>Sea monster mentioned several times in the Bible (Pss 74:14; 104:26; Is 27:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). It may refer to any of the larger marine animals such as large jellyfish, whales, or sharks, or to a large reptile like the crocodile. Some scholars think “Leviathan” may refer to animals now extinct, such as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs (marine reptiles similar to dinosaurs). The scriptural term might also refer to certain dinosaurs that spent part of their lives half-submerged in shallow lakes and oceans. Other scholars believe that most of the references are to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lion\">Lion<\/p>\n<p>Large, tawny-colored carnivore <em>(Panthera leo)<\/em> that preys chiefly on hoofed mammals and charges by a series of leaps and bounds. Within historic times the lion ranged in Africa, Europe, and the Holy Land. In ancient times the territories of the African and Persian lions met in the Middle East. The lion of the Holy Land was the Asiatic or Persian lion <em>(Panthera leo persica).<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The males have heavy manes that stop at the shoulders but cover much of the chest. The Persian lion cannot climb and is mainly nocturnal, returning to its lair or a thicket by day (Jer 4:7; 25:38; Na 2:11-12). This lion is about 5 feet (1.5 meters) long with a tasseled tail 30 inches (.8 meter) or so long; its shoulders may reach a height of 35 inches (.9 meter). It is one of the smallest of the lion breeds.<\/p>\n<p>Lions are usually found in pairs, though sometimes in larger numbers. A small group is known as a pride. They generally prefer open country but in Palestine evidently prowled the subtropical vegetation of the Jordan River valley. Lions, which usually hunt at dusk, kill smaller animals by a blow of the paw, larger ones by a bite in the throat. A lion does not remain in the same place for more than a few days. The animal is in its prime at about seven years of age, when it weighs from 400 to 600 pounds (181.6 to 272.4 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>The lion does not characteristically attack humans, though like other great cats it may become a man-eater (1 Kgs 13:24-28; 20:36; 2 Kgs 17:25-26; Ps 57:4; Dn 6:7-27). Ordinarily, it attacks only out of great hunger or in self-defense. A very young lion that attacks humans can become dangerous if it develops a taste for human flesh. A very old lion, expelled from the pride because it can no longer keep up in the pursuit of antelope or gazelles, may choose humans as a relatively slow-moving prey.<\/p>\n<p>A lion generally roars only on a full stomach—that is, after it has consumed its prey (Ps 22:13; Ez 22:25; Am 3:4). Nevertheless, its roaring arouses fear (Am 3:8; 1 Pt 5:8). The lion is a bold (2 Sm 17:10; Prv 28:1), destructive animal (Ps 7:2; Jer 2:30; Hos 5:14; Mi 5:8), and the enemy of flocks (Am 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>Lions were common in biblical times in all parts of the Holy Land. Hebrew has at least seven words for lion and young lion. The lion is referred to about 130 times in the OT—more than any other wild animal. Lions were evidently much less common in NT times. After gradually declining, they became extinct in Palestine shortly after <span>AD<\/span> 1300. The lion was present in Mesopotamia, however, until the end of the 19th century.<\/p>\n<p>Lions played an important part in the political and religious symbolism of the Near East (1 Kgs 10:19-20). In Assyria and Babylonia the lion was regarded as a royal beast (Dn 7:4). Oriental monarchs maintained artificial lion pits as places of execution (Ez 19:1-9; Dn 6:7-16). Animals for these were captured in camouflaged nets or pits. To the Jews, the lion was the mightiest of beasts (Prv 30:29-31). Thus, it symbolized leadership (Gn 49:9-10; Nm 24:9) and hence eventually became a title for Christ (Rv 5:5). It was also the ensign of Judah’s tribe and was used by King Solomon in the decoration of his house and the temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lizard\">Lizard<\/p>\n<p>Reptiles of the suborder Lacertilia. Their skin is covered with scales. The lizard is a useful creature because it captures harmful insects and worms. Like other reptiles, it lays eggs with shells softer than those of a bird and with no clear division between the yolk and the white. Lizards are “cold-blooded” organisms without a temperature-maintenance mechanism; hence, they become inactive in cold weather.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards can survive in barren parched countryside. In the Near East they are encountered in great numbers in the Arabian Desert, the Sinai Peninsula, and the Judean wilderness. There may be as many as 44 different species of lizards in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The Dabb lizard (genus <em>Uromastyx<\/em>), which attains a length of about 24 inches (61 centimeters), is found in the Negev Desert. It is omnivorous, an unusual trait since most lizards are insectivorous. It has a hard, rough skin, green with brown spots; a short, rounded head; and a powerful tail encircled with a row of strong spines that it uses as a weapon of defense.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards are listed as ceremonially unclean in Jewish law (Lv 11:29-31). The fact that lizards crawl on their bellies made them unclean. Contact with a lizard’s carcass defiled a law-abiding Jew (Lv 11:32-36). The <span>nlt<\/span> translates the “lizards” of Leviticus 11 as “great lizard,” “gecko,” “monitor lizard,” “sand lizard,” and “chameleon.” The monitor lizard is a large lizard that lives in the deserts of southern Palestine, Sinai, and Egypt. It is up to 55 inches (1.4 meters) long with a long snout and sharp teeth. Other translators and commentators render the original Hebrew in a wide variety of ways, including “tortoise,” “ferret,” “lizard,” “snail,” “mole,” and even “water hen.” The fact that most of the original Hebrew words occur only once in Scripture makes it very difficult to be certain about their appropriate translation.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Gecko (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Locust\">Locust<\/p>\n<p>An insect of the family <em>Acridiidae.<\/em> It is referred to by at least 12 different names in Scripture. The various Hebrew words may refer to different stages of its development from larva to adult or to the type of damage that it causes. Locusts are characterized by swarming and mass migration. In modern times they have caused extensive and disastrous destruction to vegetation. Grasshoppers do not swarm or migrate en masse, differentiating them from the true locusts.<\/p>\n<p>The OT mentions several different species of locusts. Leviticus 11:22 seems to refer to the slant-faced (bald) locust and also to the katydid, or long-horned grasshopper. The reference in Deuteronomy 28:42 may be to the mole cricket. In Joel 1:4 and 2:25 and in Nahum 3:16-17, successive stages of the insect’s development are described. The cutting locust (<span>kjv<\/span> “palmerworm”) of Joel is probably the first instar (stage of development), the swarming locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “locust”) are middle stages, and the hopping locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “cankerworm”) later instars but not yet fully matured insects. In the adult stage, called destroying locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “caterpillar”), the color of the locust is reddish brown, which turns to yellow with a brownish network on the wings.<\/p>\n<p>Only three of the hundreds of varieties of locusts found in Bible lands are capable of multiplying into great swarms, and only the desert locust <em>(Schistocerca gergaria)<\/em> can be considered widespread in all the Bible lands. The desert locust is native to the Sudan (Africa). It is a little over two inches (5 centimeters) long and has a wingspread of some five inches (12.7 centimeters). It shows two phases, a solitary phase and a gregarious phase, with a possible third phase known as transiens. There are differences in the immature and adult forms of the phases in color and physiology.<\/p>\n<p>The quantity and distribution of rains are important factors in the extent of swarming. Moist soil is needed for depositing the eggs and permitting them to develop. Each female deposits from one to six egg pods, containing 28 to 146 eggs each. The larvae emerge in 15 to 43 days.<\/p>\n<p>In the gregarious phase (from the second stage of metamorphosis onward), the locust is driven by a strong wandering instinct. Masses of them form a random procession of overflowing locust bodies that ignore any obstruction. They swarm over everything (Jl 2:4-9). The only regulator of their activities is temperature; they are immobilized by high or low temperatures. Taking to wing they may move 1,200 miles (1,930.8 kilometers) from their native home. They fly in compact formations large enough to blot out the light of the sun. Their movement seems to be controlled by hormones, but the direction is influenced by the wind. The swarms consume almost every plant in their path, sparing only the carob, sycamore, castor tree, and oleander bush.<\/p>\n<p>A locust plague was one of the most severe evils to come upon the ancient world (Dt 28:38). Joel 2:1-11 describes a locust plague in graphic terms, using it as a symbol of God’s destroying judgment. Special days of prayer, fasting, and trumpet blowing were prescribed to remove locust plagues (1 Kgs 8:37-38; 2 Chr 6:28-29; Jl 2:12-17). Locusts symbolized powerful and merciless enemies that completely destroyed the earnings of human toil (Jgs 6:5; Is 33:4; Jer 46:23; 51:27; Na 3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Bedouins eat locusts raw, roasted, or boiled, preserving them by drying and threading. They are also crushed and ground, and the grist used in cooking or eaten with bread, sometimes mixed with honey and dates. Such was the diet of John the Baptist (Mk 1:6). The Greeks ground locusts in stone mortars to make flour of them.<\/p>\n<p>The ancients considered the two large hind legs, or jumping legs, as separate limbs and had a special name for them. Hence locusts were described as having four legs, a reference to the four smaller walking legs. “Going on all fours” thus referred to creeping or walking as opposed to jumping and did not mean that the unclean insects had only four legs in all. Because of its two hind jumping legs, the locust was exempted from the prohibition against unclean insects (Lv 11:20-23).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mole\">Mole<\/p>\n<p>Rodent <em>(Spalax ehrenbergi)<\/em> from six to nine inches (15 to 23 centimeters) long, which burrows in any area where the soil is suitable for digging; it should be called a mole rat. Common in the Holy Land, large numbers are found in the vicinity of Jerusalem. Isaiah 2:20 refers to the mole, as does Leviticus 11:29-30 (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The mole rat has no tail and is molelike in appearance, but neither true moles nor shrews have ever been found in the Holy Land. The mole rat’s teeth are strong and protruding like those of a squirrel. The neck is short and thick with a plump body shaped like a sausage. The short legs have broad paws with claws adapted for burrowing. The fur is soft, thick, and ashen gray. Its ears and almost sightless eyes, which are no larger than poppyseeds, are hidden in the fur. Folklore taught that touching a mole rat would result in blindness.<\/p>\n<p>In the wet winter season the mole rat builds breeding mounds resembling those of pocket gophers. It builds less complex resting mounds in the summer, although both have rather elaborate tunnel systems. The mole rat feeds on roots, bulbs, tubers, and various other subterranean plant parts, often doing extensive damage to agriculture.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Moth\">Moth<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the genus <em>Tineola<\/em> that lays its eggs on wool or furs, its larvae feeding on those materials. The destructive qualities of moths are referred to in several biblical passages (Jb 13:28; Ps 39:11; Is 50:9; Hos 5:12; Mt 6:19-20; Lk 12:33; Jas 5:2). In Isaiah 51:8 “worm” (<span>nlt<\/span>) refers specifically to the larva of the clothes moth. The moth symbolizes disintegration, decay, and weakening. It is only the larvae that do the damage. The adult is quite harmless and feeds mainly on the nectar of flowers. It is easily crushed (Jb 4:19). The clothes moth reproduces in May or June. It enters human dwellings in the evening. A week after the eggs are laid the larvae appear and immediately begin their work of destruction, eating anything within reach made of animal fibers.<\/p>\n<p>The moth’s destructive activity is done in secret without any sound and without any dramatic appearance, such as a swarm that blots out the sun. In an age when wealth was counted more in possessions than in money, and when among those possessions wool clothing was highly valued, moths could literally cause economic disaster; hence the words of Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount (Mt 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p>There are hundreds of species of moths other than the clothes moth in the Holy Land; they are harmless to leaves, flowers, fruit, trees, and seeds. As with the clothes moth, the larvae inflict the damage.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mouse\">Mouse<\/p>\n<p>Rodent of the family Muridae, especially genus <em>Mus.<\/em> The mouse was regarded as unclean because, being short legged, it was considered one of the creeping creatures (Lv 11:29). Mice known as commensals live in dwellings and tend to have longer tails and to be darker in color than wild mice, which are active chiefly at night. Mice are good climbers and even good swimmers. Wild mice eat many kinds of vegetation, including seeds, fleshy roots, leaves, and stems. At times they store food.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word for “mouse” (Lv 11:29; 1 Sm 6:4-5; Is 66:17) is probably a general term for various rats and mice. The root meaning of the Hebrew word “mouse” is “destruction of corn,” a reference to the damage mice do to field crops. At least 23 varieties of mouselike rodents are known in the Holy Land. They cause food spoilage, damage household articles, and transport the host fleas that spread typhus, spotted fever, and bubonic plague. Plague bacteria may have caused the tumors or swellings among the Philistines (1 Sm 6:5). Isaiah 66:17 refers to a pre-exilic Canaanite cultic practice in which mice were eaten; the reference may actually be to the hamster. A number of rodents are eaten by Arabs of the Near East; the gerbil is considered a special delicacy. <em>See<\/em> Mole (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mule\">Mule<\/p>\n<p>Hybrid offspring of a male ass and a female horse <em>(Equus asinus mulus),<\/em> ordinarily sterile. The offspring of a female donkey and a stallion (male horse) is known as a hinny and is of little value because of its inferior size.<\/p>\n<p>Because crossbreeding was forbidden in the law (Lv 19:19), the Israelites procured mules from the Gentiles, perhaps from the Phoenicians, since Tyre (a Phoenician seaport in what is now southern Lebanon) imported horses and mules (Ez 27:14). Mules did not appear in Israel until David’s reign (2 Sm 13:29), possibly because of the rarity of horses among the Hebrews. Mules were used chiefly by members of the royal court and by other nobles. King David rode on a mule, and Solomon rode to his inaugaration on King David’s mule (1 Kgs 1:33). Absalom met his death riding on a mule (2 Sm 18:9). Mules were less common than horses, camels, and asses in the postexilic community (Ezr 2:66). In antiquity Asia Minor was especially noted for breeding fine mules.<\/p>\n<p>Mules have long enjoyed a reputation for obstinacy, but that trait is not mentioned in the Bible. The mule is prized for riding and for carrying heavy burdens, especially in warm mountainous regions. They are sure-footed and thrive best in hot, dry climates. The mule has the frugality, endurance, and steady gait of an ass along with the size, strength, swiftness, and courage of a horse. Mules are almost never sick. They live longer than horses. They can carry a load of up to 300 pounds (136 kilograms) as far as 30 miles (48.3 kilometers) a day.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pig\">Pig<\/p>\n<p>Most properly, newborn swine. “Swine” is technically the better name for the species, but it is rarely used in common speech today. The domestic pigs of the Middle East derived from the wild pig <em>(Sus scrofa).<\/em> The pig is the most prolific and abundant supplier of meat and fat for food. A thick layer of fat just under the skin is especially pronounced in domestic breeds. Pigs cannot be driven, so they are of value only to the settled farmer. The Hebrews were originally a nomadic people; therefore, they had little use for an animal closely associated with settled life. An Egyptian prince of about 1500 <span>BC<\/span>, however, is recorded as owning a herd of 1,500 swine.<\/p>\n<p>The pig is clumsily built, yet lively and able to move with agility and speed. The most conspicuous characteristic of the pig is a truncated, mobile snout terminating in a disc-shaped surface on which the nostrils are located. Most pigs have large tusks in both jaws which grow continuously in life. The tusks of the upper jaw are unique in that they curve upward instead of pointing downward as in most animals. The excrement of a pig has an almost unbearable odor, which clings not only to the pig itself but also to swineherds, who can be identified a long way off.<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were never raised in the Holy Land by Jews. The great herd into which Jesus drove the unclean spirits was encountered in the land of the Gadarenes, a non-Jewish area east of the Jordan. The Gadarene demons took refuge in a herd of pigs feeding on a bluff overlooking the Sea of Galilee (Mt 8:28-32).<\/p>\n<p>Wild pigs were found in the Holy Land as in many countries today. Psalm 80:13 refers to the destructiveness of a wild boar (the male, or hog) attacking growing crops. A party of wild boars can destroy an entire vineyard or a field of crops in a single night. They devour, trample, and ravage everything within reach.<\/p>\n<p>Boar hunts were common in ancient Mesopotamia. Wild boars do not attack unless molested, but they are dangerous when aroused. They travel in bands of from 6 to 50 and are most active in the evening and early morning hours. The body is covered with stiff bristles and usually some finer hair, but the body covering is often quite scanty. Wild pigs are mainly vegetarian, feeding on roots, nuts, grains, and plant stems. Wild boars were particularly abundant in the mountainous regions of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, in the Jordan River valley, and in wooded sections such as Mt Tabor.<\/p>\n<p>Strict Jews would not even mention swine by name but would always substitute the term “the abomination.” Israelites considered themselves polluted if they were even touched by a swine’s bristle. To the Jews, the pig symbolized filth and ugliness. Pigs will eat fecal material, vermin, rodents, carrion, and the like (2 Pt 2:22). Proverbs 11:22 refers to the incongruity of a golden ring in the nose of an animal showing such characteristics. A similar metaphor occurs in Jesus’ statement about casting pearls before swine (Mt 7:6). The prodigal son’s degeneration was shown by his being forced in his poverty to feed pigs and eat their food (Lk 15:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>Eating the flesh of pigs was forbidden to the Jews (Lv 11:7; Dt 14:8). The Canaanites in the Holy Land killed and ate pigs freely. In intertestamental times Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), a Syrian king whose territories included Israel, used the pig to “Hellenize” the Jews. He first tested their loyalty to the Jewish faith by requiring the consumption of pork, considered a delicacy by the Greeks (2 Macc 6:18). The act of desecration that drove the Jews to rebellion, however, was the sprinkling of pig blood on the temple altar in a sacrifice to Zeus (1 Macc 1:47).<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were frequently used in pagan worship (Is 65:4; 66:3, 17), which may account for their being forbidden to the Jews as food. Evidence in the Holy Land shows that pigs were sacrificed long before Hellenistic times. Pig bones were found in a grotto below the rock-cut place of sacrifice at Gezer. A similar underground chamber with vessels containing piglet bones at Tirzah dates to the middle Bronze Age (about 2000 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Alabaster fragments of a statuette of a pig ready to be sacrificed have been unearthed. Swine were sacrificed to Aphrodite (Venus) in Greece and Asia Minor. In addition, pigs were sacrificed in connection with oaths and treaties; in the <em>Iliad,<\/em> Agamemnon sacrificed a boar to Zeus and Helios. So it is not surprising that among the Jews the pig became a symbol of filthiness and paganism.<\/p>\n<p>It is possible that eating pork was forbidden primarily because the pig may carry many worm parasites such as trichina, though that is also true of some “clean” animals. Another reason for forbidding their consumption may have been that pigs eat carrion. Some people are allergic to pork in hot weather—another suggested reason behind the Jewish taboo. The same taboo exists among the Muslims and existed in certain social strata in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Porcupine\">Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>Rodent, <em>Hystrix cristata,<\/em> which lives in forested areas, rocky hills, ravines, and valleys. The porcupine is still found in the Holy Land today. It has long quills that can be raised to give the appearance of a crest. It is almost entirely nocturnal. It burrows by day into a natural cavity or crevice. The Old World porcupine rarely climbed trees, although the New World porcupine frequently does. A porcupine may weigh as much as 60 pounds (27.2 kilograms). It eats fruit, bark, roots, and other vegetation, and carrion as well. Although its flesh is edible, the porcupine was not classed among the clean animals for the Israelites. The reference in Isaiah 34:11 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is probably to the porcupine, as is Isaiah 14:23 in the <span>nlt<\/span>. <em>See<\/em> Hedgehog.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Scorpion\">Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>Arthropod of the same group as spiders (arachnids). A dozen species of scorpions (order Scorpionida) are found in the Holy Land, but 90 percent of the scorpions are yellow scorpions, usually three to five inches (7.6 to 12.7 centimeters) long. The rock scorpion, also common to the Holy Land, is as thick as a man’s finger and from five to seven inches (12.7 to 17.8 centimeters) in length. Scorpions are slow, nocturnal invertebrates that rest beneath stones by day and prey on insects and other arachnids by night. At the end of its long tail the scorpion carries a poisonous sting that is fatal to most prey and extremely painful to humans (Rv 9:3, 5, 10; cf. 1 Kgs 12:11, 14). Scorpions symbolize Ezekiel’s evil countrymen (Ez 2:6) and the demonic forces of Satan (Lk 10:19). The scorpion is referred to as frequenting the Sinai Desert (Dt 8:15).<\/p>\n<p>A scorpion has from six to eight eyes. It has eight legs like a spider and two lobsterlike claws with which it catches and holds its prey. It feeds particularly on locusts and beetles. In many species the female scorpion eats the male after mating. Scorpions lay eggs that hatch very shortly after laying. Scorpions prefer warmer climates, and because of their desire for warmth, enter houses, especially at night, hiding in beds, blankets, footwear, and clothing.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sheep\">Sheep<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animal, <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> referred to directly or by some term such as ewe, lamb, ram, or by some fact concerning them over 700 times in Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Sheep represented the chief wealth and total livelihood of pastoral peoples, providing food to eat, milk to drink, wool for the making of cloth, and hides and bones for other uses. In addition, the sheep was a medium of exchange and a sacrificial animal. The number of sheep raised in ancient times was prodigious. Mesha, king of Moab, paid a tribute annually of 100,000 lambs and the wool of 100,000 rams (2 Kgs 3:4). The Israelites took 250,000 sheep from the Hagrites (1 Chr 5:21).<\/p>\n<p>Sheep shearing was often done for festivals (2 Sm 13:23). The sheep was held down on its side and its legs were tied together; then it lay docilely while its wool was clipped (Is 53:7). Sheep reserved for burnt offerings were not shorn; nothing could be held back from a sacrifice to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Wool had to be processed before it could be used for clothing. First it was washed, sometimes while still on the sheep, then carded and perhaps weighed for the market. The spinning of wool was regarded as a woman’s work (Prv 31:19), but weaving the spun thread into cloth on a loom was primarily a man’s occupation.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible reports that Abel kept sheep (Gn 4:2). The first sheep to be domesticated was probably the argali <em>(Ovis ammon),<\/em> a variety of the urial <em>(Ovis vignei),<\/em> a mountainous species still existing in Turkestan and Mongolia. Five breeds had reached Mesopotamia by 2000 <span>BC<\/span>; all were of the urial stock.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep known in Israel was the broad-tailed sheep <em>(Ovis orientalis vignei<\/em> or <em>laticaudata),<\/em> of which the tail weighs from 10 to 15 pounds (4.5 to 6.8 kilograms) and has always been considered a delicacy. Thus the Lord asked for this choice part as a sacrifice (Ex 29:22-25).<\/p>\n<p>Only the ram of the broad-tailed sheep has horns, but in other varieties of sheep in the Holy Land the ewe also has horns. The horns, two to three inches (5 to 8 centimeters) in diameter, can be potent weapons. Rams’ horns could be used as trumpets (Jos 6:4) or as oil containers (1 Sm 16:1).<\/p>\n<p>Although the sheep is very similar to the goat, it is differentiated by a lower forehead, its angulated spiral horns marked with transverse wrinkles and curved slightly outward, its covering of wool, and its lack of a “goatee.” Most sheep are white (Ps 147:16; Is 1:18; Dn 7:9; Rv 1:14).<\/p>\n<p>The flesh of sheep was a luxury in the biblical culture. King Solomon required a daily provision of 100 sheep for his table (1 Kgs 4:23), but the common people ate lamb or mutton only on festive occasions. A young ram was usually chosen because the ewes were more important to the future prospects of the herd. The meat was boiled in large caldrons. The milk of the sheep is extremely rich; in biblical times it was usually allowed to curdle before drinking. Possibly some Israelites kept lambs in their houses as pets (2 Sm 12:3-4).<\/p>\n<p>To protect the flock at night against predatory attacks, the shepherd tried to provide a fold. In meadows near villages, folds were built and watchmen were hired to relieve the shepherds. The shepherds of the nativity story were out in the field (Lk 2:8); they had no fold but probably had set up a tent for shelter, consisting simply of goat-hair blankets spread across sapling supports. The scarcity of springs in the Holy Land made the watering of the flock a crucial problem for the shepherd (Gn 13:8-11).<\/p>\n<p>Wild mountain sheep, varieties of <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> are known in the Mediterranean area (Dt 14:5). The Deuteronomy passage (<span>kjv<\/span> “chamois”) might also refer to <em>Ovis traelaphus,<\/em> a sheep about five feet high (1.5 meters) with long, curved horns. Another possibility is the Barbary sheep that lives in small flocks in rugged mountain areas in Barbary, Egypt, and Mt Sinai. The true chamois is unknown in Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep is also used figuratively in Scripture. The ram represented great strength and fittingly symbolized Medo-Persia in Daniel’s vision (Dn 8:3). It is the nature of sheep to be gentle and submissive (Is 53:7; Jer 11:19), defenseless (Mi 5:8; Mt 10:16), and in constant need of guidance and care (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36). Such qualities are regarded as desirable in the lives of believers in Christ; hence the many figurative references to sheep in the NT and to Jesus as shepherd (Mk 6:34; Jn 10:1-30; Rom 8:35-37; Heb 13:20-21; 1 Pt 2:25). The resurrected Christ told the apostle Peter to “feed my lambs” and “tend my sheep” (Jn 21:15-17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snail\">Snail<\/p>\n<p>Invertebrate gastropods (mollusks). Land snails are very numerous in the Near East. Some freshwater forms serve as hosts for the schistosome worm, the fluke parasite causing the dread disease bilharzia (schistosomiasis).<\/p>\n<p>Purple dyes of all shades were highly valued in the ancient world. A royal purple dye was obtained from secretions of a sea snail <em>(Murex trunculus<\/em> and <em>Murex brandaris).<\/em> Evidently, that process was developed by Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Assyrians as early as 1500 <span>BC<\/span>. The “purple” fishermen had their own guild during the time of the Roman Empire. The snails were harvested during the fall and winter seasons; in the spring, when egg laying took place, little dye was available. The snails tended to remain concealed in the summer. They inhabited the waters off Crete and Phoenicia. Tyrian purple, produced in the Phoenician city of Tyre, the center of the purple-dye industry, was obtained by a double dyeing. Large deposits of murex shells from dyeing operations have been found along the Mediterranean shoreline. The Israelites had to import purple goods (Ez 27:16). Lydia was a “seller of purple” or of cloth so dyed (Acts 16:14). Purple was a sign of distinction, royalty, and wealth (cf. Ex 25:4; 28:5-6, 15; Nm 15:38; 2 Chr 2:7; Est 8:15; Prv 31:22; Sg 3:10; Ez 27:7; Dn 5:7).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 30:34-35 refers to “onycha,” which was an important ingredient of incense. Onycha is the horny, clawlike operculum (the plate that closes off the opening of its shell when a snail is retracted) of a Near Eastern member of the molluskan family Strombidae. The operculum is sometimes used for offense or locomotion as well as for defense. When burned, the operculum gives off a sharp, strong scent, and when mixed with more fragrant but less powerful substances is even more potent. The name “onycha” is derived from a Greek word <em>(onyx)<\/em> for a fingernail or a claw.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snake\">Snake<\/p>\n<p>Various species of snake, suborder Ophidia (Serpentes). In the Bible nine Hebrew words and four Greek ones refer to snakes. The most common Hebrew word is onomatopoeic—that is, it is an imitation of a snake hissing or of the sound it produces as it scrapes its scales along the ground (cf. Jer 46:22). Many types of snakes lay eggs (Is 59:5), although some retain the eggs in the body until ready to hatch.<\/p>\n<p>Snakes are among the most widespread reptiles and are found on all continents except Antarctica; they decrease in numbers and species toward the poles but increase as one approaches the equator. Thirty-three species of snakes are known in Palestine and neighboring countries, 20 of which are poisonous. Two dangerous characteristics of the snake noted by biblical writers are its inconspicuous way of moving and the ease with which it hides itself.<\/p>\n<p>Many snakes are able to swallow animals several times their own diameter because of their unusually flexible jaw mechanism. They lack not only legs but also movable eyelids. Snakes periodically shed their skins. The tongue is actually a hearing apparatus sensitive to airborne vibrations and probably to heat waves.<\/p>\n<p>The venom of poisonous species is a clear, thin secretion, transmitted to the victim’s bloodstream by means of fangs. Two types of venom are known: that of the vipers, which affects respiration and disintegrates red blood cells, and that of the cobras, which paralyzes the nervous system.<\/p>\n<p>The “asp” referred to in the Bible is probably the cobra; the “adder” is the viper. The “cockatrice” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is probably the adder. Serpents were associated with worship in Canaanite religion and symbolized evil deities among many other peoples. Steles (upright stones bearing inscriptions) have been unearthed at several sites in the Holy Land and Syria depicting a god or worshiper with a snake winding about the legs or body. Because the Israelites were burning incense in pagan worship of Moses’ bronze serpent (Nm 21:8-9), King Hezekiah destroyed it in his religious reform (2 Kgs 18:4).<\/p>\n<p>Although snakes have been an object of veneration in some religions, in the Judeo-Christian tradition snakes represent evil and, more specifically, the devil. That association began in the Garden of Eden (Gn 3:1-15) and is also found in the book of Revelation (12:9; 20:2-3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adder (above); Asp (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Spider\">Spider<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the order Araneida. Between 600 and 700 different species inhabit the Holy Land. Spiders are different from insects in that, like scorpions, they have four pairs of legs instead of three. Spiders are equipped with poison glands—the effectiveness varying from species to species. A few can kill only insects, but others can also kill birds and mice.<\/p>\n<p>Most spiders have a pair of spinnerets attached to silk glands on the underside of the abdomen; from them a web is extruded. In the Bible the spider’s web is referred to as a symbol of frailty and insecurity (Jb 8:14; Is 59:5-6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sponge\">Sponge<\/p>\n<p>Simple marine animals, phylum Porifera. The term “sponge” also refers to those animals’ skeletal remains. The sponge has a porous body composed of tubules and cells.<\/p>\n<p>Sponge fishing was well known in the Mediterranean area in ancient times. It was practiced particularly along the Anatolian and Syrian coasts. Sponges were harvested by divers. The use of sponges in absorbing liquids is referred to in the Bible (Mt 27:48; Mk 15:36).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Unicorn\">Unicorn<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Wild Ox (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wasp\">Wasp<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the family Vespidae. Hornets are social wasps that build large aerial apartment houses in which 1,000 or more individuals may live. In the Bible the hornet is used as a metaphor for God’s use of military forces (Ex 23:28; Dt 7:20; Jos 24:12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Whale\">Whale<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all living creatures, including those that have become extinct. Whales are air-breathing mammals of the order Cetacea.<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of whales visit the shores of the Holy Land at times. The finback whale <em>(Balaenoptera physalus)<\/em> weighs about 200 tons (181 metric tons) and lives mainly in the Arctic region but sometimes passes through the Straits of Gibraltar to reach the eastern Mediterranean Sea. It feeds on small marine organisms that it strains through its whale bone; it does not have teeth. The finback whale’s esophagus is narrow.<\/p>\n<p>The sperm whale <em>(Physeter catodon),<\/em> about 60 feet (18.3 meters) long, has a curiously shaped head that looks like a battering ram. The teeth in the lower jaw of the male sperm whale are about seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long. It feeds on big fish, even on sharks. It has a large throat opening.<\/p>\n<p>Whales are referred to in Genesis 1:21 and Job 7:12 (<span>kjv<\/span> only). The “great fish” of Jonah 2:1 need not have been a whale but could have been a large shark, such as the whale shark <em>(Rhineodon),<\/em> which grows 70 feet (21.3 meters) long and lacks the terrible teeth of other sharks. Whatever the actual marine organism, Jonah’s deliverance was miraculous. The Greek word for “whale” is sometimes used as a general term for “sea monster” or huge fish and may be used in that sense in Matthew 12:40.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WildOx\">Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>Large, fierce, fleet, intractable animal <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> It had a long, lean rump with a straight back and a long, narrow head. The animal described in Job 39:9-12 is clearly the wild ox. The two horns (Dt 33:17), its outstanding characteristic, were straight and as long as the head (Nm 23:22; 24:8; Ps 22:21). Kings often symbolized their dominion by wearing a helmet with two wild ox horns (cf. Pss 92:10; 132:17-18). The horns were often used as drinking vessels by the Israelites; some were large enough to hold four gallons (15 liters).<\/p>\n<p>Hunting the wild ox was a favorite sport of Assyrian kings. Tiglath-pileser I hunted it in the Lebanon Mountains about 1100 <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Ps 29:6). At one time the animal referred to in Job 39:9-12 was thought to be the oryx or antelope because of the similarity between the Hebrew word in Job and the Arabian name for oryx. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> called the wild ox a “unicorn” because of representations found on Babylonian mosaics and Egyptian drawings. Those representations showed it in strict profile, showing only one horn—hence, “unicorn.” Jerome’s Vulgate, a Latin Bible translation (fourth century <span>AD<\/span>) and Martin Luther’s German version translated it similarly.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wolf\">Wolf<\/p>\n<p>Large doglike mammal <em>(Canis lupus)<\/em> that travels in bands of up to 30 animals. From the nose to the rump, the wolf measures about 3 feet (.9 meter); its drooping tail is about 18 inches (.5 meter) long. It looks much like a skinny German shepherd dog. The grayish yellow pelt is coarse and short haired.<\/p>\n<p>Wolves hunt singly or in relays, usually at night (Jer 5:6). Wolves have acute hearing and sight but rely chiefly on scent and usually catch their prey in a swift, open chase. The wolf has a reputation for boldness, fierceness, and voracity (Gn 49:27; Hb 1:8). It commonly kills more than it can eat or drag away and thus is known for its greediness.<\/p>\n<p>The wolf is a restless animal, always on the move; hunger drives it from one place to another in constant search of new hunting grounds. During spring and fall, wolves usually roam singly or in pairs, whereas in summer they may travel in family groups. In winter, several such groups may join to form a large pack. Wolves are intelligent, social creatures, faithful to their own kind. They mate for life. Individually, the wolf is a rather timid animal; it would much rather avoid human beings. But collectively wolves can be among the most dangerous animals alive.<\/p>\n<p>In Egypt, Rome, and Greece the wolf was considered sacred. Wolves were well known in the Holy Land and are still found there and also in many places in Asia Minor. Shepherds continually battled with wolves that plundered their flocks (Jn 10:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible refers to wolves in a literal sense in only three places (Is 11:6; 65:25; Jn 10:12), all other references being figurative. Usually the wolf is a symbol of enemies or the wicked (e.g., Ez 22:27; Zep 3:3; Acts 20:29). Both the wolf’s courage and its cruelty were probably in the mind of the patriarch Jacob when he predicted the fate of Benjamin’s tribe (Gn 49:27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Worm\">Worm<\/p>\n<p>Actually insect larvae in most biblical references, usually maggots, the larvae of flies (see Fly, above). For example, maggots are evidently referred to in accounts of worms feeding on spoiled manna (Ex 16:19-20), corpses (Jb 21:26; Is 14:11), or open wounds (Jb 7:5). Mark 9:48 refers to a maggot that eats dead flesh. In Acts 12:23 a fatal, worm-induced abdominal disease of King Herod is mentioned. In other cases, the reference is to the larvae of other insects (Is 51:8). In Deuteronomy 28:39 and Jonah 4:7 the vine weevil <em>(Cochylis ambiguella)<\/em> is probably referred to; it destroys vines by boring into their stems. Comparing a man to a worm is a metaphor for abasement (Jb 25:6; Ps 22:6).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ANIMALS<\/h3>\n<p>In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals as object lessons.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical approach to classification of animals is somewhat different from the system of classification used by biologists today. The present system of classification, which traces back to Carolus Linnaeus (an 18th-century Swedish botanist), is based on structure, both internal and external. The biblical basis of classification is habitat. Thus Genesis 1 speaks of aquatic organisms (v 20); aerial organisms (v 21); animals that crawl on the ground (v 24); cattle or domesticated animals (animals that live in association with humans) (v 24); and wild animals (v 24). The same system of classification is followed in Leviticus 11 and throughout Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Because of the divergence between systems of classification, the various animals of the Bible will be listed here in alphabetical order—including reptiles, fish, and even invertebrates such as insects, spiders, worms, and sponges. Birds are discussed in a separate article.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Adder<\/p>\n<p>• Ant<\/p>\n<p>• Antelope<\/p>\n<p>• Ape<\/p>\n<p>• Asp<\/p>\n<p>• Ass<\/p>\n<p>• Badger<\/p>\n<p>• Bat<\/p>\n<p>• Bear<\/p>\n<p>• Bee<\/p>\n<p>• Behemoth<\/p>\n<p>• Camel<\/p>\n<p>• Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>• Cattle<\/p>\n<p>• Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>• Coral<\/p>\n<p>• Cricket<\/p>\n<p>• Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>• Deer<\/p>\n<p>• Dog<\/p>\n<p>• Donkey<\/p>\n<p>• Dragon<\/p>\n<p>• Fish<\/p>\n<p>• Flea<\/p>\n<p>• Fly<\/p>\n<p>• Fox<\/p>\n<p>• Frog<\/p>\n<p>• Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>• Gecko<\/p>\n<p>• Gnat<\/p>\n<p>• Goat<\/p>\n<p>• Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>• Hare<\/p>\n<p>• Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>• Horse<\/p>\n<p>• Hyena<\/p>\n<p>• Jackal<\/p>\n<p>• Leech<\/p>\n<p>• Leopard<\/p>\n<p>• Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>• Lion<\/p>\n<p>• Lizard<\/p>\n<p>• Locust<\/p>\n<p>• Mole<\/p>\n<p>• Moth<\/p>\n<p>• Mouse<\/p>\n<p>• Mule<\/p>\n<p>• Pig<\/p>\n<p>• Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>• Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>• Sheep<\/p>\n<p>• Snail<\/p>\n<p>• Snake<\/p>\n<p>• Spider<\/p>\n<p>• Sponge<\/p>\n<p>• Unicorn<\/p>\n<p>• Wasp<\/p>\n<p>• Whale<\/p>\n<p>• Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>• Wolf<\/p>\n<p>• Worm<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Adder\">Adder<\/p>\n<p>One of the 20 poisonous snakes found in Israel and surrounding countries, also referred to as cockatrice and viper. True vipers (genus <em>Cerastes, Echis colorata,<\/em> and <em>Vipera palestina<\/em>) also exist there, poisonous snakes with curved fangs that spring into position when the snake strikes. The horned viper <em>(Cerastes hasselquistii)<\/em> may attack horses. It is 12 to 18 inches (30 to 46 centimeters) long and often lies in ambush in the sand with only its eyes and the hornlike protrusions on its head visible.<\/p>\n<p>Both Jesus and John the Baptist referred to the viper several times (Mt 3:7; 12:34; 23:33). The reference in Acts 28:3 is probably to a small viper <em>(Vipera aspis)<\/em> that strikes rapidly and is very pugnacious. It is found in southern Europe and hisses each time it inhales and exhales. The poison of vipers attacks the respiratory system and disintegrates red blood cells.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ant\">Ant<\/p>\n<p>Mentioned only twice in the Bible, both times in the book of Proverbs. For many years Solomon was charged with a biological error when he referred to the ant as providing her meat in the summer and gathering her food in the harvest (Prv 6:8). Critics of the Bible were quick to point out that, so far as was then known, ants do not store up food. They assumed that Solomon had probably kicked open an ant hill and mistaken the pupal cases (pods in which immature ants grow to maturity) for grain or had observed ants carrying bits of grain, leaves, and other matter to their nests.<\/p>\n<p>At least three species of grain-storing ants are now known—two occur in Israel and the other in Mediterranean countries. The particular species referred to by Solomon (Prv 6:6-8; 30:24-25) is probably the harvester ant <em>(Messor semirufus).<\/em> Its granaries are flat chambers connected by galleries irregularly scattered over an area about six feet (1.8 meters) in diameter and about a foot (.3 meter) deep in the ground. Seeds are collected from the ground or picked from plants. The head, or radicle, which is the softest part of the kernel, is bitten off to prevent germination, and the chaff and empty capsules are discarded on kitchen middens (refuse piles) outside the nest. Individual granaries may be 5 inches (12.7 centimeters) in diameter and a half inch (1.2 centimeters) high. Some nests are known to be 40 feet (12 meters) in diameter and 6 to 7 feet (approx. 2 meters) deep with several entrances.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Antelope\">Antelope<\/p>\n<p>Several antelope-like creatures are referred to in the Scriptures. One seems to be the white oryx <em>(Oryx leucoryx),<\/em> referred to in Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild ox”; <span>rsv<\/span> “antelope”) and Isaiah 51:20 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild bull”; <span>RSV <\/span>“antelope”). The oryx was probably the antelope, commonly used for food because its long horns made it relatively easy to catch.<\/p>\n<p>Another antelope mentioned in the Bible is the addax <em>(Addax nasomaculatus),<\/em> probably the “pygarg” of Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span>). It is a native of North Africa with grayish white hinder parts, a white patch on the forehead, and twisted and ringed horns. The word “pygarg” comes from a Greek word meaning “white rump.” The addax is about the size of a donkey. Its body is closely covered with short hair. It has a short mane on the underside of its neck that makes the head look somewhat like that of a goat. The hooves are broad and flat, and the tail resembles that of a donkey. It is common in Africa and in Arabia, where Arabs hunt it with falcons and dogs.<\/p>\n<p>Antelopes are very graceful and run with their heads held high. Both sexes have long, permanent, hollow horns. With the oryx the horns go straight back; addax horns are twisted and ringed. Antelope are alert, wary, and keen sighted. They are usually found in herds of from two to a dozen. If injured or brought to bay, an antelope attacks with its head lowered so that the sharp horns point forward. Antelopes feed on grasses and shrubs, drinking from streams and water holes. When water is scarce, they eat melons and succulent bulbs. Both addax and oryx were ceremonially clean in Jewish law.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ape\">Ape<\/p>\n<p>Primate not native to Palestine. The two references to apes in the OT (1 Kgs 10:22; 2 Chr 9:21) refer to their importation by King Solomon with other treasures on board the ships of his mercantile fleet. There is some question concerning the origin of those primates. Some believe that the mention of “ivory” in the same verses suggests they came from East Africa and that they were indeed apes, that is, tailless primates. Others, believing they came from India or Ceylon, suggest that they were actually monkeys. There the baboon (genus Papeio), a large monkey, was considered sacred to the god Thoth. Males of that genus were kept in temples, and the more docile females were often kept as house pets. Such baboons frequently had some of their teeth removed or ground down to lessen the danger of their biting. A number of mummified baboons have been found in Egypt, indicating the high regard in which they were held.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Asp\">Asp<\/p>\n<p>Poisonous snake. Most biblical references to the asp (Dt 32:33) seem to be to the Egyptian cobra <em>(Naja haje),<\/em> which conceals itself in holes, walls, and rocks and has the ability to expand its neck by raising its anterior ribs so as to enlarge the front of its breast into the shape of a flat disc. Its potent poison can cause death in 30 minutes. It attains a length of about 80 inches (2 meters). The fangs are permanently erect, not movable as in the vipers (the common poisonous snakes of North America; only the coral snake in America has permanently erect fangs). Cobra poison attacks the nervous system, causing muscular paralysis. The Egyptians looked upon it as a sacred creature; they regarded it as a protector since it fed on the rodents that ate their crops. The “fiery serpents” (Nm 21:6; Dt 8:15, both <span>rsv<\/span>) may have been cobras; “fiery” probably refers to the burning fever caused by their venom. Isaiah 14:29 and 30:6 (“flying serpent”) may refer to the hood of the cobra.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ass\">Ass<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Donkey (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Badger\">Badger<\/p>\n<p>Small hoofed mammal. What the <span>kjv<\/span> calls a “coney,” modern translations name “rock badger” (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7; Ps 104:18; Prv 30:26). The rock badger spoken of in the Bible is probably the Syrian rock hyrax <em>(Hyrax syriaca),<\/em> the only species of hyrax found outside Africa. This small ungulate (having hooflike toenails) lives among rocks from the Dead Sea valley to Mt Hermon. It is strictly a herbivorous (plant-eating) animal about the size of a rabbit. It resembles a guinea pig more than a rabbit, having quite inconspicuous ears and a very small tail. It has broad nails with four toes on its forelegs and three on its hind legs, the toes being connected with skin almost like a web. Pads acting as sucking discs under its feet enable it to keep its footing on slippery rocks. With its yellow and brown fur, it is sometimes called the bear rat because of its resemblance to a tailless rat. It is also equipped with black whiskers that may be seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p>These rock badgers, or hyraxes, live together in colonies of from 6 to 50 animals, often sunning themselves on rocks. They are difficult to catch. Guards are posted, and if approaching danger is sighted, the whole group will scurry for cover, warned by the sharp whistles of the guards. Thus they are commended for taking refuge in the rocks (Ps 104:18) and are called wise for making “their houses in the rocks” (Prv 30:24, 26, <span>kjv<\/span>). The badger is not a ruminant (does not chew its cud), but the motion of its jaws may suggest that it chews its cud. That is probably why it was included with other cud-chewing animals in the Jewish food laws (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7). It was forbidden to the Jews as food because it did not have cloven hooves. Some Arabs eat and even prize its meat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bat\">Bat<\/p>\n<p>Flying mammals according to modern classification. They have hair and provide milk for their young. The Bible classifies them with other aerial creatures. Bats take shelter in caves, crevices, tree cavities, buildings, and also in exposed places on trees. In colder areas they hibernate or migrate. The normal resting position for a bat is hanging head downward. Bats “swim” through the air rather than fly because they move with their legs as well as with their wings.<\/p>\n<p>The bat’s thumb is free and terminates in a single hook claw used for climbing and hanging. The hind feet have five toes, all pointing the same way. The large chest accommodates the powerful muscles needed for flying. Because they orient themselves by echo location, the sense of hearing is very well developed.<\/p>\n<p>Most bats are insect eaters, seizing insects in flight. Many insectivorous bats also eat some fruit. Other bats feed exclusively, usually in groups, on fruit and green vegetation. Fruit-eating bats generally live in the tropics where fruit is constantly ripening, although some have been found in the Holy Land. These bats tend to be larger than the insectivores, having a wingspread of up to five feet (1.5 meters).<\/p>\n<p>A third group includes flower-eating bats that feed on pollen and nectar. These small bats with long pointed heads and long tongues are found only in tropical and semitropical regions. Three species of vampire bats, which do not occur in the Holy Land, eat blood by making a small incision and lapping it up. Carnivorous (meat-eating) bats prey on birds, lizards, and frogs. Fish-eating bats catch fish at or near the water surface.<\/p>\n<p>Eight varieties of bats are known in the Holy Land. One of them, the little brown bat (genus <em>Myotis<\/em>), is worldwide in its distribution. It is insectivorous and probably has the widest distribution of any nonhuman terrestrial mammal. Brown bats are mostly cave dwellers. The females form maternity colonies that may number in the tens of thousands.<\/p>\n<p>Two species of mouse-tailed bats (genus <em>Rhinopoma<\/em>) are found in the Holy Land. Their tails are nearly as long as the head and body combined. They are colonial, roosting in caves, rock clefts, wells, pyramids, palaces, and houses. Like the brown bat, they are insectivorous. The slit-faced or hollow-faced bats (genus <em>Nycteris<\/em>) are also found in the Holy Land. They are insectivorous and roost in groups from 6 to 20.<\/p>\n<p>The bats found in the Holy Land vary in size from that of a mouse to the size of a rat; the largest species measures more than 20 inches (51 centimeters) across the wings. The bat was unclean to the Jews (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bear\">Bear<\/p>\n<p>Large, heavy, big-headed mammal with short, powerful limbs, a short tail, and small eyes and ears. Bears have a “plantigrade” walk: they walk on both the sole and heel as humans do. The Palestinian bear is a Syrian version of the brown bear <em>(Ursus arctos syriacus).<\/em> It can grow to a height of 6 feet (1.8 meters) and may weigh as much as 500 pounds (227 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>Bears have an excellent sense of smell but less developed senses of sight and hearing. They are omnivorous (eating any kind of food); they subsist largely on vegetation, fruits, insects, and fish.<\/p>\n<p>Bears are usually peaceful and inoffensive, but if they think they must defend themselves (Lam 3:10) or their young (2 Sm 17:8; Prv 17:12; Hos 13:8), they may be formidable and dangerous adversaries. David boasted of his role as a bear killer (1 Sm 17:34-37). Since a blow from a bear’s paw can be fatal, David’s courage and strength as a young shepherd in running after a bear and wrenching one of his father’s sheep from its jaws were noteworthy.<\/p>\n<p>Some biblical passages seem to imply that bears attacked for no apparent reason (e.g., Prv 28:15; Am 5:19). At other times they were God’s instruments of punishment, as in the story of Elisha and the two she-bears (2 Kgs 2:24). The bear and the lion, often mentioned together in the Bible (1 Sm 17:37), were the two largest and strongest beasts of prey in the Holy Land. Thus they symbolized both strength and terror (Am 5:19).<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times bears seem to have roamed all over Palestine. Today they are found only in the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Mountains, and even there they are rare.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bee\">Bee<\/p>\n<p>One of two domesticated insects <em>(Apis mellifica),<\/em> the other being the silkworm. Bees gather nectar from flowers, transferring pollen from one flower to another in the process. It is believed that they convey the location of sources of nectar to other bees through a bee “dance,” which may indicate both distance and direction. Bees are sensitive to four colors: blue-green, yellow-green, blue-violet, and ultra-violet (invisible to humans).<\/p>\n<p>The wild bees of the Holy Land are especially noted for their ferocity in attack. Only the female “worker” bees sting people and animals, the virulence of their venom increasing in warm weather. A number of biblical passages allude to the irritable, vindictive nature of bees and to the painful stings they inflict (Dt 1:44; Ps 118:12; Is 7:18).<\/p>\n<p>One reference calls attention to the fact that in semidesert regions a dead animal’s carcass, stripped to the bone by jackals or vultures and dried in the sun, can provide wild bees an excellent place to start a new colony (Jgs 14:5-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptians considered the bee sacred. In ancient Greece candles were made from beeswax. In the Holy Land, beekeeping was probably not practiced until the Hellenistic period (second century <span>BC<\/span>), although Ezekiel 27:17 suggests that it may have been practiced earlier. If domestic honey was not available to the Hebrews, wild honey certainly was, and travelers would be on the lookout for caches of honey in rocky clefts and other likely places. The Philistines and the Hittites practiced beekeeping in their cities.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible contains many references to bees and bee products. A bee swarm was a valuable asset, though the price of honey itself was low. Honey was sometimes eaten with the honeycomb (Sg 5:1). Honey also had uses other than food, e.g., in embalming.<\/p>\n<p>The land of Israel was described as a land flowing with milk and honey. Honey was a major source of sweetening in the ancient Near East—hence, its importance (cf. Jgs 14:8-9). Actually the Hebrew word for “honey” may include not only bee honey but also the sweet syrup extracted from such fruits as figs, dates, and grapes. Thus “a land flowing with milk and honey” (Ex 3:8, <span>rsv<\/span>) does not necessarily stand for a land of bees but for a land rich in sweetness.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Food and Food Preparation; Honey.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Behemoth\">Behemoth<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Hippopotamus (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Camel\">Camel<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of burden. Unintelligent, ill-natured, and quarrelsome, the camel <em>(Camelus dromedarius)<\/em> is nevertheless a blessing to people living in the desert and on its borders because it is especially adapted to that habitat. It has been called the ship of the desert. Having thick elastic pads of fibrous tissue on its feet, it can walk on hot desert sands. It can go without water for long periods and can subsist on vegetation growing on the saline soils. The camel’s nostrils are pinched together and can be closed at will to prevent penetration of sand during violent sandstorms.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are used for transporting both goods and people. A person riding a camel can cover from 60 to 75 miles (96.5 to 121 kilometers) in a day. A camel can carry a load weighing 600 pounds (272 kilograms) or more. Camels were used heavily in the spice trade (Gn 37:25) and traveled regularly in camel trains between Arabia, Egypt, and Assyria. They were also ridden in time of war (Jgs 6:5). A camel can even be hitched to a plow in areas where the land is cultivated.<\/p>\n<p>The hair shed by camels during the early spring is preserved and used in weaving cloth and making tents. As much as 10 pounds (4.5 kilograms) of hair can be obtained from one camel. A rough cloak of camel’s hair, as worn by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4), is still worn by Bedouins today. A camel’s hair garment was also the sign of the prophetic office (Zec 13:4).<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of camel occur within the one-humped species, the slow burden-bearing camel referred to in Genesis 37:25 and the fast dromedary of 1 Samuel 30:17. The dromedary can stand seven feet (2.1 meters) tall and measure as much as nine feet (2.7 meters) from the muzzle to the tip of the tail. With its three-chambered stomach, which can hold from 15 to 30 quarts (14.2 to 28.4 liters) of liquid, it can go for as long as 5 days during the summer or 25 days in winter without drinking. The camel’s hump is a reserve store of fat, making it possible for the animal to subsist on very little food during a desert journey.<\/p>\n<p>Another species of camel, the Bactrian camel <em>(Camelus bactrianus),<\/em> is also resident in the Holy Land. It has two humps. It is heavier, bigger, and has longer hair than the one-humped camel and is slower than the swift dromedary. Isaiah 21:7 may refer to the Bactrian camel; both kinds of camel are referred to in Esther 8:10 (<span>kjv<\/span>). Camels ranked in importance with sheep, cattle, and asses in OT times. A third of the 66 biblical references to the camel lists it with other animals.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are ruminants (cud-chewing mammals) but do not have cloven hooves. Thus, they were included in the list of unclean beasts, forbidden by the Israelites as food (Lv 11:4; Dt 14:7). They are eaten by Arabs, however, who also drink their milk (cf. Gn 32:15).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham had camels in Egypt (Gn 12:16). At first Job had 3,000 camels (Jb 1:3) and after his recovery, 6,000 (Jb 42:12). Although wide use of camels does not seem to have begun until shortly before 1000 <span>BC<\/span> (Jgs 6:5), Sumerian texts from the Old Babylonian period list camels and indicate that they had been domesticated. Camel bones and figurines have been found at various eastern archaeological sites dating from well before 1200 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Caterpillar\">Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>Larval stage of insects characterized by complete metamorphosis. Such insects pass through four stages: egg, larva or caterpillar, pupa, and adult. Bees, flies, moths, and butterflies all pass through a larval or caterpillar stage.<\/p>\n<p>The word “caterpillar” occurs three times in the <span>nlt<\/span> (1 Kgs 8:37; 2 Chr 6:28; Ps 78:46). In the book of Joel that same Hebrew word is translated “locust” (1:4; 2:25, <span>nlt<\/span>). The locust and grasshopper to which the Hebrew word refers have an incomplete type of metamorphosis with only three stages: egg, nymph, and adult. The nymph is a miniature adult in which the wings are not fully developed, though their outline may be present. There are several nymph stages known as instars. The reference is to one of the last instars, in which the wing structures are still folded together and enclosed in a sac but are nevertheless clearly recognizable. That form of the insect is about an inch (2.5 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cattle\">Cattle<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animals of the bovine species <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> The OT often emphasized the beauty of cattle. Egypt was rich in cattle, especially in the Nile River delta area (Goshen), where the Hebrews settled under Joseph.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars believe that milk rather than meat was the foremost consideration in the domestication of cattle and that in early civilizations meat supplies came chiefly from wild game. Cattle also supplied strong hides that supplanted wood in the manufacture of shields. Their dung was a source of fuel when wood was scarce (Ez 4:15). They were used as beasts of burden and for plowing. Development of wheeled transportation was associated more closely with cattle than with any other animal.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical term “cattle” often refers to all domesticated animals or livestock (Gn 1:24; 2:20; 7:23; 47:6, 16-17; Ex 9:3-7; Nm 3:41, 45). Occasionally, the term was used to refer to all large domestic animals (Nm 31:9; 32:26), although sometimes the word as used in the <span>kjv<\/span> refers only to sheep and goats (Gn 30:32, 39, 43; 31:8, 10; Is 7:25; 43:23).<\/p>\n<p>Probably several kinds of cattle were domesticated in the Holy Land. Small, short-legged, black or brown shorthorn cattle were found in the southern part of Judah; that type submitted easily to the yoke and was prominent in agricultural operations. Along the coast a larger variety was found, and the wild districts east of the Jordan River were populated with a breed of huge black cattle.<\/p>\n<p>Cattle breeding was widely practiced by the patriarchs (cf. Gn 32:15; Jb 21:10). Strict laws in Mesopotamia, as well as in Israel, penalized the owner of a bull that gored a man or other cattle (Ex 21:28-36). Bulls were sometimes employed figuratively as pictures of strength or violence (Dt 33:17; Pss 22:12; 68:30; Is 10:13). For breeding purposes one bull is normally adequate for about 30 cows, but many more were kept since bulls were widely used in Israel for sacrifices. They might be used as a general sacrifice (Lv 22:23; Nm 23:1) or for special sacrifices (Jgs 6:25; 1 Sm 1:24). Particular sacrifices were offered at the consecration of priests (Ex 29:1), consecration of an altar (Nm 7), purification of the Levites (Nm 8), sin offerings (Lv 16), day of the new moon (Nm 28:11-14), Passover (Nm 28:19), Feast of Weeks (Nm 28:27), Feast of Trumpets (Nm 29:1-2), Day of Atonement (Nm 29:7-9), and the Feast of Tabernacles (Nm 29:12-38). The Feast of Tabernacles required the largest number of bulls for burnt offerings of all the annual feasts, with a total of 71 being slaughtered during the course of eight days.<\/p>\n<p>Calves were sometimes referred to as “sons of the herd” in the original Hebrew (Gn 18:8; 1 Sm 6:7; 14:32). The calf, a symbol of peacefulness (Is 11:6), was also used figuratively to refer to the weak (Ps 68:30). A calf’s head decorated the back of Solomon’s throne (1 Kgs 10:19). Calves were sometimes fattened in stalls to keep them from running off weight in the field (Am 6:4; Mal 4:2; Lk 15:23) or were kept around the house; the witch of Endor kept a calf in her house that she killed and served to Saul and his men (1 Sm 28:24-25). Calves supplied veal (Gn 18:7), considered a delicacy by the wealthy; Amos referred to stall-fattened calves in a denunciation of luxurious and careless living (Am 6:4). Calves also supplied meat for all Saul’s armies at the great slaughter of the Philistines (1 Sm 14:32). The “fatted calf” served roasted or boiled was gourmet fare, suitable for the finest banquet (Gn 18:7; Mt 22:4; Lk 15:23).<\/p>\n<p>Cattle were subject to the law of firstlings (Ex 13:12). They were a mark of wealth (Gn 13:2) and were considered proper booty of war (Jos 8:2). Aaron, the first high priest, made a golden calf as a rival to the ark of the covenant (Ex 32; Dt 9:16, 21). Even though he represented the calf as an image of the invisible God, it was especially offensive because the calf was a fertility symbol related to Egyptian and Canaanite practices. Two calves were later made by Jeroboam I of Israel (930–909 <span>BC<\/span>) for his shrines at Bethel and Dan (1 Kgs 12:28-33). Hosea’s prophetic denunciations of calf worship were directed at those shrines (Hos 8:5-6; 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>An ox is an adult castrated bull. A steer is a young ox. Oxen were used to do work (Nm 7:3; Dt 22:10; 25:4), though for moving heavy objects, cows were typically favored over bulls because of their more docile nature. Oxen were also used as pack animals (1 Chr 12:40, although they did not have the endurance of the ass, camel, or mule. They usually fed on grass (Nm 22:4; Ps 106:20), but they also ate straw (Is 11:7) and salted fodder (Is 30:24) and could be kept in a stable (Lk 13:15). Oxen could not be offered as sacrifices because they had been castrated (Lv 22:24). They could be used for food but were rarely eaten. Possession of an ox and an ass was regarded as the bare minimum for existence in the ancient Palestinian agriculture economy (Jb 24:3; cf. Ex 20:17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Agriculture; Food and Food Preparation; Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chameleon\">Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>Lizard characterized by its ability to change color according to its surroundings <em>(Chameleon vulgaris).<\/em> To the Israelites the chameleon was ritually unclean (Lv 11:30). The Hebrew word for chameleon is derived from a word meaning “to pant.” A lizard’s lungs are very large, and in ancient times lizards were believed to live on air. A chameleon’s eyes move independently of each other; so at times one eye may be turned upward and the other downward. Chameleons live in trees and bushes, clinging to branches with their long tails.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Coral\">Coral<\/p>\n<p>Calcareous (lime-containing) skeletons of relatively simple marine organisms <em>(Corallium rubrum).<\/em> Red coral from the Mediterranean and Red Seas is widely used for jewelry and for medicinal purposes. While the animal is alive, the coral is green in color and shrublike in appearance, looking rather like an underwater plant since the coral animals are immobil. When the coral is removed from the water, it becomes hard and red in color.<\/p>\n<p>In ancient times coral was sometimes used as money, along with precious stones, pearls, and gold. Some believe the biblical reference in Lamentations 4:7 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is to pearls rather than to coral, but it is probable that the references in Job 28:18 and Ezekiel 27:16 are to the red coral (see <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cricket\">Cricket<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the order Orthptera related to grasshoppers and locusts. According to Leviticus 11:22, the cricket was edible. The reference may be to one of the growth stages of the locust.<\/p>\n<p>The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word as “beetle.” Beetles are insects with chewing mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the fore pair being hard and sheathlike and the hind pair being membranous and folded under the fore pair. Some beetles are carnivorous, others are chiefly herbivorous. Some are aquatic, some produce a secretion that blisters the skin, some damage fabrics, some damage crops, and some feed on other insects that are harmful to humans. In ancient Egypt the beetle, or sacred scarab, was a symbol of the sun god Ra. Scarab seals and amulets were extremely popular in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Crocodile\">Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all existing reptiles <em>(Crocodilus vulgaris),<\/em> attaining a length of well over 20 feet (6 meters). Crocodiles are characterized by large lizardlike bodies supported by short legs. The head terminates in a flattened snout armed with strong conical teeth, each of which is implanted in a distinct socket. New teeth growing from beneath continually replace those in use. The toes are webbed. The back and tail are protected by quadrangular horny shields of varying sizes arranged in regular rows and in contact with one another at the edges. The eyes are covered with movable lids that can be closed when the animal enters the water.<\/p>\n<p>The crocodile spends most of its time in the water where it feeds mainly on fish but also on aquatic birds and even small animals that come down to the water’s edge to drink. It is surprisingly fast and agile on dry land, even though its legs are so short that its belly and tail drag across the earth leaving a distinct path.<\/p>\n<p>Until the beginning of the 20th century, the crocodile was found in the marshes and small coastal rivers of western Palestine. A first-century Roman writer, Pliny, referred to a place in the Holy Land called Crocodeilopolis (“crocodile city”) to the south of Mt Carmel, and visitors to the Holy Land as late as the 19th century reported seeing crocodiles in that general region.<\/p>\n<p>The description of “Leviathan” in Job 41 seems to be based on the crocodile (thus the translation of the <span>nlt<\/span>). The “dragon” of Ezekiel 29:3, used figuratively of the Egyptian pharaoh, may be a reference to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Deer\">Deer<\/p>\n<p>Large ruminant (cud-chewing) animals. Only the males have antlers (branching horns). Deer antlers grow annually and are solid, in contrast to those of the antelope and the gazelle. Fully developed antlers are devoid of any covering of skin or horn and, for all practical purposes, may be regarded as a mass of dead bone carried for a certain time by the living animal.<\/p>\n<p>The end of the deer’s muzzle is naked in all species. The stomach is divided into a series of compartments, some of which are used to store partly chewed food. The food is later regurgitated, rechewed, and finally swallowed into a section of the stomach where true digestion takes place.<\/p>\n<p>Three species of deer were known in Palestine: the red deer <em>(Cervus elaphus),<\/em> the Persian fallow deer <em>(Dama mesopotamica),<\/em> and the roe deer <em>(Capreolus capreolus).<\/em> All are now extinct there. The last deer were hunted in the Holy Land in 1914. The red deer referred to in the Bible as “hart” (male), “stag” (male), or “hind” (female) stood about four feet (1.2 meters) high at the shoulder. It was gregarious (living in herds or flocks), each group remaining in a definite territory. Red deer grazed and browsed during the morning and late afternoon (Lam 1:6). The sexes remained in separate herds. The red deer was known for its leaping (Is 35:6) and sure-footedness in the mountains (Ps 18:33; Sg 2:8-9, 17; 8:14; Hb 3:19).<\/p>\n<p>The antlers of the Persian fallow deer (1 Kgs 4:23) were large, flattened, and palmated (shaped like an open palm with fingers extended), and its coat was a yellowbrown. It traveled in small groups, feeding mainly on grass in the morning and evening.<\/p>\n<p>The roe deer (Dt 14:5; 1 Kgs 4:23) was a small, graceful animal, dark reddish brown in summer and yellowish gray in winter. Its antlers were about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and had three points. The roe deer preferred sparsely wooded valleys and the lower slopes of mountains, grazing in open grasslands. It usually associated in family groups made up of the doe and her offspring. They were shy, yet very curious. The roe deer barked like a dog when disturbed, and they were excellent swimmers.<\/p>\n<p>There is some question as to whether the roe deer is actually referred to in such passages as 1 Kings 4:23; references may be to the fallow deer, although that animal does not seem to have lived in the southern part of Palestine around the Sinai Desert because of its need for ample amounts of food and water. Fallow deer were found in northern Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The hart (the male red deer) was listed among the clean beasts that Jewish law permitted as food (Dt 12:15, 22; 14:5), but deer were not listed among the animals appropriate for sacrifice. The hind (female red deer) normally gave birth to one calf at a time, though twins were born with some degree of regularity (Jb 39:1; Ps 29:9, <span>kjv<\/span>; Jer 14:5). The gestation period was about 40 weeks. When it was about to give birth, the hind looked for a secure hiding place, preferably in the dense undergrowth of the forest where it could find natural protection for the tiny calf. During the first few days after birth, the mother never went far from her young. The fawn was able to stand on its own legs a few hours after birth. The solicitous care by the hind for her calf during the first days of its life is hinted at in a touching way in Jeremiah 14:4-5, where only a severe drought is said to drive the hind from her calf. Job 39:1-4 describes the calving of the hinds. The hind illustrated grace and charm (Gn 49:21; Prv 5:19), and its dark, gentle eyes and graceful limbs were used to describe the beauty of a woman (Prv 5:18-19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dog\">Dog<\/p>\n<p>Probably the earliest domesticated animal <em>(Canis familiaris),<\/em> used very early in hunting. The modern dog is believed to have come from the Indian wolf <em>(Canis lupus pallipes).<\/em> The dogs of biblical times probably looked like a modern German shepherd, with short pointed ears, a pointed nose, and a long tail.<\/p>\n<p>The dog was generally looked down upon in biblical times (Prv 26:11; 2 Pt 2:22). The biblical writers did not share modern sentiments about dogs being man’s best friends. The dog was pictured as a scavenger, haunting streets and dumps (Ex 22:31; 1 Kgs 22:38; Mt 15:26; Lk 16:21). Human corpses could become the spoil of dogs (2 Kgs 9:35-36). In general, dogs served the same function as vultures and other birds of prey. Most of the 41 references in the Scriptures to dogs show strong disfavor. Dogs were considered cowardly, filthy creatures.<\/p>\n<p>Dogs used in hunting occur in paintings in Egyptian tombs, and there is a reference to dogs herding sheep in Job 30:1. One good quality of dogs highly esteemed by the Israelites was watchfulness (Is 56:10). In general, however, in biblical times “dog” was a term of contempt (1 Sm 17:43; 2 Sm 16:9) and was used of overly submissive persons (2 Sm 9:8; 2 Kgs 8:13) and of evil persons (Is 56:10-11; Mt 7:6; Phil 3:2; Rv 22:15).<\/p>\n<p>Dogs, like pigs, were voracious and omnivorous (eating any kind of food). In response to a Gentile woman’s request that he heal her daughter, Jesus used the metaphor of throwing household food scraps to dogs (Mt 15:22-28; Mk 7:25-30). At the time of Jesus, the word “dog” was a standard Jewish term of contempt for Gentiles who, like dogs, were considered unclean, although the diminutive form of the word, used by Jesus, softened this considerably. Seeing her faith, Jesus granted the woman’s request, giving a non-Jew some of “the children’s bread.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Donkey\">Donkey<\/p>\n<p>Beast of burden. The donkey of the Holy Land <em>(Equus asinus)<\/em> was quite different from the European donkey of today, which is usually a small, stubborn animal. In biblical times the donkey was a beautiful, stately, friendly animal. Its color was usually reddish brown. Three wild races have been described, all from Africa. The race from northwest Africa is extinct; the one from northeast Africa, if not extinct, is close to extinction; the Somalian race, which survives, did not play an important part in domestication. The northeast African race, the Nubian donkey, was evidently domesticated in the Nile River region in early historic times. The donkey was used as a mount from the time of domestication on. It is first mentioned in the Bible among the animals that Abraham acquired in Egypt (Gn 12:16). The donkey was primarily a beast of burden, driven but not bridled. From the time of the Middle Kingdom on (c. 2040 <span>BC<\/span>), it was used for riding in Egypt, but only the Jews and Nubians rode donkeys regularly. The donkey was also used for threshing grain and for pulling the plow. In Arab countries today peasants plow with a donkey and a cow or camel hitched together. In Israel the law forbade plowing with a donkey and an ox hitched together (Dt 22:10). Until the time of Solomon (960 <span>BC<\/span>), horses were not used in Palestine. From that time on, the horse was ridden by warriors; the donkey was used by those who were traveling peaceably.<\/p>\n<p>The donkey was held in high regard by the Jews and was considered an economic asset. An individual had to have a donkey for minimum existence (Jb 24:3), and wealth was frequently counted by the number of donkeys one possessed (Gn 12:16; 24:35). The donkey was considered an acceptable gift (Gn 32:13-15). It was allowed to rest on the Sabbath (Dt 5:14). Women in biblical times often used the donkey as a riding animal (Jos 15:18; 1 Sm 25:23; 2 Kgs 4:24); often a special driver would help a woman guide the animal, running along at its side. If a married couple possessed only one donkey, the husband usually walked alongside while the wife rode (Ex 4:20).<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel returning from Babylon had ten times as many donkeys as horses and camels (Ezr 2:66-67; Neh 7:68-69). Job’s wealth was indicated by the fact that he had 500 she-donkeys before catastrophe hit him (Jb 1:3); after his recovery he had 1,000 donkeys (Jb 42:12). Joseph’s brothers used donkeys to transport the grain they purchased in Egypt (Gn 42:26; 43:24). Abigail transported food on donkeys to David and his troops during their conflict with Saul (1 Sm 25:18). David assigned one of the 12 managers of his royal estates to look after his donkeys exclusively (1 Chr 27:30).<\/p>\n<p>The onager, or Syrian wild donkey <em>(Equus hemionus hemihippus)<\/em>, is an intermediate between the true horse and the true donkey. Its ears are longer than those of a horse but shorter than those of a donkey. The front hooves are narrow; there are chestnuts (callouslike spots on the inside of the knees) on the front legs only, and the tail is short haired for a long distance from its root so that it appears to be tufted.<\/p>\n<p>The Sumerians (ancient Mesopotamians) were able to domesticate the onager, which was eventually replaced by the horse. It was used to draw chariots in Ur; a number of onagers were buried with their vehicles in a royal grave that dates from about 2500 <span>BC<\/span>. Later the wild onager was a favorite hunter’s prize for Babylonian and Assyrian kings.<\/p>\n<p>The onager was very common in the steppe lands near Israel, where it was described as a freedom-loving desert animal (Jb 24:5; 39:5-8; Ps 104:11; Is 32:14; Jer 2:24; Hos 8:9). Ishmael was described as “free and untamed as a wild donkey” (Gn 16:12, <span>nlt<\/span>)—that is, one who could not adjust to domestic life. Drought seems to have been responsible for the population decline of the onager in biblical times (Jer 14:6). The modern onager <em>(Equus hemionus onager)<\/em> is slightly larger than the Syrian wild donkey that is extinct.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dragon\">Dragon<\/p>\n<p>Any one of a number of monstrous land and sea creatures. In biblical usage, “dragon” does not refer to the huge, fire-breathing, winged reptile of European folklore. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> used the term to translate two Hebrew words that are usually rendered more precisely in modern translations. One word referred to desert animals; most scholars agree with the <span>niv<\/span> that “jackals” is its proper meaning (Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; Jer 9:11; Mal 1:3). <em>See<\/em> Jackal (below).<\/p>\n<p>The other Hebrew word translated “dragon” is harder to define. It was frequently used in reference to serpents (so translated in the <span>rsv<\/span>: Ex 7:9-12; Dt 32:33; Ps 91:13). In other <span>rsv<\/span> passages it is translated “sea monster” (Gn 1:21; Jb 7:12; Ps 148:7). The exact identity of such sea monsters is not known. Several <span>rsv<\/span> passages retain the English “dragon.” In two of them (Ps 74:13; Is 27:1), the context indicates that sea monsters are meant. In three others (Is 51:9; Ez 29:3; 32:2) “dragon” seems to refer to the crocodile, a figurative reference to the Egyptian pharaoh at the time of the exodus. Jeremiah 51:34 (translated “monster” in the <span>rsv<\/span>) may also refer to a voracious creature such as a crocodile. <em>See<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p>Babylonian myths described monsters and dragons in primordial conflict with the god Marduk; they represented the principle of evil. In its figurative usages in Scripture, “dragon” has a similar significance, especially in the prophetic books. In the book of Revelation it is a symbol of Satan, the archenemy of God and his people (Rv 12:3-17; 13:2, 4, 11; 16:13; 20:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fish\">Fish<\/p>\n<p>Aquatic animals frequently mentioned in the Bible without names or descriptions that enable us to identify the particular species. Since time immemorial, fish have constituted one of the staple foods of humanity, and they still serve as the chief source of protein in many parts of the world. The trade in fish was highly developed in biblical times. For example, one of the gates in Jerusalem was called the Fish Gate (Neh 3:3; Zep 1:10). The law in Leviticus 11:9-12 permitted the Jews to eat fish, but only those having both fins and scales. Scaleless fish such as catfish were forbidden, even though they had fins.<\/p>\n<p>Egyptian paintings depict various methods of fishing, and the Philistines fished in the Mediterranean Sea. Since the people of Israel were not a seafaring nation, it is safe to assume that most of their fish came from freshwater lakes and rivers, especially the Sea of Galilee. Some 36 species of fish have been identified in that lake, including varieties of perch, carp, barbel, “sardine,” and catfish.<\/p>\n<p>The method of fishing characteristic of NT times was the dragnet. After a boat had put out into the deep (Lk 5:4), a large net would be thrown out from it and then dragged toward shore by the rowers in the boat, possibly with the help of a crew in another boat. The catch was sorted out on shore (Mt 13:47-48). Fishing was usually carried out at night when the coolness of the water brought fish closer to the surface and when they could not see the approaching nets.<\/p>\n<p>The Jews also fished by hook and line (Mt 17:27), a few by spear (Jb 41:7), and some by the throw net (Ez 47:10). Habakkuk refers to hook-and-line fishing, netting, and seining (1:15).<\/p>\n<p>Very early in the history of the Christian church the fish became a symbol for Christ and the faith. It was scratched on the walls of Roman catacombs and may be seen today decorating walls, altars, pews, and vestments. The symbol came into use because the Greek word for “fish” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ichthus<\/span><em>)<\/em> is composed of the first letter of each word in the Greek phrase “Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior.” <em>See<\/em> Whale (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Flea\">Flea<\/p>\n<p>Tiny, irritating insect (1 Sm 24:14; 26:20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Many species of fleas occur in Palestine, the most common being <em>Pulex irritans.<\/em> About a thousand species are known around the world. Fleas are wingless parasites that have sharp jaws and suck out blood from the bodies of humans and animals. The body is wedge shaped, enabling the flea to burrow into folds of skin and hide there. The eggs, laid by the female in dust heaps in the corners of rooms, hatch into small, white larvae that pupate (a nonfeeding stage) in a cocoon. Soon adult fleas appear that immediately attach themselves to the body of a host. The female requires blood for the development of her eggs.<\/p>\n<p>A flea bite is painful and causes some swelling and itching. Fleas are attracted by warmth. With favorable moisture and temperature, adult fleas can live a year or longer without food, but they are voracious feeders. The most dangerous fleas are those of the rat that transmit the organism responsible for bubonic plague. There were 41 recorded epidemics of bubonic plague before the Christian era.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fly\">Fly<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the order Diptera, which have one pair of wings. Many winged insects of other orders, however, are also called flies, such as the dragonfly or butterfly.<\/p>\n<p>As in almost all parts of the world, flies are abundant in Palestine. One of the most numerous is the common housefly <em>(Musca domestica),<\/em> found chiefly around dung heaps and garbage. The female lays her eggs, out of which emerge white maggots that feed on refuse. After a few days the maggot develops into a cocoon out of which emerges the adult housefly. In the summer the whole cycle lasts about 12 days, so that a fly can breed about 20 generations a year.<\/p>\n<p>Another fly common to Palestine is the botfly (family Oestridae). It causes much discomfort among livestock by irritating them and spreading diseases. Tabanid flies (family Tabanidae), including the horsefly (genus <em>Tabanus<\/em>) and related species, are also found in Palestine. Both the botfly and horsefly are known as gadflies because of the persistent distress they inflict. Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar is spoken of as a gadfly in view of his invasion of Egypt (Jer 46:20).<\/p>\n<p>The fourth plague in Egypt just before the exodus featured “swarms of flies” (Ex 8:21-31, <span>nlt<\/span>; cf. Pss 78:45; 105:31). Those swarms may have been made up of any or all the flies mentioned above. The maggots mentioned in Job 25:6 and Isaiah 14:11 and the worms in Exodus 16:24 and Job 7:5 and 17:14 were probably fly larvae.<\/p>\n<p>A proverb quoted in Ecclesiastes 10:1 probably refers to the housefly, which would be attracted to an open, perfumed ointment bottle. Once inside it would drown and eventually decay, causing the ointment to spoil and stink. The fly is also referred to in Isaiah 7:18 where it symbolizes Egypt. Isaiah may have had in mind a horsefly <em>(Tabanus arenivagus)<\/em> that attacks both humans and animals.<\/p>\n<p>Philistine inhabitants of the city of Ekron worshiped a god named Baal-zebul, meaning “Lord of the high places.” The Hebrews mockingly spoke of Baal-zebub, meaning “Lord of the flies” (2 Kgs 1:2). The NT form is Beelzebub (e.g., Mt 10:25; 12:24, 27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fox\">Fox<\/p>\n<p>Small, doglike carnivore with a bushy tail that is about half its body length. The red fox of the Holy Land <em>(Vulpes palaetinae)<\/em> is similar to the North American red fox; it is smaller than a wolf and is normally a nocturnal solitary animal. The omnivorous fox eats almost any kind of food—fruits, plants, mice, beetles, and birds—but seldom touches carrion. It loves the sweet juice of grapes, but it also burrows underground tunnels that can destroy the vines (Sg 2:15). The fox is intelligent and known for its slyness (Lk 13:32). It has considerable endurance and can run at speeds up to 30 miles (48 kilometers) per hour. The Jews rebuilding Jerusalem’s wall were taunted by the wisecrack that even a fox jumping on their wall would knock it over (Neh 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptian fox <em>(Vulpes niloticus)<\/em> is found in the central and southern parts of the Holy Land. It is somewhat smaller than the common red fox. Its back is rust colored and its belly light. The Syrian fox <em>(Vulpes flavescens)<\/em> that lives in the northern part of the Holy Land is shiny gold in color.<\/p>\n<p>Some OT references such as Psalm 63:10 and Lamentations 5:18 are translated “fox” in the <span>kjv<\/span> but probably refer to jackals. Jackals, not foxes, hunt in packs and tend to act as scavengers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Frog\">Frog<\/p>\n<p>Amphibian (genus <em>Rana<\/em>), living part of its life in the water and part on land.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs and toads are covered with soft, hairless skin and lack a tail in the adult stage. The hind legs are much longer and more powerfully developed than the forelegs so that the animals are able to jump large distances. It has been suggested that the frog referred to in Scripture is an edible one, <em>Rana ridibunda,<\/em> one of the aquatic frogs found in Egypt and in the stagnant waters of the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The female frog lays her eggs in the water; after about a week the eggs hatch into tadpoles. Gradually through metamorphosis the tail is lost and limbs are acquired. Frogs must maintain a moist skin since they take oxygen through the skin as well as through their lungs; thus they must always remain close to water. They feed on insects and worms.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs are found throughout the Palestinian lowlands, where their croaking is heard in the spring and on summer evenings. The Israelites seem to have associated frogs primarily with sliminess and foulness. They fell into the category of creeping or swarming creatures, which in general were ritually unclean (Lv 11:29-31). Since the frog was not specifically listed, however, rabbis did not consider it one of the animals that defiled human beings through contact.<\/p>\n<p>In Revelation 16:13 certain foul spirits are said to look like frogs. The ancient Egyptians made the frog a symbol of life and birth and an image of Heqet, the patron goddess of birth. She is depicted with a frog’s head giving life to the newborn. Thus that deity was discredited when the power of God afflicted Egypt in the second of the ten plagues on the Egyptians with the very animal that was her symbol (Ex 8:1-14; Pss 78:45; 105:30). The frog in question may have been the spotted frog of Egypt <em>(Rana punctata,<\/em> or <em>Rana ridibunda).<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gazelle\">Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>Small, dainty, graceful antelope with hollow recurved horns on both sexes. Two varieties exist in the Holy Land, the dorcas gazelle <em>(Gazella dorcas),<\/em> which is pale fawn in color and up to 22 inches (56 centimeters) tall, and the Arabian gazelle <em>(Gazella arabica),<\/em> which is a dark smoky color and up to 25 inches (63.5 centimeters) tall.<\/p>\n<p>Gazelles are still quite common throughout the desert and steppe areas of the Holy Land, especially in the Negev Desert. Herds usually consist of from 5 to 10 animals, but some varieties assemble in large migratory herds in the fall to relocate to lower elevations and new feeding grounds. Gazelles are herbivorous (plant eating). They are very shy and post guards to warn the herd of approaching danger.<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times the gazelle was probably the game animal most hunted by the Jews (Prv 6:5; Is 13:14). Pharaoh Tutankhamen hunted gazelles and ostriches. The gazelle is said to have graced Solomon’s table (1 Kgs 4:23). Gazelles were not easy to catch because of their great speed (2 Sm 2:18; 1 Chr 12:8; Prv 6:5); they surpass the deer in swiftness. They were trapped in various ways—encircled with nets, driven into enclosures with pitfalls, or forced into narrow valleys and shot with arrows. The Bedouin hunt gazelle with falcons and dogs; the falcon annoys the gazelle, striking it on the head and injuring it so that the dogs can overtake it.<\/p>\n<p>The gazelle is referred to in Song of Songs 2:9, 17; 4:5; 7:3; 8:14, where it is an image of feminine beauty.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gecko\">Gecko<\/p>\n<p>Reptile of the family Gekkonidae, referred to in Leviticus 11:30. In Jewish food law it was a ritually unclean lizard. There are seven species of geckos in the Holy Land (including <em>Hemidactylus turcicus<\/em> and <em>Ptyodactylus hasselquistii,<\/em> all insectivorous—insect eating). The gecko makes a low mourning sound by vibrating its tongue rapidly against the roof of its mouth. In legend the gecko was said to cause leprosy by crawling across a person’s body.<\/p>\n<p>Another name for the gecko is the wall lizard, so named because it can walk upside down on ceilings with the aid of the suction discs on its toes—but it often plops down into the middle of the home. Since it was considered unclean, such an intrusion would have been a disgusting nuisance to Jewish households (Lv 11:31-38).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gnat\">Gnat<\/p>\n<p>Any very small fly, in common and biblical usage. According to the <span>nlt<\/span>, the third plague in Egypt before the exodus consisted of gnats (Ex 8:16-18; Ps 105:31). The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word there as “lice,” but the breeding pattern described in Exodus 8—insects rising from the dust—seems to fit gnats better than lice. Since “gnat” is a general term, the small flies of that plague may have included several small species such as mosquitos, harvester gnats, midges, or sand flies.<\/p>\n<p>The sand fly inflicts a far more painful bite than the mosquito. Further, it does not betray itself by a buzzing noise in flight and is so small that it penetrates most mosquito netting.<\/p>\n<p>Gnats were drawn to wine while it was fermenting. The Pharisees in particular would strain their wine to avoid consuming unclean insects (Mt 23:24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Goat\">Goat<\/p>\n<p>Cloven-hooved mammals (genus <em>Capra<\/em>) with large eyes and big, floppy ears that constantly twitch. Both males and females have backward arching horns. The Palestinian goat is a ruminant (cud-chewing animal) of lighter build than the sheep.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was probably the earliest ruminant to be domesticated. Its wild ancestor seems to have been the Gezoar goat <em>(Capra aegagrus).<\/em> Wild goats are believed to have been domesticated very early in Palestine. The goat of Bible times was probably the Syrian or Mamber variety <em>(Capra hircus mambrica).<\/em> Domesticated goats may have as many as four kids in a litter, whereas wild goats bear only one or two.<\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian goat was commonly black. Speckled and spotted goats were a rarity, and for that reason Jacob’s request for those goats in Genesis 30:32 appeared very modest. There may also have been red goats (cf. 1 Sm 16:12; 19:13, where goat’s hair was used to imitate David’s hair, which was “ruddy” or auburn).<\/p>\n<p>Almost every part of the goat was used by the Israelites. The whole goat was used for sacrifice. Its flesh served as meat (Lv 7:23; Dt 14:4), and it was the principal source of milk (Prv 27:27). Goats were sheared in the late spring, and the goat hair was used for weaving tent cloth and for various domestic purposes (Ex 36:14; 1 Sm 19:13, 16). The tabernacle at Mt Sinai was made of goat’s hair blankets (Ex 26:7).<\/p>\n<p>Adult male goats were generally not eaten because of their strong flavor and toughness and also because they were necessary to insure the flock’s increase. Young kids, however, were usually the chief meat for a feast and were offered to visitors as a symbol of hospitality. Goat milk is richer than the milk of cows and sheep and evidently had broader uses. A good goat gives three quarts of milk a day, from which a rich butter and buttermilk can be made. The average Hebrew family could have lived almost entirely on a single goat’s production.<\/p>\n<p>Goatskin was tanned as leather, and the whole hide was turned into a skin bottle by sewing shut leg and neck apertures (Gn 21:14; Jos 9:4). Goatskin had many uses, including the construction of Hebrew musical instruments. The nebal, a large harp, was made with goatskin for its base sound. Drums had goatskin coverings.<\/p>\n<p>Goats were herded with sheep in biblical times, but each group remained separate following its own bell-laden leader. Jesus was evidently referring to their common herding in his description of the Last Judgment (Mt 25:31-46).<\/p>\n<p>Because of their wool, sheep are valued more than goats. However, where pasture and water are scarce and thorny shrubs dominate over grass, sheep are difficult to keep and goats become important. They can live under conditions that suit neither cows nor sheep, producing large quantities of milk. The goat does not supply fat as the sheep does, and since its hair is coarse its wool is rather scarce. Goat-hair cloth called cilicium was used to make tents.<\/p>\n<p>Goats have voracious appetites. They also were responsible for much damage done to the land of Palestine, breaking down terraces, destroying forests, and bringing about soil erosion by eating off all cover.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was recognized as a form of wealth, subject to the law of firstlings (Nm 18:17). It had to be eight days old before it could be offered as a sacrifice. A year-old male goat was one of the animals offered at the Passover (28:22), and two goats were offered on the Day of Atonement (Lv 16:7-10). The goat was also used for other specific sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p>The ibex, a type of wild goat <em>(Capra ibex nubiana),<\/em> still lives in small numbers on the cliffs close to the Dead Sea. That it was known in ancient times is evident from rock carvings. It is distinguished from the true wild goat by having a more compact rump and horns that are slender and curved back. Its slender legs and sharp cloven hooves enable it to cling to narrow rock ledges, to jump between them, and to climb steep cliffs.<\/p>\n<p>Usually the ibex is found in rugged mountain country among rocky crags and meadows just below the snow line (Ps 104:18). In Job 39:1 they are referred to as “mountain goats.” They frequently gather in herds of 5 to 20. They graze and browse, being active in the afternoon and sometimes feeding through the night. The large horn of the ibex was at one period made into the shofar that was blown in the second Jerusalem temple to announce the new year and the jubilee year.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was often used in a figurative and symbolic sense by the writers of the Bible: in Song of Songs 4:1 and 6:5 for the bride’s black hair; in Matthew 25:31-46 for the wicked; and in Ezekiel 34:17 and Daniel 8:5-8 for various human leaders.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Grasshopper\">Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>Large insects of the Orthoptera order. They have chewing or biting mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the front pair of which is narrow and somewhat thickened and the hind pair membranous and used for flying. When not in use the flight wings are folded beneath the protective front wings like a fan against the body. By rubbing their wings together, male grasshoppers produce sounds that both males and females can detect. Grasshoppers pass through a partial metamorphosis; the egg hatches into a juvenile nymph that looks like an adult except for its smaller size and undeveloped wings. After several months the nymph becomes a winged adult.<\/p>\n<p>The terms “grasshopper” and “locust” are often used interchangeably. Actually the locust is a kind of grasshopper. Also confusing is the fact that other insects such as cicadas are sometimes called locusts. The difference between grasshoppers and locusts depends more on behavior than appearance. Grasshoppers are individual insects that lead solitary lives and do not migrate. The same insects when migrating in a swarm are called migratory grasshoppers or locusts. Elimination of their food supply by drought, flood, or fire may lead to migration. Climatic factors such as a warm dry winter also stimulate migrations.<\/p>\n<p>Grasshoppers and locusts have been a staple food in the Middle East and also among the Indians of the American Southwest. To the Israelites the grasshopper was considered ritually clean and could be eaten (Lv 11:22).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hare\">Hare<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the genus and species <em>Lepus europaeus judaeus, Lepus capensis,<\/em> and <em>Lepus arabicus.<\/em> It is found in open country, often near or on cultivated lands, and in woods, usually deciduous rather than evergreen. It is an herbivorous rodent and is different from the rabbit, which is not found in Palestine. Although it is not a true ruminant according to modern classification (because it does not have a four-chambered stomach), the hare does rechew its food. It has a process of partial regurgitation of material too hard for the cells in the stomach to absorb initially; thus, the hare actually chews food previously swallowed.<\/p>\n<p>Near Eastern hares have very long ears and large hind feet; their feet are well furred. They are similar to American jackrabbits, which are true hares. Hares do not dig or occupy burrows the way rabbits do. Hares are mainly nocturnal and spend their inactive hours hiding in vegetation. They eat grasses and herbaceous matter as well as twigs and young bark of woody plants. Hares breed with great rapidity—the young attaining sexual maturity at six months after birth.<\/p>\n<p>The hare was ceremonially unclean (Lv 11:6; Dt 14:7), evidently because although it appeared to chew its cud, it did not have cloven hooves. Consumption of hares has also been forbidden among the Arabs, Chinese, and Lapps, but the hare was widely hunted by other people in ancient and modern times. Its great speed, prolific breeding, timidity, and caution have saved it from extermination by its many enemies.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hippopotamus\">Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of problematic interpretation. Some early interpreters thought it referred to the elephant, others to the wild ox, the mammoth, or any large animal. It was called “behemoth” by the <span>kjv<\/span> translators. Today it is generally agreed that the reference is to the hippopotamus <em>(Hippopotamus amphibius),<\/em> a large, thick-skinned, amphibious mammal, an ungulate (having hooflike toenails) with a large head, a bulky, hairless body, and short legs.<\/p>\n<p>The description in Job 40:15-24 fits closely the modern hippopotamus (see <span>nlt<\/span>), except for the depiction of the tail. At present the hippopotamus is found only in the rivers of Africa, but there is fossil evidence that it has existed in the Holy Land, perhaps in the swamps of northern Galilee and the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\n<p>The hippopotamus has highly developed sense organs, placed in such a way that it can see, hear, and smell almost without being seen; its eyes, ears, and nostrils can reach above water while the rest of the animal lies submerged. It has a large mouth, large tusks, and a short, heavy throat. The strong legs are so short that the belly almost reaches the ground when the animal is on the land. The hippopotamus lives on plants and herbs growing in rivers, but if food is scarce there, it forages on land, usually at night. In spite of its heavy body it is surprisingly agile on land.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Horse\">Horse<\/p>\n<p>Przewalski’s horse (<em>Equus przewalskii,<\/em> an eastern race that roamed about Mongolia until modern firearms destroyed most of them after World War I) and the tarpan (a western race of southern Russia that became extinct in the Ukraine in 1851). The domesticated horse <em>(Equus caballus)<\/em> seems to have been derived from the tarpan. The original site of domestication is believed to have been Turkestan, a region north of Afghanistan and India, now in Russia. The horse differs from the donkey in that it has shorter ears, a longer mane with a forelock, a long hairy tail, and a soft, sensitive muzzle.<\/p>\n<p>Horses were used in war not only for riding but also for pulling the heavy, springless war chariots. Two kinds of horses were needed for these different purposes, and the Hebrews distinguished between chariot horses and cavalry horses.<\/p>\n\n<p>The Lord warned the early Israelites against unnecessarily amassing military strength in the form of horses and thereby following the oppressive tactics of the powerful Egyptians (Dt 17:14-16), but the demands of war caused both David and Solomon to import horses from Egypt into their kingdoms and to breed them. Solomon greatly increased the number of horses in the Jewish kingdom and maintained large stables at various cities (1 Kgs 10:26) such as the regional defense centers of Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer (1 Kgs 9:15-19). Ahab’s horses are mentioned in 1 Kings 18:5, and records of Shalmaneser III state that Ahab furnished 2,000 chariots to a coalition against Assyria.<\/p>\n<p>In early Israel, the horse was opposed as a symbol of pagan luxury and of dependence on physical power for defense (Dt 17:16; 1 Sm 8:11; Ps 20:7; Is 31:1). Horse trading, mentioned as early as Genesis 47:17, was carried on by Solomon between Egypt and the Syro-Hittite principalities (1 Kgs 10:28-29). Most biblical references to horses refer to their use in war, but horses were also used for transportation. Riding seems to have been less popular than the use of chariots. Cavalry units were not introduced until the 12th century <span>BC<\/span> by the Medes. Joseph rode in Pharaoh’s second horse-drawn chariot (Gn 41:43), and Absalom made a display by riding a horse-drawn chariot (2 Sm 15:1). Naaman traveled by horse and chariot (2 Kgs 5:9). Later, horses were so common in Jerusalem that the royal palace had a special horse gate (2 Chr 23:15), and a gate of the city itself was known as the Horse Gate (Neh 3:28; Jer 31:40). Mordecai rode a royal horse of King Xerxes as a sign of honor (Est 6:8-11). Horses are often spoken of figuratively (Ps 32:9; “mare,” Sg 1:9; “stallions,” Jer 5:8; 12:5), especially in the context of judgment (Hb 3:8; Zec 1:8; 6:1-8; Rv 6:2-8; 9:17; 19:11-16).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Warfare; Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyena\">Hyena<\/p>\n<p>Stocky carnivore <em>(Hyaena hyaena)<\/em> with coarse hair, an erect mane, and long hairs along the neck and back. Hyenas live in holes among rocks and banks. They are mainly nocturnal but are ordinarily neither noisy nor aggressive. Their cry, however, is a disagreeable, unearthly sound. Hyenas usually feed on carrion, crushing bones with their powerful jaws. If the carrion supply is inadequate, they will kill sheep, goats, or other small animals. When threatened, hyenas growl and erect their mane, but they rarely fight. They are massively built with forelegs longer than the hind legs.<\/p>\n<p>Known as scavengers in Africa, hyenas eat domestic refuse in the villages. In Palestine the striped hyena is a common predator, preferring rocky territory and even rock tombs. Since hyenas were notorious for raiding the graves of the dead, all Israelites who could afford it arranged for burial in tombs protected by massive stone doors. Absalom, King David’s son who was killed by Joab in the wild, was buried under a huge pile of stones to protect his corpse from molestation by hyenas (2 Sm 18:17).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Jackal\">Jackal<\/p>\n<p>Carnivore <em>(Canis aureus)<\/em> smaller than the true wolf and with a shorter tail. It is similar to the fox but has a broader head, shorter ears, and longer legs. The fox is solitary; the jackal tends to be gregarious. Its tail can be drooping or erect, compared with the long horizontal tail of the fox. Jackals usually prowl at night, either singly, in pairs, or in packs through open savannah country. They eat small mammals, poultry, fruit, vegetables, and carrion. They spend their days in thickets and clumps of vegetation. Often they obtain scraps from kills by larger carnivores. Jackals can run at speeds of about 33 miles (53 kilometers) per hour.<\/p>\n<p>The jackal can reach a height of about 20 inches (51 centimeters), roughly the size of a German shepherd dog. Its back is pale yellow with dark, almost black, flanks. Its lips are black and its ears white on the inside. The howl of the jackal sounds like the crying of a child or the heartrending wail of the bereaved (Mi 1:8; cf. Jb 30:29). To other jackals the howl is merely an invitation calling the pack together for its nocturnal hunting.<\/p>\n<p>OT references are chiefly to jackals prowling around ruined cities and wilderness areas (Neh 2:13; Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; 34:13; 35:7; Jer 9:11; 14:6; 49:33; 51:37; Lam 4:3; 5:18; Mal 1:3). Many such references are translated “dragon” in the <span>kjv<\/span>, but “jackal” is more appropriate.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leech\">Leech<\/p>\n<p>Segmented worm (class Hirundinea) up to five inches (12.7 centimeters) long with a flat body equipped with suction pads at each end. The mouth, located at the bottom of the front suction pad, has three teeth that the leech uses to pierce the skin of its host. The leech feeds on blood, and its glands secrete an anticoagulant to prevent the blood from clotting. The ordinary medicinal leech (Hirudo medicinalis) is abundant in springs and ponds from the Negev Desert to Galilee. It adheres to the bodies of human beings and animals that submerge themselves in water, injects its anticoagulant, and sucks their blood.<\/p>\n<p>The reference in Proverbs 30:15 is uncertain (see <span>nlt<\/span>) but may be to the parasitic and greedy nature of the horse leech (genus <em>Haemopis<\/em>). The small horse leech enters its host’s mouth and nostrils from water while the animal is drinking. A leech weighing one-half ounce (14.2 grams) has been known to gorge itself with two and a half ounces (71 grams) of concentrated blood and then to exist for 15 months with no more to eat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leopard\">Leopard<\/p>\n<p>Called <em>Panthera pardus tulliana,<\/em> it is the most widespread of all the large wildcats. In rocky areas it lives in caves, but in forested regions it lives in thick vegetation. In OT times many lived in the vicinity of Mt Hermon (Sg 4:8).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is somewhat smaller than the tiger, measuring up to 5 feet (1.5 meters) in length with a tail of about 30 inches (.8 meter). Its body is better proportioned than that of the tiger. The leopard takes its victim by surprise from a silent ambush, often concealing itself near villages or watering places and waiting for its prey, remaining in one spot for long spans of time. The leopard is swift on the ground (Hb 1:8), agile in trees, and very graceful in its movements. Its color is yellowish speckled with black spots (Jer 13:23). Daniel and John saw visions in which leopards were symbols of world powers (Dn 7:6; Rv 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is a wary and cunning animal, formidable and ferocious (Jer 5:6; Hos 13:7; cf. Is 11:6). The leopard is dangerous not only to domestic animals but also to humans. With its natural camouflage it can hide on the forest floor, blending into the changing light and shadows. The Israelites were terrified of the leopard because it constantly ravaged their sheep and goats. Several biblical place names suggest that they were known for the leopards in their vicinity: Nimrah, Beth-nimrah, and Nimrim, a district northeast of the Dead Sea. It has survived in the Holy Land into the present century; a few leopards still exist in remote areas near Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leviathan\">Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>Sea monster mentioned several times in the Bible (Pss 74:14; 104:26; Is 27:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). It may refer to any of the larger marine animals such as large jellyfish, whales, or sharks, or to a large reptile like the crocodile. Some scholars think “Leviathan” may refer to animals now extinct, such as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs (marine reptiles similar to dinosaurs). The scriptural term might also refer to certain dinosaurs that spent part of their lives half-submerged in shallow lakes and oceans. Other scholars believe that most of the references are to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lion\">Lion<\/p>\n<p>Large, tawny-colored carnivore <em>(Panthera leo)<\/em> that preys chiefly on hoofed mammals and charges by a series of leaps and bounds. Within historic times the lion ranged in Africa, Europe, and the Holy Land. In ancient times the territories of the African and Persian lions met in the Middle East. The lion of the Holy Land was the Asiatic or Persian lion <em>(Panthera leo persica).<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The males have heavy manes that stop at the shoulders but cover much of the chest. The Persian lion cannot climb and is mainly nocturnal, returning to its lair or a thicket by day (Jer 4:7; 25:38; Na 2:11-12). This lion is about 5 feet (1.5 meters) long with a tasseled tail 30 inches (.8 meter) or so long; its shoulders may reach a height of 35 inches (.9 meter). It is one of the smallest of the lion breeds.<\/p>\n<p>Lions are usually found in pairs, though sometimes in larger numbers. A small group is known as a pride. They generally prefer open country but in Palestine evidently prowled the subtropical vegetation of the Jordan River valley. Lions, which usually hunt at dusk, kill smaller animals by a blow of the paw, larger ones by a bite in the throat. A lion does not remain in the same place for more than a few days. The animal is in its prime at about seven years of age, when it weighs from 400 to 600 pounds (181.6 to 272.4 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>The lion does not characteristically attack humans, though like other great cats it may become a man-eater (1 Kgs 13:24-28; 20:36; 2 Kgs 17:25-26; Ps 57:4; Dn 6:7-27). Ordinarily, it attacks only out of great hunger or in self-defense. A very young lion that attacks humans can become dangerous if it develops a taste for human flesh. A very old lion, expelled from the pride because it can no longer keep up in the pursuit of antelope or gazelles, may choose humans as a relatively slow-moving prey.<\/p>\n<p>A lion generally roars only on a full stomach—that is, after it has consumed its prey (Ps 22:13; Ez 22:25; Am 3:4). Nevertheless, its roaring arouses fear (Am 3:8; 1 Pt 5:8). The lion is a bold (2 Sm 17:10; Prv 28:1), destructive animal (Ps 7:2; Jer 2:30; Hos 5:14; Mi 5:8), and the enemy of flocks (Am 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>Lions were common in biblical times in all parts of the Holy Land. Hebrew has at least seven words for lion and young lion. The lion is referred to about 130 times in the OT—more than any other wild animal. Lions were evidently much less common in NT times. After gradually declining, they became extinct in Palestine shortly after <span>AD<\/span> 1300. The lion was present in Mesopotamia, however, until the end of the 19th century.<\/p>\n<p>Lions played an important part in the political and religious symbolism of the Near East (1 Kgs 10:19-20). In Assyria and Babylonia the lion was regarded as a royal beast (Dn 7:4). Oriental monarchs maintained artificial lion pits as places of execution (Ez 19:1-9; Dn 6:7-16). Animals for these were captured in camouflaged nets or pits. To the Jews, the lion was the mightiest of beasts (Prv 30:29-31). Thus, it symbolized leadership (Gn 49:9-10; Nm 24:9) and hence eventually became a title for Christ (Rv 5:5). It was also the ensign of Judah’s tribe and was used by King Solomon in the decoration of his house and the temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lizard\">Lizard<\/p>\n<p>Reptiles of the suborder Lacertilia. Their skin is covered with scales. The lizard is a useful creature because it captures harmful insects and worms. Like other reptiles, it lays eggs with shells softer than those of a bird and with no clear division between the yolk and the white. Lizards are “cold-blooded” organisms without a temperature-maintenance mechanism; hence, they become inactive in cold weather.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards can survive in barren parched countryside. In the Near East they are encountered in great numbers in the Arabian Desert, the Sinai Peninsula, and the Judean wilderness. There may be as many as 44 different species of lizards in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The Dabb lizard (genus <em>Uromastyx<\/em>), which attains a length of about 24 inches (61 centimeters), is found in the Negev Desert. It is omnivorous, an unusual trait since most lizards are insectivorous. It has a hard, rough skin, green with brown spots; a short, rounded head; and a powerful tail encircled with a row of strong spines that it uses as a weapon of defense.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards are listed as ceremonially unclean in Jewish law (Lv 11:29-31). The fact that lizards crawl on their bellies made them unclean. Contact with a lizard’s carcass defiled a law-abiding Jew (Lv 11:32-36). The <span>nlt<\/span> translates the “lizards” of Leviticus 11 as “great lizard,” “gecko,” “monitor lizard,” “sand lizard,” and “chameleon.” The monitor lizard is a large lizard that lives in the deserts of southern Palestine, Sinai, and Egypt. It is up to 55 inches (1.4 meters) long with a long snout and sharp teeth. Other translators and commentators render the original Hebrew in a wide variety of ways, including “tortoise,” “ferret,” “lizard,” “snail,” “mole,” and even “water hen.” The fact that most of the original Hebrew words occur only once in Scripture makes it very difficult to be certain about their appropriate translation.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Gecko (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Locust\">Locust<\/p>\n<p>An insect of the family <em>Acridiidae.<\/em> It is referred to by at least 12 different names in Scripture. The various Hebrew words may refer to different stages of its development from larva to adult or to the type of damage that it causes. Locusts are characterized by swarming and mass migration. In modern times they have caused extensive and disastrous destruction to vegetation. Grasshoppers do not swarm or migrate en masse, differentiating them from the true locusts.<\/p>\n<p>The OT mentions several different species of locusts. Leviticus 11:22 seems to refer to the slant-faced (bald) locust and also to the katydid, or long-horned grasshopper. The reference in Deuteronomy 28:42 may be to the mole cricket. In Joel 1:4 and 2:25 and in Nahum 3:16-17, successive stages of the insect’s development are described. The cutting locust (<span>kjv<\/span> “palmerworm”) of Joel is probably the first instar (stage of development), the swarming locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “locust”) are middle stages, and the hopping locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “cankerworm”) later instars but not yet fully matured insects. In the adult stage, called destroying locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “caterpillar”), the color of the locust is reddish brown, which turns to yellow with a brownish network on the wings.<\/p>\n<p>Only three of the hundreds of varieties of locusts found in Bible lands are capable of multiplying into great swarms, and only the desert locust <em>(Schistocerca gergaria)<\/em> can be considered widespread in all the Bible lands. The desert locust is native to the Sudan (Africa). It is a little over two inches (5 centimeters) long and has a wingspread of some five inches (12.7 centimeters). It shows two phases, a solitary phase and a gregarious phase, with a possible third phase known as transiens. There are differences in the immature and adult forms of the phases in color and physiology.<\/p>\n<p>The quantity and distribution of rains are important factors in the extent of swarming. Moist soil is needed for depositing the eggs and permitting them to develop. Each female deposits from one to six egg pods, containing 28 to 146 eggs each. The larvae emerge in 15 to 43 days.<\/p>\n<p>In the gregarious phase (from the second stage of metamorphosis onward), the locust is driven by a strong wandering instinct. Masses of them form a random procession of overflowing locust bodies that ignore any obstruction. They swarm over everything (Jl 2:4-9). The only regulator of their activities is temperature; they are immobilized by high or low temperatures. Taking to wing they may move 1,200 miles (1,930.8 kilometers) from their native home. They fly in compact formations large enough to blot out the light of the sun. Their movement seems to be controlled by hormones, but the direction is influenced by the wind. The swarms consume almost every plant in their path, sparing only the carob, sycamore, castor tree, and oleander bush.<\/p>\n<p>A locust plague was one of the most severe evils to come upon the ancient world (Dt 28:38). Joel 2:1-11 describes a locust plague in graphic terms, using it as a symbol of God’s destroying judgment. Special days of prayer, fasting, and trumpet blowing were prescribed to remove locust plagues (1 Kgs 8:37-38; 2 Chr 6:28-29; Jl 2:12-17). Locusts symbolized powerful and merciless enemies that completely destroyed the earnings of human toil (Jgs 6:5; Is 33:4; Jer 46:23; 51:27; Na 3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Bedouins eat locusts raw, roasted, or boiled, preserving them by drying and threading. They are also crushed and ground, and the grist used in cooking or eaten with bread, sometimes mixed with honey and dates. Such was the diet of John the Baptist (Mk 1:6). The Greeks ground locusts in stone mortars to make flour of them.<\/p>\n<p>The ancients considered the two large hind legs, or jumping legs, as separate limbs and had a special name for them. Hence locusts were described as having four legs, a reference to the four smaller walking legs. “Going on all fours” thus referred to creeping or walking as opposed to jumping and did not mean that the unclean insects had only four legs in all. Because of its two hind jumping legs, the locust was exempted from the prohibition against unclean insects (Lv 11:20-23).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mole\">Mole<\/p>\n<p>Rodent <em>(Spalax ehrenbergi)<\/em> from six to nine inches (15 to 23 centimeters) long, which burrows in any area where the soil is suitable for digging; it should be called a mole rat. Common in the Holy Land, large numbers are found in the vicinity of Jerusalem. Isaiah 2:20 refers to the mole, as does Leviticus 11:29-30 (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The mole rat has no tail and is molelike in appearance, but neither true moles nor shrews have ever been found in the Holy Land. The mole rat’s teeth are strong and protruding like those of a squirrel. The neck is short and thick with a plump body shaped like a sausage. The short legs have broad paws with claws adapted for burrowing. The fur is soft, thick, and ashen gray. Its ears and almost sightless eyes, which are no larger than poppyseeds, are hidden in the fur. Folklore taught that touching a mole rat would result in blindness.<\/p>\n<p>In the wet winter season the mole rat builds breeding mounds resembling those of pocket gophers. It builds less complex resting mounds in the summer, although both have rather elaborate tunnel systems. The mole rat feeds on roots, bulbs, tubers, and various other subterranean plant parts, often doing extensive damage to agriculture.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Moth\">Moth<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the genus <em>Tineola<\/em> that lays its eggs on wool or furs, its larvae feeding on those materials. The destructive qualities of moths are referred to in several biblical passages (Jb 13:28; Ps 39:11; Is 50:9; Hos 5:12; Mt 6:19-20; Lk 12:33; Jas 5:2). In Isaiah 51:8 “worm” (<span>nlt<\/span>) refers specifically to the larva of the clothes moth. The moth symbolizes disintegration, decay, and weakening. It is only the larvae that do the damage. The adult is quite harmless and feeds mainly on the nectar of flowers. It is easily crushed (Jb 4:19). The clothes moth reproduces in May or June. It enters human dwellings in the evening. A week after the eggs are laid the larvae appear and immediately begin their work of destruction, eating anything within reach made of animal fibers.<\/p>\n<p>The moth’s destructive activity is done in secret without any sound and without any dramatic appearance, such as a swarm that blots out the sun. In an age when wealth was counted more in possessions than in money, and when among those possessions wool clothing was highly valued, moths could literally cause economic disaster; hence the words of Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount (Mt 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p>There are hundreds of species of moths other than the clothes moth in the Holy Land; they are harmless to leaves, flowers, fruit, trees, and seeds. As with the clothes moth, the larvae inflict the damage.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mouse\">Mouse<\/p>\n<p>Rodent of the family Muridae, especially genus <em>Mus.<\/em> The mouse was regarded as unclean because, being short legged, it was considered one of the creeping creatures (Lv 11:29). Mice known as commensals live in dwellings and tend to have longer tails and to be darker in color than wild mice, which are active chiefly at night. Mice are good climbers and even good swimmers. Wild mice eat many kinds of vegetation, including seeds, fleshy roots, leaves, and stems. At times they store food.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word for “mouse” (Lv 11:29; 1 Sm 6:4-5; Is 66:17) is probably a general term for various rats and mice. The root meaning of the Hebrew word “mouse” is “destruction of corn,” a reference to the damage mice do to field crops. At least 23 varieties of mouselike rodents are known in the Holy Land. They cause food spoilage, damage household articles, and transport the host fleas that spread typhus, spotted fever, and bubonic plague. Plague bacteria may have caused the tumors or swellings among the Philistines (1 Sm 6:5). Isaiah 66:17 refers to a pre-exilic Canaanite cultic practice in which mice were eaten; the reference may actually be to the hamster. A number of rodents are eaten by Arabs of the Near East; the gerbil is considered a special delicacy. <em>See<\/em> Mole (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mule\">Mule<\/p>\n<p>Hybrid offspring of a male ass and a female horse <em>(Equus asinus mulus),<\/em> ordinarily sterile. The offspring of a female donkey and a stallion (male horse) is known as a hinny and is of little value because of its inferior size.<\/p>\n<p>Because crossbreeding was forbidden in the law (Lv 19:19), the Israelites procured mules from the Gentiles, perhaps from the Phoenicians, since Tyre (a Phoenician seaport in what is now southern Lebanon) imported horses and mules (Ez 27:14). Mules did not appear in Israel until David’s reign (2 Sm 13:29), possibly because of the rarity of horses among the Hebrews. Mules were used chiefly by members of the royal court and by other nobles. King David rode on a mule, and Solomon rode to his inaugaration on King David’s mule (1 Kgs 1:33). Absalom met his death riding on a mule (2 Sm 18:9). Mules were less common than horses, camels, and asses in the postexilic community (Ezr 2:66). In antiquity Asia Minor was especially noted for breeding fine mules.<\/p>\n<p>Mules have long enjoyed a reputation for obstinacy, but that trait is not mentioned in the Bible. The mule is prized for riding and for carrying heavy burdens, especially in warm mountainous regions. They are sure-footed and thrive best in hot, dry climates. The mule has the frugality, endurance, and steady gait of an ass along with the size, strength, swiftness, and courage of a horse. Mules are almost never sick. They live longer than horses. They can carry a load of up to 300 pounds (136 kilograms) as far as 30 miles (48.3 kilometers) a day.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pig\">Pig<\/p>\n<p>Most properly, newborn swine. “Swine” is technically the better name for the species, but it is rarely used in common speech today. The domestic pigs of the Middle East derived from the wild pig <em>(Sus scrofa).<\/em> The pig is the most prolific and abundant supplier of meat and fat for food. A thick layer of fat just under the skin is especially pronounced in domestic breeds. Pigs cannot be driven, so they are of value only to the settled farmer. The Hebrews were originally a nomadic people; therefore, they had little use for an animal closely associated with settled life. An Egyptian prince of about 1500 <span>BC<\/span>, however, is recorded as owning a herd of 1,500 swine.<\/p>\n<p>The pig is clumsily built, yet lively and able to move with agility and speed. The most conspicuous characteristic of the pig is a truncated, mobile snout terminating in a disc-shaped surface on which the nostrils are located. Most pigs have large tusks in both jaws which grow continuously in life. The tusks of the upper jaw are unique in that they curve upward instead of pointing downward as in most animals. The excrement of a pig has an almost unbearable odor, which clings not only to the pig itself but also to swineherds, who can be identified a long way off.<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were never raised in the Holy Land by Jews. The great herd into which Jesus drove the unclean spirits was encountered in the land of the Gadarenes, a non-Jewish area east of the Jordan. The Gadarene demons took refuge in a herd of pigs feeding on a bluff overlooking the Sea of Galilee (Mt 8:28-32).<\/p>\n<p>Wild pigs were found in the Holy Land as in many countries today. Psalm 80:13 refers to the destructiveness of a wild boar (the male, or hog) attacking growing crops. A party of wild boars can destroy an entire vineyard or a field of crops in a single night. They devour, trample, and ravage everything within reach.<\/p>\n<p>Boar hunts were common in ancient Mesopotamia. Wild boars do not attack unless molested, but they are dangerous when aroused. They travel in bands of from 6 to 50 and are most active in the evening and early morning hours. The body is covered with stiff bristles and usually some finer hair, but the body covering is often quite scanty. Wild pigs are mainly vegetarian, feeding on roots, nuts, grains, and plant stems. Wild boars were particularly abundant in the mountainous regions of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, in the Jordan River valley, and in wooded sections such as Mt Tabor.<\/p>\n<p>Strict Jews would not even mention swine by name but would always substitute the term “the abomination.” Israelites considered themselves polluted if they were even touched by a swine’s bristle. To the Jews, the pig symbolized filth and ugliness. Pigs will eat fecal material, vermin, rodents, carrion, and the like (2 Pt 2:22). Proverbs 11:22 refers to the incongruity of a golden ring in the nose of an animal showing such characteristics. A similar metaphor occurs in Jesus’ statement about casting pearls before swine (Mt 7:6). The prodigal son’s degeneration was shown by his being forced in his poverty to feed pigs and eat their food (Lk 15:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>Eating the flesh of pigs was forbidden to the Jews (Lv 11:7; Dt 14:8). The Canaanites in the Holy Land killed and ate pigs freely. In intertestamental times Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), a Syrian king whose territories included Israel, used the pig to “Hellenize” the Jews. He first tested their loyalty to the Jewish faith by requiring the consumption of pork, considered a delicacy by the Greeks (2 Macc 6:18). The act of desecration that drove the Jews to rebellion, however, was the sprinkling of pig blood on the temple altar in a sacrifice to Zeus (1 Macc 1:47).<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were frequently used in pagan worship (Is 65:4; 66:3, 17), which may account for their being forbidden to the Jews as food. Evidence in the Holy Land shows that pigs were sacrificed long before Hellenistic times. Pig bones were found in a grotto below the rock-cut place of sacrifice at Gezer. A similar underground chamber with vessels containing piglet bones at Tirzah dates to the middle Bronze Age (about 2000 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Alabaster fragments of a statuette of a pig ready to be sacrificed have been unearthed. Swine were sacrificed to Aphrodite (Venus) in Greece and Asia Minor. In addition, pigs were sacrificed in connection with oaths and treaties; in the <em>Iliad,<\/em> Agamemnon sacrificed a boar to Zeus and Helios. So it is not surprising that among the Jews the pig became a symbol of filthiness and paganism.<\/p>\n<p>It is possible that eating pork was forbidden primarily because the pig may carry many worm parasites such as trichina, though that is also true of some “clean” animals. Another reason for forbidding their consumption may have been that pigs eat carrion. Some people are allergic to pork in hot weather—another suggested reason behind the Jewish taboo. The same taboo exists among the Muslims and existed in certain social strata in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Porcupine\">Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>Rodent, <em>Hystrix cristata,<\/em> which lives in forested areas, rocky hills, ravines, and valleys. The porcupine is still found in the Holy Land today. It has long quills that can be raised to give the appearance of a crest. It is almost entirely nocturnal. It burrows by day into a natural cavity or crevice. The Old World porcupine rarely climbed trees, although the New World porcupine frequently does. A porcupine may weigh as much as 60 pounds (27.2 kilograms). It eats fruit, bark, roots, and other vegetation, and carrion as well. Although its flesh is edible, the porcupine was not classed among the clean animals for the Israelites. The reference in Isaiah 34:11 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is probably to the porcupine, as is Isaiah 14:23 in the <span>nlt<\/span>. <em>See<\/em> Hedgehog.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Scorpion\">Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>Arthropod of the same group as spiders (arachnids). A dozen species of scorpions (order Scorpionida) are found in the Holy Land, but 90 percent of the scorpions are yellow scorpions, usually three to five inches (7.6 to 12.7 centimeters) long. The rock scorpion, also common to the Holy Land, is as thick as a man’s finger and from five to seven inches (12.7 to 17.8 centimeters) in length. Scorpions are slow, nocturnal invertebrates that rest beneath stones by day and prey on insects and other arachnids by night. At the end of its long tail the scorpion carries a poisonous sting that is fatal to most prey and extremely painful to humans (Rv 9:3, 5, 10; cf. 1 Kgs 12:11, 14). Scorpions symbolize Ezekiel’s evil countrymen (Ez 2:6) and the demonic forces of Satan (Lk 10:19). The scorpion is referred to as frequenting the Sinai Desert (Dt 8:15).<\/p>\n<p>A scorpion has from six to eight eyes. It has eight legs like a spider and two lobsterlike claws with which it catches and holds its prey. It feeds particularly on locusts and beetles. In many species the female scorpion eats the male after mating. Scorpions lay eggs that hatch very shortly after laying. Scorpions prefer warmer climates, and because of their desire for warmth, enter houses, especially at night, hiding in beds, blankets, footwear, and clothing.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sheep\">Sheep<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animal, <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> referred to directly or by some term such as ewe, lamb, ram, or by some fact concerning them over 700 times in Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Sheep represented the chief wealth and total livelihood of pastoral peoples, providing food to eat, milk to drink, wool for the making of cloth, and hides and bones for other uses. In addition, the sheep was a medium of exchange and a sacrificial animal. The number of sheep raised in ancient times was prodigious. Mesha, king of Moab, paid a tribute annually of 100,000 lambs and the wool of 100,000 rams (2 Kgs 3:4). The Israelites took 250,000 sheep from the Hagrites (1 Chr 5:21).<\/p>\n<p>Sheep shearing was often done for festivals (2 Sm 13:23). The sheep was held down on its side and its legs were tied together; then it lay docilely while its wool was clipped (Is 53:7). Sheep reserved for burnt offerings were not shorn; nothing could be held back from a sacrifice to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Wool had to be processed before it could be used for clothing. First it was washed, sometimes while still on the sheep, then carded and perhaps weighed for the market. The spinning of wool was regarded as a woman’s work (Prv 31:19), but weaving the spun thread into cloth on a loom was primarily a man’s occupation.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible reports that Abel kept sheep (Gn 4:2). The first sheep to be domesticated was probably the argali <em>(Ovis ammon),<\/em> a variety of the urial <em>(Ovis vignei),<\/em> a mountainous species still existing in Turkestan and Mongolia. Five breeds had reached Mesopotamia by 2000 <span>BC<\/span>; all were of the urial stock.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep known in Israel was the broad-tailed sheep <em>(Ovis orientalis vignei<\/em> or <em>laticaudata),<\/em> of which the tail weighs from 10 to 15 pounds (4.5 to 6.8 kilograms) and has always been considered a delicacy. Thus the Lord asked for this choice part as a sacrifice (Ex 29:22-25).<\/p>\n<p>Only the ram of the broad-tailed sheep has horns, but in other varieties of sheep in the Holy Land the ewe also has horns. The horns, two to three inches (5 to 8 centimeters) in diameter, can be potent weapons. Rams’ horns could be used as trumpets (Jos 6:4) or as oil containers (1 Sm 16:1).<\/p>\n<p>Although the sheep is very similar to the goat, it is differentiated by a lower forehead, its angulated spiral horns marked with transverse wrinkles and curved slightly outward, its covering of wool, and its lack of a “goatee.” Most sheep are white (Ps 147:16; Is 1:18; Dn 7:9; Rv 1:14).<\/p>\n<p>The flesh of sheep was a luxury in the biblical culture. King Solomon required a daily provision of 100 sheep for his table (1 Kgs 4:23), but the common people ate lamb or mutton only on festive occasions. A young ram was usually chosen because the ewes were more important to the future prospects of the herd. The meat was boiled in large caldrons. The milk of the sheep is extremely rich; in biblical times it was usually allowed to curdle before drinking. Possibly some Israelites kept lambs in their houses as pets (2 Sm 12:3-4).<\/p>\n<p>To protect the flock at night against predatory attacks, the shepherd tried to provide a fold. In meadows near villages, folds were built and watchmen were hired to relieve the shepherds. The shepherds of the nativity story were out in the field (Lk 2:8); they had no fold but probably had set up a tent for shelter, consisting simply of goat-hair blankets spread across sapling supports. The scarcity of springs in the Holy Land made the watering of the flock a crucial problem for the shepherd (Gn 13:8-11).<\/p>\n<p>Wild mountain sheep, varieties of <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> are known in the Mediterranean area (Dt 14:5). The Deuteronomy passage (<span>kjv<\/span> “chamois”) might also refer to <em>Ovis traelaphus,<\/em> a sheep about five feet high (1.5 meters) with long, curved horns. Another possibility is the Barbary sheep that lives in small flocks in rugged mountain areas in Barbary, Egypt, and Mt Sinai. The true chamois is unknown in Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep is also used figuratively in Scripture. The ram represented great strength and fittingly symbolized Medo-Persia in Daniel’s vision (Dn 8:3). It is the nature of sheep to be gentle and submissive (Is 53:7; Jer 11:19), defenseless (Mi 5:8; Mt 10:16), and in constant need of guidance and care (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36). Such qualities are regarded as desirable in the lives of believers in Christ; hence the many figurative references to sheep in the NT and to Jesus as shepherd (Mk 6:34; Jn 10:1-30; Rom 8:35-37; Heb 13:20-21; 1 Pt 2:25). The resurrected Christ told the apostle Peter to “feed my lambs” and “tend my sheep” (Jn 21:15-17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snail\">Snail<\/p>\n<p>Invertebrate gastropods (mollusks). Land snails are very numerous in the Near East. Some freshwater forms serve as hosts for the schistosome worm, the fluke parasite causing the dread disease bilharzia (schistosomiasis).<\/p>\n<p>Purple dyes of all shades were highly valued in the ancient world. A royal purple dye was obtained from secretions of a sea snail <em>(Murex trunculus<\/em> and <em>Murex brandaris).<\/em> Evidently, that process was developed by Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Assyrians as early as 1500 <span>BC<\/span>. The “purple” fishermen had their own guild during the time of the Roman Empire. The snails were harvested during the fall and winter seasons; in the spring, when egg laying took place, little dye was available. The snails tended to remain concealed in the summer. They inhabited the waters off Crete and Phoenicia. Tyrian purple, produced in the Phoenician city of Tyre, the center of the purple-dye industry, was obtained by a double dyeing. Large deposits of murex shells from dyeing operations have been found along the Mediterranean shoreline. The Israelites had to import purple goods (Ez 27:16). Lydia was a “seller of purple” or of cloth so dyed (Acts 16:14). Purple was a sign of distinction, royalty, and wealth (cf. Ex 25:4; 28:5-6, 15; Nm 15:38; 2 Chr 2:7; Est 8:15; Prv 31:22; Sg 3:10; Ez 27:7; Dn 5:7).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 30:34-35 refers to “onycha,” which was an important ingredient of incense. Onycha is the horny, clawlike operculum (the plate that closes off the opening of its shell when a snail is retracted) of a Near Eastern member of the molluskan family Strombidae. The operculum is sometimes used for offense or locomotion as well as for defense. When burned, the operculum gives off a sharp, strong scent, and when mixed with more fragrant but less powerful substances is even more potent. The name “onycha” is derived from a Greek word <em>(onyx)<\/em> for a fingernail or a claw.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snake\">Snake<\/p>\n<p>Various species of snake, suborder Ophidia (Serpentes). In the Bible nine Hebrew words and four Greek ones refer to snakes. The most common Hebrew word is onomatopoeic—that is, it is an imitation of a snake hissing or of the sound it produces as it scrapes its scales along the ground (cf. Jer 46:22). Many types of snakes lay eggs (Is 59:5), although some retain the eggs in the body until ready to hatch.<\/p>\n<p>Snakes are among the most widespread reptiles and are found on all continents except Antarctica; they decrease in numbers and species toward the poles but increase as one approaches the equator. Thirty-three species of snakes are known in Palestine and neighboring countries, 20 of which are poisonous. Two dangerous characteristics of the snake noted by biblical writers are its inconspicuous way of moving and the ease with which it hides itself.<\/p>\n<p>Many snakes are able to swallow animals several times their own diameter because of their unusually flexible jaw mechanism. They lack not only legs but also movable eyelids. Snakes periodically shed their skins. The tongue is actually a hearing apparatus sensitive to airborne vibrations and probably to heat waves.<\/p>\n<p>The venom of poisonous species is a clear, thin secretion, transmitted to the victim’s bloodstream by means of fangs. Two types of venom are known: that of the vipers, which affects respiration and disintegrates red blood cells, and that of the cobras, which paralyzes the nervous system.<\/p>\n<p>The “asp” referred to in the Bible is probably the cobra; the “adder” is the viper. The “cockatrice” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is probably the adder. Serpents were associated with worship in Canaanite religion and symbolized evil deities among many other peoples. Steles (upright stones bearing inscriptions) have been unearthed at several sites in the Holy Land and Syria depicting a god or worshiper with a snake winding about the legs or body. Because the Israelites were burning incense in pagan worship of Moses’ bronze serpent (Nm 21:8-9), King Hezekiah destroyed it in his religious reform (2 Kgs 18:4).<\/p>\n<p>Although snakes have been an object of veneration in some religions, in the Judeo-Christian tradition snakes represent evil and, more specifically, the devil. That association began in the Garden of Eden (Gn 3:1-15) and is also found in the book of Revelation (12:9; 20:2-3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adder (above); Asp (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Spider\">Spider<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the order Araneida. Between 600 and 700 different species inhabit the Holy Land. Spiders are different from insects in that, like scorpions, they have four pairs of legs instead of three. Spiders are equipped with poison glands—the effectiveness varying from species to species. A few can kill only insects, but others can also kill birds and mice.<\/p>\n<p>Most spiders have a pair of spinnerets attached to silk glands on the underside of the abdomen; from them a web is extruded. In the Bible the spider’s web is referred to as a symbol of frailty and insecurity (Jb 8:14; Is 59:5-6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sponge\">Sponge<\/p>\n<p>Simple marine animals, phylum Porifera. The term “sponge” also refers to those animals’ skeletal remains. The sponge has a porous body composed of tubules and cells.<\/p>\n<p>Sponge fishing was well known in the Mediterranean area in ancient times. It was practiced particularly along the Anatolian and Syrian coasts. Sponges were harvested by divers. The use of sponges in absorbing liquids is referred to in the Bible (Mt 27:48; Mk 15:36).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Unicorn\">Unicorn<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Wild Ox (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wasp\">Wasp<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the family Vespidae. Hornets are social wasps that build large aerial apartment houses in which 1,000 or more individuals may live. In the Bible the hornet is used as a metaphor for God’s use of military forces (Ex 23:28; Dt 7:20; Jos 24:12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Whale\">Whale<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all living creatures, including those that have become extinct. Whales are air-breathing mammals of the order Cetacea.<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of whales visit the shores of the Holy Land at times. The finback whale <em>(Balaenoptera physalus)<\/em> weighs about 200 tons (181 metric tons) and lives mainly in the Arctic region but sometimes passes through the Straits of Gibraltar to reach the eastern Mediterranean Sea. It feeds on small marine organisms that it strains through its whale bone; it does not have teeth. The finback whale’s esophagus is narrow.<\/p>\n<p>The sperm whale <em>(Physeter catodon),<\/em> about 60 feet (18.3 meters) long, has a curiously shaped head that looks like a battering ram. The teeth in the lower jaw of the male sperm whale are about seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long. It feeds on big fish, even on sharks. It has a large throat opening.<\/p>\n<p>Whales are referred to in Genesis 1:21 and Job 7:12 (<span>kjv<\/span> only). The “great fish” of Jonah 2:1 need not have been a whale but could have been a large shark, such as the whale shark <em>(Rhineodon),<\/em> which grows 70 feet (21.3 meters) long and lacks the terrible teeth of other sharks. Whatever the actual marine organism, Jonah’s deliverance was miraculous. The Greek word for “whale” is sometimes used as a general term for “sea monster” or huge fish and may be used in that sense in Matthew 12:40.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WildOx\">Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>Large, fierce, fleet, intractable animal <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> It had a long, lean rump with a straight back and a long, narrow head. The animal described in Job 39:9-12 is clearly the wild ox. The two horns (Dt 33:17), its outstanding characteristic, were straight and as long as the head (Nm 23:22; 24:8; Ps 22:21). Kings often symbolized their dominion by wearing a helmet with two wild ox horns (cf. Pss 92:10; 132:17-18). The horns were often used as drinking vessels by the Israelites; some were large enough to hold four gallons (15 liters).<\/p>\n<p>Hunting the wild ox was a favorite sport of Assyrian kings. Tiglath-pileser I hunted it in the Lebanon Mountains about 1100 <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Ps 29:6). At one time the animal referred to in Job 39:9-12 was thought to be the oryx or antelope because of the similarity between the Hebrew word in Job and the Arabian name for oryx. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> called the wild ox a “unicorn” because of representations found on Babylonian mosaics and Egyptian drawings. Those representations showed it in strict profile, showing only one horn—hence, “unicorn.” Jerome’s Vulgate, a Latin Bible translation (fourth century <span>AD<\/span>) and Martin Luther’s German version translated it similarly.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wolf\">Wolf<\/p>\n<p>Large doglike mammal <em>(Canis lupus)<\/em> that travels in bands of up to 30 animals. From the nose to the rump, the wolf measures about 3 feet (.9 meter); its drooping tail is about 18 inches (.5 meter) long. It looks much like a skinny German shepherd dog. The grayish yellow pelt is coarse and short haired.<\/p>\n<p>Wolves hunt singly or in relays, usually at night (Jer 5:6). Wolves have acute hearing and sight but rely chiefly on scent and usually catch their prey in a swift, open chase. The wolf has a reputation for boldness, fierceness, and voracity (Gn 49:27; Hb 1:8). It commonly kills more than it can eat or drag away and thus is known for its greediness.<\/p>\n<p>The wolf is a restless animal, always on the move; hunger drives it from one place to another in constant search of new hunting grounds. During spring and fall, wolves usually roam singly or in pairs, whereas in summer they may travel in family groups. In winter, several such groups may join to form a large pack. Wolves are intelligent, social creatures, faithful to their own kind. They mate for life. Individually, the wolf is a rather timid animal; it would much rather avoid human beings. But collectively wolves can be among the most dangerous animals alive.<\/p>\n<p>In Egypt, Rome, and Greece the wolf was considered sacred. Wolves were well known in the Holy Land and are still found there and also in many places in Asia Minor. Shepherds continually battled with wolves that plundered their flocks (Jn 10:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible refers to wolves in a literal sense in only three places (Is 11:6; 65:25; Jn 10:12), all other references being figurative. Usually the wolf is a symbol of enemies or the wicked (e.g., Ez 22:27; Zep 3:3; Acts 20:29). Both the wolf’s courage and its cruelty were probably in the mind of the patriarch Jacob when he predicted the fate of Benjamin’s tribe (Gn 49:27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Worm\">Worm<\/p>\n<p>Actually insect larvae in most biblical references, usually maggots, the larvae of flies (see Fly, above). For example, maggots are evidently referred to in accounts of worms feeding on spoiled manna (Ex 16:19-20), corpses (Jb 21:26; Is 14:11), or open wounds (Jb 7:5). Mark 9:48 refers to a maggot that eats dead flesh. In Acts 12:23 a fatal, worm-induced abdominal disease of King Herod is mentioned. In other cases, the reference is to the larvae of other insects (Is 51:8). In Deuteronomy 28:39 and Jonah 4:7 the vine weevil <em>(Cochylis ambiguella)<\/em> is probably referred to; it destroys vines by boring into their stems. Comparing a man to a worm is a metaphor for abasement (Jb 25:6; Ps 22:6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ANIMALS In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals ...","summary_en":"ANIMALS In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals ...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":2177,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Anoint","title_en":"Anoint","content_ro":"<h3>ANOINT<\/h3>\n<p>To pour oil or ointment onto a person or object in a ritualistic fashion.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word for anoint first appears in Genesis 31:13, where it refers to Jacob pouring oil on the stone of Bethel (Gn 28:18-19). At a later time the ceremony was repeated (Gn 35:9-15). The ceremony was clearly religious, signifying induction into sacred use. As a religious act, the anointing was meant to endow the anointed one with the quality of the deity involved. From ancient times the Hebrews inaugurated officers of their national community by pouring special oil on the head of the person designated for office. The same practice was used to set objects apart for special divine use.<\/p>\n<p>Scripture supplies few details of the ceremonial anointings of official things and persons. Jacob simply poured oil on a rock with an accompanying pronouncement. When anointing Israel’s first king, the prophet-judge Samuel took Saul aside for instruction (1 Sm 9:25-27), then “took a vial of oil and poured it on his head, and kissed him and said, ‘Has not the Lord anointed you to be prince over his people Israel’” (1 Sm 10:1, <span>rsv<\/span>). For anointing the tabernacle and its priests, a special oil was compounded and used only for that sacred purpose. Skilled perfume makers blended the choicest spices (myrrh, cinnamon, sweet cane, cassia) in olive oil (Ex 30:22-25). The Lord specified that everything set apart for God—the tabernacle, the ark, the table and its instruments, the lampstand and utensils, the incense altar and main altar, the washbasin—was to be anointed. Aaron the high priest and his sons the priests were also to be anointed (Ex 30:26-32). The result was a holy place with holy furnishings, holy implements of worship, and holy ministers.<\/p>\n<p>The offices of prophet, priest, and king were those associated with anointing in the nation of Israel. Prophets were sometimes, but not invariably, inducted by official anointing (1 Kgs 19:16). They could be referred to as God’s anointed ones (1 Chr 16:22; Ps 105:15). At the institution of the levitical priesthood, all the priests were anointed to their offices, the sons of Aaron as well as Aaron himself (Ex 40:12-15; Nm 3:3). Afterward, anointing was not repeated at the consecration of ordinary priests, but was especially reserved for the high priest (Ex 29:29; Lv 16:32).<\/p>\n<p>Before they had a king of their own, the Israelites were aware of anointing as a mode of inaugurating kings (Jgs 9:8,15). Anointing became a divinely ordained rite accompanying induction of all the kings of Judah and Israel (2 Kgs 9:1-6; 11:12) from Saul onward (1 Sm 10:1; 1 Kgs 1:39). David’s anointing took place in three stages (1 Sm 16:1, 13; 2 Sm 2:4; 5:1-4). “The Lord’s anointed” or some similar phrase became a common designation for Hebrew kings (1 Sm 12:3-5; 2 Sm 1:14-16; Ps 89:38, 51; Lam 4:20).<\/p>\n<p>Anointing, however, had more than religious or ritualistic significance. Both the Egyptians and the Syrians practiced anointing for medical and cosmetic reasons, and the Scriptures indicate that such nonreligious practice was also a part of Israelite customs (2 Sm 12:20; Ru 3:3; Mi 6:15). In fact, failure to anoint or perfume oneself indicated mourning or distress (2 Sm 14:2; Dn 10:3; Mt 6:17).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, anointing of the sick accompanied by prayer for healing by local church elders is recommended when requested by a sick person (Jas 5:14-16). Anointing with oil was also a part of the apostles’ healing ministry (Mk 6:12-13).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ANOINT<\/h3>\n<p>To pour oil or ointment onto a person or object in a ritualistic fashion.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word for anoint first appears in Genesis 31:13, where it refers to Jacob pouring oil on the stone of Bethel (Gn 28:18-19). At a later time the ceremony was repeated (Gn 35:9-15). The ceremony was clearly religious, signifying induction into sacred use. As a religious act, the anointing was meant to endow the anointed one with the quality of the deity involved. From ancient times the Hebrews inaugurated officers of their national community by pouring special oil on the head of the person designated for office. The same practice was used to set objects apart for special divine use.<\/p>\n<p>Scripture supplies few details of the ceremonial anointings of official things and persons. Jacob simply poured oil on a rock with an accompanying pronouncement. When anointing Israel’s first king, the prophet-judge Samuel took Saul aside for instruction (1 Sm 9:25-27), then “took a vial of oil and poured it on his head, and kissed him and said, ‘Has not the Lord anointed you to be prince over his people Israel’” (1 Sm 10:1, <span>rsv<\/span>). For anointing the tabernacle and its priests, a special oil was compounded and used only for that sacred purpose. Skilled perfume makers blended the choicest spices (myrrh, cinnamon, sweet cane, cassia) in olive oil (Ex 30:22-25). The Lord specified that everything set apart for God—the tabernacle, the ark, the table and its instruments, the lampstand and utensils, the incense altar and main altar, the washbasin—was to be anointed. Aaron the high priest and his sons the priests were also to be anointed (Ex 30:26-32). The result was a holy place with holy furnishings, holy implements of worship, and holy ministers.<\/p>\n<p>The offices of prophet, priest, and king were those associated with anointing in the nation of Israel. Prophets were sometimes, but not invariably, inducted by official anointing (1 Kgs 19:16). They could be referred to as God’s anointed ones (1 Chr 16:22; Ps 105:15). At the institution of the levitical priesthood, all the priests were anointed to their offices, the sons of Aaron as well as Aaron himself (Ex 40:12-15; Nm 3:3). Afterward, anointing was not repeated at the consecration of ordinary priests, but was especially reserved for the high priest (Ex 29:29; Lv 16:32).<\/p>\n<p>Before they had a king of their own, the Israelites were aware of anointing as a mode of inaugurating kings (Jgs 9:8,15). Anointing became a divinely ordained rite accompanying induction of all the kings of Judah and Israel (2 Kgs 9:1-6; 11:12) from Saul onward (1 Sm 10:1; 1 Kgs 1:39). David’s anointing took place in three stages (1 Sm 16:1, 13; 2 Sm 2:4; 5:1-4). “The Lord’s anointed” or some similar phrase became a common designation for Hebrew kings (1 Sm 12:3-5; 2 Sm 1:14-16; Ps 89:38, 51; Lam 4:20).<\/p>\n<p>Anointing, however, had more than religious or ritualistic significance. Both the Egyptians and the Syrians practiced anointing for medical and cosmetic reasons, and the Scriptures indicate that such nonreligious practice was also a part of Israelite customs (2 Sm 12:20; Ru 3:3; Mi 6:15). In fact, failure to anoint or perfume oneself indicated mourning or distress (2 Sm 14:2; Dn 10:3; Mt 6:17).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, anointing of the sick accompanied by prayer for healing by local church elders is recommended when requested by a sick person (Jas 5:14-16). Anointing with oil was also a part of the apostles’ healing ministry (Mk 6:12-13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ANOINT To pour oil or ointment onto a person or object in a ritualistic fashion. The Hebrew word for anoint first appears in Genesis 31:13, where it refers to Jacob pouring oil on the stone of Bethel (Gn 28:18-19). At a later time the ceremony was repeated (Gn 35:9-15). The ceremony was clearly religious, signifying induction into sacred use. As a religious act, the anointing was meant to endow the anointed one with the quality of the deity involved. From ancient times the Hebrews inaugurated...","summary_en":"ANOINT To pour oil or ointment onto a person or object in a ritualistic fashion. The Hebrew word for anoint first appears in Genesis 31:13, where it refers to Jacob pouring oil on the stone of Bethel (Gn 28:18-19). At a later time the ceremony was repeated (Gn 35:9-15). The ceremony was clearly religious, signifying induction into sacred use. As a religious act, the anointing was meant to endow the anointed one with the quality of the deity involved. From ancient times the Hebrews inaugurated...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":4514,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bethlehemite*","title_en":"Bethlehemite*","content_ro":"<h3>BETHLEHEMITE*<\/h3>\n<p>Inhabitant of Bethlehem of Judah (1 Sm 16:1, 18; 17:58; 2 Sm 21:19). <em>See<\/em> Bethlehem #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BETHLEHEMITE*<\/h3>\n<p>Inhabitant of Bethlehem of Judah (1 Sm 16:1, 18; 17:58; 2 Sm 21:19). <em>See<\/em> Bethlehem #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BETHLEHEMITE* Inhabitant of Bethlehem of Judah (1 Sm 16:1, 18; 17:58; 2 Sm 21:19). See Bethlehem #1.","summary_en":"BETHLEHEMITE* Inhabitant of Bethlehem of Judah (1 Sm 16:1, 18; 17:58; 2 Sm 21:19). See Bethlehem #1.","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":8699,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"David","title_en":"David","content_ro":"<h3>DAVID<\/h3>\n<p>Israel’s most important king. David’s kingdom represented the epitome of Israel’s power and influence during the nation’s OT history.<\/p>\n<p>The two books in the OT devoted to David’s reign are 2 Samuel and 1 Chronicles. His earlier years are recorded in 1 Samuel, beginning at chapter 16. Almost half of the biblical psalms are ascribed to David. His importance extends into the NT, where he is identified as an ancestor of Jesus Christ and forerunner of the messianic king.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Early Years<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Kingship<\/p>\n<p>• David as King<\/p>\n<p>David’s Lasting Influence<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"EarlyYears\">Early Years<\/p>\n<h5>Family<\/h5>\n<p>David was the youngest son in Jesse’s family, part of Judah’s tribe. The family lived in Bethlehem, about six miles (10 kilometers) south of Jerusalem. His great-grandmother was Ruth, from the land of Moab (Ru 4:18-22). Genealogies in both the OT and the NT trace David’s lineage back to Judah, son of the patriarch Jacob (1 Chr 2:3-15; Mt 1:3-6; Lk 3:31-33).<\/p>\n<h5>Training and Talents<\/h5>\n<p>Little is known about David’s early life. As a boy, he took care of his father’s sheep, risking his life to kill attacking bears and lions. Later, David publicly acknowledged God’s help and strength in protecting the flocks under his care (1 Sm 17:34-37).<\/p>\n<p>David was an accomplished musician. He had developed his ability as a harpist so well that, when a musician was needed at the royal court of King Saul, someone immediately recommended David.<\/p>\n<p>In Jesse’s family, David was regarded as unimportant. When the nationally known prophet Samuel visited Jesse’s home, all the older sons were on hand to meet him; David was tending the sheep. Samuel had been instructed by God to anoint a king from Jesse’s family, not knowing beforehand which son to anoint. Sensing divine restraint as seven brothers passed before him, he made further inquiry. When he learned that Jesse had one other son, David was immediately summoned. David was anointed by Samuel and endowed with the Spirit of the Lord (1 Sm 16:1-13). Whatever Jesse and his family understood by that anointing, it seems to have made no immediate change in David’s pattern of living. He continued to tend the sheep.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforKingship\">Preparation for Kingship<\/p>\n<p>During his youth, David was willing to serve others, even though he had been anointed king. It was his willingness to take supplies to three of his older brothers in the army that gave him his opportunity for national fame.<\/p>\n<p>As a young man, David was also sensitive toward God. While greeting his brothers on the battlefield, he was disturbed by the Philistine Goliath’s defiance of God’s armies. Although rebuked by his brothers, David accepted the challenge to take on Goliath. He had a reasonable confidence that God, who had helped him encounter a lion and a bear, would aid him against a champion warrior. So, with faith in God and using his ability to sling stones, David killed Goliath (1 Sm 17:12-58).<\/p>\n<h5>National Fame<\/h5>\n<p>Killing Goliath made David a hero to the nation of Israel. It also brought him into close relationship with the royal family of Saul. But success and national acclaim brought on the jealousy of Saul and ultimately resulted in David’s expulsion from the land of Israel.<\/p>\n<h5>In the Royal Court<\/h5>\n<p>Saul promised his oldest daughter, Merab, to David in marriage, but then Saul went back on the promise and offered David another daughter, Michal. The dowry of trophies from dead Philistines demanded by Saul was designed to bring about David’s death at Philistine hands. But again David was victorious. Women sang praises of his exploits, intensifying Saul’s jealousy and further endangering David’s life (1 Sm 18:6-30).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime, David and Saul’s son Jonathan developed a deep friendship. When they made a covenant, Jonathan gave David his choicest military equipment (sword, bow, and belt). Although Saul tried to turn Jonathan against David, the friendship deepened. Because Saul was trying to kill him, David had to flee from the court and live as a fugitive.<\/p>\n<p>After Jonathan had warned David of Saul’s continuing designs on his life, David went to Ramah to see the prophet Samuel. Together they went to Naioth, near Ramah. After sending several groups of men after David, Saul finally went with them himself. All his attempts to seize David were thwarted by the Spirit of God, who caused Saul and his men to prophesy all night in religious fervor (1 Sm 19).<\/p>\n<p>Conferring again with Jonathan, David realized that Saul’s jealousy had developed into hatred. Jonathan, aware that David would be the future king of Israel, requested assurance that his descendants would receive protection under David’s rule (1 Sm 20).<\/p>\n<h5>Life as a Fugitive<\/h5>\n<p>Fleeing from Saul, David stopped at Nob. By deceiving Ahimelech, who was officiating as priest there, David obtained food supplies and Goliath’s sword (kept as a trophy). An Edomite named Doeg, chief of Saul’s herdsmen, saw what happened at Nob. David continued his flight, taking refuge temporarily in Gath with King Achish (1 Sm 21), then finding shelter in the cave of Adullam, located 10 miles (16.1 kilometers) southwest of Bethlehem. There his relatives and about 400 fighting men joined him. He went to Mizpeh in Moab, appealing to the Moabite king for protection, especially for his parents. When the prophet Gad warned him not to stay there, David moved back to Judah to the Hereth woods (1 Sm 22:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>David’s freedom of movement enraged Saul, who charged his own people with conspiracy. When Doeg reported what he had witnessed at Nob, Saul executed Ahimelech and 84 other priests, then massacred all of Nob’s inhabitants. One priest named Abiathar escaped to report Saul’s atrocities to David, who assured him of protection (1 Sm 22:6-23).<\/p>\n<p>The Philistines were always ready to take advantage of any weakness in Israel. David’s reprisal after a Philistine raid on Keilah, 12 miles (19.3 kilometers) southwest of Bethlehem, gave Saul an opportunity to attack David, who escaped to the wilderness of Ziph, a desert area near Hebron. David and Jonathan met for the last time in that wilderness. Pursued by Saul’s army, David fled still farther south. He was almost encircled in uninhabited country near Maon when Saul had to march his army off to respond to a Philistine attack (1 Sm 23).<\/p>\n<p>At his next place of refuge, En-gedi, on the western shore of the Dead Sea, David was attacked by Saul with 3,000 soldiers. David had an opportunity to kill Saul but refused to harm the “Lord’s anointed” king of Israel. Learning of David’s loyalty, Saul confessed his sin in seeking David’s life (1 Sm 24).<\/p>\n<p>During the years they roamed the wilderness in the Maon\/Ziph\/En-gedi area, David’s band provided protection for Nabal, a rich man living in Maon with large flocks of sheep at Carmel. In exchange for that protection, David proposed that Nabal share some of his wealth. Nabal’s scorn angered David, but Nabal’s wife, Abigail, appealed to David not to take revenge. When Abigail told Nabal of his narrow escape, he was evidently so shocked that he had a heart seizure. He died ten days later, and Abigail later became David’s wife (1 Sm 25).<\/p>\n<p>Once more Saul came with an army of 3,000 men into the Ziph Desert to find David, and David again passed up an opportunity to harm the king. Finally realizing the folly of seeking David’s life, Saul abandoned pursuit (1 Sm 26).<\/p>\n<h5>Refuge in Philistia<\/h5>\n<p>David continued to feel unsafe in Saul’s kingdom. Returning to Gath in Philistine country, he was welcomed by King Achish. His followers were allotted the city of Ziklag, where they lived for about 16 months, attracting new recruits from Judah and the rest of Israel (1 Sm 27; 1 Chr 12:19-22).<\/p>\n<p>The Philistine army, marching up to the Megiddo Valley to fight Saul’s army, was uneasy with David’s guerrillas in their rear column, so the commanders put pressure on Achish to dismiss David. When he returned to Ziklag, David found that the city had just been raided by the Amalekites. He pursued the enemy, rescued his people and goods, and divided the spoils with those who had remained behind to guard the supplies (1 Sm 29–30). Meanwhile, the Philistines routed the Israelites at Mt Gilboa, killing Jonathan and two of Saul’s other sons in a fierce battle. Saul, badly wounded, killed himself with his own sword (ch 31).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DavidasKing\">David as King<\/p>\n<p>David ruled over Israel for about 40 years, although the accounts of his reign do not contain enough information for an exact chronology. He began his rule at Hebron and reigned over Judah’s territory for seven or eight years. With the death of Saul’s successor, Ishbosheth, David was recognized as king by all the tribes and made Jerusalem his capital. During the next decade, he unified Israel through military and economic expansion. Then came approximately 10 years of disruption in the royal family. The last years of David’s reign seem to have been devoted to plans for the Jerusalem temple, which was built in the reign of his son Solomon.<\/p>\n<h5>The Years in Hebron<\/h5>\n<p>David was subjected to an unusually rugged period of training for his kingship. Serving under Saul, he gained experience in military exploits against the Philistines. Then, during his fugitive wanderings in the desert area of southern Judah, he ingratiated himself with the landholders and sheep raisers by giving them protection. Being recognized as an outlaw of Israel even enabled him to negotiate diplomatic relations with Moab and Philistia.<\/p>\n<p>David was in Philistine country when news came to him that both Saul and Jonathan had been slain. In a beautiful elegy he paid tribute to his friend Jonathan as well as to King Saul (2 Sm 1).<\/p>\n<p>Sure of God’s guidance, David returned to his home, where the leaders of Judah anointed him king at Hebron. He sent a message of commendation to the men of Jabesh for providing a respectable burial for King Saul, probably also bidding for their support.<\/p>\n<p>Confusion probably swept through Israel when Saul was killed, because the Philistines occupied much of the land. Various leaders gathered whatever fighting men they could find, as old tribal loyalties reasserted themselves. David had most of Judah’s tribe firmly behind him.<\/p>\n<p>A kind of civil war broke out between the followers of David and those of Saul, with David gaining the allegiance of more and more people. Saul’s general, Abner, eventually negotiated peace with David, who requested the restoration of Michal as his wife, indicating that he held no animosity toward Saul’s dynasty. With the consent of Saul’s son Ishbosheth, whom Abner had enthroned as king, Abner went to Hebron and pledged Israel’s support for David. But Abner was killed by Joab, one of David’s captains, in a family vendetta, and soon afterward Ishbosheth was assassinated. David publicly mourned Abner’s death and had Ishbosheth’s two murderers executed. Thus, when Saul’s dynasty ended, David was seen by the people not so much as a challenger but as a logical successor. Hence, he was recognized as king by all Israel (2 Sm 2–4).<\/p>\n<h5>Consolidation in Jerusalem<\/h5>\n<p>When the Israelites turned to David as king, the Philistines became alarmed and attacked (2 Sm 5; 1 Chr 14:8-17). David was strong enough to defeat them and thus unify the people of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>In search of a more central location for his capital, David turned toward the city of Jerusalem, a Jebusite stronghold. Joab responded to his challenge to conquer the city and was rewarded by being made general of David’s army. Jerusalem became known as the “city of David” (1 Chr 11:4-9).<\/p>\n<p>In the same way that he had organized his earliest followers into an effective guerrilla band (1 Chr 11:1–12:22) at Hebron, David began organizing the whole nation (12:23-40). Once established in Jerusalem, he quickly gained recognition from the Phoenicians, contracting for their artisans to build him a magnificent palace in the new capital (14:1-2). He also made sure that Jerusalem would become Israel’s religious center (2 Sm 6; 1 Chr 13–16). His abortive attempt to move the ark of the covenant by oxcart (cf. Nm 4) reminded the powerful king that he still had to do things God’s way to be successful.<\/p>\n<p>With Jerusalem well established as the nation’s capital, David intended to build God a temple. He shared his plan with the prophet Nathan, whose immediate response was positive. That night, however, God sent a message via Nathan that David should not build the temple. David’s throne would be established eternally, the prophet said, and unlike Saul, King David would have a son to succeed him and perpetuate the kingdom; that son would build the temple (2 Sm 7; 1 Chr 17).<\/p>\n<h5>Prosperity and Supremacy<\/h5>\n<p>Little is recorded about the expansion of David’s rule from the tribal area of Judah to a vast empire stretching from the Nile River of Egypt to regions of the Tigris-Euphrates valley. Nothing in secular history negates the biblical perspective that David had the most powerful kingdom in the heart of that “Fertile Crescent” about 1000 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that skirmishes with the Philistines to the west were frequent until they finally became subservient to David and paid him tribute. In Saul’s day the Philistines had enjoyed a monopoly on the use of iron (1 Sm 13:19-21). The fact that David freely used iron near the end of his reign (1 Chr 22:3) hints at profound economic changes in Israel.<\/p>\n<p>David’s kingdom expanded southward as he built military garrisons in Edomite territory. Beyond Edom, he controlled the Moabites and Amalekites, who paid him tribute in silver and gold. To the northeast, Israelite domination was extended over the Ammonites and the Arameans, whose capital was Damascus. David’s treatment of both friends and enemies seemed to contribute to the strength of his kingdom (2 Sm 8–10). Although he was a brilliant military strategist who used all the means and resources available to bring Israel success, David was humble enough to glorify God (2 Sm 22; see Ps 18).<\/p>\n<h5>Sin in the Royal Family<\/h5>\n<p>A lengthy section of the book of 2 Samuel (chs 11–20) gives a remarkably frank account of sin, crime, and rebellion in David’s family. The king’s own imperfections are clearly portrayed; the king of Israel himself could not escape God’s judgement when he did wrong.<\/p>\n<p>Although polygamy was then a Near Eastern status symbol, it was forbidden for a king of Israel (Dt 17:17). David practiced polygamy, however; some of his marriages undoubtedly had political implications (such as his marriages to Saul’s daughter Michal and to princess Maacah of Geshur). Flagrant sins of incest, murder, and rebellion in his family brought David much suffering and almost cost him the throne.<\/p>\n<p>David’s sin of adultery with Bathsheba, committed at the height of his military success and territorial expansion, led him further into evil: he planned a strategy to have Bathsheba’s husband, Uriah, killed on the front line of battle. David seems to have excluded God from consideration in that segment of his personal life. Yet when the prophet Nathan confronted the king with his sins, David acknowledged his guilt. He confessed his sin and pleaded with God for forgiveness (as in Pss 32 and 51). God forgave him, but for nearly ten years David endured the consequences of his lack of self-restraint and his failure to exercise discipline in his family. Although unsurpassed in military and diplomatic strategy, David lacked strength of character in his domestic affairs. Evil fermented in his own house; the father’s self-indulgence was soon reflected in Amnon’s crime of incest, followed by Absalom’s murder of his brother.<\/p>\n<p>Having incurred his father’s disfavor, Absalom took refuge in Geshur with his mother’s people for three years. Joab, David’s general, was eventually able to reconcile David with his alienated son. Absalom, however, having taken advantage of his position in the royal family to gain a following, went to Hebron, staged a surprise rebellion, and proclaimed himself king throughout Israel. His strong following posed such a threat that David fled from Jerusalem. David, still a master strategist, gained time through a ruse to organize his forces and put down his son’s rebellion. Absalom was killed while trying to flee; his death plunged David into grief.<\/p>\n<p>On his return to Jerusalem, David had to work at undoing the damage caused by Absalom’s revolt. His own tribe of Judah, for example, had supported Absalom. Another rebellion, fomented by Sheba of Benjamin’s tribe, had to be suppressed by Joab before the nation could settle down.<\/p>\n<h5>David’s Last Years<\/h5>\n<p>Although David was not permitted to build the temple in Jerusalem, he made extensive preparations for that project during the last years of his reign. He stockpiled materials and organized the kingdom for efficient use of domestic and foreign labor. He also outlined details for religious worship in the new structure (1 Chr 21–29).<\/p>\n<p>The military and civic organization developed by David was probably patterned after Egyptian practice. The army, rigidly controlled by officers of proven loyalty to the king, included mercenaries. The king also appointed trusted supervisors over farms, livestock, and orchards in various parts of his empire (1 Chr 27:25-31).<\/p>\n<p>David took, or at least began, a census of Israel (2 Sm 24; 1 Chr 21). The incompleteness of the accounts leaves unanswered such questions as the reason for God’s punishment. The king overruled Joab’s objection and insisted that the census be taken. Since David later seemed keenly aware that he had sinned in taking the census, it may be that he was motivated by pride to ascertain his exact military strength (approx. 1.5 million men). God may also have been judging the people for their support of the rebellions of Absalom and Sheba.<\/p>\n<p>Through the prophet Gad, David was given a choice of punishments for his sin. He chose a three-day pestilence. As David and the elders repented, they saw an angel on the threshing floor of the Jebusite Ornan (Araunah). David offered sacrifice there and prayed for his people. Later he purchased the threshing floor, located just outside the city of Jerusalem, concluding that it should be the site for the temple to be built by his son Solomon (1 Chr 21:28–22:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DavidsLastingInfluence\">David’s Lasting Influence<\/p>\n<h5>The Writer of Psalms<\/h5>\n<p>The OT book of Psalms became one of the most popular books in ancient Israel, and has remained so among countless millions of people throughout the centuries. These words of praise prepared by David were intended for use in the temple worship (2 Chr 29:30). The 73 psalms ascribed to David generally grew out of his own relationship to God and to other persons.<\/p>\n\n<p>David probably compiled Book I of the book of Psalms (1–41) and Book IV (90–106), since most of those psalms were written by David himself. Other psalms of his (Pss 51–71) are in Book II (42–72), which was probably compiled by Solomon. As those psalms were used for worship in later generations, various people added others until the time of Ezra.<\/p>\n<p>David’s psalms provided much of the poetry that was set to music for Israel’s worship. His organization of the priests and Levites and his provision of instruments for worship (2 Chr 7:6; 8:14) set the pattern for generations to come in the religious life of Israel.<\/p>\n<h5>David in the Writings of the Prophets<\/h5>\n<p>David, recognized as the greatest Israelite king, is often mentioned as a standard of comparison in the writings of the OT prophets. Isaiah (as in Is 7:2, 13; 22:22) and Jeremiah often referred to their contemporary kings as belonging to the “house” or “throne” of David. Contrasting David with some of his descendants who did not honor God, both Isaiah and Jeremiah predicted a messianic ruler who would establish justice and righteousness on the throne of David forever (Is 9:7; Jer 33:15). When Isaiah described the coming ruler, he identified him as being from the lineage of Jesse, David’s father (Is 11:1-10). Predicting a period of universal peace, Isaiah saw the capital in “Zion,” identified with the city of David (2:1-4).<\/p>\n<p>Ezekiel promised the restoration of David as king in an eschatological and messianic sense (Ez 37:24-25), and of “my servant David” as Israel’s shepherd (34:23). Hosea likewise identified the future ruler as King David (Hos 3:5). Amos assured the people that God would restore the “tabernacle” of David (Am 9:11) so that they could again dwell in safety. Zechariah referred five times to the “house of David” (in Zec 12–13, <span>rsv<\/span>), encouraging the hope of a restoration of David’s glorious dynasty. The concept of the eternal throne promised to David during his reign was delineated in the message of the prophets even while they were announcing judgments to come on the rulers and people of their time.<\/p>\n<h5>David in the New Testament<\/h5>\n<p>David is frequently mentioned by the Gospel writers, who established Jesus’ identity as the “son of David.” The covenant God made with David was that an eternal king would come from David’s family (Mt 1:1; 9:27; 12:23; Mk 10:48; 12:35; Lk 18:38-39; 20:41). According to Mark 11:10 and John 7:42, the Jews of Jesus’ day expected the Messiah (Christ) to be a descendant of David. While stating that Jesus came from the lineage of David, the Gospels also clearly teach that Jesus was the Son of God (Mt 22:41-45; Mk 12:35-37; Lk 20:41-44).<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Acts, David is recognized as the recipient of God’s promises that were fulfilled in Jesus Christ. David is also seen as a prophet whom the Holy Spirit inspired to write the psalms (Acts 1:16; 2:22-36; 4:25; 13:26-39).<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Revelation, Jesus is designated as having the “key of David” (Rv 3:7), and as being “the Lion of the tribe of Judah, the Root of David” (5:5). Jesus is quoted as asserting that “I am the root and the offspring of David, the bright morning star” (22:16).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Christology; Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Israel, History of; King; Kingdom of God, Kingdom of Heaven; Messiah.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DAVID<\/h3>\n<p>Israel’s most important king. David’s kingdom represented the epitome of Israel’s power and influence during the nation’s OT history.<\/p>\n<p>The two books in the OT devoted to David’s reign are 2 Samuel and 1 Chronicles. His earlier years are recorded in 1 Samuel, beginning at chapter 16. Almost half of the biblical psalms are ascribed to David. His importance extends into the NT, where he is identified as an ancestor of Jesus Christ and forerunner of the messianic king.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Early Years<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Kingship<\/p>\n<p>• David as King<\/p>\n<p>David’s Lasting Influence<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"EarlyYears\">Early Years<\/p>\n<h5>Family<\/h5>\n<p>David was the youngest son in Jesse’s family, part of Judah’s tribe. The family lived in Bethlehem, about six miles (10 kilometers) south of Jerusalem. His great-grandmother was Ruth, from the land of Moab (Ru 4:18-22). Genealogies in both the OT and the NT trace David’s lineage back to Judah, son of the patriarch Jacob (1 Chr 2:3-15; Mt 1:3-6; Lk 3:31-33).<\/p>\n<h5>Training and Talents<\/h5>\n<p>Little is known about David’s early life. As a boy, he took care of his father’s sheep, risking his life to kill attacking bears and lions. Later, David publicly acknowledged God’s help and strength in protecting the flocks under his care (1 Sm 17:34-37).<\/p>\n<p>David was an accomplished musician. He had developed his ability as a harpist so well that, when a musician was needed at the royal court of King Saul, someone immediately recommended David.<\/p>\n<p>In Jesse’s family, David was regarded as unimportant. When the nationally known prophet Samuel visited Jesse’s home, all the older sons were on hand to meet him; David was tending the sheep. Samuel had been instructed by God to anoint a king from Jesse’s family, not knowing beforehand which son to anoint. Sensing divine restraint as seven brothers passed before him, he made further inquiry. When he learned that Jesse had one other son, David was immediately summoned. David was anointed by Samuel and endowed with the Spirit of the Lord (1 Sm 16:1-13). Whatever Jesse and his family understood by that anointing, it seems to have made no immediate change in David’s pattern of living. He continued to tend the sheep.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforKingship\">Preparation for Kingship<\/p>\n<p>During his youth, David was willing to serve others, even though he had been anointed king. It was his willingness to take supplies to three of his older brothers in the army that gave him his opportunity for national fame.<\/p>\n<p>As a young man, David was also sensitive toward God. While greeting his brothers on the battlefield, he was disturbed by the Philistine Goliath’s defiance of God’s armies. Although rebuked by his brothers, David accepted the challenge to take on Goliath. He had a reasonable confidence that God, who had helped him encounter a lion and a bear, would aid him against a champion warrior. So, with faith in God and using his ability to sling stones, David killed Goliath (1 Sm 17:12-58).<\/p>\n<h5>National Fame<\/h5>\n<p>Killing Goliath made David a hero to the nation of Israel. It also brought him into close relationship with the royal family of Saul. But success and national acclaim brought on the jealousy of Saul and ultimately resulted in David’s expulsion from the land of Israel.<\/p>\n<h5>In the Royal Court<\/h5>\n<p>Saul promised his oldest daughter, Merab, to David in marriage, but then Saul went back on the promise and offered David another daughter, Michal. The dowry of trophies from dead Philistines demanded by Saul was designed to bring about David’s death at Philistine hands. But again David was victorious. Women sang praises of his exploits, intensifying Saul’s jealousy and further endangering David’s life (1 Sm 18:6-30).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime, David and Saul’s son Jonathan developed a deep friendship. When they made a covenant, Jonathan gave David his choicest military equipment (sword, bow, and belt). Although Saul tried to turn Jonathan against David, the friendship deepened. Because Saul was trying to kill him, David had to flee from the court and live as a fugitive.<\/p>\n<p>After Jonathan had warned David of Saul’s continuing designs on his life, David went to Ramah to see the prophet Samuel. Together they went to Naioth, near Ramah. After sending several groups of men after David, Saul finally went with them himself. All his attempts to seize David were thwarted by the Spirit of God, who caused Saul and his men to prophesy all night in religious fervor (1 Sm 19).<\/p>\n<p>Conferring again with Jonathan, David realized that Saul’s jealousy had developed into hatred. Jonathan, aware that David would be the future king of Israel, requested assurance that his descendants would receive protection under David’s rule (1 Sm 20).<\/p>\n<h5>Life as a Fugitive<\/h5>\n<p>Fleeing from Saul, David stopped at Nob. By deceiving Ahimelech, who was officiating as priest there, David obtained food supplies and Goliath’s sword (kept as a trophy). An Edomite named Doeg, chief of Saul’s herdsmen, saw what happened at Nob. David continued his flight, taking refuge temporarily in Gath with King Achish (1 Sm 21), then finding shelter in the cave of Adullam, located 10 miles (16.1 kilometers) southwest of Bethlehem. There his relatives and about 400 fighting men joined him. He went to Mizpeh in Moab, appealing to the Moabite king for protection, especially for his parents. When the prophet Gad warned him not to stay there, David moved back to Judah to the Hereth woods (1 Sm 22:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>David’s freedom of movement enraged Saul, who charged his own people with conspiracy. When Doeg reported what he had witnessed at Nob, Saul executed Ahimelech and 84 other priests, then massacred all of Nob’s inhabitants. One priest named Abiathar escaped to report Saul’s atrocities to David, who assured him of protection (1 Sm 22:6-23).<\/p>\n<p>The Philistines were always ready to take advantage of any weakness in Israel. David’s reprisal after a Philistine raid on Keilah, 12 miles (19.3 kilometers) southwest of Bethlehem, gave Saul an opportunity to attack David, who escaped to the wilderness of Ziph, a desert area near Hebron. David and Jonathan met for the last time in that wilderness. Pursued by Saul’s army, David fled still farther south. He was almost encircled in uninhabited country near Maon when Saul had to march his army off to respond to a Philistine attack (1 Sm 23).<\/p>\n<p>At his next place of refuge, En-gedi, on the western shore of the Dead Sea, David was attacked by Saul with 3,000 soldiers. David had an opportunity to kill Saul but refused to harm the “Lord’s anointed” king of Israel. Learning of David’s loyalty, Saul confessed his sin in seeking David’s life (1 Sm 24).<\/p>\n<p>During the years they roamed the wilderness in the Maon\/Ziph\/En-gedi area, David’s band provided protection for Nabal, a rich man living in Maon with large flocks of sheep at Carmel. In exchange for that protection, David proposed that Nabal share some of his wealth. Nabal’s scorn angered David, but Nabal’s wife, Abigail, appealed to David not to take revenge. When Abigail told Nabal of his narrow escape, he was evidently so shocked that he had a heart seizure. He died ten days later, and Abigail later became David’s wife (1 Sm 25).<\/p>\n<p>Once more Saul came with an army of 3,000 men into the Ziph Desert to find David, and David again passed up an opportunity to harm the king. Finally realizing the folly of seeking David’s life, Saul abandoned pursuit (1 Sm 26).<\/p>\n<h5>Refuge in Philistia<\/h5>\n<p>David continued to feel unsafe in Saul’s kingdom. Returning to Gath in Philistine country, he was welcomed by King Achish. His followers were allotted the city of Ziklag, where they lived for about 16 months, attracting new recruits from Judah and the rest of Israel (1 Sm 27; 1 Chr 12:19-22).<\/p>\n<p>The Philistine army, marching up to the Megiddo Valley to fight Saul’s army, was uneasy with David’s guerrillas in their rear column, so the commanders put pressure on Achish to dismiss David. When he returned to Ziklag, David found that the city had just been raided by the Amalekites. He pursued the enemy, rescued his people and goods, and divided the spoils with those who had remained behind to guard the supplies (1 Sm 29–30). Meanwhile, the Philistines routed the Israelites at Mt Gilboa, killing Jonathan and two of Saul’s other sons in a fierce battle. Saul, badly wounded, killed himself with his own sword (ch 31).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DavidasKing\">David as King<\/p>\n<p>David ruled over Israel for about 40 years, although the accounts of his reign do not contain enough information for an exact chronology. He began his rule at Hebron and reigned over Judah’s territory for seven or eight years. With the death of Saul’s successor, Ishbosheth, David was recognized as king by all the tribes and made Jerusalem his capital. During the next decade, he unified Israel through military and economic expansion. Then came approximately 10 years of disruption in the royal family. The last years of David’s reign seem to have been devoted to plans for the Jerusalem temple, which was built in the reign of his son Solomon.<\/p>\n<h5>The Years in Hebron<\/h5>\n<p>David was subjected to an unusually rugged period of training for his kingship. Serving under Saul, he gained experience in military exploits against the Philistines. Then, during his fugitive wanderings in the desert area of southern Judah, he ingratiated himself with the landholders and sheep raisers by giving them protection. Being recognized as an outlaw of Israel even enabled him to negotiate diplomatic relations with Moab and Philistia.<\/p>\n<p>David was in Philistine country when news came to him that both Saul and Jonathan had been slain. In a beautiful elegy he paid tribute to his friend Jonathan as well as to King Saul (2 Sm 1).<\/p>\n<p>Sure of God’s guidance, David returned to his home, where the leaders of Judah anointed him king at Hebron. He sent a message of commendation to the men of Jabesh for providing a respectable burial for King Saul, probably also bidding for their support.<\/p>\n<p>Confusion probably swept through Israel when Saul was killed, because the Philistines occupied much of the land. Various leaders gathered whatever fighting men they could find, as old tribal loyalties reasserted themselves. David had most of Judah’s tribe firmly behind him.<\/p>\n<p>A kind of civil war broke out between the followers of David and those of Saul, with David gaining the allegiance of more and more people. Saul’s general, Abner, eventually negotiated peace with David, who requested the restoration of Michal as his wife, indicating that he held no animosity toward Saul’s dynasty. With the consent of Saul’s son Ishbosheth, whom Abner had enthroned as king, Abner went to Hebron and pledged Israel’s support for David. But Abner was killed by Joab, one of David’s captains, in a family vendetta, and soon afterward Ishbosheth was assassinated. David publicly mourned Abner’s death and had Ishbosheth’s two murderers executed. Thus, when Saul’s dynasty ended, David was seen by the people not so much as a challenger but as a logical successor. Hence, he was recognized as king by all Israel (2 Sm 2–4).<\/p>\n<h5>Consolidation in Jerusalem<\/h5>\n<p>When the Israelites turned to David as king, the Philistines became alarmed and attacked (2 Sm 5; 1 Chr 14:8-17). David was strong enough to defeat them and thus unify the people of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>In search of a more central location for his capital, David turned toward the city of Jerusalem, a Jebusite stronghold. Joab responded to his challenge to conquer the city and was rewarded by being made general of David’s army. Jerusalem became known as the “city of David” (1 Chr 11:4-9).<\/p>\n<p>In the same way that he had organized his earliest followers into an effective guerrilla band (1 Chr 11:1–12:22) at Hebron, David began organizing the whole nation (12:23-40). Once established in Jerusalem, he quickly gained recognition from the Phoenicians, contracting for their artisans to build him a magnificent palace in the new capital (14:1-2). He also made sure that Jerusalem would become Israel’s religious center (2 Sm 6; 1 Chr 13–16). His abortive attempt to move the ark of the covenant by oxcart (cf. Nm 4) reminded the powerful king that he still had to do things God’s way to be successful.<\/p>\n<p>With Jerusalem well established as the nation’s capital, David intended to build God a temple. He shared his plan with the prophet Nathan, whose immediate response was positive. That night, however, God sent a message via Nathan that David should not build the temple. David’s throne would be established eternally, the prophet said, and unlike Saul, King David would have a son to succeed him and perpetuate the kingdom; that son would build the temple (2 Sm 7; 1 Chr 17).<\/p>\n<h5>Prosperity and Supremacy<\/h5>\n<p>Little is recorded about the expansion of David’s rule from the tribal area of Judah to a vast empire stretching from the Nile River of Egypt to regions of the Tigris-Euphrates valley. Nothing in secular history negates the biblical perspective that David had the most powerful kingdom in the heart of that “Fertile Crescent” about 1000 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that skirmishes with the Philistines to the west were frequent until they finally became subservient to David and paid him tribute. In Saul’s day the Philistines had enjoyed a monopoly on the use of iron (1 Sm 13:19-21). The fact that David freely used iron near the end of his reign (1 Chr 22:3) hints at profound economic changes in Israel.<\/p>\n<p>David’s kingdom expanded southward as he built military garrisons in Edomite territory. Beyond Edom, he controlled the Moabites and Amalekites, who paid him tribute in silver and gold. To the northeast, Israelite domination was extended over the Ammonites and the Arameans, whose capital was Damascus. David’s treatment of both friends and enemies seemed to contribute to the strength of his kingdom (2 Sm 8–10). Although he was a brilliant military strategist who used all the means and resources available to bring Israel success, David was humble enough to glorify God (2 Sm 22; see Ps 18).<\/p>\n<h5>Sin in the Royal Family<\/h5>\n<p>A lengthy section of the book of 2 Samuel (chs 11–20) gives a remarkably frank account of sin, crime, and rebellion in David’s family. The king’s own imperfections are clearly portrayed; the king of Israel himself could not escape God’s judgement when he did wrong.<\/p>\n<p>Although polygamy was then a Near Eastern status symbol, it was forbidden for a king of Israel (Dt 17:17). David practiced polygamy, however; some of his marriages undoubtedly had political implications (such as his marriages to Saul’s daughter Michal and to princess Maacah of Geshur). Flagrant sins of incest, murder, and rebellion in his family brought David much suffering and almost cost him the throne.<\/p>\n<p>David’s sin of adultery with Bathsheba, committed at the height of his military success and territorial expansion, led him further into evil: he planned a strategy to have Bathsheba’s husband, Uriah, killed on the front line of battle. David seems to have excluded God from consideration in that segment of his personal life. Yet when the prophet Nathan confronted the king with his sins, David acknowledged his guilt. He confessed his sin and pleaded with God for forgiveness (as in Pss 32 and 51). God forgave him, but for nearly ten years David endured the consequences of his lack of self-restraint and his failure to exercise discipline in his family. Although unsurpassed in military and diplomatic strategy, David lacked strength of character in his domestic affairs. Evil fermented in his own house; the father’s self-indulgence was soon reflected in Amnon’s crime of incest, followed by Absalom’s murder of his brother.<\/p>\n<p>Having incurred his father’s disfavor, Absalom took refuge in Geshur with his mother’s people for three years. Joab, David’s general, was eventually able to reconcile David with his alienated son. Absalom, however, having taken advantage of his position in the royal family to gain a following, went to Hebron, staged a surprise rebellion, and proclaimed himself king throughout Israel. His strong following posed such a threat that David fled from Jerusalem. David, still a master strategist, gained time through a ruse to organize his forces and put down his son’s rebellion. Absalom was killed while trying to flee; his death plunged David into grief.<\/p>\n<p>On his return to Jerusalem, David had to work at undoing the damage caused by Absalom’s revolt. His own tribe of Judah, for example, had supported Absalom. Another rebellion, fomented by Sheba of Benjamin’s tribe, had to be suppressed by Joab before the nation could settle down.<\/p>\n<h5>David’s Last Years<\/h5>\n<p>Although David was not permitted to build the temple in Jerusalem, he made extensive preparations for that project during the last years of his reign. He stockpiled materials and organized the kingdom for efficient use of domestic and foreign labor. He also outlined details for religious worship in the new structure (1 Chr 21–29).<\/p>\n<p>The military and civic organization developed by David was probably patterned after Egyptian practice. The army, rigidly controlled by officers of proven loyalty to the king, included mercenaries. The king also appointed trusted supervisors over farms, livestock, and orchards in various parts of his empire (1 Chr 27:25-31).<\/p>\n<p>David took, or at least began, a census of Israel (2 Sm 24; 1 Chr 21). The incompleteness of the accounts leaves unanswered such questions as the reason for God’s punishment. The king overruled Joab’s objection and insisted that the census be taken. Since David later seemed keenly aware that he had sinned in taking the census, it may be that he was motivated by pride to ascertain his exact military strength (approx. 1.5 million men). God may also have been judging the people for their support of the rebellions of Absalom and Sheba.<\/p>\n<p>Through the prophet Gad, David was given a choice of punishments for his sin. He chose a three-day pestilence. As David and the elders repented, they saw an angel on the threshing floor of the Jebusite Ornan (Araunah). David offered sacrifice there and prayed for his people. Later he purchased the threshing floor, located just outside the city of Jerusalem, concluding that it should be the site for the temple to be built by his son Solomon (1 Chr 21:28–22:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DavidsLastingInfluence\">David’s Lasting Influence<\/p>\n<h5>The Writer of Psalms<\/h5>\n<p>The OT book of Psalms became one of the most popular books in ancient Israel, and has remained so among countless millions of people throughout the centuries. These words of praise prepared by David were intended for use in the temple worship (2 Chr 29:30). The 73 psalms ascribed to David generally grew out of his own relationship to God and to other persons.<\/p>\n\n<p>David probably compiled Book I of the book of Psalms (1–41) and Book IV (90–106), since most of those psalms were written by David himself. Other psalms of his (Pss 51–71) are in Book II (42–72), which was probably compiled by Solomon. As those psalms were used for worship in later generations, various people added others until the time of Ezra.<\/p>\n<p>David’s psalms provided much of the poetry that was set to music for Israel’s worship. His organization of the priests and Levites and his provision of instruments for worship (2 Chr 7:6; 8:14) set the pattern for generations to come in the religious life of Israel.<\/p>\n<h5>David in the Writings of the Prophets<\/h5>\n<p>David, recognized as the greatest Israelite king, is often mentioned as a standard of comparison in the writings of the OT prophets. Isaiah (as in Is 7:2, 13; 22:22) and Jeremiah often referred to their contemporary kings as belonging to the “house” or “throne” of David. Contrasting David with some of his descendants who did not honor God, both Isaiah and Jeremiah predicted a messianic ruler who would establish justice and righteousness on the throne of David forever (Is 9:7; Jer 33:15). When Isaiah described the coming ruler, he identified him as being from the lineage of Jesse, David’s father (Is 11:1-10). Predicting a period of universal peace, Isaiah saw the capital in “Zion,” identified with the city of David (2:1-4).<\/p>\n<p>Ezekiel promised the restoration of David as king in an eschatological and messianic sense (Ez 37:24-25), and of “my servant David” as Israel’s shepherd (34:23). Hosea likewise identified the future ruler as King David (Hos 3:5). Amos assured the people that God would restore the “tabernacle” of David (Am 9:11) so that they could again dwell in safety. Zechariah referred five times to the “house of David” (in Zec 12–13, <span>rsv<\/span>), encouraging the hope of a restoration of David’s glorious dynasty. The concept of the eternal throne promised to David during his reign was delineated in the message of the prophets even while they were announcing judgments to come on the rulers and people of their time.<\/p>\n<h5>David in the New Testament<\/h5>\n<p>David is frequently mentioned by the Gospel writers, who established Jesus’ identity as the “son of David.” The covenant God made with David was that an eternal king would come from David’s family (Mt 1:1; 9:27; 12:23; Mk 10:48; 12:35; Lk 18:38-39; 20:41). According to Mark 11:10 and John 7:42, the Jews of Jesus’ day expected the Messiah (Christ) to be a descendant of David. While stating that Jesus came from the lineage of David, the Gospels also clearly teach that Jesus was the Son of God (Mt 22:41-45; Mk 12:35-37; Lk 20:41-44).<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Acts, David is recognized as the recipient of God’s promises that were fulfilled in Jesus Christ. David is also seen as a prophet whom the Holy Spirit inspired to write the psalms (Acts 1:16; 2:22-36; 4:25; 13:26-39).<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Revelation, Jesus is designated as having the “key of David” (Rv 3:7), and as being “the Lion of the tribe of Judah, the Root of David” (5:5). Jesus is quoted as asserting that “I am the root and the offspring of David, the bright morning star” (22:16).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Christology; Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Israel, History of; King; Kingdom of God, Kingdom of Heaven; Messiah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DAVID Israel’s most important king. David’s kingdom represented the epitome of Israel’s power and influence during the nation’s OT history. The two books in the OT devoted to David’s reign are 2 Samuel and 1 Chronicles. His earlier years are recorded in 1 Samuel, beginning at chapter 16. Almost half of the biblical psalms are ascribed to David. His importance extends into the NT, where he is identified as an ancestor of Jesus Christ and forerunner of the messianic king. Preview • Early Years ...","summary_en":"DAVID Israel’s most important king. David’s kingdom represented the epitome of Israel’s power and influence during the nation’s OT history. The two books in the OT devoted to David’s reign are 2 Samuel and 1 Chronicles. His earlier years are recorded in 1 Samuel, beginning at chapter 16. Almost half of the biblical psalms are ascribed to David. His importance extends into the NT, where he is identified as an ancestor of Jesus Christ and forerunner of the messianic king. Preview • Early Years ...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":16690,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Horn","title_en":"Horn","content_ro":"<h3>HORN<\/h3>\n<li>1. Musical instrument frequently made from a ram’s horn. <em>See<\/em> Musical Instruments (Hatzotzrot).<\/li>\n<li>2. Figuratively, a symbol of power (1 Kgs 22:11) expressing dominance over the weak (Ez 34:21), forces of destruction (Zec 1:18-21), and deliverance from oppression (1 Kgs 22:11; 2 Chr 18:10). Thus, the horn has two connotations: rescue and force (2 Sm 22:3; Ps 18:2). The sprouting of the horn referred to in Psalm 132:17 could mean the continuation of the kingly line. Psalm 75:10 declares that the horns of the wicked shall be cut off but those of the righteous exalted. The symbolic imagery in Daniel and Revelation reinforces the use of the horn to represent power and authority (Dn 7–8; Rv 13, 17).<\/li>\n<li>3. A container. The ram’s horn, goat’s horn, and horn of a wild ox were used as containers for liquid. They were also ceremonial receptacles for oil (1 Sm 16:1, 13; 1 Kgs 1:39). Cows’ horns were forbidden for any religious or ceremonial use.<\/li>\n<li>4. Four horn-shaped projections jutting from the four corners of the tabernacle and temple altars (Ex 27:2; 30:2-3). These altar horns were coated with sacrificial blood and denoted an area of sanctuary (Ex 29:12; Lv 4:7, 18; 1 Kgs 1:50-51).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>HORN<\/h3>\n<li>1. Musical instrument frequently made from a ram’s horn. <em>See<\/em> Musical Instruments (Hatzotzrot).<\/li>\n<li>2. Figuratively, a symbol of power (1 Kgs 22:11) expressing dominance over the weak (Ez 34:21), forces of destruction (Zec 1:18-21), and deliverance from oppression (1 Kgs 22:11; 2 Chr 18:10). Thus, the horn has two connotations: rescue and force (2 Sm 22:3; Ps 18:2). The sprouting of the horn referred to in Psalm 132:17 could mean the continuation of the kingly line. Psalm 75:10 declares that the horns of the wicked shall be cut off but those of the righteous exalted. The symbolic imagery in Daniel and Revelation reinforces the use of the horn to represent power and authority (Dn 7–8; Rv 13, 17).<\/li>\n<li>3. A container. The ram’s horn, goat’s horn, and horn of a wild ox were used as containers for liquid. They were also ceremonial receptacles for oil (1 Sm 16:1, 13; 1 Kgs 1:39). Cows’ horns were forbidden for any religious or ceremonial use.<\/li>\n<li>4. Four horn-shaped projections jutting from the four corners of the tabernacle and temple altars (Ex 27:2; 30:2-3). These altar horns were coated with sacrificial blood and denoted an area of sanctuary (Ex 29:12; Lv 4:7, 18; 1 Kgs 1:50-51).<\/li>","summary_ro":"HORN 1. Musical instrument frequently made from a ram’s horn. See Musical Instruments (Hatzotzrot). 2. Figuratively, a symbol of power (1 Kgs 22:11) expressing dominance over the weak (Ez 34:21), forces of destruction (Zec 1:18-21), and deliverance from oppression (1 Kgs 22:11; 2 Chr 18:10). Thus, the horn has two connotations: rescue and force (2 Sm 22:3; Ps 18:2). The sprouting of the horn referred to in Psalm 132:17 could mean the continuation of the kingly line. Psalm 75:10 declares that ...","summary_en":"HORN 1. Musical instrument frequently made from a ram’s horn. See Musical Instruments (Hatzotzrot). 2. Figuratively, a symbol of power (1 Kgs 22:11) expressing dominance over the weak (Ez 34:21), forces of destruction (Zec 1:18-21), and deliverance from oppression (1 Kgs 22:11; 2 Chr 18:10). Thus, the horn has two connotations: rescue and force (2 Sm 22:3; Ps 18:2). The sprouting of the horn referred to in Psalm 132:17 could mean the continuation of the kingly line. Psalm 75:10 declares that ...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":31936,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Psalm 151*","title_en":"Psalm 151*","content_ro":"<h3>PSALM 151*<\/h3>\n<p>A noncanonical psalm that, prior to the Qumran discoveries, was known only through ancient translations (LXX, Latin, and Syriac). At Qumran the psalm was included in the Hebrew Psalm Scroll (11Q). The Hebrew text indicates two separate poems. The first poem (designated as 151A) is a commentary on 1 Samuel 16:1-13. It relates how David was set over his father’s flocks but was made king over God’s people after God had looked upon his heart. The second poem (151B) is a commentary on 1 Samuel 17 and deals with David and Goliath. It is thought by some to show the bravery of David in contrast to his humility, as is shown in 151A.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PSALM 151*<\/h3>\n<p>A noncanonical psalm that, prior to the Qumran discoveries, was known only through ancient translations (LXX, Latin, and Syriac). At Qumran the psalm was included in the Hebrew Psalm Scroll (11Q). The Hebrew text indicates two separate poems. The first poem (designated as 151A) is a commentary on 1 Samuel 16:1-13. It relates how David was set over his father’s flocks but was made king over God’s people after God had looked upon his heart. The second poem (151B) is a commentary on 1 Samuel 17 and deals with David and Goliath. It is thought by some to show the bravery of David in contrast to his humility, as is shown in 151A.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PSALM 151* A noncanonical psalm that, prior to the Qumran discoveries, was known only through ancient translations (LXX, Latin, and Syriac). At Qumran the psalm was included in the Hebrew Psalm Scroll (11Q). The Hebrew text indicates two separate poems. The first poem (designated as 151A) is a commentary on 1 Samuel 16:1-13. It relates how David was set over his father’s flocks but was made king over God’s people after God had looked upon his heart. The second poem (151B) is a commentary on 1...","summary_en":"PSALM 151* A noncanonical psalm that, prior to the Qumran discoveries, was known only through ancient translations (LXX, Latin, and Syriac). At Qumran the psalm was included in the Hebrew Psalm Scroll (11Q). The Hebrew text indicates two separate poems. The first poem (designated as 151A) is a commentary on 1 Samuel 16:1-13. It relates how David was set over his father’s flocks but was made king over God’s people after God had looked upon his heart. The second poem (151B) is a commentary on 1...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":33734,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Samuel (Person)","title_en":"Samuel (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>SAMUEL (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Last of the judges, his name means “name of God” or “his name is El” (El is the name of the God of strength and power). The play on words in 1 Samuel 1:20 (cf. Ex 2:10) is not intended to be an explanation of the meaning of Samuel’s name; Hannah’s words recall only her prayer and the circumstances surrounding her son’s birth.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PersonalHistory\">Personal History<\/p>\n<p>Samuel’s parents were a devout couple who went annually to the sanctuary at Shiloh (1 Sm 1:3). His father, Elkanah, was a Levite (1 Chr 6:26) and a resident in Ramah, territory of Ephraim. His mother, Hannah, was unable to bear children early in their marriage. Elkanah had a second wife, Peninnah.<\/p>\n<p>On a visit to Shiloh, Hannah prayed in the sanctuary (1 Sm 1:6-11), vowing that, if the Lord would give her a son, she would dedicate him as a Nazirite (Nm 6:1-21) to God’s service for life. The Lord heard Hannah’s prayer and granted her request. She had no other children until after Samuel’s dedication.<\/p>\n<p>When Samuel was presented to Eli and began his service in the sanctuary, he bowed before the Lord and “worshiped the <span>Lord<\/span> there” (1 Sm 1:28). Three ingredients—a feeling of worth, a knowledge of his parents’ love (cf. 2:19), and a sense of purpose—laid the foundation of his personality and his future accomplishments.<\/p>\n<p>Further proof of Samuel’s valuable early training is evidenced in 1 Samuel 2. Eli’s sons had followed the licentious practices of the pagan religions about them. Eli was old, indulgent, and powerless to restrain them. Samuel neither developed irreverence for Eli nor followed his sons in the path of evil. God determined to judge Eli and his house for their sins. When God announced his purpose to Samuel, Samuel responded with reverence and respect. His personal and spiritual growth indicated that he had been marked out as a future prophet of the Lord.<\/p>\n<p> When everyone did what was right in his or her own eyes (cf. Jgs 17:6; 21:25), God allowed an adjacent nation to serve as his instrument to chasten his people, until a judge arose to deliver them. When the Philistines again invaded the land (1 Sm 4–6), the Israelites mustered their army at Ebenezer, only to be defeated. Believing that the ark of the covenant would guarantee success, they sent to Shiloh for it. The next day the Israelites were again defeated and the ark captured. When this news reached Eli, he fell from his stool and died.<\/p>\n<p>Twenty years elapsed before Samuel’s name is mentioned again (1 Sm 7:2-3). Evidently, following the destruction of Shiloh (cf. Jer 7:12-14; 26:6, 9; Ps 78:60), he lived in Ramah and went on annual preaching missions that included Bethel, Gilgal, and Mizpah, “judging” the people in these places (cf. Dt 16:18-22; 17:8-13). Samuel probably also founded “schools of the prophets” during this period. Schools were established at Bethel (1 Sm 10:5; 2 Kgs 2:3), Gilgal (2 Kgs 4:38), Ramah (1 Sm 19:20), and elsewhere (2 Kgs 2:5), perhaps as a natural outgrowth of Samuel’s ministry.<\/p>\n<p>After a 20-year ministry, Samuel thought it timely to move toward spiritual and national unification. He convened a meeting at Mizpah (1 Sm 7). There, with a symbolic rite expressive of deep humiliation and in keeping with the libations of a treaty, the Israelites poured out water on the ground, fasted, and prayed.<\/p>\n<p>The Philistines mistook the nature of the convocation and decided to attack the defenseless worshipers, who entreated Samuel to pray for them. He offered a sacrifice and the Lord sent a violent thunderstorm, causing the invaders to flee in panic. The pursuing Israelites won a significant victory at Ebenezer (1 Sm 7:12).<\/p>\n<p>In Samuel’s declining years, the elders rejected his leadership in favor of a king (1 Sm 8). Following earnest prayer, he received new direction from the Lord, acceded to their request, and later anointed Saul prince over God’s people. Samuel then summoned the Israelites to Mizpah, where God’s choice was made official, and Saul was hailed as king. Following Saul’s victory over Nahash (ch 11), Samuel at Gilgal confirmed Saul’s kingship. Thereafter, Samuel retired to Ramah to train men to carry on his ministry.<\/p>\n<p>Samuel twice had to reprove Saul, first for impatience and disobedience (1 Sm 13:5-14), and then for disobeying the express command of the Lord (15:20-23), who rejected him as king. Samuel was then sent to the home of Jesse in Bethlehem, where he anointed David as the chosen one of the Lord (16:1-13).<\/p>\n<p>In 1 Samuel 25:1 is a brief account of Samuel’s passing, when all Israel gathered together and mourned for him. He was buried in Ramah. The only subsequent mention of Samuel is in 1 Samuel 28. Summoned by the witch of Endor at Saul’s request, Samuel announced that on the following day Saul and his sons would die in battle (vv 4-19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Character\">Character<\/p>\n<p>Samuel overcame many problems through piety, perseverance, and dedication to the service of the Lord. His overriding concern was for the good of his people. Wise and courageous, he boldly rebuked king, elders, and people when necessary, always from the sure ground of the revealed will of God.<\/p>\n<p>While Samuel served as judge and priest, he was preeminently a prophet. Through his ministry the spiritual life of the Israelites improved. In inaugurating the monarchy, he led the people from tribal disunity to national solidarity. He appointed gatekeepers to the tent of meeting (1 Chr 9:17-26), organized observance of the Passover so memorably that it was still spoken about in Josiah’s day (2 Chr 35:18), put into writing how a king and his kingdom should be (1 Sm 10:25), and penned “The Chronicles of Samuel the Seer” (1 Chr 29:29).<\/p>\n<p>Samuel well deserves a place among the great men of faith (Heb 11:32). He was the last of the judges (1 Sm 7:6, 15-17) and the first of the prophets (1 Sm 3:20; Acts 3:24; 13:20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Samuel, Books of First and Second.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SAMUEL (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Last of the judges, his name means “name of God” or “his name is El” (El is the name of the God of strength and power). The play on words in 1 Samuel 1:20 (cf. Ex 2:10) is not intended to be an explanation of the meaning of Samuel’s name; Hannah’s words recall only her prayer and the circumstances surrounding her son’s birth.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PersonalHistory\">Personal History<\/p>\n<p>Samuel’s parents were a devout couple who went annually to the sanctuary at Shiloh (1 Sm 1:3). His father, Elkanah, was a Levite (1 Chr 6:26) and a resident in Ramah, territory of Ephraim. His mother, Hannah, was unable to bear children early in their marriage. Elkanah had a second wife, Peninnah.<\/p>\n<p>On a visit to Shiloh, Hannah prayed in the sanctuary (1 Sm 1:6-11), vowing that, if the Lord would give her a son, she would dedicate him as a Nazirite (Nm 6:1-21) to God’s service for life. The Lord heard Hannah’s prayer and granted her request. She had no other children until after Samuel’s dedication.<\/p>\n<p>When Samuel was presented to Eli and began his service in the sanctuary, he bowed before the Lord and “worshiped the <span>Lord<\/span> there” (1 Sm 1:28). Three ingredients—a feeling of worth, a knowledge of his parents’ love (cf. 2:19), and a sense of purpose—laid the foundation of his personality and his future accomplishments.<\/p>\n<p>Further proof of Samuel’s valuable early training is evidenced in 1 Samuel 2. Eli’s sons had followed the licentious practices of the pagan religions about them. Eli was old, indulgent, and powerless to restrain them. Samuel neither developed irreverence for Eli nor followed his sons in the path of evil. God determined to judge Eli and his house for their sins. When God announced his purpose to Samuel, Samuel responded with reverence and respect. His personal and spiritual growth indicated that he had been marked out as a future prophet of the Lord.<\/p>\n<p> When everyone did what was right in his or her own eyes (cf. Jgs 17:6; 21:25), God allowed an adjacent nation to serve as his instrument to chasten his people, until a judge arose to deliver them. When the Philistines again invaded the land (1 Sm 4–6), the Israelites mustered their army at Ebenezer, only to be defeated. Believing that the ark of the covenant would guarantee success, they sent to Shiloh for it. The next day the Israelites were again defeated and the ark captured. When this news reached Eli, he fell from his stool and died.<\/p>\n<p>Twenty years elapsed before Samuel’s name is mentioned again (1 Sm 7:2-3). Evidently, following the destruction of Shiloh (cf. Jer 7:12-14; 26:6, 9; Ps 78:60), he lived in Ramah and went on annual preaching missions that included Bethel, Gilgal, and Mizpah, “judging” the people in these places (cf. Dt 16:18-22; 17:8-13). Samuel probably also founded “schools of the prophets” during this period. Schools were established at Bethel (1 Sm 10:5; 2 Kgs 2:3), Gilgal (2 Kgs 4:38), Ramah (1 Sm 19:20), and elsewhere (2 Kgs 2:5), perhaps as a natural outgrowth of Samuel’s ministry.<\/p>\n<p>After a 20-year ministry, Samuel thought it timely to move toward spiritual and national unification. He convened a meeting at Mizpah (1 Sm 7). There, with a symbolic rite expressive of deep humiliation and in keeping with the libations of a treaty, the Israelites poured out water on the ground, fasted, and prayed.<\/p>\n<p>The Philistines mistook the nature of the convocation and decided to attack the defenseless worshipers, who entreated Samuel to pray for them. He offered a sacrifice and the Lord sent a violent thunderstorm, causing the invaders to flee in panic. The pursuing Israelites won a significant victory at Ebenezer (1 Sm 7:12).<\/p>\n<p>In Samuel’s declining years, the elders rejected his leadership in favor of a king (1 Sm 8). Following earnest prayer, he received new direction from the Lord, acceded to their request, and later anointed Saul prince over God’s people. Samuel then summoned the Israelites to Mizpah, where God’s choice was made official, and Saul was hailed as king. Following Saul’s victory over Nahash (ch 11), Samuel at Gilgal confirmed Saul’s kingship. Thereafter, Samuel retired to Ramah to train men to carry on his ministry.<\/p>\n<p>Samuel twice had to reprove Saul, first for impatience and disobedience (1 Sm 13:5-14), and then for disobeying the express command of the Lord (15:20-23), who rejected him as king. Samuel was then sent to the home of Jesse in Bethlehem, where he anointed David as the chosen one of the Lord (16:1-13).<\/p>\n<p>In 1 Samuel 25:1 is a brief account of Samuel’s passing, when all Israel gathered together and mourned for him. He was buried in Ramah. The only subsequent mention of Samuel is in 1 Samuel 28. Summoned by the witch of Endor at Saul’s request, Samuel announced that on the following day Saul and his sons would die in battle (vv 4-19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Character\">Character<\/p>\n<p>Samuel overcame many problems through piety, perseverance, and dedication to the service of the Lord. His overriding concern was for the good of his people. Wise and courageous, he boldly rebuked king, elders, and people when necessary, always from the sure ground of the revealed will of God.<\/p>\n<p>While Samuel served as judge and priest, he was preeminently a prophet. Through his ministry the spiritual life of the Israelites improved. In inaugurating the monarchy, he led the people from tribal disunity to national solidarity. He appointed gatekeepers to the tent of meeting (1 Chr 9:17-26), organized observance of the Passover so memorably that it was still spoken about in Josiah’s day (2 Chr 35:18), put into writing how a king and his kingdom should be (1 Sm 10:25), and penned “The Chronicles of Samuel the Seer” (1 Chr 29:29).<\/p>\n<p>Samuel well deserves a place among the great men of faith (Heb 11:32). He was the last of the judges (1 Sm 7:6, 15-17) and the first of the prophets (1 Sm 3:20; Acts 3:24; 13:20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Samuel, Books of First and Second.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SAMUEL (Person) Last of the judges, his name means “name of God” or “his name is El” (El is the name of the God of strength and power). The play on words in 1 Samuel 1:20 (cf. Ex 2:10) is not intended to be an explanation of the meaning of Samuel’s name; Hannah’s words recall only her prayer and the circumstances surrounding her son’s birth. Personal History Samuel’s parents were a devout couple who went annually to the sanctuary at Shiloh (1 Sm 1:3). His father, Elkanah, was a Levite (1 Chr ...","summary_en":"SAMUEL (Person) Last of the judges, his name means “name of God” or “his name is El” (El is the name of the God of strength and power). The play on words in 1 Samuel 1:20 (cf. Ex 2:10) is not intended to be an explanation of the meaning of Samuel’s name; Hannah’s words recall only her prayer and the circumstances surrounding her son’s birth. Personal History Samuel’s parents were a devout couple who went annually to the sanctuary at Shiloh (1 Sm 1:3). His father, Elkanah, was a Levite (1 Chr ...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":33801,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Books of First and Second Samuel","title_en":"Books of First and Second Samuel","content_ro":"<h3>SAMUEL, Books of First and Second<\/h3>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Name<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Name\">Name<\/p>\n<p>First and Second Samuel derive their names from the individual whom God used to establish kingship in Israel. Samuel is the most prominent figure in the early narratives of 1 Samuel. His key role in leading the nation of Israel through the transition from the period of the judges to that of the monarchy warrants the use of his name as the title for the book.<\/p>\n<p>These books, however, have not always been so designated, nor was the material originally divided into two books. As far as is known, the Septuagint (the Greek translation of the OT dating from the third century <span>BC<\/span>) translators were the first to separate the material of Samuel into two books (they made a similar division in the material of Kings). The Hebrew original of these books was written, as is characteristic of Hebrew, with symbols only for consonants and none for vowels. When translated into Greek, it was necessary to use symbols for both vowels and consonants, thus greatly lengthening the manuscript. Presumably the practical consideration of the length of the scroll was the cause for dividing the material of both Samuel and Kings into two books (scrolls) instead of retaining just one. The Septuagint translators, recognizing the continuity of content and emphasis in Samuel and Kings, designated what is now known as 1 and 2 Samuel as “The First and Second Books of Kingdoms” and then designated what now is known as 1 and 2 Kings as “The Third and Fourth Books of Kingdoms.” The Latin Vulgate (the Latin translation of the Bible prepared by Jerome in the late fourth century <span>AD<\/span>) slightly modified the Septuagint titles to “First, Second, Third, and Fourth Kings.” These titles were utilized all through the Middle Ages and were modified into our present titles by the Protestant Reformers in the 16th century <span>AD<\/span> in agreement with Jewish rabbinic tradition. The Reformers, however, retained the division into two books, and this has been followed in modern English versions.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>Even though Samuel is prominent in the early part of the book, and the book bears his name in our English versions, it is clear that he is not the author of the entirety of 1 and 2 Samuel. Samuel’s death is recorded in 1 Samuel 25:1, prior to the time of the accession of David to the throne in place of Saul. Who wrote the material of 1 and 2 Samuel if it was not Samuel? On the basis of the statement in 1 Chronicles 29:29, it has been suggested by some that Samuel composed the early narratives of the book and that his work was later supplemented by the writings of the prophets Nathan and Gad. Others have suggested one of David’s contemporaries, such as Ahimaaz (2 Sm 15:27, 36; 17:17), Hushai (2 Sm 15:32; 16:16), or Zabud (1 Kgs 4:5). Presumably, these men would have had access to the writings of Samuel, Nathan, and Gad, as well as to other sources (see 2 Sm 1:18) pertaining to the life and reigns of Saul and David. Who the real author was, however, cannot be determined from available evidence. Whoever it was, it is clear that he lived after the death of Solomon and the division of the kingdom in 930 <span>BC<\/span> (see references to “Israel in Judah” in 1 Sm 11:8; 17:52; 18:16; 2 Sm 5:5; 24:1-9; and “kings of Judah” in 1 Sm 27:6). Thus, 1 and 2 Samuel was published in its final form sometime after 930 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The theme binding together the narratives of 1 and 2 Samuel pertains to the relationship between kingship and the covenant. Kingship as requested by the people was a denial of the covenant; kingship as instituted by Samuel was compatible with the covenant; kingship as practiced by Saul failed to correspond to the covenantal idea; and kingship as practiced by David was an imperfect but true representation of the ideal of the covenantal king.<\/p>\n<p>It has often been pointed out that there is ambivalence in the description of the establishment of kingship in Israel (1 Sm 8–12), because in some places it seems to be suggested that kingship is improper for Israel, while in other places it seems to be suggested that kingship was God’s will for his people. Resolution to this tension is provided in 1 Samuel 12, when Samuel inaugurates Saul as Israel’s first king in the context of a covenant renewal ceremony by which Israel renews its allegiance to the Lord. Here it becomes clear that kingship in itself was not wrong for Israel; God desired Israel to have a king. But kingship of the type Israel desired (“like the other nations”) and for the reasons she wanted a king (to give a sense of national security and lead her to victory in battle) involved a denial of the Lord as her ultimate sovereign. Samuel defined the role of the king in Israel and presented Saul to the people in a ceremony in which they renewed their allegiance to the Lord. The monarchy in Israel was first established in a form that was compatible with the covenant. The king in Israel, as every other citizen of the nation, was to be subject to the law of the Lord and to the word of the prophet. From this perspective, the author depicts the reign of Saul as failing to correspond to the covenantal requirements, while the reign of David, although imperfect, reflected the covenantal ideal.<\/p>\n<p>There are at least two other important themes recorded in 1 and 2 Samuel. The first of these is that David conquers and acquires the land promised to Abraham. It is in the time of David that Israel’s borders are extended from Egypt to the Euphrates, as had been promised. A second event of major significance for the remainder of the Bible is David’s selection of Jerusalem to be the political and religious center of Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Samuel (1 Sm 1–7)<\/h5>\n<h6>Samuel’s Youth (1 Sm 1–3)<\/h6>\n<p>God granted the request of Hannah for a son after a long period of barrenness. She named her son Samuel (a wordplay on the Hebrew expression “heard of God”) and dedicated him to the service of the Lord—with Eli the priest at the tabernacle in Shiloh. Hannah’s beautiful song of praise to God, who hears and answers prayer (2:1-10), exalts the sovereignty of God and prophetically anticipates not only the establishment of kingship in Israel but ultimately the highest fulfillment of the royal office in Christ himself (v 10). The evil practices of the sons of the priest Eli are described in verses 11-26. These men not only used their office for personal gain (vv 12-17) but also committed immoral acts with the women serving at the entrance to the tabernacle (v 22). Although Eli rebuked his sons (vv 22-25), his warnings were too little too late. It was in this lax environment that Samuel grew up (vv 18-21, 26).<\/p>\n<p>In 1 Samuel 2:27-36, an unnamed prophet pronounced judgment on Eli and his priestly line. The prediction of the imminent death of Hophni and Phinehas, Eli’s sons, was fulfilled when the Philistines took the ark and destroyed the tabernacle at Shiloh (4:11; Jer 7:14). In 1 Samuel 3:1–4:1, Samuel is called to be a prophet, and he too is given a message of judgment for the house of Eli (3:11-14). As the reliability of Samuel’s words are attested, it is recognized by the people that he was a true prophet of the Lord (3:19–4:1).<\/p>\n\n<h6>The Loss and Return of the Ark (1 Sm 4–6)<\/h6>\n<p>In a battle with the Philistines, the prophecy of 2:27-36 and 3:11-14 was partially fulfilled. The Israelites were defeated, the ark was taken, and Hophni and Phinehas were killed. Upon hearing the report of these calamities, Eli also died (4:17-18). The Philistines placed the ark of the Lord in the temple of their god Dagon in Ashdod (5:1-2). However, when the idol of Dagon broke in pieces and fell before the ark and a plague broke out in Ashdod, the ark was moved to Gath. When the plague broke out in Gath, it was moved to Ekron. When the plague erupted in Ekron, the Philistines were compelled to return the ark to Israel—as a test, it was placed on a cart pulled by two nursing cows. These cows, going against their motherly instincts, left their penned-up calves and headed for the Israelite border and the town of Beth-shemesh (6:1-21). By this the Lord demonstrated that the victory over the Israelites and the capture of the ark could not be attributed to the Philistines’ god Dagon.<\/p>\n<h6>The Defeat of the Philistines (1 Sm 7)<\/h6>\n<p>Twenty years went by. Samuel assured the people of deliverance from Philistine oppression if they would confess their sin and turn from the worship of Baals and Ashtaroths. He called for a national assembly at Mizpah to renew allegiance to the Lord. While the Israelites were assembled, the Philistines attacked and the Lord gave the Israelites a miraculous victory, thereby demonstrating that obedience to covenant obligations would ensure national security (see Ex 23:22; Dt 20:1-4).<\/p>\n<h5>Kingship Established in Israel (1 Sm 8–12)<\/h5>\n<h6>The People Request a King (1 Sm 8:1-22)<\/h6>\n<p>When Samuel was an old man, the elders of the nation approached him and requested that he give them a king. Samuel immediately perceived that their request was tantamount to a rejection of the Lord, who was their King, for the people desired a king “like the other nations”—as a symbol of national unity and military security. Nevertheless, the Lord told Samuel to give the people a king. At the same time, however, he told Samuel to warn the people concerning what having a king “like the nations” would mean. The warning, descriptive of the practices of contemporary Canaanite kings, fell on deaf ears; the people persisted in their desire for a king.<\/p>\n<h6>Samuel Privately Anoints Saul (1 Sm 9:1–10:16)<\/h6>\n<p>The narrative of Saul’s search for the lost donkeys of his father and his encounter with Samuel in the process of his search is given to explain how Samuel and Saul first met, and how the Lord indicated to Samuel who the person was that he was to anoint as Israel’s first king (9:16-17). After Samuel privately anointed Saul (10:1), he was given three signs to confirm that his new calling came from the Lord.<\/p>\n<h6>Saul Publicly Chosen by Lot at Mizpah (1 Sm 10:17-27)<\/h6>\n<p>After the private designation and anointing of Saul to be king (9:1–10:16), Samuel convened a national assembly at Mizpah to make the Lord’s choice known to the people (10:20-24) and to define the king’s task (v 25). Again, at this assembly, Samuel emphasized that the people had rejected the Lord in requesting a king because they sought a king for the wrong reasons and failed to recognize the Lord’s past faithfulness in delivering them from their enemies. But again it was clear that the time for kingship in Israel had come and it was the Lord’s desire to give the people a king. Samuel’s explanation of the “regulations of the kingship” was an important step in resolving the tension between, on the one hand, Israel’s sin in desiring a king, and on the other, the Lord’s intent to give them a king. This document, which was preserved at the tabernacle, probably contained an enlarged version of the “law of the king” in Deuteronomy 17:14-20 and spelled out regulations governing the role of the king in Israel for the benefit of both the king and the people. This document undoubtedly distinguished Israelite kingship from that of the kings of the surrounding nations.<\/p>\n<h6>Saul Leads Israel to Victory over the Ammonites (1 Sm 11:1-13)<\/h6>\n<p>When Nahash, king of the Ammonites, attacked Jabesh-gilead, a town east of the Jordan in the territory of Manasseh, Saul left his farmwork to lead a volunteer army in support of the inhabitants of Jabesh-gilead. The victory over the Ammonites under Saul’s leadership placed another seal of divine approval on his selection to be king. Saul attributed the victory to the Lord rather than to his own military strategies.<\/p>\n<h6>Saul Inaugurated as King (1 Sm 11:14–12:25)<\/h6>\n<p>The victory at Jabesh-gilead prompted Samuel to call for a national assembly at Gilgal to renew the kingdom and make Saul king (11:14-15). At the Gilgal assembly, Samuel led the people in confessing the sin of their initial request for a king and in renewing their allegiance to the Lord. In the context of this covenant renewal ceremony, Saul was formally inaugurated in his office as king. By inaugurating Saul in this manner, Samuel effectively provided for covenantal continuity in the transition from the period of the judges to that of the monarchy.<\/p>\n<h5>Saul Rejected as King (1 Sm 13–15)<\/h5>\n<h6>Saul’s Disobedience (1 Sm 13:1-22)<\/h6>\n<p>When Saul was threatened with an imminent attack from the Philistines, he gathered troops at Gilgal and awaited Samuel, as he had been instructed (10:8; 13:8). When it appeared that Samuel would not come within the prearranged time, Saul became impatient and offered a sacrifice himself (13:9). Just as the sacrifice was completed, Samuel appeared and rebuked Saul for not keeping the commandment of the Lord. In disobeying Samuel’s previous instructions, Saul had violated a fundamental requirement of his office. He was seriously mistaken in thinking he could strengthen Israel’s hand against the Philistines by sacrifice to the Lord when this was done in violation of the Lord’s specific command. Samuel told Saul that because of his disobedience his dynasty would not endure (v 14).<\/p>\n<h6>Jonathan’s Victory (1 Sm 13:23–14:52)<\/h6>\n<p>Saul’s son Jonathan and Jonathan’s armor bearer skillfully and courageously attacked a Philistine outpost, killing about 20 men (14:8-14). The Lord used this defeat, along with an earthquake, to bring panic to the entire Philistine force. In the meantime, Saul sought divine guidance on whether to join the fray with his own forces. When the Lord’s answer did not come immediately, Saul concluded that waiting for the Lord’s word might jeopardize his military advantage. Here again he demonstrated that he trusted more in his own insight than in waiting upon the Lord. Saul further damaged his own stature in the eyes of his troops by pronouncing a foolish curse on any who would eat food before the battle was won. This nearly cost Jonathan his life; he was spared only because of the intervention of the troops in his defense.<\/p>\n<h6>Saul Rejected as King (1 Sm 15:1-35)<\/h6>\n<p>Saul was commanded by the Lord through Samuel to attack the Amalekites and totally destroy them, sparing neither human nor animal life. The Amalekites had previously attempted to destroy Israel shortly after their exodus from Egypt while journeying to Sinai (Ex 17:8-16). Saul disobeyed the Lord in sparing the best of the animals for sacrifice and in sparing Agag, the Amalekite king. The Lord sent Samuel again to rebuke Saul for his disobedience. Samuel charged Saul with rebellion against the Lord and told him that, because he had rejected the word of the Lord, the Lord had rejected him as king.<\/p>\n<h5>Saul and David (1 Sm 16:1—2 Sm 1:27)<\/h5>\n<h6>Samuel Anoints David (1 Sm 16:1-13)<\/h6>\n<p>The Lord instructed Samuel to go to the house of Jesse in Bethlehem to anoint one of his sons to be king in place of Saul. By divine leading, Jesse’s youngest son, David, was shown to be the one whom the Lord had chosen. When Samuel anointed him as king, the Spirit of the Lord came upon him with power.<\/p>\n<h6>David in the Service of Saul (1 Sm 16:14–17:58)<\/h6>\n<p>When Saul became plagued by an evil spirit, his attendants sought a harpist whose music would soothe him. David was the one chosen for this purpose. The position at the court, however, was not permanent, and David divided his time between the court and his home duties. In due time, the Philistines, led by the giant Goliath, encamped against the Israelites. Goliath challenged any Israelite who dared to meet him in individual combat. No Israelite ventured to accept his challenge until David, who was visiting the camp of the Israelite forces to bring food to his brothers, heard the challenge and responded in the strength and power of the Lord. The Lord gave David a great victory because he acknowledged that “the battle is the <span>Lord<\/span>’s” (17:47, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h6>Saul’s Hatred toward David (1 Sm 18:1–19:24)<\/h6>\n<p>In the aftermath of David’s victory over Goliath, Saul’s son Jonathan pledged loyalty to David in a covenant of friendship. As David achieved further successes in leading Israel’s armies, and as his public acclaim grew, Saul began to fear that David was a threat to his throne (18:14-16, 28-30). Saul, hating David, made several attempts to kill him (18:17, 25; 19:1, 10). David was finally forced to flee and sought refuge with Samuel at Ramah. When Saul and three of his messengers went to Ramah to arrest David, they were so overcome by the Spirit of God that they were incapable of fulfilling their mission.<\/p>\n<h6>David and Jonathan (1 Sm 20:1-42)<\/h6>\n<p>David’s absence from the royal table at the new moon festival provoked Saul to again threaten David’s life. Jonathan met with David at a prearranged place to inform him of the danger and say good-bye. Jonathan and David again pledged themselves to mutual loyalty and kindness. In the encounter it is clear that both men knew that David, not Jonathan, would be the successor to Saul on the throne of Israel.<\/p>\n<h6>David at Nob (1 Sm 21:1-9)<\/h6>\n<p>David went to the priest Ahimelech at Nob and, indicating he was on a secret mission for Saul, asked for bread and for the sword of Goliath, both of which were given to him. One of Saul’s servants, Doeg the Edomite, who was at Nob, observed the transaction.<\/p>\n<h6>David at Gath (1 Sm 21:10-15)<\/h6>\n<p>David then went into Philistine territory to King Achish at Gath. When his identity was discovered, he feigned insanity in order to escape.<\/p>\n<h6>David at Adullam (1 Sm 22:1-5)<\/h6>\n<p>From Gath David went to the cave of Adullam where he was joined by about 400 supporters. He took his parents to Moab for their own protection and then returned to the Forest of Hereth in Judah.<\/p>\n<h6>Saul Kills the Priests at Nob (1 Sm 22:6-23)<\/h6>\n<p>Doeg the Edomite reported to Saul that Ahimelech the priest had given assistance to David. At Saul’s command Doeg massacred all the priests at Nob except Abiathar, who escaped with the ephod and joined David.<\/p>\n<h6>David at Keilah (1 Sm 23:1-13)<\/h6>\n<p>David and his men delivered the citizens of Keilah from Philistine raiders but were forced to leave the city when it was apparent that its unthankful inhabitants were prepared to hand David over to Saul.<\/p>\n<h6>David in the Desert of Ziph (1 Sm 23:14-29)<\/h6>\n<p>While David was in the desert of Ziph, he was encouraged by a visit from Jonathan, who again pledged to him his loyalty. Although the Ziphites promised to aid Saul in capturing David, a Philistine attack forced Saul to abandon his attempt to apprehend him.<\/p>\n<h6>David Spares Saul’s Life (1 Sm 24:1-22)<\/h6>\n<p>While hiding deep in a cave at En-gedi, David was unexpectedly provided the opportunity to take Saul’s life when Saul relieved himself at the entrance to the cave. Nevertheless, because Saul was “the anointed of the Lord,” David spared his life and shamed him into confessing his own wickedness. David did this by showing Saul a piece of his robe that he had cut off while Saul was in the entrance to the cave.<\/p>\n<h6>David, Nabal, and Abigail (1 Sm 25:1-44)<\/h6>\n<p>David was badly mistreated by a sheepherder named Nabal. David was deterred, however, from foolishly taking the man’s life by the discerning words of Nabal’s wife, Abigail. Shortly after this incident, Nabal died and David took Abigail as his wife.<\/p>\n<h6>David Spares Saul’s Life a Second Time (1 Sm 26:1-25)<\/h6>\n<p>For a second time, the Ziphites joined Saul in attempting to capture David. While Saul and his men were sleeping, David and Abishai crept into their camp and took Saul’s spear and water jug. On the next day, David was again able to demonstrate to Saul that he did not seek to steal the kingship from his hands.<\/p>\n<h6>David among the Philistines (1 Sm 27:1-12)<\/h6>\n<p>David eventually became weary of hiding from Saul in Israelite territory; in a time of discouragement, he went again to Philistia to seek refuge beyond Saul’s reach. Ingratiating himself with Achish, a Philistine ruler, he was given the town of Ziklag as a place for himself and his men to reside. From Ziklag, David raided various tribes inhabiting the area south of Philistia, but deceived Achish into thinking he was raiding the territory of Judah.<\/p>\n<h6>Saul and the Medium of Endor (1 Sm 28:1-25)<\/h6>\n<p>The Philistines again gathered an army to fight Israel, and Saul, terrified and seemingly anticipating an imminent defeat, vainly sought for some word from the Lord concerning the outcome of the battle. When this was denied, he went in disguise to a medium at Endor and requested her to bring up to him the spirit of Samuel. Saul was told by this spirit that Israel would be defeated and that he and his sons would die in the upcoming battle.<\/p>\n<h6>The Philistines Mistrust David (1 Sm 29:1-11)<\/h6>\n<p>Although Achish desired David to join the Philistine army in its battle with Israel, the other Philistine commanders mistrusted him and forced Achish to send David and his men back to Ziklag. This turn of events rescued David from a serious dilemma created by his apparent friendship with Achish.<\/p>\n<h6>David Defeats the Amalekites (1 Sm 30:1-31)<\/h6>\n<p>Upon returning to Ziklag, David discovered that in his absence the city had been raided and burned by the Amalekites and that their wives, children, and cattle had been taken captive. After inquiring of the Lord through Abiathar the priest, David and his men went in pursuit of the Amalekites and recovered all they had taken and more. He divided the plunder among his troops and sent gifts from it to various towns in Judah.<\/p>\n<h6>The Death of Saul and His Sons (1 Sm 31:1—2 Sm 1:27)<\/h6>\n<p>As had been predicted, the battle with the Philistines ended in a disastrous defeat for Israel, in which Saul took his own life after being seriously wounded. Jonathan and two other sons of Saul were killed. David mourned for Saul and Jonathan and exalted their memory in his tribute to them recorded in 2 Samuel 1:19-27.<\/p>\n<h5>David (2 Sm 2–24)<\/h5>\n\n<h6>David Anointed King over Judah (2 Sm 2:1-7)<\/h6>\n<p>Subsequent to Saul’s death, the Lord instructed David to go to Hebron, where the tribe of Judah anointed him as their king.<\/p>\n<h6>David, Ishbosheth, and Abner (2 Sm 2:8–4:12)<\/h6>\n<p>Although David became king over Judah, the remaining tribes—under the influence of Abner, commander of Saul’s army—recognized Ishbosheth as Saul’s successor (2:8-10). Ishbosheth was a son of Saul who had survived the battle with the Philistines. Conflict quickly broke out between the men of David, led by Joab, and the men of Ishbosheth, led by Abner. In this conflict Asahel, Joab’s brother, was slain by Abner. As David grew stronger and Ishbosheth weaker, Abner shifted his allegiance from Ishbosheth to David (3:1-21). Joab, however, avenged the blood of his brother Asahel by murdering Abner under the pretense of negotiating with him. Although David detested this act, mourned for Abner, and cursed Joab, the crime was not punished until early in the reign of Solomon (see 1 Kgs 2:5-6, 29-34). Shortly afterward, Ishbosheth was killed by two soldiers, who brought his head to David at Hebron, expecting to be rewarded (2 Sm 4:1-8). David, however, had them both put to death. The only male survivor of Saul’s line was the crippled son of Jonathan named Mephibosheth.<\/p>\n<h6>David King over All Israel (2 Sm 5)<\/h6>\n<p>After Ishbosheth’s death, David was made king over all the tribes at Hebron. One of David’s first acts as king was to capture the fortress of Zion from the Jebusites. David established Zion as his capital and built a palace there for his residence.<\/p>\n<h6>The Ark Brought to Jerusalem (2 Sm 6)<\/h6>\n<p>Recognizing the importance of the ark as a symbol of God’s presence with his people, David determined that it should be brought to Jerusalem from the obscurity of the house of Abinadab in Kiriath-jearim, where it had remained throughout the entirety of Saul’s reign. Violation of prescriptions for handling the ark led to the death of Uzzah, one of Abinadab’s sons, and delayed the ark’s conveyance to Jerusalem for three months. In a second attempt David led a joyful procession into the city of Jerusalem, where the ark was placed in a tent that had been prepared for it.<\/p>\n<h6>David, Nathan, and the Temple (2 Sm 7)<\/h6>\n<p>It soon became David’s desire to build a temple to house the ark and provide a center for Israel’s worship of the Lord. The Lord told David through Nathan the prophet that he was not to build the Lord a house (temple) but that the Lord would build him a house (a dynasty) that would endure forever. Here the line of the promised seed is narrowed to the house of David within the tribe of Judah. This promise finds its fulfillment in the birth of Jesus, who was the “son of David, the son of Abraham” (see Mt 1:1). It would be the task of Solomon, David’s son, to construct the temple (2 Sm 7:13).<\/p>\n<h6>David’s Victories (2 Sm 8)<\/h6>\n<p>David was able to defeat numerous surrounding peoples, to extend Israel’s borders, and to establish a time of prosperity and rest for the nation.<\/p>\n<h6>David and Mephibosheth (2 Sm 9)<\/h6>\n<p>Remembering his covenant with Jonathan (see 1 Sm 18:1-3; 20:13-16, 42), David inquired concerning survivors of the house of Saul to whom he could show kindness. When Mephibosheth was sought out, David brought him to the court to enjoy the honor of eating at the king’s table.<\/p>\n<h6>David and Bathsheba (2 Sm 10–12)<\/h6>\n<p>During a war with the Ammonites, David committed adultery with the wife of one of his soldiers, Uriah the Hittite. When Bathsheba became pregnant, David attempted to get Uriah to sleep with her. When this failed, David arranged for Uriah’s certain death in battle. These sinful acts provoked God’s wrath (2 Sm 12:10-12) and David experienced the bitter fruits of his misconduct during the remainder of his life.<\/p>\n<h6>Amnon, Absalom, and Tamar (2 Sm 13)<\/h6>\n<p>David’s oldest son, Amnon, feigned sickness in order to arrange for his half sister, Tamar, to care for him. When Tamar refused Amnon’s sexual advances to her, he raped her. This incident enraged Tamar’s full brother Absalom, who determined to avenge his sister by killing Amnon. Absalom waited two years and then arranged for the murder of Amnon during the festivities of the time of sheepshearing. He then fled to Geshur, a small city-state in Syria, where his maternal grandfather was king.<\/p>\n<h6>David and Absalom (2 Sm 14–19)<\/h6>\n<p>Absalom remained in exile for three years until Joab arranged for his return by securing a renunciation of blood revenge from David (14:1-27). Upon Absalom’s return, however, David refused to see him for two years, until they were finally reconciled. In this whole episode David sidestepped the issues of repentance and justice and took no effective disciplinary action. In the meantime Absalom conspired to take the throne from David his father by attempting to discredit his administration of justice, and by seeking to win the favor of the people and members of David’s court. After four years, Absalom proclaimed himself king in Hebron and gathered sufficient military strength to force his father to flee from Jerusalem (ch 15). Failure to immediately pursue David led to the defeat of Absalom’s forces and to Absalom’s own death at the hand of Joab, David’s commander. David mourned for his son Absalom (19:1-8), but he was able to return to Jerusalem and to reestablish his government. David disciplined Joab for killing Absalom by replacing him as commander of his troops with Amasa.<\/p>\n<h6>Rebellion of Sheba (2 Sm 20)<\/h6>\n<p>In the unsettled conditions immediately after David’s return to Jerusalem, another abortive revolt was attempted by Sheba of the tribe of Benjamin. Joab, in defiance of David’s disciplinary action, killed Amasa, pursued Sheba, and crushed his revolt.<\/p>\n<h6>David and the Gibeonites (2 Sm 21:1-14)<\/h6>\n<p>At some unspecified time during David’s reign, the land suffered a three-year famine. It was revealed to David by the Lord that the famine was due to Saul’s violation of an Israelite treaty with the Gibeonites (see Jos 9:15, 18-27). This offense was atoned for by giving seven descendants of Saul to the Gibeonites for execution.<\/p>\n<h6>David and the Philistines (2 Sm 21:15-22)<\/h6>\n<p>In this pericope four episodes of heroic accomplishments by David’s mighty men against the Philistines are recounted.<\/p>\n<h6>David’s Song of Praise (2 Sm 22)<\/h6>\n<p>In a beautiful song of praise, David described his deliverance from his enemies and the help with which the Lord sustained him. The same song occurs with minor variations in Psalm 18.<\/p>\n<h6>David’s Last Words (2 Sm 23:1-7)<\/h6>\n<p>In a brief statement, David acknowledges the work of God’s Spirit in enabling him to speak God’s word, and proclaims his confidence in the realization of the Lord’s promise to him and his dynasty.<\/p>\n<h6>David’s Mighty Men (2 Sm 23:8-39)<\/h6>\n<p>This pericope contains a list of 37 of David’s warriors and a description of some of their accomplishments.<\/p>\n<h6>The Census and David’s Punishment (2 Sm 24:1-25)<\/h6>\n<p>David’s decision to take a census of his fighting men reflected an improper trust in military-political organization and power. The Lord judged him by sending a plague on the land that killed many people. At the word of the Lord through Gad the prophet, David built an altar on the threshing floor of Araunah, which was later to become the site of the temple (see 2 Chr 3:1). The Lord responded to David’s sacrifices and prayers on behalf of the people; the plague was stopped.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> David; Samuel (Person); Saul #2.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SAMUEL, Books of First and Second<\/h3>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Name<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Name\">Name<\/p>\n<p>First and Second Samuel derive their names from the individual whom God used to establish kingship in Israel. Samuel is the most prominent figure in the early narratives of 1 Samuel. His key role in leading the nation of Israel through the transition from the period of the judges to that of the monarchy warrants the use of his name as the title for the book.<\/p>\n<p>These books, however, have not always been so designated, nor was the material originally divided into two books. As far as is known, the Septuagint (the Greek translation of the OT dating from the third century <span>BC<\/span>) translators were the first to separate the material of Samuel into two books (they made a similar division in the material of Kings). The Hebrew original of these books was written, as is characteristic of Hebrew, with symbols only for consonants and none for vowels. When translated into Greek, it was necessary to use symbols for both vowels and consonants, thus greatly lengthening the manuscript. Presumably the practical consideration of the length of the scroll was the cause for dividing the material of both Samuel and Kings into two books (scrolls) instead of retaining just one. The Septuagint translators, recognizing the continuity of content and emphasis in Samuel and Kings, designated what is now known as 1 and 2 Samuel as “The First and Second Books of Kingdoms” and then designated what now is known as 1 and 2 Kings as “The Third and Fourth Books of Kingdoms.” The Latin Vulgate (the Latin translation of the Bible prepared by Jerome in the late fourth century <span>AD<\/span>) slightly modified the Septuagint titles to “First, Second, Third, and Fourth Kings.” These titles were utilized all through the Middle Ages and were modified into our present titles by the Protestant Reformers in the 16th century <span>AD<\/span> in agreement with Jewish rabbinic tradition. The Reformers, however, retained the division into two books, and this has been followed in modern English versions.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>Even though Samuel is prominent in the early part of the book, and the book bears his name in our English versions, it is clear that he is not the author of the entirety of 1 and 2 Samuel. Samuel’s death is recorded in 1 Samuel 25:1, prior to the time of the accession of David to the throne in place of Saul. Who wrote the material of 1 and 2 Samuel if it was not Samuel? On the basis of the statement in 1 Chronicles 29:29, it has been suggested by some that Samuel composed the early narratives of the book and that his work was later supplemented by the writings of the prophets Nathan and Gad. Others have suggested one of David’s contemporaries, such as Ahimaaz (2 Sm 15:27, 36; 17:17), Hushai (2 Sm 15:32; 16:16), or Zabud (1 Kgs 4:5). Presumably, these men would have had access to the writings of Samuel, Nathan, and Gad, as well as to other sources (see 2 Sm 1:18) pertaining to the life and reigns of Saul and David. Who the real author was, however, cannot be determined from available evidence. Whoever it was, it is clear that he lived after the death of Solomon and the division of the kingdom in 930 <span>BC<\/span> (see references to “Israel in Judah” in 1 Sm 11:8; 17:52; 18:16; 2 Sm 5:5; 24:1-9; and “kings of Judah” in 1 Sm 27:6). Thus, 1 and 2 Samuel was published in its final form sometime after 930 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The theme binding together the narratives of 1 and 2 Samuel pertains to the relationship between kingship and the covenant. Kingship as requested by the people was a denial of the covenant; kingship as instituted by Samuel was compatible with the covenant; kingship as practiced by Saul failed to correspond to the covenantal idea; and kingship as practiced by David was an imperfect but true representation of the ideal of the covenantal king.<\/p>\n<p>It has often been pointed out that there is ambivalence in the description of the establishment of kingship in Israel (1 Sm 8–12), because in some places it seems to be suggested that kingship is improper for Israel, while in other places it seems to be suggested that kingship was God’s will for his people. Resolution to this tension is provided in 1 Samuel 12, when Samuel inaugurates Saul as Israel’s first king in the context of a covenant renewal ceremony by which Israel renews its allegiance to the Lord. Here it becomes clear that kingship in itself was not wrong for Israel; God desired Israel to have a king. But kingship of the type Israel desired (“like the other nations”) and for the reasons she wanted a king (to give a sense of national security and lead her to victory in battle) involved a denial of the Lord as her ultimate sovereign. Samuel defined the role of the king in Israel and presented Saul to the people in a ceremony in which they renewed their allegiance to the Lord. The monarchy in Israel was first established in a form that was compatible with the covenant. The king in Israel, as every other citizen of the nation, was to be subject to the law of the Lord and to the word of the prophet. From this perspective, the author depicts the reign of Saul as failing to correspond to the covenantal requirements, while the reign of David, although imperfect, reflected the covenantal ideal.<\/p>\n<p>There are at least two other important themes recorded in 1 and 2 Samuel. The first of these is that David conquers and acquires the land promised to Abraham. It is in the time of David that Israel’s borders are extended from Egypt to the Euphrates, as had been promised. A second event of major significance for the remainder of the Bible is David’s selection of Jerusalem to be the political and religious center of Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Samuel (1 Sm 1–7)<\/h5>\n<h6>Samuel’s Youth (1 Sm 1–3)<\/h6>\n<p>God granted the request of Hannah for a son after a long period of barrenness. She named her son Samuel (a wordplay on the Hebrew expression “heard of God”) and dedicated him to the service of the Lord—with Eli the priest at the tabernacle in Shiloh. Hannah’s beautiful song of praise to God, who hears and answers prayer (2:1-10), exalts the sovereignty of God and prophetically anticipates not only the establishment of kingship in Israel but ultimately the highest fulfillment of the royal office in Christ himself (v 10). The evil practices of the sons of the priest Eli are described in verses 11-26. These men not only used their office for personal gain (vv 12-17) but also committed immoral acts with the women serving at the entrance to the tabernacle (v 22). Although Eli rebuked his sons (vv 22-25), his warnings were too little too late. It was in this lax environment that Samuel grew up (vv 18-21, 26).<\/p>\n<p>In 1 Samuel 2:27-36, an unnamed prophet pronounced judgment on Eli and his priestly line. The prediction of the imminent death of Hophni and Phinehas, Eli’s sons, was fulfilled when the Philistines took the ark and destroyed the tabernacle at Shiloh (4:11; Jer 7:14). In 1 Samuel 3:1–4:1, Samuel is called to be a prophet, and he too is given a message of judgment for the house of Eli (3:11-14). As the reliability of Samuel’s words are attested, it is recognized by the people that he was a true prophet of the Lord (3:19–4:1).<\/p>\n\n<h6>The Loss and Return of the Ark (1 Sm 4–6)<\/h6>\n<p>In a battle with the Philistines, the prophecy of 2:27-36 and 3:11-14 was partially fulfilled. The Israelites were defeated, the ark was taken, and Hophni and Phinehas were killed. Upon hearing the report of these calamities, Eli also died (4:17-18). The Philistines placed the ark of the Lord in the temple of their god Dagon in Ashdod (5:1-2). However, when the idol of Dagon broke in pieces and fell before the ark and a plague broke out in Ashdod, the ark was moved to Gath. When the plague broke out in Gath, it was moved to Ekron. When the plague erupted in Ekron, the Philistines were compelled to return the ark to Israel—as a test, it was placed on a cart pulled by two nursing cows. These cows, going against their motherly instincts, left their penned-up calves and headed for the Israelite border and the town of Beth-shemesh (6:1-21). By this the Lord demonstrated that the victory over the Israelites and the capture of the ark could not be attributed to the Philistines’ god Dagon.<\/p>\n<h6>The Defeat of the Philistines (1 Sm 7)<\/h6>\n<p>Twenty years went by. Samuel assured the people of deliverance from Philistine oppression if they would confess their sin and turn from the worship of Baals and Ashtaroths. He called for a national assembly at Mizpah to renew allegiance to the Lord. While the Israelites were assembled, the Philistines attacked and the Lord gave the Israelites a miraculous victory, thereby demonstrating that obedience to covenant obligations would ensure national security (see Ex 23:22; Dt 20:1-4).<\/p>\n<h5>Kingship Established in Israel (1 Sm 8–12)<\/h5>\n<h6>The People Request a King (1 Sm 8:1-22)<\/h6>\n<p>When Samuel was an old man, the elders of the nation approached him and requested that he give them a king. Samuel immediately perceived that their request was tantamount to a rejection of the Lord, who was their King, for the people desired a king “like the other nations”—as a symbol of national unity and military security. Nevertheless, the Lord told Samuel to give the people a king. At the same time, however, he told Samuel to warn the people concerning what having a king “like the nations” would mean. The warning, descriptive of the practices of contemporary Canaanite kings, fell on deaf ears; the people persisted in their desire for a king.<\/p>\n<h6>Samuel Privately Anoints Saul (1 Sm 9:1–10:16)<\/h6>\n<p>The narrative of Saul’s search for the lost donkeys of his father and his encounter with Samuel in the process of his search is given to explain how Samuel and Saul first met, and how the Lord indicated to Samuel who the person was that he was to anoint as Israel’s first king (9:16-17). After Samuel privately anointed Saul (10:1), he was given three signs to confirm that his new calling came from the Lord.<\/p>\n<h6>Saul Publicly Chosen by Lot at Mizpah (1 Sm 10:17-27)<\/h6>\n<p>After the private designation and anointing of Saul to be king (9:1–10:16), Samuel convened a national assembly at Mizpah to make the Lord’s choice known to the people (10:20-24) and to define the king’s task (v 25). Again, at this assembly, Samuel emphasized that the people had rejected the Lord in requesting a king because they sought a king for the wrong reasons and failed to recognize the Lord’s past faithfulness in delivering them from their enemies. But again it was clear that the time for kingship in Israel had come and it was the Lord’s desire to give the people a king. Samuel’s explanation of the “regulations of the kingship” was an important step in resolving the tension between, on the one hand, Israel’s sin in desiring a king, and on the other, the Lord’s intent to give them a king. This document, which was preserved at the tabernacle, probably contained an enlarged version of the “law of the king” in Deuteronomy 17:14-20 and spelled out regulations governing the role of the king in Israel for the benefit of both the king and the people. This document undoubtedly distinguished Israelite kingship from that of the kings of the surrounding nations.<\/p>\n<h6>Saul Leads Israel to Victory over the Ammonites (1 Sm 11:1-13)<\/h6>\n<p>When Nahash, king of the Ammonites, attacked Jabesh-gilead, a town east of the Jordan in the territory of Manasseh, Saul left his farmwork to lead a volunteer army in support of the inhabitants of Jabesh-gilead. The victory over the Ammonites under Saul’s leadership placed another seal of divine approval on his selection to be king. Saul attributed the victory to the Lord rather than to his own military strategies.<\/p>\n<h6>Saul Inaugurated as King (1 Sm 11:14–12:25)<\/h6>\n<p>The victory at Jabesh-gilead prompted Samuel to call for a national assembly at Gilgal to renew the kingdom and make Saul king (11:14-15). At the Gilgal assembly, Samuel led the people in confessing the sin of their initial request for a king and in renewing their allegiance to the Lord. In the context of this covenant renewal ceremony, Saul was formally inaugurated in his office as king. By inaugurating Saul in this manner, Samuel effectively provided for covenantal continuity in the transition from the period of the judges to that of the monarchy.<\/p>\n<h5>Saul Rejected as King (1 Sm 13–15)<\/h5>\n<h6>Saul’s Disobedience (1 Sm 13:1-22)<\/h6>\n<p>When Saul was threatened with an imminent attack from the Philistines, he gathered troops at Gilgal and awaited Samuel, as he had been instructed (10:8; 13:8). When it appeared that Samuel would not come within the prearranged time, Saul became impatient and offered a sacrifice himself (13:9). Just as the sacrifice was completed, Samuel appeared and rebuked Saul for not keeping the commandment of the Lord. In disobeying Samuel’s previous instructions, Saul had violated a fundamental requirement of his office. He was seriously mistaken in thinking he could strengthen Israel’s hand against the Philistines by sacrifice to the Lord when this was done in violation of the Lord’s specific command. Samuel told Saul that because of his disobedience his dynasty would not endure (v 14).<\/p>\n<h6>Jonathan’s Victory (1 Sm 13:23–14:52)<\/h6>\n<p>Saul’s son Jonathan and Jonathan’s armor bearer skillfully and courageously attacked a Philistine outpost, killing about 20 men (14:8-14). The Lord used this defeat, along with an earthquake, to bring panic to the entire Philistine force. In the meantime, Saul sought divine guidance on whether to join the fray with his own forces. When the Lord’s answer did not come immediately, Saul concluded that waiting for the Lord’s word might jeopardize his military advantage. Here again he demonstrated that he trusted more in his own insight than in waiting upon the Lord. Saul further damaged his own stature in the eyes of his troops by pronouncing a foolish curse on any who would eat food before the battle was won. This nearly cost Jonathan his life; he was spared only because of the intervention of the troops in his defense.<\/p>\n<h6>Saul Rejected as King (1 Sm 15:1-35)<\/h6>\n<p>Saul was commanded by the Lord through Samuel to attack the Amalekites and totally destroy them, sparing neither human nor animal life. The Amalekites had previously attempted to destroy Israel shortly after their exodus from Egypt while journeying to Sinai (Ex 17:8-16). Saul disobeyed the Lord in sparing the best of the animals for sacrifice and in sparing Agag, the Amalekite king. The Lord sent Samuel again to rebuke Saul for his disobedience. Samuel charged Saul with rebellion against the Lord and told him that, because he had rejected the word of the Lord, the Lord had rejected him as king.<\/p>\n<h5>Saul and David (1 Sm 16:1—2 Sm 1:27)<\/h5>\n<h6>Samuel Anoints David (1 Sm 16:1-13)<\/h6>\n<p>The Lord instructed Samuel to go to the house of Jesse in Bethlehem to anoint one of his sons to be king in place of Saul. By divine leading, Jesse’s youngest son, David, was shown to be the one whom the Lord had chosen. When Samuel anointed him as king, the Spirit of the Lord came upon him with power.<\/p>\n<h6>David in the Service of Saul (1 Sm 16:14–17:58)<\/h6>\n<p>When Saul became plagued by an evil spirit, his attendants sought a harpist whose music would soothe him. David was the one chosen for this purpose. The position at the court, however, was not permanent, and David divided his time between the court and his home duties. In due time, the Philistines, led by the giant Goliath, encamped against the Israelites. Goliath challenged any Israelite who dared to meet him in individual combat. No Israelite ventured to accept his challenge until David, who was visiting the camp of the Israelite forces to bring food to his brothers, heard the challenge and responded in the strength and power of the Lord. The Lord gave David a great victory because he acknowledged that “the battle is the <span>Lord<\/span>’s” (17:47, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h6>Saul’s Hatred toward David (1 Sm 18:1–19:24)<\/h6>\n<p>In the aftermath of David’s victory over Goliath, Saul’s son Jonathan pledged loyalty to David in a covenant of friendship. As David achieved further successes in leading Israel’s armies, and as his public acclaim grew, Saul began to fear that David was a threat to his throne (18:14-16, 28-30). Saul, hating David, made several attempts to kill him (18:17, 25; 19:1, 10). David was finally forced to flee and sought refuge with Samuel at Ramah. When Saul and three of his messengers went to Ramah to arrest David, they were so overcome by the Spirit of God that they were incapable of fulfilling their mission.<\/p>\n<h6>David and Jonathan (1 Sm 20:1-42)<\/h6>\n<p>David’s absence from the royal table at the new moon festival provoked Saul to again threaten David’s life. Jonathan met with David at a prearranged place to inform him of the danger and say good-bye. Jonathan and David again pledged themselves to mutual loyalty and kindness. In the encounter it is clear that both men knew that David, not Jonathan, would be the successor to Saul on the throne of Israel.<\/p>\n<h6>David at Nob (1 Sm 21:1-9)<\/h6>\n<p>David went to the priest Ahimelech at Nob and, indicating he was on a secret mission for Saul, asked for bread and for the sword of Goliath, both of which were given to him. One of Saul’s servants, Doeg the Edomite, who was at Nob, observed the transaction.<\/p>\n<h6>David at Gath (1 Sm 21:10-15)<\/h6>\n<p>David then went into Philistine territory to King Achish at Gath. When his identity was discovered, he feigned insanity in order to escape.<\/p>\n<h6>David at Adullam (1 Sm 22:1-5)<\/h6>\n<p>From Gath David went to the cave of Adullam where he was joined by about 400 supporters. He took his parents to Moab for their own protection and then returned to the Forest of Hereth in Judah.<\/p>\n<h6>Saul Kills the Priests at Nob (1 Sm 22:6-23)<\/h6>\n<p>Doeg the Edomite reported to Saul that Ahimelech the priest had given assistance to David. At Saul’s command Doeg massacred all the priests at Nob except Abiathar, who escaped with the ephod and joined David.<\/p>\n<h6>David at Keilah (1 Sm 23:1-13)<\/h6>\n<p>David and his men delivered the citizens of Keilah from Philistine raiders but were forced to leave the city when it was apparent that its unthankful inhabitants were prepared to hand David over to Saul.<\/p>\n<h6>David in the Desert of Ziph (1 Sm 23:14-29)<\/h6>\n<p>While David was in the desert of Ziph, he was encouraged by a visit from Jonathan, who again pledged to him his loyalty. Although the Ziphites promised to aid Saul in capturing David, a Philistine attack forced Saul to abandon his attempt to apprehend him.<\/p>\n<h6>David Spares Saul’s Life (1 Sm 24:1-22)<\/h6>\n<p>While hiding deep in a cave at En-gedi, David was unexpectedly provided the opportunity to take Saul’s life when Saul relieved himself at the entrance to the cave. Nevertheless, because Saul was “the anointed of the Lord,” David spared his life and shamed him into confessing his own wickedness. David did this by showing Saul a piece of his robe that he had cut off while Saul was in the entrance to the cave.<\/p>\n<h6>David, Nabal, and Abigail (1 Sm 25:1-44)<\/h6>\n<p>David was badly mistreated by a sheepherder named Nabal. David was deterred, however, from foolishly taking the man’s life by the discerning words of Nabal’s wife, Abigail. Shortly after this incident, Nabal died and David took Abigail as his wife.<\/p>\n<h6>David Spares Saul’s Life a Second Time (1 Sm 26:1-25)<\/h6>\n<p>For a second time, the Ziphites joined Saul in attempting to capture David. While Saul and his men were sleeping, David and Abishai crept into their camp and took Saul’s spear and water jug. On the next day, David was again able to demonstrate to Saul that he did not seek to steal the kingship from his hands.<\/p>\n<h6>David among the Philistines (1 Sm 27:1-12)<\/h6>\n<p>David eventually became weary of hiding from Saul in Israelite territory; in a time of discouragement, he went again to Philistia to seek refuge beyond Saul’s reach. Ingratiating himself with Achish, a Philistine ruler, he was given the town of Ziklag as a place for himself and his men to reside. From Ziklag, David raided various tribes inhabiting the area south of Philistia, but deceived Achish into thinking he was raiding the territory of Judah.<\/p>\n<h6>Saul and the Medium of Endor (1 Sm 28:1-25)<\/h6>\n<p>The Philistines again gathered an army to fight Israel, and Saul, terrified and seemingly anticipating an imminent defeat, vainly sought for some word from the Lord concerning the outcome of the battle. When this was denied, he went in disguise to a medium at Endor and requested her to bring up to him the spirit of Samuel. Saul was told by this spirit that Israel would be defeated and that he and his sons would die in the upcoming battle.<\/p>\n<h6>The Philistines Mistrust David (1 Sm 29:1-11)<\/h6>\n<p>Although Achish desired David to join the Philistine army in its battle with Israel, the other Philistine commanders mistrusted him and forced Achish to send David and his men back to Ziklag. This turn of events rescued David from a serious dilemma created by his apparent friendship with Achish.<\/p>\n<h6>David Defeats the Amalekites (1 Sm 30:1-31)<\/h6>\n<p>Upon returning to Ziklag, David discovered that in his absence the city had been raided and burned by the Amalekites and that their wives, children, and cattle had been taken captive. After inquiring of the Lord through Abiathar the priest, David and his men went in pursuit of the Amalekites and recovered all they had taken and more. He divided the plunder among his troops and sent gifts from it to various towns in Judah.<\/p>\n<h6>The Death of Saul and His Sons (1 Sm 31:1—2 Sm 1:27)<\/h6>\n<p>As had been predicted, the battle with the Philistines ended in a disastrous defeat for Israel, in which Saul took his own life after being seriously wounded. Jonathan and two other sons of Saul were killed. David mourned for Saul and Jonathan and exalted their memory in his tribute to them recorded in 2 Samuel 1:19-27.<\/p>\n<h5>David (2 Sm 2–24)<\/h5>\n\n<h6>David Anointed King over Judah (2 Sm 2:1-7)<\/h6>\n<p>Subsequent to Saul’s death, the Lord instructed David to go to Hebron, where the tribe of Judah anointed him as their king.<\/p>\n<h6>David, Ishbosheth, and Abner (2 Sm 2:8–4:12)<\/h6>\n<p>Although David became king over Judah, the remaining tribes—under the influence of Abner, commander of Saul’s army—recognized Ishbosheth as Saul’s successor (2:8-10). Ishbosheth was a son of Saul who had survived the battle with the Philistines. Conflict quickly broke out between the men of David, led by Joab, and the men of Ishbosheth, led by Abner. In this conflict Asahel, Joab’s brother, was slain by Abner. As David grew stronger and Ishbosheth weaker, Abner shifted his allegiance from Ishbosheth to David (3:1-21). Joab, however, avenged the blood of his brother Asahel by murdering Abner under the pretense of negotiating with him. Although David detested this act, mourned for Abner, and cursed Joab, the crime was not punished until early in the reign of Solomon (see 1 Kgs 2:5-6, 29-34). Shortly afterward, Ishbosheth was killed by two soldiers, who brought his head to David at Hebron, expecting to be rewarded (2 Sm 4:1-8). David, however, had them both put to death. The only male survivor of Saul’s line was the crippled son of Jonathan named Mephibosheth.<\/p>\n<h6>David King over All Israel (2 Sm 5)<\/h6>\n<p>After Ishbosheth’s death, David was made king over all the tribes at Hebron. One of David’s first acts as king was to capture the fortress of Zion from the Jebusites. David established Zion as his capital and built a palace there for his residence.<\/p>\n<h6>The Ark Brought to Jerusalem (2 Sm 6)<\/h6>\n<p>Recognizing the importance of the ark as a symbol of God’s presence with his people, David determined that it should be brought to Jerusalem from the obscurity of the house of Abinadab in Kiriath-jearim, where it had remained throughout the entirety of Saul’s reign. Violation of prescriptions for handling the ark led to the death of Uzzah, one of Abinadab’s sons, and delayed the ark’s conveyance to Jerusalem for three months. In a second attempt David led a joyful procession into the city of Jerusalem, where the ark was placed in a tent that had been prepared for it.<\/p>\n<h6>David, Nathan, and the Temple (2 Sm 7)<\/h6>\n<p>It soon became David’s desire to build a temple to house the ark and provide a center for Israel’s worship of the Lord. The Lord told David through Nathan the prophet that he was not to build the Lord a house (temple) but that the Lord would build him a house (a dynasty) that would endure forever. Here the line of the promised seed is narrowed to the house of David within the tribe of Judah. This promise finds its fulfillment in the birth of Jesus, who was the “son of David, the son of Abraham” (see Mt 1:1). It would be the task of Solomon, David’s son, to construct the temple (2 Sm 7:13).<\/p>\n<h6>David’s Victories (2 Sm 8)<\/h6>\n<p>David was able to defeat numerous surrounding peoples, to extend Israel’s borders, and to establish a time of prosperity and rest for the nation.<\/p>\n<h6>David and Mephibosheth (2 Sm 9)<\/h6>\n<p>Remembering his covenant with Jonathan (see 1 Sm 18:1-3; 20:13-16, 42), David inquired concerning survivors of the house of Saul to whom he could show kindness. When Mephibosheth was sought out, David brought him to the court to enjoy the honor of eating at the king’s table.<\/p>\n<h6>David and Bathsheba (2 Sm 10–12)<\/h6>\n<p>During a war with the Ammonites, David committed adultery with the wife of one of his soldiers, Uriah the Hittite. When Bathsheba became pregnant, David attempted to get Uriah to sleep with her. When this failed, David arranged for Uriah’s certain death in battle. These sinful acts provoked God’s wrath (2 Sm 12:10-12) and David experienced the bitter fruits of his misconduct during the remainder of his life.<\/p>\n<h6>Amnon, Absalom, and Tamar (2 Sm 13)<\/h6>\n<p>David’s oldest son, Amnon, feigned sickness in order to arrange for his half sister, Tamar, to care for him. When Tamar refused Amnon’s sexual advances to her, he raped her. This incident enraged Tamar’s full brother Absalom, who determined to avenge his sister by killing Amnon. Absalom waited two years and then arranged for the murder of Amnon during the festivities of the time of sheepshearing. He then fled to Geshur, a small city-state in Syria, where his maternal grandfather was king.<\/p>\n<h6>David and Absalom (2 Sm 14–19)<\/h6>\n<p>Absalom remained in exile for three years until Joab arranged for his return by securing a renunciation of blood revenge from David (14:1-27). Upon Absalom’s return, however, David refused to see him for two years, until they were finally reconciled. In this whole episode David sidestepped the issues of repentance and justice and took no effective disciplinary action. In the meantime Absalom conspired to take the throne from David his father by attempting to discredit his administration of justice, and by seeking to win the favor of the people and members of David’s court. After four years, Absalom proclaimed himself king in Hebron and gathered sufficient military strength to force his father to flee from Jerusalem (ch 15). Failure to immediately pursue David led to the defeat of Absalom’s forces and to Absalom’s own death at the hand of Joab, David’s commander. David mourned for his son Absalom (19:1-8), but he was able to return to Jerusalem and to reestablish his government. David disciplined Joab for killing Absalom by replacing him as commander of his troops with Amasa.<\/p>\n<h6>Rebellion of Sheba (2 Sm 20)<\/h6>\n<p>In the unsettled conditions immediately after David’s return to Jerusalem, another abortive revolt was attempted by Sheba of the tribe of Benjamin. Joab, in defiance of David’s disciplinary action, killed Amasa, pursued Sheba, and crushed his revolt.<\/p>\n<h6>David and the Gibeonites (2 Sm 21:1-14)<\/h6>\n<p>At some unspecified time during David’s reign, the land suffered a three-year famine. It was revealed to David by the Lord that the famine was due to Saul’s violation of an Israelite treaty with the Gibeonites (see Jos 9:15, 18-27). This offense was atoned for by giving seven descendants of Saul to the Gibeonites for execution.<\/p>\n<h6>David and the Philistines (2 Sm 21:15-22)<\/h6>\n<p>In this pericope four episodes of heroic accomplishments by David’s mighty men against the Philistines are recounted.<\/p>\n<h6>David’s Song of Praise (2 Sm 22)<\/h6>\n<p>In a beautiful song of praise, David described his deliverance from his enemies and the help with which the Lord sustained him. The same song occurs with minor variations in Psalm 18.<\/p>\n<h6>David’s Last Words (2 Sm 23:1-7)<\/h6>\n<p>In a brief statement, David acknowledges the work of God’s Spirit in enabling him to speak God’s word, and proclaims his confidence in the realization of the Lord’s promise to him and his dynasty.<\/p>\n<h6>David’s Mighty Men (2 Sm 23:8-39)<\/h6>\n<p>This pericope contains a list of 37 of David’s warriors and a description of some of their accomplishments.<\/p>\n<h6>The Census and David’s Punishment (2 Sm 24:1-25)<\/h6>\n<p>David’s decision to take a census of his fighting men reflected an improper trust in military-political organization and power. The Lord judged him by sending a plague on the land that killed many people. At the word of the Lord through Gad the prophet, David built an altar on the threshing floor of Araunah, which was later to become the site of the temple (see 2 Chr 3:1). The Lord responded to David’s sacrifices and prayers on behalf of the people; the plague was stopped.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> David; Samuel (Person); Saul #2.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SAMUEL, Books of First and Second Preview • Name • Author and Date • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Name First and Second Samuel derive their names from the individual whom God used to establish kingship in Israel. Samuel is the most prominent figure in the early narratives of 1 Samuel. His key role in leading the nation of Israel through the transition from the period of the judges to that of the monarchy warrants the use of his name as the title for the book. These books, howeve...","summary_en":"SAMUEL, Books of First and Second Preview • Name • Author and Date • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Name First and Second Samuel derive their names from the individual whom God used to establish kingship in Israel. Samuel is the most prominent figure in the early narratives of 1 Samuel. His key role in leading the nation of Israel through the transition from the period of the judges to that of the monarchy warrants the use of his name as the title for the book. These books, howeve...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":46269,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:1","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:1-23<\/strong> David was Saul’s replacement. There are striking similarities between the two: Samuel anointed both. Neither was pursuing the position. Both were unlikely candidates (Saul was from the smallest tribe; David was the youngest son). Both were impressive in appearance (9:2; 16:12). And the Spirit came mightily on each when he was anointed king (10:10; 11:6; 16:13). The key difference was that David was “a man after [God’s] own heart” (13:14; cp. 16:7), while Saul was not.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:1-23<\/strong> David was Saul’s replacement. There are striking similarities between the two: Samuel anointed both. Neither was pursuing the position. Both were unlikely candidates (Saul was from the smallest tribe; David was the youngest son). Both were impressive in appearance (9:2; 16:12). And the Spirit came mightily on each when he was anointed king (10:10; 11:6; 16:13). The key difference was that David was “a man after [God’s] own heart” (13:14; cp. 16:7), while Saul was not.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:1-23 David was Saul’s replacement. There are striking similarities between the two: Samuel anointed both. Neither was pursuing the position. Both were unlikely candidates (Saul was from the smallest tribe; David was the youngest son). Both were impressive in appearance (9:2; 16:12). And the Spirit came mightily on each when he was anointed king (10:10; 11:6; 16:13). The key difference was that David was “a man after [God’s] own heart” (13:14; cp. 16:7), while Saul was not.","summary_en":"16:1-23 David was Saul’s replacement. There are striking similarities between the two: Samuel anointed both. Neither was pursuing the position. Both were unlikely candidates (Saul was from the smallest tribe; David was the youngest son). Both were impressive in appearance (9:2; 16:12). And the Spirit came mightily on each when he was anointed king (10:10; 11:6; 16:13). The key difference was that David was “a man after [God’s] own heart” (13:14; cp. 16:7), while Saul was not.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":46270,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:1","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:1<\/strong> <em>mourned long enough:<\/em> See study note on 15:35. • <em>Bethlehem<\/em> was about five miles south of Jerusalem. It was later known as the City of David (Luke 2:11) and the birthplace of Jesus. • <em>Jesse<\/em> was the grandson of Boaz and Ruth (Ruth 4:22). • <em>I have selected:<\/em> This Hebrew verb implies that God had seen <em>one of [Jesse’s] sons<\/em> and based his choice on what he saw. God, the eternal king, knows better than the people of Israel how to choose a good <em>king<\/em> to serve the nation, and he provided a replacement for Saul who would lead Israel well.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:1<\/strong> <em>mourned long enough:<\/em> See study note on 15:35. • <em>Bethlehem<\/em> was about five miles south of Jerusalem. It was later known as the City of David (Luke 2:11) and the birthplace of Jesus. • <em>Jesse<\/em> was the grandson of Boaz and Ruth (Ruth 4:22). • <em>I have selected:<\/em> This Hebrew verb implies that God had seen <em>one of [Jesse’s] sons<\/em> and based his choice on what he saw. God, the eternal king, knows better than the people of Israel how to choose a good <em>king<\/em> to serve the nation, and he provided a replacement for Saul who would lead Israel well.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:1 mourned long enough: See study note on 15:35. • Bethlehem was about five miles south of Jerusalem. It was later known as the City of David (Luke 2:11) and the birthplace of Jesus. • Jesse was the grandson of Boaz and Ruth (Ruth 4:22). • I have selected: This Hebrew verb implies that God had seen one of [Jesse’s] sons and based his choice on what he saw. God, the eternal king, knows better than the people of Israel how to choose a good king to serve the nation, and he provided a replaceme...","summary_en":"16:1 mourned long enough: See study note on 15:35. • Bethlehem was about five miles south of Jerusalem. It was later known as the City of David (Luke 2:11) and the birthplace of Jesus. • Jesse was the grandson of Boaz and Ruth (Ruth 4:22). • I have selected: This Hebrew verb implies that God had seen one of [Jesse’s] sons and based his choice on what he saw. God, the eternal king, knows better than the people of Israel how to choose a good king to serve the nation, and he provided a replaceme...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":73895,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:1","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:1-23<\/strong> David was Saul’s replacement. There are striking similarities between the two: Samuel anointed both. Neither was pursuing the position. Both were unlikely candidates (Saul was from the smallest tribe; David was the youngest son). Both were impressive in appearance (9:2; 16:12). And the Spirit came mightily on each when he was anointed king (10:10; 11:6; 16:13). The key difference was that David was “a man after [God’s] own heart” (13:14; cp. 16:7), while Saul was not.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:1-23<\/strong> David was Saul’s replacement. There are striking similarities between the two: Samuel anointed both. Neither was pursuing the position. Both were unlikely candidates (Saul was from the smallest tribe; David was the youngest son). Both were impressive in appearance (9:2; 16:12). And the Spirit came mightily on each when he was anointed king (10:10; 11:6; 16:13). The key difference was that David was “a man after [God’s] own heart” (13:14; cp. 16:7), while Saul was not.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:1-23 David was Saul’s replacement. There are striking similarities between the two: Samuel anointed both. Neither was pursuing the position. Both were unlikely candidates (Saul was from the smallest tribe; David was the youngest son). Both were impressive in appearance (9:2; 16:12). And the Spirit came mightily on each when he was anointed king (10:10; 11:6; 16:13). The key difference was that David was “a man after [God’s] own heart” (13:14; cp. 16:7), while Saul was not.","summary_en":"16:1-23 David was Saul’s replacement. There are striking similarities between the two: Samuel anointed both. Neither was pursuing the position. Both were unlikely candidates (Saul was from the smallest tribe; David was the youngest son). Both were impressive in appearance (9:2; 16:12). And the Spirit came mightily on each when he was anointed king (10:10; 11:6; 16:13). The key difference was that David was “a man after [God’s] own heart” (13:14; cp. 16:7), while Saul was not.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":73896,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:1","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:1<\/strong> <em>mourned long enough:<\/em> See study note on 15:35. • <em>Bethlehem<\/em> was about five miles south of Jerusalem. It was later known as the City of David (Luke 2:11) and the birthplace of Jesus. • <em>Jesse<\/em> was the grandson of Boaz and Ruth (Ruth 4:22). • <em>I have selected:<\/em> This Hebrew verb implies that God had seen <em>one of [Jesse’s] sons<\/em> and based his choice on what he saw. God, the eternal king, knows better than the people of Israel how to choose a good <em>king<\/em> to serve the nation, and he provided a replacement for Saul who would lead Israel well.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:1<\/strong> <em>mourned long enough:<\/em> See study note on 15:35. • <em>Bethlehem<\/em> was about five miles south of Jerusalem. It was later known as the City of David (Luke 2:11) and the birthplace of Jesus. • <em>Jesse<\/em> was the grandson of Boaz and Ruth (Ruth 4:22). • <em>I have selected:<\/em> This Hebrew verb implies that God had seen <em>one of [Jesse’s] sons<\/em> and based his choice on what he saw. God, the eternal king, knows better than the people of Israel how to choose a good <em>king<\/em> to serve the nation, and he provided a replacement for Saul who would lead Israel well.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:1 mourned long enough: See study note on 15:35. • Bethlehem was about five miles south of Jerusalem. It was later known as the City of David (Luke 2:11) and the birthplace of Jesus. • Jesse was the grandson of Boaz and Ruth (Ruth 4:22). • I have selected: This Hebrew verb implies that God had seen one of [Jesse’s] sons and based his choice on what he saw. God, the eternal king, knows better than the people of Israel how to choose a good king to serve the nation, and he provided a replaceme...","summary_en":"16:1 mourned long enough: See study note on 15:35. • Bethlehem was about five miles south of Jerusalem. It was later known as the City of David (Luke 2:11) and the birthplace of Jesus. • Jesse was the grandson of Boaz and Ruth (Ruth 4:22). • I have selected: This Hebrew verb implies that God had seen one of [Jesse’s] sons and based his choice on what he saw. God, the eternal king, knows better than the people of Israel how to choose a good king to serve the nation, and he provided a replaceme...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101521,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:1","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:1-23<\/strong> David was Saul’s replacement. There are striking similarities between the two: Samuel anointed both. Neither was pursuing the position. Both were unlikely candidates (Saul was from the smallest tribe; David was the youngest son). Both were impressive in appearance (9:2; 16:12). And the Spirit came mightily on each when he was anointed king (10:10; 11:6; 16:13). The key difference was that David was “a man after [God’s] own heart” (13:14; cp. 16:7), while Saul was not.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:1-23<\/strong> David was Saul’s replacement. There are striking similarities between the two: Samuel anointed both. Neither was pursuing the position. Both were unlikely candidates (Saul was from the smallest tribe; David was the youngest son). Both were impressive in appearance (9:2; 16:12). And the Spirit came mightily on each when he was anointed king (10:10; 11:6; 16:13). The key difference was that David was “a man after [God’s] own heart” (13:14; cp. 16:7), while Saul was not.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:1-23 David was Saul’s replacement. There are striking similarities between the two: Samuel anointed both. Neither was pursuing the position. Both were unlikely candidates (Saul was from the smallest tribe; David was the youngest son). Both were impressive in appearance (9:2; 16:12). And the Spirit came mightily on each when he was anointed king (10:10; 11:6; 16:13). The key difference was that David was “a man after [God’s] own heart” (13:14; cp. 16:7), while Saul was not.","summary_en":"16:1-23 David was Saul’s replacement. There are striking similarities between the two: Samuel anointed both. Neither was pursuing the position. Both were unlikely candidates (Saul was from the smallest tribe; David was the youngest son). Both were impressive in appearance (9:2; 16:12). And the Spirit came mightily on each when he was anointed king (10:10; 11:6; 16:13). The key difference was that David was “a man after [God’s] own heart” (13:14; cp. 16:7), while Saul was not.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101522,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:1","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:1<\/strong> <em>mourned long enough:<\/em> See study note on 15:35. • <em>Bethlehem<\/em> was about five miles south of Jerusalem. It was later known as the City of David (Luke 2:11) and the birthplace of Jesus. • <em>Jesse<\/em> was the grandson of Boaz and Ruth (Ruth 4:22). • <em>I have selected:<\/em> This Hebrew verb implies that God had seen <em>one of [Jesse’s] sons<\/em> and based his choice on what he saw. God, the eternal king, knows better than the people of Israel how to choose a good <em>king<\/em> to serve the nation, and he provided a replacement for Saul who would lead Israel well.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:1<\/strong> <em>mourned long enough:<\/em> See study note on 15:35. • <em>Bethlehem<\/em> was about five miles south of Jerusalem. It was later known as the City of David (Luke 2:11) and the birthplace of Jesus. • <em>Jesse<\/em> was the grandson of Boaz and Ruth (Ruth 4:22). • <em>I have selected:<\/em> This Hebrew verb implies that God had seen <em>one of [Jesse’s] sons<\/em> and based his choice on what he saw. God, the eternal king, knows better than the people of Israel how to choose a good <em>king<\/em> to serve the nation, and he provided a replacement for Saul who would lead Israel well.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:1 mourned long enough: See study note on 15:35. • Bethlehem was about five miles south of Jerusalem. It was later known as the City of David (Luke 2:11) and the birthplace of Jesus. • Jesse was the grandson of Boaz and Ruth (Ruth 4:22). • I have selected: This Hebrew verb implies that God had seen one of [Jesse’s] sons and based his choice on what he saw. God, the eternal king, knows better than the people of Israel how to choose a good king to serve the nation, and he provided a replaceme...","summary_en":"16:1 mourned long enough: See study note on 15:35. • Bethlehem was about five miles south of Jerusalem. It was later known as the City of David (Luke 2:11) and the birthplace of Jesus. • Jesse was the grandson of Boaz and Ruth (Ruth 4:22). • I have selected: This Hebrew verb implies that God had seen one of [Jesse’s] sons and based his choice on what he saw. God, the eternal king, knows better than the people of Israel how to choose a good king to serve the nation, and he provided a replaceme...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":129147,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:1","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:1-23<\/strong> David was Saul’s replacement. There are striking similarities between the two: Samuel anointed both. Neither was pursuing the position. Both were unlikely candidates (Saul was from the smallest tribe; David was the youngest son). Both were impressive in appearance (9:2; 16:12). And the Spirit came mightily on each when he was anointed king (10:10; 11:6; 16:13). The key difference was that David was “a man after [God’s] own heart” (13:14; cp. 16:7), while Saul was not.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:1-23<\/strong> David was Saul’s replacement. There are striking similarities between the two: Samuel anointed both. Neither was pursuing the position. Both were unlikely candidates (Saul was from the smallest tribe; David was the youngest son). Both were impressive in appearance (9:2; 16:12). And the Spirit came mightily on each when he was anointed king (10:10; 11:6; 16:13). The key difference was that David was “a man after [God’s] own heart” (13:14; cp. 16:7), while Saul was not.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:1-23 David was Saul’s replacement. There are striking similarities between the two: Samuel anointed both. Neither was pursuing the position. Both were unlikely candidates (Saul was from the smallest tribe; David was the youngest son). Both were impressive in appearance (9:2; 16:12). And the Spirit came mightily on each when he was anointed king (10:10; 11:6; 16:13). The key difference was that David was “a man after [God’s] own heart” (13:14; cp. 16:7), while Saul was not.","summary_en":"16:1-23 David was Saul’s replacement. There are striking similarities between the two: Samuel anointed both. Neither was pursuing the position. Both were unlikely candidates (Saul was from the smallest tribe; David was the youngest son). Both were impressive in appearance (9:2; 16:12). And the Spirit came mightily on each when he was anointed king (10:10; 11:6; 16:13). The key difference was that David was “a man after [God’s] own heart” (13:14; cp. 16:7), while Saul was not.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":129148,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:1","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:1<\/strong> <em>mourned long enough:<\/em> See study note on 15:35. • <em>Bethlehem<\/em> was about five miles south of Jerusalem. It was later known as the City of David (Luke 2:11) and the birthplace of Jesus. • <em>Jesse<\/em> was the grandson of Boaz and Ruth (Ruth 4:22). • <em>I have selected:<\/em> This Hebrew verb implies that God had seen <em>one of [Jesse’s] sons<\/em> and based his choice on what he saw. God, the eternal king, knows better than the people of Israel how to choose a good <em>king<\/em> to serve the nation, and he provided a replacement for Saul who would lead Israel well.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:1<\/strong> <em>mourned long enough:<\/em> See study note on 15:35. • <em>Bethlehem<\/em> was about five miles south of Jerusalem. It was later known as the City of David (Luke 2:11) and the birthplace of Jesus. • <em>Jesse<\/em> was the grandson of Boaz and Ruth (Ruth 4:22). • <em>I have selected:<\/em> This Hebrew verb implies that God had seen <em>one of [Jesse’s] sons<\/em> and based his choice on what he saw. God, the eternal king, knows better than the people of Israel how to choose a good <em>king<\/em> to serve the nation, and he provided a replacement for Saul who would lead Israel well.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:1 mourned long enough: See study note on 15:35. • Bethlehem was about five miles south of Jerusalem. It was later known as the City of David (Luke 2:11) and the birthplace of Jesus. • Jesse was the grandson of Boaz and Ruth (Ruth 4:22). • I have selected: This Hebrew verb implies that God had seen one of [Jesse’s] sons and based his choice on what he saw. God, the eternal king, knows better than the people of Israel how to choose a good king to serve the nation, and he provided a replaceme...","summary_en":"16:1 mourned long enough: See study note on 15:35. • Bethlehem was about five miles south of Jerusalem. It was later known as the City of David (Luke 2:11) and the birthplace of Jesus. • Jesse was the grandson of Boaz and Ruth (Ruth 4:22). • I have selected: This Hebrew verb implies that God had seen one of [Jesse’s] sons and based his choice on what he saw. God, the eternal king, knows better than the people of Israel how to choose a good king to serve the nation, and he provided a replaceme...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"2":[{"id":46271,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:2","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:2<\/strong> <em>say that you have come to make a sacrifice:<\/em> God sometimes leads his servants into dangerous situations. He protects his own—sometimes by miracle, sometimes by strategy (cp. Exod 3:18-22). In Samuel’s role as a priestly judge, he would not have raised any suspicions by offering a sacrifice (see 1 Sam 10:8).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:2<\/strong> <em>say that you have come to make a sacrifice:<\/em> God sometimes leads his servants into dangerous situations. He protects his own—sometimes by miracle, sometimes by strategy (cp. Exod 3:18-22). In Samuel’s role as a priestly judge, he would not have raised any suspicions by offering a sacrifice (see 1 Sam 10:8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:2 say that you have come to make a sacrifice: God sometimes leads his servants into dangerous situations. He protects his own—sometimes by miracle, sometimes by strategy (cp. Exod 3:18-22). In Samuel’s role as a priestly judge, he would not have raised any suspicions by offering a sacrifice (see 1 Sam 10:8).","summary_en":"16:2 say that you have come to make a sacrifice: God sometimes leads his servants into dangerous situations. He protects his own—sometimes by miracle, sometimes by strategy (cp. Exod 3:18-22). In Samuel’s role as a priestly judge, he would not have raised any suspicions by offering a sacrifice (see 1 Sam 10:8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":73897,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:2","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:2<\/strong> <em>say that you have come to make a sacrifice:<\/em> God sometimes leads his servants into dangerous situations. He protects his own—sometimes by miracle, sometimes by strategy (cp. Exod 3:18-22). In Samuel’s role as a priestly judge, he would not have raised any suspicions by offering a sacrifice (see 1 Sam 10:8).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:2<\/strong> <em>say that you have come to make a sacrifice:<\/em> God sometimes leads his servants into dangerous situations. He protects his own—sometimes by miracle, sometimes by strategy (cp. Exod 3:18-22). In Samuel’s role as a priestly judge, he would not have raised any suspicions by offering a sacrifice (see 1 Sam 10:8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:2 say that you have come to make a sacrifice: God sometimes leads his servants into dangerous situations. He protects his own—sometimes by miracle, sometimes by strategy (cp. Exod 3:18-22). In Samuel’s role as a priestly judge, he would not have raised any suspicions by offering a sacrifice (see 1 Sam 10:8).","summary_en":"16:2 say that you have come to make a sacrifice: God sometimes leads his servants into dangerous situations. He protects his own—sometimes by miracle, sometimes by strategy (cp. Exod 3:18-22). In Samuel’s role as a priestly judge, he would not have raised any suspicions by offering a sacrifice (see 1 Sam 10:8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101523,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:2","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:2<\/strong> <em>say that you have come to make a sacrifice:<\/em> God sometimes leads his servants into dangerous situations. He protects his own—sometimes by miracle, sometimes by strategy (cp. Exod 3:18-22). In Samuel’s role as a priestly judge, he would not have raised any suspicions by offering a sacrifice (see 1 Sam 10:8).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:2<\/strong> <em>say that you have come to make a sacrifice:<\/em> God sometimes leads his servants into dangerous situations. He protects his own—sometimes by miracle, sometimes by strategy (cp. Exod 3:18-22). In Samuel’s role as a priestly judge, he would not have raised any suspicions by offering a sacrifice (see 1 Sam 10:8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:2 say that you have come to make a sacrifice: God sometimes leads his servants into dangerous situations. He protects his own—sometimes by miracle, sometimes by strategy (cp. Exod 3:18-22). In Samuel’s role as a priestly judge, he would not have raised any suspicions by offering a sacrifice (see 1 Sam 10:8).","summary_en":"16:2 say that you have come to make a sacrifice: God sometimes leads his servants into dangerous situations. He protects his own—sometimes by miracle, sometimes by strategy (cp. Exod 3:18-22). In Samuel’s role as a priestly judge, he would not have raised any suspicions by offering a sacrifice (see 1 Sam 10:8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":129149,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:2","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:2<\/strong> <em>say that you have come to make a sacrifice:<\/em> God sometimes leads his servants into dangerous situations. He protects his own—sometimes by miracle, sometimes by strategy (cp. Exod 3:18-22). In Samuel’s role as a priestly judge, he would not have raised any suspicions by offering a sacrifice (see 1 Sam 10:8).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:2<\/strong> <em>say that you have come to make a sacrifice:<\/em> God sometimes leads his servants into dangerous situations. He protects his own—sometimes by miracle, sometimes by strategy (cp. Exod 3:18-22). In Samuel’s role as a priestly judge, he would not have raised any suspicions by offering a sacrifice (see 1 Sam 10:8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:2 say that you have come to make a sacrifice: God sometimes leads his servants into dangerous situations. He protects his own—sometimes by miracle, sometimes by strategy (cp. Exod 3:18-22). In Samuel’s role as a priestly judge, he would not have raised any suspicions by offering a sacrifice (see 1 Sam 10:8).","summary_en":"16:2 say that you have come to make a sacrifice: God sometimes leads his servants into dangerous situations. He protects his own—sometimes by miracle, sometimes by strategy (cp. Exod 3:18-22). In Samuel’s role as a priestly judge, he would not have raised any suspicions by offering a sacrifice (see 1 Sam 10:8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"4":[{"id":28320,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Offerings and Sacrifices","title_en":"Offerings and Sacrifices","content_ro":"<h3>OFFERINGS AND SACRIFICES<\/h3>\n<p>Major ritual expressions of religious life with accompanying rites, such as libations, effusions, and sacred meals. The ideology expressed in Israel’s ritual complex made its religion unique in the ancient Near East. The concepts of OT ritual also underlie NT theology with regard to sin and reconciliation to God through the atoning death of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PerformanceandOrderofSacrifices\">Performance and Order of Sacrifices<\/p>\n<p>The main source for a description of the correct performance of sacrificial ritual is the opening section of Leviticus (Lv 1–7). It consists of two separate parts. The first (1:1–6:7) is didactic, dealing with two categories of sacrifice: those of a “pleasing odor,” namely, the burnt (1:1-17), the grain (2:1-16), and the peace offerings (3:1-17); and the expiatory sacrifices, namely, the sin (4:1–5:13) and the guilt or trespass offerings (5:14–6:7). Attention is paid to the minute details of each ritual, and they are grouped according to their logical or conceptual associations.<\/p>\n<p>The grain (or cereal) offering follows the burnt offering because it always accompanied it in actual practice (Nm 15:1-21; chs 28–29); it also went with the peace offering (Lv 7:12-14; Nm 15:3-4). Special emphasis is placed on burning the inward parts of a sacrifice on the altar to make a “pleasing odor to the Lord” (Lv 1:9, 17; 2:2, 9, 12; 3:5, 11, 16). When the Lord smelled the pleasing odor (Gn 8:21), it was a sign of divine favor; refusal indicated God’s displeasure (Lv 26:31). The officiating priest evidently knew how to read the signs and would tell the offerer whether his sacrifice had been accepted (1 Sm 26:19; cf. Am 5:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>The sin and guilt offerings were expiatory (Lv 4:1–6:7, 20). The situations requiring such offerings are listed, and special emphasis is laid on the handling of the blood in the ritual.<\/p>\n<p>The second major section in this passage (Lv 6:8–7:38) stresses the administrative details for the various offerings. This section consists of a series of “instructions” for each type of offering pertaining to the distribution of the sacrificial materials. Some went to the priest(s), some went to the offerer, and others were burned on the altar or disposed of outside the camp. Those sacrifices designated as “most holy” were to be eaten only by qualified members of the priesthood (Lv 2:3, 10; 10:12-17; 14:13; Nm 18:9).<\/p>\n<p>The burnt offering is discussed first because it was entirely consumed on the altar (and thus not eaten by anyone). After it, there follow the sacrifices distributed to the officiants (Lv 6:17, 26, 29; 7:1, 6), and at the end come the peace offerings, a significant portion of which was returned to the offender.<\/p>\n<p>The order in which the sacrifices are treated in this passage also corresponds to their relative frequency in the rituals of the sacred calendar (Nm 28:19; 2 Chr 31:3; Ez 45:17). This would be particularly important for the priests and Levites on duty at the temple because they were responsible for the logistics of the daily sacrificial ritual, especially on the high holidays; management of the temple storehouse was a formidable task (1 Chr 23:28-32; 26:15, 20-22; 2 Chr 13:10-11; 30:3-19; 34:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>Each section concerning a particular offering concludes with the logistic or administrative details peculiar to it. There then follows a summary of the matters treated thus far (Lv 7:7-10), and the section concludes with a treatment of the peace offerings (vv 11-36). The latter did not play a role in the sacred calendar except during the Feast of Weeks (23:19-20); on all other occasions, with the two exceptions of the Nazirite vow and the installation of the priesthood, peace offerings were purely voluntary sacrifices and thus not subject to any fixed bookkeeping.<\/p>\n<p>In other biblical contexts, the sacrifices are listed according to the same “bookkeeping” or “administrative” order: burnt, grain, and drink; sin (or guilt); and sometimes peace offerings. An example is the roster of donations made by the tribal leaders for dedication of the altar (Nm 7). The information is organized like an everyday ledger from the temple storehouse; the summary classifies the animals as burnt, grain, sin, and peace offerings (vv 87-88) in accordance with the respective entries from each donor (vv 15-17). The Levitical scribe had two purposes for such a record: to credit the offerers and to record the treasures and food supplies coming in. Much of the foodstuffs being given as offerings was actually apportioned to the officiating priests (Nm 18:8-11; 2 Chr 31:4-19).<\/p>\n<p>When prescriptions were made as to the type and number of offerings to be brought (e.g., Nm 15:24), the “bookkeeping” order is generally followed. This was true of the calendarial sacrifices; burnt and grain offerings and libations were listed, followed by a sin offering for each of the following: New Moon (Nm 28:11-15), each day of Passover (vv 19-22), the Festival of Weeks (Lv 23:18-19; Nm 28:27-30), Trumpets (29:2-5), Day of Atonement (vv 8-11), and each day of the Feast of Tabernacles (vv 12-16).<\/p>\n<p>For sacrifices required in specific cases, the instructions as to what offerings to bring follow this sequence (e.g., the purification of a woman after giving birth, Lv 12:6-8). Note also the offerings given at the successful termination of a Nazirite vow; the Nazirite brought burnt, sin, and peace offerings (with some special grain offerings, Nm 6:14-15). However, the priest conducted the actual ritual according to a different order; the sin offering was made first, followed by the burnt offering and finally the peace offering (vv 16-17). In the case of an incomplete vow, the first step was to offer a sin offering and then a burnt offering to renew the vow (v 11). The reconsecration of the Nazirite required a separate guilt offering—a distinct ritual act (v 12).<\/p>\n<p>The description of the offerings made by the prince of Israel in the latter days presents the same contrast between the two orders of sacrifices. On festival holidays the prince brought burnt, grain, and drink offerings, but he offered them as sin, grain, burnt, and peace offerings (Ez 45:17). This second order of sacrifices in which the sin offering precedes the burnt offering was also followed in the rededication of the altar (43:18-27).<\/p>\n<p>The same “procedural” sequence of sacrifices appears in other instances: the purification of the leper—guilt and sin offerings (Lv 14:19), followed by a burnt offering (vv 12-20); the man with a discharge—sin and burnt offerings (15:15); likewise the woman with a discharge (v 30). The same order is followed for the sacrifices on the Day of Atonement (16:3-6, 11, 15, 24).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Leviticus furnishes two examples of the proper order in which sacrifices were offered. One is the ordination of Aaron and his sons. The sin offering came first and then the burnt offering (Ex 29:10-18; Lv 8:14-21). The focal point in this ritual was the sacrifice of ordination, or literally “installation,” a special form of peace offering (Ex 29:19-34; Lv 8:22-29). The second passage is the formal inauguration of the sacrificial system at the tabernacle (Lv 9). The sacrifices for Aaron were sin and burnt offerings, followed by those for the people: sin, burnt, grain, and peace offerings (9:7-22).<\/p>\n<p>The same sequence is followed at the cleansing and restoration of the temple in Jerusalem conducted by King Hezekiah (2 Chr 29:20-36). A great sin offering was first, followed by the burnt offerings accompanied by music and song. Then the king proclaimed that the people had committed themselves to the Lord; in this new state of purity they could now share in the sacrifices of devotion (burnt offerings) and thanksgiving (peace offerings).<\/p>\n<p>The procedural order of the sacrifices embodies the OT ideology of how God may be approached. First, atonement for sin had to be made and then total consecration of self; these are symbolized by the sin and\/or guilt offerings and the burnt and grain offerings, respectively. When these conditions were met, the offerer could express his continued devotion by more burnt offerings and also take part in the fellowship sacrifices (peace offerings) in which he himself got a large portion of the slaughtered animal (to share with his friends and the poor in his community; Dt 12:17-19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DescriptionofSacrifices\">Description of Sacrifices<\/p>\n<p>The ensuing description of the different types of sacrifice will treat them in accordance with the “procedural” order, that is, as symbolic stages in one’s approach to God.<\/p>\n<h5>Expiation<\/h5>\n<p>These two offerings were required for making atonement for sins and trespasses:<\/p>\n<p>1. Sin offering (Lv 4:1–5:13; 6:24-30). Different animals were specified in accordance with the rank of the offerer. A high priest had to bring a young bull (4:3), as did the congregation as a whole (v 14), except when the matter was a ritual infraction (Nm 15:24). A ruler would bring a male goat (Lv 4:23), but a commoner could provide a female goat (v 28; Nm 15:27) or a lamb (Lv 4:32). If he was indigent, he could offer two turtledoves or two young pigeons (one of which would be a burnt offering; 5:7), or if he was extremely poor, he might even substitute a tenth of an ephah of fine flour (Lv 5:11-13; cf. Heb 9:22).<\/p>\n\n<p>The offerer brought the animal to the entrance of the temple court and laid his hand on it (Lv 4:4). He did not confess his sin in this act because the animal was not being sent away (cf. the goat for Azazel, 16:21); rather, he was identifying himself with the sacrifice. The offerer had to kill the animal on the north side of the altar (4:24, 29). The animals were never slaughtered on the altar proper. The officiating priest collected the blood; when it was a bull for himself or for the congregation, he sprinkled some of the blood before the veil inside the tent of meeting and put some on the horns of the incense altar (vv 5-7, 16-18). On the Day of Atonement he brought the sacrificial blood for himself and for the people into the Holy of Holies (16:14-15). From all other animals, the blood was applied to the horns of the altar of burnt offering (4:25, 30, 34); the blood of fowl was sprinkled on the side of the altar (5:9). Finally, the remaining blood from any offering was poured or drained out at the base of the altar (4:7).<\/p>\n<p>The choicest of the internal organs, namely, the fatty tissue over and on the entrails, the two kidneys and their fat, and the appendage to the liver, were all offered to the Lord on the altar (Lv 4:8-10). The carcass and the other entrails were burned outside the camp when it was a bull for the priest or for the people. This was also true of the bull for the ordination of the priests (Ex 29:10-14; Lv 8:14-17). Otherwise, the priest who conducted the rites received the edible flesh as his portion. He had to eat it within the temple area, and its preparation was governed by strict rules of ritual purity (Lv 6:25-30; cf. 10:16-20). A sin offering of one male goat was presented at each of the sacred holidays: the New Moon (Nm 28:15), each day of Passover (vv 22-24), the Festival of Weeks (v 30), the Festival of Trumpets (29:5), the Day of Atonement (v 11), and each day of the Feast of Tabernacles (vv 16, 19). The high priest also offered a bull for himself and then sacrificed one of the two goats on the Day of Atonement. Certain purification rites required lesser sin offerings, namely, lambs or birds: childbirth (Lv 12:6-8), cleansing from leprosy (14:12-14, 19-22), and abscesses and hemorrhages (15:14-15, 29-30) or after defilement while under a vow (Nm 6:10-11).<\/p>\n<li>2. Guilt offering (Lv 5:14–6:7; 7:1-7). The guilt or trespass offering was a special kind of sin offering (cf. 5:7) required whenever someone had been denied his rightful due. Reparation of the valued amount that had been defrauded had to be made, plus a fine of one-fifth (5:16; 6:5). The animal was usually a ram (5:15, 18; 6:6). The cleansed leper and the defiled Nazirite had to bring a male lamb (Lv 14:12, 21; Nm 6:12). The offerer apparently handled the sacrifice as he would a sin offering, but the priest had to sprinkle the blood around the altar (Lv 7:2). Viscera were burned on the altar as usual (vv 3-5). Some of the blood was then applied to the tip of the cleansed leper’s right ear and to his right thumb and big toe (14:14). Again the priest received most of the animal’s flesh for food (7:6-7; 14:13). A guilt offering was required whenever another party had suffered some loss. Ritual infractions, such as eating the “holy things” without proper authorization (5:14-19; 22:14), called for payment of the sum that should have gone to the Lord plus the fine of one-fifth that went to the priest (Lv 5:16; 2 Kgs 12:16). The leper belongs in this category, since during the time of his infection he was unable to render service to God (Lv 14:12-18). The same applies to the Nazirite who had suffered defilement while he was set apart to God by the vow; thus a guilt offering was required (Nm 6:12). Violation of another person’s property rights could be expiated only by the guilt offering and its additional one-fifth. Such matters included cheating on deposits or security, robbery or oppression, failing to report the find of some lost property, or false swearing or failing to testify (Lv 6:1-5). Intercourse with a betrothed slave girl was also a violation of property rights (19:20-22). If the offended party was no longer living and had no surviving kinsmen, the payment went to the priest (Nm 5:5-10).<\/li>\n<h5>Consecration Offerings<\/h5>\n<p>These rituals usually come to mind when one hears the word “offering.” They represent acts of personal commitment that must accompany the repentance expressed in the sin and guilt offerings. They were also a prerequisite for the fellowship or communal sacrifices that might follow.<\/p>\n<p>1. Burnt offering (Lv 1:3-17; 6:8-13). The burnt offering could be a bull, a sheep, or a bird. The offerer presented the animal, laid his hand on it, and killed it on the north side of the altar. The bird was simply given to the priest. The latter collected the blood, presented it before God, and then sprinkled it around the altar. When the offering was a bird, he wrung off its head and drained the blood at the side of the altar. Though the slaughtering and sprinkling of the blood relates the burnt offering to the expiatory sacrifices of the previous section, the main emphasis here is on killing the animal, washing its unclean parts, and then carefully arranging all of the pieces on the altar. All of this was then consumed on the altar as a pleasing odor to the Lord. Since burnt offerings were offered morning and evening, a good supply of wood by the altar was necessary. The officiating priest, dressed in proper garments, had to keep the fire burning continuously (6:8-13).<\/p>\n<p>Burnt offerings played a prominent role in the sacrifices of the ritual calendar. The continual burnt offering was made twice a day, a male lamb morning and evening (Ex 29:38-42; Nm 28:1-8). Two additional lambs were sacrificed each Sabbath (Nm 28:9-10).<\/p>\n<p>Except for these daily offerings, a sin offering of one goat was usually made along with the burnt offerings on the following holidays: For the New Moon at the beginning of each month, two young bulls, one ram, and seven male lambs were offered (Nm 28:11-14). The same were required for each day of the Passover festival (vv 19-24) and again on the Feast of Weeks (vv 6-29). On the Festival of Trumpets and the Day of Atonement, the requirement was one bull, one ram, and seven lambs (29:2-4).<\/p>\n<p>The great Feast of Tabernacles was characterized by a series of elaborate burnt offerings, plus one goat per day as a sin offering. On the first day, 13 young bulls, 2 rams, and 14 male lambs were offered (Nm 29:12-16). Each successive day, the number of bulls was decreased by one until on the seventh day there were only seven (the rams and lambs remained the same; 29:17-25). On the eighth day the animals required for Trumpets and Atonement were offered, namely, one bull, one ram, and seven lambs.<\/p>\n<p>Certain rituals of purification also required burnt offerings in addition to sin offerings: after childbirth (Lv 12:6-8), abscesses (15:14-15), and discharges (vv 29-30); or after defilement while under a Nazirite vow (Nm 6:10-11). Though it is not stated that grain offerings were required in these cases, they certainly were for the cleansing from leprosy (Lv 14:10, 19-22, 31) and the completion of the Nazirite vow (Nm 6:14-16).<\/p>\n<li>2. Grain (Cereal) offering (Lv 2; 6:14-23). The Hebrew term referring to this particular offering means “gift,” or “offering,” including animals (Gn 4:3-5; Jgs 6:18; 1 Sm 2:17). But in the specific sacrificial context it signifies a combination of fine flour, olive oil, and frankincense that could be made up in the form of baked loaves, wafers, or morsels. The offering of firstfruits was to be crushed heads of new grain (Lv 2:14). No leaven or honey was permitted on the cakes, although those same commodities could be accepted as a firstfruit offering. They would not go to the altar but were given to the priest. The offerer had to bring the prepared loaves or wafers to the temple. The priest would burn one handful on the altar as its “memorial portion” (v 2), keeping the remainder for his own food (6:16; 7:9). But when the priest was making a grain offering on his own behalf, he burnt it all on the altar (6:22-23).<\/li>\n<p>A grain offering was usually given with every burnt offering, especially those pertaining to the sacred calendar (Nm 28–29). The amounts of flour and oil were set according to the animal being sacrificed: three-tenths of an ephah of flour and one-half a hin of oil for a bull, two-tenths ephah and one-third hin for a ram, and one-tenth ephah plus one-fourth hin for a lamb (15:2-10). Other happy occasions for a grain offering included the cleansing of a leper (Lv 14:10, 20-21, 31; unspecified quantity of grain with a bird) and the successful consummation of a Nazirite vow (Nm 6:13-15).<\/p>\n<p>Peace offerings were invariably followed by grain offerings (Lv 7:12-14; Nm 15:4). The priest received one of each pair of cakes or wafers. The remainder was returned to the offerer to be eaten with the flesh of the sacrificial animal at a place of his choice.<\/p>\n<p>A special case where such offering was used was the one-tenth of an ephah of barley meal required in the jealousy ritual. It was to have no oil or frankincense (Nm 5:15, 18, 25-26). A very poor individual was permitted to bring one-tenth of an ephah of fine flour without oil or frankincense as a sin offering (Lv 5:11-13).<\/p>\n<li>3. Drink offering (Nm 15:1-10). The standard libation was one-fourth of a hin of wine for a lamb, one-third for a ram, and one-half for a bull. The wine (Ex 29:40), also called “strong drink” (Nm 28:7), is probably an intentional substitute for the blood used by other nations (Ps 16:4). The libation was classed as a “pleasing odor” offering (Nm 15:7). As with the burnt offering, the entire drink offering was expended; nothing was given to the priest (28:7).<\/li>\n<p>Drink offerings accompanied the daily offering (Ex 29:40-41; Nm 28:7) and the Sabbath offering (Nm 28:9), as well as the New Moon festival. Reference is also made to them in connection with the second and following days of the Feast of Tabernacles (29:18, 21); for the first day their absence is probably unintentional. The same might hold true for the Passover, Firstfruits, and Feast of Trumpets (Nm 28:16–29:11; cf. Ez 45:11). A libation was required for the rites concluding a Nazirite vow (Nm 6:17) but not for cleansing a leper (Lv 14:10-20).<\/p>\n<h5>Fellowship Offerings<\/h5>\n<p>These sacrifices were voluntary on the part of the offerer and generally not imposed by regulations except for the Nazirite (Nm 6:17) and the Feast of Weeks (Lv 23:19-20). An offerer who had already fulfilled the ritual requirements for atonement and personal consecration was permitted to make a fellowship offering. Burnt offerings often accompanied the fellowship sacrifices as a further expression of devotion.<\/p>\n<p>1. Peace offering (Lv 3; 7:11-36; Am 5:22). This is the basic class of all fellowship or communal offerings; the others are simply subclasses of the peace offering. In terms of holiness, or restrictedness, they were not so rigidly confined as the other offerings. Animals from the herd or flock, male or female (Lv 3:1, 6, 12), were permitted. The usual stipulation of freedom from blemish was in force, except in the case of the freewill offering, in which the animal could have one limb longer than the other (22:23). Unleavened cakes were also required, at least for the thank (7:12-13) and Nazirite (Nm 6:15-19) offerings. Each of these three types of peace offerings will be discussed below, with their special features.<\/p>\n<p>The first parts of the ritual—the presentation and laying on of the hand—were identical to those of the other sacrifices. However, the animal was slaughtered at the door of the sanctuary courtyard and not on the north side of the altar (Lv 3:1-2, 7-8, 12-13; 7:29-30). The priest collected the blood and tossed it against the altar as he did with the burnt offering (3:2, 8, 13). The choice viscera were offered up as a “pleasing odor” (3:3-5, 6-11, 14-16).<\/p>\n<p>The priest also received a certain portion of the offering. He was allowed to eat it in any ritually clean place and to share it with his family (Lv 7:14, 30-36; Nm 6:20), in contrast to his portion of other sacrifices, which he had to eat somewhere in the temple compound (Nm 18:10-11). He received one of the cakes and the breast as a wave offering and the right thigh as a contribution for the offerer. This latter is the so-called “heave offering”; the technical term developed from a root signifying “to be high” and meaning “that which is lifted up.” The heave offering did not really represent a special kind of ritual ceremony.<\/p>\n<p>The ritual act of the peace offering culminated with a fellowship meal. Except for those parts on the altar or given to the priest, the body of the animal was returned to the man who offered it. He had to prepare it as a communal meal for himself, for his family, and for the Levite in his community (Dt 12:12, 18-19). This would have to be at the official sanctuary (Dt 12:6-7, 11-12, 15-19; cf. 1 Sm 1:3-4) and the participants had to observe strict rules of purity (Lv 7:19-21; 19:5-8). It may be contrasted with the ritual slaughtering of animals for a banquet that was permitted at any local altar (Dt 12:16, 20-22). The flesh of the thank offering had to be eaten on the same day of the sacrifice (Lv 7:15), while that of the votive or freewill offerings could be finished off on the following day (vv 16-18). Whatever remained then had to be burned before the time limit expired.<\/p>\n<p>Only three times is there a specific demand for a peace offering: in the Feast of Weeks (Lv 23:19-20), upon completion of a Nazirite vow (Nm 6:17-20), and at the installation of the priesthood (Ex 29:19-22, 28). Other public ritual occasions included the inauguration of the temple (1 Kgs 8:63; 2 Chr 7:5). Events on a national level that evoked the peace offering were the successful conclusion of a military campaign (1 Sm 11:15), the end of a famine or pestilence (2 Sm 24:25), confirmation of a candidate to the throne (1 Kgs 1:9, 19), or a time of religious revival (2 Chr 29:31-36). On the local level, they were offered at the annual family reunion (1 Sm 20:6) or other festive occasions, such as the harvest of the firstfruits (Ex 22:29-31; 1 Sm 9:11-14, 22-24; 16:4-5).<\/p>\n<li>2. Wave offering. The first portion of the peace offering was “waved” before the Lord to signify that the priest was eating it as a representative of God (the actual motion evidently resembled the wielding of a saw or a staff, Is 10:15). The same technical term, “wave offering,” was also used for other kinds of offering: precious metals donated for making the cultic artifacts (Ex 35:22; 38:29) and the guilt offering of the cleansed leper (Lv 14:12).<\/li>\n<li>3. Freewill offering. These gifts, brought to the holy convocations that took place three times per year (Ex 23:16; 34:20; Dt 16:10, 16-17; 2 Chr 35:8; Ezr 3:5), were voluntary (Lv 7:16; 22:18, 21-23; 23:28; Nm 15:3; 29:39; Dt 12:6, 17). Like the voluntary offering, the freewill offering could be a burnt rather than a peace offering (Lv 22:17-24; Ez 46:12). If it was the latter, the flesh could be eaten on the second day but must be burned before the third (Lv 7:16-17). Unlike some other peace offerings, the animal being sacrificed could have one limb longer than the other (22:23).<\/li>\n<li>4. Installation offering. This Hebrew term refers to the settings of precious stones (Ex 25:7; 35:9, 27; 1 Chr 29:2), so “installation” seems an appropriate translation. It had to do with “filling the hand,” a ritual act that consecrated someone to divine service (Ex 28:41; cf. 32:29) and required ritual purity and spiritual devotion (2 Chr 29:31). The details of the original ceremony at the installation of the first priest is described in two passages (Ex 29:19-34; Lv 8:22-32).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Atonement; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Feasts and Festivals of Israel; Tabernacle; Temple.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>OFFERINGS AND SACRIFICES<\/h3>\n<p>Major ritual expressions of religious life with accompanying rites, such as libations, effusions, and sacred meals. The ideology expressed in Israel’s ritual complex made its religion unique in the ancient Near East. The concepts of OT ritual also underlie NT theology with regard to sin and reconciliation to God through the atoning death of Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PerformanceandOrderofSacrifices\">Performance and Order of Sacrifices<\/p>\n<p>The main source for a description of the correct performance of sacrificial ritual is the opening section of Leviticus (Lv 1–7). It consists of two separate parts. The first (1:1–6:7) is didactic, dealing with two categories of sacrifice: those of a “pleasing odor,” namely, the burnt (1:1-17), the grain (2:1-16), and the peace offerings (3:1-17); and the expiatory sacrifices, namely, the sin (4:1–5:13) and the guilt or trespass offerings (5:14–6:7). Attention is paid to the minute details of each ritual, and they are grouped according to their logical or conceptual associations.<\/p>\n<p>The grain (or cereal) offering follows the burnt offering because it always accompanied it in actual practice (Nm 15:1-21; chs 28–29); it also went with the peace offering (Lv 7:12-14; Nm 15:3-4). Special emphasis is placed on burning the inward parts of a sacrifice on the altar to make a “pleasing odor to the Lord” (Lv 1:9, 17; 2:2, 9, 12; 3:5, 11, 16). When the Lord smelled the pleasing odor (Gn 8:21), it was a sign of divine favor; refusal indicated God’s displeasure (Lv 26:31). The officiating priest evidently knew how to read the signs and would tell the offerer whether his sacrifice had been accepted (1 Sm 26:19; cf. Am 5:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>The sin and guilt offerings were expiatory (Lv 4:1–6:7, 20). The situations requiring such offerings are listed, and special emphasis is laid on the handling of the blood in the ritual.<\/p>\n<p>The second major section in this passage (Lv 6:8–7:38) stresses the administrative details for the various offerings. This section consists of a series of “instructions” for each type of offering pertaining to the distribution of the sacrificial materials. Some went to the priest(s), some went to the offerer, and others were burned on the altar or disposed of outside the camp. Those sacrifices designated as “most holy” were to be eaten only by qualified members of the priesthood (Lv 2:3, 10; 10:12-17; 14:13; Nm 18:9).<\/p>\n<p>The burnt offering is discussed first because it was entirely consumed on the altar (and thus not eaten by anyone). After it, there follow the sacrifices distributed to the officiants (Lv 6:17, 26, 29; 7:1, 6), and at the end come the peace offerings, a significant portion of which was returned to the offender.<\/p>\n<p>The order in which the sacrifices are treated in this passage also corresponds to their relative frequency in the rituals of the sacred calendar (Nm 28:19; 2 Chr 31:3; Ez 45:17). This would be particularly important for the priests and Levites on duty at the temple because they were responsible for the logistics of the daily sacrificial ritual, especially on the high holidays; management of the temple storehouse was a formidable task (1 Chr 23:28-32; 26:15, 20-22; 2 Chr 13:10-11; 30:3-19; 34:9-11).<\/p>\n<p>Each section concerning a particular offering concludes with the logistic or administrative details peculiar to it. There then follows a summary of the matters treated thus far (Lv 7:7-10), and the section concludes with a treatment of the peace offerings (vv 11-36). The latter did not play a role in the sacred calendar except during the Feast of Weeks (23:19-20); on all other occasions, with the two exceptions of the Nazirite vow and the installation of the priesthood, peace offerings were purely voluntary sacrifices and thus not subject to any fixed bookkeeping.<\/p>\n<p>In other biblical contexts, the sacrifices are listed according to the same “bookkeeping” or “administrative” order: burnt, grain, and drink; sin (or guilt); and sometimes peace offerings. An example is the roster of donations made by the tribal leaders for dedication of the altar (Nm 7). The information is organized like an everyday ledger from the temple storehouse; the summary classifies the animals as burnt, grain, sin, and peace offerings (vv 87-88) in accordance with the respective entries from each donor (vv 15-17). The Levitical scribe had two purposes for such a record: to credit the offerers and to record the treasures and food supplies coming in. Much of the foodstuffs being given as offerings was actually apportioned to the officiating priests (Nm 18:8-11; 2 Chr 31:4-19).<\/p>\n<p>When prescriptions were made as to the type and number of offerings to be brought (e.g., Nm 15:24), the “bookkeeping” order is generally followed. This was true of the calendarial sacrifices; burnt and grain offerings and libations were listed, followed by a sin offering for each of the following: New Moon (Nm 28:11-15), each day of Passover (vv 19-22), the Festival of Weeks (Lv 23:18-19; Nm 28:27-30), Trumpets (29:2-5), Day of Atonement (vv 8-11), and each day of the Feast of Tabernacles (vv 12-16).<\/p>\n<p>For sacrifices required in specific cases, the instructions as to what offerings to bring follow this sequence (e.g., the purification of a woman after giving birth, Lv 12:6-8). Note also the offerings given at the successful termination of a Nazirite vow; the Nazirite brought burnt, sin, and peace offerings (with some special grain offerings, Nm 6:14-15). However, the priest conducted the actual ritual according to a different order; the sin offering was made first, followed by the burnt offering and finally the peace offering (vv 16-17). In the case of an incomplete vow, the first step was to offer a sin offering and then a burnt offering to renew the vow (v 11). The reconsecration of the Nazirite required a separate guilt offering—a distinct ritual act (v 12).<\/p>\n<p>The description of the offerings made by the prince of Israel in the latter days presents the same contrast between the two orders of sacrifices. On festival holidays the prince brought burnt, grain, and drink offerings, but he offered them as sin, grain, burnt, and peace offerings (Ez 45:17). This second order of sacrifices in which the sin offering precedes the burnt offering was also followed in the rededication of the altar (43:18-27).<\/p>\n<p>The same “procedural” sequence of sacrifices appears in other instances: the purification of the leper—guilt and sin offerings (Lv 14:19), followed by a burnt offering (vv 12-20); the man with a discharge—sin and burnt offerings (15:15); likewise the woman with a discharge (v 30). The same order is followed for the sacrifices on the Day of Atonement (16:3-6, 11, 15, 24).<\/p>\n<p>The book of Leviticus furnishes two examples of the proper order in which sacrifices were offered. One is the ordination of Aaron and his sons. The sin offering came first and then the burnt offering (Ex 29:10-18; Lv 8:14-21). The focal point in this ritual was the sacrifice of ordination, or literally “installation,” a special form of peace offering (Ex 29:19-34; Lv 8:22-29). The second passage is the formal inauguration of the sacrificial system at the tabernacle (Lv 9). The sacrifices for Aaron were sin and burnt offerings, followed by those for the people: sin, burnt, grain, and peace offerings (9:7-22).<\/p>\n<p>The same sequence is followed at the cleansing and restoration of the temple in Jerusalem conducted by King Hezekiah (2 Chr 29:20-36). A great sin offering was first, followed by the burnt offerings accompanied by music and song. Then the king proclaimed that the people had committed themselves to the Lord; in this new state of purity they could now share in the sacrifices of devotion (burnt offerings) and thanksgiving (peace offerings).<\/p>\n<p>The procedural order of the sacrifices embodies the OT ideology of how God may be approached. First, atonement for sin had to be made and then total consecration of self; these are symbolized by the sin and\/or guilt offerings and the burnt and grain offerings, respectively. When these conditions were met, the offerer could express his continued devotion by more burnt offerings and also take part in the fellowship sacrifices (peace offerings) in which he himself got a large portion of the slaughtered animal (to share with his friends and the poor in his community; Dt 12:17-19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DescriptionofSacrifices\">Description of Sacrifices<\/p>\n<p>The ensuing description of the different types of sacrifice will treat them in accordance with the “procedural” order, that is, as symbolic stages in one’s approach to God.<\/p>\n<h5>Expiation<\/h5>\n<p>These two offerings were required for making atonement for sins and trespasses:<\/p>\n<p>1. Sin offering (Lv 4:1–5:13; 6:24-30). Different animals were specified in accordance with the rank of the offerer. A high priest had to bring a young bull (4:3), as did the congregation as a whole (v 14), except when the matter was a ritual infraction (Nm 15:24). A ruler would bring a male goat (Lv 4:23), but a commoner could provide a female goat (v 28; Nm 15:27) or a lamb (Lv 4:32). If he was indigent, he could offer two turtledoves or two young pigeons (one of which would be a burnt offering; 5:7), or if he was extremely poor, he might even substitute a tenth of an ephah of fine flour (Lv 5:11-13; cf. Heb 9:22).<\/p>\n\n<p>The offerer brought the animal to the entrance of the temple court and laid his hand on it (Lv 4:4). He did not confess his sin in this act because the animal was not being sent away (cf. the goat for Azazel, 16:21); rather, he was identifying himself with the sacrifice. The offerer had to kill the animal on the north side of the altar (4:24, 29). The animals were never slaughtered on the altar proper. The officiating priest collected the blood; when it was a bull for himself or for the congregation, he sprinkled some of the blood before the veil inside the tent of meeting and put some on the horns of the incense altar (vv 5-7, 16-18). On the Day of Atonement he brought the sacrificial blood for himself and for the people into the Holy of Holies (16:14-15). From all other animals, the blood was applied to the horns of the altar of burnt offering (4:25, 30, 34); the blood of fowl was sprinkled on the side of the altar (5:9). Finally, the remaining blood from any offering was poured or drained out at the base of the altar (4:7).<\/p>\n<p>The choicest of the internal organs, namely, the fatty tissue over and on the entrails, the two kidneys and their fat, and the appendage to the liver, were all offered to the Lord on the altar (Lv 4:8-10). The carcass and the other entrails were burned outside the camp when it was a bull for the priest or for the people. This was also true of the bull for the ordination of the priests (Ex 29:10-14; Lv 8:14-17). Otherwise, the priest who conducted the rites received the edible flesh as his portion. He had to eat it within the temple area, and its preparation was governed by strict rules of ritual purity (Lv 6:25-30; cf. 10:16-20). A sin offering of one male goat was presented at each of the sacred holidays: the New Moon (Nm 28:15), each day of Passover (vv 22-24), the Festival of Weeks (v 30), the Festival of Trumpets (29:5), the Day of Atonement (v 11), and each day of the Feast of Tabernacles (vv 16, 19). The high priest also offered a bull for himself and then sacrificed one of the two goats on the Day of Atonement. Certain purification rites required lesser sin offerings, namely, lambs or birds: childbirth (Lv 12:6-8), cleansing from leprosy (14:12-14, 19-22), and abscesses and hemorrhages (15:14-15, 29-30) or after defilement while under a vow (Nm 6:10-11).<\/p>\n<li>2. Guilt offering (Lv 5:14–6:7; 7:1-7). The guilt or trespass offering was a special kind of sin offering (cf. 5:7) required whenever someone had been denied his rightful due. Reparation of the valued amount that had been defrauded had to be made, plus a fine of one-fifth (5:16; 6:5). The animal was usually a ram (5:15, 18; 6:6). The cleansed leper and the defiled Nazirite had to bring a male lamb (Lv 14:12, 21; Nm 6:12). The offerer apparently handled the sacrifice as he would a sin offering, but the priest had to sprinkle the blood around the altar (Lv 7:2). Viscera were burned on the altar as usual (vv 3-5). Some of the blood was then applied to the tip of the cleansed leper’s right ear and to his right thumb and big toe (14:14). Again the priest received most of the animal’s flesh for food (7:6-7; 14:13). A guilt offering was required whenever another party had suffered some loss. Ritual infractions, such as eating the “holy things” without proper authorization (5:14-19; 22:14), called for payment of the sum that should have gone to the Lord plus the fine of one-fifth that went to the priest (Lv 5:16; 2 Kgs 12:16). The leper belongs in this category, since during the time of his infection he was unable to render service to God (Lv 14:12-18). The same applies to the Nazirite who had suffered defilement while he was set apart to God by the vow; thus a guilt offering was required (Nm 6:12). Violation of another person’s property rights could be expiated only by the guilt offering and its additional one-fifth. Such matters included cheating on deposits or security, robbery or oppression, failing to report the find of some lost property, or false swearing or failing to testify (Lv 6:1-5). Intercourse with a betrothed slave girl was also a violation of property rights (19:20-22). If the offended party was no longer living and had no surviving kinsmen, the payment went to the priest (Nm 5:5-10).<\/li>\n<h5>Consecration Offerings<\/h5>\n<p>These rituals usually come to mind when one hears the word “offering.” They represent acts of personal commitment that must accompany the repentance expressed in the sin and guilt offerings. They were also a prerequisite for the fellowship or communal sacrifices that might follow.<\/p>\n<p>1. Burnt offering (Lv 1:3-17; 6:8-13). The burnt offering could be a bull, a sheep, or a bird. The offerer presented the animal, laid his hand on it, and killed it on the north side of the altar. The bird was simply given to the priest. The latter collected the blood, presented it before God, and then sprinkled it around the altar. When the offering was a bird, he wrung off its head and drained the blood at the side of the altar. Though the slaughtering and sprinkling of the blood relates the burnt offering to the expiatory sacrifices of the previous section, the main emphasis here is on killing the animal, washing its unclean parts, and then carefully arranging all of the pieces on the altar. All of this was then consumed on the altar as a pleasing odor to the Lord. Since burnt offerings were offered morning and evening, a good supply of wood by the altar was necessary. The officiating priest, dressed in proper garments, had to keep the fire burning continuously (6:8-13).<\/p>\n<p>Burnt offerings played a prominent role in the sacrifices of the ritual calendar. The continual burnt offering was made twice a day, a male lamb morning and evening (Ex 29:38-42; Nm 28:1-8). Two additional lambs were sacrificed each Sabbath (Nm 28:9-10).<\/p>\n<p>Except for these daily offerings, a sin offering of one goat was usually made along with the burnt offerings on the following holidays: For the New Moon at the beginning of each month, two young bulls, one ram, and seven male lambs were offered (Nm 28:11-14). The same were required for each day of the Passover festival (vv 19-24) and again on the Feast of Weeks (vv 6-29). On the Festival of Trumpets and the Day of Atonement, the requirement was one bull, one ram, and seven lambs (29:2-4).<\/p>\n<p>The great Feast of Tabernacles was characterized by a series of elaborate burnt offerings, plus one goat per day as a sin offering. On the first day, 13 young bulls, 2 rams, and 14 male lambs were offered (Nm 29:12-16). Each successive day, the number of bulls was decreased by one until on the seventh day there were only seven (the rams and lambs remained the same; 29:17-25). On the eighth day the animals required for Trumpets and Atonement were offered, namely, one bull, one ram, and seven lambs.<\/p>\n<p>Certain rituals of purification also required burnt offerings in addition to sin offerings: after childbirth (Lv 12:6-8), abscesses (15:14-15), and discharges (vv 29-30); or after defilement while under a Nazirite vow (Nm 6:10-11). Though it is not stated that grain offerings were required in these cases, they certainly were for the cleansing from leprosy (Lv 14:10, 19-22, 31) and the completion of the Nazirite vow (Nm 6:14-16).<\/p>\n<li>2. Grain (Cereal) offering (Lv 2; 6:14-23). The Hebrew term referring to this particular offering means “gift,” or “offering,” including animals (Gn 4:3-5; Jgs 6:18; 1 Sm 2:17). But in the specific sacrificial context it signifies a combination of fine flour, olive oil, and frankincense that could be made up in the form of baked loaves, wafers, or morsels. The offering of firstfruits was to be crushed heads of new grain (Lv 2:14). No leaven or honey was permitted on the cakes, although those same commodities could be accepted as a firstfruit offering. They would not go to the altar but were given to the priest. The offerer had to bring the prepared loaves or wafers to the temple. The priest would burn one handful on the altar as its “memorial portion” (v 2), keeping the remainder for his own food (6:16; 7:9). But when the priest was making a grain offering on his own behalf, he burnt it all on the altar (6:22-23).<\/li>\n<p>A grain offering was usually given with every burnt offering, especially those pertaining to the sacred calendar (Nm 28–29). The amounts of flour and oil were set according to the animal being sacrificed: three-tenths of an ephah of flour and one-half a hin of oil for a bull, two-tenths ephah and one-third hin for a ram, and one-tenth ephah plus one-fourth hin for a lamb (15:2-10). Other happy occasions for a grain offering included the cleansing of a leper (Lv 14:10, 20-21, 31; unspecified quantity of grain with a bird) and the successful consummation of a Nazirite vow (Nm 6:13-15).<\/p>\n<p>Peace offerings were invariably followed by grain offerings (Lv 7:12-14; Nm 15:4). The priest received one of each pair of cakes or wafers. The remainder was returned to the offerer to be eaten with the flesh of the sacrificial animal at a place of his choice.<\/p>\n<p>A special case where such offering was used was the one-tenth of an ephah of barley meal required in the jealousy ritual. It was to have no oil or frankincense (Nm 5:15, 18, 25-26). A very poor individual was permitted to bring one-tenth of an ephah of fine flour without oil or frankincense as a sin offering (Lv 5:11-13).<\/p>\n<li>3. Drink offering (Nm 15:1-10). The standard libation was one-fourth of a hin of wine for a lamb, one-third for a ram, and one-half for a bull. The wine (Ex 29:40), also called “strong drink” (Nm 28:7), is probably an intentional substitute for the blood used by other nations (Ps 16:4). The libation was classed as a “pleasing odor” offering (Nm 15:7). As with the burnt offering, the entire drink offering was expended; nothing was given to the priest (28:7).<\/li>\n<p>Drink offerings accompanied the daily offering (Ex 29:40-41; Nm 28:7) and the Sabbath offering (Nm 28:9), as well as the New Moon festival. Reference is also made to them in connection with the second and following days of the Feast of Tabernacles (29:18, 21); for the first day their absence is probably unintentional. The same might hold true for the Passover, Firstfruits, and Feast of Trumpets (Nm 28:16–29:11; cf. Ez 45:11). A libation was required for the rites concluding a Nazirite vow (Nm 6:17) but not for cleansing a leper (Lv 14:10-20).<\/p>\n<h5>Fellowship Offerings<\/h5>\n<p>These sacrifices were voluntary on the part of the offerer and generally not imposed by regulations except for the Nazirite (Nm 6:17) and the Feast of Weeks (Lv 23:19-20). An offerer who had already fulfilled the ritual requirements for atonement and personal consecration was permitted to make a fellowship offering. Burnt offerings often accompanied the fellowship sacrifices as a further expression of devotion.<\/p>\n<p>1. Peace offering (Lv 3; 7:11-36; Am 5:22). This is the basic class of all fellowship or communal offerings; the others are simply subclasses of the peace offering. In terms of holiness, or restrictedness, they were not so rigidly confined as the other offerings. Animals from the herd or flock, male or female (Lv 3:1, 6, 12), were permitted. The usual stipulation of freedom from blemish was in force, except in the case of the freewill offering, in which the animal could have one limb longer than the other (22:23). Unleavened cakes were also required, at least for the thank (7:12-13) and Nazirite (Nm 6:15-19) offerings. Each of these three types of peace offerings will be discussed below, with their special features.<\/p>\n<p>The first parts of the ritual—the presentation and laying on of the hand—were identical to those of the other sacrifices. However, the animal was slaughtered at the door of the sanctuary courtyard and not on the north side of the altar (Lv 3:1-2, 7-8, 12-13; 7:29-30). The priest collected the blood and tossed it against the altar as he did with the burnt offering (3:2, 8, 13). The choice viscera were offered up as a “pleasing odor” (3:3-5, 6-11, 14-16).<\/p>\n<p>The priest also received a certain portion of the offering. He was allowed to eat it in any ritually clean place and to share it with his family (Lv 7:14, 30-36; Nm 6:20), in contrast to his portion of other sacrifices, which he had to eat somewhere in the temple compound (Nm 18:10-11). He received one of the cakes and the breast as a wave offering and the right thigh as a contribution for the offerer. This latter is the so-called “heave offering”; the technical term developed from a root signifying “to be high” and meaning “that which is lifted up.” The heave offering did not really represent a special kind of ritual ceremony.<\/p>\n<p>The ritual act of the peace offering culminated with a fellowship meal. Except for those parts on the altar or given to the priest, the body of the animal was returned to the man who offered it. He had to prepare it as a communal meal for himself, for his family, and for the Levite in his community (Dt 12:12, 18-19). This would have to be at the official sanctuary (Dt 12:6-7, 11-12, 15-19; cf. 1 Sm 1:3-4) and the participants had to observe strict rules of purity (Lv 7:19-21; 19:5-8). It may be contrasted with the ritual slaughtering of animals for a banquet that was permitted at any local altar (Dt 12:16, 20-22). The flesh of the thank offering had to be eaten on the same day of the sacrifice (Lv 7:15), while that of the votive or freewill offerings could be finished off on the following day (vv 16-18). Whatever remained then had to be burned before the time limit expired.<\/p>\n<p>Only three times is there a specific demand for a peace offering: in the Feast of Weeks (Lv 23:19-20), upon completion of a Nazirite vow (Nm 6:17-20), and at the installation of the priesthood (Ex 29:19-22, 28). Other public ritual occasions included the inauguration of the temple (1 Kgs 8:63; 2 Chr 7:5). Events on a national level that evoked the peace offering were the successful conclusion of a military campaign (1 Sm 11:15), the end of a famine or pestilence (2 Sm 24:25), confirmation of a candidate to the throne (1 Kgs 1:9, 19), or a time of religious revival (2 Chr 29:31-36). On the local level, they were offered at the annual family reunion (1 Sm 20:6) or other festive occasions, such as the harvest of the firstfruits (Ex 22:29-31; 1 Sm 9:11-14, 22-24; 16:4-5).<\/p>\n<li>2. Wave offering. The first portion of the peace offering was “waved” before the Lord to signify that the priest was eating it as a representative of God (the actual motion evidently resembled the wielding of a saw or a staff, Is 10:15). The same technical term, “wave offering,” was also used for other kinds of offering: precious metals donated for making the cultic artifacts (Ex 35:22; 38:29) and the guilt offering of the cleansed leper (Lv 14:12).<\/li>\n<li>3. Freewill offering. These gifts, brought to the holy convocations that took place three times per year (Ex 23:16; 34:20; Dt 16:10, 16-17; 2 Chr 35:8; Ezr 3:5), were voluntary (Lv 7:16; 22:18, 21-23; 23:28; Nm 15:3; 29:39; Dt 12:6, 17). Like the voluntary offering, the freewill offering could be a burnt rather than a peace offering (Lv 22:17-24; Ez 46:12). If it was the latter, the flesh could be eaten on the second day but must be burned before the third (Lv 7:16-17). Unlike some other peace offerings, the animal being sacrificed could have one limb longer than the other (22:23).<\/li>\n<li>4. Installation offering. This Hebrew term refers to the settings of precious stones (Ex 25:7; 35:9, 27; 1 Chr 29:2), so “installation” seems an appropriate translation. It had to do with “filling the hand,” a ritual act that consecrated someone to divine service (Ex 28:41; cf. 32:29) and required ritual purity and spiritual devotion (2 Chr 29:31). The details of the original ceremony at the installation of the first priest is described in two passages (Ex 29:19-34; Lv 8:22-32).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Atonement; Cleanness and Uncleanness, Regulations Concerning; Feasts and Festivals of Israel; Tabernacle; Temple.<\/p>","summary_ro":"OFFERINGS AND SACRIFICES Major ritual expressions of religious life with accompanying rites, such as libations, effusions, and sacred meals. The ideology expressed in Israel’s ritual complex made its religion unique in the ancient Near East. The concepts of OT ritual also underlie NT theology with regard to sin and reconciliation to God through the atoning death of Jesus Christ. Performance and Order of Sacrifices The main source for a description of the correct performance of sacrificial rit...","summary_en":"OFFERINGS AND SACRIFICES Major ritual expressions of religious life with accompanying rites, such as libations, effusions, and sacred meals. The ideology expressed in Israel’s ritual complex made its religion unique in the ancient Near East. The concepts of OT ritual also underlie NT theology with regard to sin and reconciliation to God through the atoning death of Jesus Christ. Performance and Order of Sacrifices The main source for a description of the correct performance of sacrificial rit...","source":"Articles\/O.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":46272,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:4","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:4<\/strong> <em>the elders . . . came trembling:<\/em> News of Samuel’s rebuke of Saul and execution of Agag had likely reached Bethlehem.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:4<\/strong> <em>the elders . . . came trembling:<\/em> News of Samuel’s rebuke of Saul and execution of Agag had likely reached Bethlehem.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:4 the elders . . . came trembling: News of Samuel’s rebuke of Saul and execution of Agag had likely reached Bethlehem.","summary_en":"16:4 the elders . . . came trembling: News of Samuel’s rebuke of Saul and execution of Agag had likely reached Bethlehem.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":73898,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:4","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:4<\/strong> <em>the elders . . . came trembling:<\/em> News of Samuel’s rebuke of Saul and execution of Agag had likely reached Bethlehem.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:4<\/strong> <em>the elders . . . came trembling:<\/em> News of Samuel’s rebuke of Saul and execution of Agag had likely reached Bethlehem.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:4 the elders . . . came trembling: News of Samuel’s rebuke of Saul and execution of Agag had likely reached Bethlehem.","summary_en":"16:4 the elders . . . came trembling: News of Samuel’s rebuke of Saul and execution of Agag had likely reached Bethlehem.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101524,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:4","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:4<\/strong> <em>the elders . . . came trembling:<\/em> News of Samuel’s rebuke of Saul and execution of Agag had likely reached Bethlehem.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:4<\/strong> <em>the elders . . . came trembling:<\/em> News of Samuel’s rebuke of Saul and execution of Agag had likely reached Bethlehem.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:4 the elders . . . came trembling: News of Samuel’s rebuke of Saul and execution of Agag had likely reached Bethlehem.","summary_en":"16:4 the elders . . . came trembling: News of Samuel’s rebuke of Saul and execution of Agag had likely reached Bethlehem.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":129150,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:4","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:4<\/strong> <em>the elders . . . came trembling:<\/em> News of Samuel’s rebuke of Saul and execution of Agag had likely reached Bethlehem.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:4<\/strong> <em>the elders . . . came trembling:<\/em> News of Samuel’s rebuke of Saul and execution of Agag had likely reached Bethlehem.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:4 the elders . . . came trembling: News of Samuel’s rebuke of Saul and execution of Agag had likely reached Bethlehem.","summary_en":"16:4 the elders . . . came trembling: News of Samuel’s rebuke of Saul and execution of Agag had likely reached Bethlehem.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"5":[{"id":46273,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:5","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:5<\/strong> <em>Purify yourselves:<\/em> Self-purification included bathing and abstaining from sexual intercourse (see Exod 19:10-15; cp. Gen 35:2-4). • <em>The sacrifice<\/em> likely took place the following morning (see Num 11:18; Josh 3:5; 7:13-14). • <em>Samuel performed the purification rite for Jesse and his sons<\/em> to make sure they were ready for the sacrifice and for the anointing of the new king (cp. Exod 19:10; Josh 3:5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:5<\/strong> <em>Purify yourselves:<\/em> Self-purification included bathing and abstaining from sexual intercourse (see Exod 19:10-15; cp. Gen 35:2-4). • <em>The sacrifice<\/em> likely took place the following morning (see Num 11:18; Josh 3:5; 7:13-14). • <em>Samuel performed the purification rite for Jesse and his sons<\/em> to make sure they were ready for the sacrifice and for the anointing of the new king (cp. Exod 19:10; Josh 3:5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:5 Purify yourselves: Self-purification included bathing and abstaining from sexual intercourse (see Exod 19:10-15; cp. Gen 35:2-4). • The sacrifice likely took place the following morning (see Num 11:18; Josh 3:5; 7:13-14). • Samuel performed the purification rite for Jesse and his sons to make sure they were ready for the sacrifice and for the anointing of the new king (cp. Exod 19:10; Josh 3:5).","summary_en":"16:5 Purify yourselves: Self-purification included bathing and abstaining from sexual intercourse (see Exod 19:10-15; cp. Gen 35:2-4). • The sacrifice likely took place the following morning (see Num 11:18; Josh 3:5; 7:13-14). • Samuel performed the purification rite for Jesse and his sons to make sure they were ready for the sacrifice and for the anointing of the new king (cp. Exod 19:10; Josh 3:5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":73899,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:5","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:5<\/strong> <em>Purify yourselves:<\/em> Self-purification included bathing and abstaining from sexual intercourse (see Exod 19:10-15; cp. Gen 35:2-4). • <em>The sacrifice<\/em> likely took place the following morning (see Num 11:18; Josh 3:5; 7:13-14). • <em>Samuel performed the purification rite for Jesse and his sons<\/em> to make sure they were ready for the sacrifice and for the anointing of the new king (cp. Exod 19:10; Josh 3:5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:5<\/strong> <em>Purify yourselves:<\/em> Self-purification included bathing and abstaining from sexual intercourse (see Exod 19:10-15; cp. Gen 35:2-4). • <em>The sacrifice<\/em> likely took place the following morning (see Num 11:18; Josh 3:5; 7:13-14). • <em>Samuel performed the purification rite for Jesse and his sons<\/em> to make sure they were ready for the sacrifice and for the anointing of the new king (cp. Exod 19:10; Josh 3:5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:5 Purify yourselves: Self-purification included bathing and abstaining from sexual intercourse (see Exod 19:10-15; cp. Gen 35:2-4). • The sacrifice likely took place the following morning (see Num 11:18; Josh 3:5; 7:13-14). • Samuel performed the purification rite for Jesse and his sons to make sure they were ready for the sacrifice and for the anointing of the new king (cp. Exod 19:10; Josh 3:5).","summary_en":"16:5 Purify yourselves: Self-purification included bathing and abstaining from sexual intercourse (see Exod 19:10-15; cp. Gen 35:2-4). • The sacrifice likely took place the following morning (see Num 11:18; Josh 3:5; 7:13-14). • Samuel performed the purification rite for Jesse and his sons to make sure they were ready for the sacrifice and for the anointing of the new king (cp. Exod 19:10; Josh 3:5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101525,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:5","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:5<\/strong> <em>Purify yourselves:<\/em> Self-purification included bathing and abstaining from sexual intercourse (see Exod 19:10-15; cp. Gen 35:2-4). • <em>The sacrifice<\/em> likely took place the following morning (see Num 11:18; Josh 3:5; 7:13-14). • <em>Samuel performed the purification rite for Jesse and his sons<\/em> to make sure they were ready for the sacrifice and for the anointing of the new king (cp. Exod 19:10; Josh 3:5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:5<\/strong> <em>Purify yourselves:<\/em> Self-purification included bathing and abstaining from sexual intercourse (see Exod 19:10-15; cp. Gen 35:2-4). • <em>The sacrifice<\/em> likely took place the following morning (see Num 11:18; Josh 3:5; 7:13-14). • <em>Samuel performed the purification rite for Jesse and his sons<\/em> to make sure they were ready for the sacrifice and for the anointing of the new king (cp. Exod 19:10; Josh 3:5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:5 Purify yourselves: Self-purification included bathing and abstaining from sexual intercourse (see Exod 19:10-15; cp. Gen 35:2-4). • The sacrifice likely took place the following morning (see Num 11:18; Josh 3:5; 7:13-14). • Samuel performed the purification rite for Jesse and his sons to make sure they were ready for the sacrifice and for the anointing of the new king (cp. Exod 19:10; Josh 3:5).","summary_en":"16:5 Purify yourselves: Self-purification included bathing and abstaining from sexual intercourse (see Exod 19:10-15; cp. Gen 35:2-4). • The sacrifice likely took place the following morning (see Num 11:18; Josh 3:5; 7:13-14). • Samuel performed the purification rite for Jesse and his sons to make sure they were ready for the sacrifice and for the anointing of the new king (cp. Exod 19:10; Josh 3:5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":129151,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:5","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:5<\/strong> <em>Purify yourselves:<\/em> Self-purification included bathing and abstaining from sexual intercourse (see Exod 19:10-15; cp. Gen 35:2-4). • <em>The sacrifice<\/em> likely took place the following morning (see Num 11:18; Josh 3:5; 7:13-14). • <em>Samuel performed the purification rite for Jesse and his sons<\/em> to make sure they were ready for the sacrifice and for the anointing of the new king (cp. Exod 19:10; Josh 3:5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:5<\/strong> <em>Purify yourselves:<\/em> Self-purification included bathing and abstaining from sexual intercourse (see Exod 19:10-15; cp. Gen 35:2-4). • <em>The sacrifice<\/em> likely took place the following morning (see Num 11:18; Josh 3:5; 7:13-14). • <em>Samuel performed the purification rite for Jesse and his sons<\/em> to make sure they were ready for the sacrifice and for the anointing of the new king (cp. Exod 19:10; Josh 3:5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:5 Purify yourselves: Self-purification included bathing and abstaining from sexual intercourse (see Exod 19:10-15; cp. Gen 35:2-4). • The sacrifice likely took place the following morning (see Num 11:18; Josh 3:5; 7:13-14). • Samuel performed the purification rite for Jesse and his sons to make sure they were ready for the sacrifice and for the anointing of the new king (cp. Exod 19:10; Josh 3:5).","summary_en":"16:5 Purify yourselves: Self-purification included bathing and abstaining from sexual intercourse (see Exod 19:10-15; cp. Gen 35:2-4). • The sacrifice likely took place the following morning (see Num 11:18; Josh 3:5; 7:13-14). • Samuel performed the purification rite for Jesse and his sons to make sure they were ready for the sacrifice and for the anointing of the new king (cp. Exod 19:10; Josh 3:5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"6":[{"id":10488,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Eliab","title_en":"Eliab","content_ro":"<h3>ELIAB<\/h3>\n<li>1. Helon’s son and leader of Zebulun’s tribe when the Israelites were roaming in the Sinai wilderness after their escape from Egypt (Nm 1:9; 2:7; 10:16). As leader, he presented his tribe’s offering at the consecration of the tabernacle (7:24, 29).<\/li>\n<li>2. Member of Reuben’s tribe and son of Pallu. Eliab was the father of Nemuel, Dathan, and Abiram. Dathan and Abiram rebelled against Moses and Aaron in the wilderness (Nm 16:1, 12; 26:8-9; Dt 11:6).<\/li>\n<li>3. Jesse’s eldest son and brother of King David. An impressive person physically, he was rejected by God for the kingship in favor of David (1 Sm 16:6; 1 Chr 2:13). Eliab served King Saul when Goliath defied Saul’s army (1 Sm 17:13, 28). He was appointed leader of Judah’s tribe during David’s reign (1 Chr 27:18). His granddaughter Mahalath married King Rehoboam of Judah (2 Chr 11:18).<\/li>\n<li>4. Variant name for Elihu in 1 Chronicles 6:27. <em>See<\/em> Elihu #1.<\/li>\n<li>5. Warrior from Gad’s tribe who joined David at Ziklag in his struggle against King Saul (1 Chr 12:9). Eliab was an expert with the shield and spear (v 8).<\/li>\n<li>6. Levite musician assigned to play the harp in the procession when King David brought the ark to Jerusalem (1 Chr 15:18). He was assigned permanently to service in the tabernacle (16:5).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ELIAB<\/h3>\n<li>1. Helon’s son and leader of Zebulun’s tribe when the Israelites were roaming in the Sinai wilderness after their escape from Egypt (Nm 1:9; 2:7; 10:16). As leader, he presented his tribe’s offering at the consecration of the tabernacle (7:24, 29).<\/li>\n<li>2. Member of Reuben’s tribe and son of Pallu. Eliab was the father of Nemuel, Dathan, and Abiram. Dathan and Abiram rebelled against Moses and Aaron in the wilderness (Nm 16:1, 12; 26:8-9; Dt 11:6).<\/li>\n<li>3. Jesse’s eldest son and brother of King David. An impressive person physically, he was rejected by God for the kingship in favor of David (1 Sm 16:6; 1 Chr 2:13). Eliab served King Saul when Goliath defied Saul’s army (1 Sm 17:13, 28). He was appointed leader of Judah’s tribe during David’s reign (1 Chr 27:18). His granddaughter Mahalath married King Rehoboam of Judah (2 Chr 11:18).<\/li>\n<li>4. Variant name for Elihu in 1 Chronicles 6:27. <em>See<\/em> Elihu #1.<\/li>\n<li>5. Warrior from Gad’s tribe who joined David at Ziklag in his struggle against King Saul (1 Chr 12:9). Eliab was an expert with the shield and spear (v 8).<\/li>\n<li>6. Levite musician assigned to play the harp in the procession when King David brought the ark to Jerusalem (1 Chr 15:18). He was assigned permanently to service in the tabernacle (16:5).<\/li>","summary_ro":"ELIAB 1. Helon’s son and leader of Zebulun’s tribe when the Israelites were roaming in the Sinai wilderness after their escape from Egypt (Nm 1:9; 2:7; 10:16). As leader, he presented his tribe’s offering at the consecration of the tabernacle (7:24, 29). 2. Member of Reuben’s tribe and son of Pallu. Eliab was the father of Nemuel, Dathan, and Abiram. Dathan and Abiram rebelled against Moses and Aaron in the wilderness (Nm 16:1, 12; 26:8-9; Dt 11:6). 3. Jesse’s eldest son and brother of King D...","summary_en":"ELIAB 1. Helon’s son and leader of Zebulun’s tribe when the Israelites were roaming in the Sinai wilderness after their escape from Egypt (Nm 1:9; 2:7; 10:16). As leader, he presented his tribe’s offering at the consecration of the tabernacle (7:24, 29). 2. Member of Reuben’s tribe and son of Pallu. Eliab was the father of Nemuel, Dathan, and Abiram. Dathan and Abiram rebelled against Moses and Aaron in the wilderness (Nm 16:1, 12; 26:8-9; Dt 11:6). 3. Jesse’s eldest son and brother of King D...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":46274,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:6","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:6-7<\/strong> <em>his appearance or height:<\/em> Like Saul, <em>Eliab<\/em><em>,<\/em> Jesse’s oldest son, had an impressive outward appearance (cp. 9:2). Also like Saul, he was <em>rejected<\/em> (cp. 15:23). God had another man in mind to anoint as king. • <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span> <em>looks at the heart:<\/em> God can give a new heart (10:9), touch hearts (10:26), and peer into the deep motivations of the heart (Ps 139:1). God sees what people cannot see—a person’s true character. Eliab’s character comes out in 1 Sam 17:28.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:6-7<\/strong> <em>his appearance or height:<\/em> Like Saul, <em>Eliab<\/em><em>,<\/em> Jesse’s oldest son, had an impressive outward appearance (cp. 9:2). Also like Saul, he was <em>rejected<\/em> (cp. 15:23). God had another man in mind to anoint as king. • <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span> <em>looks at the heart:<\/em> God can give a new heart (10:9), touch hearts (10:26), and peer into the deep motivations of the heart (Ps 139:1). God sees what people cannot see—a person’s true character. Eliab’s character comes out in 1 Sam 17:28.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:6-7 his appearance or height: Like Saul, Eliab, Jesse’s oldest son, had an impressive outward appearance (cp. 9:2). Also like Saul, he was rejected (cp. 15:23). God had another man in mind to anoint as king. • the Lord looks at the heart: God can give a new heart (10:9), touch hearts (10:26), and peer into the deep motivations of the heart (Ps 139:1). God sees what people cannot see—a person’s true character. Eliab’s character comes out in 1 Sam 17:28.","summary_en":"16:6-7 his appearance or height: Like Saul, Eliab, Jesse’s oldest son, had an impressive outward appearance (cp. 9:2). Also like Saul, he was rejected (cp. 15:23). God had another man in mind to anoint as king. • the Lord looks at the heart: God can give a new heart (10:9), touch hearts (10:26), and peer into the deep motivations of the heart (Ps 139:1). God sees what people cannot see—a person’s true character. Eliab’s character comes out in 1 Sam 17:28.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":73900,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:6","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:6-7<\/strong> <em>his appearance or height:<\/em> Like Saul, <em>Eliab<\/em><em>,<\/em> Jesse’s oldest son, had an impressive outward appearance (cp. 9:2). Also like Saul, he was <em>rejected<\/em> (cp. 15:23). God had another man in mind to anoint as king. • <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span> <em>looks at the heart:<\/em> God can give a new heart (10:9), touch hearts (10:26), and peer into the deep motivations of the heart (Ps 139:1). God sees what people cannot see—a person’s true character. Eliab’s character comes out in 1 Sam 17:28.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:6-7<\/strong> <em>his appearance or height:<\/em> Like Saul, <em>Eliab<\/em><em>,<\/em> Jesse’s oldest son, had an impressive outward appearance (cp. 9:2). Also like Saul, he was <em>rejected<\/em> (cp. 15:23). God had another man in mind to anoint as king. • <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span> <em>looks at the heart:<\/em> God can give a new heart (10:9), touch hearts (10:26), and peer into the deep motivations of the heart (Ps 139:1). God sees what people cannot see—a person’s true character. Eliab’s character comes out in 1 Sam 17:28.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:6-7 his appearance or height: Like Saul, Eliab, Jesse’s oldest son, had an impressive outward appearance (cp. 9:2). Also like Saul, he was rejected (cp. 15:23). God had another man in mind to anoint as king. • the Lord looks at the heart: God can give a new heart (10:9), touch hearts (10:26), and peer into the deep motivations of the heart (Ps 139:1). God sees what people cannot see—a person’s true character. Eliab’s character comes out in 1 Sam 17:28.","summary_en":"16:6-7 his appearance or height: Like Saul, Eliab, Jesse’s oldest son, had an impressive outward appearance (cp. 9:2). Also like Saul, he was rejected (cp. 15:23). God had another man in mind to anoint as king. • the Lord looks at the heart: God can give a new heart (10:9), touch hearts (10:26), and peer into the deep motivations of the heart (Ps 139:1). God sees what people cannot see—a person’s true character. Eliab’s character comes out in 1 Sam 17:28.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101526,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:6","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:6-7<\/strong> <em>his appearance or height:<\/em> Like Saul, <em>Eliab<\/em><em>,<\/em> Jesse’s oldest son, had an impressive outward appearance (cp. 9:2). Also like Saul, he was <em>rejected<\/em> (cp. 15:23). God had another man in mind to anoint as king. • <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span> <em>looks at the heart:<\/em> God can give a new heart (10:9), touch hearts (10:26), and peer into the deep motivations of the heart (Ps 139:1). God sees what people cannot see—a person’s true character. Eliab’s character comes out in 1 Sam 17:28.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:6-7<\/strong> <em>his appearance or height:<\/em> Like Saul, <em>Eliab<\/em><em>,<\/em> Jesse’s oldest son, had an impressive outward appearance (cp. 9:2). Also like Saul, he was <em>rejected<\/em> (cp. 15:23). God had another man in mind to anoint as king. • <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span> <em>looks at the heart:<\/em> God can give a new heart (10:9), touch hearts (10:26), and peer into the deep motivations of the heart (Ps 139:1). God sees what people cannot see—a person’s true character. Eliab’s character comes out in 1 Sam 17:28.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:6-7 his appearance or height: Like Saul, Eliab, Jesse’s oldest son, had an impressive outward appearance (cp. 9:2). Also like Saul, he was rejected (cp. 15:23). God had another man in mind to anoint as king. • the Lord looks at the heart: God can give a new heart (10:9), touch hearts (10:26), and peer into the deep motivations of the heart (Ps 139:1). God sees what people cannot see—a person’s true character. Eliab’s character comes out in 1 Sam 17:28.","summary_en":"16:6-7 his appearance or height: Like Saul, Eliab, Jesse’s oldest son, had an impressive outward appearance (cp. 9:2). Also like Saul, he was rejected (cp. 15:23). God had another man in mind to anoint as king. • the Lord looks at the heart: God can give a new heart (10:9), touch hearts (10:26), and peer into the deep motivations of the heart (Ps 139:1). God sees what people cannot see—a person’s true character. Eliab’s character comes out in 1 Sam 17:28.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":129152,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:6","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:6-7<\/strong> <em>his appearance or height:<\/em> Like Saul, <em>Eliab<\/em><em>,<\/em> Jesse’s oldest son, had an impressive outward appearance (cp. 9:2). Also like Saul, he was <em>rejected<\/em> (cp. 15:23). God had another man in mind to anoint as king. • <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span> <em>looks at the heart:<\/em> God can give a new heart (10:9), touch hearts (10:26), and peer into the deep motivations of the heart (Ps 139:1). God sees what people cannot see—a person’s true character. Eliab’s character comes out in 1 Sam 17:28.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:6-7<\/strong> <em>his appearance or height:<\/em> Like Saul, <em>Eliab<\/em><em>,<\/em> Jesse’s oldest son, had an impressive outward appearance (cp. 9:2). Also like Saul, he was <em>rejected<\/em> (cp. 15:23). God had another man in mind to anoint as king. • <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span> <em>looks at the heart:<\/em> God can give a new heart (10:9), touch hearts (10:26), and peer into the deep motivations of the heart (Ps 139:1). God sees what people cannot see—a person’s true character. Eliab’s character comes out in 1 Sam 17:28.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:6-7 his appearance or height: Like Saul, Eliab, Jesse’s oldest son, had an impressive outward appearance (cp. 9:2). Also like Saul, he was rejected (cp. 15:23). God had another man in mind to anoint as king. • the Lord looks at the heart: God can give a new heart (10:9), touch hearts (10:26), and peer into the deep motivations of the heart (Ps 139:1). God sees what people cannot see—a person’s true character. Eliab’s character comes out in 1 Sam 17:28.","summary_en":"16:6-7 his appearance or height: Like Saul, Eliab, Jesse’s oldest son, had an impressive outward appearance (cp. 9:2). Also like Saul, he was rejected (cp. 15:23). God had another man in mind to anoint as king. • the Lord looks at the heart: God can give a new heart (10:9), touch hearts (10:26), and peer into the deep motivations of the heart (Ps 139:1). God sees what people cannot see—a person’s true character. Eliab’s character comes out in 1 Sam 17:28.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"7":[{"id":15737,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Heart","title_en":"Heart","content_ro":"<h3>HEART<\/h3>\n<p>Vital bodily organ; emotional center of one’s being.<\/p>\n<p>In Hebrew and Greek, as in modern English, “heart” is used to designate a physical organ as well as the emotional center of one’s being. “Heart” (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">leb<\/span><em>;<\/em> Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kardia<\/span>) occurs approximately 1,000 times in the Bible, though it is often disguised in translation. The range of meaning is great.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PhysicalHeart\">Physical Heart<\/p>\n<p>That the beating heart indicates life seems implied in 1 Samuel 25:37-39 (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg), despite the delay in Nabal’s death. Physical food and wine affect the heart (Jgs 19:5; Ps 104:15; Acts 14:17), and the heart can “faint” and “tremble.” The heart’s position in the body yields an obvious metaphor for “the center” (Mt 12:40).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PyschologicalHeart\">Pyschological Heart<\/p>\n<p>The heart attends intellectually (e.g., Jer 12:11); it also perceives (Jn 12:40), understands (1 Kgs 3:9), debates (Mk 2:6), reflects (Lk 2:19), remembers (Lk 2:51), thinks (Dt 8:17), imagines (Lk 1:51), is wise (Eccl 1:17, <span>kjv<\/span>), has technical skill (Ex 28:3, <span>kjv<\/span>), and much more.<\/p>\n<p>Emotionally, the heart experiences intoxicated merriment (1 Sm 25:36), gladness (Is 30:29), joy (Jn 16:22), sorrow (Neh 2:2), anguish (Rom 9:2), bitterness (Prv 14:10), anxiety (1 Sm 4:13), despair (Eccl 2:20), love (2 Sm 14:1), trust (Ps 112:7), affection (2 Cor 7:3), lust (Mt 5:28), callousness (Mk 3:5), hatred (Lv 19:17), fear (Gn 42:28), jealousy (Jas 3:14), desire (Rom 10:1), discouragement (Nm 32:9), sympathy (Ex 23:9), anger (Dt 19:6, <span>kjv<\/span>), irresolution (2 Chr 13:7, <span>kjv<\/span>), and much more.<\/p>\n<p>Volitionally, the heart can purpose (1 Cor 4:5), incline to (1 Sm 14:7), prompt (2 Kgs 12:4; cf. Prv 4:23), be steadfast (Acts 11:23), be willing (Ex 35:22), contrive evil (Acts 5:4), or follow its “treasure” (Mt 6:21).<\/p>\n<p>Morally, the heart can be gentle, lowly (Mt 11:29), holy (1 Thes 3:13), faithful (Neh 9:8), upright (Ps 97:11), pure, single-minded (Jas 4:8), clean (Acts 15:8), loving toward God (Mk 12:30) and others (1 Pt 1:22), hardened, or sensitive (Ez 11:19). Scripture’s emphasis falls upon the heart’s evil (Gn 6:5 and throughout), as self-deceiving (Jas 1:26), deceitful (Jer 17:9), avaricious (Mt 6:19-21), lustful (Mt 5:28), arrogant (Is 9:9), impious (Acts 7:51), perverse (Ps 101:4), and impenitent (Rom 2:5). Nothing defiles a man worse than his own heart (Mk 7:18-19).<\/p>\n<p>Yet out of the heart can come good (Lk 6:45; 8:15). Even when frustrated by circumstances or by fear, the heart’s good intention remains good; its evil intent, bad (1 Kgs 8:18; Mt 5:28).<\/p>\n<p>Being so complex, a person’s heart is sadly divided, and Scripture often extols a perfect, whole, true (i.e., united) heart (Gn 20:5; Ps 86:11; Acts 8:37). The “heart” signifies the total inner self, a person’s hidden core of being (1 Pt 3:4), with which one communes, which one “pours out” in prayer, words, and deeds (Ps 62:8; Mt 15:18-19). It is the genuine self, distinguished from appearance, public position, and physical presence (1 Sm 16:7; 2 Cor 5:12; 1 Thes 2:17). And this “heart-self” has its own nature, character, and disposition (Dn 4:16; 7:4, <span>kjv<\/span>; cf. Mt 12:33-37).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheSpiritualHeart\">The Spiritual Heart<\/p>\n<p>The heart is especially important in biblical religion. The mystery of the hidden self is fully known to God and to Christ (Jer 17:10; Lk 9:47; Rom 8:27), and the heart is the seat of our knowledge of God (2 Cor 4:6). The state of heart governs the vision of God (Mt 5:8); from the heart one speaks to God (Ps 27:8); the heart is the locus of divine indwelling (2 Cor 1:22; Gal 4:6; Eph 3:17).<\/p>\n<p>On the other hand, moral evil in the heart is seen in biblical perspective as sin against God. Senseless hearts are darkened, often secretly idolatrous, far from God, “not right” before God (Dt 29:18-19; Mt 15:8; Acts 8:21; Rom 1:21). Yet the Lord will not despise a broken, contrite heart (Ps 51:17). When one’s heart is turned toward God, he promises to make it sensitive to divine things, renewed and purified (Dt 4:29; 2 Kgs 23:25; Ps 51:10; Jl 2:13; Ez 36:25-27). God’s law shall then be written on the heart as the inward guide and incentive (Jer 31:33; Heb 8:10; cf. 2 Cor 3:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>In Christian terms, such transformation involves believing the gospel from the “honest and good heart” that provides fruitful soil for the Word of God (Lk 8:15; Rom 10:9). The true heart draws near to God, loves him with all its intellect, feeling, and will (Lk 10:27; Heb 10:22). Then God gives strength, reward, renewal, grace, peace, and joy to the heart (Ps 73:26; Is 57:15; Acts 2:46; Phil 4:7; Heb 13:9). So the ancient ideal becomes possible again, that of being “a man after God’s own heart” (1 Sm 13:14; Acts 13:22).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HEART<\/h3>\n<p>Vital bodily organ; emotional center of one’s being.<\/p>\n<p>In Hebrew and Greek, as in modern English, “heart” is used to designate a physical organ as well as the emotional center of one’s being. “Heart” (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">leb<\/span><em>;<\/em> Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kardia<\/span>) occurs approximately 1,000 times in the Bible, though it is often disguised in translation. The range of meaning is great.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PhysicalHeart\">Physical Heart<\/p>\n<p>That the beating heart indicates life seems implied in 1 Samuel 25:37-39 (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg), despite the delay in Nabal’s death. Physical food and wine affect the heart (Jgs 19:5; Ps 104:15; Acts 14:17), and the heart can “faint” and “tremble.” The heart’s position in the body yields an obvious metaphor for “the center” (Mt 12:40).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PyschologicalHeart\">Pyschological Heart<\/p>\n<p>The heart attends intellectually (e.g., Jer 12:11); it also perceives (Jn 12:40), understands (1 Kgs 3:9), debates (Mk 2:6), reflects (Lk 2:19), remembers (Lk 2:51), thinks (Dt 8:17), imagines (Lk 1:51), is wise (Eccl 1:17, <span>kjv<\/span>), has technical skill (Ex 28:3, <span>kjv<\/span>), and much more.<\/p>\n<p>Emotionally, the heart experiences intoxicated merriment (1 Sm 25:36), gladness (Is 30:29), joy (Jn 16:22), sorrow (Neh 2:2), anguish (Rom 9:2), bitterness (Prv 14:10), anxiety (1 Sm 4:13), despair (Eccl 2:20), love (2 Sm 14:1), trust (Ps 112:7), affection (2 Cor 7:3), lust (Mt 5:28), callousness (Mk 3:5), hatred (Lv 19:17), fear (Gn 42:28), jealousy (Jas 3:14), desire (Rom 10:1), discouragement (Nm 32:9), sympathy (Ex 23:9), anger (Dt 19:6, <span>kjv<\/span>), irresolution (2 Chr 13:7, <span>kjv<\/span>), and much more.<\/p>\n<p>Volitionally, the heart can purpose (1 Cor 4:5), incline to (1 Sm 14:7), prompt (2 Kgs 12:4; cf. Prv 4:23), be steadfast (Acts 11:23), be willing (Ex 35:22), contrive evil (Acts 5:4), or follow its “treasure” (Mt 6:21).<\/p>\n<p>Morally, the heart can be gentle, lowly (Mt 11:29), holy (1 Thes 3:13), faithful (Neh 9:8), upright (Ps 97:11), pure, single-minded (Jas 4:8), clean (Acts 15:8), loving toward God (Mk 12:30) and others (1 Pt 1:22), hardened, or sensitive (Ez 11:19). Scripture’s emphasis falls upon the heart’s evil (Gn 6:5 and throughout), as self-deceiving (Jas 1:26), deceitful (Jer 17:9), avaricious (Mt 6:19-21), lustful (Mt 5:28), arrogant (Is 9:9), impious (Acts 7:51), perverse (Ps 101:4), and impenitent (Rom 2:5). Nothing defiles a man worse than his own heart (Mk 7:18-19).<\/p>\n<p>Yet out of the heart can come good (Lk 6:45; 8:15). Even when frustrated by circumstances or by fear, the heart’s good intention remains good; its evil intent, bad (1 Kgs 8:18; Mt 5:28).<\/p>\n<p>Being so complex, a person’s heart is sadly divided, and Scripture often extols a perfect, whole, true (i.e., united) heart (Gn 20:5; Ps 86:11; Acts 8:37). The “heart” signifies the total inner self, a person’s hidden core of being (1 Pt 3:4), with which one communes, which one “pours out” in prayer, words, and deeds (Ps 62:8; Mt 15:18-19). It is the genuine self, distinguished from appearance, public position, and physical presence (1 Sm 16:7; 2 Cor 5:12; 1 Thes 2:17). And this “heart-self” has its own nature, character, and disposition (Dn 4:16; 7:4, <span>kjv<\/span>; cf. Mt 12:33-37).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheSpiritualHeart\">The Spiritual Heart<\/p>\n<p>The heart is especially important in biblical religion. The mystery of the hidden self is fully known to God and to Christ (Jer 17:10; Lk 9:47; Rom 8:27), and the heart is the seat of our knowledge of God (2 Cor 4:6). The state of heart governs the vision of God (Mt 5:8); from the heart one speaks to God (Ps 27:8); the heart is the locus of divine indwelling (2 Cor 1:22; Gal 4:6; Eph 3:17).<\/p>\n<p>On the other hand, moral evil in the heart is seen in biblical perspective as sin against God. Senseless hearts are darkened, often secretly idolatrous, far from God, “not right” before God (Dt 29:18-19; Mt 15:8; Acts 8:21; Rom 1:21). Yet the Lord will not despise a broken, contrite heart (Ps 51:17). When one’s heart is turned toward God, he promises to make it sensitive to divine things, renewed and purified (Dt 4:29; 2 Kgs 23:25; Ps 51:10; Jl 2:13; Ez 36:25-27). God’s law shall then be written on the heart as the inward guide and incentive (Jer 31:33; Heb 8:10; cf. 2 Cor 3:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>In Christian terms, such transformation involves believing the gospel from the “honest and good heart” that provides fruitful soil for the Word of God (Lk 8:15; Rom 10:9). The true heart draws near to God, loves him with all its intellect, feeling, and will (Lk 10:27; Heb 10:22). Then God gives strength, reward, renewal, grace, peace, and joy to the heart (Ps 73:26; Is 57:15; Acts 2:46; Phil 4:7; Heb 13:9). So the ancient ideal becomes possible again, that of being “a man after God’s own heart” (1 Sm 13:14; Acts 13:22).<\/p>","summary_ro":"HEART Vital bodily organ; emotional center of one’s being. In Hebrew and Greek, as in modern English, “heart” is used to designate a physical organ as well as the emotional center of one’s being. “Heart” (Hebrew leb; Greek kardia) occurs approximately 1,000 times in the Bible, though it is often disguised in translation. The range of meaning is great. Physical Heart That the beating heart indicates life seems implied in 1 Samuel 25:37-39 (see nlt mg), despite the delay in Nabal’s death. Physi...","summary_en":"HEART Vital bodily organ; emotional center of one’s being. In Hebrew and Greek, as in modern English, “heart” is used to designate a physical organ as well as the emotional center of one’s being. “Heart” (Hebrew leb; Greek kardia) occurs approximately 1,000 times in the Bible, though it is often disguised in translation. The range of meaning is great. Physical Heart That the beating heart indicates life seems implied in 1 Samuel 25:37-39 (see nlt mg), despite the delay in Nabal’s death. Physi...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":28671,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Man*, Outward","title_en":"Man*, Outward","content_ro":"<h3>OUTWARD MAN*<\/h3>\n<p>Part of a person outwardly observed. Used in contrast to “inner man,” the term is not to be confused with other terms, both biblical and extrabiblical, such as “old man and new man,” “natural man and spiritual man,” “body and soul.” Near Eastern, and particularly Semitic, thinking dealt in wholes instead of dichotomies, so the inner and outward man were viewed as parts of a whole rather than as irreconcilable opposites.<\/p>\n<p>Although the phrase appears only in 2 Corinthians 4:16, similar terms, such as “outward appearance,” are found elsewhere in Scripture (1 Sm 16:7; Mt 23:27-28; 2 Cor 10:7). From the biblical perspective, appearance should correspond to that which is inside a person. The Talmud says, “A scribe whose inner man does not correspond to the outer is no scribe.”<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Inner Man; Man.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>OUTWARD MAN*<\/h3>\n<p>Part of a person outwardly observed. Used in contrast to “inner man,” the term is not to be confused with other terms, both biblical and extrabiblical, such as “old man and new man,” “natural man and spiritual man,” “body and soul.” Near Eastern, and particularly Semitic, thinking dealt in wholes instead of dichotomies, so the inner and outward man were viewed as parts of a whole rather than as irreconcilable opposites.<\/p>\n<p>Although the phrase appears only in 2 Corinthians 4:16, similar terms, such as “outward appearance,” are found elsewhere in Scripture (1 Sm 16:7; Mt 23:27-28; 2 Cor 10:7). From the biblical perspective, appearance should correspond to that which is inside a person. The Talmud says, “A scribe whose inner man does not correspond to the outer is no scribe.”<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Inner Man; Man.<\/p>","summary_ro":"OUTWARD MAN* Part of a person outwardly observed. Used in contrast to “inner man,” the term is not to be confused with other terms, both biblical and extrabiblical, such as “old man and new man,” “natural man and spiritual man,” “body and soul.” Near Eastern, and particularly Semitic, thinking dealt in wholes instead of dichotomies, so the inner and outward man were viewed as parts of a whole rather than as irreconcilable opposites. Although the phrase appears only in 2 Corinthians 4:16, simi...","summary_en":"OUTWARD MAN* Part of a person outwardly observed. Used in contrast to “inner man,” the term is not to be confused with other terms, both biblical and extrabiblical, such as “old man and new man,” “natural man and spiritual man,” “body and soul.” Near Eastern, and particularly Semitic, thinking dealt in wholes instead of dichotomies, so the inner and outward man were viewed as parts of a whole rather than as irreconcilable opposites. Although the phrase appears only in 2 Corinthians 4:16, simi...","source":"Articles\/O.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"8":[{"id":216,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Abinadab","title_en":"Abinadab","content_ro":"<h3>ABINADAB<\/h3>\n<li>1. Resident of Kiriath-jearim to whose home the ark of God was brought on its return by the Philistines (1 Sm 6:21–7:2).<\/li>\n<li>2. Jesse’s second son, and brother of David (1 Sm 16:8; 17:13; 1 Chr 2:13). This Abinadab served in Saul’s army for part of the Philistine war.<\/li>\n<li>3. KJV form of Ben-abinadab, one of King Solomon’s administrative officers in 1 Kings 4:11. <em>See<\/em> Ben-abinadab.<\/li>\n<li>4. One of Saul’s sons (1 Chr 8:33; 10:2).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>ABINADAB<\/h3>\n<li>1. Resident of Kiriath-jearim to whose home the ark of God was brought on its return by the Philistines (1 Sm 6:21–7:2).<\/li>\n<li>2. Jesse’s second son, and brother of David (1 Sm 16:8; 17:13; 1 Chr 2:13). This Abinadab served in Saul’s army for part of the Philistine war.<\/li>\n<li>3. KJV form of Ben-abinadab, one of King Solomon’s administrative officers in 1 Kings 4:11. <em>See<\/em> Ben-abinadab.<\/li>\n<li>4. One of Saul’s sons (1 Chr 8:33; 10:2).<\/li>","summary_ro":"ABINADAB 1. Resident of Kiriath-jearim to whose home the ark of God was brought on its return by the Philistines (1 Sm 6:21–7:2). 2. Jesse’s second son, and brother of David (1 Sm 16:8; 17:13; 1 Chr 2:13). This Abinadab served in Saul’s army for part of the Philistine war. 3. KJV form of Ben-abinadab, one of King Solomon’s administrative officers in 1 Kings 4:11. See Ben-abinadab. 4. One of Saul’s sons (1 Chr 8:33; 10:2).","summary_en":"ABINADAB 1. Resident of Kiriath-jearim to whose home the ark of God was brought on its return by the Philistines (1 Sm 6:21–7:2). 2. Jesse’s second son, and brother of David (1 Sm 16:8; 17:13; 1 Chr 2:13). This Abinadab served in Saul’s army for part of the Philistine war. 3. KJV form of Ben-abinadab, one of King Solomon’s administrative officers in 1 Kings 4:11. See Ben-abinadab. 4. One of Saul’s sons (1 Chr 8:33; 10:2).","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":4232,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ben-Abinadab","title_en":"Ben-Abinadab","content_ro":"<h3>BEN-ABINADAB<\/h3>\n<p>One of 12 officers appointed to requisition food for King Solomon’s household. His administrative district comprised the area around Naphath-dor, the coastal city south of Mt Carmel (1 Kgs 4:11). The name means “son of Abinadab” and probably indicates that Ben-abinadab was the son of Solomon’s uncle Abinadab (1 Sm 16:8; 1 Chr 2:13).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BEN-ABINADAB<\/h3>\n<p>One of 12 officers appointed to requisition food for King Solomon’s household. His administrative district comprised the area around Naphath-dor, the coastal city south of Mt Carmel (1 Kgs 4:11). The name means “son of Abinadab” and probably indicates that Ben-abinadab was the son of Solomon’s uncle Abinadab (1 Sm 16:8; 1 Chr 2:13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"BEN-ABINADAB One of 12 officers appointed to requisition food for King Solomon’s household. His administrative district comprised the area around Naphath-dor, the coastal city south of Mt Carmel (1 Kgs 4:11). The name means “son of Abinadab” and probably indicates that Ben-abinadab was the son of Solomon’s uncle Abinadab (1 Sm 16:8; 1 Chr 2:13).","summary_en":"BEN-ABINADAB One of 12 officers appointed to requisition food for King Solomon’s household. His administrative district comprised the area around Naphath-dor, the coastal city south of Mt Carmel (1 Kgs 4:11). The name means “son of Abinadab” and probably indicates that Ben-abinadab was the son of Solomon’s uncle Abinadab (1 Sm 16:8; 1 Chr 2:13).","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"9":[{"id":34621,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Shammah","title_en":"Shammah","content_ro":"<h3>SHAMMAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of Reuel’s four sons, the grandson of Esau and a chief in the land of Edom (Gn 36:13, 17; 1 Chr 1:37).<\/li>\n<li>2. Third of Jesse’s eight sons, the brother of David (1 Sm 16:9; 17:13) and the father of Jonathan (2 Sm 21:20-21) and Jonadab (2 Sm 13:3ff.). Shammah is alternately called Shimea in 1 Chronicles 2:13 and 20:7, Shimeah in 2 Samuel 13:3, and Shimei in 21:21.<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of Agee the Hararite and one of the elite among David’s mighty men. He was renowned for his valiant stand against the Philistines at Lehi (2 Sm 23:11-12).<\/li>\n<li>4. Harodite and one of David’s 30 valiant warriors. He was listed between Elhanan and Elika (2 Sm 23:24-25). The parallel passage of 1 Chronicles 11:27 reads Shammoth, the plural form of Shammah. In 27:8 Shamhuth the Irahite, the commander of a division of David’s soldiers, is no doubt the same man.<\/li>\n<li>5. Hararite and one of David’s mighty men, listed between Jonathan and Ahiam (2 Sm 23:33).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>SHAMMAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of Reuel’s four sons, the grandson of Esau and a chief in the land of Edom (Gn 36:13, 17; 1 Chr 1:37).<\/li>\n<li>2. Third of Jesse’s eight sons, the brother of David (1 Sm 16:9; 17:13) and the father of Jonathan (2 Sm 21:20-21) and Jonadab (2 Sm 13:3ff.). Shammah is alternately called Shimea in 1 Chronicles 2:13 and 20:7, Shimeah in 2 Samuel 13:3, and Shimei in 21:21.<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of Agee the Hararite and one of the elite among David’s mighty men. He was renowned for his valiant stand against the Philistines at Lehi (2 Sm 23:11-12).<\/li>\n<li>4. Harodite and one of David’s 30 valiant warriors. He was listed between Elhanan and Elika (2 Sm 23:24-25). The parallel passage of 1 Chronicles 11:27 reads Shammoth, the plural form of Shammah. In 27:8 Shamhuth the Irahite, the commander of a division of David’s soldiers, is no doubt the same man.<\/li>\n<li>5. Hararite and one of David’s mighty men, listed between Jonathan and Ahiam (2 Sm 23:33).<\/li>","summary_ro":"SHAMMAH 1. One of Reuel’s four sons, the grandson of Esau and a chief in the land of Edom (Gn 36:13, 17; 1 Chr 1:37). 2. Third of Jesse’s eight sons, the brother of David (1 Sm 16:9; 17:13) and the father of Jonathan (2 Sm 21:20-21) and Jonadab (2 Sm 13:3ff.). Shammah is alternately called Shimea in 1 Chronicles 2:13 and 20:7, Shimeah in 2 Samuel 13:3, and Shimei in 21:21. 3. Son of Agee the Hararite and one of the elite among David’s mighty men. He was renowned for his valiant stand against ...","summary_en":"SHAMMAH 1. One of Reuel’s four sons, the grandson of Esau and a chief in the land of Edom (Gn 36:13, 17; 1 Chr 1:37). 2. Third of Jesse’s eight sons, the brother of David (1 Sm 16:9; 17:13) and the father of Jonathan (2 Sm 21:20-21) and Jonadab (2 Sm 13:3ff.). Shammah is alternately called Shimea in 1 Chronicles 2:13 and 20:7, Shimeah in 2 Samuel 13:3, and Shimei in 21:21. 3. Son of Agee the Hararite and one of the elite among David’s mighty men. He was renowned for his valiant stand against ...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":35107,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Shimei","title_en":"Shimei","content_ro":"<h3>SHIMEI<\/h3>\n<li>1. Son of Gershon, the grandson of Levi, and the brother of Libni (Ex 6:17; Nm 3:18; 1 Chr 6:17). He was the father of four sons and the founder of the Shimeite family (Nm 3:21; 1 Chr 23:7, 10; Zech 12:13).<\/li>\n<li>2. Benjaminite, and the son of Gera from the house of Saul. He met King David at the village of Bahurim during the king’s journey from Jerusalem to Mahanaim. Here Shimei bitterly opposed David, cursing him for the ruin of Saul’s house (2 Sm 16:5-13). Later, Shimei repented of his shameful behavior, entreated David’s forgiveness, and received the king’s pardon (19:16-23). After David’s death, King Solomon ordered Shimei to settle in Jerusalem and never to leave the city for any reason. Shimei disobeyed the decree and was killed (1 Kgs 2:8, 36-44).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Brother of David and the father of Jonathan (2 Sm 21:21); alternately called Shammah in 1 Samuel 16:9. <em>See<\/em> Shammah #2.<\/li>\n<li> 4. One of David’s court officials who did not support Adonijah’s attempt to set himself up as king (1 Kgs 1:8).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Benjaminite, the son of Ela and one of King Solomon’s officials who oversaw the royal household (1 Kgs 4:18); perhaps identical with #4 above.<\/li>\n<li> 6. Judahite, the son of Pedaiah, the brother of Zerubbabel, and a descendant of David through Solomon’s line (1 Chr 3:19).<\/li>\n<li> 7. Simeonite, the son of Zaccur and the father of 16 sons and 6 daughters (1 Chr 4:26-27).<\/li>\n<li> 8. Reubenite, the son of Gog and the father of Micah (1 Chr 5:4).<\/li>\n<li> 9. Son of Libni, the father of Uzzah, and a descendant of Levi through Merari’s line (1 Chr 6:29).<\/li>\n<li>10. Gershonite Levite, the son of Jahath, the father of Zimmah, and an ancestor of Asaph who served as a leader of the musicians in the sanctuary during David’s reign (1 Chr 6:42).<\/li>\n<li>11. Benjaminite, the father of nine sons and a head of his father’s house (1 Chr 8:21); alternately called Shema in verse 13. <em>See<\/em> Shema (Person) #3.<\/li>\n<li>12. Gershonite Levite, and the father of three sons in the house of Ladan (1 Chr 23:9).<\/li>\n<li>13. Son of Jeduthun and the leader of the 10th of 24 divisions of musicians trained for service in the sanctuary during David’s reign (1 Chr 25:3, 17).<\/li>\n<li>14. Ramathite, and a member of King David’s staff who had charge of David’s vineyards (1 Chr 27:27).<\/li>\n<li>15. Son of Heman, the brother of Jehuel, and one of the Levites selected to cleanse the house of the Lord during King Hezekiah’s reign (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>; 2 Chr 29:14).<\/li>\n<li>16. Levite, and the brother of Conaniah appointed by King Hezekiah of Judah to oversee the administration of the temple contributions in Jerusalem (2 Chr 31:12-13).<\/li>\n<li>17–19. Three men, a Levite, Hashum’s son, and Binnui’s son, who were encouraged by Ezra to divorce their foreign wives during the postexilic era (Ezr 10:23, 33, 38)<\/li>\n<li>20. Son of Kish and grandfather of Mordecai (Est 2:5).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>SHIMEI<\/h3>\n<li>1. Son of Gershon, the grandson of Levi, and the brother of Libni (Ex 6:17; Nm 3:18; 1 Chr 6:17). He was the father of four sons and the founder of the Shimeite family (Nm 3:21; 1 Chr 23:7, 10; Zech 12:13).<\/li>\n<li>2. Benjaminite, and the son of Gera from the house of Saul. He met King David at the village of Bahurim during the king’s journey from Jerusalem to Mahanaim. Here Shimei bitterly opposed David, cursing him for the ruin of Saul’s house (2 Sm 16:5-13). Later, Shimei repented of his shameful behavior, entreated David’s forgiveness, and received the king’s pardon (19:16-23). After David’s death, King Solomon ordered Shimei to settle in Jerusalem and never to leave the city for any reason. Shimei disobeyed the decree and was killed (1 Kgs 2:8, 36-44).<\/li>\n<li> 3. Brother of David and the father of Jonathan (2 Sm 21:21); alternately called Shammah in 1 Samuel 16:9. <em>See<\/em> Shammah #2.<\/li>\n<li> 4. One of David’s court officials who did not support Adonijah’s attempt to set himself up as king (1 Kgs 1:8).<\/li>\n<li> 5. Benjaminite, the son of Ela and one of King Solomon’s officials who oversaw the royal household (1 Kgs 4:18); perhaps identical with #4 above.<\/li>\n<li> 6. Judahite, the son of Pedaiah, the brother of Zerubbabel, and a descendant of David through Solomon’s line (1 Chr 3:19).<\/li>\n<li> 7. Simeonite, the son of Zaccur and the father of 16 sons and 6 daughters (1 Chr 4:26-27).<\/li>\n<li> 8. Reubenite, the son of Gog and the father of Micah (1 Chr 5:4).<\/li>\n<li> 9. Son of Libni, the father of Uzzah, and a descendant of Levi through Merari’s line (1 Chr 6:29).<\/li>\n<li>10. Gershonite Levite, the son of Jahath, the father of Zimmah, and an ancestor of Asaph who served as a leader of the musicians in the sanctuary during David’s reign (1 Chr 6:42).<\/li>\n<li>11. Benjaminite, the father of nine sons and a head of his father’s house (1 Chr 8:21); alternately called Shema in verse 13. <em>See<\/em> Shema (Person) #3.<\/li>\n<li>12. Gershonite Levite, and the father of three sons in the house of Ladan (1 Chr 23:9).<\/li>\n<li>13. Son of Jeduthun and the leader of the 10th of 24 divisions of musicians trained for service in the sanctuary during David’s reign (1 Chr 25:3, 17).<\/li>\n<li>14. Ramathite, and a member of King David’s staff who had charge of David’s vineyards (1 Chr 27:27).<\/li>\n<li>15. Son of Heman, the brother of Jehuel, and one of the Levites selected to cleanse the house of the Lord during King Hezekiah’s reign (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>; 2 Chr 29:14).<\/li>\n<li>16. Levite, and the brother of Conaniah appointed by King Hezekiah of Judah to oversee the administration of the temple contributions in Jerusalem (2 Chr 31:12-13).<\/li>\n<li>17–19. Three men, a Levite, Hashum’s son, and Binnui’s son, who were encouraged by Ezra to divorce their foreign wives during the postexilic era (Ezr 10:23, 33, 38)<\/li>\n<li>20. Son of Kish and grandfather of Mordecai (Est 2:5).<\/li>","summary_ro":"SHIMEI 1. Son of Gershon, the grandson of Levi, and the brother of Libni (Ex 6:17; Nm 3:18; 1 Chr 6:17). He was the father of four sons and the founder of the Shimeite family (Nm 3:21; 1 Chr 23:7, 10; Zech 12:13). 2. Benjaminite, and the son of Gera from the house of Saul. He met King David at the village of Bahurim during the king’s journey from Jerusalem to Mahanaim. Here Shimei bitterly opposed David, cursing him for the ruin of Saul’s house (2 Sm 16:5-13). Later, Shimei repented of his sh...","summary_en":"SHIMEI 1. Son of Gershon, the grandson of Levi, and the brother of Libni (Ex 6:17; Nm 3:18; 1 Chr 6:17). He was the father of four sons and the founder of the Shimeite family (Nm 3:21; 1 Chr 23:7, 10; Zech 12:13). 2. Benjaminite, and the son of Gera from the house of Saul. He met King David at the village of Bahurim during the king’s journey from Jerusalem to Mahanaim. Here Shimei bitterly opposed David, cursing him for the ruin of Saul’s house (2 Sm 16:5-13). Later, Shimei repented of his sh...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"11":[{"id":41296,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"David","title_en":"David","content_ro":"<h3>David<\/h3>\n<p>David is one of the monumental figures of biblical history. His reign was a high point in God’s plan for Israel, and it had great and lasting significance.<\/p>\n<p>David was born in Bethlehem as Jesse’s youngest son; his lineage is traced back to Judah (Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr 2:3-15; Matt 1:3-6; Luke 3:31-33). At the time of his birth, Jerusalem was occupied by the Jebusites, and large parts of the Promised Land were still occupied by foreign people, most notably the Philistines. God would use David to complete the conquest of the land.<\/p>\n<p>As a youth, David was a simple shepherd, watching his father’s sheep (1 Sam 16:11; 17:14-15). His life took an unexpected turn when the prophet Samuel came to Jesse and anointed David as the next king of Israel. However, David’s kingship was not initiated by a coup or an assassination. In fact, David became a faithful servant to King Saul. David first entered Saul’s service as a musician, playing songs that soothed Saul’s tormented soul (16:14-23). This service anticipated David’s role as the composer of many of the psalms. The youthful David also helped Saul by famously defeating the Philistine champion Goliath in individual combat (17:32-51). This victory anticipated David’s role as a victorious military leader.<\/p>\n<p>Although David was loyal, Saul grew deeply suspicious of him, and David had to flee. He was able to escape with help from Saul’s own children, Jonathan and Michal. David led a virtual kingdom in exile. He had a standing army of six hundred men. The prophet Gad and the priest Abiathar were also with him, providing direction and guidance from the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>God’s long-suffering patience finally ran out with Saul, and Saul died on the battlefield. Yet it was still not easy for David to establish his rule over all Israel. The tribe of Judah immediately proclaimed him its king, but at first the northern tribes chose Ishbosheth, a son of Saul, to be their leader. Ishbosheth was not a powerful or good leader; he only stayed in power because of the protection of his father’s military leader, Abner. However, Ishbosheth foolishly insulted Abner, so the general helped turn the kingdom over to David.<\/p>\n<p>As king over a united Israel, David proceeded to solidify the kingdom. He and his men captured Jerusalem from the Jebusites and made this central city his capital. He also expelled the remaining Philistines from the land. He then brought the Ark of the Covenant into Jerusalem. David wanted to build a permanent temple to God in Jerusalem to replace the Tabernacle. God denied this wish, but he showed his love for David by entering into a covenant with him that established his descendants as a dynasty (2 Sam 7).<\/p>\n<p>David’s life soon took a turn for the worse, however (see 2 Sam 11–12). At a time when he probably should have been on the battlefield with his army, he was lounging around on the palace roof. He saw a beautiful woman named Bathsheba taking a bath. He wanted her, so, like a Near Eastern despot, he took her. She became pregnant, and his attempt to cover up his adultery failed. In a desperate attempt to keep things secret, he had her husband, Uriah, killed. But not even a great king like David can keep secrets from God, and God sent his prophet Nathan to confront David. David repented (see Pss 32, 51), but the consequences of his actions plagued his family and the rest of his reign.<\/p>\n<p>From that point on, David’s family fell apart. David’s son Amnon raped his half sister Tamar (2 Sam 13:1-14). Her brother Absalom then murdered Amnon (2 Sam 13:20-29). Absalom later created a civil war as he tried to steal the throne from his father (2 Sam 15–18). Another son, Adonijah, tried to take the throne from David by having himself proclaimed king while his father was still alive (1 Kgs 1:5-10). But David was able to muster enough strength to ensure that Solomon would succeed him (1 Kgs 1:28-40). David died, Solomon was proclaimed king, and David’s long dynasty began (as promised in 2 Sam 7).<\/p>\n<p>David’s successors seldom measured up. Only rarely did his descendants lead the nation to worship God faithfully; the united monarchy did not even outlive Solomon. In the centuries that followed, the descendants of David ruled only Judah in the south. Eventually, the kingdom of Judah was destroyed. Never again did a descendant of David reign as king in Israel.<\/p>\n<p>What, then, of the promise to David that “your throne will be secure forever” (2 Sam 7:16)? The New Testament points to Jesus. He was the descendant of David, and God proclaimed him the Christ, or Messiah—the anointed king (see Matt 1:1; 9:27; 12:23; Mark 10:47-48; 11:10; 12:35-37; Luke 18:38-39; 20:41-44; John 7:42; Rev 5:5; 22:16). The life and rule of David foreshadows the messianic reign of Jesus Christ, which will last forever (see Luke 1:32-33; Rev 11:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ruth 4:13-22; 1 Sam 16:1–17:58; 18:1–27:12; 29:1–30:31; 2 Sam 1:1–24:25; 1 Kgs 1:1–2:12; 1 Chr 11:1–29:30; Pss 1–32, 34–41, 51–71, 86, 91–110, 122, 124, 131, 133, 138–145; Matt 1:1; 9:27; 22:41-46; Mark 12:35-37; Luke 20:41-44; John 7:40-44; Acts 2:22-37; 13:20-43; Rom 1:3; Rev 22:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>David<\/h3>\n<p>David is one of the monumental figures of biblical history. His reign was a high point in God’s plan for Israel, and it had great and lasting significance.<\/p>\n<p>David was born in Bethlehem as Jesse’s youngest son; his lineage is traced back to Judah (Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr 2:3-15; Matt 1:3-6; Luke 3:31-33). At the time of his birth, Jerusalem was occupied by the Jebusites, and large parts of the Promised Land were still occupied by foreign people, most notably the Philistines. God would use David to complete the conquest of the land.<\/p>\n<p>As a youth, David was a simple shepherd, watching his father’s sheep (1 Sam 16:11; 17:14-15). His life took an unexpected turn when the prophet Samuel came to Jesse and anointed David as the next king of Israel. However, David’s kingship was not initiated by a coup or an assassination. In fact, David became a faithful servant to King Saul. David first entered Saul’s service as a musician, playing songs that soothed Saul’s tormented soul (16:14-23). This service anticipated David’s role as the composer of many of the psalms. The youthful David also helped Saul by famously defeating the Philistine champion Goliath in individual combat (17:32-51). This victory anticipated David’s role as a victorious military leader.<\/p>\n<p>Although David was loyal, Saul grew deeply suspicious of him, and David had to flee. He was able to escape with help from Saul’s own children, Jonathan and Michal. David led a virtual kingdom in exile. He had a standing army of six hundred men. The prophet Gad and the priest Abiathar were also with him, providing direction and guidance from the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>God’s long-suffering patience finally ran out with Saul, and Saul died on the battlefield. Yet it was still not easy for David to establish his rule over all Israel. The tribe of Judah immediately proclaimed him its king, but at first the northern tribes chose Ishbosheth, a son of Saul, to be their leader. Ishbosheth was not a powerful or good leader; he only stayed in power because of the protection of his father’s military leader, Abner. However, Ishbosheth foolishly insulted Abner, so the general helped turn the kingdom over to David.<\/p>\n<p>As king over a united Israel, David proceeded to solidify the kingdom. He and his men captured Jerusalem from the Jebusites and made this central city his capital. He also expelled the remaining Philistines from the land. He then brought the Ark of the Covenant into Jerusalem. David wanted to build a permanent temple to God in Jerusalem to replace the Tabernacle. God denied this wish, but he showed his love for David by entering into a covenant with him that established his descendants as a dynasty (2 Sam 7).<\/p>\n<p>David’s life soon took a turn for the worse, however (see 2 Sam 11–12). At a time when he probably should have been on the battlefield with his army, he was lounging around on the palace roof. He saw a beautiful woman named Bathsheba taking a bath. He wanted her, so, like a Near Eastern despot, he took her. She became pregnant, and his attempt to cover up his adultery failed. In a desperate attempt to keep things secret, he had her husband, Uriah, killed. But not even a great king like David can keep secrets from God, and God sent his prophet Nathan to confront David. David repented (see Pss 32, 51), but the consequences of his actions plagued his family and the rest of his reign.<\/p>\n<p>From that point on, David’s family fell apart. David’s son Amnon raped his half sister Tamar (2 Sam 13:1-14). Her brother Absalom then murdered Amnon (2 Sam 13:20-29). Absalom later created a civil war as he tried to steal the throne from his father (2 Sam 15–18). Another son, Adonijah, tried to take the throne from David by having himself proclaimed king while his father was still alive (1 Kgs 1:5-10). But David was able to muster enough strength to ensure that Solomon would succeed him (1 Kgs 1:28-40). David died, Solomon was proclaimed king, and David’s long dynasty began (as promised in 2 Sam 7).<\/p>\n<p>David’s successors seldom measured up. Only rarely did his descendants lead the nation to worship God faithfully; the united monarchy did not even outlive Solomon. In the centuries that followed, the descendants of David ruled only Judah in the south. Eventually, the kingdom of Judah was destroyed. Never again did a descendant of David reign as king in Israel.<\/p>\n<p>What, then, of the promise to David that “your throne will be secure forever” (2 Sam 7:16)? The New Testament points to Jesus. He was the descendant of David, and God proclaimed him the Christ, or Messiah—the anointed king (see Matt 1:1; 9:27; 12:23; Mark 10:47-48; 11:10; 12:35-37; Luke 18:38-39; 20:41-44; John 7:42; Rev 5:5; 22:16). The life and rule of David foreshadows the messianic reign of Jesus Christ, which will last forever (see Luke 1:32-33; Rev 11:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ruth 4:13-22; 1 Sam 16:1–17:58; 18:1–27:12; 29:1–30:31; 2 Sam 1:1–24:25; 1 Kgs 1:1–2:12; 1 Chr 11:1–29:30; Pss 1–32, 34–41, 51–71, 86, 91–110, 122, 124, 131, 133, 138–145; Matt 1:1; 9:27; 22:41-46; Mark 12:35-37; Luke 20:41-44; John 7:40-44; Acts 2:22-37; 13:20-43; Rom 1:3; Rev 22:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"David David is one of the monumental figures of biblical history. His reign was a high point in God’s plan for Israel, and it had great and lasting significance. David was born in Bethlehem as Jesse’s youngest son; his lineage is traced back to Judah (Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr 2:3-15; Matt 1:3-6; Luke 3:31-33). At the time of his birth, Jerusalem was occupied by the Jebusites, and large parts of the Promised Land were still occupied by foreign people, most notably the Philistines. God would use Dav...","summary_en":"David David is one of the monumental figures of biblical history. His reign was a high point in God’s plan for Israel, and it had great and lasting significance. David was born in Bethlehem as Jesse’s youngest son; his lineage is traced back to Judah (Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr 2:3-15; Matt 1:3-6; Luke 3:31-33). At the time of his birth, Jerusalem was occupied by the Jebusites, and large parts of the Promised Land were still occupied by foreign people, most notably the Philistines. God would use Dav...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68922,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"David","title_en":"David","content_ro":"<h3>David<\/h3>\n<p>David is one of the monumental figures of biblical history. His reign was a high point in God’s plan for Israel, and it had great and lasting significance.<\/p>\n<p>David was born in Bethlehem as Jesse’s youngest son; his lineage is traced back to Judah (Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr 2:3-15; Matt 1:3-6; Luke 3:31-33). At the time of his birth, Jerusalem was occupied by the Jebusites, and large parts of the Promised Land were still occupied by foreign people, most notably the Philistines. God would use David to complete the conquest of the land.<\/p>\n<p>As a youth, David was a simple shepherd, watching his father’s sheep (1 Sam 16:11; 17:14-15). His life took an unexpected turn when the prophet Samuel came to Jesse and anointed David as the next king of Israel. However, David’s kingship was not initiated by a coup or an assassination. In fact, David became a faithful servant to King Saul. David first entered Saul’s service as a musician, playing songs that soothed Saul’s tormented soul (16:14-23). This service anticipated David’s role as the composer of many of the psalms. The youthful David also helped Saul by famously defeating the Philistine champion Goliath in individual combat (17:32-51). This victory anticipated David’s role as a victorious military leader.<\/p>\n<p>Although David was loyal, Saul grew deeply suspicious of him, and David had to flee. He was able to escape with help from Saul’s own children, Jonathan and Michal. David led a virtual kingdom in exile. He had a standing army of six hundred men. The prophet Gad and the priest Abiathar were also with him, providing direction and guidance from the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>God’s long-suffering patience finally ran out with Saul, and Saul died on the battlefield. Yet it was still not easy for David to establish his rule over all Israel. The tribe of Judah immediately proclaimed him its king, but at first the northern tribes chose Ishbosheth, a son of Saul, to be their leader. Ishbosheth was not a powerful or good leader; he only stayed in power because of the protection of his father’s military leader, Abner. However, Ishbosheth foolishly insulted Abner, so the general helped turn the kingdom over to David.<\/p>\n<p>As king over a united Israel, David proceeded to solidify the kingdom. He and his men captured Jerusalem from the Jebusites and made this central city his capital. He also expelled the remaining Philistines from the land. He then brought the Ark of the Covenant into Jerusalem. David wanted to build a permanent temple to God in Jerusalem to replace the Tabernacle. God denied this wish, but he showed his love for David by entering into a covenant with him that established his descendants as a dynasty (2 Sam 7).<\/p>\n<p>David’s life soon took a turn for the worse, however (see 2 Sam 11–12). At a time when he probably should have been on the battlefield with his army, he was lounging around on the palace roof. He saw a beautiful woman named Bathsheba taking a bath. He wanted her, so, like a Near Eastern despot, he took her. She became pregnant, and his attempt to cover up his adultery failed. In a desperate attempt to keep things secret, he had her husband, Uriah, killed. But not even a great king like David can keep secrets from God, and God sent his prophet Nathan to confront David. David repented (see Pss 32, 51), but the consequences of his actions plagued his family and the rest of his reign.<\/p>\n<p>From that point on, David’s family fell apart. David’s son Amnon raped his half sister Tamar (2 Sam 13:1-14). Her brother Absalom then murdered Amnon (2 Sam 13:20-29). Absalom later created a civil war as he tried to steal the throne from his father (2 Sam 15–18). Another son, Adonijah, tried to take the throne from David by having himself proclaimed king while his father was still alive (1 Kgs 1:5-10). But David was able to muster enough strength to ensure that Solomon would succeed him (1 Kgs 1:28-40). David died, Solomon was proclaimed king, and David’s long dynasty began (as promised in 2 Sam 7).<\/p>\n<p>David’s successors seldom measured up. Only rarely did his descendants lead the nation to worship God faithfully; the united monarchy did not even outlive Solomon. In the centuries that followed, the descendants of David ruled only Judah in the south. Eventually, the kingdom of Judah was destroyed. Never again did a descendant of David reign as king in Israel.<\/p>\n<p>What, then, of the promise to David that “your throne will be secure forever” (2 Sam 7:16)? The New Testament points to Jesus. He was the descendant of David, and God proclaimed him the Christ, or Messiah—the anointed king (see Matt 1:1; 9:27; 12:23; Mark 10:47-48; 11:10; 12:35-37; Luke 18:38-39; 20:41-44; John 7:42; Rev 5:5; 22:16). The life and rule of David foreshadows the messianic reign of Jesus Christ, which will last forever (see Luke 1:32-33; Rev 11:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ruth 4:13-22; 1 Sam 16:1–17:58; 18:1–27:12; 29:1–30:31; 2 Sam 1:1–24:25; 1 Kgs 1:1–2:12; 1 Chr 11:1–29:30; Pss 1–32, 34–41, 51–71, 86, 91–110, 122, 124, 131, 133, 138–145; Matt 1:1; 9:27; 22:41-46; Mark 12:35-37; Luke 20:41-44; John 7:40-44; Acts 2:22-37; 13:20-43; Rom 1:3; Rev 22:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>David<\/h3>\n<p>David is one of the monumental figures of biblical history. His reign was a high point in God’s plan for Israel, and it had great and lasting significance.<\/p>\n<p>David was born in Bethlehem as Jesse’s youngest son; his lineage is traced back to Judah (Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr 2:3-15; Matt 1:3-6; Luke 3:31-33). At the time of his birth, Jerusalem was occupied by the Jebusites, and large parts of the Promised Land were still occupied by foreign people, most notably the Philistines. God would use David to complete the conquest of the land.<\/p>\n<p>As a youth, David was a simple shepherd, watching his father’s sheep (1 Sam 16:11; 17:14-15). His life took an unexpected turn when the prophet Samuel came to Jesse and anointed David as the next king of Israel. However, David’s kingship was not initiated by a coup or an assassination. In fact, David became a faithful servant to King Saul. David first entered Saul’s service as a musician, playing songs that soothed Saul’s tormented soul (16:14-23). This service anticipated David’s role as the composer of many of the psalms. The youthful David also helped Saul by famously defeating the Philistine champion Goliath in individual combat (17:32-51). This victory anticipated David’s role as a victorious military leader.<\/p>\n<p>Although David was loyal, Saul grew deeply suspicious of him, and David had to flee. He was able to escape with help from Saul’s own children, Jonathan and Michal. David led a virtual kingdom in exile. He had a standing army of six hundred men. The prophet Gad and the priest Abiathar were also with him, providing direction and guidance from the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>God’s long-suffering patience finally ran out with Saul, and Saul died on the battlefield. Yet it was still not easy for David to establish his rule over all Israel. The tribe of Judah immediately proclaimed him its king, but at first the northern tribes chose Ishbosheth, a son of Saul, to be their leader. Ishbosheth was not a powerful or good leader; he only stayed in power because of the protection of his father’s military leader, Abner. However, Ishbosheth foolishly insulted Abner, so the general helped turn the kingdom over to David.<\/p>\n<p>As king over a united Israel, David proceeded to solidify the kingdom. He and his men captured Jerusalem from the Jebusites and made this central city his capital. He also expelled the remaining Philistines from the land. He then brought the Ark of the Covenant into Jerusalem. David wanted to build a permanent temple to God in Jerusalem to replace the Tabernacle. God denied this wish, but he showed his love for David by entering into a covenant with him that established his descendants as a dynasty (2 Sam 7).<\/p>\n<p>David’s life soon took a turn for the worse, however (see 2 Sam 11–12). At a time when he probably should have been on the battlefield with his army, he was lounging around on the palace roof. He saw a beautiful woman named Bathsheba taking a bath. He wanted her, so, like a Near Eastern despot, he took her. She became pregnant, and his attempt to cover up his adultery failed. In a desperate attempt to keep things secret, he had her husband, Uriah, killed. But not even a great king like David can keep secrets from God, and God sent his prophet Nathan to confront David. David repented (see Pss 32, 51), but the consequences of his actions plagued his family and the rest of his reign.<\/p>\n<p>From that point on, David’s family fell apart. David’s son Amnon raped his half sister Tamar (2 Sam 13:1-14). Her brother Absalom then murdered Amnon (2 Sam 13:20-29). Absalom later created a civil war as he tried to steal the throne from his father (2 Sam 15–18). Another son, Adonijah, tried to take the throne from David by having himself proclaimed king while his father was still alive (1 Kgs 1:5-10). But David was able to muster enough strength to ensure that Solomon would succeed him (1 Kgs 1:28-40). David died, Solomon was proclaimed king, and David’s long dynasty began (as promised in 2 Sam 7).<\/p>\n<p>David’s successors seldom measured up. Only rarely did his descendants lead the nation to worship God faithfully; the united monarchy did not even outlive Solomon. In the centuries that followed, the descendants of David ruled only Judah in the south. Eventually, the kingdom of Judah was destroyed. Never again did a descendant of David reign as king in Israel.<\/p>\n<p>What, then, of the promise to David that “your throne will be secure forever” (2 Sam 7:16)? The New Testament points to Jesus. He was the descendant of David, and God proclaimed him the Christ, or Messiah—the anointed king (see Matt 1:1; 9:27; 12:23; Mark 10:47-48; 11:10; 12:35-37; Luke 18:38-39; 20:41-44; John 7:42; Rev 5:5; 22:16). The life and rule of David foreshadows the messianic reign of Jesus Christ, which will last forever (see Luke 1:32-33; Rev 11:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ruth 4:13-22; 1 Sam 16:1–17:58; 18:1–27:12; 29:1–30:31; 2 Sam 1:1–24:25; 1 Kgs 1:1–2:12; 1 Chr 11:1–29:30; Pss 1–32, 34–41, 51–71, 86, 91–110, 122, 124, 131, 133, 138–145; Matt 1:1; 9:27; 22:41-46; Mark 12:35-37; Luke 20:41-44; John 7:40-44; Acts 2:22-37; 13:20-43; Rom 1:3; Rev 22:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"David David is one of the monumental figures of biblical history. His reign was a high point in God’s plan for Israel, and it had great and lasting significance. David was born in Bethlehem as Jesse’s youngest son; his lineage is traced back to Judah (Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr 2:3-15; Matt 1:3-6; Luke 3:31-33). At the time of his birth, Jerusalem was occupied by the Jebusites, and large parts of the Promised Land were still occupied by foreign people, most notably the Philistines. God would use Dav...","summary_en":"David David is one of the monumental figures of biblical history. His reign was a high point in God’s plan for Israel, and it had great and lasting significance. David was born in Bethlehem as Jesse’s youngest son; his lineage is traced back to Judah (Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr 2:3-15; Matt 1:3-6; Luke 3:31-33). At the time of his birth, Jerusalem was occupied by the Jebusites, and large parts of the Promised Land were still occupied by foreign people, most notably the Philistines. God would use Dav...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96548,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"David","title_en":"David","content_ro":"<h3>David<\/h3>\n<p>David is one of the monumental figures of biblical history. His reign was a high point in God’s plan for Israel, and it had great and lasting significance.<\/p>\n<p>David was born in Bethlehem as Jesse’s youngest son; his lineage is traced back to Judah (Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr 2:3-15; Matt 1:3-6; Luke 3:31-33). At the time of his birth, Jerusalem was occupied by the Jebusites, and large parts of the Promised Land were still occupied by foreign people, most notably the Philistines. God would use David to complete the conquest of the land.<\/p>\n<p>As a youth, David was a simple shepherd, watching his father’s sheep (1 Sam 16:11; 17:14-15). His life took an unexpected turn when the prophet Samuel came to Jesse and anointed David as the next king of Israel. However, David’s kingship was not initiated by a coup or an assassination. In fact, David became a faithful servant to King Saul. David first entered Saul’s service as a musician, playing songs that soothed Saul’s tormented soul (16:14-23). This service anticipated David’s role as the composer of many of the psalms. The youthful David also helped Saul by famously defeating the Philistine champion Goliath in individual combat (17:32-51). This victory anticipated David’s role as a victorious military leader.<\/p>\n<p>Although David was loyal, Saul grew deeply suspicious of him, and David had to flee. He was able to escape with help from Saul’s own children, Jonathan and Michal. David led a virtual kingdom in exile. He had a standing army of six hundred men. The prophet Gad and the priest Abiathar were also with him, providing direction and guidance from the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>God’s long-suffering patience finally ran out with Saul, and Saul died on the battlefield. Yet it was still not easy for David to establish his rule over all Israel. The tribe of Judah immediately proclaimed him its king, but at first the northern tribes chose Ishbosheth, a son of Saul, to be their leader. Ishbosheth was not a powerful or good leader; he only stayed in power because of the protection of his father’s military leader, Abner. However, Ishbosheth foolishly insulted Abner, so the general helped turn the kingdom over to David.<\/p>\n<p>As king over a united Israel, David proceeded to solidify the kingdom. He and his men captured Jerusalem from the Jebusites and made this central city his capital. He also expelled the remaining Philistines from the land. He then brought the Ark of the Covenant into Jerusalem. David wanted to build a permanent temple to God in Jerusalem to replace the Tabernacle. God denied this wish, but he showed his love for David by entering into a covenant with him that established his descendants as a dynasty (2 Sam 7).<\/p>\n<p>David’s life soon took a turn for the worse, however (see 2 Sam 11–12). At a time when he probably should have been on the battlefield with his army, he was lounging around on the palace roof. He saw a beautiful woman named Bathsheba taking a bath. He wanted her, so, like a Near Eastern despot, he took her. She became pregnant, and his attempt to cover up his adultery failed. In a desperate attempt to keep things secret, he had her husband, Uriah, killed. But not even a great king like David can keep secrets from God, and God sent his prophet Nathan to confront David. David repented (see Pss 32, 51), but the consequences of his actions plagued his family and the rest of his reign.<\/p>\n<p>From that point on, David’s family fell apart. David’s son Amnon raped his half sister Tamar (2 Sam 13:1-14). Her brother Absalom then murdered Amnon (2 Sam 13:20-29). Absalom later created a civil war as he tried to steal the throne from his father (2 Sam 15–18). Another son, Adonijah, tried to take the throne from David by having himself proclaimed king while his father was still alive (1 Kgs 1:5-10). But David was able to muster enough strength to ensure that Solomon would succeed him (1 Kgs 1:28-40). David died, Solomon was proclaimed king, and David’s long dynasty began (as promised in 2 Sam 7).<\/p>\n<p>David’s successors seldom measured up. Only rarely did his descendants lead the nation to worship God faithfully; the united monarchy did not even outlive Solomon. In the centuries that followed, the descendants of David ruled only Judah in the south. Eventually, the kingdom of Judah was destroyed. Never again did a descendant of David reign as king in Israel.<\/p>\n<p>What, then, of the promise to David that “your throne will be secure forever” (2 Sam 7:16)? The New Testament points to Jesus. He was the descendant of David, and God proclaimed him the Christ, or Messiah—the anointed king (see Matt 1:1; 9:27; 12:23; Mark 10:47-48; 11:10; 12:35-37; Luke 18:38-39; 20:41-44; John 7:42; Rev 5:5; 22:16). The life and rule of David foreshadows the messianic reign of Jesus Christ, which will last forever (see Luke 1:32-33; Rev 11:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ruth 4:13-22; 1 Sam 16:1–17:58; 18:1–27:12; 29:1–30:31; 2 Sam 1:1–24:25; 1 Kgs 1:1–2:12; 1 Chr 11:1–29:30; Pss 1–32, 34–41, 51–71, 86, 91–110, 122, 124, 131, 133, 138–145; Matt 1:1; 9:27; 22:41-46; Mark 12:35-37; Luke 20:41-44; John 7:40-44; Acts 2:22-37; 13:20-43; Rom 1:3; Rev 22:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>David<\/h3>\n<p>David is one of the monumental figures of biblical history. His reign was a high point in God’s plan for Israel, and it had great and lasting significance.<\/p>\n<p>David was born in Bethlehem as Jesse’s youngest son; his lineage is traced back to Judah (Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr 2:3-15; Matt 1:3-6; Luke 3:31-33). At the time of his birth, Jerusalem was occupied by the Jebusites, and large parts of the Promised Land were still occupied by foreign people, most notably the Philistines. God would use David to complete the conquest of the land.<\/p>\n<p>As a youth, David was a simple shepherd, watching his father’s sheep (1 Sam 16:11; 17:14-15). His life took an unexpected turn when the prophet Samuel came to Jesse and anointed David as the next king of Israel. However, David’s kingship was not initiated by a coup or an assassination. In fact, David became a faithful servant to King Saul. David first entered Saul’s service as a musician, playing songs that soothed Saul’s tormented soul (16:14-23). This service anticipated David’s role as the composer of many of the psalms. The youthful David also helped Saul by famously defeating the Philistine champion Goliath in individual combat (17:32-51). This victory anticipated David’s role as a victorious military leader.<\/p>\n<p>Although David was loyal, Saul grew deeply suspicious of him, and David had to flee. He was able to escape with help from Saul’s own children, Jonathan and Michal. David led a virtual kingdom in exile. He had a standing army of six hundred men. The prophet Gad and the priest Abiathar were also with him, providing direction and guidance from the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>God’s long-suffering patience finally ran out with Saul, and Saul died on the battlefield. Yet it was still not easy for David to establish his rule over all Israel. The tribe of Judah immediately proclaimed him its king, but at first the northern tribes chose Ishbosheth, a son of Saul, to be their leader. Ishbosheth was not a powerful or good leader; he only stayed in power because of the protection of his father’s military leader, Abner. However, Ishbosheth foolishly insulted Abner, so the general helped turn the kingdom over to David.<\/p>\n<p>As king over a united Israel, David proceeded to solidify the kingdom. He and his men captured Jerusalem from the Jebusites and made this central city his capital. He also expelled the remaining Philistines from the land. He then brought the Ark of the Covenant into Jerusalem. David wanted to build a permanent temple to God in Jerusalem to replace the Tabernacle. God denied this wish, but he showed his love for David by entering into a covenant with him that established his descendants as a dynasty (2 Sam 7).<\/p>\n<p>David’s life soon took a turn for the worse, however (see 2 Sam 11–12). At a time when he probably should have been on the battlefield with his army, he was lounging around on the palace roof. He saw a beautiful woman named Bathsheba taking a bath. He wanted her, so, like a Near Eastern despot, he took her. She became pregnant, and his attempt to cover up his adultery failed. In a desperate attempt to keep things secret, he had her husband, Uriah, killed. But not even a great king like David can keep secrets from God, and God sent his prophet Nathan to confront David. David repented (see Pss 32, 51), but the consequences of his actions plagued his family and the rest of his reign.<\/p>\n<p>From that point on, David’s family fell apart. David’s son Amnon raped his half sister Tamar (2 Sam 13:1-14). Her brother Absalom then murdered Amnon (2 Sam 13:20-29). Absalom later created a civil war as he tried to steal the throne from his father (2 Sam 15–18). Another son, Adonijah, tried to take the throne from David by having himself proclaimed king while his father was still alive (1 Kgs 1:5-10). But David was able to muster enough strength to ensure that Solomon would succeed him (1 Kgs 1:28-40). David died, Solomon was proclaimed king, and David’s long dynasty began (as promised in 2 Sam 7).<\/p>\n<p>David’s successors seldom measured up. Only rarely did his descendants lead the nation to worship God faithfully; the united monarchy did not even outlive Solomon. In the centuries that followed, the descendants of David ruled only Judah in the south. Eventually, the kingdom of Judah was destroyed. Never again did a descendant of David reign as king in Israel.<\/p>\n<p>What, then, of the promise to David that “your throne will be secure forever” (2 Sam 7:16)? The New Testament points to Jesus. He was the descendant of David, and God proclaimed him the Christ, or Messiah—the anointed king (see Matt 1:1; 9:27; 12:23; Mark 10:47-48; 11:10; 12:35-37; Luke 18:38-39; 20:41-44; John 7:42; Rev 5:5; 22:16). The life and rule of David foreshadows the messianic reign of Jesus Christ, which will last forever (see Luke 1:32-33; Rev 11:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ruth 4:13-22; 1 Sam 16:1–17:58; 18:1–27:12; 29:1–30:31; 2 Sam 1:1–24:25; 1 Kgs 1:1–2:12; 1 Chr 11:1–29:30; Pss 1–32, 34–41, 51–71, 86, 91–110, 122, 124, 131, 133, 138–145; Matt 1:1; 9:27; 22:41-46; Mark 12:35-37; Luke 20:41-44; John 7:40-44; Acts 2:22-37; 13:20-43; Rom 1:3; Rev 22:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"David David is one of the monumental figures of biblical history. His reign was a high point in God’s plan for Israel, and it had great and lasting significance. David was born in Bethlehem as Jesse’s youngest son; his lineage is traced back to Judah (Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr 2:3-15; Matt 1:3-6; Luke 3:31-33). At the time of his birth, Jerusalem was occupied by the Jebusites, and large parts of the Promised Land were still occupied by foreign people, most notably the Philistines. God would use Dav...","summary_en":"David David is one of the monumental figures of biblical history. His reign was a high point in God’s plan for Israel, and it had great and lasting significance. David was born in Bethlehem as Jesse’s youngest son; his lineage is traced back to Judah (Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr 2:3-15; Matt 1:3-6; Luke 3:31-33). At the time of his birth, Jerusalem was occupied by the Jebusites, and large parts of the Promised Land were still occupied by foreign people, most notably the Philistines. God would use Dav...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":124174,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"David","title_en":"David","content_ro":"<h3>David<\/h3>\n<p>David is one of the monumental figures of biblical history. His reign was a high point in God’s plan for Israel, and it had great and lasting significance.<\/p>\n<p>David was born in Bethlehem as Jesse’s youngest son; his lineage is traced back to Judah (Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr 2:3-15; Matt 1:3-6; Luke 3:31-33). At the time of his birth, Jerusalem was occupied by the Jebusites, and large parts of the Promised Land were still occupied by foreign people, most notably the Philistines. God would use David to complete the conquest of the land.<\/p>\n<p>As a youth, David was a simple shepherd, watching his father’s sheep (1 Sam 16:11; 17:14-15). His life took an unexpected turn when the prophet Samuel came to Jesse and anointed David as the next king of Israel. However, David’s kingship was not initiated by a coup or an assassination. In fact, David became a faithful servant to King Saul. David first entered Saul’s service as a musician, playing songs that soothed Saul’s tormented soul (16:14-23). This service anticipated David’s role as the composer of many of the psalms. The youthful David also helped Saul by famously defeating the Philistine champion Goliath in individual combat (17:32-51). This victory anticipated David’s role as a victorious military leader.<\/p>\n<p>Although David was loyal, Saul grew deeply suspicious of him, and David had to flee. He was able to escape with help from Saul’s own children, Jonathan and Michal. David led a virtual kingdom in exile. He had a standing army of six hundred men. The prophet Gad and the priest Abiathar were also with him, providing direction and guidance from the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>God’s long-suffering patience finally ran out with Saul, and Saul died on the battlefield. Yet it was still not easy for David to establish his rule over all Israel. The tribe of Judah immediately proclaimed him its king, but at first the northern tribes chose Ishbosheth, a son of Saul, to be their leader. Ishbosheth was not a powerful or good leader; he only stayed in power because of the protection of his father’s military leader, Abner. However, Ishbosheth foolishly insulted Abner, so the general helped turn the kingdom over to David.<\/p>\n<p>As king over a united Israel, David proceeded to solidify the kingdom. He and his men captured Jerusalem from the Jebusites and made this central city his capital. He also expelled the remaining Philistines from the land. He then brought the Ark of the Covenant into Jerusalem. David wanted to build a permanent temple to God in Jerusalem to replace the Tabernacle. God denied this wish, but he showed his love for David by entering into a covenant with him that established his descendants as a dynasty (2 Sam 7).<\/p>\n<p>David’s life soon took a turn for the worse, however (see 2 Sam 11–12). At a time when he probably should have been on the battlefield with his army, he was lounging around on the palace roof. He saw a beautiful woman named Bathsheba taking a bath. He wanted her, so, like a Near Eastern despot, he took her. She became pregnant, and his attempt to cover up his adultery failed. In a desperate attempt to keep things secret, he had her husband, Uriah, killed. But not even a great king like David can keep secrets from God, and God sent his prophet Nathan to confront David. David repented (see Pss 32, 51), but the consequences of his actions plagued his family and the rest of his reign.<\/p>\n<p>From that point on, David’s family fell apart. David’s son Amnon raped his half sister Tamar (2 Sam 13:1-14). Her brother Absalom then murdered Amnon (2 Sam 13:20-29). Absalom later created a civil war as he tried to steal the throne from his father (2 Sam 15–18). Another son, Adonijah, tried to take the throne from David by having himself proclaimed king while his father was still alive (1 Kgs 1:5-10). But David was able to muster enough strength to ensure that Solomon would succeed him (1 Kgs 1:28-40). David died, Solomon was proclaimed king, and David’s long dynasty began (as promised in 2 Sam 7).<\/p>\n<p>David’s successors seldom measured up. Only rarely did his descendants lead the nation to worship God faithfully; the united monarchy did not even outlive Solomon. In the centuries that followed, the descendants of David ruled only Judah in the south. Eventually, the kingdom of Judah was destroyed. Never again did a descendant of David reign as king in Israel.<\/p>\n<p>What, then, of the promise to David that “your throne will be secure forever” (2 Sam 7:16)? The New Testament points to Jesus. He was the descendant of David, and God proclaimed him the Christ, or Messiah—the anointed king (see Matt 1:1; 9:27; 12:23; Mark 10:47-48; 11:10; 12:35-37; Luke 18:38-39; 20:41-44; John 7:42; Rev 5:5; 22:16). The life and rule of David foreshadows the messianic reign of Jesus Christ, which will last forever (see Luke 1:32-33; Rev 11:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ruth 4:13-22; 1 Sam 16:1–17:58; 18:1–27:12; 29:1–30:31; 2 Sam 1:1–24:25; 1 Kgs 1:1–2:12; 1 Chr 11:1–29:30; Pss 1–32, 34–41, 51–71, 86, 91–110, 122, 124, 131, 133, 138–145; Matt 1:1; 9:27; 22:41-46; Mark 12:35-37; Luke 20:41-44; John 7:40-44; Acts 2:22-37; 13:20-43; Rom 1:3; Rev 22:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>David<\/h3>\n<p>David is one of the monumental figures of biblical history. His reign was a high point in God’s plan for Israel, and it had great and lasting significance.<\/p>\n<p>David was born in Bethlehem as Jesse’s youngest son; his lineage is traced back to Judah (Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr 2:3-15; Matt 1:3-6; Luke 3:31-33). At the time of his birth, Jerusalem was occupied by the Jebusites, and large parts of the Promised Land were still occupied by foreign people, most notably the Philistines. God would use David to complete the conquest of the land.<\/p>\n<p>As a youth, David was a simple shepherd, watching his father’s sheep (1 Sam 16:11; 17:14-15). His life took an unexpected turn when the prophet Samuel came to Jesse and anointed David as the next king of Israel. However, David’s kingship was not initiated by a coup or an assassination. In fact, David became a faithful servant to King Saul. David first entered Saul’s service as a musician, playing songs that soothed Saul’s tormented soul (16:14-23). This service anticipated David’s role as the composer of many of the psalms. The youthful David also helped Saul by famously defeating the Philistine champion Goliath in individual combat (17:32-51). This victory anticipated David’s role as a victorious military leader.<\/p>\n<p>Although David was loyal, Saul grew deeply suspicious of him, and David had to flee. He was able to escape with help from Saul’s own children, Jonathan and Michal. David led a virtual kingdom in exile. He had a standing army of six hundred men. The prophet Gad and the priest Abiathar were also with him, providing direction and guidance from the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>God’s long-suffering patience finally ran out with Saul, and Saul died on the battlefield. Yet it was still not easy for David to establish his rule over all Israel. The tribe of Judah immediately proclaimed him its king, but at first the northern tribes chose Ishbosheth, a son of Saul, to be their leader. Ishbosheth was not a powerful or good leader; he only stayed in power because of the protection of his father’s military leader, Abner. However, Ishbosheth foolishly insulted Abner, so the general helped turn the kingdom over to David.<\/p>\n<p>As king over a united Israel, David proceeded to solidify the kingdom. He and his men captured Jerusalem from the Jebusites and made this central city his capital. He also expelled the remaining Philistines from the land. He then brought the Ark of the Covenant into Jerusalem. David wanted to build a permanent temple to God in Jerusalem to replace the Tabernacle. God denied this wish, but he showed his love for David by entering into a covenant with him that established his descendants as a dynasty (2 Sam 7).<\/p>\n<p>David’s life soon took a turn for the worse, however (see 2 Sam 11–12). At a time when he probably should have been on the battlefield with his army, he was lounging around on the palace roof. He saw a beautiful woman named Bathsheba taking a bath. He wanted her, so, like a Near Eastern despot, he took her. She became pregnant, and his attempt to cover up his adultery failed. In a desperate attempt to keep things secret, he had her husband, Uriah, killed. But not even a great king like David can keep secrets from God, and God sent his prophet Nathan to confront David. David repented (see Pss 32, 51), but the consequences of his actions plagued his family and the rest of his reign.<\/p>\n<p>From that point on, David’s family fell apart. David’s son Amnon raped his half sister Tamar (2 Sam 13:1-14). Her brother Absalom then murdered Amnon (2 Sam 13:20-29). Absalom later created a civil war as he tried to steal the throne from his father (2 Sam 15–18). Another son, Adonijah, tried to take the throne from David by having himself proclaimed king while his father was still alive (1 Kgs 1:5-10). But David was able to muster enough strength to ensure that Solomon would succeed him (1 Kgs 1:28-40). David died, Solomon was proclaimed king, and David’s long dynasty began (as promised in 2 Sam 7).<\/p>\n<p>David’s successors seldom measured up. Only rarely did his descendants lead the nation to worship God faithfully; the united monarchy did not even outlive Solomon. In the centuries that followed, the descendants of David ruled only Judah in the south. Eventually, the kingdom of Judah was destroyed. Never again did a descendant of David reign as king in Israel.<\/p>\n<p>What, then, of the promise to David that “your throne will be secure forever” (2 Sam 7:16)? The New Testament points to Jesus. He was the descendant of David, and God proclaimed him the Christ, or Messiah—the anointed king (see Matt 1:1; 9:27; 12:23; Mark 10:47-48; 11:10; 12:35-37; Luke 18:38-39; 20:41-44; John 7:42; Rev 5:5; 22:16). The life and rule of David foreshadows the messianic reign of Jesus Christ, which will last forever (see Luke 1:32-33; Rev 11:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ruth 4:13-22; 1 Sam 16:1–17:58; 18:1–27:12; 29:1–30:31; 2 Sam 1:1–24:25; 1 Kgs 1:1–2:12; 1 Chr 11:1–29:30; Pss 1–32, 34–41, 51–71, 86, 91–110, 122, 124, 131, 133, 138–145; Matt 1:1; 9:27; 22:41-46; Mark 12:35-37; Luke 20:41-44; John 7:40-44; Acts 2:22-37; 13:20-43; Rom 1:3; Rev 22:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"David David is one of the monumental figures of biblical history. His reign was a high point in God’s plan for Israel, and it had great and lasting significance. David was born in Bethlehem as Jesse’s youngest son; his lineage is traced back to Judah (Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr 2:3-15; Matt 1:3-6; Luke 3:31-33). At the time of his birth, Jerusalem was occupied by the Jebusites, and large parts of the Promised Land were still occupied by foreign people, most notably the Philistines. God would use Dav...","summary_en":"David David is one of the monumental figures of biblical history. His reign was a high point in God’s plan for Israel, and it had great and lasting significance. David was born in Bethlehem as Jesse’s youngest son; his lineage is traced back to Judah (Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr 2:3-15; Matt 1:3-6; Luke 3:31-33). At the time of his birth, Jerusalem was occupied by the Jebusites, and large parts of the Promised Land were still occupied by foreign people, most notably the Philistines. God would use Dav...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":12009,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Family Life and Relations","title_en":"Family Life and Relations","content_ro":"<h3>FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS<\/h3>\n<p>In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refer to setting up a separate dwelling as well as establishing a family. In the broader sense, “house” may refer to an entire nation (“house of Israel”). The heads of families returning from Babylon in the postexilic period controlled sometimes several hundred family members (Ezr 8:1-14). The family was a smaller part of a clan and tribe. In nomadic times the responsibilities and allegiances centered on the larger family group.<\/p>\n<p>Those who belonged to the clan knew that they had to work for common interests and accept responsibility for the whole group. All members of the family were to be protected and assisted in time of need.<\/p>\n<p>As the life of the Israelites became more settled, families (in the wider sense of the term) lived in villages surrounded by fields of wheat, barley, and flax, with areas of grazing land for sheep and goats. Each group of villages consisted of an intermarried, interdependent family group, such as that of the Danites of Zorah and Eshtaol (Jgs 18:11). The hard life of those days demanded a sharing of work and the loyal cooperation of the entire family for survival.<\/p>\n<p>As crafts and trades developed, along with a more sedentary lifestyle, sons learned their fathers’ skills and continued the family trade. Consequently, the whole village might follow a particular craft (1 Chr 4:14; Neh 11:35). By specializing in such trades, however, the villagers became less self-sufficient, depending more on farmers for food and on other specialized villages for the production of cloth or pottery (1 Chr 4:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>With the growth of cities, related groups lived together in specific areas. Many members of the tribes of Benjamin and Judah were listed in the census of Jerusalem by Nehemiah (Neh 11:4-8), and by the writer of Chronicles (1 Chr 9:3-9). One consequence of life in the cities was the fragmentation of the family group. As the bonds of the wider family were loosened, the unit consisted increasingly of a husband and wife with their children, living in one house. The size of houses that have been excavated precludes the idea of any larger family unit as the norm in OT societies.<\/p>\n<p>During the kingdom period, King David’s sons Amnon and Absalom set up their own separate houses (2 Sm 13:7-8, 20). At that time there were few slaves in Hebrew society, but they also were considered members of the family. As bonds of the wider family loosened, and the master of the household lost a degree of authority, the society became one in which the king was sovereign and all the people were his subjects.<\/p>\n<p>The early kings of Israel promoted such a change in order to establish a central ruling authority for the entire country. The king’s subjects fell broadly into the categories of employers and employees, corresponding to the rich and poor of society. By the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, members of the wider family no longer worked for the communal good under the authority of the clan’s head; rather, individuals worked primarily for the good of their own immediate family. Hence one’s labor and devotion were focused more narrowly, and the greatest beneficiary was the king, the personal symbol of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>Emphasis on the smaller family unit increased, and old duties that had been willingly accepted by the wider groups in former times came to be neglected. People did not always help relatives in times of need, and they frequently had to be reminded of their obligations, particularly toward widows and orphans (Is 1:17; Jer 7:6). Family feuds also declined because members no longer felt responsible to take vengeance as a way to uphold the honor of the clan (2 Sm 3:27; 16:8; 2 Kgs 9:26). Nevertheless, Nehemiah expected Israelites to fight for their family honor (Neh 4:14). In NT times, the family was such a unit that it could be sold for a debt incurred by one of its members (Mt 18:25).<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew religion’s emphasis on family participation in certain celebrations strengthened the small unit. The Passover, for example, was always celebrated as a family thanksgiving meal (Ex 12:3-4, 46). The prophet Samuel’s parents made a traditional annual pilgrimage to the shrine at Shiloh (1 Sm 2:19). In modern times, a young Jewish boy’s arrival at the threshold of manhood is celebrated with the Bar Mitzvah ceremony. Being so honored in the midst of a religious family preserves the ancient Hebrew tradition of family participation in religious ceremonies.<\/p>\n<p>In his preaching Jesus used the family as a symbol for the relationship of God to his people (Mt 19:14; 23:9; Lk 8:21). From the cross he handed over responsibility for the care of his mother to his disciple John (Jn 19:27).<\/p>\n<p>In NT times, the communion meals in the Jerusalem church took place by households (Acts 2:46). Early Christian meetings were held in the homes of believers because of opposition by the authorities. The book of Acts contains examples of entire families being converted to Christianity (Acts 10:24, 44-48; 16:15, 31-32). Timothy learned the gospel from his grandmother and mother (2 Tm 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>• Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>• Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>• The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>• Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>• In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StatusofFamilyMembers\">Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>From nomadic times, a father’s authority held the family group together in their encampment, and he became the symbol of their security. In ancient patriarchal societies, the father was an absolute master who had the power of life and death over family members, ruling with unchallenged authority. Although he had extensive responsibilities for those under his care, his power was awesome and his status unquestioned.<\/p>\n<p>A man’s possessions included his wife, servants, slaves, and animals (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). In fact, the phrase “to marry a wife” comes from a Hebrew root meaning “to become the master of a wife.” A husband was as much the master of his wife as he was of his home or his fields. Consequently, the wife addressed him in a subservient manner, as a slave would address a master (Gn 18:12; Jgs 19:26). This low status for a woman extended to a daughter’s position in the ancient household. Females were always under the authority of a male relative: first, the father; then a husband. If a woman became a widow, she was subject to her husband’s nearest male relative, who became her “redeemer.” The bride price (Gn 29:18, 27; Ex 22:16-17; 1 Sm 18:25; 2 Sm 3:14) paid by her husband was not exactly a purchase of the woman from her father, but the exchange of money did stigmatize her. The amount of a bride price depended on the father’s status (Gn 34:12). The usual price was probably 20 to 30 shekels of silver. The bride received gifts of jewelry, ornaments, and clothing from her future husband, and she occasionally enjoyed some sort of financial or material return from the bride price for her own use (Jos 15:19; Jgs 1:15). When her father or husband died, the money frequently reverted to her.<\/p>\n<p>An engaged woman was considered her fiancé’s property just as much as if she were already married to him (Dt 22:23-27). The woman left her own family at marriage, to live with and become part of her new husband’s family. Normally, any succeeding marriages would be with members of that family.<\/p>\n<p>Despite the low legal status of the mother of the family, her life was not as bad as one might suppose. She was the legal wife, not an unpaid servant, and she frequently took a strong role as adviser to her husband in family affairs. Her most important function, aside from childbearing, was organization of the household, of which she was generally the respected manager. Even though the wife might have been acquired through capture in war (Dt 21:10-14), she could not be sold as a slave or daughter could (Ex 21:7; Neh 5:5).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, her position was precarious, in that she could be disowned or divorced by her husband as the result of a simple renunciation: “She is no longer my wife, and I am no longer her husband.” Perhaps he had found fault with her culinary skills, or possibly he was casting his eyes on another woman. In any event, a husband knew that if his wife did not obey even a signal or a glance, he was within his rights to obtain a divorce (cf. Ecclus 25:26). The wife, however, obtained a certain degree of protection in the letter of repudiation, by which her freedom was formally restored. Under Jewish tradition, a wife could not divorce her husband.<\/p>\n<p>In matters of domestic protocol, the Hebrew wife was not introduced to her husband’s guests, a tradition that subsequently led to considerable embarrassment for Abraham’s wife, Sarah, and for Rebekah (Gn 20:16). A woman normally remained veiled in public (24:65; 38:14; Is 47:2).<\/p>\n<p>The imagery in Proverbs 19:13 and 27:15 draws a vigorous comparison between a contentious woman and water dripping from a leaky roof. The OT leaves little doubt about the type of behavior expected from a woman. She was expected to be charming, soft-spoken, discreet, and calm (Prv 9:13; 11:16, 22; 21:9). She was also to be responsible, well-organized, intelligent, thoughtful, reverent, and a good manager of both the household and the family purse (31:10-31). A woman should also be pious and beautiful, and in NT tradition, submissive to her husband, as befitted a woman adorned with the priceless jewel of a gentle and quiet spirit (Ti 2:4-5; 1 Pt 3:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The actions of a few women whose roles in life do not seem to fit the pattern of the meek, passive female pictured above, are recorded in the Bible and the Apocrypha. The books of Judith and Esther recount heroic tales of how national fortunes were saved by women. Deborah and Jael were renowned heroines (Jgs 4–5), and the kingdom of Judah was ruled by a vicious woman, Athaliah, for several years (2 Kgs 11). The women who stepped to the forefront of public life were exceptional and few in number. Judith was a rich widow, an unusual thing in Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MaritalSecurity\">Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>The security of a wife’s position improved considerably when she produced her first child, particularly if it was a son. A woman’s primary duty to her husband and his family was procreation (Gn 1:28; 9:1), and until she gave birth to a son, she feared displacement by a second wife or a concubine. Polygamous marriages were by no means rare, especially in wealthy families. They resulted in two ill-defined family groups, controlled by the mothers but under the overall authority of fathers; there were inevitable jealousies and frictions.<\/p>\n<p>The legal status of a woman was consistently poor in Bible times. With no evidence at all, a husband could accuse his wife of adultery, and she was compelled to face a trial by ordeal. She had to abase herself by taking an oath, eating dust and a cereal offering, and drinking bitter water. A priest, meanwhile, made pronouncements regarding the dire results that would come to her if she were guilty: she would become an outcast with no hope of survival. But if she maintained her serenity, and if her thigh did not rot nor her abdomen swell, she was considered to have “proved” her innocence. In such an event she would go free, and her husband bore no blame whatsoever for his false accusation (Nm 5:12-31).<\/p>\n<p>If a woman took a vow, it was legal only as long as her father or husband approved it. If she became a widow, the vow still remained in force and could be used against her (Nm 30:3-15).<\/p>\n<p>A woman in Israel was always under the protection of a male, be it her father, grandfather, great-grandfather, brother, husband, or some other member of her husband’s family. She had few legal rights and, in contrast to Babylonian traditions, could not inherit at her husband’s death. It is small wonder that widows were classed with orphans and the poor. A childless widow could on occasion return to her father’s family (Gn 38:11; Lv 22:13; Ru 1:8), thus becoming subject again to the authority of her father. A Hebrew widow could also remain with her late husband’s family. She would then come under the protection of her “redeemer,” a male relative of her husband’s family who assumed responsibility for her. If a husband died leaving a woman childless, it was the responsibility of the husband’s brother to marry her. The first son born of such a union was then regarded as the heir of the first husband.<\/p>\n<p>It was normal for a brother to accept the obligation for such a marriage (levirate). It could be refused on various grounds, but such refusal was considered dishonorable, for it was a man’s duty to perpetuate his brother’s name and to safeguard the family fortune.<\/p>\n<p>A redeemer’s responsibilities were considerable. In addition to the marriage, he was perhaps involved in avenging the family reputation, and he had to ensure that family property increased and remained within family control.<\/p>\n<p>If an Israelite fell into debt and was forced to sell himself into slavery, he would normally be “redeemed” by one of his relatives (Lv 25:47-49). If in his penury an Israelite had to sell his land or his house, the redeemer had the right of first refusal over all other prospective purchasers. It was as much his duty as his right to prevent family property from passing into the hands of strangers (v 25). The prophet Jeremiah bought his cousin Hanamel’s field under similar circumstances (Jer 32:6-15).<\/p>\n<p>The most familiar OT story of a childless widow, her “redeemer,” and their levirate marriage is recorded in the book of Ruth. One of Naomi’s two sons married Ruth. When Ruth was widowed, her impoverished mother-in-law, Naomi, left her home in Moab and returned to Bethlehem to sell some of the family property. Although a close relative was prepared to buy the land and keep it in the family, he was not ready to marry Ruth as well (Ru 3:12; 4:4). He knew that a son of that union would be deemed a son of the deceased, bearing the dead husband’s name, and thus ultimately inheriting the land (4:4-6). The next relative in order of kinship was Boaz, who became Ruth’s “redeemer.” He was prepared to accept the double obligation of purchasing the land and marrying Ruth (4:9-10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PositionofChildren\">Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>Children were generally well loved, but their childhood was short and they were often regarded as laborers for the house or fields. According to the law of primogeniture, the eldest son received a double portion of the estate as his birthright (Dt 21:17). Thus, he was assured of the position of family head. Even during his father’s lifetime, the eldest son took precedence over his brothers and sisters (Gn 43:33). Where twins were born, the first to emerge from the womb was considered the elder, with all the attendant privileges (25:24-26; 38:27-30).<\/p>\n<p>For a serious offense, the eldest son could lose the right of primogeniture (Gn 35:22; 49:3-4; 1 Chr 5:1), or it could be surrendered voluntarily, as Esau did by selling his birthright to his brother Jacob (Gn 25:29-34). There was a law protecting the eldest son from his father’s favoritism for a younger brother (Dt 21:15-17). Nevertheless, King David gave his kingdom to Solomon, his youngest son (1 Kgs 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>In a family with no sons, a daughter could inherit property (Nm 27:8). Frequently, parents consulted neither sons nor daughters when marriage partners were arranged for them. Marriage was often an alliance or contract between two families, and thus the wishes and concerns of individuals were considered unimportant. Love matches were few, although occasionally a son would marry in defiance of his parents, as Esau did (Gn 26:34-35). Although it was rare for young people to express their feelings and preferences about marriage in an open fashion, Saul’s daughter, Michal, made known her love for David (1 Sm 18:20).<\/p>\n<p>There is no record of legal adoption among the Hebrews, but it was practiced from ancient times in Mesopotamia. It was especially useful as a means of ensuring a childless couple that their land would be tilled and that they would be cared for in their old age. All examples of adoption mentioned in the OT took place outside the land of Israel (Ex 2:10; 1 Kgs 11:20; Est 2:7, 15) and are not examples of true adoption as a lifetime member of a family.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRightsofChildren\">The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>The nature of patriarchal society made for unfortunate distinctions between male and female children. The position of a daughter, who could be sold into slavery or sold to be the concubine of a man and then possibly sold again (Ex 21:7-11), was certainly inferior to that of a son. In the patriarchal period, however, both a son and a daughter could be put to death for disobeying the head of the family. One’s children could also be sacrificed in worship rituals (see Gn 22; Jgs 11). It is probable that infant sacrifice was practiced by nations neighboring Israel, including Canaan and Ammon.<\/p>\n<p>The rights of children were improved considerably with the promulgation of the code of Mosaic law. A father was no longer permitted to put his child to death without referring the case to the elders (Dt 21:18-21). Both sons and daughters could be brought before such authorities and accused of being disobedient, gluttonous, or drunkards. A father’s absolute authority even extended to his married son and family if they were living under his roof. The law also prohibited children from being held responsible for the crimes of their parents (Dt 24:16). In King David’s time a person convicted by the community had the right of appeal to the king (2 Sm 14:4-11).<\/p>\n<p>In Hebrew families both parents were held in high respect. Honor had to be given to both mother and father (Ex 20:12), and the law condemned offenses against either parent (21:17; Lv 20:9; Dt 21:18; 27:16). Respect due to the mother is a recurrent theme in the Wisdom Literature (Prv 19:26; 20:20; cf. Ecclus 3:1-16).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DailyLifeoftheHebrewFamily\">Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>In the everyday affairs of a Hebrew household, it was the father’s responsibility to maintain the family fortune and to be the provider. He might work in the fields, most probably with crops of flax, barley, or wheat. Or he would work at a trade, possibly as a weaver, builder, potter, dyer, fuller, or a worker in copper or bronze. If he lived near the shore, he might be a fisherman.<\/p>\n<p>The father was also responsible for the religious well-being of the family. It was his duty to take over his sons’ education from the mother at an early age, teaching them the tenets of Hebrew religion (Ex 10:2; 12:26; Dt 4:9; 6:7). He also explained all the facets of the law and the interwoven history of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>The father was the disciplinarian of the family, with the rod being used to drive home the lessons taught (Prv 13:24; 22:15; 29:15-17). Though children were loved and valued, they were not pampered (Ecclus 30:9-12). In postexilic times education also took place within the precincts of the synagogue, and shortly before the time of Christ, a general elementary education was introduced. It was also imperative that a father teach his sons a trade, normally his own, for a man without a trade either starved or became a thief. Another important paternal responsibility was to provide wives for male offspring in the household.<\/p>\n<p>The mother was responsible for her sons’ and daughters’ early education (Prv 1:8; 6:20), teaching them religious songs and prayers as soon as they could talk. A father took over the education of his sons, but the mother continued with the daughters, training them to spin, weave, cook, clean, trim the lamps, and generally to become competent in all the household duties (31:13-31).<\/p>\n<p>With little furniture, keeping a house clean meant sweeping the floors to keep them free from dust and dirt. Cooking was at once simple and difficult. It was simple in that much of the food was cooked in the form of a soup or stew, or else made into a cake and cooked on a griddle. It was difficult in that the corn had to be ground by hand and bread was baked daily.<\/p>\n<p>A mother was expected to take wool, card it, spin it, and often weave and make clothes for her family. In addition, she would help her husband in the fields at harvesttime. Because many families had one or more olive trees, a few grapevines, and fig trees, the mother would also assist in picking the fruit. She would sometimes work at the press when the olives or grapes were being processed. Frequently the treading of grapes in the family vat would be done together by husband and wife. Drawing water from the well was considered a menial task and was generally the wife’s responsibility, although sometimes it was assigned to the children (Gn 24:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>As in all societies, there was a time when children laughed and played together (Zec 8:5; Mt 11:16), although childhood and adolescence were not recognized as specific stages of development. Children were considered as sucklings if under three, but were regarded as boys or girls when they were able to take care of themselves. A small child sat on his mother’s lap and was played with (Is 66:12). There is no evidence of organized sports for children. Toys, including whistles, rattles, dolls, and miniature cooking utensils, have been excavated at Palestinian sites.<\/p>\n<p>As soon as a boy was old enough, he took his place in the family and accepted his appointed task. Among other things, children were expected to gather fuel (Jer 7:18). Young boys and girls tended the flocks. The sheep had to be protected from marauding wild beasts, guarded against their own folly when they wandered near crevices, steered toward good pasture and water, and carried home when sick or injured (Gn 29:6; Ex 2:16). The care of cattle was also the responsibility of children (1 Sm 16:11). Of necessity, boys were trained in the various arts of war.<\/p>\n<p>Children sometimes joined their fathers in the fields, and their presence was always welcome. From earliest times, boys in particular would watch their fathers until they too picked up a tool or implement to try their skill; girls watched and learned from their mothers. Young children frequently listened to the talk of the elders at the city gates or in the villages. A visit to a sanctuary at festival time was a family affair, furnishing an ideal learning experience. As a child, Jesus accompanied his parents, Mary and Joseph, to the temple in Jerusalem (Lk 2:42-47).<\/p>\n<p>Young girls were surprisingly free to go about their appointed tasks. They were not secluded or veiled and could visit uninhibited with friends and neighbors (Gn 34:1). They were also able to converse with men without embarrassment (24:15-25; 29:11-12; 1 Sm 9:11-13).<\/p>\n<p>Mealtimes were strictly family times. It is doubtful whether a meal comparable to a breakfast was eaten, and a farmer would probably have a light lunch in the fields. The main meal of the day was prepared by the mother, and it would be eaten in the early evening. Although the variety of food available was limited, its preparation was time-consuming.<\/p>\n<p>Feast times were periods of great religious significance and were also the days when family members participated in the symbolic rituals of their faith. Among the Israelites several kinds of food were fundamental to their religious ritual. Family unity and the national religion were molded together by special meals in the home.<\/p>\n<p>Daylight played an important part in the daily habits of the people in antiquity. Although oil lamps were readily available in later periods, it was customary to rise with the sun and go to bed relatively soon after dark. The wife would probably be up before sunrise and might continue her labor after dark.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InNewTestamentTimes\">In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>By NT times, for those who followed the Greek and Roman style, life became more elegant. Despite that, the status of many family members did not change substantially. Wealthier families had more slaves, and the children were more likely to have formal education, sometimes spending less effort on family chores. Even in Roman times, however, the father still had a legal right to accept or reject his child.<\/p>\n<p>The status of the woman had definitely improved by the NT period. A Roman matron was highly respected and exerted a strong influence over her husband. She was not sequestered in a particular section of the house, as a Greek woman was, but managed and supervised tasks in any part of her home. She helped her husband in business, had her own place in theaters, games, and religious festivals, and sometimes managed her own property. Palestinian women began to enjoy a new status and dignity as the result of Jesus’ attitude toward women and its influence on the early Christian church.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Education; Marriage, Marriage Customs; Sex, Sexuality; Widow; Woman.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS<\/h3>\n<p>In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refer to setting up a separate dwelling as well as establishing a family. In the broader sense, “house” may refer to an entire nation (“house of Israel”). The heads of families returning from Babylon in the postexilic period controlled sometimes several hundred family members (Ezr 8:1-14). The family was a smaller part of a clan and tribe. In nomadic times the responsibilities and allegiances centered on the larger family group.<\/p>\n<p>Those who belonged to the clan knew that they had to work for common interests and accept responsibility for the whole group. All members of the family were to be protected and assisted in time of need.<\/p>\n<p>As the life of the Israelites became more settled, families (in the wider sense of the term) lived in villages surrounded by fields of wheat, barley, and flax, with areas of grazing land for sheep and goats. Each group of villages consisted of an intermarried, interdependent family group, such as that of the Danites of Zorah and Eshtaol (Jgs 18:11). The hard life of those days demanded a sharing of work and the loyal cooperation of the entire family for survival.<\/p>\n<p>As crafts and trades developed, along with a more sedentary lifestyle, sons learned their fathers’ skills and continued the family trade. Consequently, the whole village might follow a particular craft (1 Chr 4:14; Neh 11:35). By specializing in such trades, however, the villagers became less self-sufficient, depending more on farmers for food and on other specialized villages for the production of cloth or pottery (1 Chr 4:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>With the growth of cities, related groups lived together in specific areas. Many members of the tribes of Benjamin and Judah were listed in the census of Jerusalem by Nehemiah (Neh 11:4-8), and by the writer of Chronicles (1 Chr 9:3-9). One consequence of life in the cities was the fragmentation of the family group. As the bonds of the wider family were loosened, the unit consisted increasingly of a husband and wife with their children, living in one house. The size of houses that have been excavated precludes the idea of any larger family unit as the norm in OT societies.<\/p>\n<p>During the kingdom period, King David’s sons Amnon and Absalom set up their own separate houses (2 Sm 13:7-8, 20). At that time there were few slaves in Hebrew society, but they also were considered members of the family. As bonds of the wider family loosened, and the master of the household lost a degree of authority, the society became one in which the king was sovereign and all the people were his subjects.<\/p>\n<p>The early kings of Israel promoted such a change in order to establish a central ruling authority for the entire country. The king’s subjects fell broadly into the categories of employers and employees, corresponding to the rich and poor of society. By the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, members of the wider family no longer worked for the communal good under the authority of the clan’s head; rather, individuals worked primarily for the good of their own immediate family. Hence one’s labor and devotion were focused more narrowly, and the greatest beneficiary was the king, the personal symbol of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>Emphasis on the smaller family unit increased, and old duties that had been willingly accepted by the wider groups in former times came to be neglected. People did not always help relatives in times of need, and they frequently had to be reminded of their obligations, particularly toward widows and orphans (Is 1:17; Jer 7:6). Family feuds also declined because members no longer felt responsible to take vengeance as a way to uphold the honor of the clan (2 Sm 3:27; 16:8; 2 Kgs 9:26). Nevertheless, Nehemiah expected Israelites to fight for their family honor (Neh 4:14). In NT times, the family was such a unit that it could be sold for a debt incurred by one of its members (Mt 18:25).<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew religion’s emphasis on family participation in certain celebrations strengthened the small unit. The Passover, for example, was always celebrated as a family thanksgiving meal (Ex 12:3-4, 46). The prophet Samuel’s parents made a traditional annual pilgrimage to the shrine at Shiloh (1 Sm 2:19). In modern times, a young Jewish boy’s arrival at the threshold of manhood is celebrated with the Bar Mitzvah ceremony. Being so honored in the midst of a religious family preserves the ancient Hebrew tradition of family participation in religious ceremonies.<\/p>\n<p>In his preaching Jesus used the family as a symbol for the relationship of God to his people (Mt 19:14; 23:9; Lk 8:21). From the cross he handed over responsibility for the care of his mother to his disciple John (Jn 19:27).<\/p>\n<p>In NT times, the communion meals in the Jerusalem church took place by households (Acts 2:46). Early Christian meetings were held in the homes of believers because of opposition by the authorities. The book of Acts contains examples of entire families being converted to Christianity (Acts 10:24, 44-48; 16:15, 31-32). Timothy learned the gospel from his grandmother and mother (2 Tm 1:5).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>• Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>• Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>• The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>• Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>• In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StatusofFamilyMembers\">Status of Family Members<\/p>\n<p>From nomadic times, a father’s authority held the family group together in their encampment, and he became the symbol of their security. In ancient patriarchal societies, the father was an absolute master who had the power of life and death over family members, ruling with unchallenged authority. Although he had extensive responsibilities for those under his care, his power was awesome and his status unquestioned.<\/p>\n<p>A man’s possessions included his wife, servants, slaves, and animals (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). In fact, the phrase “to marry a wife” comes from a Hebrew root meaning “to become the master of a wife.” A husband was as much the master of his wife as he was of his home or his fields. Consequently, the wife addressed him in a subservient manner, as a slave would address a master (Gn 18:12; Jgs 19:26). This low status for a woman extended to a daughter’s position in the ancient household. Females were always under the authority of a male relative: first, the father; then a husband. If a woman became a widow, she was subject to her husband’s nearest male relative, who became her “redeemer.” The bride price (Gn 29:18, 27; Ex 22:16-17; 1 Sm 18:25; 2 Sm 3:14) paid by her husband was not exactly a purchase of the woman from her father, but the exchange of money did stigmatize her. The amount of a bride price depended on the father’s status (Gn 34:12). The usual price was probably 20 to 30 shekels of silver. The bride received gifts of jewelry, ornaments, and clothing from her future husband, and she occasionally enjoyed some sort of financial or material return from the bride price for her own use (Jos 15:19; Jgs 1:15). When her father or husband died, the money frequently reverted to her.<\/p>\n<p>An engaged woman was considered her fiancé’s property just as much as if she were already married to him (Dt 22:23-27). The woman left her own family at marriage, to live with and become part of her new husband’s family. Normally, any succeeding marriages would be with members of that family.<\/p>\n<p>Despite the low legal status of the mother of the family, her life was not as bad as one might suppose. She was the legal wife, not an unpaid servant, and she frequently took a strong role as adviser to her husband in family affairs. Her most important function, aside from childbearing, was organization of the household, of which she was generally the respected manager. Even though the wife might have been acquired through capture in war (Dt 21:10-14), she could not be sold as a slave or daughter could (Ex 21:7; Neh 5:5).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, her position was precarious, in that she could be disowned or divorced by her husband as the result of a simple renunciation: “She is no longer my wife, and I am no longer her husband.” Perhaps he had found fault with her culinary skills, or possibly he was casting his eyes on another woman. In any event, a husband knew that if his wife did not obey even a signal or a glance, he was within his rights to obtain a divorce (cf. Ecclus 25:26). The wife, however, obtained a certain degree of protection in the letter of repudiation, by which her freedom was formally restored. Under Jewish tradition, a wife could not divorce her husband.<\/p>\n<p>In matters of domestic protocol, the Hebrew wife was not introduced to her husband’s guests, a tradition that subsequently led to considerable embarrassment for Abraham’s wife, Sarah, and for Rebekah (Gn 20:16). A woman normally remained veiled in public (24:65; 38:14; Is 47:2).<\/p>\n<p>The imagery in Proverbs 19:13 and 27:15 draws a vigorous comparison between a contentious woman and water dripping from a leaky roof. The OT leaves little doubt about the type of behavior expected from a woman. She was expected to be charming, soft-spoken, discreet, and calm (Prv 9:13; 11:16, 22; 21:9). She was also to be responsible, well-organized, intelligent, thoughtful, reverent, and a good manager of both the household and the family purse (31:10-31). A woman should also be pious and beautiful, and in NT tradition, submissive to her husband, as befitted a woman adorned with the priceless jewel of a gentle and quiet spirit (Ti 2:4-5; 1 Pt 3:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The actions of a few women whose roles in life do not seem to fit the pattern of the meek, passive female pictured above, are recorded in the Bible and the Apocrypha. The books of Judith and Esther recount heroic tales of how national fortunes were saved by women. Deborah and Jael were renowned heroines (Jgs 4–5), and the kingdom of Judah was ruled by a vicious woman, Athaliah, for several years (2 Kgs 11). The women who stepped to the forefront of public life were exceptional and few in number. Judith was a rich widow, an unusual thing in Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MaritalSecurity\">Marital Security<\/p>\n<p>The security of a wife’s position improved considerably when she produced her first child, particularly if it was a son. A woman’s primary duty to her husband and his family was procreation (Gn 1:28; 9:1), and until she gave birth to a son, she feared displacement by a second wife or a concubine. Polygamous marriages were by no means rare, especially in wealthy families. They resulted in two ill-defined family groups, controlled by the mothers but under the overall authority of fathers; there were inevitable jealousies and frictions.<\/p>\n<p>The legal status of a woman was consistently poor in Bible times. With no evidence at all, a husband could accuse his wife of adultery, and she was compelled to face a trial by ordeal. She had to abase herself by taking an oath, eating dust and a cereal offering, and drinking bitter water. A priest, meanwhile, made pronouncements regarding the dire results that would come to her if she were guilty: she would become an outcast with no hope of survival. But if she maintained her serenity, and if her thigh did not rot nor her abdomen swell, she was considered to have “proved” her innocence. In such an event she would go free, and her husband bore no blame whatsoever for his false accusation (Nm 5:12-31).<\/p>\n<p>If a woman took a vow, it was legal only as long as her father or husband approved it. If she became a widow, the vow still remained in force and could be used against her (Nm 30:3-15).<\/p>\n<p>A woman in Israel was always under the protection of a male, be it her father, grandfather, great-grandfather, brother, husband, or some other member of her husband’s family. She had few legal rights and, in contrast to Babylonian traditions, could not inherit at her husband’s death. It is small wonder that widows were classed with orphans and the poor. A childless widow could on occasion return to her father’s family (Gn 38:11; Lv 22:13; Ru 1:8), thus becoming subject again to the authority of her father. A Hebrew widow could also remain with her late husband’s family. She would then come under the protection of her “redeemer,” a male relative of her husband’s family who assumed responsibility for her. If a husband died leaving a woman childless, it was the responsibility of the husband’s brother to marry her. The first son born of such a union was then regarded as the heir of the first husband.<\/p>\n<p>It was normal for a brother to accept the obligation for such a marriage (levirate). It could be refused on various grounds, but such refusal was considered dishonorable, for it was a man’s duty to perpetuate his brother’s name and to safeguard the family fortune.<\/p>\n<p>A redeemer’s responsibilities were considerable. In addition to the marriage, he was perhaps involved in avenging the family reputation, and he had to ensure that family property increased and remained within family control.<\/p>\n<p>If an Israelite fell into debt and was forced to sell himself into slavery, he would normally be “redeemed” by one of his relatives (Lv 25:47-49). If in his penury an Israelite had to sell his land or his house, the redeemer had the right of first refusal over all other prospective purchasers. It was as much his duty as his right to prevent family property from passing into the hands of strangers (v 25). The prophet Jeremiah bought his cousin Hanamel’s field under similar circumstances (Jer 32:6-15).<\/p>\n<p>The most familiar OT story of a childless widow, her “redeemer,” and their levirate marriage is recorded in the book of Ruth. One of Naomi’s two sons married Ruth. When Ruth was widowed, her impoverished mother-in-law, Naomi, left her home in Moab and returned to Bethlehem to sell some of the family property. Although a close relative was prepared to buy the land and keep it in the family, he was not ready to marry Ruth as well (Ru 3:12; 4:4). He knew that a son of that union would be deemed a son of the deceased, bearing the dead husband’s name, and thus ultimately inheriting the land (4:4-6). The next relative in order of kinship was Boaz, who became Ruth’s “redeemer.” He was prepared to accept the double obligation of purchasing the land and marrying Ruth (4:9-10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PositionofChildren\">Position of Children<\/p>\n<p>Children were generally well loved, but their childhood was short and they were often regarded as laborers for the house or fields. According to the law of primogeniture, the eldest son received a double portion of the estate as his birthright (Dt 21:17). Thus, he was assured of the position of family head. Even during his father’s lifetime, the eldest son took precedence over his brothers and sisters (Gn 43:33). Where twins were born, the first to emerge from the womb was considered the elder, with all the attendant privileges (25:24-26; 38:27-30).<\/p>\n<p>For a serious offense, the eldest son could lose the right of primogeniture (Gn 35:22; 49:3-4; 1 Chr 5:1), or it could be surrendered voluntarily, as Esau did by selling his birthright to his brother Jacob (Gn 25:29-34). There was a law protecting the eldest son from his father’s favoritism for a younger brother (Dt 21:15-17). Nevertheless, King David gave his kingdom to Solomon, his youngest son (1 Kgs 2:15).<\/p>\n<p>In a family with no sons, a daughter could inherit property (Nm 27:8). Frequently, parents consulted neither sons nor daughters when marriage partners were arranged for them. Marriage was often an alliance or contract between two families, and thus the wishes and concerns of individuals were considered unimportant. Love matches were few, although occasionally a son would marry in defiance of his parents, as Esau did (Gn 26:34-35). Although it was rare for young people to express their feelings and preferences about marriage in an open fashion, Saul’s daughter, Michal, made known her love for David (1 Sm 18:20).<\/p>\n<p>There is no record of legal adoption among the Hebrews, but it was practiced from ancient times in Mesopotamia. It was especially useful as a means of ensuring a childless couple that their land would be tilled and that they would be cared for in their old age. All examples of adoption mentioned in the OT took place outside the land of Israel (Ex 2:10; 1 Kgs 11:20; Est 2:7, 15) and are not examples of true adoption as a lifetime member of a family.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRightsofChildren\">The Rights of Children<\/p>\n<p>The nature of patriarchal society made for unfortunate distinctions between male and female children. The position of a daughter, who could be sold into slavery or sold to be the concubine of a man and then possibly sold again (Ex 21:7-11), was certainly inferior to that of a son. In the patriarchal period, however, both a son and a daughter could be put to death for disobeying the head of the family. One’s children could also be sacrificed in worship rituals (see Gn 22; Jgs 11). It is probable that infant sacrifice was practiced by nations neighboring Israel, including Canaan and Ammon.<\/p>\n<p>The rights of children were improved considerably with the promulgation of the code of Mosaic law. A father was no longer permitted to put his child to death without referring the case to the elders (Dt 21:18-21). Both sons and daughters could be brought before such authorities and accused of being disobedient, gluttonous, or drunkards. A father’s absolute authority even extended to his married son and family if they were living under his roof. The law also prohibited children from being held responsible for the crimes of their parents (Dt 24:16). In King David’s time a person convicted by the community had the right of appeal to the king (2 Sm 14:4-11).<\/p>\n<p>In Hebrew families both parents were held in high respect. Honor had to be given to both mother and father (Ex 20:12), and the law condemned offenses against either parent (21:17; Lv 20:9; Dt 21:18; 27:16). Respect due to the mother is a recurrent theme in the Wisdom Literature (Prv 19:26; 20:20; cf. Ecclus 3:1-16).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DailyLifeoftheHebrewFamily\">Daily Life of the Hebrew Family<\/p>\n<p>In the everyday affairs of a Hebrew household, it was the father’s responsibility to maintain the family fortune and to be the provider. He might work in the fields, most probably with crops of flax, barley, or wheat. Or he would work at a trade, possibly as a weaver, builder, potter, dyer, fuller, or a worker in copper or bronze. If he lived near the shore, he might be a fisherman.<\/p>\n<p>The father was also responsible for the religious well-being of the family. It was his duty to take over his sons’ education from the mother at an early age, teaching them the tenets of Hebrew religion (Ex 10:2; 12:26; Dt 4:9; 6:7). He also explained all the facets of the law and the interwoven history of the nation.<\/p>\n<p>The father was the disciplinarian of the family, with the rod being used to drive home the lessons taught (Prv 13:24; 22:15; 29:15-17). Though children were loved and valued, they were not pampered (Ecclus 30:9-12). In postexilic times education also took place within the precincts of the synagogue, and shortly before the time of Christ, a general elementary education was introduced. It was also imperative that a father teach his sons a trade, normally his own, for a man without a trade either starved or became a thief. Another important paternal responsibility was to provide wives for male offspring in the household.<\/p>\n<p>The mother was responsible for her sons’ and daughters’ early education (Prv 1:8; 6:20), teaching them religious songs and prayers as soon as they could talk. A father took over the education of his sons, but the mother continued with the daughters, training them to spin, weave, cook, clean, trim the lamps, and generally to become competent in all the household duties (31:13-31).<\/p>\n<p>With little furniture, keeping a house clean meant sweeping the floors to keep them free from dust and dirt. Cooking was at once simple and difficult. It was simple in that much of the food was cooked in the form of a soup or stew, or else made into a cake and cooked on a griddle. It was difficult in that the corn had to be ground by hand and bread was baked daily.<\/p>\n<p>A mother was expected to take wool, card it, spin it, and often weave and make clothes for her family. In addition, she would help her husband in the fields at harvesttime. Because many families had one or more olive trees, a few grapevines, and fig trees, the mother would also assist in picking the fruit. She would sometimes work at the press when the olives or grapes were being processed. Frequently the treading of grapes in the family vat would be done together by husband and wife. Drawing water from the well was considered a menial task and was generally the wife’s responsibility, although sometimes it was assigned to the children (Gn 24:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>As in all societies, there was a time when children laughed and played together (Zec 8:5; Mt 11:16), although childhood and adolescence were not recognized as specific stages of development. Children were considered as sucklings if under three, but were regarded as boys or girls when they were able to take care of themselves. A small child sat on his mother’s lap and was played with (Is 66:12). There is no evidence of organized sports for children. Toys, including whistles, rattles, dolls, and miniature cooking utensils, have been excavated at Palestinian sites.<\/p>\n<p>As soon as a boy was old enough, he took his place in the family and accepted his appointed task. Among other things, children were expected to gather fuel (Jer 7:18). Young boys and girls tended the flocks. The sheep had to be protected from marauding wild beasts, guarded against their own folly when they wandered near crevices, steered toward good pasture and water, and carried home when sick or injured (Gn 29:6; Ex 2:16). The care of cattle was also the responsibility of children (1 Sm 16:11). Of necessity, boys were trained in the various arts of war.<\/p>\n<p>Children sometimes joined their fathers in the fields, and their presence was always welcome. From earliest times, boys in particular would watch their fathers until they too picked up a tool or implement to try their skill; girls watched and learned from their mothers. Young children frequently listened to the talk of the elders at the city gates or in the villages. A visit to a sanctuary at festival time was a family affair, furnishing an ideal learning experience. As a child, Jesus accompanied his parents, Mary and Joseph, to the temple in Jerusalem (Lk 2:42-47).<\/p>\n<p>Young girls were surprisingly free to go about their appointed tasks. They were not secluded or veiled and could visit uninhibited with friends and neighbors (Gn 34:1). They were also able to converse with men without embarrassment (24:15-25; 29:11-12; 1 Sm 9:11-13).<\/p>\n<p>Mealtimes were strictly family times. It is doubtful whether a meal comparable to a breakfast was eaten, and a farmer would probably have a light lunch in the fields. The main meal of the day was prepared by the mother, and it would be eaten in the early evening. Although the variety of food available was limited, its preparation was time-consuming.<\/p>\n<p>Feast times were periods of great religious significance and were also the days when family members participated in the symbolic rituals of their faith. Among the Israelites several kinds of food were fundamental to their religious ritual. Family unity and the national religion were molded together by special meals in the home.<\/p>\n<p>Daylight played an important part in the daily habits of the people in antiquity. Although oil lamps were readily available in later periods, it was customary to rise with the sun and go to bed relatively soon after dark. The wife would probably be up before sunrise and might continue her labor after dark.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"InNewTestamentTimes\">In New Testament Times<\/p>\n<p>By NT times, for those who followed the Greek and Roman style, life became more elegant. Despite that, the status of many family members did not change substantially. Wealthier families had more slaves, and the children were more likely to have formal education, sometimes spending less effort on family chores. Even in Roman times, however, the father still had a legal right to accept or reject his child.<\/p>\n<p>The status of the woman had definitely improved by the NT period. A Roman matron was highly respected and exerted a strong influence over her husband. She was not sequestered in a particular section of the house, as a Greek woman was, but managed and supervised tasks in any part of her home. She helped her husband in business, had her own place in theaters, games, and religious festivals, and sometimes managed her own property. Palestinian women began to enjoy a new status and dignity as the result of Jesus’ attitude toward women and its influence on the early Christian church.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Education; Marriage, Marriage Customs; Sex, Sexuality; Widow; Woman.<\/p>","summary_ro":"FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refe...","summary_en":"FAMILY LIFE AND RELATIONS In Bible times, the family comprised members of a household, including not only parents and children, along with other relatives and concubines, but also servants, travelers, aliens, and anyone else who happened to be within the house and was therefore under the protection of the head of the family. The family of Jacob, for example, comprised three generations (Gn 46:8-26). Biblically, the term “family” is interchangeable with “house,” and “founding a house” can refe...","source":"Articles\/F.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":19375,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jesse (Person)","title_en":"Jesse (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>JESSE (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Son of Obed and grandson of Ruth and Boaz (Ru 4:17, 22). Jesse was a shepherd from Bethlehem. He had eight sons, of whom David was the youngest. He had at least two daughters, Zeruiah and Abigail, who became mothers of famous warriors.<\/p>\n<p>When Samuel went to Jesse’s home to search for and anoint a king, Jesse did not at first feel it worthwhile to call David for examination (1 Sm 16:11). Later he sent David to play the lyre for Saul (vv 19-21). After David became a fugitive from Saul, Jesse and others of the family came to David in the cave of Adullam. David then brought his father and mother to Mizpah in Moab (22:3). Nothing further is heard of Jesse.<\/p>\n<p>After Saul broke with David, he commonly spoke of David derisively as a “son of Jesse” to underscore his humble origins (1 Sm 20:31; 22:7). This same emphasis on Jesse’s modest station in life is found in such messianic references as Isaiah 11:1 and 10, which speak of the “shoot from the stump of Jesse” and “the root of Jesse” (<span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> David; Jesse, Root of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JESSE (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Son of Obed and grandson of Ruth and Boaz (Ru 4:17, 22). Jesse was a shepherd from Bethlehem. He had eight sons, of whom David was the youngest. He had at least two daughters, Zeruiah and Abigail, who became mothers of famous warriors.<\/p>\n<p>When Samuel went to Jesse’s home to search for and anoint a king, Jesse did not at first feel it worthwhile to call David for examination (1 Sm 16:11). Later he sent David to play the lyre for Saul (vv 19-21). After David became a fugitive from Saul, Jesse and others of the family came to David in the cave of Adullam. David then brought his father and mother to Mizpah in Moab (22:3). Nothing further is heard of Jesse.<\/p>\n<p>After Saul broke with David, he commonly spoke of David derisively as a “son of Jesse” to underscore his humble origins (1 Sm 20:31; 22:7). This same emphasis on Jesse’s modest station in life is found in such messianic references as Isaiah 11:1 and 10, which speak of the “shoot from the stump of Jesse” and “the root of Jesse” (<span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> David; Jesse, Root of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JESSE (Person) Son of Obed and grandson of Ruth and Boaz (Ru 4:17, 22). Jesse was a shepherd from Bethlehem. He had eight sons, of whom David was the youngest. He had at least two daughters, Zeruiah and Abigail, who became mothers of famous warriors. When Samuel went to Jesse’s home to search for and anoint a king, Jesse did not at first feel it worthwhile to call David for examination (1 Sm 16:11). Later he sent David to play the lyre for Saul (vv 19-21). After David became a fugitive from S...","summary_en":"JESSE (Person) Son of Obed and grandson of Ruth and Boaz (Ru 4:17, 22). Jesse was a shepherd from Bethlehem. He had eight sons, of whom David was the youngest. He had at least two daughters, Zeruiah and Abigail, who became mothers of famous warriors. When Samuel went to Jesse’s home to search for and anoint a king, Jesse did not at first feel it worthwhile to call David for examination (1 Sm 16:11). Later he sent David to play the lyre for Saul (vv 19-21). After David became a fugitive from S...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"12":[{"id":1921,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Animals","title_en":"Animals","content_ro":"<h3>ANIMALS<\/h3>\n<p>In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals as object lessons.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical approach to classification of animals is somewhat different from the system of classification used by biologists today. The present system of classification, which traces back to Carolus Linnaeus (an 18th-century Swedish botanist), is based on structure, both internal and external. The biblical basis of classification is habitat. Thus Genesis 1 speaks of aquatic organisms (v 20); aerial organisms (v 21); animals that crawl on the ground (v 24); cattle or domesticated animals (animals that live in association with humans) (v 24); and wild animals (v 24). The same system of classification is followed in Leviticus 11 and throughout Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Because of the divergence between systems of classification, the various animals of the Bible will be listed here in alphabetical order—including reptiles, fish, and even invertebrates such as insects, spiders, worms, and sponges. Birds are discussed in a separate article.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Adder<\/p>\n<p>• Ant<\/p>\n<p>• Antelope<\/p>\n<p>• Ape<\/p>\n<p>• Asp<\/p>\n<p>• Ass<\/p>\n<p>• Badger<\/p>\n<p>• Bat<\/p>\n<p>• Bear<\/p>\n<p>• Bee<\/p>\n<p>• Behemoth<\/p>\n<p>• Camel<\/p>\n<p>• Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>• Cattle<\/p>\n<p>• Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>• Coral<\/p>\n<p>• Cricket<\/p>\n<p>• Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>• Deer<\/p>\n<p>• Dog<\/p>\n<p>• Donkey<\/p>\n<p>• Dragon<\/p>\n<p>• Fish<\/p>\n<p>• Flea<\/p>\n<p>• Fly<\/p>\n<p>• Fox<\/p>\n<p>• Frog<\/p>\n<p>• Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>• Gecko<\/p>\n<p>• Gnat<\/p>\n<p>• Goat<\/p>\n<p>• Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>• Hare<\/p>\n<p>• Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>• Horse<\/p>\n<p>• Hyena<\/p>\n<p>• Jackal<\/p>\n<p>• Leech<\/p>\n<p>• Leopard<\/p>\n<p>• Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>• Lion<\/p>\n<p>• Lizard<\/p>\n<p>• Locust<\/p>\n<p>• Mole<\/p>\n<p>• Moth<\/p>\n<p>• Mouse<\/p>\n<p>• Mule<\/p>\n<p>• Pig<\/p>\n<p>• Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>• Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>• Sheep<\/p>\n<p>• Snail<\/p>\n<p>• Snake<\/p>\n<p>• Spider<\/p>\n<p>• Sponge<\/p>\n<p>• Unicorn<\/p>\n<p>• Wasp<\/p>\n<p>• Whale<\/p>\n<p>• Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>• Wolf<\/p>\n<p>• Worm<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Adder\">Adder<\/p>\n<p>One of the 20 poisonous snakes found in Israel and surrounding countries, also referred to as cockatrice and viper. True vipers (genus <em>Cerastes, Echis colorata,<\/em> and <em>Vipera palestina<\/em>) also exist there, poisonous snakes with curved fangs that spring into position when the snake strikes. The horned viper <em>(Cerastes hasselquistii)<\/em> may attack horses. It is 12 to 18 inches (30 to 46 centimeters) long and often lies in ambush in the sand with only its eyes and the hornlike protrusions on its head visible.<\/p>\n<p>Both Jesus and John the Baptist referred to the viper several times (Mt 3:7; 12:34; 23:33). The reference in Acts 28:3 is probably to a small viper <em>(Vipera aspis)<\/em> that strikes rapidly and is very pugnacious. It is found in southern Europe and hisses each time it inhales and exhales. The poison of vipers attacks the respiratory system and disintegrates red blood cells.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ant\">Ant<\/p>\n<p>Mentioned only twice in the Bible, both times in the book of Proverbs. For many years Solomon was charged with a biological error when he referred to the ant as providing her meat in the summer and gathering her food in the harvest (Prv 6:8). Critics of the Bible were quick to point out that, so far as was then known, ants do not store up food. They assumed that Solomon had probably kicked open an ant hill and mistaken the pupal cases (pods in which immature ants grow to maturity) for grain or had observed ants carrying bits of grain, leaves, and other matter to their nests.<\/p>\n<p>At least three species of grain-storing ants are now known—two occur in Israel and the other in Mediterranean countries. The particular species referred to by Solomon (Prv 6:6-8; 30:24-25) is probably the harvester ant <em>(Messor semirufus).<\/em> Its granaries are flat chambers connected by galleries irregularly scattered over an area about six feet (1.8 meters) in diameter and about a foot (.3 meter) deep in the ground. Seeds are collected from the ground or picked from plants. The head, or radicle, which is the softest part of the kernel, is bitten off to prevent germination, and the chaff and empty capsules are discarded on kitchen middens (refuse piles) outside the nest. Individual granaries may be 5 inches (12.7 centimeters) in diameter and a half inch (1.2 centimeters) high. Some nests are known to be 40 feet (12 meters) in diameter and 6 to 7 feet (approx. 2 meters) deep with several entrances.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Antelope\">Antelope<\/p>\n<p>Several antelope-like creatures are referred to in the Scriptures. One seems to be the white oryx <em>(Oryx leucoryx),<\/em> referred to in Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild ox”; <span>rsv<\/span> “antelope”) and Isaiah 51:20 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild bull”; <span>RSV <\/span>“antelope”). The oryx was probably the antelope, commonly used for food because its long horns made it relatively easy to catch.<\/p>\n<p>Another antelope mentioned in the Bible is the addax <em>(Addax nasomaculatus),<\/em> probably the “pygarg” of Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span>). It is a native of North Africa with grayish white hinder parts, a white patch on the forehead, and twisted and ringed horns. The word “pygarg” comes from a Greek word meaning “white rump.” The addax is about the size of a donkey. Its body is closely covered with short hair. It has a short mane on the underside of its neck that makes the head look somewhat like that of a goat. The hooves are broad and flat, and the tail resembles that of a donkey. It is common in Africa and in Arabia, where Arabs hunt it with falcons and dogs.<\/p>\n<p>Antelopes are very graceful and run with their heads held high. Both sexes have long, permanent, hollow horns. With the oryx the horns go straight back; addax horns are twisted and ringed. Antelope are alert, wary, and keen sighted. They are usually found in herds of from two to a dozen. If injured or brought to bay, an antelope attacks with its head lowered so that the sharp horns point forward. Antelopes feed on grasses and shrubs, drinking from streams and water holes. When water is scarce, they eat melons and succulent bulbs. Both addax and oryx were ceremonially clean in Jewish law.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ape\">Ape<\/p>\n<p>Primate not native to Palestine. The two references to apes in the OT (1 Kgs 10:22; 2 Chr 9:21) refer to their importation by King Solomon with other treasures on board the ships of his mercantile fleet. There is some question concerning the origin of those primates. Some believe that the mention of “ivory” in the same verses suggests they came from East Africa and that they were indeed apes, that is, tailless primates. Others, believing they came from India or Ceylon, suggest that they were actually monkeys. There the baboon (genus Papeio), a large monkey, was considered sacred to the god Thoth. Males of that genus were kept in temples, and the more docile females were often kept as house pets. Such baboons frequently had some of their teeth removed or ground down to lessen the danger of their biting. A number of mummified baboons have been found in Egypt, indicating the high regard in which they were held.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Asp\">Asp<\/p>\n<p>Poisonous snake. Most biblical references to the asp (Dt 32:33) seem to be to the Egyptian cobra <em>(Naja haje),<\/em> which conceals itself in holes, walls, and rocks and has the ability to expand its neck by raising its anterior ribs so as to enlarge the front of its breast into the shape of a flat disc. Its potent poison can cause death in 30 minutes. It attains a length of about 80 inches (2 meters). The fangs are permanently erect, not movable as in the vipers (the common poisonous snakes of North America; only the coral snake in America has permanently erect fangs). Cobra poison attacks the nervous system, causing muscular paralysis. The Egyptians looked upon it as a sacred creature; they regarded it as a protector since it fed on the rodents that ate their crops. The “fiery serpents” (Nm 21:6; Dt 8:15, both <span>rsv<\/span>) may have been cobras; “fiery” probably refers to the burning fever caused by their venom. Isaiah 14:29 and 30:6 (“flying serpent”) may refer to the hood of the cobra.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ass\">Ass<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Donkey (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Badger\">Badger<\/p>\n<p>Small hoofed mammal. What the <span>kjv<\/span> calls a “coney,” modern translations name “rock badger” (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7; Ps 104:18; Prv 30:26). The rock badger spoken of in the Bible is probably the Syrian rock hyrax <em>(Hyrax syriaca),<\/em> the only species of hyrax found outside Africa. This small ungulate (having hooflike toenails) lives among rocks from the Dead Sea valley to Mt Hermon. It is strictly a herbivorous (plant-eating) animal about the size of a rabbit. It resembles a guinea pig more than a rabbit, having quite inconspicuous ears and a very small tail. It has broad nails with four toes on its forelegs and three on its hind legs, the toes being connected with skin almost like a web. Pads acting as sucking discs under its feet enable it to keep its footing on slippery rocks. With its yellow and brown fur, it is sometimes called the bear rat because of its resemblance to a tailless rat. It is also equipped with black whiskers that may be seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p>These rock badgers, or hyraxes, live together in colonies of from 6 to 50 animals, often sunning themselves on rocks. They are difficult to catch. Guards are posted, and if approaching danger is sighted, the whole group will scurry for cover, warned by the sharp whistles of the guards. Thus they are commended for taking refuge in the rocks (Ps 104:18) and are called wise for making “their houses in the rocks” (Prv 30:24, 26, <span>kjv<\/span>). The badger is not a ruminant (does not chew its cud), but the motion of its jaws may suggest that it chews its cud. That is probably why it was included with other cud-chewing animals in the Jewish food laws (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7). It was forbidden to the Jews as food because it did not have cloven hooves. Some Arabs eat and even prize its meat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bat\">Bat<\/p>\n<p>Flying mammals according to modern classification. They have hair and provide milk for their young. The Bible classifies them with other aerial creatures. Bats take shelter in caves, crevices, tree cavities, buildings, and also in exposed places on trees. In colder areas they hibernate or migrate. The normal resting position for a bat is hanging head downward. Bats “swim” through the air rather than fly because they move with their legs as well as with their wings.<\/p>\n<p>The bat’s thumb is free and terminates in a single hook claw used for climbing and hanging. The hind feet have five toes, all pointing the same way. The large chest accommodates the powerful muscles needed for flying. Because they orient themselves by echo location, the sense of hearing is very well developed.<\/p>\n<p>Most bats are insect eaters, seizing insects in flight. Many insectivorous bats also eat some fruit. Other bats feed exclusively, usually in groups, on fruit and green vegetation. Fruit-eating bats generally live in the tropics where fruit is constantly ripening, although some have been found in the Holy Land. These bats tend to be larger than the insectivores, having a wingspread of up to five feet (1.5 meters).<\/p>\n<p>A third group includes flower-eating bats that feed on pollen and nectar. These small bats with long pointed heads and long tongues are found only in tropical and semitropical regions. Three species of vampire bats, which do not occur in the Holy Land, eat blood by making a small incision and lapping it up. Carnivorous (meat-eating) bats prey on birds, lizards, and frogs. Fish-eating bats catch fish at or near the water surface.<\/p>\n<p>Eight varieties of bats are known in the Holy Land. One of them, the little brown bat (genus <em>Myotis<\/em>), is worldwide in its distribution. It is insectivorous and probably has the widest distribution of any nonhuman terrestrial mammal. Brown bats are mostly cave dwellers. The females form maternity colonies that may number in the tens of thousands.<\/p>\n<p>Two species of mouse-tailed bats (genus <em>Rhinopoma<\/em>) are found in the Holy Land. Their tails are nearly as long as the head and body combined. They are colonial, roosting in caves, rock clefts, wells, pyramids, palaces, and houses. Like the brown bat, they are insectivorous. The slit-faced or hollow-faced bats (genus <em>Nycteris<\/em>) are also found in the Holy Land. They are insectivorous and roost in groups from 6 to 20.<\/p>\n<p>The bats found in the Holy Land vary in size from that of a mouse to the size of a rat; the largest species measures more than 20 inches (51 centimeters) across the wings. The bat was unclean to the Jews (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bear\">Bear<\/p>\n<p>Large, heavy, big-headed mammal with short, powerful limbs, a short tail, and small eyes and ears. Bears have a “plantigrade” walk: they walk on both the sole and heel as humans do. The Palestinian bear is a Syrian version of the brown bear <em>(Ursus arctos syriacus).<\/em> It can grow to a height of 6 feet (1.8 meters) and may weigh as much as 500 pounds (227 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>Bears have an excellent sense of smell but less developed senses of sight and hearing. They are omnivorous (eating any kind of food); they subsist largely on vegetation, fruits, insects, and fish.<\/p>\n<p>Bears are usually peaceful and inoffensive, but if they think they must defend themselves (Lam 3:10) or their young (2 Sm 17:8; Prv 17:12; Hos 13:8), they may be formidable and dangerous adversaries. David boasted of his role as a bear killer (1 Sm 17:34-37). Since a blow from a bear’s paw can be fatal, David’s courage and strength as a young shepherd in running after a bear and wrenching one of his father’s sheep from its jaws were noteworthy.<\/p>\n<p>Some biblical passages seem to imply that bears attacked for no apparent reason (e.g., Prv 28:15; Am 5:19). At other times they were God’s instruments of punishment, as in the story of Elisha and the two she-bears (2 Kgs 2:24). The bear and the lion, often mentioned together in the Bible (1 Sm 17:37), were the two largest and strongest beasts of prey in the Holy Land. Thus they symbolized both strength and terror (Am 5:19).<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times bears seem to have roamed all over Palestine. Today they are found only in the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Mountains, and even there they are rare.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bee\">Bee<\/p>\n<p>One of two domesticated insects <em>(Apis mellifica),<\/em> the other being the silkworm. Bees gather nectar from flowers, transferring pollen from one flower to another in the process. It is believed that they convey the location of sources of nectar to other bees through a bee “dance,” which may indicate both distance and direction. Bees are sensitive to four colors: blue-green, yellow-green, blue-violet, and ultra-violet (invisible to humans).<\/p>\n<p>The wild bees of the Holy Land are especially noted for their ferocity in attack. Only the female “worker” bees sting people and animals, the virulence of their venom increasing in warm weather. A number of biblical passages allude to the irritable, vindictive nature of bees and to the painful stings they inflict (Dt 1:44; Ps 118:12; Is 7:18).<\/p>\n<p>One reference calls attention to the fact that in semidesert regions a dead animal’s carcass, stripped to the bone by jackals or vultures and dried in the sun, can provide wild bees an excellent place to start a new colony (Jgs 14:5-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptians considered the bee sacred. In ancient Greece candles were made from beeswax. In the Holy Land, beekeeping was probably not practiced until the Hellenistic period (second century <span>BC<\/span>), although Ezekiel 27:17 suggests that it may have been practiced earlier. If domestic honey was not available to the Hebrews, wild honey certainly was, and travelers would be on the lookout for caches of honey in rocky clefts and other likely places. The Philistines and the Hittites practiced beekeeping in their cities.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible contains many references to bees and bee products. A bee swarm was a valuable asset, though the price of honey itself was low. Honey was sometimes eaten with the honeycomb (Sg 5:1). Honey also had uses other than food, e.g., in embalming.<\/p>\n<p>The land of Israel was described as a land flowing with milk and honey. Honey was a major source of sweetening in the ancient Near East—hence, its importance (cf. Jgs 14:8-9). Actually the Hebrew word for “honey” may include not only bee honey but also the sweet syrup extracted from such fruits as figs, dates, and grapes. Thus “a land flowing with milk and honey” (Ex 3:8, <span>rsv<\/span>) does not necessarily stand for a land of bees but for a land rich in sweetness.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Food and Food Preparation; Honey.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Behemoth\">Behemoth<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Hippopotamus (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Camel\">Camel<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of burden. Unintelligent, ill-natured, and quarrelsome, the camel <em>(Camelus dromedarius)<\/em> is nevertheless a blessing to people living in the desert and on its borders because it is especially adapted to that habitat. It has been called the ship of the desert. Having thick elastic pads of fibrous tissue on its feet, it can walk on hot desert sands. It can go without water for long periods and can subsist on vegetation growing on the saline soils. The camel’s nostrils are pinched together and can be closed at will to prevent penetration of sand during violent sandstorms.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are used for transporting both goods and people. A person riding a camel can cover from 60 to 75 miles (96.5 to 121 kilometers) in a day. A camel can carry a load weighing 600 pounds (272 kilograms) or more. Camels were used heavily in the spice trade (Gn 37:25) and traveled regularly in camel trains between Arabia, Egypt, and Assyria. They were also ridden in time of war (Jgs 6:5). A camel can even be hitched to a plow in areas where the land is cultivated.<\/p>\n<p>The hair shed by camels during the early spring is preserved and used in weaving cloth and making tents. As much as 10 pounds (4.5 kilograms) of hair can be obtained from one camel. A rough cloak of camel’s hair, as worn by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4), is still worn by Bedouins today. A camel’s hair garment was also the sign of the prophetic office (Zec 13:4).<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of camel occur within the one-humped species, the slow burden-bearing camel referred to in Genesis 37:25 and the fast dromedary of 1 Samuel 30:17. The dromedary can stand seven feet (2.1 meters) tall and measure as much as nine feet (2.7 meters) from the muzzle to the tip of the tail. With its three-chambered stomach, which can hold from 15 to 30 quarts (14.2 to 28.4 liters) of liquid, it can go for as long as 5 days during the summer or 25 days in winter without drinking. The camel’s hump is a reserve store of fat, making it possible for the animal to subsist on very little food during a desert journey.<\/p>\n<p>Another species of camel, the Bactrian camel <em>(Camelus bactrianus),<\/em> is also resident in the Holy Land. It has two humps. It is heavier, bigger, and has longer hair than the one-humped camel and is slower than the swift dromedary. Isaiah 21:7 may refer to the Bactrian camel; both kinds of camel are referred to in Esther 8:10 (<span>kjv<\/span>). Camels ranked in importance with sheep, cattle, and asses in OT times. A third of the 66 biblical references to the camel lists it with other animals.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are ruminants (cud-chewing mammals) but do not have cloven hooves. Thus, they were included in the list of unclean beasts, forbidden by the Israelites as food (Lv 11:4; Dt 14:7). They are eaten by Arabs, however, who also drink their milk (cf. Gn 32:15).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham had camels in Egypt (Gn 12:16). At first Job had 3,000 camels (Jb 1:3) and after his recovery, 6,000 (Jb 42:12). Although wide use of camels does not seem to have begun until shortly before 1000 <span>BC<\/span> (Jgs 6:5), Sumerian texts from the Old Babylonian period list camels and indicate that they had been domesticated. Camel bones and figurines have been found at various eastern archaeological sites dating from well before 1200 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Caterpillar\">Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>Larval stage of insects characterized by complete metamorphosis. Such insects pass through four stages: egg, larva or caterpillar, pupa, and adult. Bees, flies, moths, and butterflies all pass through a larval or caterpillar stage.<\/p>\n<p>The word “caterpillar” occurs three times in the <span>nlt<\/span> (1 Kgs 8:37; 2 Chr 6:28; Ps 78:46). In the book of Joel that same Hebrew word is translated “locust” (1:4; 2:25, <span>nlt<\/span>). The locust and grasshopper to which the Hebrew word refers have an incomplete type of metamorphosis with only three stages: egg, nymph, and adult. The nymph is a miniature adult in which the wings are not fully developed, though their outline may be present. There are several nymph stages known as instars. The reference is to one of the last instars, in which the wing structures are still folded together and enclosed in a sac but are nevertheless clearly recognizable. That form of the insect is about an inch (2.5 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cattle\">Cattle<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animals of the bovine species <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> The OT often emphasized the beauty of cattle. Egypt was rich in cattle, especially in the Nile River delta area (Goshen), where the Hebrews settled under Joseph.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars believe that milk rather than meat was the foremost consideration in the domestication of cattle and that in early civilizations meat supplies came chiefly from wild game. Cattle also supplied strong hides that supplanted wood in the manufacture of shields. Their dung was a source of fuel when wood was scarce (Ez 4:15). They were used as beasts of burden and for plowing. Development of wheeled transportation was associated more closely with cattle than with any other animal.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical term “cattle” often refers to all domesticated animals or livestock (Gn 1:24; 2:20; 7:23; 47:6, 16-17; Ex 9:3-7; Nm 3:41, 45). Occasionally, the term was used to refer to all large domestic animals (Nm 31:9; 32:26), although sometimes the word as used in the <span>kjv<\/span> refers only to sheep and goats (Gn 30:32, 39, 43; 31:8, 10; Is 7:25; 43:23).<\/p>\n<p>Probably several kinds of cattle were domesticated in the Holy Land. Small, short-legged, black or brown shorthorn cattle were found in the southern part of Judah; that type submitted easily to the yoke and was prominent in agricultural operations. Along the coast a larger variety was found, and the wild districts east of the Jordan River were populated with a breed of huge black cattle.<\/p>\n<p>Cattle breeding was widely practiced by the patriarchs (cf. Gn 32:15; Jb 21:10). Strict laws in Mesopotamia, as well as in Israel, penalized the owner of a bull that gored a man or other cattle (Ex 21:28-36). Bulls were sometimes employed figuratively as pictures of strength or violence (Dt 33:17; Pss 22:12; 68:30; Is 10:13). For breeding purposes one bull is normally adequate for about 30 cows, but many more were kept since bulls were widely used in Israel for sacrifices. They might be used as a general sacrifice (Lv 22:23; Nm 23:1) or for special sacrifices (Jgs 6:25; 1 Sm 1:24). Particular sacrifices were offered at the consecration of priests (Ex 29:1), consecration of an altar (Nm 7), purification of the Levites (Nm 8), sin offerings (Lv 16), day of the new moon (Nm 28:11-14), Passover (Nm 28:19), Feast of Weeks (Nm 28:27), Feast of Trumpets (Nm 29:1-2), Day of Atonement (Nm 29:7-9), and the Feast of Tabernacles (Nm 29:12-38). The Feast of Tabernacles required the largest number of bulls for burnt offerings of all the annual feasts, with a total of 71 being slaughtered during the course of eight days.<\/p>\n<p>Calves were sometimes referred to as “sons of the herd” in the original Hebrew (Gn 18:8; 1 Sm 6:7; 14:32). The calf, a symbol of peacefulness (Is 11:6), was also used figuratively to refer to the weak (Ps 68:30). A calf’s head decorated the back of Solomon’s throne (1 Kgs 10:19). Calves were sometimes fattened in stalls to keep them from running off weight in the field (Am 6:4; Mal 4:2; Lk 15:23) or were kept around the house; the witch of Endor kept a calf in her house that she killed and served to Saul and his men (1 Sm 28:24-25). Calves supplied veal (Gn 18:7), considered a delicacy by the wealthy; Amos referred to stall-fattened calves in a denunciation of luxurious and careless living (Am 6:4). Calves also supplied meat for all Saul’s armies at the great slaughter of the Philistines (1 Sm 14:32). The “fatted calf” served roasted or boiled was gourmet fare, suitable for the finest banquet (Gn 18:7; Mt 22:4; Lk 15:23).<\/p>\n<p>Cattle were subject to the law of firstlings (Ex 13:12). They were a mark of wealth (Gn 13:2) and were considered proper booty of war (Jos 8:2). Aaron, the first high priest, made a golden calf as a rival to the ark of the covenant (Ex 32; Dt 9:16, 21). Even though he represented the calf as an image of the invisible God, it was especially offensive because the calf was a fertility symbol related to Egyptian and Canaanite practices. Two calves were later made by Jeroboam I of Israel (930–909 <span>BC<\/span>) for his shrines at Bethel and Dan (1 Kgs 12:28-33). Hosea’s prophetic denunciations of calf worship were directed at those shrines (Hos 8:5-6; 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>An ox is an adult castrated bull. A steer is a young ox. Oxen were used to do work (Nm 7:3; Dt 22:10; 25:4), though for moving heavy objects, cows were typically favored over bulls because of their more docile nature. Oxen were also used as pack animals (1 Chr 12:40, although they did not have the endurance of the ass, camel, or mule. They usually fed on grass (Nm 22:4; Ps 106:20), but they also ate straw (Is 11:7) and salted fodder (Is 30:24) and could be kept in a stable (Lk 13:15). Oxen could not be offered as sacrifices because they had been castrated (Lv 22:24). They could be used for food but were rarely eaten. Possession of an ox and an ass was regarded as the bare minimum for existence in the ancient Palestinian agriculture economy (Jb 24:3; cf. Ex 20:17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Agriculture; Food and Food Preparation; Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chameleon\">Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>Lizard characterized by its ability to change color according to its surroundings <em>(Chameleon vulgaris).<\/em> To the Israelites the chameleon was ritually unclean (Lv 11:30). The Hebrew word for chameleon is derived from a word meaning “to pant.” A lizard’s lungs are very large, and in ancient times lizards were believed to live on air. A chameleon’s eyes move independently of each other; so at times one eye may be turned upward and the other downward. Chameleons live in trees and bushes, clinging to branches with their long tails.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Coral\">Coral<\/p>\n<p>Calcareous (lime-containing) skeletons of relatively simple marine organisms <em>(Corallium rubrum).<\/em> Red coral from the Mediterranean and Red Seas is widely used for jewelry and for medicinal purposes. While the animal is alive, the coral is green in color and shrublike in appearance, looking rather like an underwater plant since the coral animals are immobil. When the coral is removed from the water, it becomes hard and red in color.<\/p>\n<p>In ancient times coral was sometimes used as money, along with precious stones, pearls, and gold. Some believe the biblical reference in Lamentations 4:7 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is to pearls rather than to coral, but it is probable that the references in Job 28:18 and Ezekiel 27:16 are to the red coral (see <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cricket\">Cricket<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the order Orthptera related to grasshoppers and locusts. According to Leviticus 11:22, the cricket was edible. The reference may be to one of the growth stages of the locust.<\/p>\n<p>The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word as “beetle.” Beetles are insects with chewing mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the fore pair being hard and sheathlike and the hind pair being membranous and folded under the fore pair. Some beetles are carnivorous, others are chiefly herbivorous. Some are aquatic, some produce a secretion that blisters the skin, some damage fabrics, some damage crops, and some feed on other insects that are harmful to humans. In ancient Egypt the beetle, or sacred scarab, was a symbol of the sun god Ra. Scarab seals and amulets were extremely popular in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Crocodile\">Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all existing reptiles <em>(Crocodilus vulgaris),<\/em> attaining a length of well over 20 feet (6 meters). Crocodiles are characterized by large lizardlike bodies supported by short legs. The head terminates in a flattened snout armed with strong conical teeth, each of which is implanted in a distinct socket. New teeth growing from beneath continually replace those in use. The toes are webbed. The back and tail are protected by quadrangular horny shields of varying sizes arranged in regular rows and in contact with one another at the edges. The eyes are covered with movable lids that can be closed when the animal enters the water.<\/p>\n<p>The crocodile spends most of its time in the water where it feeds mainly on fish but also on aquatic birds and even small animals that come down to the water’s edge to drink. It is surprisingly fast and agile on dry land, even though its legs are so short that its belly and tail drag across the earth leaving a distinct path.<\/p>\n<p>Until the beginning of the 20th century, the crocodile was found in the marshes and small coastal rivers of western Palestine. A first-century Roman writer, Pliny, referred to a place in the Holy Land called Crocodeilopolis (“crocodile city”) to the south of Mt Carmel, and visitors to the Holy Land as late as the 19th century reported seeing crocodiles in that general region.<\/p>\n<p>The description of “Leviathan” in Job 41 seems to be based on the crocodile (thus the translation of the <span>nlt<\/span>). The “dragon” of Ezekiel 29:3, used figuratively of the Egyptian pharaoh, may be a reference to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Deer\">Deer<\/p>\n<p>Large ruminant (cud-chewing) animals. Only the males have antlers (branching horns). Deer antlers grow annually and are solid, in contrast to those of the antelope and the gazelle. Fully developed antlers are devoid of any covering of skin or horn and, for all practical purposes, may be regarded as a mass of dead bone carried for a certain time by the living animal.<\/p>\n<p>The end of the deer’s muzzle is naked in all species. The stomach is divided into a series of compartments, some of which are used to store partly chewed food. The food is later regurgitated, rechewed, and finally swallowed into a section of the stomach where true digestion takes place.<\/p>\n<p>Three species of deer were known in Palestine: the red deer <em>(Cervus elaphus),<\/em> the Persian fallow deer <em>(Dama mesopotamica),<\/em> and the roe deer <em>(Capreolus capreolus).<\/em> All are now extinct there. The last deer were hunted in the Holy Land in 1914. The red deer referred to in the Bible as “hart” (male), “stag” (male), or “hind” (female) stood about four feet (1.2 meters) high at the shoulder. It was gregarious (living in herds or flocks), each group remaining in a definite territory. Red deer grazed and browsed during the morning and late afternoon (Lam 1:6). The sexes remained in separate herds. The red deer was known for its leaping (Is 35:6) and sure-footedness in the mountains (Ps 18:33; Sg 2:8-9, 17; 8:14; Hb 3:19).<\/p>\n<p>The antlers of the Persian fallow deer (1 Kgs 4:23) were large, flattened, and palmated (shaped like an open palm with fingers extended), and its coat was a yellowbrown. It traveled in small groups, feeding mainly on grass in the morning and evening.<\/p>\n<p>The roe deer (Dt 14:5; 1 Kgs 4:23) was a small, graceful animal, dark reddish brown in summer and yellowish gray in winter. Its antlers were about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and had three points. The roe deer preferred sparsely wooded valleys and the lower slopes of mountains, grazing in open grasslands. It usually associated in family groups made up of the doe and her offspring. They were shy, yet very curious. The roe deer barked like a dog when disturbed, and they were excellent swimmers.<\/p>\n<p>There is some question as to whether the roe deer is actually referred to in such passages as 1 Kings 4:23; references may be to the fallow deer, although that animal does not seem to have lived in the southern part of Palestine around the Sinai Desert because of its need for ample amounts of food and water. Fallow deer were found in northern Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The hart (the male red deer) was listed among the clean beasts that Jewish law permitted as food (Dt 12:15, 22; 14:5), but deer were not listed among the animals appropriate for sacrifice. The hind (female red deer) normally gave birth to one calf at a time, though twins were born with some degree of regularity (Jb 39:1; Ps 29:9, <span>kjv<\/span>; Jer 14:5). The gestation period was about 40 weeks. When it was about to give birth, the hind looked for a secure hiding place, preferably in the dense undergrowth of the forest where it could find natural protection for the tiny calf. During the first few days after birth, the mother never went far from her young. The fawn was able to stand on its own legs a few hours after birth. The solicitous care by the hind for her calf during the first days of its life is hinted at in a touching way in Jeremiah 14:4-5, where only a severe drought is said to drive the hind from her calf. Job 39:1-4 describes the calving of the hinds. The hind illustrated grace and charm (Gn 49:21; Prv 5:19), and its dark, gentle eyes and graceful limbs were used to describe the beauty of a woman (Prv 5:18-19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dog\">Dog<\/p>\n<p>Probably the earliest domesticated animal <em>(Canis familiaris),<\/em> used very early in hunting. The modern dog is believed to have come from the Indian wolf <em>(Canis lupus pallipes).<\/em> The dogs of biblical times probably looked like a modern German shepherd, with short pointed ears, a pointed nose, and a long tail.<\/p>\n<p>The dog was generally looked down upon in biblical times (Prv 26:11; 2 Pt 2:22). The biblical writers did not share modern sentiments about dogs being man’s best friends. The dog was pictured as a scavenger, haunting streets and dumps (Ex 22:31; 1 Kgs 22:38; Mt 15:26; Lk 16:21). Human corpses could become the spoil of dogs (2 Kgs 9:35-36). In general, dogs served the same function as vultures and other birds of prey. Most of the 41 references in the Scriptures to dogs show strong disfavor. Dogs were considered cowardly, filthy creatures.<\/p>\n<p>Dogs used in hunting occur in paintings in Egyptian tombs, and there is a reference to dogs herding sheep in Job 30:1. One good quality of dogs highly esteemed by the Israelites was watchfulness (Is 56:10). In general, however, in biblical times “dog” was a term of contempt (1 Sm 17:43; 2 Sm 16:9) and was used of overly submissive persons (2 Sm 9:8; 2 Kgs 8:13) and of evil persons (Is 56:10-11; Mt 7:6; Phil 3:2; Rv 22:15).<\/p>\n<p>Dogs, like pigs, were voracious and omnivorous (eating any kind of food). In response to a Gentile woman’s request that he heal her daughter, Jesus used the metaphor of throwing household food scraps to dogs (Mt 15:22-28; Mk 7:25-30). At the time of Jesus, the word “dog” was a standard Jewish term of contempt for Gentiles who, like dogs, were considered unclean, although the diminutive form of the word, used by Jesus, softened this considerably. Seeing her faith, Jesus granted the woman’s request, giving a non-Jew some of “the children’s bread.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Donkey\">Donkey<\/p>\n<p>Beast of burden. The donkey of the Holy Land <em>(Equus asinus)<\/em> was quite different from the European donkey of today, which is usually a small, stubborn animal. In biblical times the donkey was a beautiful, stately, friendly animal. Its color was usually reddish brown. Three wild races have been described, all from Africa. The race from northwest Africa is extinct; the one from northeast Africa, if not extinct, is close to extinction; the Somalian race, which survives, did not play an important part in domestication. The northeast African race, the Nubian donkey, was evidently domesticated in the Nile River region in early historic times. The donkey was used as a mount from the time of domestication on. It is first mentioned in the Bible among the animals that Abraham acquired in Egypt (Gn 12:16). The donkey was primarily a beast of burden, driven but not bridled. From the time of the Middle Kingdom on (c. 2040 <span>BC<\/span>), it was used for riding in Egypt, but only the Jews and Nubians rode donkeys regularly. The donkey was also used for threshing grain and for pulling the plow. In Arab countries today peasants plow with a donkey and a cow or camel hitched together. In Israel the law forbade plowing with a donkey and an ox hitched together (Dt 22:10). Until the time of Solomon (960 <span>BC<\/span>), horses were not used in Palestine. From that time on, the horse was ridden by warriors; the donkey was used by those who were traveling peaceably.<\/p>\n<p>The donkey was held in high regard by the Jews and was considered an economic asset. An individual had to have a donkey for minimum existence (Jb 24:3), and wealth was frequently counted by the number of donkeys one possessed (Gn 12:16; 24:35). The donkey was considered an acceptable gift (Gn 32:13-15). It was allowed to rest on the Sabbath (Dt 5:14). Women in biblical times often used the donkey as a riding animal (Jos 15:18; 1 Sm 25:23; 2 Kgs 4:24); often a special driver would help a woman guide the animal, running along at its side. If a married couple possessed only one donkey, the husband usually walked alongside while the wife rode (Ex 4:20).<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel returning from Babylon had ten times as many donkeys as horses and camels (Ezr 2:66-67; Neh 7:68-69). Job’s wealth was indicated by the fact that he had 500 she-donkeys before catastrophe hit him (Jb 1:3); after his recovery he had 1,000 donkeys (Jb 42:12). Joseph’s brothers used donkeys to transport the grain they purchased in Egypt (Gn 42:26; 43:24). Abigail transported food on donkeys to David and his troops during their conflict with Saul (1 Sm 25:18). David assigned one of the 12 managers of his royal estates to look after his donkeys exclusively (1 Chr 27:30).<\/p>\n<p>The onager, or Syrian wild donkey <em>(Equus hemionus hemihippus)<\/em>, is an intermediate between the true horse and the true donkey. Its ears are longer than those of a horse but shorter than those of a donkey. The front hooves are narrow; there are chestnuts (callouslike spots on the inside of the knees) on the front legs only, and the tail is short haired for a long distance from its root so that it appears to be tufted.<\/p>\n<p>The Sumerians (ancient Mesopotamians) were able to domesticate the onager, which was eventually replaced by the horse. It was used to draw chariots in Ur; a number of onagers were buried with their vehicles in a royal grave that dates from about 2500 <span>BC<\/span>. Later the wild onager was a favorite hunter’s prize for Babylonian and Assyrian kings.<\/p>\n<p>The onager was very common in the steppe lands near Israel, where it was described as a freedom-loving desert animal (Jb 24:5; 39:5-8; Ps 104:11; Is 32:14; Jer 2:24; Hos 8:9). Ishmael was described as “free and untamed as a wild donkey” (Gn 16:12, <span>nlt<\/span>)—that is, one who could not adjust to domestic life. Drought seems to have been responsible for the population decline of the onager in biblical times (Jer 14:6). The modern onager <em>(Equus hemionus onager)<\/em> is slightly larger than the Syrian wild donkey that is extinct.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dragon\">Dragon<\/p>\n<p>Any one of a number of monstrous land and sea creatures. In biblical usage, “dragon” does not refer to the huge, fire-breathing, winged reptile of European folklore. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> used the term to translate two Hebrew words that are usually rendered more precisely in modern translations. One word referred to desert animals; most scholars agree with the <span>niv<\/span> that “jackals” is its proper meaning (Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; Jer 9:11; Mal 1:3). <em>See<\/em> Jackal (below).<\/p>\n<p>The other Hebrew word translated “dragon” is harder to define. It was frequently used in reference to serpents (so translated in the <span>rsv<\/span>: Ex 7:9-12; Dt 32:33; Ps 91:13). In other <span>rsv<\/span> passages it is translated “sea monster” (Gn 1:21; Jb 7:12; Ps 148:7). The exact identity of such sea monsters is not known. Several <span>rsv<\/span> passages retain the English “dragon.” In two of them (Ps 74:13; Is 27:1), the context indicates that sea monsters are meant. In three others (Is 51:9; Ez 29:3; 32:2) “dragon” seems to refer to the crocodile, a figurative reference to the Egyptian pharaoh at the time of the exodus. Jeremiah 51:34 (translated “monster” in the <span>rsv<\/span>) may also refer to a voracious creature such as a crocodile. <em>See<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p>Babylonian myths described monsters and dragons in primordial conflict with the god Marduk; they represented the principle of evil. In its figurative usages in Scripture, “dragon” has a similar significance, especially in the prophetic books. In the book of Revelation it is a symbol of Satan, the archenemy of God and his people (Rv 12:3-17; 13:2, 4, 11; 16:13; 20:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fish\">Fish<\/p>\n<p>Aquatic animals frequently mentioned in the Bible without names or descriptions that enable us to identify the particular species. Since time immemorial, fish have constituted one of the staple foods of humanity, and they still serve as the chief source of protein in many parts of the world. The trade in fish was highly developed in biblical times. For example, one of the gates in Jerusalem was called the Fish Gate (Neh 3:3; Zep 1:10). The law in Leviticus 11:9-12 permitted the Jews to eat fish, but only those having both fins and scales. Scaleless fish such as catfish were forbidden, even though they had fins.<\/p>\n<p>Egyptian paintings depict various methods of fishing, and the Philistines fished in the Mediterranean Sea. Since the people of Israel were not a seafaring nation, it is safe to assume that most of their fish came from freshwater lakes and rivers, especially the Sea of Galilee. Some 36 species of fish have been identified in that lake, including varieties of perch, carp, barbel, “sardine,” and catfish.<\/p>\n<p>The method of fishing characteristic of NT times was the dragnet. After a boat had put out into the deep (Lk 5:4), a large net would be thrown out from it and then dragged toward shore by the rowers in the boat, possibly with the help of a crew in another boat. The catch was sorted out on shore (Mt 13:47-48). Fishing was usually carried out at night when the coolness of the water brought fish closer to the surface and when they could not see the approaching nets.<\/p>\n<p>The Jews also fished by hook and line (Mt 17:27), a few by spear (Jb 41:7), and some by the throw net (Ez 47:10). Habakkuk refers to hook-and-line fishing, netting, and seining (1:15).<\/p>\n<p>Very early in the history of the Christian church the fish became a symbol for Christ and the faith. It was scratched on the walls of Roman catacombs and may be seen today decorating walls, altars, pews, and vestments. The symbol came into use because the Greek word for “fish” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ichthus<\/span><em>)<\/em> is composed of the first letter of each word in the Greek phrase “Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior.” <em>See<\/em> Whale (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Flea\">Flea<\/p>\n<p>Tiny, irritating insect (1 Sm 24:14; 26:20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Many species of fleas occur in Palestine, the most common being <em>Pulex irritans.<\/em> About a thousand species are known around the world. Fleas are wingless parasites that have sharp jaws and suck out blood from the bodies of humans and animals. The body is wedge shaped, enabling the flea to burrow into folds of skin and hide there. The eggs, laid by the female in dust heaps in the corners of rooms, hatch into small, white larvae that pupate (a nonfeeding stage) in a cocoon. Soon adult fleas appear that immediately attach themselves to the body of a host. The female requires blood for the development of her eggs.<\/p>\n<p>A flea bite is painful and causes some swelling and itching. Fleas are attracted by warmth. With favorable moisture and temperature, adult fleas can live a year or longer without food, but they are voracious feeders. The most dangerous fleas are those of the rat that transmit the organism responsible for bubonic plague. There were 41 recorded epidemics of bubonic plague before the Christian era.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fly\">Fly<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the order Diptera, which have one pair of wings. Many winged insects of other orders, however, are also called flies, such as the dragonfly or butterfly.<\/p>\n<p>As in almost all parts of the world, flies are abundant in Palestine. One of the most numerous is the common housefly <em>(Musca domestica),<\/em> found chiefly around dung heaps and garbage. The female lays her eggs, out of which emerge white maggots that feed on refuse. After a few days the maggot develops into a cocoon out of which emerges the adult housefly. In the summer the whole cycle lasts about 12 days, so that a fly can breed about 20 generations a year.<\/p>\n<p>Another fly common to Palestine is the botfly (family Oestridae). It causes much discomfort among livestock by irritating them and spreading diseases. Tabanid flies (family Tabanidae), including the horsefly (genus <em>Tabanus<\/em>) and related species, are also found in Palestine. Both the botfly and horsefly are known as gadflies because of the persistent distress they inflict. Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar is spoken of as a gadfly in view of his invasion of Egypt (Jer 46:20).<\/p>\n<p>The fourth plague in Egypt just before the exodus featured “swarms of flies” (Ex 8:21-31, <span>nlt<\/span>; cf. Pss 78:45; 105:31). Those swarms may have been made up of any or all the flies mentioned above. The maggots mentioned in Job 25:6 and Isaiah 14:11 and the worms in Exodus 16:24 and Job 7:5 and 17:14 were probably fly larvae.<\/p>\n<p>A proverb quoted in Ecclesiastes 10:1 probably refers to the housefly, which would be attracted to an open, perfumed ointment bottle. Once inside it would drown and eventually decay, causing the ointment to spoil and stink. The fly is also referred to in Isaiah 7:18 where it symbolizes Egypt. Isaiah may have had in mind a horsefly <em>(Tabanus arenivagus)<\/em> that attacks both humans and animals.<\/p>\n<p>Philistine inhabitants of the city of Ekron worshiped a god named Baal-zebul, meaning “Lord of the high places.” The Hebrews mockingly spoke of Baal-zebub, meaning “Lord of the flies” (2 Kgs 1:2). The NT form is Beelzebub (e.g., Mt 10:25; 12:24, 27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fox\">Fox<\/p>\n<p>Small, doglike carnivore with a bushy tail that is about half its body length. The red fox of the Holy Land <em>(Vulpes palaetinae)<\/em> is similar to the North American red fox; it is smaller than a wolf and is normally a nocturnal solitary animal. The omnivorous fox eats almost any kind of food—fruits, plants, mice, beetles, and birds—but seldom touches carrion. It loves the sweet juice of grapes, but it also burrows underground tunnels that can destroy the vines (Sg 2:15). The fox is intelligent and known for its slyness (Lk 13:32). It has considerable endurance and can run at speeds up to 30 miles (48 kilometers) per hour. The Jews rebuilding Jerusalem’s wall were taunted by the wisecrack that even a fox jumping on their wall would knock it over (Neh 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptian fox <em>(Vulpes niloticus)<\/em> is found in the central and southern parts of the Holy Land. It is somewhat smaller than the common red fox. Its back is rust colored and its belly light. The Syrian fox <em>(Vulpes flavescens)<\/em> that lives in the northern part of the Holy Land is shiny gold in color.<\/p>\n<p>Some OT references such as Psalm 63:10 and Lamentations 5:18 are translated “fox” in the <span>kjv<\/span> but probably refer to jackals. Jackals, not foxes, hunt in packs and tend to act as scavengers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Frog\">Frog<\/p>\n<p>Amphibian (genus <em>Rana<\/em>), living part of its life in the water and part on land.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs and toads are covered with soft, hairless skin and lack a tail in the adult stage. The hind legs are much longer and more powerfully developed than the forelegs so that the animals are able to jump large distances. It has been suggested that the frog referred to in Scripture is an edible one, <em>Rana ridibunda,<\/em> one of the aquatic frogs found in Egypt and in the stagnant waters of the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The female frog lays her eggs in the water; after about a week the eggs hatch into tadpoles. Gradually through metamorphosis the tail is lost and limbs are acquired. Frogs must maintain a moist skin since they take oxygen through the skin as well as through their lungs; thus they must always remain close to water. They feed on insects and worms.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs are found throughout the Palestinian lowlands, where their croaking is heard in the spring and on summer evenings. The Israelites seem to have associated frogs primarily with sliminess and foulness. They fell into the category of creeping or swarming creatures, which in general were ritually unclean (Lv 11:29-31). Since the frog was not specifically listed, however, rabbis did not consider it one of the animals that defiled human beings through contact.<\/p>\n<p>In Revelation 16:13 certain foul spirits are said to look like frogs. The ancient Egyptians made the frog a symbol of life and birth and an image of Heqet, the patron goddess of birth. She is depicted with a frog’s head giving life to the newborn. Thus that deity was discredited when the power of God afflicted Egypt in the second of the ten plagues on the Egyptians with the very animal that was her symbol (Ex 8:1-14; Pss 78:45; 105:30). The frog in question may have been the spotted frog of Egypt <em>(Rana punctata,<\/em> or <em>Rana ridibunda).<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gazelle\">Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>Small, dainty, graceful antelope with hollow recurved horns on both sexes. Two varieties exist in the Holy Land, the dorcas gazelle <em>(Gazella dorcas),<\/em> which is pale fawn in color and up to 22 inches (56 centimeters) tall, and the Arabian gazelle <em>(Gazella arabica),<\/em> which is a dark smoky color and up to 25 inches (63.5 centimeters) tall.<\/p>\n<p>Gazelles are still quite common throughout the desert and steppe areas of the Holy Land, especially in the Negev Desert. Herds usually consist of from 5 to 10 animals, but some varieties assemble in large migratory herds in the fall to relocate to lower elevations and new feeding grounds. Gazelles are herbivorous (plant eating). They are very shy and post guards to warn the herd of approaching danger.<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times the gazelle was probably the game animal most hunted by the Jews (Prv 6:5; Is 13:14). Pharaoh Tutankhamen hunted gazelles and ostriches. The gazelle is said to have graced Solomon’s table (1 Kgs 4:23). Gazelles were not easy to catch because of their great speed (2 Sm 2:18; 1 Chr 12:8; Prv 6:5); they surpass the deer in swiftness. They were trapped in various ways—encircled with nets, driven into enclosures with pitfalls, or forced into narrow valleys and shot with arrows. The Bedouin hunt gazelle with falcons and dogs; the falcon annoys the gazelle, striking it on the head and injuring it so that the dogs can overtake it.<\/p>\n<p>The gazelle is referred to in Song of Songs 2:9, 17; 4:5; 7:3; 8:14, where it is an image of feminine beauty.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gecko\">Gecko<\/p>\n<p>Reptile of the family Gekkonidae, referred to in Leviticus 11:30. In Jewish food law it was a ritually unclean lizard. There are seven species of geckos in the Holy Land (including <em>Hemidactylus turcicus<\/em> and <em>Ptyodactylus hasselquistii,<\/em> all insectivorous—insect eating). The gecko makes a low mourning sound by vibrating its tongue rapidly against the roof of its mouth. In legend the gecko was said to cause leprosy by crawling across a person’s body.<\/p>\n<p>Another name for the gecko is the wall lizard, so named because it can walk upside down on ceilings with the aid of the suction discs on its toes—but it often plops down into the middle of the home. Since it was considered unclean, such an intrusion would have been a disgusting nuisance to Jewish households (Lv 11:31-38).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gnat\">Gnat<\/p>\n<p>Any very small fly, in common and biblical usage. According to the <span>nlt<\/span>, the third plague in Egypt before the exodus consisted of gnats (Ex 8:16-18; Ps 105:31). The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word there as “lice,” but the breeding pattern described in Exodus 8—insects rising from the dust—seems to fit gnats better than lice. Since “gnat” is a general term, the small flies of that plague may have included several small species such as mosquitos, harvester gnats, midges, or sand flies.<\/p>\n<p>The sand fly inflicts a far more painful bite than the mosquito. Further, it does not betray itself by a buzzing noise in flight and is so small that it penetrates most mosquito netting.<\/p>\n<p>Gnats were drawn to wine while it was fermenting. The Pharisees in particular would strain their wine to avoid consuming unclean insects (Mt 23:24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Goat\">Goat<\/p>\n<p>Cloven-hooved mammals (genus <em>Capra<\/em>) with large eyes and big, floppy ears that constantly twitch. Both males and females have backward arching horns. The Palestinian goat is a ruminant (cud-chewing animal) of lighter build than the sheep.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was probably the earliest ruminant to be domesticated. Its wild ancestor seems to have been the Gezoar goat <em>(Capra aegagrus).<\/em> Wild goats are believed to have been domesticated very early in Palestine. The goat of Bible times was probably the Syrian or Mamber variety <em>(Capra hircus mambrica).<\/em> Domesticated goats may have as many as four kids in a litter, whereas wild goats bear only one or two.<\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian goat was commonly black. Speckled and spotted goats were a rarity, and for that reason Jacob’s request for those goats in Genesis 30:32 appeared very modest. There may also have been red goats (cf. 1 Sm 16:12; 19:13, where goat’s hair was used to imitate David’s hair, which was “ruddy” or auburn).<\/p>\n<p>Almost every part of the goat was used by the Israelites. The whole goat was used for sacrifice. Its flesh served as meat (Lv 7:23; Dt 14:4), and it was the principal source of milk (Prv 27:27). Goats were sheared in the late spring, and the goat hair was used for weaving tent cloth and for various domestic purposes (Ex 36:14; 1 Sm 19:13, 16). The tabernacle at Mt Sinai was made of goat’s hair blankets (Ex 26:7).<\/p>\n<p>Adult male goats were generally not eaten because of their strong flavor and toughness and also because they were necessary to insure the flock’s increase. Young kids, however, were usually the chief meat for a feast and were offered to visitors as a symbol of hospitality. Goat milk is richer than the milk of cows and sheep and evidently had broader uses. A good goat gives three quarts of milk a day, from which a rich butter and buttermilk can be made. The average Hebrew family could have lived almost entirely on a single goat’s production.<\/p>\n<p>Goatskin was tanned as leather, and the whole hide was turned into a skin bottle by sewing shut leg and neck apertures (Gn 21:14; Jos 9:4). Goatskin had many uses, including the construction of Hebrew musical instruments. The nebal, a large harp, was made with goatskin for its base sound. Drums had goatskin coverings.<\/p>\n<p>Goats were herded with sheep in biblical times, but each group remained separate following its own bell-laden leader. Jesus was evidently referring to their common herding in his description of the Last Judgment (Mt 25:31-46).<\/p>\n<p>Because of their wool, sheep are valued more than goats. However, where pasture and water are scarce and thorny shrubs dominate over grass, sheep are difficult to keep and goats become important. They can live under conditions that suit neither cows nor sheep, producing large quantities of milk. The goat does not supply fat as the sheep does, and since its hair is coarse its wool is rather scarce. Goat-hair cloth called cilicium was used to make tents.<\/p>\n<p>Goats have voracious appetites. They also were responsible for much damage done to the land of Palestine, breaking down terraces, destroying forests, and bringing about soil erosion by eating off all cover.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was recognized as a form of wealth, subject to the law of firstlings (Nm 18:17). It had to be eight days old before it could be offered as a sacrifice. A year-old male goat was one of the animals offered at the Passover (28:22), and two goats were offered on the Day of Atonement (Lv 16:7-10). The goat was also used for other specific sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p>The ibex, a type of wild goat <em>(Capra ibex nubiana),<\/em> still lives in small numbers on the cliffs close to the Dead Sea. That it was known in ancient times is evident from rock carvings. It is distinguished from the true wild goat by having a more compact rump and horns that are slender and curved back. Its slender legs and sharp cloven hooves enable it to cling to narrow rock ledges, to jump between them, and to climb steep cliffs.<\/p>\n<p>Usually the ibex is found in rugged mountain country among rocky crags and meadows just below the snow line (Ps 104:18). In Job 39:1 they are referred to as “mountain goats.” They frequently gather in herds of 5 to 20. They graze and browse, being active in the afternoon and sometimes feeding through the night. The large horn of the ibex was at one period made into the shofar that was blown in the second Jerusalem temple to announce the new year and the jubilee year.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was often used in a figurative and symbolic sense by the writers of the Bible: in Song of Songs 4:1 and 6:5 for the bride’s black hair; in Matthew 25:31-46 for the wicked; and in Ezekiel 34:17 and Daniel 8:5-8 for various human leaders.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Grasshopper\">Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>Large insects of the Orthoptera order. They have chewing or biting mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the front pair of which is narrow and somewhat thickened and the hind pair membranous and used for flying. When not in use the flight wings are folded beneath the protective front wings like a fan against the body. By rubbing their wings together, male grasshoppers produce sounds that both males and females can detect. Grasshoppers pass through a partial metamorphosis; the egg hatches into a juvenile nymph that looks like an adult except for its smaller size and undeveloped wings. After several months the nymph becomes a winged adult.<\/p>\n<p>The terms “grasshopper” and “locust” are often used interchangeably. Actually the locust is a kind of grasshopper. Also confusing is the fact that other insects such as cicadas are sometimes called locusts. The difference between grasshoppers and locusts depends more on behavior than appearance. Grasshoppers are individual insects that lead solitary lives and do not migrate. The same insects when migrating in a swarm are called migratory grasshoppers or locusts. Elimination of their food supply by drought, flood, or fire may lead to migration. Climatic factors such as a warm dry winter also stimulate migrations.<\/p>\n<p>Grasshoppers and locusts have been a staple food in the Middle East and also among the Indians of the American Southwest. To the Israelites the grasshopper was considered ritually clean and could be eaten (Lv 11:22).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hare\">Hare<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the genus and species <em>Lepus europaeus judaeus, Lepus capensis,<\/em> and <em>Lepus arabicus.<\/em> It is found in open country, often near or on cultivated lands, and in woods, usually deciduous rather than evergreen. It is an herbivorous rodent and is different from the rabbit, which is not found in Palestine. Although it is not a true ruminant according to modern classification (because it does not have a four-chambered stomach), the hare does rechew its food. It has a process of partial regurgitation of material too hard for the cells in the stomach to absorb initially; thus, the hare actually chews food previously swallowed.<\/p>\n<p>Near Eastern hares have very long ears and large hind feet; their feet are well furred. They are similar to American jackrabbits, which are true hares. Hares do not dig or occupy burrows the way rabbits do. Hares are mainly nocturnal and spend their inactive hours hiding in vegetation. They eat grasses and herbaceous matter as well as twigs and young bark of woody plants. Hares breed with great rapidity—the young attaining sexual maturity at six months after birth.<\/p>\n<p>The hare was ceremonially unclean (Lv 11:6; Dt 14:7), evidently because although it appeared to chew its cud, it did not have cloven hooves. Consumption of hares has also been forbidden among the Arabs, Chinese, and Lapps, but the hare was widely hunted by other people in ancient and modern times. Its great speed, prolific breeding, timidity, and caution have saved it from extermination by its many enemies.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hippopotamus\">Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of problematic interpretation. Some early interpreters thought it referred to the elephant, others to the wild ox, the mammoth, or any large animal. It was called “behemoth” by the <span>kjv<\/span> translators. Today it is generally agreed that the reference is to the hippopotamus <em>(Hippopotamus amphibius),<\/em> a large, thick-skinned, amphibious mammal, an ungulate (having hooflike toenails) with a large head, a bulky, hairless body, and short legs.<\/p>\n<p>The description in Job 40:15-24 fits closely the modern hippopotamus (see <span>nlt<\/span>), except for the depiction of the tail. At present the hippopotamus is found only in the rivers of Africa, but there is fossil evidence that it has existed in the Holy Land, perhaps in the swamps of northern Galilee and the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\n<p>The hippopotamus has highly developed sense organs, placed in such a way that it can see, hear, and smell almost without being seen; its eyes, ears, and nostrils can reach above water while the rest of the animal lies submerged. It has a large mouth, large tusks, and a short, heavy throat. The strong legs are so short that the belly almost reaches the ground when the animal is on the land. The hippopotamus lives on plants and herbs growing in rivers, but if food is scarce there, it forages on land, usually at night. In spite of its heavy body it is surprisingly agile on land.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Horse\">Horse<\/p>\n<p>Przewalski’s horse (<em>Equus przewalskii,<\/em> an eastern race that roamed about Mongolia until modern firearms destroyed most of them after World War I) and the tarpan (a western race of southern Russia that became extinct in the Ukraine in 1851). The domesticated horse <em>(Equus caballus)<\/em> seems to have been derived from the tarpan. The original site of domestication is believed to have been Turkestan, a region north of Afghanistan and India, now in Russia. The horse differs from the donkey in that it has shorter ears, a longer mane with a forelock, a long hairy tail, and a soft, sensitive muzzle.<\/p>\n<p>Horses were used in war not only for riding but also for pulling the heavy, springless war chariots. Two kinds of horses were needed for these different purposes, and the Hebrews distinguished between chariot horses and cavalry horses.<\/p>\n\n<p>The Lord warned the early Israelites against unnecessarily amassing military strength in the form of horses and thereby following the oppressive tactics of the powerful Egyptians (Dt 17:14-16), but the demands of war caused both David and Solomon to import horses from Egypt into their kingdoms and to breed them. Solomon greatly increased the number of horses in the Jewish kingdom and maintained large stables at various cities (1 Kgs 10:26) such as the regional defense centers of Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer (1 Kgs 9:15-19). Ahab’s horses are mentioned in 1 Kings 18:5, and records of Shalmaneser III state that Ahab furnished 2,000 chariots to a coalition against Assyria.<\/p>\n<p>In early Israel, the horse was opposed as a symbol of pagan luxury and of dependence on physical power for defense (Dt 17:16; 1 Sm 8:11; Ps 20:7; Is 31:1). Horse trading, mentioned as early as Genesis 47:17, was carried on by Solomon between Egypt and the Syro-Hittite principalities (1 Kgs 10:28-29). Most biblical references to horses refer to their use in war, but horses were also used for transportation. Riding seems to have been less popular than the use of chariots. Cavalry units were not introduced until the 12th century <span>BC<\/span> by the Medes. Joseph rode in Pharaoh’s second horse-drawn chariot (Gn 41:43), and Absalom made a display by riding a horse-drawn chariot (2 Sm 15:1). Naaman traveled by horse and chariot (2 Kgs 5:9). Later, horses were so common in Jerusalem that the royal palace had a special horse gate (2 Chr 23:15), and a gate of the city itself was known as the Horse Gate (Neh 3:28; Jer 31:40). Mordecai rode a royal horse of King Xerxes as a sign of honor (Est 6:8-11). Horses are often spoken of figuratively (Ps 32:9; “mare,” Sg 1:9; “stallions,” Jer 5:8; 12:5), especially in the context of judgment (Hb 3:8; Zec 1:8; 6:1-8; Rv 6:2-8; 9:17; 19:11-16).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Warfare; Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyena\">Hyena<\/p>\n<p>Stocky carnivore <em>(Hyaena hyaena)<\/em> with coarse hair, an erect mane, and long hairs along the neck and back. Hyenas live in holes among rocks and banks. They are mainly nocturnal but are ordinarily neither noisy nor aggressive. Their cry, however, is a disagreeable, unearthly sound. Hyenas usually feed on carrion, crushing bones with their powerful jaws. If the carrion supply is inadequate, they will kill sheep, goats, or other small animals. When threatened, hyenas growl and erect their mane, but they rarely fight. They are massively built with forelegs longer than the hind legs.<\/p>\n<p>Known as scavengers in Africa, hyenas eat domestic refuse in the villages. In Palestine the striped hyena is a common predator, preferring rocky territory and even rock tombs. Since hyenas were notorious for raiding the graves of the dead, all Israelites who could afford it arranged for burial in tombs protected by massive stone doors. Absalom, King David’s son who was killed by Joab in the wild, was buried under a huge pile of stones to protect his corpse from molestation by hyenas (2 Sm 18:17).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Jackal\">Jackal<\/p>\n<p>Carnivore <em>(Canis aureus)<\/em> smaller than the true wolf and with a shorter tail. It is similar to the fox but has a broader head, shorter ears, and longer legs. The fox is solitary; the jackal tends to be gregarious. Its tail can be drooping or erect, compared with the long horizontal tail of the fox. Jackals usually prowl at night, either singly, in pairs, or in packs through open savannah country. They eat small mammals, poultry, fruit, vegetables, and carrion. They spend their days in thickets and clumps of vegetation. Often they obtain scraps from kills by larger carnivores. Jackals can run at speeds of about 33 miles (53 kilometers) per hour.<\/p>\n<p>The jackal can reach a height of about 20 inches (51 centimeters), roughly the size of a German shepherd dog. Its back is pale yellow with dark, almost black, flanks. Its lips are black and its ears white on the inside. The howl of the jackal sounds like the crying of a child or the heartrending wail of the bereaved (Mi 1:8; cf. Jb 30:29). To other jackals the howl is merely an invitation calling the pack together for its nocturnal hunting.<\/p>\n<p>OT references are chiefly to jackals prowling around ruined cities and wilderness areas (Neh 2:13; Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; 34:13; 35:7; Jer 9:11; 14:6; 49:33; 51:37; Lam 4:3; 5:18; Mal 1:3). Many such references are translated “dragon” in the <span>kjv<\/span>, but “jackal” is more appropriate.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leech\">Leech<\/p>\n<p>Segmented worm (class Hirundinea) up to five inches (12.7 centimeters) long with a flat body equipped with suction pads at each end. The mouth, located at the bottom of the front suction pad, has three teeth that the leech uses to pierce the skin of its host. The leech feeds on blood, and its glands secrete an anticoagulant to prevent the blood from clotting. The ordinary medicinal leech (Hirudo medicinalis) is abundant in springs and ponds from the Negev Desert to Galilee. It adheres to the bodies of human beings and animals that submerge themselves in water, injects its anticoagulant, and sucks their blood.<\/p>\n<p>The reference in Proverbs 30:15 is uncertain (see <span>nlt<\/span>) but may be to the parasitic and greedy nature of the horse leech (genus <em>Haemopis<\/em>). The small horse leech enters its host’s mouth and nostrils from water while the animal is drinking. A leech weighing one-half ounce (14.2 grams) has been known to gorge itself with two and a half ounces (71 grams) of concentrated blood and then to exist for 15 months with no more to eat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leopard\">Leopard<\/p>\n<p>Called <em>Panthera pardus tulliana,<\/em> it is the most widespread of all the large wildcats. In rocky areas it lives in caves, but in forested regions it lives in thick vegetation. In OT times many lived in the vicinity of Mt Hermon (Sg 4:8).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is somewhat smaller than the tiger, measuring up to 5 feet (1.5 meters) in length with a tail of about 30 inches (.8 meter). Its body is better proportioned than that of the tiger. The leopard takes its victim by surprise from a silent ambush, often concealing itself near villages or watering places and waiting for its prey, remaining in one spot for long spans of time. The leopard is swift on the ground (Hb 1:8), agile in trees, and very graceful in its movements. Its color is yellowish speckled with black spots (Jer 13:23). Daniel and John saw visions in which leopards were symbols of world powers (Dn 7:6; Rv 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is a wary and cunning animal, formidable and ferocious (Jer 5:6; Hos 13:7; cf. Is 11:6). The leopard is dangerous not only to domestic animals but also to humans. With its natural camouflage it can hide on the forest floor, blending into the changing light and shadows. The Israelites were terrified of the leopard because it constantly ravaged their sheep and goats. Several biblical place names suggest that they were known for the leopards in their vicinity: Nimrah, Beth-nimrah, and Nimrim, a district northeast of the Dead Sea. It has survived in the Holy Land into the present century; a few leopards still exist in remote areas near Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leviathan\">Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>Sea monster mentioned several times in the Bible (Pss 74:14; 104:26; Is 27:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). It may refer to any of the larger marine animals such as large jellyfish, whales, or sharks, or to a large reptile like the crocodile. Some scholars think “Leviathan” may refer to animals now extinct, such as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs (marine reptiles similar to dinosaurs). The scriptural term might also refer to certain dinosaurs that spent part of their lives half-submerged in shallow lakes and oceans. Other scholars believe that most of the references are to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lion\">Lion<\/p>\n<p>Large, tawny-colored carnivore <em>(Panthera leo)<\/em> that preys chiefly on hoofed mammals and charges by a series of leaps and bounds. Within historic times the lion ranged in Africa, Europe, and the Holy Land. In ancient times the territories of the African and Persian lions met in the Middle East. The lion of the Holy Land was the Asiatic or Persian lion <em>(Panthera leo persica).<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The males have heavy manes that stop at the shoulders but cover much of the chest. The Persian lion cannot climb and is mainly nocturnal, returning to its lair or a thicket by day (Jer 4:7; 25:38; Na 2:11-12). This lion is about 5 feet (1.5 meters) long with a tasseled tail 30 inches (.8 meter) or so long; its shoulders may reach a height of 35 inches (.9 meter). It is one of the smallest of the lion breeds.<\/p>\n<p>Lions are usually found in pairs, though sometimes in larger numbers. A small group is known as a pride. They generally prefer open country but in Palestine evidently prowled the subtropical vegetation of the Jordan River valley. Lions, which usually hunt at dusk, kill smaller animals by a blow of the paw, larger ones by a bite in the throat. A lion does not remain in the same place for more than a few days. The animal is in its prime at about seven years of age, when it weighs from 400 to 600 pounds (181.6 to 272.4 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>The lion does not characteristically attack humans, though like other great cats it may become a man-eater (1 Kgs 13:24-28; 20:36; 2 Kgs 17:25-26; Ps 57:4; Dn 6:7-27). Ordinarily, it attacks only out of great hunger or in self-defense. A very young lion that attacks humans can become dangerous if it develops a taste for human flesh. A very old lion, expelled from the pride because it can no longer keep up in the pursuit of antelope or gazelles, may choose humans as a relatively slow-moving prey.<\/p>\n<p>A lion generally roars only on a full stomach—that is, after it has consumed its prey (Ps 22:13; Ez 22:25; Am 3:4). Nevertheless, its roaring arouses fear (Am 3:8; 1 Pt 5:8). The lion is a bold (2 Sm 17:10; Prv 28:1), destructive animal (Ps 7:2; Jer 2:30; Hos 5:14; Mi 5:8), and the enemy of flocks (Am 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>Lions were common in biblical times in all parts of the Holy Land. Hebrew has at least seven words for lion and young lion. The lion is referred to about 130 times in the OT—more than any other wild animal. Lions were evidently much less common in NT times. After gradually declining, they became extinct in Palestine shortly after <span>AD<\/span> 1300. The lion was present in Mesopotamia, however, until the end of the 19th century.<\/p>\n<p>Lions played an important part in the political and religious symbolism of the Near East (1 Kgs 10:19-20). In Assyria and Babylonia the lion was regarded as a royal beast (Dn 7:4). Oriental monarchs maintained artificial lion pits as places of execution (Ez 19:1-9; Dn 6:7-16). Animals for these were captured in camouflaged nets or pits. To the Jews, the lion was the mightiest of beasts (Prv 30:29-31). Thus, it symbolized leadership (Gn 49:9-10; Nm 24:9) and hence eventually became a title for Christ (Rv 5:5). It was also the ensign of Judah’s tribe and was used by King Solomon in the decoration of his house and the temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lizard\">Lizard<\/p>\n<p>Reptiles of the suborder Lacertilia. Their skin is covered with scales. The lizard is a useful creature because it captures harmful insects and worms. Like other reptiles, it lays eggs with shells softer than those of a bird and with no clear division between the yolk and the white. Lizards are “cold-blooded” organisms without a temperature-maintenance mechanism; hence, they become inactive in cold weather.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards can survive in barren parched countryside. In the Near East they are encountered in great numbers in the Arabian Desert, the Sinai Peninsula, and the Judean wilderness. There may be as many as 44 different species of lizards in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The Dabb lizard (genus <em>Uromastyx<\/em>), which attains a length of about 24 inches (61 centimeters), is found in the Negev Desert. It is omnivorous, an unusual trait since most lizards are insectivorous. It has a hard, rough skin, green with brown spots; a short, rounded head; and a powerful tail encircled with a row of strong spines that it uses as a weapon of defense.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards are listed as ceremonially unclean in Jewish law (Lv 11:29-31). The fact that lizards crawl on their bellies made them unclean. Contact with a lizard’s carcass defiled a law-abiding Jew (Lv 11:32-36). The <span>nlt<\/span> translates the “lizards” of Leviticus 11 as “great lizard,” “gecko,” “monitor lizard,” “sand lizard,” and “chameleon.” The monitor lizard is a large lizard that lives in the deserts of southern Palestine, Sinai, and Egypt. It is up to 55 inches (1.4 meters) long with a long snout and sharp teeth. Other translators and commentators render the original Hebrew in a wide variety of ways, including “tortoise,” “ferret,” “lizard,” “snail,” “mole,” and even “water hen.” The fact that most of the original Hebrew words occur only once in Scripture makes it very difficult to be certain about their appropriate translation.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Gecko (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Locust\">Locust<\/p>\n<p>An insect of the family <em>Acridiidae.<\/em> It is referred to by at least 12 different names in Scripture. The various Hebrew words may refer to different stages of its development from larva to adult or to the type of damage that it causes. Locusts are characterized by swarming and mass migration. In modern times they have caused extensive and disastrous destruction to vegetation. Grasshoppers do not swarm or migrate en masse, differentiating them from the true locusts.<\/p>\n<p>The OT mentions several different species of locusts. Leviticus 11:22 seems to refer to the slant-faced (bald) locust and also to the katydid, or long-horned grasshopper. The reference in Deuteronomy 28:42 may be to the mole cricket. In Joel 1:4 and 2:25 and in Nahum 3:16-17, successive stages of the insect’s development are described. The cutting locust (<span>kjv<\/span> “palmerworm”) of Joel is probably the first instar (stage of development), the swarming locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “locust”) are middle stages, and the hopping locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “cankerworm”) later instars but not yet fully matured insects. In the adult stage, called destroying locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “caterpillar”), the color of the locust is reddish brown, which turns to yellow with a brownish network on the wings.<\/p>\n<p>Only three of the hundreds of varieties of locusts found in Bible lands are capable of multiplying into great swarms, and only the desert locust <em>(Schistocerca gergaria)<\/em> can be considered widespread in all the Bible lands. The desert locust is native to the Sudan (Africa). It is a little over two inches (5 centimeters) long and has a wingspread of some five inches (12.7 centimeters). It shows two phases, a solitary phase and a gregarious phase, with a possible third phase known as transiens. There are differences in the immature and adult forms of the phases in color and physiology.<\/p>\n<p>The quantity and distribution of rains are important factors in the extent of swarming. Moist soil is needed for depositing the eggs and permitting them to develop. Each female deposits from one to six egg pods, containing 28 to 146 eggs each. The larvae emerge in 15 to 43 days.<\/p>\n<p>In the gregarious phase (from the second stage of metamorphosis onward), the locust is driven by a strong wandering instinct. Masses of them form a random procession of overflowing locust bodies that ignore any obstruction. They swarm over everything (Jl 2:4-9). The only regulator of their activities is temperature; they are immobilized by high or low temperatures. Taking to wing they may move 1,200 miles (1,930.8 kilometers) from their native home. They fly in compact formations large enough to blot out the light of the sun. Their movement seems to be controlled by hormones, but the direction is influenced by the wind. The swarms consume almost every plant in their path, sparing only the carob, sycamore, castor tree, and oleander bush.<\/p>\n<p>A locust plague was one of the most severe evils to come upon the ancient world (Dt 28:38). Joel 2:1-11 describes a locust plague in graphic terms, using it as a symbol of God’s destroying judgment. Special days of prayer, fasting, and trumpet blowing were prescribed to remove locust plagues (1 Kgs 8:37-38; 2 Chr 6:28-29; Jl 2:12-17). Locusts symbolized powerful and merciless enemies that completely destroyed the earnings of human toil (Jgs 6:5; Is 33:4; Jer 46:23; 51:27; Na 3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Bedouins eat locusts raw, roasted, or boiled, preserving them by drying and threading. They are also crushed and ground, and the grist used in cooking or eaten with bread, sometimes mixed with honey and dates. Such was the diet of John the Baptist (Mk 1:6). The Greeks ground locusts in stone mortars to make flour of them.<\/p>\n<p>The ancients considered the two large hind legs, or jumping legs, as separate limbs and had a special name for them. Hence locusts were described as having four legs, a reference to the four smaller walking legs. “Going on all fours” thus referred to creeping or walking as opposed to jumping and did not mean that the unclean insects had only four legs in all. Because of its two hind jumping legs, the locust was exempted from the prohibition against unclean insects (Lv 11:20-23).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mole\">Mole<\/p>\n<p>Rodent <em>(Spalax ehrenbergi)<\/em> from six to nine inches (15 to 23 centimeters) long, which burrows in any area where the soil is suitable for digging; it should be called a mole rat. Common in the Holy Land, large numbers are found in the vicinity of Jerusalem. Isaiah 2:20 refers to the mole, as does Leviticus 11:29-30 (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The mole rat has no tail and is molelike in appearance, but neither true moles nor shrews have ever been found in the Holy Land. The mole rat’s teeth are strong and protruding like those of a squirrel. The neck is short and thick with a plump body shaped like a sausage. The short legs have broad paws with claws adapted for burrowing. The fur is soft, thick, and ashen gray. Its ears and almost sightless eyes, which are no larger than poppyseeds, are hidden in the fur. Folklore taught that touching a mole rat would result in blindness.<\/p>\n<p>In the wet winter season the mole rat builds breeding mounds resembling those of pocket gophers. It builds less complex resting mounds in the summer, although both have rather elaborate tunnel systems. The mole rat feeds on roots, bulbs, tubers, and various other subterranean plant parts, often doing extensive damage to agriculture.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Moth\">Moth<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the genus <em>Tineola<\/em> that lays its eggs on wool or furs, its larvae feeding on those materials. The destructive qualities of moths are referred to in several biblical passages (Jb 13:28; Ps 39:11; Is 50:9; Hos 5:12; Mt 6:19-20; Lk 12:33; Jas 5:2). In Isaiah 51:8 “worm” (<span>nlt<\/span>) refers specifically to the larva of the clothes moth. The moth symbolizes disintegration, decay, and weakening. It is only the larvae that do the damage. The adult is quite harmless and feeds mainly on the nectar of flowers. It is easily crushed (Jb 4:19). The clothes moth reproduces in May or June. It enters human dwellings in the evening. A week after the eggs are laid the larvae appear and immediately begin their work of destruction, eating anything within reach made of animal fibers.<\/p>\n<p>The moth’s destructive activity is done in secret without any sound and without any dramatic appearance, such as a swarm that blots out the sun. In an age when wealth was counted more in possessions than in money, and when among those possessions wool clothing was highly valued, moths could literally cause economic disaster; hence the words of Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount (Mt 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p>There are hundreds of species of moths other than the clothes moth in the Holy Land; they are harmless to leaves, flowers, fruit, trees, and seeds. As with the clothes moth, the larvae inflict the damage.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mouse\">Mouse<\/p>\n<p>Rodent of the family Muridae, especially genus <em>Mus.<\/em> The mouse was regarded as unclean because, being short legged, it was considered one of the creeping creatures (Lv 11:29). Mice known as commensals live in dwellings and tend to have longer tails and to be darker in color than wild mice, which are active chiefly at night. Mice are good climbers and even good swimmers. Wild mice eat many kinds of vegetation, including seeds, fleshy roots, leaves, and stems. At times they store food.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word for “mouse” (Lv 11:29; 1 Sm 6:4-5; Is 66:17) is probably a general term for various rats and mice. The root meaning of the Hebrew word “mouse” is “destruction of corn,” a reference to the damage mice do to field crops. At least 23 varieties of mouselike rodents are known in the Holy Land. They cause food spoilage, damage household articles, and transport the host fleas that spread typhus, spotted fever, and bubonic plague. Plague bacteria may have caused the tumors or swellings among the Philistines (1 Sm 6:5). Isaiah 66:17 refers to a pre-exilic Canaanite cultic practice in which mice were eaten; the reference may actually be to the hamster. A number of rodents are eaten by Arabs of the Near East; the gerbil is considered a special delicacy. <em>See<\/em> Mole (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mule\">Mule<\/p>\n<p>Hybrid offspring of a male ass and a female horse <em>(Equus asinus mulus),<\/em> ordinarily sterile. The offspring of a female donkey and a stallion (male horse) is known as a hinny and is of little value because of its inferior size.<\/p>\n<p>Because crossbreeding was forbidden in the law (Lv 19:19), the Israelites procured mules from the Gentiles, perhaps from the Phoenicians, since Tyre (a Phoenician seaport in what is now southern Lebanon) imported horses and mules (Ez 27:14). Mules did not appear in Israel until David’s reign (2 Sm 13:29), possibly because of the rarity of horses among the Hebrews. Mules were used chiefly by members of the royal court and by other nobles. King David rode on a mule, and Solomon rode to his inaugaration on King David’s mule (1 Kgs 1:33). Absalom met his death riding on a mule (2 Sm 18:9). Mules were less common than horses, camels, and asses in the postexilic community (Ezr 2:66). In antiquity Asia Minor was especially noted for breeding fine mules.<\/p>\n<p>Mules have long enjoyed a reputation for obstinacy, but that trait is not mentioned in the Bible. The mule is prized for riding and for carrying heavy burdens, especially in warm mountainous regions. They are sure-footed and thrive best in hot, dry climates. The mule has the frugality, endurance, and steady gait of an ass along with the size, strength, swiftness, and courage of a horse. Mules are almost never sick. They live longer than horses. They can carry a load of up to 300 pounds (136 kilograms) as far as 30 miles (48.3 kilometers) a day.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pig\">Pig<\/p>\n<p>Most properly, newborn swine. “Swine” is technically the better name for the species, but it is rarely used in common speech today. The domestic pigs of the Middle East derived from the wild pig <em>(Sus scrofa).<\/em> The pig is the most prolific and abundant supplier of meat and fat for food. A thick layer of fat just under the skin is especially pronounced in domestic breeds. Pigs cannot be driven, so they are of value only to the settled farmer. The Hebrews were originally a nomadic people; therefore, they had little use for an animal closely associated with settled life. An Egyptian prince of about 1500 <span>BC<\/span>, however, is recorded as owning a herd of 1,500 swine.<\/p>\n<p>The pig is clumsily built, yet lively and able to move with agility and speed. The most conspicuous characteristic of the pig is a truncated, mobile snout terminating in a disc-shaped surface on which the nostrils are located. Most pigs have large tusks in both jaws which grow continuously in life. The tusks of the upper jaw are unique in that they curve upward instead of pointing downward as in most animals. The excrement of a pig has an almost unbearable odor, which clings not only to the pig itself but also to swineherds, who can be identified a long way off.<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were never raised in the Holy Land by Jews. The great herd into which Jesus drove the unclean spirits was encountered in the land of the Gadarenes, a non-Jewish area east of the Jordan. The Gadarene demons took refuge in a herd of pigs feeding on a bluff overlooking the Sea of Galilee (Mt 8:28-32).<\/p>\n<p>Wild pigs were found in the Holy Land as in many countries today. Psalm 80:13 refers to the destructiveness of a wild boar (the male, or hog) attacking growing crops. A party of wild boars can destroy an entire vineyard or a field of crops in a single night. They devour, trample, and ravage everything within reach.<\/p>\n<p>Boar hunts were common in ancient Mesopotamia. Wild boars do not attack unless molested, but they are dangerous when aroused. They travel in bands of from 6 to 50 and are most active in the evening and early morning hours. The body is covered with stiff bristles and usually some finer hair, but the body covering is often quite scanty. Wild pigs are mainly vegetarian, feeding on roots, nuts, grains, and plant stems. Wild boars were particularly abundant in the mountainous regions of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, in the Jordan River valley, and in wooded sections such as Mt Tabor.<\/p>\n<p>Strict Jews would not even mention swine by name but would always substitute the term “the abomination.” Israelites considered themselves polluted if they were even touched by a swine’s bristle. To the Jews, the pig symbolized filth and ugliness. Pigs will eat fecal material, vermin, rodents, carrion, and the like (2 Pt 2:22). Proverbs 11:22 refers to the incongruity of a golden ring in the nose of an animal showing such characteristics. A similar metaphor occurs in Jesus’ statement about casting pearls before swine (Mt 7:6). The prodigal son’s degeneration was shown by his being forced in his poverty to feed pigs and eat their food (Lk 15:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>Eating the flesh of pigs was forbidden to the Jews (Lv 11:7; Dt 14:8). The Canaanites in the Holy Land killed and ate pigs freely. In intertestamental times Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), a Syrian king whose territories included Israel, used the pig to “Hellenize” the Jews. He first tested their loyalty to the Jewish faith by requiring the consumption of pork, considered a delicacy by the Greeks (2 Macc 6:18). The act of desecration that drove the Jews to rebellion, however, was the sprinkling of pig blood on the temple altar in a sacrifice to Zeus (1 Macc 1:47).<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were frequently used in pagan worship (Is 65:4; 66:3, 17), which may account for their being forbidden to the Jews as food. Evidence in the Holy Land shows that pigs were sacrificed long before Hellenistic times. Pig bones were found in a grotto below the rock-cut place of sacrifice at Gezer. A similar underground chamber with vessels containing piglet bones at Tirzah dates to the middle Bronze Age (about 2000 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Alabaster fragments of a statuette of a pig ready to be sacrificed have been unearthed. Swine were sacrificed to Aphrodite (Venus) in Greece and Asia Minor. In addition, pigs were sacrificed in connection with oaths and treaties; in the <em>Iliad,<\/em> Agamemnon sacrificed a boar to Zeus and Helios. So it is not surprising that among the Jews the pig became a symbol of filthiness and paganism.<\/p>\n<p>It is possible that eating pork was forbidden primarily because the pig may carry many worm parasites such as trichina, though that is also true of some “clean” animals. Another reason for forbidding their consumption may have been that pigs eat carrion. Some people are allergic to pork in hot weather—another suggested reason behind the Jewish taboo. The same taboo exists among the Muslims and existed in certain social strata in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Porcupine\">Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>Rodent, <em>Hystrix cristata,<\/em> which lives in forested areas, rocky hills, ravines, and valleys. The porcupine is still found in the Holy Land today. It has long quills that can be raised to give the appearance of a crest. It is almost entirely nocturnal. It burrows by day into a natural cavity or crevice. The Old World porcupine rarely climbed trees, although the New World porcupine frequently does. A porcupine may weigh as much as 60 pounds (27.2 kilograms). It eats fruit, bark, roots, and other vegetation, and carrion as well. Although its flesh is edible, the porcupine was not classed among the clean animals for the Israelites. The reference in Isaiah 34:11 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is probably to the porcupine, as is Isaiah 14:23 in the <span>nlt<\/span>. <em>See<\/em> Hedgehog.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Scorpion\">Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>Arthropod of the same group as spiders (arachnids). A dozen species of scorpions (order Scorpionida) are found in the Holy Land, but 90 percent of the scorpions are yellow scorpions, usually three to five inches (7.6 to 12.7 centimeters) long. The rock scorpion, also common to the Holy Land, is as thick as a man’s finger and from five to seven inches (12.7 to 17.8 centimeters) in length. Scorpions are slow, nocturnal invertebrates that rest beneath stones by day and prey on insects and other arachnids by night. At the end of its long tail the scorpion carries a poisonous sting that is fatal to most prey and extremely painful to humans (Rv 9:3, 5, 10; cf. 1 Kgs 12:11, 14). Scorpions symbolize Ezekiel’s evil countrymen (Ez 2:6) and the demonic forces of Satan (Lk 10:19). The scorpion is referred to as frequenting the Sinai Desert (Dt 8:15).<\/p>\n<p>A scorpion has from six to eight eyes. It has eight legs like a spider and two lobsterlike claws with which it catches and holds its prey. It feeds particularly on locusts and beetles. In many species the female scorpion eats the male after mating. Scorpions lay eggs that hatch very shortly after laying. Scorpions prefer warmer climates, and because of their desire for warmth, enter houses, especially at night, hiding in beds, blankets, footwear, and clothing.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sheep\">Sheep<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animal, <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> referred to directly or by some term such as ewe, lamb, ram, or by some fact concerning them over 700 times in Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Sheep represented the chief wealth and total livelihood of pastoral peoples, providing food to eat, milk to drink, wool for the making of cloth, and hides and bones for other uses. In addition, the sheep was a medium of exchange and a sacrificial animal. The number of sheep raised in ancient times was prodigious. Mesha, king of Moab, paid a tribute annually of 100,000 lambs and the wool of 100,000 rams (2 Kgs 3:4). The Israelites took 250,000 sheep from the Hagrites (1 Chr 5:21).<\/p>\n<p>Sheep shearing was often done for festivals (2 Sm 13:23). The sheep was held down on its side and its legs were tied together; then it lay docilely while its wool was clipped (Is 53:7). Sheep reserved for burnt offerings were not shorn; nothing could be held back from a sacrifice to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Wool had to be processed before it could be used for clothing. First it was washed, sometimes while still on the sheep, then carded and perhaps weighed for the market. The spinning of wool was regarded as a woman’s work (Prv 31:19), but weaving the spun thread into cloth on a loom was primarily a man’s occupation.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible reports that Abel kept sheep (Gn 4:2). The first sheep to be domesticated was probably the argali <em>(Ovis ammon),<\/em> a variety of the urial <em>(Ovis vignei),<\/em> a mountainous species still existing in Turkestan and Mongolia. Five breeds had reached Mesopotamia by 2000 <span>BC<\/span>; all were of the urial stock.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep known in Israel was the broad-tailed sheep <em>(Ovis orientalis vignei<\/em> or <em>laticaudata),<\/em> of which the tail weighs from 10 to 15 pounds (4.5 to 6.8 kilograms) and has always been considered a delicacy. Thus the Lord asked for this choice part as a sacrifice (Ex 29:22-25).<\/p>\n<p>Only the ram of the broad-tailed sheep has horns, but in other varieties of sheep in the Holy Land the ewe also has horns. The horns, two to three inches (5 to 8 centimeters) in diameter, can be potent weapons. Rams’ horns could be used as trumpets (Jos 6:4) or as oil containers (1 Sm 16:1).<\/p>\n<p>Although the sheep is very similar to the goat, it is differentiated by a lower forehead, its angulated spiral horns marked with transverse wrinkles and curved slightly outward, its covering of wool, and its lack of a “goatee.” Most sheep are white (Ps 147:16; Is 1:18; Dn 7:9; Rv 1:14).<\/p>\n<p>The flesh of sheep was a luxury in the biblical culture. King Solomon required a daily provision of 100 sheep for his table (1 Kgs 4:23), but the common people ate lamb or mutton only on festive occasions. A young ram was usually chosen because the ewes were more important to the future prospects of the herd. The meat was boiled in large caldrons. The milk of the sheep is extremely rich; in biblical times it was usually allowed to curdle before drinking. Possibly some Israelites kept lambs in their houses as pets (2 Sm 12:3-4).<\/p>\n<p>To protect the flock at night against predatory attacks, the shepherd tried to provide a fold. In meadows near villages, folds were built and watchmen were hired to relieve the shepherds. The shepherds of the nativity story were out in the field (Lk 2:8); they had no fold but probably had set up a tent for shelter, consisting simply of goat-hair blankets spread across sapling supports. The scarcity of springs in the Holy Land made the watering of the flock a crucial problem for the shepherd (Gn 13:8-11).<\/p>\n<p>Wild mountain sheep, varieties of <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> are known in the Mediterranean area (Dt 14:5). The Deuteronomy passage (<span>kjv<\/span> “chamois”) might also refer to <em>Ovis traelaphus,<\/em> a sheep about five feet high (1.5 meters) with long, curved horns. Another possibility is the Barbary sheep that lives in small flocks in rugged mountain areas in Barbary, Egypt, and Mt Sinai. The true chamois is unknown in Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep is also used figuratively in Scripture. The ram represented great strength and fittingly symbolized Medo-Persia in Daniel’s vision (Dn 8:3). It is the nature of sheep to be gentle and submissive (Is 53:7; Jer 11:19), defenseless (Mi 5:8; Mt 10:16), and in constant need of guidance and care (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36). Such qualities are regarded as desirable in the lives of believers in Christ; hence the many figurative references to sheep in the NT and to Jesus as shepherd (Mk 6:34; Jn 10:1-30; Rom 8:35-37; Heb 13:20-21; 1 Pt 2:25). The resurrected Christ told the apostle Peter to “feed my lambs” and “tend my sheep” (Jn 21:15-17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snail\">Snail<\/p>\n<p>Invertebrate gastropods (mollusks). Land snails are very numerous in the Near East. Some freshwater forms serve as hosts for the schistosome worm, the fluke parasite causing the dread disease bilharzia (schistosomiasis).<\/p>\n<p>Purple dyes of all shades were highly valued in the ancient world. A royal purple dye was obtained from secretions of a sea snail <em>(Murex trunculus<\/em> and <em>Murex brandaris).<\/em> Evidently, that process was developed by Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Assyrians as early as 1500 <span>BC<\/span>. The “purple” fishermen had their own guild during the time of the Roman Empire. The snails were harvested during the fall and winter seasons; in the spring, when egg laying took place, little dye was available. The snails tended to remain concealed in the summer. They inhabited the waters off Crete and Phoenicia. Tyrian purple, produced in the Phoenician city of Tyre, the center of the purple-dye industry, was obtained by a double dyeing. Large deposits of murex shells from dyeing operations have been found along the Mediterranean shoreline. The Israelites had to import purple goods (Ez 27:16). Lydia was a “seller of purple” or of cloth so dyed (Acts 16:14). Purple was a sign of distinction, royalty, and wealth (cf. Ex 25:4; 28:5-6, 15; Nm 15:38; 2 Chr 2:7; Est 8:15; Prv 31:22; Sg 3:10; Ez 27:7; Dn 5:7).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 30:34-35 refers to “onycha,” which was an important ingredient of incense. Onycha is the horny, clawlike operculum (the plate that closes off the opening of its shell when a snail is retracted) of a Near Eastern member of the molluskan family Strombidae. The operculum is sometimes used for offense or locomotion as well as for defense. When burned, the operculum gives off a sharp, strong scent, and when mixed with more fragrant but less powerful substances is even more potent. The name “onycha” is derived from a Greek word <em>(onyx)<\/em> for a fingernail or a claw.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snake\">Snake<\/p>\n<p>Various species of snake, suborder Ophidia (Serpentes). In the Bible nine Hebrew words and four Greek ones refer to snakes. The most common Hebrew word is onomatopoeic—that is, it is an imitation of a snake hissing or of the sound it produces as it scrapes its scales along the ground (cf. Jer 46:22). Many types of snakes lay eggs (Is 59:5), although some retain the eggs in the body until ready to hatch.<\/p>\n<p>Snakes are among the most widespread reptiles and are found on all continents except Antarctica; they decrease in numbers and species toward the poles but increase as one approaches the equator. Thirty-three species of snakes are known in Palestine and neighboring countries, 20 of which are poisonous. Two dangerous characteristics of the snake noted by biblical writers are its inconspicuous way of moving and the ease with which it hides itself.<\/p>\n<p>Many snakes are able to swallow animals several times their own diameter because of their unusually flexible jaw mechanism. They lack not only legs but also movable eyelids. Snakes periodically shed their skins. The tongue is actually a hearing apparatus sensitive to airborne vibrations and probably to heat waves.<\/p>\n<p>The venom of poisonous species is a clear, thin secretion, transmitted to the victim’s bloodstream by means of fangs. Two types of venom are known: that of the vipers, which affects respiration and disintegrates red blood cells, and that of the cobras, which paralyzes the nervous system.<\/p>\n<p>The “asp” referred to in the Bible is probably the cobra; the “adder” is the viper. The “cockatrice” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is probably the adder. Serpents were associated with worship in Canaanite religion and symbolized evil deities among many other peoples. Steles (upright stones bearing inscriptions) have been unearthed at several sites in the Holy Land and Syria depicting a god or worshiper with a snake winding about the legs or body. Because the Israelites were burning incense in pagan worship of Moses’ bronze serpent (Nm 21:8-9), King Hezekiah destroyed it in his religious reform (2 Kgs 18:4).<\/p>\n<p>Although snakes have been an object of veneration in some religions, in the Judeo-Christian tradition snakes represent evil and, more specifically, the devil. That association began in the Garden of Eden (Gn 3:1-15) and is also found in the book of Revelation (12:9; 20:2-3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adder (above); Asp (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Spider\">Spider<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the order Araneida. Between 600 and 700 different species inhabit the Holy Land. Spiders are different from insects in that, like scorpions, they have four pairs of legs instead of three. Spiders are equipped with poison glands—the effectiveness varying from species to species. A few can kill only insects, but others can also kill birds and mice.<\/p>\n<p>Most spiders have a pair of spinnerets attached to silk glands on the underside of the abdomen; from them a web is extruded. In the Bible the spider’s web is referred to as a symbol of frailty and insecurity (Jb 8:14; Is 59:5-6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sponge\">Sponge<\/p>\n<p>Simple marine animals, phylum Porifera. The term “sponge” also refers to those animals’ skeletal remains. The sponge has a porous body composed of tubules and cells.<\/p>\n<p>Sponge fishing was well known in the Mediterranean area in ancient times. It was practiced particularly along the Anatolian and Syrian coasts. Sponges were harvested by divers. The use of sponges in absorbing liquids is referred to in the Bible (Mt 27:48; Mk 15:36).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Unicorn\">Unicorn<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Wild Ox (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wasp\">Wasp<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the family Vespidae. Hornets are social wasps that build large aerial apartment houses in which 1,000 or more individuals may live. In the Bible the hornet is used as a metaphor for God’s use of military forces (Ex 23:28; Dt 7:20; Jos 24:12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Whale\">Whale<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all living creatures, including those that have become extinct. Whales are air-breathing mammals of the order Cetacea.<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of whales visit the shores of the Holy Land at times. The finback whale <em>(Balaenoptera physalus)<\/em> weighs about 200 tons (181 metric tons) and lives mainly in the Arctic region but sometimes passes through the Straits of Gibraltar to reach the eastern Mediterranean Sea. It feeds on small marine organisms that it strains through its whale bone; it does not have teeth. The finback whale’s esophagus is narrow.<\/p>\n<p>The sperm whale <em>(Physeter catodon),<\/em> about 60 feet (18.3 meters) long, has a curiously shaped head that looks like a battering ram. The teeth in the lower jaw of the male sperm whale are about seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long. It feeds on big fish, even on sharks. It has a large throat opening.<\/p>\n<p>Whales are referred to in Genesis 1:21 and Job 7:12 (<span>kjv<\/span> only). The “great fish” of Jonah 2:1 need not have been a whale but could have been a large shark, such as the whale shark <em>(Rhineodon),<\/em> which grows 70 feet (21.3 meters) long and lacks the terrible teeth of other sharks. Whatever the actual marine organism, Jonah’s deliverance was miraculous. The Greek word for “whale” is sometimes used as a general term for “sea monster” or huge fish and may be used in that sense in Matthew 12:40.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WildOx\">Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>Large, fierce, fleet, intractable animal <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> It had a long, lean rump with a straight back and a long, narrow head. The animal described in Job 39:9-12 is clearly the wild ox. The two horns (Dt 33:17), its outstanding characteristic, were straight and as long as the head (Nm 23:22; 24:8; Ps 22:21). Kings often symbolized their dominion by wearing a helmet with two wild ox horns (cf. Pss 92:10; 132:17-18). The horns were often used as drinking vessels by the Israelites; some were large enough to hold four gallons (15 liters).<\/p>\n<p>Hunting the wild ox was a favorite sport of Assyrian kings. Tiglath-pileser I hunted it in the Lebanon Mountains about 1100 <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Ps 29:6). At one time the animal referred to in Job 39:9-12 was thought to be the oryx or antelope because of the similarity between the Hebrew word in Job and the Arabian name for oryx. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> called the wild ox a “unicorn” because of representations found on Babylonian mosaics and Egyptian drawings. Those representations showed it in strict profile, showing only one horn—hence, “unicorn.” Jerome’s Vulgate, a Latin Bible translation (fourth century <span>AD<\/span>) and Martin Luther’s German version translated it similarly.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wolf\">Wolf<\/p>\n<p>Large doglike mammal <em>(Canis lupus)<\/em> that travels in bands of up to 30 animals. From the nose to the rump, the wolf measures about 3 feet (.9 meter); its drooping tail is about 18 inches (.5 meter) long. It looks much like a skinny German shepherd dog. The grayish yellow pelt is coarse and short haired.<\/p>\n<p>Wolves hunt singly or in relays, usually at night (Jer 5:6). Wolves have acute hearing and sight but rely chiefly on scent and usually catch their prey in a swift, open chase. The wolf has a reputation for boldness, fierceness, and voracity (Gn 49:27; Hb 1:8). It commonly kills more than it can eat or drag away and thus is known for its greediness.<\/p>\n<p>The wolf is a restless animal, always on the move; hunger drives it from one place to another in constant search of new hunting grounds. During spring and fall, wolves usually roam singly or in pairs, whereas in summer they may travel in family groups. In winter, several such groups may join to form a large pack. Wolves are intelligent, social creatures, faithful to their own kind. They mate for life. Individually, the wolf is a rather timid animal; it would much rather avoid human beings. But collectively wolves can be among the most dangerous animals alive.<\/p>\n<p>In Egypt, Rome, and Greece the wolf was considered sacred. Wolves were well known in the Holy Land and are still found there and also in many places in Asia Minor. Shepherds continually battled with wolves that plundered their flocks (Jn 10:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible refers to wolves in a literal sense in only three places (Is 11:6; 65:25; Jn 10:12), all other references being figurative. Usually the wolf is a symbol of enemies or the wicked (e.g., Ez 22:27; Zep 3:3; Acts 20:29). Both the wolf’s courage and its cruelty were probably in the mind of the patriarch Jacob when he predicted the fate of Benjamin’s tribe (Gn 49:27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Worm\">Worm<\/p>\n<p>Actually insect larvae in most biblical references, usually maggots, the larvae of flies (see Fly, above). For example, maggots are evidently referred to in accounts of worms feeding on spoiled manna (Ex 16:19-20), corpses (Jb 21:26; Is 14:11), or open wounds (Jb 7:5). Mark 9:48 refers to a maggot that eats dead flesh. In Acts 12:23 a fatal, worm-induced abdominal disease of King Herod is mentioned. In other cases, the reference is to the larvae of other insects (Is 51:8). In Deuteronomy 28:39 and Jonah 4:7 the vine weevil <em>(Cochylis ambiguella)<\/em> is probably referred to; it destroys vines by boring into their stems. Comparing a man to a worm is a metaphor for abasement (Jb 25:6; Ps 22:6).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ANIMALS<\/h3>\n<p>In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals as object lessons.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical approach to classification of animals is somewhat different from the system of classification used by biologists today. The present system of classification, which traces back to Carolus Linnaeus (an 18th-century Swedish botanist), is based on structure, both internal and external. The biblical basis of classification is habitat. Thus Genesis 1 speaks of aquatic organisms (v 20); aerial organisms (v 21); animals that crawl on the ground (v 24); cattle or domesticated animals (animals that live in association with humans) (v 24); and wild animals (v 24). The same system of classification is followed in Leviticus 11 and throughout Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Because of the divergence between systems of classification, the various animals of the Bible will be listed here in alphabetical order—including reptiles, fish, and even invertebrates such as insects, spiders, worms, and sponges. Birds are discussed in a separate article.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Adder<\/p>\n<p>• Ant<\/p>\n<p>• Antelope<\/p>\n<p>• Ape<\/p>\n<p>• Asp<\/p>\n<p>• Ass<\/p>\n<p>• Badger<\/p>\n<p>• Bat<\/p>\n<p>• Bear<\/p>\n<p>• Bee<\/p>\n<p>• Behemoth<\/p>\n<p>• Camel<\/p>\n<p>• Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>• Cattle<\/p>\n<p>• Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>• Coral<\/p>\n<p>• Cricket<\/p>\n<p>• Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>• Deer<\/p>\n<p>• Dog<\/p>\n<p>• Donkey<\/p>\n<p>• Dragon<\/p>\n<p>• Fish<\/p>\n<p>• Flea<\/p>\n<p>• Fly<\/p>\n<p>• Fox<\/p>\n<p>• Frog<\/p>\n<p>• Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>• Gecko<\/p>\n<p>• Gnat<\/p>\n<p>• Goat<\/p>\n<p>• Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>• Hare<\/p>\n<p>• Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>• Horse<\/p>\n<p>• Hyena<\/p>\n<p>• Jackal<\/p>\n<p>• Leech<\/p>\n<p>• Leopard<\/p>\n<p>• Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>• Lion<\/p>\n<p>• Lizard<\/p>\n<p>• Locust<\/p>\n<p>• Mole<\/p>\n<p>• Moth<\/p>\n<p>• Mouse<\/p>\n<p>• Mule<\/p>\n<p>• Pig<\/p>\n<p>• Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>• Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>• Sheep<\/p>\n<p>• Snail<\/p>\n<p>• Snake<\/p>\n<p>• Spider<\/p>\n<p>• Sponge<\/p>\n<p>• Unicorn<\/p>\n<p>• Wasp<\/p>\n<p>• Whale<\/p>\n<p>• Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>• Wolf<\/p>\n<p>• Worm<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Adder\">Adder<\/p>\n<p>One of the 20 poisonous snakes found in Israel and surrounding countries, also referred to as cockatrice and viper. True vipers (genus <em>Cerastes, Echis colorata,<\/em> and <em>Vipera palestina<\/em>) also exist there, poisonous snakes with curved fangs that spring into position when the snake strikes. The horned viper <em>(Cerastes hasselquistii)<\/em> may attack horses. It is 12 to 18 inches (30 to 46 centimeters) long and often lies in ambush in the sand with only its eyes and the hornlike protrusions on its head visible.<\/p>\n<p>Both Jesus and John the Baptist referred to the viper several times (Mt 3:7; 12:34; 23:33). The reference in Acts 28:3 is probably to a small viper <em>(Vipera aspis)<\/em> that strikes rapidly and is very pugnacious. It is found in southern Europe and hisses each time it inhales and exhales. The poison of vipers attacks the respiratory system and disintegrates red blood cells.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ant\">Ant<\/p>\n<p>Mentioned only twice in the Bible, both times in the book of Proverbs. For many years Solomon was charged with a biological error when he referred to the ant as providing her meat in the summer and gathering her food in the harvest (Prv 6:8). Critics of the Bible were quick to point out that, so far as was then known, ants do not store up food. They assumed that Solomon had probably kicked open an ant hill and mistaken the pupal cases (pods in which immature ants grow to maturity) for grain or had observed ants carrying bits of grain, leaves, and other matter to their nests.<\/p>\n<p>At least three species of grain-storing ants are now known—two occur in Israel and the other in Mediterranean countries. The particular species referred to by Solomon (Prv 6:6-8; 30:24-25) is probably the harvester ant <em>(Messor semirufus).<\/em> Its granaries are flat chambers connected by galleries irregularly scattered over an area about six feet (1.8 meters) in diameter and about a foot (.3 meter) deep in the ground. Seeds are collected from the ground or picked from plants. The head, or radicle, which is the softest part of the kernel, is bitten off to prevent germination, and the chaff and empty capsules are discarded on kitchen middens (refuse piles) outside the nest. Individual granaries may be 5 inches (12.7 centimeters) in diameter and a half inch (1.2 centimeters) high. Some nests are known to be 40 feet (12 meters) in diameter and 6 to 7 feet (approx. 2 meters) deep with several entrances.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Antelope\">Antelope<\/p>\n<p>Several antelope-like creatures are referred to in the Scriptures. One seems to be the white oryx <em>(Oryx leucoryx),<\/em> referred to in Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild ox”; <span>rsv<\/span> “antelope”) and Isaiah 51:20 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild bull”; <span>RSV <\/span>“antelope”). The oryx was probably the antelope, commonly used for food because its long horns made it relatively easy to catch.<\/p>\n<p>Another antelope mentioned in the Bible is the addax <em>(Addax nasomaculatus),<\/em> probably the “pygarg” of Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span>). It is a native of North Africa with grayish white hinder parts, a white patch on the forehead, and twisted and ringed horns. The word “pygarg” comes from a Greek word meaning “white rump.” The addax is about the size of a donkey. Its body is closely covered with short hair. It has a short mane on the underside of its neck that makes the head look somewhat like that of a goat. The hooves are broad and flat, and the tail resembles that of a donkey. It is common in Africa and in Arabia, where Arabs hunt it with falcons and dogs.<\/p>\n<p>Antelopes are very graceful and run with their heads held high. Both sexes have long, permanent, hollow horns. With the oryx the horns go straight back; addax horns are twisted and ringed. Antelope are alert, wary, and keen sighted. They are usually found in herds of from two to a dozen. If injured or brought to bay, an antelope attacks with its head lowered so that the sharp horns point forward. Antelopes feed on grasses and shrubs, drinking from streams and water holes. When water is scarce, they eat melons and succulent bulbs. Both addax and oryx were ceremonially clean in Jewish law.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ape\">Ape<\/p>\n<p>Primate not native to Palestine. The two references to apes in the OT (1 Kgs 10:22; 2 Chr 9:21) refer to their importation by King Solomon with other treasures on board the ships of his mercantile fleet. There is some question concerning the origin of those primates. Some believe that the mention of “ivory” in the same verses suggests they came from East Africa and that they were indeed apes, that is, tailless primates. Others, believing they came from India or Ceylon, suggest that they were actually monkeys. There the baboon (genus Papeio), a large monkey, was considered sacred to the god Thoth. Males of that genus were kept in temples, and the more docile females were often kept as house pets. Such baboons frequently had some of their teeth removed or ground down to lessen the danger of their biting. A number of mummified baboons have been found in Egypt, indicating the high regard in which they were held.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Asp\">Asp<\/p>\n<p>Poisonous snake. Most biblical references to the asp (Dt 32:33) seem to be to the Egyptian cobra <em>(Naja haje),<\/em> which conceals itself in holes, walls, and rocks and has the ability to expand its neck by raising its anterior ribs so as to enlarge the front of its breast into the shape of a flat disc. Its potent poison can cause death in 30 minutes. It attains a length of about 80 inches (2 meters). The fangs are permanently erect, not movable as in the vipers (the common poisonous snakes of North America; only the coral snake in America has permanently erect fangs). Cobra poison attacks the nervous system, causing muscular paralysis. The Egyptians looked upon it as a sacred creature; they regarded it as a protector since it fed on the rodents that ate their crops. The “fiery serpents” (Nm 21:6; Dt 8:15, both <span>rsv<\/span>) may have been cobras; “fiery” probably refers to the burning fever caused by their venom. Isaiah 14:29 and 30:6 (“flying serpent”) may refer to the hood of the cobra.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ass\">Ass<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Donkey (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Badger\">Badger<\/p>\n<p>Small hoofed mammal. What the <span>kjv<\/span> calls a “coney,” modern translations name “rock badger” (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7; Ps 104:18; Prv 30:26). The rock badger spoken of in the Bible is probably the Syrian rock hyrax <em>(Hyrax syriaca),<\/em> the only species of hyrax found outside Africa. This small ungulate (having hooflike toenails) lives among rocks from the Dead Sea valley to Mt Hermon. It is strictly a herbivorous (plant-eating) animal about the size of a rabbit. It resembles a guinea pig more than a rabbit, having quite inconspicuous ears and a very small tail. It has broad nails with four toes on its forelegs and three on its hind legs, the toes being connected with skin almost like a web. Pads acting as sucking discs under its feet enable it to keep its footing on slippery rocks. With its yellow and brown fur, it is sometimes called the bear rat because of its resemblance to a tailless rat. It is also equipped with black whiskers that may be seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p>These rock badgers, or hyraxes, live together in colonies of from 6 to 50 animals, often sunning themselves on rocks. They are difficult to catch. Guards are posted, and if approaching danger is sighted, the whole group will scurry for cover, warned by the sharp whistles of the guards. Thus they are commended for taking refuge in the rocks (Ps 104:18) and are called wise for making “their houses in the rocks” (Prv 30:24, 26, <span>kjv<\/span>). The badger is not a ruminant (does not chew its cud), but the motion of its jaws may suggest that it chews its cud. That is probably why it was included with other cud-chewing animals in the Jewish food laws (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7). It was forbidden to the Jews as food because it did not have cloven hooves. Some Arabs eat and even prize its meat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bat\">Bat<\/p>\n<p>Flying mammals according to modern classification. They have hair and provide milk for their young. The Bible classifies them with other aerial creatures. Bats take shelter in caves, crevices, tree cavities, buildings, and also in exposed places on trees. In colder areas they hibernate or migrate. The normal resting position for a bat is hanging head downward. Bats “swim” through the air rather than fly because they move with their legs as well as with their wings.<\/p>\n<p>The bat’s thumb is free and terminates in a single hook claw used for climbing and hanging. The hind feet have five toes, all pointing the same way. The large chest accommodates the powerful muscles needed for flying. Because they orient themselves by echo location, the sense of hearing is very well developed.<\/p>\n<p>Most bats are insect eaters, seizing insects in flight. Many insectivorous bats also eat some fruit. Other bats feed exclusively, usually in groups, on fruit and green vegetation. Fruit-eating bats generally live in the tropics where fruit is constantly ripening, although some have been found in the Holy Land. These bats tend to be larger than the insectivores, having a wingspread of up to five feet (1.5 meters).<\/p>\n<p>A third group includes flower-eating bats that feed on pollen and nectar. These small bats with long pointed heads and long tongues are found only in tropical and semitropical regions. Three species of vampire bats, which do not occur in the Holy Land, eat blood by making a small incision and lapping it up. Carnivorous (meat-eating) bats prey on birds, lizards, and frogs. Fish-eating bats catch fish at or near the water surface.<\/p>\n<p>Eight varieties of bats are known in the Holy Land. One of them, the little brown bat (genus <em>Myotis<\/em>), is worldwide in its distribution. It is insectivorous and probably has the widest distribution of any nonhuman terrestrial mammal. Brown bats are mostly cave dwellers. The females form maternity colonies that may number in the tens of thousands.<\/p>\n<p>Two species of mouse-tailed bats (genus <em>Rhinopoma<\/em>) are found in the Holy Land. Their tails are nearly as long as the head and body combined. They are colonial, roosting in caves, rock clefts, wells, pyramids, palaces, and houses. Like the brown bat, they are insectivorous. The slit-faced or hollow-faced bats (genus <em>Nycteris<\/em>) are also found in the Holy Land. They are insectivorous and roost in groups from 6 to 20.<\/p>\n<p>The bats found in the Holy Land vary in size from that of a mouse to the size of a rat; the largest species measures more than 20 inches (51 centimeters) across the wings. The bat was unclean to the Jews (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bear\">Bear<\/p>\n<p>Large, heavy, big-headed mammal with short, powerful limbs, a short tail, and small eyes and ears. Bears have a “plantigrade” walk: they walk on both the sole and heel as humans do. The Palestinian bear is a Syrian version of the brown bear <em>(Ursus arctos syriacus).<\/em> It can grow to a height of 6 feet (1.8 meters) and may weigh as much as 500 pounds (227 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>Bears have an excellent sense of smell but less developed senses of sight and hearing. They are omnivorous (eating any kind of food); they subsist largely on vegetation, fruits, insects, and fish.<\/p>\n<p>Bears are usually peaceful and inoffensive, but if they think they must defend themselves (Lam 3:10) or their young (2 Sm 17:8; Prv 17:12; Hos 13:8), they may be formidable and dangerous adversaries. David boasted of his role as a bear killer (1 Sm 17:34-37). Since a blow from a bear’s paw can be fatal, David’s courage and strength as a young shepherd in running after a bear and wrenching one of his father’s sheep from its jaws were noteworthy.<\/p>\n<p>Some biblical passages seem to imply that bears attacked for no apparent reason (e.g., Prv 28:15; Am 5:19). At other times they were God’s instruments of punishment, as in the story of Elisha and the two she-bears (2 Kgs 2:24). The bear and the lion, often mentioned together in the Bible (1 Sm 17:37), were the two largest and strongest beasts of prey in the Holy Land. Thus they symbolized both strength and terror (Am 5:19).<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times bears seem to have roamed all over Palestine. Today they are found only in the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Mountains, and even there they are rare.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bee\">Bee<\/p>\n<p>One of two domesticated insects <em>(Apis mellifica),<\/em> the other being the silkworm. Bees gather nectar from flowers, transferring pollen from one flower to another in the process. It is believed that they convey the location of sources of nectar to other bees through a bee “dance,” which may indicate both distance and direction. Bees are sensitive to four colors: blue-green, yellow-green, blue-violet, and ultra-violet (invisible to humans).<\/p>\n<p>The wild bees of the Holy Land are especially noted for their ferocity in attack. Only the female “worker” bees sting people and animals, the virulence of their venom increasing in warm weather. A number of biblical passages allude to the irritable, vindictive nature of bees and to the painful stings they inflict (Dt 1:44; Ps 118:12; Is 7:18).<\/p>\n<p>One reference calls attention to the fact that in semidesert regions a dead animal’s carcass, stripped to the bone by jackals or vultures and dried in the sun, can provide wild bees an excellent place to start a new colony (Jgs 14:5-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptians considered the bee sacred. In ancient Greece candles were made from beeswax. In the Holy Land, beekeeping was probably not practiced until the Hellenistic period (second century <span>BC<\/span>), although Ezekiel 27:17 suggests that it may have been practiced earlier. If domestic honey was not available to the Hebrews, wild honey certainly was, and travelers would be on the lookout for caches of honey in rocky clefts and other likely places. The Philistines and the Hittites practiced beekeeping in their cities.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible contains many references to bees and bee products. A bee swarm was a valuable asset, though the price of honey itself was low. Honey was sometimes eaten with the honeycomb (Sg 5:1). Honey also had uses other than food, e.g., in embalming.<\/p>\n<p>The land of Israel was described as a land flowing with milk and honey. Honey was a major source of sweetening in the ancient Near East—hence, its importance (cf. Jgs 14:8-9). Actually the Hebrew word for “honey” may include not only bee honey but also the sweet syrup extracted from such fruits as figs, dates, and grapes. Thus “a land flowing with milk and honey” (Ex 3:8, <span>rsv<\/span>) does not necessarily stand for a land of bees but for a land rich in sweetness.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Food and Food Preparation; Honey.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Behemoth\">Behemoth<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Hippopotamus (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Camel\">Camel<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of burden. Unintelligent, ill-natured, and quarrelsome, the camel <em>(Camelus dromedarius)<\/em> is nevertheless a blessing to people living in the desert and on its borders because it is especially adapted to that habitat. It has been called the ship of the desert. Having thick elastic pads of fibrous tissue on its feet, it can walk on hot desert sands. It can go without water for long periods and can subsist on vegetation growing on the saline soils. The camel’s nostrils are pinched together and can be closed at will to prevent penetration of sand during violent sandstorms.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are used for transporting both goods and people. A person riding a camel can cover from 60 to 75 miles (96.5 to 121 kilometers) in a day. A camel can carry a load weighing 600 pounds (272 kilograms) or more. Camels were used heavily in the spice trade (Gn 37:25) and traveled regularly in camel trains between Arabia, Egypt, and Assyria. They were also ridden in time of war (Jgs 6:5). A camel can even be hitched to a plow in areas where the land is cultivated.<\/p>\n<p>The hair shed by camels during the early spring is preserved and used in weaving cloth and making tents. As much as 10 pounds (4.5 kilograms) of hair can be obtained from one camel. A rough cloak of camel’s hair, as worn by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4), is still worn by Bedouins today. A camel’s hair garment was also the sign of the prophetic office (Zec 13:4).<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of camel occur within the one-humped species, the slow burden-bearing camel referred to in Genesis 37:25 and the fast dromedary of 1 Samuel 30:17. The dromedary can stand seven feet (2.1 meters) tall and measure as much as nine feet (2.7 meters) from the muzzle to the tip of the tail. With its three-chambered stomach, which can hold from 15 to 30 quarts (14.2 to 28.4 liters) of liquid, it can go for as long as 5 days during the summer or 25 days in winter without drinking. The camel’s hump is a reserve store of fat, making it possible for the animal to subsist on very little food during a desert journey.<\/p>\n<p>Another species of camel, the Bactrian camel <em>(Camelus bactrianus),<\/em> is also resident in the Holy Land. It has two humps. It is heavier, bigger, and has longer hair than the one-humped camel and is slower than the swift dromedary. Isaiah 21:7 may refer to the Bactrian camel; both kinds of camel are referred to in Esther 8:10 (<span>kjv<\/span>). Camels ranked in importance with sheep, cattle, and asses in OT times. A third of the 66 biblical references to the camel lists it with other animals.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are ruminants (cud-chewing mammals) but do not have cloven hooves. Thus, they were included in the list of unclean beasts, forbidden by the Israelites as food (Lv 11:4; Dt 14:7). They are eaten by Arabs, however, who also drink their milk (cf. Gn 32:15).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham had camels in Egypt (Gn 12:16). At first Job had 3,000 camels (Jb 1:3) and after his recovery, 6,000 (Jb 42:12). Although wide use of camels does not seem to have begun until shortly before 1000 <span>BC<\/span> (Jgs 6:5), Sumerian texts from the Old Babylonian period list camels and indicate that they had been domesticated. Camel bones and figurines have been found at various eastern archaeological sites dating from well before 1200 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Caterpillar\">Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>Larval stage of insects characterized by complete metamorphosis. Such insects pass through four stages: egg, larva or caterpillar, pupa, and adult. Bees, flies, moths, and butterflies all pass through a larval or caterpillar stage.<\/p>\n<p>The word “caterpillar” occurs three times in the <span>nlt<\/span> (1 Kgs 8:37; 2 Chr 6:28; Ps 78:46). In the book of Joel that same Hebrew word is translated “locust” (1:4; 2:25, <span>nlt<\/span>). The locust and grasshopper to which the Hebrew word refers have an incomplete type of metamorphosis with only three stages: egg, nymph, and adult. The nymph is a miniature adult in which the wings are not fully developed, though their outline may be present. There are several nymph stages known as instars. The reference is to one of the last instars, in which the wing structures are still folded together and enclosed in a sac but are nevertheless clearly recognizable. That form of the insect is about an inch (2.5 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cattle\">Cattle<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animals of the bovine species <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> The OT often emphasized the beauty of cattle. Egypt was rich in cattle, especially in the Nile River delta area (Goshen), where the Hebrews settled under Joseph.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars believe that milk rather than meat was the foremost consideration in the domestication of cattle and that in early civilizations meat supplies came chiefly from wild game. Cattle also supplied strong hides that supplanted wood in the manufacture of shields. Their dung was a source of fuel when wood was scarce (Ez 4:15). They were used as beasts of burden and for plowing. Development of wheeled transportation was associated more closely with cattle than with any other animal.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical term “cattle” often refers to all domesticated animals or livestock (Gn 1:24; 2:20; 7:23; 47:6, 16-17; Ex 9:3-7; Nm 3:41, 45). Occasionally, the term was used to refer to all large domestic animals (Nm 31:9; 32:26), although sometimes the word as used in the <span>kjv<\/span> refers only to sheep and goats (Gn 30:32, 39, 43; 31:8, 10; Is 7:25; 43:23).<\/p>\n<p>Probably several kinds of cattle were domesticated in the Holy Land. Small, short-legged, black or brown shorthorn cattle were found in the southern part of Judah; that type submitted easily to the yoke and was prominent in agricultural operations. Along the coast a larger variety was found, and the wild districts east of the Jordan River were populated with a breed of huge black cattle.<\/p>\n<p>Cattle breeding was widely practiced by the patriarchs (cf. Gn 32:15; Jb 21:10). Strict laws in Mesopotamia, as well as in Israel, penalized the owner of a bull that gored a man or other cattle (Ex 21:28-36). Bulls were sometimes employed figuratively as pictures of strength or violence (Dt 33:17; Pss 22:12; 68:30; Is 10:13). For breeding purposes one bull is normally adequate for about 30 cows, but many more were kept since bulls were widely used in Israel for sacrifices. They might be used as a general sacrifice (Lv 22:23; Nm 23:1) or for special sacrifices (Jgs 6:25; 1 Sm 1:24). Particular sacrifices were offered at the consecration of priests (Ex 29:1), consecration of an altar (Nm 7), purification of the Levites (Nm 8), sin offerings (Lv 16), day of the new moon (Nm 28:11-14), Passover (Nm 28:19), Feast of Weeks (Nm 28:27), Feast of Trumpets (Nm 29:1-2), Day of Atonement (Nm 29:7-9), and the Feast of Tabernacles (Nm 29:12-38). The Feast of Tabernacles required the largest number of bulls for burnt offerings of all the annual feasts, with a total of 71 being slaughtered during the course of eight days.<\/p>\n<p>Calves were sometimes referred to as “sons of the herd” in the original Hebrew (Gn 18:8; 1 Sm 6:7; 14:32). The calf, a symbol of peacefulness (Is 11:6), was also used figuratively to refer to the weak (Ps 68:30). A calf’s head decorated the back of Solomon’s throne (1 Kgs 10:19). Calves were sometimes fattened in stalls to keep them from running off weight in the field (Am 6:4; Mal 4:2; Lk 15:23) or were kept around the house; the witch of Endor kept a calf in her house that she killed and served to Saul and his men (1 Sm 28:24-25). Calves supplied veal (Gn 18:7), considered a delicacy by the wealthy; Amos referred to stall-fattened calves in a denunciation of luxurious and careless living (Am 6:4). Calves also supplied meat for all Saul’s armies at the great slaughter of the Philistines (1 Sm 14:32). The “fatted calf” served roasted or boiled was gourmet fare, suitable for the finest banquet (Gn 18:7; Mt 22:4; Lk 15:23).<\/p>\n<p>Cattle were subject to the law of firstlings (Ex 13:12). They were a mark of wealth (Gn 13:2) and were considered proper booty of war (Jos 8:2). Aaron, the first high priest, made a golden calf as a rival to the ark of the covenant (Ex 32; Dt 9:16, 21). Even though he represented the calf as an image of the invisible God, it was especially offensive because the calf was a fertility symbol related to Egyptian and Canaanite practices. Two calves were later made by Jeroboam I of Israel (930–909 <span>BC<\/span>) for his shrines at Bethel and Dan (1 Kgs 12:28-33). Hosea’s prophetic denunciations of calf worship were directed at those shrines (Hos 8:5-6; 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>An ox is an adult castrated bull. A steer is a young ox. Oxen were used to do work (Nm 7:3; Dt 22:10; 25:4), though for moving heavy objects, cows were typically favored over bulls because of their more docile nature. Oxen were also used as pack animals (1 Chr 12:40, although they did not have the endurance of the ass, camel, or mule. They usually fed on grass (Nm 22:4; Ps 106:20), but they also ate straw (Is 11:7) and salted fodder (Is 30:24) and could be kept in a stable (Lk 13:15). Oxen could not be offered as sacrifices because they had been castrated (Lv 22:24). They could be used for food but were rarely eaten. Possession of an ox and an ass was regarded as the bare minimum for existence in the ancient Palestinian agriculture economy (Jb 24:3; cf. Ex 20:17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Agriculture; Food and Food Preparation; Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chameleon\">Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>Lizard characterized by its ability to change color according to its surroundings <em>(Chameleon vulgaris).<\/em> To the Israelites the chameleon was ritually unclean (Lv 11:30). The Hebrew word for chameleon is derived from a word meaning “to pant.” A lizard’s lungs are very large, and in ancient times lizards were believed to live on air. A chameleon’s eyes move independently of each other; so at times one eye may be turned upward and the other downward. Chameleons live in trees and bushes, clinging to branches with their long tails.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Coral\">Coral<\/p>\n<p>Calcareous (lime-containing) skeletons of relatively simple marine organisms <em>(Corallium rubrum).<\/em> Red coral from the Mediterranean and Red Seas is widely used for jewelry and for medicinal purposes. While the animal is alive, the coral is green in color and shrublike in appearance, looking rather like an underwater plant since the coral animals are immobil. When the coral is removed from the water, it becomes hard and red in color.<\/p>\n<p>In ancient times coral was sometimes used as money, along with precious stones, pearls, and gold. Some believe the biblical reference in Lamentations 4:7 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is to pearls rather than to coral, but it is probable that the references in Job 28:18 and Ezekiel 27:16 are to the red coral (see <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cricket\">Cricket<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the order Orthptera related to grasshoppers and locusts. According to Leviticus 11:22, the cricket was edible. The reference may be to one of the growth stages of the locust.<\/p>\n<p>The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word as “beetle.” Beetles are insects with chewing mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the fore pair being hard and sheathlike and the hind pair being membranous and folded under the fore pair. Some beetles are carnivorous, others are chiefly herbivorous. Some are aquatic, some produce a secretion that blisters the skin, some damage fabrics, some damage crops, and some feed on other insects that are harmful to humans. In ancient Egypt the beetle, or sacred scarab, was a symbol of the sun god Ra. Scarab seals and amulets were extremely popular in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Crocodile\">Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all existing reptiles <em>(Crocodilus vulgaris),<\/em> attaining a length of well over 20 feet (6 meters). Crocodiles are characterized by large lizardlike bodies supported by short legs. The head terminates in a flattened snout armed with strong conical teeth, each of which is implanted in a distinct socket. New teeth growing from beneath continually replace those in use. The toes are webbed. The back and tail are protected by quadrangular horny shields of varying sizes arranged in regular rows and in contact with one another at the edges. The eyes are covered with movable lids that can be closed when the animal enters the water.<\/p>\n<p>The crocodile spends most of its time in the water where it feeds mainly on fish but also on aquatic birds and even small animals that come down to the water’s edge to drink. It is surprisingly fast and agile on dry land, even though its legs are so short that its belly and tail drag across the earth leaving a distinct path.<\/p>\n<p>Until the beginning of the 20th century, the crocodile was found in the marshes and small coastal rivers of western Palestine. A first-century Roman writer, Pliny, referred to a place in the Holy Land called Crocodeilopolis (“crocodile city”) to the south of Mt Carmel, and visitors to the Holy Land as late as the 19th century reported seeing crocodiles in that general region.<\/p>\n<p>The description of “Leviathan” in Job 41 seems to be based on the crocodile (thus the translation of the <span>nlt<\/span>). The “dragon” of Ezekiel 29:3, used figuratively of the Egyptian pharaoh, may be a reference to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Deer\">Deer<\/p>\n<p>Large ruminant (cud-chewing) animals. Only the males have antlers (branching horns). Deer antlers grow annually and are solid, in contrast to those of the antelope and the gazelle. Fully developed antlers are devoid of any covering of skin or horn and, for all practical purposes, may be regarded as a mass of dead bone carried for a certain time by the living animal.<\/p>\n<p>The end of the deer’s muzzle is naked in all species. The stomach is divided into a series of compartments, some of which are used to store partly chewed food. The food is later regurgitated, rechewed, and finally swallowed into a section of the stomach where true digestion takes place.<\/p>\n<p>Three species of deer were known in Palestine: the red deer <em>(Cervus elaphus),<\/em> the Persian fallow deer <em>(Dama mesopotamica),<\/em> and the roe deer <em>(Capreolus capreolus).<\/em> All are now extinct there. The last deer were hunted in the Holy Land in 1914. The red deer referred to in the Bible as “hart” (male), “stag” (male), or “hind” (female) stood about four feet (1.2 meters) high at the shoulder. It was gregarious (living in herds or flocks), each group remaining in a definite territory. Red deer grazed and browsed during the morning and late afternoon (Lam 1:6). The sexes remained in separate herds. The red deer was known for its leaping (Is 35:6) and sure-footedness in the mountains (Ps 18:33; Sg 2:8-9, 17; 8:14; Hb 3:19).<\/p>\n<p>The antlers of the Persian fallow deer (1 Kgs 4:23) were large, flattened, and palmated (shaped like an open palm with fingers extended), and its coat was a yellowbrown. It traveled in small groups, feeding mainly on grass in the morning and evening.<\/p>\n<p>The roe deer (Dt 14:5; 1 Kgs 4:23) was a small, graceful animal, dark reddish brown in summer and yellowish gray in winter. Its antlers were about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and had three points. The roe deer preferred sparsely wooded valleys and the lower slopes of mountains, grazing in open grasslands. It usually associated in family groups made up of the doe and her offspring. They were shy, yet very curious. The roe deer barked like a dog when disturbed, and they were excellent swimmers.<\/p>\n<p>There is some question as to whether the roe deer is actually referred to in such passages as 1 Kings 4:23; references may be to the fallow deer, although that animal does not seem to have lived in the southern part of Palestine around the Sinai Desert because of its need for ample amounts of food and water. Fallow deer were found in northern Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The hart (the male red deer) was listed among the clean beasts that Jewish law permitted as food (Dt 12:15, 22; 14:5), but deer were not listed among the animals appropriate for sacrifice. The hind (female red deer) normally gave birth to one calf at a time, though twins were born with some degree of regularity (Jb 39:1; Ps 29:9, <span>kjv<\/span>; Jer 14:5). The gestation period was about 40 weeks. When it was about to give birth, the hind looked for a secure hiding place, preferably in the dense undergrowth of the forest where it could find natural protection for the tiny calf. During the first few days after birth, the mother never went far from her young. The fawn was able to stand on its own legs a few hours after birth. The solicitous care by the hind for her calf during the first days of its life is hinted at in a touching way in Jeremiah 14:4-5, where only a severe drought is said to drive the hind from her calf. Job 39:1-4 describes the calving of the hinds. The hind illustrated grace and charm (Gn 49:21; Prv 5:19), and its dark, gentle eyes and graceful limbs were used to describe the beauty of a woman (Prv 5:18-19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dog\">Dog<\/p>\n<p>Probably the earliest domesticated animal <em>(Canis familiaris),<\/em> used very early in hunting. The modern dog is believed to have come from the Indian wolf <em>(Canis lupus pallipes).<\/em> The dogs of biblical times probably looked like a modern German shepherd, with short pointed ears, a pointed nose, and a long tail.<\/p>\n<p>The dog was generally looked down upon in biblical times (Prv 26:11; 2 Pt 2:22). The biblical writers did not share modern sentiments about dogs being man’s best friends. The dog was pictured as a scavenger, haunting streets and dumps (Ex 22:31; 1 Kgs 22:38; Mt 15:26; Lk 16:21). Human corpses could become the spoil of dogs (2 Kgs 9:35-36). In general, dogs served the same function as vultures and other birds of prey. Most of the 41 references in the Scriptures to dogs show strong disfavor. Dogs were considered cowardly, filthy creatures.<\/p>\n<p>Dogs used in hunting occur in paintings in Egyptian tombs, and there is a reference to dogs herding sheep in Job 30:1. One good quality of dogs highly esteemed by the Israelites was watchfulness (Is 56:10). In general, however, in biblical times “dog” was a term of contempt (1 Sm 17:43; 2 Sm 16:9) and was used of overly submissive persons (2 Sm 9:8; 2 Kgs 8:13) and of evil persons (Is 56:10-11; Mt 7:6; Phil 3:2; Rv 22:15).<\/p>\n<p>Dogs, like pigs, were voracious and omnivorous (eating any kind of food). In response to a Gentile woman’s request that he heal her daughter, Jesus used the metaphor of throwing household food scraps to dogs (Mt 15:22-28; Mk 7:25-30). At the time of Jesus, the word “dog” was a standard Jewish term of contempt for Gentiles who, like dogs, were considered unclean, although the diminutive form of the word, used by Jesus, softened this considerably. Seeing her faith, Jesus granted the woman’s request, giving a non-Jew some of “the children’s bread.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Donkey\">Donkey<\/p>\n<p>Beast of burden. The donkey of the Holy Land <em>(Equus asinus)<\/em> was quite different from the European donkey of today, which is usually a small, stubborn animal. In biblical times the donkey was a beautiful, stately, friendly animal. Its color was usually reddish brown. Three wild races have been described, all from Africa. The race from northwest Africa is extinct; the one from northeast Africa, if not extinct, is close to extinction; the Somalian race, which survives, did not play an important part in domestication. The northeast African race, the Nubian donkey, was evidently domesticated in the Nile River region in early historic times. The donkey was used as a mount from the time of domestication on. It is first mentioned in the Bible among the animals that Abraham acquired in Egypt (Gn 12:16). The donkey was primarily a beast of burden, driven but not bridled. From the time of the Middle Kingdom on (c. 2040 <span>BC<\/span>), it was used for riding in Egypt, but only the Jews and Nubians rode donkeys regularly. The donkey was also used for threshing grain and for pulling the plow. In Arab countries today peasants plow with a donkey and a cow or camel hitched together. In Israel the law forbade plowing with a donkey and an ox hitched together (Dt 22:10). Until the time of Solomon (960 <span>BC<\/span>), horses were not used in Palestine. From that time on, the horse was ridden by warriors; the donkey was used by those who were traveling peaceably.<\/p>\n<p>The donkey was held in high regard by the Jews and was considered an economic asset. An individual had to have a donkey for minimum existence (Jb 24:3), and wealth was frequently counted by the number of donkeys one possessed (Gn 12:16; 24:35). The donkey was considered an acceptable gift (Gn 32:13-15). It was allowed to rest on the Sabbath (Dt 5:14). Women in biblical times often used the donkey as a riding animal (Jos 15:18; 1 Sm 25:23; 2 Kgs 4:24); often a special driver would help a woman guide the animal, running along at its side. If a married couple possessed only one donkey, the husband usually walked alongside while the wife rode (Ex 4:20).<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel returning from Babylon had ten times as many donkeys as horses and camels (Ezr 2:66-67; Neh 7:68-69). Job’s wealth was indicated by the fact that he had 500 she-donkeys before catastrophe hit him (Jb 1:3); after his recovery he had 1,000 donkeys (Jb 42:12). Joseph’s brothers used donkeys to transport the grain they purchased in Egypt (Gn 42:26; 43:24). Abigail transported food on donkeys to David and his troops during their conflict with Saul (1 Sm 25:18). David assigned one of the 12 managers of his royal estates to look after his donkeys exclusively (1 Chr 27:30).<\/p>\n<p>The onager, or Syrian wild donkey <em>(Equus hemionus hemihippus)<\/em>, is an intermediate between the true horse and the true donkey. Its ears are longer than those of a horse but shorter than those of a donkey. The front hooves are narrow; there are chestnuts (callouslike spots on the inside of the knees) on the front legs only, and the tail is short haired for a long distance from its root so that it appears to be tufted.<\/p>\n<p>The Sumerians (ancient Mesopotamians) were able to domesticate the onager, which was eventually replaced by the horse. It was used to draw chariots in Ur; a number of onagers were buried with their vehicles in a royal grave that dates from about 2500 <span>BC<\/span>. Later the wild onager was a favorite hunter’s prize for Babylonian and Assyrian kings.<\/p>\n<p>The onager was very common in the steppe lands near Israel, where it was described as a freedom-loving desert animal (Jb 24:5; 39:5-8; Ps 104:11; Is 32:14; Jer 2:24; Hos 8:9). Ishmael was described as “free and untamed as a wild donkey” (Gn 16:12, <span>nlt<\/span>)—that is, one who could not adjust to domestic life. Drought seems to have been responsible for the population decline of the onager in biblical times (Jer 14:6). The modern onager <em>(Equus hemionus onager)<\/em> is slightly larger than the Syrian wild donkey that is extinct.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dragon\">Dragon<\/p>\n<p>Any one of a number of monstrous land and sea creatures. In biblical usage, “dragon” does not refer to the huge, fire-breathing, winged reptile of European folklore. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> used the term to translate two Hebrew words that are usually rendered more precisely in modern translations. One word referred to desert animals; most scholars agree with the <span>niv<\/span> that “jackals” is its proper meaning (Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; Jer 9:11; Mal 1:3). <em>See<\/em> Jackal (below).<\/p>\n<p>The other Hebrew word translated “dragon” is harder to define. It was frequently used in reference to serpents (so translated in the <span>rsv<\/span>: Ex 7:9-12; Dt 32:33; Ps 91:13). In other <span>rsv<\/span> passages it is translated “sea monster” (Gn 1:21; Jb 7:12; Ps 148:7). The exact identity of such sea monsters is not known. Several <span>rsv<\/span> passages retain the English “dragon.” In two of them (Ps 74:13; Is 27:1), the context indicates that sea monsters are meant. In three others (Is 51:9; Ez 29:3; 32:2) “dragon” seems to refer to the crocodile, a figurative reference to the Egyptian pharaoh at the time of the exodus. Jeremiah 51:34 (translated “monster” in the <span>rsv<\/span>) may also refer to a voracious creature such as a crocodile. <em>See<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p>Babylonian myths described monsters and dragons in primordial conflict with the god Marduk; they represented the principle of evil. In its figurative usages in Scripture, “dragon” has a similar significance, especially in the prophetic books. In the book of Revelation it is a symbol of Satan, the archenemy of God and his people (Rv 12:3-17; 13:2, 4, 11; 16:13; 20:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fish\">Fish<\/p>\n<p>Aquatic animals frequently mentioned in the Bible without names or descriptions that enable us to identify the particular species. Since time immemorial, fish have constituted one of the staple foods of humanity, and they still serve as the chief source of protein in many parts of the world. The trade in fish was highly developed in biblical times. For example, one of the gates in Jerusalem was called the Fish Gate (Neh 3:3; Zep 1:10). The law in Leviticus 11:9-12 permitted the Jews to eat fish, but only those having both fins and scales. Scaleless fish such as catfish were forbidden, even though they had fins.<\/p>\n<p>Egyptian paintings depict various methods of fishing, and the Philistines fished in the Mediterranean Sea. Since the people of Israel were not a seafaring nation, it is safe to assume that most of their fish came from freshwater lakes and rivers, especially the Sea of Galilee. Some 36 species of fish have been identified in that lake, including varieties of perch, carp, barbel, “sardine,” and catfish.<\/p>\n<p>The method of fishing characteristic of NT times was the dragnet. After a boat had put out into the deep (Lk 5:4), a large net would be thrown out from it and then dragged toward shore by the rowers in the boat, possibly with the help of a crew in another boat. The catch was sorted out on shore (Mt 13:47-48). Fishing was usually carried out at night when the coolness of the water brought fish closer to the surface and when they could not see the approaching nets.<\/p>\n<p>The Jews also fished by hook and line (Mt 17:27), a few by spear (Jb 41:7), and some by the throw net (Ez 47:10). Habakkuk refers to hook-and-line fishing, netting, and seining (1:15).<\/p>\n<p>Very early in the history of the Christian church the fish became a symbol for Christ and the faith. It was scratched on the walls of Roman catacombs and may be seen today decorating walls, altars, pews, and vestments. The symbol came into use because the Greek word for “fish” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ichthus<\/span><em>)<\/em> is composed of the first letter of each word in the Greek phrase “Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior.” <em>See<\/em> Whale (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Flea\">Flea<\/p>\n<p>Tiny, irritating insect (1 Sm 24:14; 26:20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Many species of fleas occur in Palestine, the most common being <em>Pulex irritans.<\/em> About a thousand species are known around the world. Fleas are wingless parasites that have sharp jaws and suck out blood from the bodies of humans and animals. The body is wedge shaped, enabling the flea to burrow into folds of skin and hide there. The eggs, laid by the female in dust heaps in the corners of rooms, hatch into small, white larvae that pupate (a nonfeeding stage) in a cocoon. Soon adult fleas appear that immediately attach themselves to the body of a host. The female requires blood for the development of her eggs.<\/p>\n<p>A flea bite is painful and causes some swelling and itching. Fleas are attracted by warmth. With favorable moisture and temperature, adult fleas can live a year or longer without food, but they are voracious feeders. The most dangerous fleas are those of the rat that transmit the organism responsible for bubonic plague. There were 41 recorded epidemics of bubonic plague before the Christian era.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fly\">Fly<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the order Diptera, which have one pair of wings. Many winged insects of other orders, however, are also called flies, such as the dragonfly or butterfly.<\/p>\n<p>As in almost all parts of the world, flies are abundant in Palestine. One of the most numerous is the common housefly <em>(Musca domestica),<\/em> found chiefly around dung heaps and garbage. The female lays her eggs, out of which emerge white maggots that feed on refuse. After a few days the maggot develops into a cocoon out of which emerges the adult housefly. In the summer the whole cycle lasts about 12 days, so that a fly can breed about 20 generations a year.<\/p>\n<p>Another fly common to Palestine is the botfly (family Oestridae). It causes much discomfort among livestock by irritating them and spreading diseases. Tabanid flies (family Tabanidae), including the horsefly (genus <em>Tabanus<\/em>) and related species, are also found in Palestine. Both the botfly and horsefly are known as gadflies because of the persistent distress they inflict. Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar is spoken of as a gadfly in view of his invasion of Egypt (Jer 46:20).<\/p>\n<p>The fourth plague in Egypt just before the exodus featured “swarms of flies” (Ex 8:21-31, <span>nlt<\/span>; cf. Pss 78:45; 105:31). Those swarms may have been made up of any or all the flies mentioned above. The maggots mentioned in Job 25:6 and Isaiah 14:11 and the worms in Exodus 16:24 and Job 7:5 and 17:14 were probably fly larvae.<\/p>\n<p>A proverb quoted in Ecclesiastes 10:1 probably refers to the housefly, which would be attracted to an open, perfumed ointment bottle. Once inside it would drown and eventually decay, causing the ointment to spoil and stink. The fly is also referred to in Isaiah 7:18 where it symbolizes Egypt. Isaiah may have had in mind a horsefly <em>(Tabanus arenivagus)<\/em> that attacks both humans and animals.<\/p>\n<p>Philistine inhabitants of the city of Ekron worshiped a god named Baal-zebul, meaning “Lord of the high places.” The Hebrews mockingly spoke of Baal-zebub, meaning “Lord of the flies” (2 Kgs 1:2). The NT form is Beelzebub (e.g., Mt 10:25; 12:24, 27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fox\">Fox<\/p>\n<p>Small, doglike carnivore with a bushy tail that is about half its body length. The red fox of the Holy Land <em>(Vulpes palaetinae)<\/em> is similar to the North American red fox; it is smaller than a wolf and is normally a nocturnal solitary animal. The omnivorous fox eats almost any kind of food—fruits, plants, mice, beetles, and birds—but seldom touches carrion. It loves the sweet juice of grapes, but it also burrows underground tunnels that can destroy the vines (Sg 2:15). The fox is intelligent and known for its slyness (Lk 13:32). It has considerable endurance and can run at speeds up to 30 miles (48 kilometers) per hour. The Jews rebuilding Jerusalem’s wall were taunted by the wisecrack that even a fox jumping on their wall would knock it over (Neh 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptian fox <em>(Vulpes niloticus)<\/em> is found in the central and southern parts of the Holy Land. It is somewhat smaller than the common red fox. Its back is rust colored and its belly light. The Syrian fox <em>(Vulpes flavescens)<\/em> that lives in the northern part of the Holy Land is shiny gold in color.<\/p>\n<p>Some OT references such as Psalm 63:10 and Lamentations 5:18 are translated “fox” in the <span>kjv<\/span> but probably refer to jackals. Jackals, not foxes, hunt in packs and tend to act as scavengers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Frog\">Frog<\/p>\n<p>Amphibian (genus <em>Rana<\/em>), living part of its life in the water and part on land.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs and toads are covered with soft, hairless skin and lack a tail in the adult stage. The hind legs are much longer and more powerfully developed than the forelegs so that the animals are able to jump large distances. It has been suggested that the frog referred to in Scripture is an edible one, <em>Rana ridibunda,<\/em> one of the aquatic frogs found in Egypt and in the stagnant waters of the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The female frog lays her eggs in the water; after about a week the eggs hatch into tadpoles. Gradually through metamorphosis the tail is lost and limbs are acquired. Frogs must maintain a moist skin since they take oxygen through the skin as well as through their lungs; thus they must always remain close to water. They feed on insects and worms.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs are found throughout the Palestinian lowlands, where their croaking is heard in the spring and on summer evenings. The Israelites seem to have associated frogs primarily with sliminess and foulness. They fell into the category of creeping or swarming creatures, which in general were ritually unclean (Lv 11:29-31). Since the frog was not specifically listed, however, rabbis did not consider it one of the animals that defiled human beings through contact.<\/p>\n<p>In Revelation 16:13 certain foul spirits are said to look like frogs. The ancient Egyptians made the frog a symbol of life and birth and an image of Heqet, the patron goddess of birth. She is depicted with a frog’s head giving life to the newborn. Thus that deity was discredited when the power of God afflicted Egypt in the second of the ten plagues on the Egyptians with the very animal that was her symbol (Ex 8:1-14; Pss 78:45; 105:30). The frog in question may have been the spotted frog of Egypt <em>(Rana punctata,<\/em> or <em>Rana ridibunda).<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gazelle\">Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>Small, dainty, graceful antelope with hollow recurved horns on both sexes. Two varieties exist in the Holy Land, the dorcas gazelle <em>(Gazella dorcas),<\/em> which is pale fawn in color and up to 22 inches (56 centimeters) tall, and the Arabian gazelle <em>(Gazella arabica),<\/em> which is a dark smoky color and up to 25 inches (63.5 centimeters) tall.<\/p>\n<p>Gazelles are still quite common throughout the desert and steppe areas of the Holy Land, especially in the Negev Desert. Herds usually consist of from 5 to 10 animals, but some varieties assemble in large migratory herds in the fall to relocate to lower elevations and new feeding grounds. Gazelles are herbivorous (plant eating). They are very shy and post guards to warn the herd of approaching danger.<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times the gazelle was probably the game animal most hunted by the Jews (Prv 6:5; Is 13:14). Pharaoh Tutankhamen hunted gazelles and ostriches. The gazelle is said to have graced Solomon’s table (1 Kgs 4:23). Gazelles were not easy to catch because of their great speed (2 Sm 2:18; 1 Chr 12:8; Prv 6:5); they surpass the deer in swiftness. They were trapped in various ways—encircled with nets, driven into enclosures with pitfalls, or forced into narrow valleys and shot with arrows. The Bedouin hunt gazelle with falcons and dogs; the falcon annoys the gazelle, striking it on the head and injuring it so that the dogs can overtake it.<\/p>\n<p>The gazelle is referred to in Song of Songs 2:9, 17; 4:5; 7:3; 8:14, where it is an image of feminine beauty.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gecko\">Gecko<\/p>\n<p>Reptile of the family Gekkonidae, referred to in Leviticus 11:30. In Jewish food law it was a ritually unclean lizard. There are seven species of geckos in the Holy Land (including <em>Hemidactylus turcicus<\/em> and <em>Ptyodactylus hasselquistii,<\/em> all insectivorous—insect eating). The gecko makes a low mourning sound by vibrating its tongue rapidly against the roof of its mouth. In legend the gecko was said to cause leprosy by crawling across a person’s body.<\/p>\n<p>Another name for the gecko is the wall lizard, so named because it can walk upside down on ceilings with the aid of the suction discs on its toes—but it often plops down into the middle of the home. Since it was considered unclean, such an intrusion would have been a disgusting nuisance to Jewish households (Lv 11:31-38).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gnat\">Gnat<\/p>\n<p>Any very small fly, in common and biblical usage. According to the <span>nlt<\/span>, the third plague in Egypt before the exodus consisted of gnats (Ex 8:16-18; Ps 105:31). The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word there as “lice,” but the breeding pattern described in Exodus 8—insects rising from the dust—seems to fit gnats better than lice. Since “gnat” is a general term, the small flies of that plague may have included several small species such as mosquitos, harvester gnats, midges, or sand flies.<\/p>\n<p>The sand fly inflicts a far more painful bite than the mosquito. Further, it does not betray itself by a buzzing noise in flight and is so small that it penetrates most mosquito netting.<\/p>\n<p>Gnats were drawn to wine while it was fermenting. The Pharisees in particular would strain their wine to avoid consuming unclean insects (Mt 23:24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Goat\">Goat<\/p>\n<p>Cloven-hooved mammals (genus <em>Capra<\/em>) with large eyes and big, floppy ears that constantly twitch. Both males and females have backward arching horns. The Palestinian goat is a ruminant (cud-chewing animal) of lighter build than the sheep.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was probably the earliest ruminant to be domesticated. Its wild ancestor seems to have been the Gezoar goat <em>(Capra aegagrus).<\/em> Wild goats are believed to have been domesticated very early in Palestine. The goat of Bible times was probably the Syrian or Mamber variety <em>(Capra hircus mambrica).<\/em> Domesticated goats may have as many as four kids in a litter, whereas wild goats bear only one or two.<\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian goat was commonly black. Speckled and spotted goats were a rarity, and for that reason Jacob’s request for those goats in Genesis 30:32 appeared very modest. There may also have been red goats (cf. 1 Sm 16:12; 19:13, where goat’s hair was used to imitate David’s hair, which was “ruddy” or auburn).<\/p>\n<p>Almost every part of the goat was used by the Israelites. The whole goat was used for sacrifice. Its flesh served as meat (Lv 7:23; Dt 14:4), and it was the principal source of milk (Prv 27:27). Goats were sheared in the late spring, and the goat hair was used for weaving tent cloth and for various domestic purposes (Ex 36:14; 1 Sm 19:13, 16). The tabernacle at Mt Sinai was made of goat’s hair blankets (Ex 26:7).<\/p>\n<p>Adult male goats were generally not eaten because of their strong flavor and toughness and also because they were necessary to insure the flock’s increase. Young kids, however, were usually the chief meat for a feast and were offered to visitors as a symbol of hospitality. Goat milk is richer than the milk of cows and sheep and evidently had broader uses. A good goat gives three quarts of milk a day, from which a rich butter and buttermilk can be made. The average Hebrew family could have lived almost entirely on a single goat’s production.<\/p>\n<p>Goatskin was tanned as leather, and the whole hide was turned into a skin bottle by sewing shut leg and neck apertures (Gn 21:14; Jos 9:4). Goatskin had many uses, including the construction of Hebrew musical instruments. The nebal, a large harp, was made with goatskin for its base sound. Drums had goatskin coverings.<\/p>\n<p>Goats were herded with sheep in biblical times, but each group remained separate following its own bell-laden leader. Jesus was evidently referring to their common herding in his description of the Last Judgment (Mt 25:31-46).<\/p>\n<p>Because of their wool, sheep are valued more than goats. However, where pasture and water are scarce and thorny shrubs dominate over grass, sheep are difficult to keep and goats become important. They can live under conditions that suit neither cows nor sheep, producing large quantities of milk. The goat does not supply fat as the sheep does, and since its hair is coarse its wool is rather scarce. Goat-hair cloth called cilicium was used to make tents.<\/p>\n<p>Goats have voracious appetites. They also were responsible for much damage done to the land of Palestine, breaking down terraces, destroying forests, and bringing about soil erosion by eating off all cover.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was recognized as a form of wealth, subject to the law of firstlings (Nm 18:17). It had to be eight days old before it could be offered as a sacrifice. A year-old male goat was one of the animals offered at the Passover (28:22), and two goats were offered on the Day of Atonement (Lv 16:7-10). The goat was also used for other specific sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p>The ibex, a type of wild goat <em>(Capra ibex nubiana),<\/em> still lives in small numbers on the cliffs close to the Dead Sea. That it was known in ancient times is evident from rock carvings. It is distinguished from the true wild goat by having a more compact rump and horns that are slender and curved back. Its slender legs and sharp cloven hooves enable it to cling to narrow rock ledges, to jump between them, and to climb steep cliffs.<\/p>\n<p>Usually the ibex is found in rugged mountain country among rocky crags and meadows just below the snow line (Ps 104:18). In Job 39:1 they are referred to as “mountain goats.” They frequently gather in herds of 5 to 20. They graze and browse, being active in the afternoon and sometimes feeding through the night. The large horn of the ibex was at one period made into the shofar that was blown in the second Jerusalem temple to announce the new year and the jubilee year.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was often used in a figurative and symbolic sense by the writers of the Bible: in Song of Songs 4:1 and 6:5 for the bride’s black hair; in Matthew 25:31-46 for the wicked; and in Ezekiel 34:17 and Daniel 8:5-8 for various human leaders.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Grasshopper\">Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>Large insects of the Orthoptera order. They have chewing or biting mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the front pair of which is narrow and somewhat thickened and the hind pair membranous and used for flying. When not in use the flight wings are folded beneath the protective front wings like a fan against the body. By rubbing their wings together, male grasshoppers produce sounds that both males and females can detect. Grasshoppers pass through a partial metamorphosis; the egg hatches into a juvenile nymph that looks like an adult except for its smaller size and undeveloped wings. After several months the nymph becomes a winged adult.<\/p>\n<p>The terms “grasshopper” and “locust” are often used interchangeably. Actually the locust is a kind of grasshopper. Also confusing is the fact that other insects such as cicadas are sometimes called locusts. The difference between grasshoppers and locusts depends more on behavior than appearance. Grasshoppers are individual insects that lead solitary lives and do not migrate. The same insects when migrating in a swarm are called migratory grasshoppers or locusts. Elimination of their food supply by drought, flood, or fire may lead to migration. Climatic factors such as a warm dry winter also stimulate migrations.<\/p>\n<p>Grasshoppers and locusts have been a staple food in the Middle East and also among the Indians of the American Southwest. To the Israelites the grasshopper was considered ritually clean and could be eaten (Lv 11:22).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hare\">Hare<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the genus and species <em>Lepus europaeus judaeus, Lepus capensis,<\/em> and <em>Lepus arabicus.<\/em> It is found in open country, often near or on cultivated lands, and in woods, usually deciduous rather than evergreen. It is an herbivorous rodent and is different from the rabbit, which is not found in Palestine. Although it is not a true ruminant according to modern classification (because it does not have a four-chambered stomach), the hare does rechew its food. It has a process of partial regurgitation of material too hard for the cells in the stomach to absorb initially; thus, the hare actually chews food previously swallowed.<\/p>\n<p>Near Eastern hares have very long ears and large hind feet; their feet are well furred. They are similar to American jackrabbits, which are true hares. Hares do not dig or occupy burrows the way rabbits do. Hares are mainly nocturnal and spend their inactive hours hiding in vegetation. They eat grasses and herbaceous matter as well as twigs and young bark of woody plants. Hares breed with great rapidity—the young attaining sexual maturity at six months after birth.<\/p>\n<p>The hare was ceremonially unclean (Lv 11:6; Dt 14:7), evidently because although it appeared to chew its cud, it did not have cloven hooves. Consumption of hares has also been forbidden among the Arabs, Chinese, and Lapps, but the hare was widely hunted by other people in ancient and modern times. Its great speed, prolific breeding, timidity, and caution have saved it from extermination by its many enemies.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hippopotamus\">Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of problematic interpretation. Some early interpreters thought it referred to the elephant, others to the wild ox, the mammoth, or any large animal. It was called “behemoth” by the <span>kjv<\/span> translators. Today it is generally agreed that the reference is to the hippopotamus <em>(Hippopotamus amphibius),<\/em> a large, thick-skinned, amphibious mammal, an ungulate (having hooflike toenails) with a large head, a bulky, hairless body, and short legs.<\/p>\n<p>The description in Job 40:15-24 fits closely the modern hippopotamus (see <span>nlt<\/span>), except for the depiction of the tail. At present the hippopotamus is found only in the rivers of Africa, but there is fossil evidence that it has existed in the Holy Land, perhaps in the swamps of northern Galilee and the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\n<p>The hippopotamus has highly developed sense organs, placed in such a way that it can see, hear, and smell almost without being seen; its eyes, ears, and nostrils can reach above water while the rest of the animal lies submerged. It has a large mouth, large tusks, and a short, heavy throat. The strong legs are so short that the belly almost reaches the ground when the animal is on the land. The hippopotamus lives on plants and herbs growing in rivers, but if food is scarce there, it forages on land, usually at night. In spite of its heavy body it is surprisingly agile on land.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Horse\">Horse<\/p>\n<p>Przewalski’s horse (<em>Equus przewalskii,<\/em> an eastern race that roamed about Mongolia until modern firearms destroyed most of them after World War I) and the tarpan (a western race of southern Russia that became extinct in the Ukraine in 1851). The domesticated horse <em>(Equus caballus)<\/em> seems to have been derived from the tarpan. The original site of domestication is believed to have been Turkestan, a region north of Afghanistan and India, now in Russia. The horse differs from the donkey in that it has shorter ears, a longer mane with a forelock, a long hairy tail, and a soft, sensitive muzzle.<\/p>\n<p>Horses were used in war not only for riding but also for pulling the heavy, springless war chariots. Two kinds of horses were needed for these different purposes, and the Hebrews distinguished between chariot horses and cavalry horses.<\/p>\n\n<p>The Lord warned the early Israelites against unnecessarily amassing military strength in the form of horses and thereby following the oppressive tactics of the powerful Egyptians (Dt 17:14-16), but the demands of war caused both David and Solomon to import horses from Egypt into their kingdoms and to breed them. Solomon greatly increased the number of horses in the Jewish kingdom and maintained large stables at various cities (1 Kgs 10:26) such as the regional defense centers of Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer (1 Kgs 9:15-19). Ahab’s horses are mentioned in 1 Kings 18:5, and records of Shalmaneser III state that Ahab furnished 2,000 chariots to a coalition against Assyria.<\/p>\n<p>In early Israel, the horse was opposed as a symbol of pagan luxury and of dependence on physical power for defense (Dt 17:16; 1 Sm 8:11; Ps 20:7; Is 31:1). Horse trading, mentioned as early as Genesis 47:17, was carried on by Solomon between Egypt and the Syro-Hittite principalities (1 Kgs 10:28-29). Most biblical references to horses refer to their use in war, but horses were also used for transportation. Riding seems to have been less popular than the use of chariots. Cavalry units were not introduced until the 12th century <span>BC<\/span> by the Medes. Joseph rode in Pharaoh’s second horse-drawn chariot (Gn 41:43), and Absalom made a display by riding a horse-drawn chariot (2 Sm 15:1). Naaman traveled by horse and chariot (2 Kgs 5:9). Later, horses were so common in Jerusalem that the royal palace had a special horse gate (2 Chr 23:15), and a gate of the city itself was known as the Horse Gate (Neh 3:28; Jer 31:40). Mordecai rode a royal horse of King Xerxes as a sign of honor (Est 6:8-11). Horses are often spoken of figuratively (Ps 32:9; “mare,” Sg 1:9; “stallions,” Jer 5:8; 12:5), especially in the context of judgment (Hb 3:8; Zec 1:8; 6:1-8; Rv 6:2-8; 9:17; 19:11-16).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Warfare; Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyena\">Hyena<\/p>\n<p>Stocky carnivore <em>(Hyaena hyaena)<\/em> with coarse hair, an erect mane, and long hairs along the neck and back. Hyenas live in holes among rocks and banks. They are mainly nocturnal but are ordinarily neither noisy nor aggressive. Their cry, however, is a disagreeable, unearthly sound. Hyenas usually feed on carrion, crushing bones with their powerful jaws. If the carrion supply is inadequate, they will kill sheep, goats, or other small animals. When threatened, hyenas growl and erect their mane, but they rarely fight. They are massively built with forelegs longer than the hind legs.<\/p>\n<p>Known as scavengers in Africa, hyenas eat domestic refuse in the villages. In Palestine the striped hyena is a common predator, preferring rocky territory and even rock tombs. Since hyenas were notorious for raiding the graves of the dead, all Israelites who could afford it arranged for burial in tombs protected by massive stone doors. Absalom, King David’s son who was killed by Joab in the wild, was buried under a huge pile of stones to protect his corpse from molestation by hyenas (2 Sm 18:17).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Jackal\">Jackal<\/p>\n<p>Carnivore <em>(Canis aureus)<\/em> smaller than the true wolf and with a shorter tail. It is similar to the fox but has a broader head, shorter ears, and longer legs. The fox is solitary; the jackal tends to be gregarious. Its tail can be drooping or erect, compared with the long horizontal tail of the fox. Jackals usually prowl at night, either singly, in pairs, or in packs through open savannah country. They eat small mammals, poultry, fruit, vegetables, and carrion. They spend their days in thickets and clumps of vegetation. Often they obtain scraps from kills by larger carnivores. Jackals can run at speeds of about 33 miles (53 kilometers) per hour.<\/p>\n<p>The jackal can reach a height of about 20 inches (51 centimeters), roughly the size of a German shepherd dog. Its back is pale yellow with dark, almost black, flanks. Its lips are black and its ears white on the inside. The howl of the jackal sounds like the crying of a child or the heartrending wail of the bereaved (Mi 1:8; cf. Jb 30:29). To other jackals the howl is merely an invitation calling the pack together for its nocturnal hunting.<\/p>\n<p>OT references are chiefly to jackals prowling around ruined cities and wilderness areas (Neh 2:13; Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; 34:13; 35:7; Jer 9:11; 14:6; 49:33; 51:37; Lam 4:3; 5:18; Mal 1:3). Many such references are translated “dragon” in the <span>kjv<\/span>, but “jackal” is more appropriate.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leech\">Leech<\/p>\n<p>Segmented worm (class Hirundinea) up to five inches (12.7 centimeters) long with a flat body equipped with suction pads at each end. The mouth, located at the bottom of the front suction pad, has three teeth that the leech uses to pierce the skin of its host. The leech feeds on blood, and its glands secrete an anticoagulant to prevent the blood from clotting. The ordinary medicinal leech (Hirudo medicinalis) is abundant in springs and ponds from the Negev Desert to Galilee. It adheres to the bodies of human beings and animals that submerge themselves in water, injects its anticoagulant, and sucks their blood.<\/p>\n<p>The reference in Proverbs 30:15 is uncertain (see <span>nlt<\/span>) but may be to the parasitic and greedy nature of the horse leech (genus <em>Haemopis<\/em>). The small horse leech enters its host’s mouth and nostrils from water while the animal is drinking. A leech weighing one-half ounce (14.2 grams) has been known to gorge itself with two and a half ounces (71 grams) of concentrated blood and then to exist for 15 months with no more to eat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leopard\">Leopard<\/p>\n<p>Called <em>Panthera pardus tulliana,<\/em> it is the most widespread of all the large wildcats. In rocky areas it lives in caves, but in forested regions it lives in thick vegetation. In OT times many lived in the vicinity of Mt Hermon (Sg 4:8).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is somewhat smaller than the tiger, measuring up to 5 feet (1.5 meters) in length with a tail of about 30 inches (.8 meter). Its body is better proportioned than that of the tiger. The leopard takes its victim by surprise from a silent ambush, often concealing itself near villages or watering places and waiting for its prey, remaining in one spot for long spans of time. The leopard is swift on the ground (Hb 1:8), agile in trees, and very graceful in its movements. Its color is yellowish speckled with black spots (Jer 13:23). Daniel and John saw visions in which leopards were symbols of world powers (Dn 7:6; Rv 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is a wary and cunning animal, formidable and ferocious (Jer 5:6; Hos 13:7; cf. Is 11:6). The leopard is dangerous not only to domestic animals but also to humans. With its natural camouflage it can hide on the forest floor, blending into the changing light and shadows. The Israelites were terrified of the leopard because it constantly ravaged their sheep and goats. Several biblical place names suggest that they were known for the leopards in their vicinity: Nimrah, Beth-nimrah, and Nimrim, a district northeast of the Dead Sea. It has survived in the Holy Land into the present century; a few leopards still exist in remote areas near Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leviathan\">Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>Sea monster mentioned several times in the Bible (Pss 74:14; 104:26; Is 27:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). It may refer to any of the larger marine animals such as large jellyfish, whales, or sharks, or to a large reptile like the crocodile. Some scholars think “Leviathan” may refer to animals now extinct, such as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs (marine reptiles similar to dinosaurs). The scriptural term might also refer to certain dinosaurs that spent part of their lives half-submerged in shallow lakes and oceans. Other scholars believe that most of the references are to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lion\">Lion<\/p>\n<p>Large, tawny-colored carnivore <em>(Panthera leo)<\/em> that preys chiefly on hoofed mammals and charges by a series of leaps and bounds. Within historic times the lion ranged in Africa, Europe, and the Holy Land. In ancient times the territories of the African and Persian lions met in the Middle East. The lion of the Holy Land was the Asiatic or Persian lion <em>(Panthera leo persica).<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The males have heavy manes that stop at the shoulders but cover much of the chest. The Persian lion cannot climb and is mainly nocturnal, returning to its lair or a thicket by day (Jer 4:7; 25:38; Na 2:11-12). This lion is about 5 feet (1.5 meters) long with a tasseled tail 30 inches (.8 meter) or so long; its shoulders may reach a height of 35 inches (.9 meter). It is one of the smallest of the lion breeds.<\/p>\n<p>Lions are usually found in pairs, though sometimes in larger numbers. A small group is known as a pride. They generally prefer open country but in Palestine evidently prowled the subtropical vegetation of the Jordan River valley. Lions, which usually hunt at dusk, kill smaller animals by a blow of the paw, larger ones by a bite in the throat. A lion does not remain in the same place for more than a few days. The animal is in its prime at about seven years of age, when it weighs from 400 to 600 pounds (181.6 to 272.4 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>The lion does not characteristically attack humans, though like other great cats it may become a man-eater (1 Kgs 13:24-28; 20:36; 2 Kgs 17:25-26; Ps 57:4; Dn 6:7-27). Ordinarily, it attacks only out of great hunger or in self-defense. A very young lion that attacks humans can become dangerous if it develops a taste for human flesh. A very old lion, expelled from the pride because it can no longer keep up in the pursuit of antelope or gazelles, may choose humans as a relatively slow-moving prey.<\/p>\n<p>A lion generally roars only on a full stomach—that is, after it has consumed its prey (Ps 22:13; Ez 22:25; Am 3:4). Nevertheless, its roaring arouses fear (Am 3:8; 1 Pt 5:8). The lion is a bold (2 Sm 17:10; Prv 28:1), destructive animal (Ps 7:2; Jer 2:30; Hos 5:14; Mi 5:8), and the enemy of flocks (Am 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>Lions were common in biblical times in all parts of the Holy Land. Hebrew has at least seven words for lion and young lion. The lion is referred to about 130 times in the OT—more than any other wild animal. Lions were evidently much less common in NT times. After gradually declining, they became extinct in Palestine shortly after <span>AD<\/span> 1300. The lion was present in Mesopotamia, however, until the end of the 19th century.<\/p>\n<p>Lions played an important part in the political and religious symbolism of the Near East (1 Kgs 10:19-20). In Assyria and Babylonia the lion was regarded as a royal beast (Dn 7:4). Oriental monarchs maintained artificial lion pits as places of execution (Ez 19:1-9; Dn 6:7-16). Animals for these were captured in camouflaged nets or pits. To the Jews, the lion was the mightiest of beasts (Prv 30:29-31). Thus, it symbolized leadership (Gn 49:9-10; Nm 24:9) and hence eventually became a title for Christ (Rv 5:5). It was also the ensign of Judah’s tribe and was used by King Solomon in the decoration of his house and the temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lizard\">Lizard<\/p>\n<p>Reptiles of the suborder Lacertilia. Their skin is covered with scales. The lizard is a useful creature because it captures harmful insects and worms. Like other reptiles, it lays eggs with shells softer than those of a bird and with no clear division between the yolk and the white. Lizards are “cold-blooded” organisms without a temperature-maintenance mechanism; hence, they become inactive in cold weather.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards can survive in barren parched countryside. In the Near East they are encountered in great numbers in the Arabian Desert, the Sinai Peninsula, and the Judean wilderness. There may be as many as 44 different species of lizards in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The Dabb lizard (genus <em>Uromastyx<\/em>), which attains a length of about 24 inches (61 centimeters), is found in the Negev Desert. It is omnivorous, an unusual trait since most lizards are insectivorous. It has a hard, rough skin, green with brown spots; a short, rounded head; and a powerful tail encircled with a row of strong spines that it uses as a weapon of defense.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards are listed as ceremonially unclean in Jewish law (Lv 11:29-31). The fact that lizards crawl on their bellies made them unclean. Contact with a lizard’s carcass defiled a law-abiding Jew (Lv 11:32-36). The <span>nlt<\/span> translates the “lizards” of Leviticus 11 as “great lizard,” “gecko,” “monitor lizard,” “sand lizard,” and “chameleon.” The monitor lizard is a large lizard that lives in the deserts of southern Palestine, Sinai, and Egypt. It is up to 55 inches (1.4 meters) long with a long snout and sharp teeth. Other translators and commentators render the original Hebrew in a wide variety of ways, including “tortoise,” “ferret,” “lizard,” “snail,” “mole,” and even “water hen.” The fact that most of the original Hebrew words occur only once in Scripture makes it very difficult to be certain about their appropriate translation.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Gecko (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Locust\">Locust<\/p>\n<p>An insect of the family <em>Acridiidae.<\/em> It is referred to by at least 12 different names in Scripture. The various Hebrew words may refer to different stages of its development from larva to adult or to the type of damage that it causes. Locusts are characterized by swarming and mass migration. In modern times they have caused extensive and disastrous destruction to vegetation. Grasshoppers do not swarm or migrate en masse, differentiating them from the true locusts.<\/p>\n<p>The OT mentions several different species of locusts. Leviticus 11:22 seems to refer to the slant-faced (bald) locust and also to the katydid, or long-horned grasshopper. The reference in Deuteronomy 28:42 may be to the mole cricket. In Joel 1:4 and 2:25 and in Nahum 3:16-17, successive stages of the insect’s development are described. The cutting locust (<span>kjv<\/span> “palmerworm”) of Joel is probably the first instar (stage of development), the swarming locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “locust”) are middle stages, and the hopping locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “cankerworm”) later instars but not yet fully matured insects. In the adult stage, called destroying locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “caterpillar”), the color of the locust is reddish brown, which turns to yellow with a brownish network on the wings.<\/p>\n<p>Only three of the hundreds of varieties of locusts found in Bible lands are capable of multiplying into great swarms, and only the desert locust <em>(Schistocerca gergaria)<\/em> can be considered widespread in all the Bible lands. The desert locust is native to the Sudan (Africa). It is a little over two inches (5 centimeters) long and has a wingspread of some five inches (12.7 centimeters). It shows two phases, a solitary phase and a gregarious phase, with a possible third phase known as transiens. There are differences in the immature and adult forms of the phases in color and physiology.<\/p>\n<p>The quantity and distribution of rains are important factors in the extent of swarming. Moist soil is needed for depositing the eggs and permitting them to develop. Each female deposits from one to six egg pods, containing 28 to 146 eggs each. The larvae emerge in 15 to 43 days.<\/p>\n<p>In the gregarious phase (from the second stage of metamorphosis onward), the locust is driven by a strong wandering instinct. Masses of them form a random procession of overflowing locust bodies that ignore any obstruction. They swarm over everything (Jl 2:4-9). The only regulator of their activities is temperature; they are immobilized by high or low temperatures. Taking to wing they may move 1,200 miles (1,930.8 kilometers) from their native home. They fly in compact formations large enough to blot out the light of the sun. Their movement seems to be controlled by hormones, but the direction is influenced by the wind. The swarms consume almost every plant in their path, sparing only the carob, sycamore, castor tree, and oleander bush.<\/p>\n<p>A locust plague was one of the most severe evils to come upon the ancient world (Dt 28:38). Joel 2:1-11 describes a locust plague in graphic terms, using it as a symbol of God’s destroying judgment. Special days of prayer, fasting, and trumpet blowing were prescribed to remove locust plagues (1 Kgs 8:37-38; 2 Chr 6:28-29; Jl 2:12-17). Locusts symbolized powerful and merciless enemies that completely destroyed the earnings of human toil (Jgs 6:5; Is 33:4; Jer 46:23; 51:27; Na 3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Bedouins eat locusts raw, roasted, or boiled, preserving them by drying and threading. They are also crushed and ground, and the grist used in cooking or eaten with bread, sometimes mixed with honey and dates. Such was the diet of John the Baptist (Mk 1:6). The Greeks ground locusts in stone mortars to make flour of them.<\/p>\n<p>The ancients considered the two large hind legs, or jumping legs, as separate limbs and had a special name for them. Hence locusts were described as having four legs, a reference to the four smaller walking legs. “Going on all fours” thus referred to creeping or walking as opposed to jumping and did not mean that the unclean insects had only four legs in all. Because of its two hind jumping legs, the locust was exempted from the prohibition against unclean insects (Lv 11:20-23).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mole\">Mole<\/p>\n<p>Rodent <em>(Spalax ehrenbergi)<\/em> from six to nine inches (15 to 23 centimeters) long, which burrows in any area where the soil is suitable for digging; it should be called a mole rat. Common in the Holy Land, large numbers are found in the vicinity of Jerusalem. Isaiah 2:20 refers to the mole, as does Leviticus 11:29-30 (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The mole rat has no tail and is molelike in appearance, but neither true moles nor shrews have ever been found in the Holy Land. The mole rat’s teeth are strong and protruding like those of a squirrel. The neck is short and thick with a plump body shaped like a sausage. The short legs have broad paws with claws adapted for burrowing. The fur is soft, thick, and ashen gray. Its ears and almost sightless eyes, which are no larger than poppyseeds, are hidden in the fur. Folklore taught that touching a mole rat would result in blindness.<\/p>\n<p>In the wet winter season the mole rat builds breeding mounds resembling those of pocket gophers. It builds less complex resting mounds in the summer, although both have rather elaborate tunnel systems. The mole rat feeds on roots, bulbs, tubers, and various other subterranean plant parts, often doing extensive damage to agriculture.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Moth\">Moth<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the genus <em>Tineola<\/em> that lays its eggs on wool or furs, its larvae feeding on those materials. The destructive qualities of moths are referred to in several biblical passages (Jb 13:28; Ps 39:11; Is 50:9; Hos 5:12; Mt 6:19-20; Lk 12:33; Jas 5:2). In Isaiah 51:8 “worm” (<span>nlt<\/span>) refers specifically to the larva of the clothes moth. The moth symbolizes disintegration, decay, and weakening. It is only the larvae that do the damage. The adult is quite harmless and feeds mainly on the nectar of flowers. It is easily crushed (Jb 4:19). The clothes moth reproduces in May or June. It enters human dwellings in the evening. A week after the eggs are laid the larvae appear and immediately begin their work of destruction, eating anything within reach made of animal fibers.<\/p>\n<p>The moth’s destructive activity is done in secret without any sound and without any dramatic appearance, such as a swarm that blots out the sun. In an age when wealth was counted more in possessions than in money, and when among those possessions wool clothing was highly valued, moths could literally cause economic disaster; hence the words of Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount (Mt 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p>There are hundreds of species of moths other than the clothes moth in the Holy Land; they are harmless to leaves, flowers, fruit, trees, and seeds. As with the clothes moth, the larvae inflict the damage.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mouse\">Mouse<\/p>\n<p>Rodent of the family Muridae, especially genus <em>Mus.<\/em> The mouse was regarded as unclean because, being short legged, it was considered one of the creeping creatures (Lv 11:29). Mice known as commensals live in dwellings and tend to have longer tails and to be darker in color than wild mice, which are active chiefly at night. Mice are good climbers and even good swimmers. Wild mice eat many kinds of vegetation, including seeds, fleshy roots, leaves, and stems. At times they store food.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word for “mouse” (Lv 11:29; 1 Sm 6:4-5; Is 66:17) is probably a general term for various rats and mice. The root meaning of the Hebrew word “mouse” is “destruction of corn,” a reference to the damage mice do to field crops. At least 23 varieties of mouselike rodents are known in the Holy Land. They cause food spoilage, damage household articles, and transport the host fleas that spread typhus, spotted fever, and bubonic plague. Plague bacteria may have caused the tumors or swellings among the Philistines (1 Sm 6:5). Isaiah 66:17 refers to a pre-exilic Canaanite cultic practice in which mice were eaten; the reference may actually be to the hamster. A number of rodents are eaten by Arabs of the Near East; the gerbil is considered a special delicacy. <em>See<\/em> Mole (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mule\">Mule<\/p>\n<p>Hybrid offspring of a male ass and a female horse <em>(Equus asinus mulus),<\/em> ordinarily sterile. The offspring of a female donkey and a stallion (male horse) is known as a hinny and is of little value because of its inferior size.<\/p>\n<p>Because crossbreeding was forbidden in the law (Lv 19:19), the Israelites procured mules from the Gentiles, perhaps from the Phoenicians, since Tyre (a Phoenician seaport in what is now southern Lebanon) imported horses and mules (Ez 27:14). Mules did not appear in Israel until David’s reign (2 Sm 13:29), possibly because of the rarity of horses among the Hebrews. Mules were used chiefly by members of the royal court and by other nobles. King David rode on a mule, and Solomon rode to his inaugaration on King David’s mule (1 Kgs 1:33). Absalom met his death riding on a mule (2 Sm 18:9). Mules were less common than horses, camels, and asses in the postexilic community (Ezr 2:66). In antiquity Asia Minor was especially noted for breeding fine mules.<\/p>\n<p>Mules have long enjoyed a reputation for obstinacy, but that trait is not mentioned in the Bible. The mule is prized for riding and for carrying heavy burdens, especially in warm mountainous regions. They are sure-footed and thrive best in hot, dry climates. The mule has the frugality, endurance, and steady gait of an ass along with the size, strength, swiftness, and courage of a horse. Mules are almost never sick. They live longer than horses. They can carry a load of up to 300 pounds (136 kilograms) as far as 30 miles (48.3 kilometers) a day.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pig\">Pig<\/p>\n<p>Most properly, newborn swine. “Swine” is technically the better name for the species, but it is rarely used in common speech today. The domestic pigs of the Middle East derived from the wild pig <em>(Sus scrofa).<\/em> The pig is the most prolific and abundant supplier of meat and fat for food. A thick layer of fat just under the skin is especially pronounced in domestic breeds. Pigs cannot be driven, so they are of value only to the settled farmer. The Hebrews were originally a nomadic people; therefore, they had little use for an animal closely associated with settled life. An Egyptian prince of about 1500 <span>BC<\/span>, however, is recorded as owning a herd of 1,500 swine.<\/p>\n<p>The pig is clumsily built, yet lively and able to move with agility and speed. The most conspicuous characteristic of the pig is a truncated, mobile snout terminating in a disc-shaped surface on which the nostrils are located. Most pigs have large tusks in both jaws which grow continuously in life. The tusks of the upper jaw are unique in that they curve upward instead of pointing downward as in most animals. The excrement of a pig has an almost unbearable odor, which clings not only to the pig itself but also to swineherds, who can be identified a long way off.<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were never raised in the Holy Land by Jews. The great herd into which Jesus drove the unclean spirits was encountered in the land of the Gadarenes, a non-Jewish area east of the Jordan. The Gadarene demons took refuge in a herd of pigs feeding on a bluff overlooking the Sea of Galilee (Mt 8:28-32).<\/p>\n<p>Wild pigs were found in the Holy Land as in many countries today. Psalm 80:13 refers to the destructiveness of a wild boar (the male, or hog) attacking growing crops. A party of wild boars can destroy an entire vineyard or a field of crops in a single night. They devour, trample, and ravage everything within reach.<\/p>\n<p>Boar hunts were common in ancient Mesopotamia. Wild boars do not attack unless molested, but they are dangerous when aroused. They travel in bands of from 6 to 50 and are most active in the evening and early morning hours. The body is covered with stiff bristles and usually some finer hair, but the body covering is often quite scanty. Wild pigs are mainly vegetarian, feeding on roots, nuts, grains, and plant stems. Wild boars were particularly abundant in the mountainous regions of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, in the Jordan River valley, and in wooded sections such as Mt Tabor.<\/p>\n<p>Strict Jews would not even mention swine by name but would always substitute the term “the abomination.” Israelites considered themselves polluted if they were even touched by a swine’s bristle. To the Jews, the pig symbolized filth and ugliness. Pigs will eat fecal material, vermin, rodents, carrion, and the like (2 Pt 2:22). Proverbs 11:22 refers to the incongruity of a golden ring in the nose of an animal showing such characteristics. A similar metaphor occurs in Jesus’ statement about casting pearls before swine (Mt 7:6). The prodigal son’s degeneration was shown by his being forced in his poverty to feed pigs and eat their food (Lk 15:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>Eating the flesh of pigs was forbidden to the Jews (Lv 11:7; Dt 14:8). The Canaanites in the Holy Land killed and ate pigs freely. In intertestamental times Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), a Syrian king whose territories included Israel, used the pig to “Hellenize” the Jews. He first tested their loyalty to the Jewish faith by requiring the consumption of pork, considered a delicacy by the Greeks (2 Macc 6:18). The act of desecration that drove the Jews to rebellion, however, was the sprinkling of pig blood on the temple altar in a sacrifice to Zeus (1 Macc 1:47).<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were frequently used in pagan worship (Is 65:4; 66:3, 17), which may account for their being forbidden to the Jews as food. Evidence in the Holy Land shows that pigs were sacrificed long before Hellenistic times. Pig bones were found in a grotto below the rock-cut place of sacrifice at Gezer. A similar underground chamber with vessels containing piglet bones at Tirzah dates to the middle Bronze Age (about 2000 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Alabaster fragments of a statuette of a pig ready to be sacrificed have been unearthed. Swine were sacrificed to Aphrodite (Venus) in Greece and Asia Minor. In addition, pigs were sacrificed in connection with oaths and treaties; in the <em>Iliad,<\/em> Agamemnon sacrificed a boar to Zeus and Helios. So it is not surprising that among the Jews the pig became a symbol of filthiness and paganism.<\/p>\n<p>It is possible that eating pork was forbidden primarily because the pig may carry many worm parasites such as trichina, though that is also true of some “clean” animals. Another reason for forbidding their consumption may have been that pigs eat carrion. Some people are allergic to pork in hot weather—another suggested reason behind the Jewish taboo. The same taboo exists among the Muslims and existed in certain social strata in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Porcupine\">Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>Rodent, <em>Hystrix cristata,<\/em> which lives in forested areas, rocky hills, ravines, and valleys. The porcupine is still found in the Holy Land today. It has long quills that can be raised to give the appearance of a crest. It is almost entirely nocturnal. It burrows by day into a natural cavity or crevice. The Old World porcupine rarely climbed trees, although the New World porcupine frequently does. A porcupine may weigh as much as 60 pounds (27.2 kilograms). It eats fruit, bark, roots, and other vegetation, and carrion as well. Although its flesh is edible, the porcupine was not classed among the clean animals for the Israelites. The reference in Isaiah 34:11 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is probably to the porcupine, as is Isaiah 14:23 in the <span>nlt<\/span>. <em>See<\/em> Hedgehog.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Scorpion\">Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>Arthropod of the same group as spiders (arachnids). A dozen species of scorpions (order Scorpionida) are found in the Holy Land, but 90 percent of the scorpions are yellow scorpions, usually three to five inches (7.6 to 12.7 centimeters) long. The rock scorpion, also common to the Holy Land, is as thick as a man’s finger and from five to seven inches (12.7 to 17.8 centimeters) in length. Scorpions are slow, nocturnal invertebrates that rest beneath stones by day and prey on insects and other arachnids by night. At the end of its long tail the scorpion carries a poisonous sting that is fatal to most prey and extremely painful to humans (Rv 9:3, 5, 10; cf. 1 Kgs 12:11, 14). Scorpions symbolize Ezekiel’s evil countrymen (Ez 2:6) and the demonic forces of Satan (Lk 10:19). The scorpion is referred to as frequenting the Sinai Desert (Dt 8:15).<\/p>\n<p>A scorpion has from six to eight eyes. It has eight legs like a spider and two lobsterlike claws with which it catches and holds its prey. It feeds particularly on locusts and beetles. In many species the female scorpion eats the male after mating. Scorpions lay eggs that hatch very shortly after laying. Scorpions prefer warmer climates, and because of their desire for warmth, enter houses, especially at night, hiding in beds, blankets, footwear, and clothing.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sheep\">Sheep<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animal, <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> referred to directly or by some term such as ewe, lamb, ram, or by some fact concerning them over 700 times in Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Sheep represented the chief wealth and total livelihood of pastoral peoples, providing food to eat, milk to drink, wool for the making of cloth, and hides and bones for other uses. In addition, the sheep was a medium of exchange and a sacrificial animal. The number of sheep raised in ancient times was prodigious. Mesha, king of Moab, paid a tribute annually of 100,000 lambs and the wool of 100,000 rams (2 Kgs 3:4). The Israelites took 250,000 sheep from the Hagrites (1 Chr 5:21).<\/p>\n<p>Sheep shearing was often done for festivals (2 Sm 13:23). The sheep was held down on its side and its legs were tied together; then it lay docilely while its wool was clipped (Is 53:7). Sheep reserved for burnt offerings were not shorn; nothing could be held back from a sacrifice to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Wool had to be processed before it could be used for clothing. First it was washed, sometimes while still on the sheep, then carded and perhaps weighed for the market. The spinning of wool was regarded as a woman’s work (Prv 31:19), but weaving the spun thread into cloth on a loom was primarily a man’s occupation.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible reports that Abel kept sheep (Gn 4:2). The first sheep to be domesticated was probably the argali <em>(Ovis ammon),<\/em> a variety of the urial <em>(Ovis vignei),<\/em> a mountainous species still existing in Turkestan and Mongolia. Five breeds had reached Mesopotamia by 2000 <span>BC<\/span>; all were of the urial stock.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep known in Israel was the broad-tailed sheep <em>(Ovis orientalis vignei<\/em> or <em>laticaudata),<\/em> of which the tail weighs from 10 to 15 pounds (4.5 to 6.8 kilograms) and has always been considered a delicacy. Thus the Lord asked for this choice part as a sacrifice (Ex 29:22-25).<\/p>\n<p>Only the ram of the broad-tailed sheep has horns, but in other varieties of sheep in the Holy Land the ewe also has horns. The horns, two to three inches (5 to 8 centimeters) in diameter, can be potent weapons. Rams’ horns could be used as trumpets (Jos 6:4) or as oil containers (1 Sm 16:1).<\/p>\n<p>Although the sheep is very similar to the goat, it is differentiated by a lower forehead, its angulated spiral horns marked with transverse wrinkles and curved slightly outward, its covering of wool, and its lack of a “goatee.” Most sheep are white (Ps 147:16; Is 1:18; Dn 7:9; Rv 1:14).<\/p>\n<p>The flesh of sheep was a luxury in the biblical culture. King Solomon required a daily provision of 100 sheep for his table (1 Kgs 4:23), but the common people ate lamb or mutton only on festive occasions. A young ram was usually chosen because the ewes were more important to the future prospects of the herd. The meat was boiled in large caldrons. The milk of the sheep is extremely rich; in biblical times it was usually allowed to curdle before drinking. Possibly some Israelites kept lambs in their houses as pets (2 Sm 12:3-4).<\/p>\n<p>To protect the flock at night against predatory attacks, the shepherd tried to provide a fold. In meadows near villages, folds were built and watchmen were hired to relieve the shepherds. The shepherds of the nativity story were out in the field (Lk 2:8); they had no fold but probably had set up a tent for shelter, consisting simply of goat-hair blankets spread across sapling supports. The scarcity of springs in the Holy Land made the watering of the flock a crucial problem for the shepherd (Gn 13:8-11).<\/p>\n<p>Wild mountain sheep, varieties of <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> are known in the Mediterranean area (Dt 14:5). The Deuteronomy passage (<span>kjv<\/span> “chamois”) might also refer to <em>Ovis traelaphus,<\/em> a sheep about five feet high (1.5 meters) with long, curved horns. Another possibility is the Barbary sheep that lives in small flocks in rugged mountain areas in Barbary, Egypt, and Mt Sinai. The true chamois is unknown in Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep is also used figuratively in Scripture. The ram represented great strength and fittingly symbolized Medo-Persia in Daniel’s vision (Dn 8:3). It is the nature of sheep to be gentle and submissive (Is 53:7; Jer 11:19), defenseless (Mi 5:8; Mt 10:16), and in constant need of guidance and care (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36). Such qualities are regarded as desirable in the lives of believers in Christ; hence the many figurative references to sheep in the NT and to Jesus as shepherd (Mk 6:34; Jn 10:1-30; Rom 8:35-37; Heb 13:20-21; 1 Pt 2:25). The resurrected Christ told the apostle Peter to “feed my lambs” and “tend my sheep” (Jn 21:15-17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snail\">Snail<\/p>\n<p>Invertebrate gastropods (mollusks). Land snails are very numerous in the Near East. Some freshwater forms serve as hosts for the schistosome worm, the fluke parasite causing the dread disease bilharzia (schistosomiasis).<\/p>\n<p>Purple dyes of all shades were highly valued in the ancient world. A royal purple dye was obtained from secretions of a sea snail <em>(Murex trunculus<\/em> and <em>Murex brandaris).<\/em> Evidently, that process was developed by Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Assyrians as early as 1500 <span>BC<\/span>. The “purple” fishermen had their own guild during the time of the Roman Empire. The snails were harvested during the fall and winter seasons; in the spring, when egg laying took place, little dye was available. The snails tended to remain concealed in the summer. They inhabited the waters off Crete and Phoenicia. Tyrian purple, produced in the Phoenician city of Tyre, the center of the purple-dye industry, was obtained by a double dyeing. Large deposits of murex shells from dyeing operations have been found along the Mediterranean shoreline. The Israelites had to import purple goods (Ez 27:16). Lydia was a “seller of purple” or of cloth so dyed (Acts 16:14). Purple was a sign of distinction, royalty, and wealth (cf. Ex 25:4; 28:5-6, 15; Nm 15:38; 2 Chr 2:7; Est 8:15; Prv 31:22; Sg 3:10; Ez 27:7; Dn 5:7).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 30:34-35 refers to “onycha,” which was an important ingredient of incense. Onycha is the horny, clawlike operculum (the plate that closes off the opening of its shell when a snail is retracted) of a Near Eastern member of the molluskan family Strombidae. The operculum is sometimes used for offense or locomotion as well as for defense. When burned, the operculum gives off a sharp, strong scent, and when mixed with more fragrant but less powerful substances is even more potent. The name “onycha” is derived from a Greek word <em>(onyx)<\/em> for a fingernail or a claw.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snake\">Snake<\/p>\n<p>Various species of snake, suborder Ophidia (Serpentes). In the Bible nine Hebrew words and four Greek ones refer to snakes. The most common Hebrew word is onomatopoeic—that is, it is an imitation of a snake hissing or of the sound it produces as it scrapes its scales along the ground (cf. Jer 46:22). Many types of snakes lay eggs (Is 59:5), although some retain the eggs in the body until ready to hatch.<\/p>\n<p>Snakes are among the most widespread reptiles and are found on all continents except Antarctica; they decrease in numbers and species toward the poles but increase as one approaches the equator. Thirty-three species of snakes are known in Palestine and neighboring countries, 20 of which are poisonous. Two dangerous characteristics of the snake noted by biblical writers are its inconspicuous way of moving and the ease with which it hides itself.<\/p>\n<p>Many snakes are able to swallow animals several times their own diameter because of their unusually flexible jaw mechanism. They lack not only legs but also movable eyelids. Snakes periodically shed their skins. The tongue is actually a hearing apparatus sensitive to airborne vibrations and probably to heat waves.<\/p>\n<p>The venom of poisonous species is a clear, thin secretion, transmitted to the victim’s bloodstream by means of fangs. Two types of venom are known: that of the vipers, which affects respiration and disintegrates red blood cells, and that of the cobras, which paralyzes the nervous system.<\/p>\n<p>The “asp” referred to in the Bible is probably the cobra; the “adder” is the viper. The “cockatrice” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is probably the adder. Serpents were associated with worship in Canaanite religion and symbolized evil deities among many other peoples. Steles (upright stones bearing inscriptions) have been unearthed at several sites in the Holy Land and Syria depicting a god or worshiper with a snake winding about the legs or body. Because the Israelites were burning incense in pagan worship of Moses’ bronze serpent (Nm 21:8-9), King Hezekiah destroyed it in his religious reform (2 Kgs 18:4).<\/p>\n<p>Although snakes have been an object of veneration in some religions, in the Judeo-Christian tradition snakes represent evil and, more specifically, the devil. That association began in the Garden of Eden (Gn 3:1-15) and is also found in the book of Revelation (12:9; 20:2-3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adder (above); Asp (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Spider\">Spider<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the order Araneida. Between 600 and 700 different species inhabit the Holy Land. Spiders are different from insects in that, like scorpions, they have four pairs of legs instead of three. Spiders are equipped with poison glands—the effectiveness varying from species to species. A few can kill only insects, but others can also kill birds and mice.<\/p>\n<p>Most spiders have a pair of spinnerets attached to silk glands on the underside of the abdomen; from them a web is extruded. In the Bible the spider’s web is referred to as a symbol of frailty and insecurity (Jb 8:14; Is 59:5-6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sponge\">Sponge<\/p>\n<p>Simple marine animals, phylum Porifera. The term “sponge” also refers to those animals’ skeletal remains. The sponge has a porous body composed of tubules and cells.<\/p>\n<p>Sponge fishing was well known in the Mediterranean area in ancient times. It was practiced particularly along the Anatolian and Syrian coasts. Sponges were harvested by divers. The use of sponges in absorbing liquids is referred to in the Bible (Mt 27:48; Mk 15:36).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Unicorn\">Unicorn<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Wild Ox (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wasp\">Wasp<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the family Vespidae. Hornets are social wasps that build large aerial apartment houses in which 1,000 or more individuals may live. In the Bible the hornet is used as a metaphor for God’s use of military forces (Ex 23:28; Dt 7:20; Jos 24:12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Whale\">Whale<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all living creatures, including those that have become extinct. Whales are air-breathing mammals of the order Cetacea.<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of whales visit the shores of the Holy Land at times. The finback whale <em>(Balaenoptera physalus)<\/em> weighs about 200 tons (181 metric tons) and lives mainly in the Arctic region but sometimes passes through the Straits of Gibraltar to reach the eastern Mediterranean Sea. It feeds on small marine organisms that it strains through its whale bone; it does not have teeth. The finback whale’s esophagus is narrow.<\/p>\n<p>The sperm whale <em>(Physeter catodon),<\/em> about 60 feet (18.3 meters) long, has a curiously shaped head that looks like a battering ram. The teeth in the lower jaw of the male sperm whale are about seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long. It feeds on big fish, even on sharks. It has a large throat opening.<\/p>\n<p>Whales are referred to in Genesis 1:21 and Job 7:12 (<span>kjv<\/span> only). The “great fish” of Jonah 2:1 need not have been a whale but could have been a large shark, such as the whale shark <em>(Rhineodon),<\/em> which grows 70 feet (21.3 meters) long and lacks the terrible teeth of other sharks. Whatever the actual marine organism, Jonah’s deliverance was miraculous. The Greek word for “whale” is sometimes used as a general term for “sea monster” or huge fish and may be used in that sense in Matthew 12:40.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WildOx\">Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>Large, fierce, fleet, intractable animal <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> It had a long, lean rump with a straight back and a long, narrow head. The animal described in Job 39:9-12 is clearly the wild ox. The two horns (Dt 33:17), its outstanding characteristic, were straight and as long as the head (Nm 23:22; 24:8; Ps 22:21). Kings often symbolized their dominion by wearing a helmet with two wild ox horns (cf. Pss 92:10; 132:17-18). The horns were often used as drinking vessels by the Israelites; some were large enough to hold four gallons (15 liters).<\/p>\n<p>Hunting the wild ox was a favorite sport of Assyrian kings. Tiglath-pileser I hunted it in the Lebanon Mountains about 1100 <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Ps 29:6). At one time the animal referred to in Job 39:9-12 was thought to be the oryx or antelope because of the similarity between the Hebrew word in Job and the Arabian name for oryx. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> called the wild ox a “unicorn” because of representations found on Babylonian mosaics and Egyptian drawings. Those representations showed it in strict profile, showing only one horn—hence, “unicorn.” Jerome’s Vulgate, a Latin Bible translation (fourth century <span>AD<\/span>) and Martin Luther’s German version translated it similarly.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wolf\">Wolf<\/p>\n<p>Large doglike mammal <em>(Canis lupus)<\/em> that travels in bands of up to 30 animals. From the nose to the rump, the wolf measures about 3 feet (.9 meter); its drooping tail is about 18 inches (.5 meter) long. It looks much like a skinny German shepherd dog. The grayish yellow pelt is coarse and short haired.<\/p>\n<p>Wolves hunt singly or in relays, usually at night (Jer 5:6). Wolves have acute hearing and sight but rely chiefly on scent and usually catch their prey in a swift, open chase. The wolf has a reputation for boldness, fierceness, and voracity (Gn 49:27; Hb 1:8). It commonly kills more than it can eat or drag away and thus is known for its greediness.<\/p>\n<p>The wolf is a restless animal, always on the move; hunger drives it from one place to another in constant search of new hunting grounds. During spring and fall, wolves usually roam singly or in pairs, whereas in summer they may travel in family groups. In winter, several such groups may join to form a large pack. Wolves are intelligent, social creatures, faithful to their own kind. They mate for life. Individually, the wolf is a rather timid animal; it would much rather avoid human beings. But collectively wolves can be among the most dangerous animals alive.<\/p>\n<p>In Egypt, Rome, and Greece the wolf was considered sacred. Wolves were well known in the Holy Land and are still found there and also in many places in Asia Minor. Shepherds continually battled with wolves that plundered their flocks (Jn 10:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible refers to wolves in a literal sense in only three places (Is 11:6; 65:25; Jn 10:12), all other references being figurative. Usually the wolf is a symbol of enemies or the wicked (e.g., Ez 22:27; Zep 3:3; Acts 20:29). Both the wolf’s courage and its cruelty were probably in the mind of the patriarch Jacob when he predicted the fate of Benjamin’s tribe (Gn 49:27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Worm\">Worm<\/p>\n<p>Actually insect larvae in most biblical references, usually maggots, the larvae of flies (see Fly, above). For example, maggots are evidently referred to in accounts of worms feeding on spoiled manna (Ex 16:19-20), corpses (Jb 21:26; Is 14:11), or open wounds (Jb 7:5). Mark 9:48 refers to a maggot that eats dead flesh. In Acts 12:23 a fatal, worm-induced abdominal disease of King Herod is mentioned. In other cases, the reference is to the larvae of other insects (Is 51:8). In Deuteronomy 28:39 and Jonah 4:7 the vine weevil <em>(Cochylis ambiguella)<\/em> is probably referred to; it destroys vines by boring into their stems. Comparing a man to a worm is a metaphor for abasement (Jb 25:6; Ps 22:6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ANIMALS In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals ...","summary_en":"ANIMALS In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals ...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":4062,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Beauty","title_en":"Beauty","content_ro":"<h3>BEAUTY<\/h3>\n<p>Harmonious combination of qualities pleasant to see. Archaeological materials indicate that the ancient Hebrews were concerned more with usefulness than with beauty. Hebrew pottery, for example, was generally more bulky than Canaanite pottery. Yet such artifacts do not mean that the Hebrews had no aesthetic appreciation.<\/p>\n<p>The OT speaks of God’s creation as beautiful (Gn 2:9; Jb 26:13; Ps 19:1-6; Sg 6:10). The land of Canaan is a “pleasant land” (Jer 3:19). Jerusalem is called “beautiful” (Is 52:1; Lam 2:15), as is one of its temple gates (Acts 3:2, 10). The Hebrews admired the wild grandeur of the Lebanon mountain range (Ps 104:16; Is 60:13). The Canaanite city of Tirzah (“beauty”), King Baasha’s capital in the northern kingdom (1 Kgs 15:33), was so named for its attractive location.<\/p>\n<p>Although the Hebrews did not exalt the human form as did the ancient Greeks, the OT does idealize physical attractiveness. A bride’s beauty is described eloquently by her bridegroom in love lyrics in Song of Songs 4:1-15; 6:4. Such praise of the bride may have been a traditional feature of Israelite weddings. Several women prominent in the OT are described as beautiful (Gn 29:17; 2 Sm 11:2; Est 2:7). But sensual beauty was secondary to industry, resourcefulness, and traditional piety in a woman (Prv 31:10-31). A number of men also were known for their physical attractiveness—for example, David (1 Sm 16:12) and Absalom (2 Sm 14:25). Cosmetics, jewelry, and other accessories were used as female beauty aids in OT times. The prophet Isaiah listed such items (Is 3:18-24), and Ezekiel mentioned cosmetic practices current in his day (Ez 16:10-13). Israelite worship was beautiful, too, with the high priest’s elaborate ceremonial robes designed for glory and beauty (Ex 28:2, 40).<\/p>\n<p>The concept of beauty is applied also to God in the OT. The Lord’s favor is called his “beauty” (Ps 90:17). Isaiah recorded God’s promise to give his people “beauty for ashes” (Is 61:3). The psalmist expressed a desire to spend time in the temple enjoying the Lord’s beauty, his “incomparable perfections” (Ps 27:4). Isaiah described God as a “diadem of beauty” to the faithful Israelite remnant (Is 28:5), and the Messiah was spoken of as a beautiful king (33:17). Thus in the OT the concept of beauty had a deeper meaning than simply physical attractiveness. It became a theological concept affirming God’s essential glory.<\/p>\n<p>The NT urges Christ’s followers to live lives that will “adorn” the teaching of the Savior, making it attractive to nonbelievers (Ti 2:10). Those who preach the gospel of Christ are spoken of as beautiful (Rom 10:15). The apostles Paul and Peter warned women against being satisfied with outward beauty (1 Tm 2:9-10), reminding them that beautiful character is the true adornment of godliness (1 Pt 3:3-5). The beauty of the believer’s final home in heaven is reflected in the description of the “new Jerusalem” as a bride and in the symbolism of treasured precious stones of antiquity (see Rv 21–22).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BEAUTY<\/h3>\n<p>Harmonious combination of qualities pleasant to see. Archaeological materials indicate that the ancient Hebrews were concerned more with usefulness than with beauty. Hebrew pottery, for example, was generally more bulky than Canaanite pottery. Yet such artifacts do not mean that the Hebrews had no aesthetic appreciation.<\/p>\n<p>The OT speaks of God’s creation as beautiful (Gn 2:9; Jb 26:13; Ps 19:1-6; Sg 6:10). The land of Canaan is a “pleasant land” (Jer 3:19). Jerusalem is called “beautiful” (Is 52:1; Lam 2:15), as is one of its temple gates (Acts 3:2, 10). The Hebrews admired the wild grandeur of the Lebanon mountain range (Ps 104:16; Is 60:13). The Canaanite city of Tirzah (“beauty”), King Baasha’s capital in the northern kingdom (1 Kgs 15:33), was so named for its attractive location.<\/p>\n<p>Although the Hebrews did not exalt the human form as did the ancient Greeks, the OT does idealize physical attractiveness. A bride’s beauty is described eloquently by her bridegroom in love lyrics in Song of Songs 4:1-15; 6:4. Such praise of the bride may have been a traditional feature of Israelite weddings. Several women prominent in the OT are described as beautiful (Gn 29:17; 2 Sm 11:2; Est 2:7). But sensual beauty was secondary to industry, resourcefulness, and traditional piety in a woman (Prv 31:10-31). A number of men also were known for their physical attractiveness—for example, David (1 Sm 16:12) and Absalom (2 Sm 14:25). Cosmetics, jewelry, and other accessories were used as female beauty aids in OT times. The prophet Isaiah listed such items (Is 3:18-24), and Ezekiel mentioned cosmetic practices current in his day (Ez 16:10-13). Israelite worship was beautiful, too, with the high priest’s elaborate ceremonial robes designed for glory and beauty (Ex 28:2, 40).<\/p>\n<p>The concept of beauty is applied also to God in the OT. The Lord’s favor is called his “beauty” (Ps 90:17). Isaiah recorded God’s promise to give his people “beauty for ashes” (Is 61:3). The psalmist expressed a desire to spend time in the temple enjoying the Lord’s beauty, his “incomparable perfections” (Ps 27:4). Isaiah described God as a “diadem of beauty” to the faithful Israelite remnant (Is 28:5), and the Messiah was spoken of as a beautiful king (33:17). Thus in the OT the concept of beauty had a deeper meaning than simply physical attractiveness. It became a theological concept affirming God’s essential glory.<\/p>\n<p>The NT urges Christ’s followers to live lives that will “adorn” the teaching of the Savior, making it attractive to nonbelievers (Ti 2:10). Those who preach the gospel of Christ are spoken of as beautiful (Rom 10:15). The apostles Paul and Peter warned women against being satisfied with outward beauty (1 Tm 2:9-10), reminding them that beautiful character is the true adornment of godliness (1 Pt 3:3-5). The beauty of the believer’s final home in heaven is reflected in the description of the “new Jerusalem” as a bride and in the symbolism of treasured precious stones of antiquity (see Rv 21–22).<\/p>","summary_ro":"BEAUTY Harmonious combination of qualities pleasant to see. Archaeological materials indicate that the ancient Hebrews were concerned more with usefulness than with beauty. Hebrew pottery, for example, was generally more bulky than Canaanite pottery. Yet such artifacts do not mean that the Hebrews had no aesthetic appreciation. The OT speaks of God’s creation as beautiful (Gn 2:9; Jb 26:13; Ps 19:1-6; Sg 6:10). The land of Canaan is a “pleasant land” (Jer 3:19). Jerusalem is called “beautiful...","summary_en":"BEAUTY Harmonious combination of qualities pleasant to see. Archaeological materials indicate that the ancient Hebrews were concerned more with usefulness than with beauty. Hebrew pottery, for example, was generally more bulky than Canaanite pottery. Yet such artifacts do not mean that the Hebrews had no aesthetic appreciation. The OT speaks of God’s creation as beautiful (Gn 2:9; Jb 26:13; Ps 19:1-6; Sg 6:10). The land of Canaan is a “pleasant land” (Jer 3:19). Jerusalem is called “beautiful...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"13":[{"id":21732,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"King","title_en":"King","content_ro":"<h3>KING<\/h3>\n<p>The word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">melek<\/span> (king) occurs more than 2,000 times in the Hebrew OT. It may refer to God (Ps 95:3) or to human rulers. Generally it designates one invested with ultimate authority and power over his subjects. In the OT, the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">melek<\/span> designates the ruler of a tribe (“the kings of Midian,” Nm 31:8), a city (Jericho, Ai; cf. Jos 12:9-24, where 31 kings of city-states conquered by the Israelites are listed), a nation (Israel, Judah, Ammon, Moab, Aram), or an international power (such as Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, or Persia). Other words may also refer to royalty. The Philistines introduced the title <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">seren<\/span> (lord) into Hebrew vocabulary. The five Philistine cities were ruled by five lords. Another word for an Israelite king is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nagid<\/span> (ruler). Both Saul and David were anointed as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nagid<\/span> over Israel (1 Sm 10:1; 16:13). In the NT and the Septuagint, the Greek version of the OT, the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileus<\/span> has a meaning similar to the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">melek<\/span><em>.<\/em> The NT <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileus<\/span> refers to secular rulers living in the first century, kings of Israel, rulers of the past, and the divine King, Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The phrase “King of kings,” attributed to Jesus (1 Tm 6:15), is a Hebrew expression meaning supreme or greatest king. For example, in Ezekiel’s prediction of the fall of Tyre, Nebuchadnezzar is named the “king of kings” (Ez 26:7). The great rulers of Assyria and Babylon introduced this title. Before their time, rulers were called either “king” or “great king,” as in 2 Kings 18:28: “Hear the word of the great king, the king of Assyria” (<span>rsv<\/span>). Later rulers had their titles adjusted to keep up with the expanse of their empires.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"KingshipinIsrael\">Kingship in Israel<\/p>\n<p>God chose Abraham as the father of nations; through him and his descendants the messianic rule would be established on earth. In his promises to Abraham, God repeatedly assured him that he would become the father of a mighty nation, to whom God would give the land of Canaan, and that kings would arise from his descendants (Gn 17:6). Abraham showed his acceptance of the rule of God over his family by obeying God’s command to be circumcised, which set the clan of Abraham apart for the service of God (vv 10-14). The ultimate purpose of God’s relation with Abraham and his descendants was that God would be King over Israel and that his people would show their acceptance of his rule by their faithful obedience to him (v 9).<\/p>\n<p>At the heart of the covenant was God’s expectation of loyalty to his rule. Abraham and his descendants were to exercise their God-given “rule” over the nations by living in fellowship with the great King. Thus the Lord reestablished his dominion over mankind. Through Abraham and his descendants, he would raise up a “royal nation” to whom the full privileges of rule over his creation would be restored.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord also made a covenant with Israel. This covenant was a sovereign administration of grace and promise by which the Lord consecrated the people unto himself by the sanctions of divine law and by his very presence. The nation, witnessing God’s care for them, had to learn that by their obedience to God’s expectations the theocratic kingdom might become a reality on earth. In the Sinaitic covenant the theocracy (the rule of God) was established. Israel was entrusted with the commandments, so that they might show themselves to be a theocratic nation, as God revealed to Moses: “Now if you will obey me and keep my covenant, you will be my own special treasure from among all the nations of the earth; for all the earth belongs to me. And you will be to me a kingdom of priests, my holy nation” (Ex 19:5-6, <span>nlt<\/span>). They were God’s elect for the sake of the nations; through Israel’s priestly obedience and intercession, the whole earth might know the Creator-Redeemer.<\/p>\n<p>The qualities of God’s kingship were power, glory, fidelity, wisdom, concern, service, delegation of power to man, blessing and protection, just rule, judgment, vindication, and deliverance. Israel’s kingship was to be no different from God’s. Their varied and sometimes complex laws taught Israel to distinguish between what was holy and common, clean and unclean, the ways of God and the ways of the nations. The ways of God enhanced love, fidelity, justice, peace, harmony, service, concern for others, wise living, defense of the needy, and judgment of the guilty. The ways of the kingdoms of the world all too often promoted selfishness, anarchy, despotism, and disregard for justice.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord also instituted an organizational structure designed to promote his theocratic purposes. In the wilderness Moses and the chosen leaders of Israel (Ex 18:19-26; Nm 11:24-25; cf. Dt 1:15-18) were God’s instruments for upholding his kingship in Israel. Upon Moses’ death, Joshua took over the theocratic rule. The Lord was with him as he had been with Moses, and all Israel recognized the continuity of God’s rule in Joshua’s leadership (Dt 34:9; Jos 3:7; 4:14). Like Moses had before his death, Joshua charged the leadership and Israel to persevere in the gracious covenant relationship (Jos 23–24). However, Israel perished because of its greed, immorality, strife, and idolatry. During the period of the judges, each one did what was right in his own eyes (Jgs 17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25). There was no king in the land in those days. The judges were military leaders whom the Lord raised up to deliver his people from their foreign oppressors. But God remained King, regardless of the fact that Israel lived as if he were not. The period of the judges demonstrated that apostate Israel, disobedient to their King, was unsuccessful in dealing with the surrounding nations.<\/p>\n<p>The theocratic leadership was restored to Israel by the ministry of Samuel. He was born into a Levitical family and served the Lord at the Shiloh tabernacle. He was called to be a prophet—an office which had not been filled since Moses’ death (1 Sm 3:20-21). He was recognized as a judge in Israel (7:15). In Samuel the offices of priest, prophet, and king were combined. He is never called king, as his lifestyle was that of a prophet rather than that of a ruler. The carefully calculated request of the people for a king was a rejection of Samuel’s ministry. The people were not satisfied with the spiritual, charismatic leadership of Samuel. In their search for a more dynamic leader they found in the kings of the surrounding nations attractive elements: power, manifestation of glory, and stability. Thus far the tribes had experienced several civil wars that endangered the unity of Israel. It was thought that a king would remedy all of the social and political problems. Though God had foreseen the days of the monarchy in the law (Dt 17:14-20), the people were motivated to introduce the kingship for secular rather than religious reasons: “Give us a king like all the other nations have” (1 Sm 8:5); “We want to be like the nations around us. Our king will govern us and lead us into battle” (v 20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Samuel never accepted the idea of kingship; it was foreign to the theocratic ideal.<\/p>\n<p>The crucial difference between kingship in Israel and kingship in neighboring lands lay in the fact that God endowed the king of Israel with his Spirit to establish his rule on earth. God ruled for his people, and his people benefited was from his rule; he was their provider, protector, and divine warrior.<\/p>\n<p>Samuel was instrumental in anointing Saul (a sad example of kingship) and David (a good example of kingly rule under God). Saul’s kingship revealed a despotic, uncaring attitude and self-aggrandizement. He was intent on establishing his dynasty, while not caring sufficiently for the people of God. Therefore, the Lord rejected his kingship (1 Sm 15:23).<\/p>\n<p>David’s kingship, in contrast to Saul’s, was in line with God’s because it reflected the glory of Yahweh’s kingship. David’s life and rule are taken up in the two books of Samuel as a commentary on the pros and cons of kingship. Positively, David was a man after God’s heart, who sought the will of God, repented of his sin, and sought the glory of God. Negatively, David failed in his personal and family life to uphold the high standards of God’s law. Yet God was pleased to choose David’s dynasty as the lineage through which Jesus Christ would come. The prophet Nathan assured David that his dynasty would last: “Your dynasty and your kingdom will continue for all time before me, and your throne will be secure forever” (2 Sm 7:16, <span>nlt<\/span>). But God did not promise that it would be immune from prosecution or banishment.<\/p>\n<p>The outstanding qualities of the kingship of David and his son Solomon reflect the true theocratic intention: concern for the Lord, for a heart of wisdom and integrity, and for the well-being of God’s people. Concern for the Lord found expression in the preparation for and actual building of the temple (cf. Ps 132). Concern for integrity and wisdom is clearly evident, especially in David’s response to Nathan’s rebuke (2 Sm 12) and in Solomon’s request to have a heart of wisdom (1 Kgs 3). Concern for the people comes to expression in their securing the borders against enemies, achieving national unification, and bringing opportunity for economic growth. The era of David and Solomon represented a true reflection of God’s kingship on earth.<\/p>\n<p>The accounts in Kings and Chronicles unfold the subsequent history of kingship in Israel and Judah. The good kings followed the examples provided by David and Solomon in securing Jerusalem against foreign invaders, in supplying for the needs of the temple, in having God’s people instructed in the word of God, and in modeling their rule after the law of Moses. A good Davidic king loved the Lord, the temple, the law, and God’s people. He served them as a good shepherd. Evil kings were those who rejected this model of kingship in favor of the pagan models. So Omri and Ahab introduced the Phoenician culture with its Baalism, utterly disregarding the heritage of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The Davidic king was treated as a member of God’s household, being a “son” of the great King (cf. 2 Sm 7:14-16; Ps 2:6-7). The Davidic king was to be loyal to the great King, Yahweh. He, like Moses and Joshua, received his orders directly from the Lord; but unlike with Moses, the word of the Lord was mediated through the prophets. He, like Moses and Joshua, was expected to serve his God and his people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheMessiah-King\">The Messiah-King<\/p>\n<p>The descendants of David failed to maintain and expand the theocracy. By the eighth and seventh centuries <span>BC<\/span>, it was apparent that even the greatest kings were dwarfed by the stature of David and Solomon. The prophets (Is 9:2-7; 11:1-9; Jer 33:14-16; Ez 34:22-31; Mi 5:2-5) spoke of another king, the Messiah, a descendant of David who would rule permanently and by whose rule the reign of God would extend to the ends of the earth. He would put down all opposition to God’s rule, remove all enemies, and bring in an era of universal peace and righteousness. The Messiah-King would reveal the perfections of divine rule, as the Spirit of God would be upon him. His kingship would be marked by service to the people of God, so that they would be a well-cared-for flock; he would serve them as their shepherd.<\/p>\n<p>In the coming of Jesus the messianic kingdom is more clearly revealed. He is the King of whom the angels said, “The Savior—yes, the Messiah, the Lord—has been born tonight in Bethlehem, the city of David!” (Lk 2:11, <span>nlt<\/span>). These magnificent words show continuity with the prophetic word. Jesus is the Savior, whose role includes deliverance from sin but also deliverance from all causes of adversity, evil, and the effects of the curse. His mission pertains to both forgiveness and to the establishment of peace on earth (1:77-79). In this light we must look at Jesus’ ministry of healing, feeding, opposing the forces of evil, suffering, and teaching as the establishment of God’s kingdom on earth. He is the King who serves, fights against the demonic powers, and overcomes. The resurrection marks his victory, and he is crowned with glory by being seated at the right hand of the Father (Acts 2:33-36; cf. 1 Cor 15:25). In being the Savior he is none other than Christ the Lord. The early apostolic preaching proclaimed that Jesus is the Messiah of God and the Lord. The lordship of Jesus is corollary to his being the Messiah. To those who call on him, he is the Savior-Messiah-Lord (Rom 10:9-15), but to those who reject him, he is the divine warrior, before whom all knees will bow and who will bring in the era of the Father’s judgment (cf. Rv 1:12-16; 19:11-21).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus taught his disciples that at his coming in glory he would be seated on his throne and all mankind would pay him obeisance. The enemies of God will be cast out from his presence, and the people of God will fully inherit the kingdom (Mt 25:31-46). In accordance with Jesus’ teaching, the members of his body, the church, are expected to work out the theocratic ideal in their lives, that by their works and faith they may glorify the Father and show that they are his (Jn 17:20-26; cf. Mt 25:33-40). This is the biblical manner of witness that Israel failed to give and that the church is privileged to give; as Paul wrote to Timothy:<\/p>\n<p>I command you before God, who gives life to all, and before Christ Jesus, . . . that you obey his commands with all purity. Then no one can find fault with you from now until our Lord Jesus Christ returns. For at the right time Christ will be revealed from heaven by the blessed and only almighty God, the King of kings and Lord of lords. He alone can never die, and he lives in light so brilliant that no human can approach him. No one has ever seen him, nor ever will. To him be honor and power forever. Amen. (1 Tm 6:13-16, <span>nlt<\/span>)<\/p>\n<p>Then Paul gives several instructions as to how the people of God must demonstrate their allegiance to Jesus. Throughout the book of Revelation, Jesus is viewed as King over the church (Rv 4:2, 9-11; 5:1, 9-13). At his return his kingship will be established. At this time, the enemies of the cross will see the one whom they have rejected and will bow before the messianic King (1 Cor 15:25-28). “After that the end will come, when he [Jesus] will turn the Kingdom over to God the Father, having put down all enemies of every kind” (v 24, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Kingdom of God, Kingdom of Heaven.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KING<\/h3>\n<p>The word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">melek<\/span> (king) occurs more than 2,000 times in the Hebrew OT. It may refer to God (Ps 95:3) or to human rulers. Generally it designates one invested with ultimate authority and power over his subjects. In the OT, the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">melek<\/span> designates the ruler of a tribe (“the kings of Midian,” Nm 31:8), a city (Jericho, Ai; cf. Jos 12:9-24, where 31 kings of city-states conquered by the Israelites are listed), a nation (Israel, Judah, Ammon, Moab, Aram), or an international power (such as Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, or Persia). Other words may also refer to royalty. The Philistines introduced the title <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">seren<\/span> (lord) into Hebrew vocabulary. The five Philistine cities were ruled by five lords. Another word for an Israelite king is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nagid<\/span> (ruler). Both Saul and David were anointed as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nagid<\/span> over Israel (1 Sm 10:1; 16:13). In the NT and the Septuagint, the Greek version of the OT, the Greek word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileus<\/span> has a meaning similar to the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">melek<\/span><em>.<\/em> The NT <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">basileus<\/span> refers to secular rulers living in the first century, kings of Israel, rulers of the past, and the divine King, Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The phrase “King of kings,” attributed to Jesus (1 Tm 6:15), is a Hebrew expression meaning supreme or greatest king. For example, in Ezekiel’s prediction of the fall of Tyre, Nebuchadnezzar is named the “king of kings” (Ez 26:7). The great rulers of Assyria and Babylon introduced this title. Before their time, rulers were called either “king” or “great king,” as in 2 Kings 18:28: “Hear the word of the great king, the king of Assyria” (<span>rsv<\/span>). Later rulers had their titles adjusted to keep up with the expanse of their empires.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"KingshipinIsrael\">Kingship in Israel<\/p>\n<p>God chose Abraham as the father of nations; through him and his descendants the messianic rule would be established on earth. In his promises to Abraham, God repeatedly assured him that he would become the father of a mighty nation, to whom God would give the land of Canaan, and that kings would arise from his descendants (Gn 17:6). Abraham showed his acceptance of the rule of God over his family by obeying God’s command to be circumcised, which set the clan of Abraham apart for the service of God (vv 10-14). The ultimate purpose of God’s relation with Abraham and his descendants was that God would be King over Israel and that his people would show their acceptance of his rule by their faithful obedience to him (v 9).<\/p>\n<p>At the heart of the covenant was God’s expectation of loyalty to his rule. Abraham and his descendants were to exercise their God-given “rule” over the nations by living in fellowship with the great King. Thus the Lord reestablished his dominion over mankind. Through Abraham and his descendants, he would raise up a “royal nation” to whom the full privileges of rule over his creation would be restored.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord also made a covenant with Israel. This covenant was a sovereign administration of grace and promise by which the Lord consecrated the people unto himself by the sanctions of divine law and by his very presence. The nation, witnessing God’s care for them, had to learn that by their obedience to God’s expectations the theocratic kingdom might become a reality on earth. In the Sinaitic covenant the theocracy (the rule of God) was established. Israel was entrusted with the commandments, so that they might show themselves to be a theocratic nation, as God revealed to Moses: “Now if you will obey me and keep my covenant, you will be my own special treasure from among all the nations of the earth; for all the earth belongs to me. And you will be to me a kingdom of priests, my holy nation” (Ex 19:5-6, <span>nlt<\/span>). They were God’s elect for the sake of the nations; through Israel’s priestly obedience and intercession, the whole earth might know the Creator-Redeemer.<\/p>\n<p>The qualities of God’s kingship were power, glory, fidelity, wisdom, concern, service, delegation of power to man, blessing and protection, just rule, judgment, vindication, and deliverance. Israel’s kingship was to be no different from God’s. Their varied and sometimes complex laws taught Israel to distinguish between what was holy and common, clean and unclean, the ways of God and the ways of the nations. The ways of God enhanced love, fidelity, justice, peace, harmony, service, concern for others, wise living, defense of the needy, and judgment of the guilty. The ways of the kingdoms of the world all too often promoted selfishness, anarchy, despotism, and disregard for justice.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord also instituted an organizational structure designed to promote his theocratic purposes. In the wilderness Moses and the chosen leaders of Israel (Ex 18:19-26; Nm 11:24-25; cf. Dt 1:15-18) were God’s instruments for upholding his kingship in Israel. Upon Moses’ death, Joshua took over the theocratic rule. The Lord was with him as he had been with Moses, and all Israel recognized the continuity of God’s rule in Joshua’s leadership (Dt 34:9; Jos 3:7; 4:14). Like Moses had before his death, Joshua charged the leadership and Israel to persevere in the gracious covenant relationship (Jos 23–24). However, Israel perished because of its greed, immorality, strife, and idolatry. During the period of the judges, each one did what was right in his own eyes (Jgs 17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25). There was no king in the land in those days. The judges were military leaders whom the Lord raised up to deliver his people from their foreign oppressors. But God remained King, regardless of the fact that Israel lived as if he were not. The period of the judges demonstrated that apostate Israel, disobedient to their King, was unsuccessful in dealing with the surrounding nations.<\/p>\n<p>The theocratic leadership was restored to Israel by the ministry of Samuel. He was born into a Levitical family and served the Lord at the Shiloh tabernacle. He was called to be a prophet—an office which had not been filled since Moses’ death (1 Sm 3:20-21). He was recognized as a judge in Israel (7:15). In Samuel the offices of priest, prophet, and king were combined. He is never called king, as his lifestyle was that of a prophet rather than that of a ruler. The carefully calculated request of the people for a king was a rejection of Samuel’s ministry. The people were not satisfied with the spiritual, charismatic leadership of Samuel. In their search for a more dynamic leader they found in the kings of the surrounding nations attractive elements: power, manifestation of glory, and stability. Thus far the tribes had experienced several civil wars that endangered the unity of Israel. It was thought that a king would remedy all of the social and political problems. Though God had foreseen the days of the monarchy in the law (Dt 17:14-20), the people were motivated to introduce the kingship for secular rather than religious reasons: “Give us a king like all the other nations have” (1 Sm 8:5); “We want to be like the nations around us. Our king will govern us and lead us into battle” (v 20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Samuel never accepted the idea of kingship; it was foreign to the theocratic ideal.<\/p>\n<p>The crucial difference between kingship in Israel and kingship in neighboring lands lay in the fact that God endowed the king of Israel with his Spirit to establish his rule on earth. God ruled for his people, and his people benefited was from his rule; he was their provider, protector, and divine warrior.<\/p>\n<p>Samuel was instrumental in anointing Saul (a sad example of kingship) and David (a good example of kingly rule under God). Saul’s kingship revealed a despotic, uncaring attitude and self-aggrandizement. He was intent on establishing his dynasty, while not caring sufficiently for the people of God. Therefore, the Lord rejected his kingship (1 Sm 15:23).<\/p>\n<p>David’s kingship, in contrast to Saul’s, was in line with God’s because it reflected the glory of Yahweh’s kingship. David’s life and rule are taken up in the two books of Samuel as a commentary on the pros and cons of kingship. Positively, David was a man after God’s heart, who sought the will of God, repented of his sin, and sought the glory of God. Negatively, David failed in his personal and family life to uphold the high standards of God’s law. Yet God was pleased to choose David’s dynasty as the lineage through which Jesus Christ would come. The prophet Nathan assured David that his dynasty would last: “Your dynasty and your kingdom will continue for all time before me, and your throne will be secure forever” (2 Sm 7:16, <span>nlt<\/span>). But God did not promise that it would be immune from prosecution or banishment.<\/p>\n<p>The outstanding qualities of the kingship of David and his son Solomon reflect the true theocratic intention: concern for the Lord, for a heart of wisdom and integrity, and for the well-being of God’s people. Concern for the Lord found expression in the preparation for and actual building of the temple (cf. Ps 132). Concern for integrity and wisdom is clearly evident, especially in David’s response to Nathan’s rebuke (2 Sm 12) and in Solomon’s request to have a heart of wisdom (1 Kgs 3). Concern for the people comes to expression in their securing the borders against enemies, achieving national unification, and bringing opportunity for economic growth. The era of David and Solomon represented a true reflection of God’s kingship on earth.<\/p>\n<p>The accounts in Kings and Chronicles unfold the subsequent history of kingship in Israel and Judah. The good kings followed the examples provided by David and Solomon in securing Jerusalem against foreign invaders, in supplying for the needs of the temple, in having God’s people instructed in the word of God, and in modeling their rule after the law of Moses. A good Davidic king loved the Lord, the temple, the law, and God’s people. He served them as a good shepherd. Evil kings were those who rejected this model of kingship in favor of the pagan models. So Omri and Ahab introduced the Phoenician culture with its Baalism, utterly disregarding the heritage of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The Davidic king was treated as a member of God’s household, being a “son” of the great King (cf. 2 Sm 7:14-16; Ps 2:6-7). The Davidic king was to be loyal to the great King, Yahweh. He, like Moses and Joshua, received his orders directly from the Lord; but unlike with Moses, the word of the Lord was mediated through the prophets. He, like Moses and Joshua, was expected to serve his God and his people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheMessiah-King\">The Messiah-King<\/p>\n<p>The descendants of David failed to maintain and expand the theocracy. By the eighth and seventh centuries <span>BC<\/span>, it was apparent that even the greatest kings were dwarfed by the stature of David and Solomon. The prophets (Is 9:2-7; 11:1-9; Jer 33:14-16; Ez 34:22-31; Mi 5:2-5) spoke of another king, the Messiah, a descendant of David who would rule permanently and by whose rule the reign of God would extend to the ends of the earth. He would put down all opposition to God’s rule, remove all enemies, and bring in an era of universal peace and righteousness. The Messiah-King would reveal the perfections of divine rule, as the Spirit of God would be upon him. His kingship would be marked by service to the people of God, so that they would be a well-cared-for flock; he would serve them as their shepherd.<\/p>\n<p>In the coming of Jesus the messianic kingdom is more clearly revealed. He is the King of whom the angels said, “The Savior—yes, the Messiah, the Lord—has been born tonight in Bethlehem, the city of David!” (Lk 2:11, <span>nlt<\/span>). These magnificent words show continuity with the prophetic word. Jesus is the Savior, whose role includes deliverance from sin but also deliverance from all causes of adversity, evil, and the effects of the curse. His mission pertains to both forgiveness and to the establishment of peace on earth (1:77-79). In this light we must look at Jesus’ ministry of healing, feeding, opposing the forces of evil, suffering, and teaching as the establishment of God’s kingdom on earth. He is the King who serves, fights against the demonic powers, and overcomes. The resurrection marks his victory, and he is crowned with glory by being seated at the right hand of the Father (Acts 2:33-36; cf. 1 Cor 15:25). In being the Savior he is none other than Christ the Lord. The early apostolic preaching proclaimed that Jesus is the Messiah of God and the Lord. The lordship of Jesus is corollary to his being the Messiah. To those who call on him, he is the Savior-Messiah-Lord (Rom 10:9-15), but to those who reject him, he is the divine warrior, before whom all knees will bow and who will bring in the era of the Father’s judgment (cf. Rv 1:12-16; 19:11-21).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus taught his disciples that at his coming in glory he would be seated on his throne and all mankind would pay him obeisance. The enemies of God will be cast out from his presence, and the people of God will fully inherit the kingdom (Mt 25:31-46). In accordance with Jesus’ teaching, the members of his body, the church, are expected to work out the theocratic ideal in their lives, that by their works and faith they may glorify the Father and show that they are his (Jn 17:20-26; cf. Mt 25:33-40). This is the biblical manner of witness that Israel failed to give and that the church is privileged to give; as Paul wrote to Timothy:<\/p>\n<p>I command you before God, who gives life to all, and before Christ Jesus, . . . that you obey his commands with all purity. Then no one can find fault with you from now until our Lord Jesus Christ returns. For at the right time Christ will be revealed from heaven by the blessed and only almighty God, the King of kings and Lord of lords. He alone can never die, and he lives in light so brilliant that no human can approach him. No one has ever seen him, nor ever will. To him be honor and power forever. Amen. (1 Tm 6:13-16, <span>nlt<\/span>)<\/p>\n<p>Then Paul gives several instructions as to how the people of God must demonstrate their allegiance to Jesus. Throughout the book of Revelation, Jesus is viewed as King over the church (Rv 4:2, 9-11; 5:1, 9-13). At his return his kingship will be established. At this time, the enemies of the cross will see the one whom they have rejected and will bow before the messianic King (1 Cor 15:25-28). “After that the end will come, when he [Jesus] will turn the Kingdom over to God the Father, having put down all enemies of every kind” (v 24, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Kingdom of God, Kingdom of Heaven.<\/p>","summary_ro":"KING The word melek (king) occurs more than 2,000 times in the Hebrew OT. It may refer to God (Ps 95:3) or to human rulers. Generally it designates one invested with ultimate authority and power over his subjects. In the OT, the word melek designates the ruler of a tribe (“the kings of Midian,” Nm 31:8), a city (Jericho, Ai; cf. Jos 12:9-24, where 31 kings of city-states conquered by the Israelites are listed), a nation (Israel, Judah, Ammon, Moab, Aram), or an international power (such as Eg...","summary_en":"KING The word melek (king) occurs more than 2,000 times in the Hebrew OT. It may refer to God (Ps 95:3) or to human rulers. Generally it designates one invested with ultimate authority and power over his subjects. In the OT, the word melek designates the ruler of a tribe (“the kings of Midian,” Nm 31:8), a city (Jericho, Ai; cf. Jos 12:9-24, where 31 kings of city-states conquered by the Israelites are listed), a nation (Israel, Judah, Ammon, Moab, Aram), or an international power (such as Eg...","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32374,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ramah","title_en":"Ramah","content_ro":"<h3>RAMAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of the cities located in the territory allotted to Benjamin’s tribe for an inheritance, listed between Gibeon and Beeroth (Jos 18:25). In the proximity of this town, Rachel, Jacob’s wife, was buried (Mt 2:18; cf. Gn 35:16-21; Jer 31:15). Ramah, positioned near Bethel, was the place where Deborah judged Israel (Jgs 4:5). This city was a temporary resting place for a Levite and his concubine traveling north from Bethlehem (19:13).<\/li>\n<p>During the period of the divided kingdom (930– 722 <span>BC<\/span>), King Baasha of Israel (908–886 <span>BC<\/span>) fortified Ramah. From Ramah, Baasha was able to prevent an invasion of King Asa’s (910–869 <span>BC<\/span>) Judean army. Baasha later abandoned the city and hurried his army north to repulse a Syrian offensive led by King Ben-hadad I (c. 885 <span>BC<\/span>). Asa dismantled Ramah’s military fortifications, using the material to build the towns of Geba and Mizpah (1 Kgs 15:17-22; 2 Chr 16:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The cities of Geba, Ramah, and Gibeah formed the route taken by the Assyrian army during Sennacherib’s military incursion into Judah (c. 701 <span>BC<\/span>) against King Hezekiah and Jerusalem (Is 10:29). Later King Nebuchadnezzar used Ramah as a place of detainment for the Jews being deported to Babylon. Here Nebuzaradan, the captain of the guard, released Jeremiah from among the captives (Jer 40:1).<\/p>\n<p>Following the Babylonian captivity, inhabitants of Ramah returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine and rebuilt this city (Ezr 2:26; Neh 7:30). Some suggest that the postexilic town of Ramah was another Benjaminite town located farther west near the coastal plain (Neh 11:33). The site of Ramah is identified with the modern village of er-Ram, five miles (8 kilometers) north of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<li>2. City in the Negev marking the southern extremity of the territory allotted to the tribe of Simeon within Judah’s inheritance (Jos 19:8); also called Ramoth of the Negev (1 Sm 30:27) and Baalath-beer (Jos 19:8; cf. 1 Chr 4:33). <em>See<\/em> Baalath-beer.<\/li>\n<li>3. Town defining the boundary of the territory assigned to Asher’s tribe for an inheritance, mentioned between Sidon and Tyre (Jos 19:29).<\/li>\n<li>4. One of 19 fortified cities given to Naphtali’s tribe for a possession, mentioned between Adamah and Hazor (Jos 19:36). Its location is identifiable with the modern town of er-Rameh, about 11 miles (17.7 kilometers) northwest of the Sea of Galilee.<\/li>\n<li>5. Home of Samuel’s parents, Elkanah and Hannah; the birthplace of Samuel (1 Sm 1:19; 2:11); and later his home (7:17; 16:13). Samuel judged Israel from Ramah, Bethel, Gilgal, and Mizpah (7:17). Saul first met Samuel at this city (9:6-10). Here the elders of Israel petitioned Samuel to appoint a king for them (8:4), and later this city provided David a place of refuge from King Saul (19:18–20:1). Samuel was buried at Ramah (25:1; 28:3). Ramah is alternately called Ramathaim-zophim in 1 Samuel 1:1.<\/li>\n<li>6. Abbreviated name for Ramoth-gilead (2 Kgs 8:29; 2 Chr 22:6). <em>See<\/em> Ramoth-gilead.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>RAMAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. One of the cities located in the territory allotted to Benjamin’s tribe for an inheritance, listed between Gibeon and Beeroth (Jos 18:25). In the proximity of this town, Rachel, Jacob’s wife, was buried (Mt 2:18; cf. Gn 35:16-21; Jer 31:15). Ramah, positioned near Bethel, was the place where Deborah judged Israel (Jgs 4:5). This city was a temporary resting place for a Levite and his concubine traveling north from Bethlehem (19:13).<\/li>\n<p>During the period of the divided kingdom (930– 722 <span>BC<\/span>), King Baasha of Israel (908–886 <span>BC<\/span>) fortified Ramah. From Ramah, Baasha was able to prevent an invasion of King Asa’s (910–869 <span>BC<\/span>) Judean army. Baasha later abandoned the city and hurried his army north to repulse a Syrian offensive led by King Ben-hadad I (c. 885 <span>BC<\/span>). Asa dismantled Ramah’s military fortifications, using the material to build the towns of Geba and Mizpah (1 Kgs 15:17-22; 2 Chr 16:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The cities of Geba, Ramah, and Gibeah formed the route taken by the Assyrian army during Sennacherib’s military incursion into Judah (c. 701 <span>BC<\/span>) against King Hezekiah and Jerusalem (Is 10:29). Later King Nebuchadnezzar used Ramah as a place of detainment for the Jews being deported to Babylon. Here Nebuzaradan, the captain of the guard, released Jeremiah from among the captives (Jer 40:1).<\/p>\n<p>Following the Babylonian captivity, inhabitants of Ramah returned with Zerubbabel to Palestine and rebuilt this city (Ezr 2:26; Neh 7:30). Some suggest that the postexilic town of Ramah was another Benjaminite town located farther west near the coastal plain (Neh 11:33). The site of Ramah is identified with the modern village of er-Ram, five miles (8 kilometers) north of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<li>2. City in the Negev marking the southern extremity of the territory allotted to the tribe of Simeon within Judah’s inheritance (Jos 19:8); also called Ramoth of the Negev (1 Sm 30:27) and Baalath-beer (Jos 19:8; cf. 1 Chr 4:33). <em>See<\/em> Baalath-beer.<\/li>\n<li>3. Town defining the boundary of the territory assigned to Asher’s tribe for an inheritance, mentioned between Sidon and Tyre (Jos 19:29).<\/li>\n<li>4. One of 19 fortified cities given to Naphtali’s tribe for a possession, mentioned between Adamah and Hazor (Jos 19:36). Its location is identifiable with the modern town of er-Rameh, about 11 miles (17.7 kilometers) northwest of the Sea of Galilee.<\/li>\n<li>5. Home of Samuel’s parents, Elkanah and Hannah; the birthplace of Samuel (1 Sm 1:19; 2:11); and later his home (7:17; 16:13). Samuel judged Israel from Ramah, Bethel, Gilgal, and Mizpah (7:17). Saul first met Samuel at this city (9:6-10). Here the elders of Israel petitioned Samuel to appoint a king for them (8:4), and later this city provided David a place of refuge from King Saul (19:18–20:1). Samuel was buried at Ramah (25:1; 28:3). Ramah is alternately called Ramathaim-zophim in 1 Samuel 1:1.<\/li>\n<li>6. Abbreviated name for Ramoth-gilead (2 Kgs 8:29; 2 Chr 22:6). <em>See<\/em> Ramoth-gilead.<\/li>","summary_ro":"RAMAH 1. One of the cities located in the territory allotted to Benjamin’s tribe for an inheritance, listed between Gibeon and Beeroth (Jos 18:25). In the proximity of this town, Rachel, Jacob’s wife, was buried (Mt 2:18; cf. Gn 35:16-21; Jer 31:15). Ramah, positioned near Bethel, was the place where Deborah judged Israel (Jgs 4:5). This city was a temporary resting place for a Levite and his concubine traveling north from Bethlehem (19:13). During the period of the divided kingdom (930– 722 ...","summary_en":"RAMAH 1. One of the cities located in the territory allotted to Benjamin’s tribe for an inheritance, listed between Gibeon and Beeroth (Jos 18:25). In the proximity of this town, Rachel, Jacob’s wife, was buried (Mt 2:18; cf. Gn 35:16-21; Jer 31:15). Ramah, positioned near Bethel, was the place where Deborah judged Israel (Jgs 4:5). This city was a temporary resting place for a Levite and his concubine traveling north from Bethlehem (19:13). During the period of the divided kingdom (930– 722 ...","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":40370,"type":"textbox","type_label":"Notă explicativă","type_icon":"💡","type_color":"#8b5cf6","title_ro":"Three Anointed Ones Foreshadow the Messiah","title_en":"Three Anointed Ones Foreshadow the Messiah","content_ro":"<h3>Three Anointed Ones Foreshadow the Messiah<\/h3>\n<blockquote><p>Jesus’ office and function were foreshadowed by the three groups of OT anointed officials: prophets, priests, and kings. Elisha’s anointing by Elijah (1 Kgs 19:16) shows anointing of prophets was practiced, although not required by OT law. Moses was the first OT prophet (Dt 18:18) whose ministry prompted the messianic hope for the coming of the Prophet (Jn 6:14; Heb 1:1). All priests, from Aaron on, were ordained by anointing with oil in required consecration rites (Ex 28:41; 29:7-9; 30:30). The kings of Israel, beginning with Saul and David, were anointed as a sign of divine choice and approval (1 Sm 9:15-17; 10:1; 16:13). Essential to the external ceremony was the pouring of perfumed olive oil upon the person’s head (Ex 30:22-33). The internal reality was the gift of the Spirit to the recipient: “from that day on the Spirit of the <span>Lord<\/span> came upon David in power” (1 Sm 16:13, <span>niv<\/span>). The anointed person was not a free agent. As prophet, priest, or king, he spoke, served, or ruled in the name of the Lord and as his representative to the people of God.<\/p><\/blockquote>","content_en":"<h3>Three Anointed Ones Foreshadow the Messiah<\/h3>\n<blockquote><p>Jesus’ office and function were foreshadowed by the three groups of OT anointed officials: prophets, priests, and kings. Elisha’s anointing by Elijah (1 Kgs 19:16) shows anointing of prophets was practiced, although not required by OT law. Moses was the first OT prophet (Dt 18:18) whose ministry prompted the messianic hope for the coming of the Prophet (Jn 6:14; Heb 1:1). All priests, from Aaron on, were ordained by anointing with oil in required consecration rites (Ex 28:41; 29:7-9; 30:30). The kings of Israel, beginning with Saul and David, were anointed as a sign of divine choice and approval (1 Sm 9:15-17; 10:1; 16:13). Essential to the external ceremony was the pouring of perfumed olive oil upon the person’s head (Ex 30:22-33). The internal reality was the gift of the Spirit to the recipient: “from that day on the Spirit of the <span>Lord<\/span> came upon David in power” (1 Sm 16:13, <span>niv<\/span>). The anointed person was not a free agent. As prophet, priest, or king, he spoke, served, or ruled in the name of the Lord and as his representative to the people of God.<\/p><\/blockquote>","summary_ro":"Three Anointed Ones Foreshadow the Messiah Jesus’ office and function were foreshadowed by the three groups of OT anointed officials: prophets, priests, and kings. Elisha’s anointing by Elijah (1 Kgs 19:16) shows anointing of prophets was practiced, although not required by OT law. Moses was the first OT prophet (Dt 18:18) whose ministry prompted the messianic hope for the coming of the Prophet (Jn 6:14; Heb 1:1). All priests, from Aaron on, were ordained by anointing with oil in required con...","summary_en":"Three Anointed Ones Foreshadow the Messiah Jesus’ office and function were foreshadowed by the three groups of OT anointed officials: prophets, priests, and kings. Elisha’s anointing by Elijah (1 Kgs 19:16) shows anointing of prophets was practiced, although not required by OT law. Moses was the first OT prophet (Dt 18:18) whose ministry prompted the messianic hope for the coming of the Prophet (Jn 6:14; Heb 1:1). All priests, from Aaron on, were ordained by anointing with oil in required con...","source":"Textboxes\/Textboxes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":46275,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:13","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:13<\/strong> <em>The Spirit of the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> came . . . upon David,<\/em> as was consistently evident (e.g., 16:23; 17:48-54; 18:5, 12-16). The Spirit of the Lord had also come upon Saul (10:10) but had left him because of disobedience (16:14). • <em>Ramah:<\/em> Samuel’s hometown (1:1).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:13<\/strong> <em>The Spirit of the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> came . . . upon David,<\/em> as was consistently evident (e.g., 16:23; 17:48-54; 18:5, 12-16). The Spirit of the Lord had also come upon Saul (10:10) but had left him because of disobedience (16:14). • <em>Ramah:<\/em> Samuel’s hometown (1:1).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:13 The Spirit of the Lord came . . . upon David, as was consistently evident (e.g., 16:23; 17:48-54; 18:5, 12-16). The Spirit of the Lord had also come upon Saul (10:10) but had left him because of disobedience (16:14). • Ramah: Samuel’s hometown (1:1).","summary_en":"16:13 The Spirit of the Lord came . . . upon David, as was consistently evident (e.g., 16:23; 17:48-54; 18:5, 12-16). The Spirit of the Lord had also come upon Saul (10:10) but had left him because of disobedience (16:14). • Ramah: Samuel’s hometown (1:1).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":73901,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:13","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:13<\/strong> <em>The Spirit of the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> came . . . upon David,<\/em> as was consistently evident (e.g., 16:23; 17:48-54; 18:5, 12-16). The Spirit of the Lord had also come upon Saul (10:10) but had left him because of disobedience (16:14). • <em>Ramah:<\/em> Samuel’s hometown (1:1).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:13<\/strong> <em>The Spirit of the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> came . . . upon David,<\/em> as was consistently evident (e.g., 16:23; 17:48-54; 18:5, 12-16). The Spirit of the Lord had also come upon Saul (10:10) but had left him because of disobedience (16:14). • <em>Ramah:<\/em> Samuel’s hometown (1:1).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:13 The Spirit of the Lord came . . . upon David, as was consistently evident (e.g., 16:23; 17:48-54; 18:5, 12-16). The Spirit of the Lord had also come upon Saul (10:10) but had left him because of disobedience (16:14). • Ramah: Samuel’s hometown (1:1).","summary_en":"16:13 The Spirit of the Lord came . . . upon David, as was consistently evident (e.g., 16:23; 17:48-54; 18:5, 12-16). The Spirit of the Lord had also come upon Saul (10:10) but had left him because of disobedience (16:14). • Ramah: Samuel’s hometown (1:1).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101527,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:13","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:13<\/strong> <em>The Spirit of the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> came . . . upon David,<\/em> as was consistently evident (e.g., 16:23; 17:48-54; 18:5, 12-16). The Spirit of the Lord had also come upon Saul (10:10) but had left him because of disobedience (16:14). • <em>Ramah:<\/em> Samuel’s hometown (1:1).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:13<\/strong> <em>The Spirit of the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> came . . . upon David,<\/em> as was consistently evident (e.g., 16:23; 17:48-54; 18:5, 12-16). The Spirit of the Lord had also come upon Saul (10:10) but had left him because of disobedience (16:14). • <em>Ramah:<\/em> Samuel’s hometown (1:1).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:13 The Spirit of the Lord came . . . upon David, as was consistently evident (e.g., 16:23; 17:48-54; 18:5, 12-16). The Spirit of the Lord had also come upon Saul (10:10) but had left him because of disobedience (16:14). • Ramah: Samuel’s hometown (1:1).","summary_en":"16:13 The Spirit of the Lord came . . . upon David, as was consistently evident (e.g., 16:23; 17:48-54; 18:5, 12-16). The Spirit of the Lord had also come upon Saul (10:10) but had left him because of disobedience (16:14). • Ramah: Samuel’s hometown (1:1).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":129153,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:13","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:13<\/strong> <em>The Spirit of the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> came . . . upon David,<\/em> as was consistently evident (e.g., 16:23; 17:48-54; 18:5, 12-16). The Spirit of the Lord had also come upon Saul (10:10) but had left him because of disobedience (16:14). • <em>Ramah:<\/em> Samuel’s hometown (1:1).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:13<\/strong> <em>The Spirit of the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> came . . . upon David,<\/em> as was consistently evident (e.g., 16:23; 17:48-54; 18:5, 12-16). The Spirit of the Lord had also come upon Saul (10:10) but had left him because of disobedience (16:14). • <em>Ramah:<\/em> Samuel’s hometown (1:1).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:13 The Spirit of the Lord came . . . upon David, as was consistently evident (e.g., 16:23; 17:48-54; 18:5, 12-16). The Spirit of the Lord had also come upon Saul (10:10) but had left him because of disobedience (16:14). • Ramah: Samuel’s hometown (1:1).","summary_en":"16:13 The Spirit of the Lord came . . . upon David, as was consistently evident (e.g., 16:23; 17:48-54; 18:5, 12-16). The Spirit of the Lord had also come upon Saul (10:10) but had left him because of disobedience (16:14). • Ramah: Samuel’s hometown (1:1).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":60623,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Spirit Empowerment","title_en":"Spirit Empowerment","content_ro":"<h3>Spirit Empowerment<\/h3>\n<p>Throughout Scripture, when the need arises, God empowers in special ways those who are committed to his service. The account of Moses and the seventy elders is one early instance, and it reminds us that God has moved and worked among his people in special ways throughout the ages. When Moses reached the end of his patience and his ability to manage rebellious Israel (Num 11:1-15), God told him to select seventy men to help him (11:16-17; cp. Exod 18:14-26). Then the Lord redistributed the Spirit that Moses already possessed and empowered these men for service (Num 11:24-25).<\/p>\n<p>Joshua was empowered by the Lord’s Spirit as Moses’ successor (Num 27:18; cp. Deut 34:9). In the period of the Judges, the Spirit of the Lord came to the aid of Israel’s leaders as, for example, in the work of Othniel (Judg 3:10), Gideon (Judg 6:34), Jephthah (Judg 11:29), and Samson (Judg 13:25; 14:6, 19; 15:14). David had access to the strength of God’s presence, and his awareness of God’s actions—in history and in his own experience—made him a great leader (e.g., 1 Sam 16:13; 17:45; 18:12, 28). The prophets knew that their special ministry was possible because of the Spirit’s presence and power (e.g., Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Zech 4:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was filled with God’s Spirit and empowered for a unique ministry (see Matt 12:18; Luke 4:1, 14, 18; John 3:34; Acts 10:38), and he spoke about the Spirit’s special role in the church (Acts 1:8). The arrival of the Spirit enabled the assembled believers to speak powerfully on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:4-5, 16-18; cp. Joel 2:28-29). The Spirit emboldened and empowered the church after Pentecost (Acts 4:31; 19:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 12:1-31; Gal 3:2-5) and remains with God’s people today. The Spirit moves as circumstances require to provide spiritual renewal and strength to God’s people, and the Spirit continues to equip God’s people for whatever tasks he calls them to do.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 11:16-30; 24:1-9; 27:18-23; Deut 34:10-12; Judg 3:9-10; 6:34; 11:29; 14:5-6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam 16:13; Pss 23; 46:1; 94:16-19; 116:1-9; 121:1-8; 143:10-12; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Joel 2:28-29; Zech 4:6; Matt 12:18; Luke 4:1, 14, 18; John 3:34; Acts 1:8; 2:4, 16-18; 4:31; 10:38; 19:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 12:1-31; Gal 3:2-5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Spirit Empowerment<\/h3>\n<p>Throughout Scripture, when the need arises, God empowers in special ways those who are committed to his service. The account of Moses and the seventy elders is one early instance, and it reminds us that God has moved and worked among his people in special ways throughout the ages. When Moses reached the end of his patience and his ability to manage rebellious Israel (Num 11:1-15), God told him to select seventy men to help him (11:16-17; cp. Exod 18:14-26). Then the Lord redistributed the Spirit that Moses already possessed and empowered these men for service (Num 11:24-25).<\/p>\n<p>Joshua was empowered by the Lord’s Spirit as Moses’ successor (Num 27:18; cp. Deut 34:9). In the period of the Judges, the Spirit of the Lord came to the aid of Israel’s leaders as, for example, in the work of Othniel (Judg 3:10), Gideon (Judg 6:34), Jephthah (Judg 11:29), and Samson (Judg 13:25; 14:6, 19; 15:14). David had access to the strength of God’s presence, and his awareness of God’s actions—in history and in his own experience—made him a great leader (e.g., 1 Sam 16:13; 17:45; 18:12, 28). The prophets knew that their special ministry was possible because of the Spirit’s presence and power (e.g., Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Zech 4:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was filled with God’s Spirit and empowered for a unique ministry (see Matt 12:18; Luke 4:1, 14, 18; John 3:34; Acts 10:38), and he spoke about the Spirit’s special role in the church (Acts 1:8). The arrival of the Spirit enabled the assembled believers to speak powerfully on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:4-5, 16-18; cp. Joel 2:28-29). The Spirit emboldened and empowered the church after Pentecost (Acts 4:31; 19:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 12:1-31; Gal 3:2-5) and remains with God’s people today. The Spirit moves as circumstances require to provide spiritual renewal and strength to God’s people, and the Spirit continues to equip God’s people for whatever tasks he calls them to do.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 11:16-30; 24:1-9; 27:18-23; Deut 34:10-12; Judg 3:9-10; 6:34; 11:29; 14:5-6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam 16:13; Pss 23; 46:1; 94:16-19; 116:1-9; 121:1-8; 143:10-12; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Joel 2:28-29; Zech 4:6; Matt 12:18; Luke 4:1, 14, 18; John 3:34; Acts 1:8; 2:4, 16-18; 4:31; 10:38; 19:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 12:1-31; Gal 3:2-5<\/p>","summary_ro":"Spirit Empowerment Throughout Scripture, when the need arises, God empowers in special ways those who are committed to his service. The account of Moses and the seventy elders is one early instance, and it reminds us that God has moved and worked among his people in special ways throughout the ages. When Moses reached the end of his patience and his ability to manage rebellious Israel (Num 11:1-15), God told him to select seventy men to help him (11:16-17; cp. Exod 18:14-26). Then the Lord re...","summary_en":"Spirit Empowerment Throughout Scripture, when the need arises, God empowers in special ways those who are committed to his service. The account of Moses and the seventy elders is one early instance, and it reminds us that God has moved and worked among his people in special ways throughout the ages. When Moses reached the end of his patience and his ability to manage rebellious Israel (Num 11:1-15), God told him to select seventy men to help him (11:16-17; cp. Exod 18:14-26). Then the Lord re...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":61019,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Charismatic Leadership","title_en":"Charismatic Leadership","content_ro":"<h3>Charismatic Leadership<\/h3>\n<p>Some leaders in Scripture are described as <em>charismatic<\/em> (gifted) because their authority did not come from an office or a structure but from the inspiration of God’s Spirit, who gave them particular qualities.<\/p>\n<p>The judges are often included among this group. These charismatic leaders arose in troubled and unsettled times and in response to a crisis. In Judges, these crises were repeatedly precipitated by the fact that “the Israelites did evil in the <span>Lord<\/span>’s sight” (Judg 3:12; 4:1; 6:1; Judg 10:6; 13:1), with enemy oppression as the inevitable result.<\/p>\n<p>The inspired leadership of the judges fits a pattern. The judges were “raised up” by the Spirit and were sustained by prophetic affirmation. What might have led to prophetic utterance in other periods of Israel’s history (e.g., 1 Sam 10:6; 2 Sam 23:2; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8), in the times of the judges led to physical prowess (e.g., Samson, Judg 14:6, 19; 15:14), skill, or commanding authority (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the apostles exercised charismatic leadership. As the Jewish authorities were fond of pointing out, Jesus had no “official” authority; yet, he displayed tremendous power and gained a signifcant following. And although the apostles were appointed to what we might consider to be an “office,” there was at that time virtually no structure to back up the office; when they exercised authority, it was purely charismatic. Peter’s healing of the beggar (Acts 3:1-8) provides a classic contrast between the accoutrements of office, such as “silver and gold,” and true spiritual power.<\/p>\n<p>Charisma has been a powerful tool for effective leadership from the heroes of Israel to the present time. But the successes of charismatic leadership can also be fleeting, particularly when the Spirit, who equips such leaders, is no longer operational in the leader’s life (see Judg 16:20-21; 1 Sam 16:14; Isa 63:10). Those who have been specially gifted by the Spirit to lead must continually be mindful of and dependent on that same Spirit.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 31:2-5; Judg 2:16-19; 3:10, 27-28; 6:34-35; 11:29; 14:6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam 10:6; 16:13-18; 2 Sam 23:2; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8; Matt 3:16–4:2; Acts 6:8; 8:4-40; Rom 1:11; 12:6-8; 1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Charismatic Leadership<\/h3>\n<p>Some leaders in Scripture are described as <em>charismatic<\/em> (gifted) because their authority did not come from an office or a structure but from the inspiration of God’s Spirit, who gave them particular qualities.<\/p>\n<p>The judges are often included among this group. These charismatic leaders arose in troubled and unsettled times and in response to a crisis. In Judges, these crises were repeatedly precipitated by the fact that “the Israelites did evil in the <span>Lord<\/span>’s sight” (Judg 3:12; 4:1; 6:1; Judg 10:6; 13:1), with enemy oppression as the inevitable result.<\/p>\n<p>The inspired leadership of the judges fits a pattern. The judges were “raised up” by the Spirit and were sustained by prophetic affirmation. What might have led to prophetic utterance in other periods of Israel’s history (e.g., 1 Sam 10:6; 2 Sam 23:2; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8), in the times of the judges led to physical prowess (e.g., Samson, Judg 14:6, 19; 15:14), skill, or commanding authority (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the apostles exercised charismatic leadership. As the Jewish authorities were fond of pointing out, Jesus had no “official” authority; yet, he displayed tremendous power and gained a signifcant following. And although the apostles were appointed to what we might consider to be an “office,” there was at that time virtually no structure to back up the office; when they exercised authority, it was purely charismatic. Peter’s healing of the beggar (Acts 3:1-8) provides a classic contrast between the accoutrements of office, such as “silver and gold,” and true spiritual power.<\/p>\n<p>Charisma has been a powerful tool for effective leadership from the heroes of Israel to the present time. But the successes of charismatic leadership can also be fleeting, particularly when the Spirit, who equips such leaders, is no longer operational in the leader’s life (see Judg 16:20-21; 1 Sam 16:14; Isa 63:10). Those who have been specially gifted by the Spirit to lead must continually be mindful of and dependent on that same Spirit.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 31:2-5; Judg 2:16-19; 3:10, 27-28; 6:34-35; 11:29; 14:6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam 10:6; 16:13-18; 2 Sam 23:2; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8; Matt 3:16–4:2; Acts 6:8; 8:4-40; Rom 1:11; 12:6-8; 1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Charismatic Leadership Some leaders in Scripture are described as charismatic (gifted) because their authority did not come from an office or a structure but from the inspiration of God’s Spirit, who gave them particular qualities. The judges are often included among this group. These charismatic leaders arose in troubled and unsettled times and in response to a crisis. In Judges, these crises were repeatedly precipitated by the fact that “the Israelites did evil in the Lord’s sight” (Judg 3:...","summary_en":"Charismatic Leadership Some leaders in Scripture are described as charismatic (gifted) because their authority did not come from an office or a structure but from the inspiration of God’s Spirit, who gave them particular qualities. The judges are often included among this group. These charismatic leaders arose in troubled and unsettled times and in response to a crisis. In Judges, these crises were repeatedly precipitated by the fact that “the Israelites did evil in the Lord’s sight” (Judg 3:...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":61210,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Spirit’s Presence","title_en":"The Spirit’s Presence","content_ro":"<h3>The Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the Spirit of the Lord came upon a person or group when they were called to do a task or ordained for an office. The Spirit “came upon” the judges Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29), empowering them for service. Saul and David both received the Spirit of God when they were anointed king (1 Sam 10:1, 9-10; 16:13). The Spirit would depart when the task had been completed or when the officeholder was removed from office. When Samuel anointed David as the next king (16:13), the Spirit left Saul (16:14), who was disobedient and had been rejected by God as king (13:7-14; 15:10-29; cp. 28:15; Judg 16:20). After David had sinned with Bathsheba, he prayed to be spared this same judgment (Ps 51:11).<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, God’s Holy Spirit is given to all who put their faith in Christ for salvation, not just to individuals in specific roles (see Acts 2:14-21; 1 Cor 12:1-13; Eph 1:13-14). Still, the Spirit performs a similar role in equipping God’s servants to do the work that God has called them to do (see 1 Cor 12:7-10). The Old Testament departure of the Spirit from Saul tangibly demonstrates the need for the New Testament warnings not to sin against the Spirit and not to bring sorrow to the Spirit (see Mark 3:28-29; Eph 4:30; Heb 6:1-8).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 41:37-40; Exod 31:1-6; Judg 3:9-11; 6:34; 11:29; 14:5-6; 16:20-21; 1 Sam 10:1-10; 11:6-7; 16:13-23; 19:19-23; 2 Chr 20:13-19; 24:20-22; Ps 51:11-12; Isa 11:1-5; Jer 31:33-34; Joel 2:28-29; Mark 3:28-29; Acts 2:1-21; 4:31; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Heb 6:4-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the Spirit of the Lord came upon a person or group when they were called to do a task or ordained for an office. The Spirit “came upon” the judges Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29), empowering them for service. Saul and David both received the Spirit of God when they were anointed king (1 Sam 10:1, 9-10; 16:13). The Spirit would depart when the task had been completed or when the officeholder was removed from office. When Samuel anointed David as the next king (16:13), the Spirit left Saul (16:14), who was disobedient and had been rejected by God as king (13:7-14; 15:10-29; cp. 28:15; Judg 16:20). After David had sinned with Bathsheba, he prayed to be spared this same judgment (Ps 51:11).<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, God’s Holy Spirit is given to all who put their faith in Christ for salvation, not just to individuals in specific roles (see Acts 2:14-21; 1 Cor 12:1-13; Eph 1:13-14). Still, the Spirit performs a similar role in equipping God’s servants to do the work that God has called them to do (see 1 Cor 12:7-10). The Old Testament departure of the Spirit from Saul tangibly demonstrates the need for the New Testament warnings not to sin against the Spirit and not to bring sorrow to the Spirit (see Mark 3:28-29; Eph 4:30; Heb 6:1-8).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 41:37-40; Exod 31:1-6; Judg 3:9-11; 6:34; 11:29; 14:5-6; 16:20-21; 1 Sam 10:1-10; 11:6-7; 16:13-23; 19:19-23; 2 Chr 20:13-19; 24:20-22; Ps 51:11-12; Isa 11:1-5; Jer 31:33-34; Joel 2:28-29; Mark 3:28-29; Acts 2:1-21; 4:31; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Heb 6:4-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Spirit’s Presence In the Old Testament, the Spirit of the Lord came upon a person or group when they were called to do a task or ordained for an office. The Spirit “came upon” the judges Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29), empowering them for service. Saul and David both received the Spirit of God when they were anointed king (1 Sam 10:1, 9-10; 16:13). The Spirit would depart when the task had been completed or when the officeholder was removed from office. When Samuel...","summary_en":"The Spirit’s Presence In the Old Testament, the Spirit of the Lord came upon a person or group when they were called to do a task or ordained for an office. The Spirit “came upon” the judges Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29), empowering them for service. Saul and David both received the Spirit of God when they were anointed king (1 Sam 10:1, 9-10; 16:13). The Spirit would depart when the task had been completed or when the officeholder was removed from office. When Samuel...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":65780,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Coming of the Spirit of God","title_en":"The Coming of the Spirit of God","content_ro":"<h3>The Coming of the Spirit of God<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the Spirit of God occasionally came upon individuals to empower them for God’s service and to prophesy (Num 24:2; Judg 3:10; 1 Sam 10:10; 16:13; Ezek 11:5). In the Judaism of Jesus’ day, there was a widespread belief that the Spirit of prophecy had departed from Israel with the last of the Old Testament prophets. But the prophets had predicted that when God’s salvation arrived, he would pour out his Spirit on all people (Isa 32:15; Ezek 36:26-27; Joel 2:28-32).<\/p>\n<p>This prophecy finds its initial fulfillment in the birth narrative in Luke. The Holy Spirit inspired prophetic witness and guided the events of Jesus’ birth. John the Baptist was filled with the Spirit even before he was born (Luke 1:15, 41), and Zechariah broke forth in a Spirit-filled hymn of praise to God (1:67). Mary conceived Jesus and prophesied through the power of the Spirit (1:35; 1:46-55), and Simeon was led by the Spirit to the Temple to see the Messiah (2:25-27). Later in his life, Jesus was anointed by the Spirit at his baptism and empowered to accomplish his role as the Messiah (3:21-22; 4:1, 18).<\/p>\n<p>Following his ascension, Jesus fulfilled the Old Testament prophecies by pouring out his Spirit on his disciples on the Day of Pentecost, empowering them to take the Good News of salvation to the ends of the earth (Luke 24:49; Acts 1:8; 2:4, 17-18). Throughout Acts, the church accomplished its mission through the guidance, power, and direction of the Holy Spirit. The coming of the Spirit marks the beginning of God’s salvation—God’s presence and power now reside with his people.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 24:2; Judg 3:10; 1 Sam 10:10; 16:13; Isa 32:15; Ezek 11:5; 36:26-27; Joel 2:28-32; Luke 1:15, 35, 41, 67; 2:24-27; 3:22; 4:1, 18; 24:49; Acts 2:4, 17-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Coming of the Spirit of God<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the Spirit of God occasionally came upon individuals to empower them for God’s service and to prophesy (Num 24:2; Judg 3:10; 1 Sam 10:10; 16:13; Ezek 11:5). In the Judaism of Jesus’ day, there was a widespread belief that the Spirit of prophecy had departed from Israel with the last of the Old Testament prophets. But the prophets had predicted that when God’s salvation arrived, he would pour out his Spirit on all people (Isa 32:15; Ezek 36:26-27; Joel 2:28-32).<\/p>\n<p>This prophecy finds its initial fulfillment in the birth narrative in Luke. The Holy Spirit inspired prophetic witness and guided the events of Jesus’ birth. John the Baptist was filled with the Spirit even before he was born (Luke 1:15, 41), and Zechariah broke forth in a Spirit-filled hymn of praise to God (1:67). Mary conceived Jesus and prophesied through the power of the Spirit (1:35; 1:46-55), and Simeon was led by the Spirit to the Temple to see the Messiah (2:25-27). Later in his life, Jesus was anointed by the Spirit at his baptism and empowered to accomplish his role as the Messiah (3:21-22; 4:1, 18).<\/p>\n<p>Following his ascension, Jesus fulfilled the Old Testament prophecies by pouring out his Spirit on his disciples on the Day of Pentecost, empowering them to take the Good News of salvation to the ends of the earth (Luke 24:49; Acts 1:8; 2:4, 17-18). Throughout Acts, the church accomplished its mission through the guidance, power, and direction of the Holy Spirit. The coming of the Spirit marks the beginning of God’s salvation—God’s presence and power now reside with his people.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 24:2; Judg 3:10; 1 Sam 10:10; 16:13; Isa 32:15; Ezek 11:5; 36:26-27; Joel 2:28-32; Luke 1:15, 35, 41, 67; 2:24-27; 3:22; 4:1, 18; 24:49; Acts 2:4, 17-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Coming of the Spirit of God In the Old Testament, the Spirit of God occasionally came upon individuals to empower them for God’s service and to prophesy (Num 24:2; Judg 3:10; 1 Sam 10:10; 16:13; Ezek 11:5). In the Judaism of Jesus’ day, there was a widespread belief that the Spirit of prophecy had departed from Israel with the last of the Old Testament prophets. But the prophets had predicted that when God’s salvation arrived, he would pour out his Spirit on all people (Isa 32:15; Ezek 36...","summary_en":"The Coming of the Spirit of God In the Old Testament, the Spirit of God occasionally came upon individuals to empower them for God’s service and to prophesy (Num 24:2; Judg 3:10; 1 Sam 10:10; 16:13; Ezek 11:5). In the Judaism of Jesus’ day, there was a widespread belief that the Spirit of prophecy had departed from Israel with the last of the Old Testament prophets. But the prophets had predicted that when God’s salvation arrived, he would pour out his Spirit on all people (Isa 32:15; Ezek 36...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":88249,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Spirit Empowerment","title_en":"Spirit Empowerment","content_ro":"<h3>Spirit Empowerment<\/h3>\n<p>Throughout Scripture, when the need arises, God empowers in special ways those who are committed to his service. The account of Moses and the seventy elders is one early instance, and it reminds us that God has moved and worked among his people in special ways throughout the ages. When Moses reached the end of his patience and his ability to manage rebellious Israel (Num 11:1-15), God told him to select seventy men to help him (11:16-17; cp. Exod 18:14-26). Then the Lord redistributed the Spirit that Moses already possessed and empowered these men for service (Num 11:24-25).<\/p>\n<p>Joshua was empowered by the Lord’s Spirit as Moses’ successor (Num 27:18; cp. Deut 34:9). In the period of the Judges, the Spirit of the Lord came to the aid of Israel’s leaders as, for example, in the work of Othniel (Judg 3:10), Gideon (Judg 6:34), Jephthah (Judg 11:29), and Samson (Judg 13:25; 14:6, 19; 15:14). David had access to the strength of God’s presence, and his awareness of God’s actions—in history and in his own experience—made him a great leader (e.g., 1 Sam 16:13; 17:45; 18:12, 28). The prophets knew that their special ministry was possible because of the Spirit’s presence and power (e.g., Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Zech 4:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was filled with God’s Spirit and empowered for a unique ministry (see Matt 12:18; Luke 4:1, 14, 18; John 3:34; Acts 10:38), and he spoke about the Spirit’s special role in the church (Acts 1:8). The arrival of the Spirit enabled the assembled believers to speak powerfully on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:4-5, 16-18; cp. Joel 2:28-29). The Spirit emboldened and empowered the church after Pentecost (Acts 4:31; 19:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 12:1-31; Gal 3:2-5) and remains with God’s people today. The Spirit moves as circumstances require to provide spiritual renewal and strength to God’s people, and the Spirit continues to equip God’s people for whatever tasks he calls them to do.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 11:16-30; 24:1-9; 27:18-23; Deut 34:10-12; Judg 3:9-10; 6:34; 11:29; 14:5-6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam 16:13; Pss 23; 46:1; 94:16-19; 116:1-9; 121:1-8; 143:10-12; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Joel 2:28-29; Zech 4:6; Matt 12:18; Luke 4:1, 14, 18; John 3:34; Acts 1:8; 2:4, 16-18; 4:31; 10:38; 19:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 12:1-31; Gal 3:2-5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Spirit Empowerment<\/h3>\n<p>Throughout Scripture, when the need arises, God empowers in special ways those who are committed to his service. The account of Moses and the seventy elders is one early instance, and it reminds us that God has moved and worked among his people in special ways throughout the ages. When Moses reached the end of his patience and his ability to manage rebellious Israel (Num 11:1-15), God told him to select seventy men to help him (11:16-17; cp. Exod 18:14-26). Then the Lord redistributed the Spirit that Moses already possessed and empowered these men for service (Num 11:24-25).<\/p>\n<p>Joshua was empowered by the Lord’s Spirit as Moses’ successor (Num 27:18; cp. Deut 34:9). In the period of the Judges, the Spirit of the Lord came to the aid of Israel’s leaders as, for example, in the work of Othniel (Judg 3:10), Gideon (Judg 6:34), Jephthah (Judg 11:29), and Samson (Judg 13:25; 14:6, 19; 15:14). David had access to the strength of God’s presence, and his awareness of God’s actions—in history and in his own experience—made him a great leader (e.g., 1 Sam 16:13; 17:45; 18:12, 28). The prophets knew that their special ministry was possible because of the Spirit’s presence and power (e.g., Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Zech 4:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was filled with God’s Spirit and empowered for a unique ministry (see Matt 12:18; Luke 4:1, 14, 18; John 3:34; Acts 10:38), and he spoke about the Spirit’s special role in the church (Acts 1:8). The arrival of the Spirit enabled the assembled believers to speak powerfully on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:4-5, 16-18; cp. Joel 2:28-29). The Spirit emboldened and empowered the church after Pentecost (Acts 4:31; 19:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 12:1-31; Gal 3:2-5) and remains with God’s people today. The Spirit moves as circumstances require to provide spiritual renewal and strength to God’s people, and the Spirit continues to equip God’s people for whatever tasks he calls them to do.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 11:16-30; 24:1-9; 27:18-23; Deut 34:10-12; Judg 3:9-10; 6:34; 11:29; 14:5-6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam 16:13; Pss 23; 46:1; 94:16-19; 116:1-9; 121:1-8; 143:10-12; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Joel 2:28-29; Zech 4:6; Matt 12:18; Luke 4:1, 14, 18; John 3:34; Acts 1:8; 2:4, 16-18; 4:31; 10:38; 19:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 12:1-31; Gal 3:2-5<\/p>","summary_ro":"Spirit Empowerment Throughout Scripture, when the need arises, God empowers in special ways those who are committed to his service. The account of Moses and the seventy elders is one early instance, and it reminds us that God has moved and worked among his people in special ways throughout the ages. When Moses reached the end of his patience and his ability to manage rebellious Israel (Num 11:1-15), God told him to select seventy men to help him (11:16-17; cp. Exod 18:14-26). Then the Lord re...","summary_en":"Spirit Empowerment Throughout Scripture, when the need arises, God empowers in special ways those who are committed to his service. The account of Moses and the seventy elders is one early instance, and it reminds us that God has moved and worked among his people in special ways throughout the ages. When Moses reached the end of his patience and his ability to manage rebellious Israel (Num 11:1-15), God told him to select seventy men to help him (11:16-17; cp. Exod 18:14-26). Then the Lord re...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":88645,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Charismatic Leadership","title_en":"Charismatic Leadership","content_ro":"<h3>Charismatic Leadership<\/h3>\n<p>Some leaders in Scripture are described as <em>charismatic<\/em> (gifted) because their authority did not come from an office or a structure but from the inspiration of God’s Spirit, who gave them particular qualities.<\/p>\n<p>The judges are often included among this group. These charismatic leaders arose in troubled and unsettled times and in response to a crisis. In Judges, these crises were repeatedly precipitated by the fact that “the Israelites did evil in the <span>Lord<\/span>’s sight” (Judg 3:12; 4:1; 6:1; Judg 10:6; 13:1), with enemy oppression as the inevitable result.<\/p>\n<p>The inspired leadership of the judges fits a pattern. The judges were “raised up” by the Spirit and were sustained by prophetic affirmation. What might have led to prophetic utterance in other periods of Israel’s history (e.g., 1 Sam 10:6; 2 Sam 23:2; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8), in the times of the judges led to physical prowess (e.g., Samson, Judg 14:6, 19; 15:14), skill, or commanding authority (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the apostles exercised charismatic leadership. As the Jewish authorities were fond of pointing out, Jesus had no “official” authority; yet, he displayed tremendous power and gained a signifcant following. And although the apostles were appointed to what we might consider to be an “office,” there was at that time virtually no structure to back up the office; when they exercised authority, it was purely charismatic. Peter’s healing of the beggar (Acts 3:1-8) provides a classic contrast between the accoutrements of office, such as “silver and gold,” and true spiritual power.<\/p>\n<p>Charisma has been a powerful tool for effective leadership from the heroes of Israel to the present time. But the successes of charismatic leadership can also be fleeting, particularly when the Spirit, who equips such leaders, is no longer operational in the leader’s life (see Judg 16:20-21; 1 Sam 16:14; Isa 63:10). Those who have been specially gifted by the Spirit to lead must continually be mindful of and dependent on that same Spirit.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 31:2-5; Judg 2:16-19; 3:10, 27-28; 6:34-35; 11:29; 14:6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam 10:6; 16:13-18; 2 Sam 23:2; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8; Matt 3:16–4:2; Acts 6:8; 8:4-40; Rom 1:11; 12:6-8; 1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Charismatic Leadership<\/h3>\n<p>Some leaders in Scripture are described as <em>charismatic<\/em> (gifted) because their authority did not come from an office or a structure but from the inspiration of God’s Spirit, who gave them particular qualities.<\/p>\n<p>The judges are often included among this group. These charismatic leaders arose in troubled and unsettled times and in response to a crisis. In Judges, these crises were repeatedly precipitated by the fact that “the Israelites did evil in the <span>Lord<\/span>’s sight” (Judg 3:12; 4:1; 6:1; Judg 10:6; 13:1), with enemy oppression as the inevitable result.<\/p>\n<p>The inspired leadership of the judges fits a pattern. The judges were “raised up” by the Spirit and were sustained by prophetic affirmation. What might have led to prophetic utterance in other periods of Israel’s history (e.g., 1 Sam 10:6; 2 Sam 23:2; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8), in the times of the judges led to physical prowess (e.g., Samson, Judg 14:6, 19; 15:14), skill, or commanding authority (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the apostles exercised charismatic leadership. As the Jewish authorities were fond of pointing out, Jesus had no “official” authority; yet, he displayed tremendous power and gained a signifcant following. And although the apostles were appointed to what we might consider to be an “office,” there was at that time virtually no structure to back up the office; when they exercised authority, it was purely charismatic. Peter’s healing of the beggar (Acts 3:1-8) provides a classic contrast between the accoutrements of office, such as “silver and gold,” and true spiritual power.<\/p>\n<p>Charisma has been a powerful tool for effective leadership from the heroes of Israel to the present time. But the successes of charismatic leadership can also be fleeting, particularly when the Spirit, who equips such leaders, is no longer operational in the leader’s life (see Judg 16:20-21; 1 Sam 16:14; Isa 63:10). Those who have been specially gifted by the Spirit to lead must continually be mindful of and dependent on that same Spirit.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 31:2-5; Judg 2:16-19; 3:10, 27-28; 6:34-35; 11:29; 14:6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam 10:6; 16:13-18; 2 Sam 23:2; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8; Matt 3:16–4:2; Acts 6:8; 8:4-40; Rom 1:11; 12:6-8; 1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Charismatic Leadership Some leaders in Scripture are described as charismatic (gifted) because their authority did not come from an office or a structure but from the inspiration of God’s Spirit, who gave them particular qualities. The judges are often included among this group. These charismatic leaders arose in troubled and unsettled times and in response to a crisis. In Judges, these crises were repeatedly precipitated by the fact that “the Israelites did evil in the Lord’s sight” (Judg 3:...","summary_en":"Charismatic Leadership Some leaders in Scripture are described as charismatic (gifted) because their authority did not come from an office or a structure but from the inspiration of God’s Spirit, who gave them particular qualities. The judges are often included among this group. These charismatic leaders arose in troubled and unsettled times and in response to a crisis. In Judges, these crises were repeatedly precipitated by the fact that “the Israelites did evil in the Lord’s sight” (Judg 3:...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":88836,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Spirit’s Presence","title_en":"The Spirit’s Presence","content_ro":"<h3>The Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the Spirit of the Lord came upon a person or group when they were called to do a task or ordained for an office. The Spirit “came upon” the judges Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29), empowering them for service. Saul and David both received the Spirit of God when they were anointed king (1 Sam 10:1, 9-10; 16:13). The Spirit would depart when the task had been completed or when the officeholder was removed from office. When Samuel anointed David as the next king (16:13), the Spirit left Saul (16:14), who was disobedient and had been rejected by God as king (13:7-14; 15:10-29; cp. 28:15; Judg 16:20). After David had sinned with Bathsheba, he prayed to be spared this same judgment (Ps 51:11).<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, God’s Holy Spirit is given to all who put their faith in Christ for salvation, not just to individuals in specific roles (see Acts 2:14-21; 1 Cor 12:1-13; Eph 1:13-14). Still, the Spirit performs a similar role in equipping God’s servants to do the work that God has called them to do (see 1 Cor 12:7-10). The Old Testament departure of the Spirit from Saul tangibly demonstrates the need for the New Testament warnings not to sin against the Spirit and not to bring sorrow to the Spirit (see Mark 3:28-29; Eph 4:30; Heb 6:1-8).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 41:37-40; Exod 31:1-6; Judg 3:9-11; 6:34; 11:29; 14:5-6; 16:20-21; 1 Sam 10:1-10; 11:6-7; 16:13-23; 19:19-23; 2 Chr 20:13-19; 24:20-22; Ps 51:11-12; Isa 11:1-5; Jer 31:33-34; Joel 2:28-29; Mark 3:28-29; Acts 2:1-21; 4:31; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Heb 6:4-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the Spirit of the Lord came upon a person or group when they were called to do a task or ordained for an office. The Spirit “came upon” the judges Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29), empowering them for service. Saul and David both received the Spirit of God when they were anointed king (1 Sam 10:1, 9-10; 16:13). The Spirit would depart when the task had been completed or when the officeholder was removed from office. When Samuel anointed David as the next king (16:13), the Spirit left Saul (16:14), who was disobedient and had been rejected by God as king (13:7-14; 15:10-29; cp. 28:15; Judg 16:20). After David had sinned with Bathsheba, he prayed to be spared this same judgment (Ps 51:11).<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, God’s Holy Spirit is given to all who put their faith in Christ for salvation, not just to individuals in specific roles (see Acts 2:14-21; 1 Cor 12:1-13; Eph 1:13-14). Still, the Spirit performs a similar role in equipping God’s servants to do the work that God has called them to do (see 1 Cor 12:7-10). The Old Testament departure of the Spirit from Saul tangibly demonstrates the need for the New Testament warnings not to sin against the Spirit and not to bring sorrow to the Spirit (see Mark 3:28-29; Eph 4:30; Heb 6:1-8).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 41:37-40; Exod 31:1-6; Judg 3:9-11; 6:34; 11:29; 14:5-6; 16:20-21; 1 Sam 10:1-10; 11:6-7; 16:13-23; 19:19-23; 2 Chr 20:13-19; 24:20-22; Ps 51:11-12; Isa 11:1-5; Jer 31:33-34; Joel 2:28-29; Mark 3:28-29; Acts 2:1-21; 4:31; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Heb 6:4-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Spirit’s Presence In the Old Testament, the Spirit of the Lord came upon a person or group when they were called to do a task or ordained for an office. The Spirit “came upon” the judges Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29), empowering them for service. Saul and David both received the Spirit of God when they were anointed king (1 Sam 10:1, 9-10; 16:13). The Spirit would depart when the task had been completed or when the officeholder was removed from office. When Samuel...","summary_en":"The Spirit’s Presence In the Old Testament, the Spirit of the Lord came upon a person or group when they were called to do a task or ordained for an office. The Spirit “came upon” the judges Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29), empowering them for service. Saul and David both received the Spirit of God when they were anointed king (1 Sam 10:1, 9-10; 16:13). The Spirit would depart when the task had been completed or when the officeholder was removed from office. When Samuel...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":93406,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Coming of the Spirit of God","title_en":"The Coming of the Spirit of God","content_ro":"<h3>The Coming of the Spirit of God<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the Spirit of God occasionally came upon individuals to empower them for God’s service and to prophesy (Num 24:2; Judg 3:10; 1 Sam 10:10; 16:13; Ezek 11:5). In the Judaism of Jesus’ day, there was a widespread belief that the Spirit of prophecy had departed from Israel with the last of the Old Testament prophets. But the prophets had predicted that when God’s salvation arrived, he would pour out his Spirit on all people (Isa 32:15; Ezek 36:26-27; Joel 2:28-32).<\/p>\n<p>This prophecy finds its initial fulfillment in the birth narrative in Luke. The Holy Spirit inspired prophetic witness and guided the events of Jesus’ birth. John the Baptist was filled with the Spirit even before he was born (Luke 1:15, 41), and Zechariah broke forth in a Spirit-filled hymn of praise to God (1:67). Mary conceived Jesus and prophesied through the power of the Spirit (1:35; 1:46-55), and Simeon was led by the Spirit to the Temple to see the Messiah (2:25-27). Later in his life, Jesus was anointed by the Spirit at his baptism and empowered to accomplish his role as the Messiah (3:21-22; 4:1, 18).<\/p>\n<p>Following his ascension, Jesus fulfilled the Old Testament prophecies by pouring out his Spirit on his disciples on the Day of Pentecost, empowering them to take the Good News of salvation to the ends of the earth (Luke 24:49; Acts 1:8; 2:4, 17-18). Throughout Acts, the church accomplished its mission through the guidance, power, and direction of the Holy Spirit. The coming of the Spirit marks the beginning of God’s salvation—God’s presence and power now reside with his people.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 24:2; Judg 3:10; 1 Sam 10:10; 16:13; Isa 32:15; Ezek 11:5; 36:26-27; Joel 2:28-32; Luke 1:15, 35, 41, 67; 2:24-27; 3:22; 4:1, 18; 24:49; Acts 2:4, 17-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Coming of the Spirit of God<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the Spirit of God occasionally came upon individuals to empower them for God’s service and to prophesy (Num 24:2; Judg 3:10; 1 Sam 10:10; 16:13; Ezek 11:5). In the Judaism of Jesus’ day, there was a widespread belief that the Spirit of prophecy had departed from Israel with the last of the Old Testament prophets. But the prophets had predicted that when God’s salvation arrived, he would pour out his Spirit on all people (Isa 32:15; Ezek 36:26-27; Joel 2:28-32).<\/p>\n<p>This prophecy finds its initial fulfillment in the birth narrative in Luke. The Holy Spirit inspired prophetic witness and guided the events of Jesus’ birth. John the Baptist was filled with the Spirit even before he was born (Luke 1:15, 41), and Zechariah broke forth in a Spirit-filled hymn of praise to God (1:67). Mary conceived Jesus and prophesied through the power of the Spirit (1:35; 1:46-55), and Simeon was led by the Spirit to the Temple to see the Messiah (2:25-27). Later in his life, Jesus was anointed by the Spirit at his baptism and empowered to accomplish his role as the Messiah (3:21-22; 4:1, 18).<\/p>\n<p>Following his ascension, Jesus fulfilled the Old Testament prophecies by pouring out his Spirit on his disciples on the Day of Pentecost, empowering them to take the Good News of salvation to the ends of the earth (Luke 24:49; Acts 1:8; 2:4, 17-18). Throughout Acts, the church accomplished its mission through the guidance, power, and direction of the Holy Spirit. The coming of the Spirit marks the beginning of God’s salvation—God’s presence and power now reside with his people.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 24:2; Judg 3:10; 1 Sam 10:10; 16:13; Isa 32:15; Ezek 11:5; 36:26-27; Joel 2:28-32; Luke 1:15, 35, 41, 67; 2:24-27; 3:22; 4:1, 18; 24:49; Acts 2:4, 17-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Coming of the Spirit of God In the Old Testament, the Spirit of God occasionally came upon individuals to empower them for God’s service and to prophesy (Num 24:2; Judg 3:10; 1 Sam 10:10; 16:13; Ezek 11:5). In the Judaism of Jesus’ day, there was a widespread belief that the Spirit of prophecy had departed from Israel with the last of the Old Testament prophets. But the prophets had predicted that when God’s salvation arrived, he would pour out his Spirit on all people (Isa 32:15; Ezek 36...","summary_en":"The Coming of the Spirit of God In the Old Testament, the Spirit of God occasionally came upon individuals to empower them for God’s service and to prophesy (Num 24:2; Judg 3:10; 1 Sam 10:10; 16:13; Ezek 11:5). In the Judaism of Jesus’ day, there was a widespread belief that the Spirit of prophecy had departed from Israel with the last of the Old Testament prophets. But the prophets had predicted that when God’s salvation arrived, he would pour out his Spirit on all people (Isa 32:15; Ezek 36...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":115875,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Spirit Empowerment","title_en":"Spirit Empowerment","content_ro":"<h3>Spirit Empowerment<\/h3>\n<p>Throughout Scripture, when the need arises, God empowers in special ways those who are committed to his service. The account of Moses and the seventy elders is one early instance, and it reminds us that God has moved and worked among his people in special ways throughout the ages. When Moses reached the end of his patience and his ability to manage rebellious Israel (Num 11:1-15), God told him to select seventy men to help him (11:16-17; cp. Exod 18:14-26). Then the Lord redistributed the Spirit that Moses already possessed and empowered these men for service (Num 11:24-25).<\/p>\n<p>Joshua was empowered by the Lord’s Spirit as Moses’ successor (Num 27:18; cp. Deut 34:9). In the period of the Judges, the Spirit of the Lord came to the aid of Israel’s leaders as, for example, in the work of Othniel (Judg 3:10), Gideon (Judg 6:34), Jephthah (Judg 11:29), and Samson (Judg 13:25; 14:6, 19; 15:14). David had access to the strength of God’s presence, and his awareness of God’s actions—in history and in his own experience—made him a great leader (e.g., 1 Sam 16:13; 17:45; 18:12, 28). The prophets knew that their special ministry was possible because of the Spirit’s presence and power (e.g., Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Zech 4:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was filled with God’s Spirit and empowered for a unique ministry (see Matt 12:18; Luke 4:1, 14, 18; John 3:34; Acts 10:38), and he spoke about the Spirit’s special role in the church (Acts 1:8). The arrival of the Spirit enabled the assembled believers to speak powerfully on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:4-5, 16-18; cp. Joel 2:28-29). The Spirit emboldened and empowered the church after Pentecost (Acts 4:31; 19:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 12:1-31; Gal 3:2-5) and remains with God’s people today. The Spirit moves as circumstances require to provide spiritual renewal and strength to God’s people, and the Spirit continues to equip God’s people for whatever tasks he calls them to do.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 11:16-30; 24:1-9; 27:18-23; Deut 34:10-12; Judg 3:9-10; 6:34; 11:29; 14:5-6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam 16:13; Pss 23; 46:1; 94:16-19; 116:1-9; 121:1-8; 143:10-12; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Joel 2:28-29; Zech 4:6; Matt 12:18; Luke 4:1, 14, 18; John 3:34; Acts 1:8; 2:4, 16-18; 4:31; 10:38; 19:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 12:1-31; Gal 3:2-5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Spirit Empowerment<\/h3>\n<p>Throughout Scripture, when the need arises, God empowers in special ways those who are committed to his service. The account of Moses and the seventy elders is one early instance, and it reminds us that God has moved and worked among his people in special ways throughout the ages. When Moses reached the end of his patience and his ability to manage rebellious Israel (Num 11:1-15), God told him to select seventy men to help him (11:16-17; cp. Exod 18:14-26). Then the Lord redistributed the Spirit that Moses already possessed and empowered these men for service (Num 11:24-25).<\/p>\n<p>Joshua was empowered by the Lord’s Spirit as Moses’ successor (Num 27:18; cp. Deut 34:9). In the period of the Judges, the Spirit of the Lord came to the aid of Israel’s leaders as, for example, in the work of Othniel (Judg 3:10), Gideon (Judg 6:34), Jephthah (Judg 11:29), and Samson (Judg 13:25; 14:6, 19; 15:14). David had access to the strength of God’s presence, and his awareness of God’s actions—in history and in his own experience—made him a great leader (e.g., 1 Sam 16:13; 17:45; 18:12, 28). The prophets knew that their special ministry was possible because of the Spirit’s presence and power (e.g., Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Zech 4:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was filled with God’s Spirit and empowered for a unique ministry (see Matt 12:18; Luke 4:1, 14, 18; John 3:34; Acts 10:38), and he spoke about the Spirit’s special role in the church (Acts 1:8). The arrival of the Spirit enabled the assembled believers to speak powerfully on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:4-5, 16-18; cp. Joel 2:28-29). The Spirit emboldened and empowered the church after Pentecost (Acts 4:31; 19:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 12:1-31; Gal 3:2-5) and remains with God’s people today. The Spirit moves as circumstances require to provide spiritual renewal and strength to God’s people, and the Spirit continues to equip God’s people for whatever tasks he calls them to do.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 11:16-30; 24:1-9; 27:18-23; Deut 34:10-12; Judg 3:9-10; 6:34; 11:29; 14:5-6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam 16:13; Pss 23; 46:1; 94:16-19; 116:1-9; 121:1-8; 143:10-12; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Joel 2:28-29; Zech 4:6; Matt 12:18; Luke 4:1, 14, 18; John 3:34; Acts 1:8; 2:4, 16-18; 4:31; 10:38; 19:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 12:1-31; Gal 3:2-5<\/p>","summary_ro":"Spirit Empowerment Throughout Scripture, when the need arises, God empowers in special ways those who are committed to his service. The account of Moses and the seventy elders is one early instance, and it reminds us that God has moved and worked among his people in special ways throughout the ages. When Moses reached the end of his patience and his ability to manage rebellious Israel (Num 11:1-15), God told him to select seventy men to help him (11:16-17; cp. Exod 18:14-26). Then the Lord re...","summary_en":"Spirit Empowerment Throughout Scripture, when the need arises, God empowers in special ways those who are committed to his service. The account of Moses and the seventy elders is one early instance, and it reminds us that God has moved and worked among his people in special ways throughout the ages. When Moses reached the end of his patience and his ability to manage rebellious Israel (Num 11:1-15), God told him to select seventy men to help him (11:16-17; cp. Exod 18:14-26). Then the Lord re...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":116271,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Charismatic Leadership","title_en":"Charismatic Leadership","content_ro":"<h3>Charismatic Leadership<\/h3>\n<p>Some leaders in Scripture are described as <em>charismatic<\/em> (gifted) because their authority did not come from an office or a structure but from the inspiration of God’s Spirit, who gave them particular qualities.<\/p>\n<p>The judges are often included among this group. These charismatic leaders arose in troubled and unsettled times and in response to a crisis. In Judges, these crises were repeatedly precipitated by the fact that “the Israelites did evil in the <span>Lord<\/span>’s sight” (Judg 3:12; 4:1; 6:1; Judg 10:6; 13:1), with enemy oppression as the inevitable result.<\/p>\n<p>The inspired leadership of the judges fits a pattern. The judges were “raised up” by the Spirit and were sustained by prophetic affirmation. What might have led to prophetic utterance in other periods of Israel’s history (e.g., 1 Sam 10:6; 2 Sam 23:2; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8), in the times of the judges led to physical prowess (e.g., Samson, Judg 14:6, 19; 15:14), skill, or commanding authority (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the apostles exercised charismatic leadership. As the Jewish authorities were fond of pointing out, Jesus had no “official” authority; yet, he displayed tremendous power and gained a signifcant following. And although the apostles were appointed to what we might consider to be an “office,” there was at that time virtually no structure to back up the office; when they exercised authority, it was purely charismatic. Peter’s healing of the beggar (Acts 3:1-8) provides a classic contrast between the accoutrements of office, such as “silver and gold,” and true spiritual power.<\/p>\n<p>Charisma has been a powerful tool for effective leadership from the heroes of Israel to the present time. But the successes of charismatic leadership can also be fleeting, particularly when the Spirit, who equips such leaders, is no longer operational in the leader’s life (see Judg 16:20-21; 1 Sam 16:14; Isa 63:10). Those who have been specially gifted by the Spirit to lead must continually be mindful of and dependent on that same Spirit.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 31:2-5; Judg 2:16-19; 3:10, 27-28; 6:34-35; 11:29; 14:6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam 10:6; 16:13-18; 2 Sam 23:2; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8; Matt 3:16–4:2; Acts 6:8; 8:4-40; Rom 1:11; 12:6-8; 1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Charismatic Leadership<\/h3>\n<p>Some leaders in Scripture are described as <em>charismatic<\/em> (gifted) because their authority did not come from an office or a structure but from the inspiration of God’s Spirit, who gave them particular qualities.<\/p>\n<p>The judges are often included among this group. These charismatic leaders arose in troubled and unsettled times and in response to a crisis. In Judges, these crises were repeatedly precipitated by the fact that “the Israelites did evil in the <span>Lord<\/span>’s sight” (Judg 3:12; 4:1; 6:1; Judg 10:6; 13:1), with enemy oppression as the inevitable result.<\/p>\n<p>The inspired leadership of the judges fits a pattern. The judges were “raised up” by the Spirit and were sustained by prophetic affirmation. What might have led to prophetic utterance in other periods of Israel’s history (e.g., 1 Sam 10:6; 2 Sam 23:2; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8), in the times of the judges led to physical prowess (e.g., Samson, Judg 14:6, 19; 15:14), skill, or commanding authority (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the apostles exercised charismatic leadership. As the Jewish authorities were fond of pointing out, Jesus had no “official” authority; yet, he displayed tremendous power and gained a signifcant following. And although the apostles were appointed to what we might consider to be an “office,” there was at that time virtually no structure to back up the office; when they exercised authority, it was purely charismatic. Peter’s healing of the beggar (Acts 3:1-8) provides a classic contrast between the accoutrements of office, such as “silver and gold,” and true spiritual power.<\/p>\n<p>Charisma has been a powerful tool for effective leadership from the heroes of Israel to the present time. But the successes of charismatic leadership can also be fleeting, particularly when the Spirit, who equips such leaders, is no longer operational in the leader’s life (see Judg 16:20-21; 1 Sam 16:14; Isa 63:10). Those who have been specially gifted by the Spirit to lead must continually be mindful of and dependent on that same Spirit.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 31:2-5; Judg 2:16-19; 3:10, 27-28; 6:34-35; 11:29; 14:6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam 10:6; 16:13-18; 2 Sam 23:2; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8; Matt 3:16–4:2; Acts 6:8; 8:4-40; Rom 1:11; 12:6-8; 1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Charismatic Leadership Some leaders in Scripture are described as charismatic (gifted) because their authority did not come from an office or a structure but from the inspiration of God’s Spirit, who gave them particular qualities. The judges are often included among this group. These charismatic leaders arose in troubled and unsettled times and in response to a crisis. In Judges, these crises were repeatedly precipitated by the fact that “the Israelites did evil in the Lord’s sight” (Judg 3:...","summary_en":"Charismatic Leadership Some leaders in Scripture are described as charismatic (gifted) because their authority did not come from an office or a structure but from the inspiration of God’s Spirit, who gave them particular qualities. The judges are often included among this group. These charismatic leaders arose in troubled and unsettled times and in response to a crisis. In Judges, these crises were repeatedly precipitated by the fact that “the Israelites did evil in the Lord’s sight” (Judg 3:...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":116462,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Spirit’s Presence","title_en":"The Spirit’s Presence","content_ro":"<h3>The Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the Spirit of the Lord came upon a person or group when they were called to do a task or ordained for an office. The Spirit “came upon” the judges Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29), empowering them for service. Saul and David both received the Spirit of God when they were anointed king (1 Sam 10:1, 9-10; 16:13). The Spirit would depart when the task had been completed or when the officeholder was removed from office. When Samuel anointed David as the next king (16:13), the Spirit left Saul (16:14), who was disobedient and had been rejected by God as king (13:7-14; 15:10-29; cp. 28:15; Judg 16:20). After David had sinned with Bathsheba, he prayed to be spared this same judgment (Ps 51:11).<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, God’s Holy Spirit is given to all who put their faith in Christ for salvation, not just to individuals in specific roles (see Acts 2:14-21; 1 Cor 12:1-13; Eph 1:13-14). Still, the Spirit performs a similar role in equipping God’s servants to do the work that God has called them to do (see 1 Cor 12:7-10). The Old Testament departure of the Spirit from Saul tangibly demonstrates the need for the New Testament warnings not to sin against the Spirit and not to bring sorrow to the Spirit (see Mark 3:28-29; Eph 4:30; Heb 6:1-8).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 41:37-40; Exod 31:1-6; Judg 3:9-11; 6:34; 11:29; 14:5-6; 16:20-21; 1 Sam 10:1-10; 11:6-7; 16:13-23; 19:19-23; 2 Chr 20:13-19; 24:20-22; Ps 51:11-12; Isa 11:1-5; Jer 31:33-34; Joel 2:28-29; Mark 3:28-29; Acts 2:1-21; 4:31; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Heb 6:4-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the Spirit of the Lord came upon a person or group when they were called to do a task or ordained for an office. The Spirit “came upon” the judges Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29), empowering them for service. Saul and David both received the Spirit of God when they were anointed king (1 Sam 10:1, 9-10; 16:13). The Spirit would depart when the task had been completed or when the officeholder was removed from office. When Samuel anointed David as the next king (16:13), the Spirit left Saul (16:14), who was disobedient and had been rejected by God as king (13:7-14; 15:10-29; cp. 28:15; Judg 16:20). After David had sinned with Bathsheba, he prayed to be spared this same judgment (Ps 51:11).<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, God’s Holy Spirit is given to all who put their faith in Christ for salvation, not just to individuals in specific roles (see Acts 2:14-21; 1 Cor 12:1-13; Eph 1:13-14). Still, the Spirit performs a similar role in equipping God’s servants to do the work that God has called them to do (see 1 Cor 12:7-10). The Old Testament departure of the Spirit from Saul tangibly demonstrates the need for the New Testament warnings not to sin against the Spirit and not to bring sorrow to the Spirit (see Mark 3:28-29; Eph 4:30; Heb 6:1-8).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 41:37-40; Exod 31:1-6; Judg 3:9-11; 6:34; 11:29; 14:5-6; 16:20-21; 1 Sam 10:1-10; 11:6-7; 16:13-23; 19:19-23; 2 Chr 20:13-19; 24:20-22; Ps 51:11-12; Isa 11:1-5; Jer 31:33-34; Joel 2:28-29; Mark 3:28-29; Acts 2:1-21; 4:31; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Heb 6:4-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Spirit’s Presence In the Old Testament, the Spirit of the Lord came upon a person or group when they were called to do a task or ordained for an office. The Spirit “came upon” the judges Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29), empowering them for service. Saul and David both received the Spirit of God when they were anointed king (1 Sam 10:1, 9-10; 16:13). The Spirit would depart when the task had been completed or when the officeholder was removed from office. When Samuel...","summary_en":"The Spirit’s Presence In the Old Testament, the Spirit of the Lord came upon a person or group when they were called to do a task or ordained for an office. The Spirit “came upon” the judges Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29), empowering them for service. Saul and David both received the Spirit of God when they were anointed king (1 Sam 10:1, 9-10; 16:13). The Spirit would depart when the task had been completed or when the officeholder was removed from office. When Samuel...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":121032,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Coming of the Spirit of God","title_en":"The Coming of the Spirit of God","content_ro":"<h3>The Coming of the Spirit of God<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the Spirit of God occasionally came upon individuals to empower them for God’s service and to prophesy (Num 24:2; Judg 3:10; 1 Sam 10:10; 16:13; Ezek 11:5). In the Judaism of Jesus’ day, there was a widespread belief that the Spirit of prophecy had departed from Israel with the last of the Old Testament prophets. But the prophets had predicted that when God’s salvation arrived, he would pour out his Spirit on all people (Isa 32:15; Ezek 36:26-27; Joel 2:28-32).<\/p>\n<p>This prophecy finds its initial fulfillment in the birth narrative in Luke. The Holy Spirit inspired prophetic witness and guided the events of Jesus’ birth. John the Baptist was filled with the Spirit even before he was born (Luke 1:15, 41), and Zechariah broke forth in a Spirit-filled hymn of praise to God (1:67). Mary conceived Jesus and prophesied through the power of the Spirit (1:35; 1:46-55), and Simeon was led by the Spirit to the Temple to see the Messiah (2:25-27). Later in his life, Jesus was anointed by the Spirit at his baptism and empowered to accomplish his role as the Messiah (3:21-22; 4:1, 18).<\/p>\n<p>Following his ascension, Jesus fulfilled the Old Testament prophecies by pouring out his Spirit on his disciples on the Day of Pentecost, empowering them to take the Good News of salvation to the ends of the earth (Luke 24:49; Acts 1:8; 2:4, 17-18). Throughout Acts, the church accomplished its mission through the guidance, power, and direction of the Holy Spirit. The coming of the Spirit marks the beginning of God’s salvation—God’s presence and power now reside with his people.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 24:2; Judg 3:10; 1 Sam 10:10; 16:13; Isa 32:15; Ezek 11:5; 36:26-27; Joel 2:28-32; Luke 1:15, 35, 41, 67; 2:24-27; 3:22; 4:1, 18; 24:49; Acts 2:4, 17-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Coming of the Spirit of God<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the Spirit of God occasionally came upon individuals to empower them for God’s service and to prophesy (Num 24:2; Judg 3:10; 1 Sam 10:10; 16:13; Ezek 11:5). In the Judaism of Jesus’ day, there was a widespread belief that the Spirit of prophecy had departed from Israel with the last of the Old Testament prophets. But the prophets had predicted that when God’s salvation arrived, he would pour out his Spirit on all people (Isa 32:15; Ezek 36:26-27; Joel 2:28-32).<\/p>\n<p>This prophecy finds its initial fulfillment in the birth narrative in Luke. The Holy Spirit inspired prophetic witness and guided the events of Jesus’ birth. John the Baptist was filled with the Spirit even before he was born (Luke 1:15, 41), and Zechariah broke forth in a Spirit-filled hymn of praise to God (1:67). Mary conceived Jesus and prophesied through the power of the Spirit (1:35; 1:46-55), and Simeon was led by the Spirit to the Temple to see the Messiah (2:25-27). Later in his life, Jesus was anointed by the Spirit at his baptism and empowered to accomplish his role as the Messiah (3:21-22; 4:1, 18).<\/p>\n<p>Following his ascension, Jesus fulfilled the Old Testament prophecies by pouring out his Spirit on his disciples on the Day of Pentecost, empowering them to take the Good News of salvation to the ends of the earth (Luke 24:49; Acts 1:8; 2:4, 17-18). Throughout Acts, the church accomplished its mission through the guidance, power, and direction of the Holy Spirit. The coming of the Spirit marks the beginning of God’s salvation—God’s presence and power now reside with his people.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 24:2; Judg 3:10; 1 Sam 10:10; 16:13; Isa 32:15; Ezek 11:5; 36:26-27; Joel 2:28-32; Luke 1:15, 35, 41, 67; 2:24-27; 3:22; 4:1, 18; 24:49; Acts 2:4, 17-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Coming of the Spirit of God In the Old Testament, the Spirit of God occasionally came upon individuals to empower them for God’s service and to prophesy (Num 24:2; Judg 3:10; 1 Sam 10:10; 16:13; Ezek 11:5). In the Judaism of Jesus’ day, there was a widespread belief that the Spirit of prophecy had departed from Israel with the last of the Old Testament prophets. But the prophets had predicted that when God’s salvation arrived, he would pour out his Spirit on all people (Isa 32:15; Ezek 36...","summary_en":"The Coming of the Spirit of God In the Old Testament, the Spirit of God occasionally came upon individuals to empower them for God’s service and to prophesy (Num 24:2; Judg 3:10; 1 Sam 10:10; 16:13; Ezek 11:5). In the Judaism of Jesus’ day, there was a widespread belief that the Spirit of prophecy had departed from Israel with the last of the Old Testament prophets. But the prophets had predicted that when God’s salvation arrived, he would pour out his Spirit on all people (Isa 32:15; Ezek 36...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143501,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Spirit Empowerment","title_en":"Spirit Empowerment","content_ro":"<h3>Spirit Empowerment<\/h3>\n<p>Throughout Scripture, when the need arises, God empowers in special ways those who are committed to his service. The account of Moses and the seventy elders is one early instance, and it reminds us that God has moved and worked among his people in special ways throughout the ages. When Moses reached the end of his patience and his ability to manage rebellious Israel (Num 11:1-15), God told him to select seventy men to help him (11:16-17; cp. Exod 18:14-26). Then the Lord redistributed the Spirit that Moses already possessed and empowered these men for service (Num 11:24-25).<\/p>\n<p>Joshua was empowered by the Lord’s Spirit as Moses’ successor (Num 27:18; cp. Deut 34:9). In the period of the Judges, the Spirit of the Lord came to the aid of Israel’s leaders as, for example, in the work of Othniel (Judg 3:10), Gideon (Judg 6:34), Jephthah (Judg 11:29), and Samson (Judg 13:25; 14:6, 19; 15:14). David had access to the strength of God’s presence, and his awareness of God’s actions—in history and in his own experience—made him a great leader (e.g., 1 Sam 16:13; 17:45; 18:12, 28). The prophets knew that their special ministry was possible because of the Spirit’s presence and power (e.g., Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Zech 4:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was filled with God’s Spirit and empowered for a unique ministry (see Matt 12:18; Luke 4:1, 14, 18; John 3:34; Acts 10:38), and he spoke about the Spirit’s special role in the church (Acts 1:8). The arrival of the Spirit enabled the assembled believers to speak powerfully on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:4-5, 16-18; cp. Joel 2:28-29). The Spirit emboldened and empowered the church after Pentecost (Acts 4:31; 19:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 12:1-31; Gal 3:2-5) and remains with God’s people today. The Spirit moves as circumstances require to provide spiritual renewal and strength to God’s people, and the Spirit continues to equip God’s people for whatever tasks he calls them to do.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 11:16-30; 24:1-9; 27:18-23; Deut 34:10-12; Judg 3:9-10; 6:34; 11:29; 14:5-6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam 16:13; Pss 23; 46:1; 94:16-19; 116:1-9; 121:1-8; 143:10-12; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Joel 2:28-29; Zech 4:6; Matt 12:18; Luke 4:1, 14, 18; John 3:34; Acts 1:8; 2:4, 16-18; 4:31; 10:38; 19:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 12:1-31; Gal 3:2-5<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Spirit Empowerment<\/h3>\n<p>Throughout Scripture, when the need arises, God empowers in special ways those who are committed to his service. The account of Moses and the seventy elders is one early instance, and it reminds us that God has moved and worked among his people in special ways throughout the ages. When Moses reached the end of his patience and his ability to manage rebellious Israel (Num 11:1-15), God told him to select seventy men to help him (11:16-17; cp. Exod 18:14-26). Then the Lord redistributed the Spirit that Moses already possessed and empowered these men for service (Num 11:24-25).<\/p>\n<p>Joshua was empowered by the Lord’s Spirit as Moses’ successor (Num 27:18; cp. Deut 34:9). In the period of the Judges, the Spirit of the Lord came to the aid of Israel’s leaders as, for example, in the work of Othniel (Judg 3:10), Gideon (Judg 6:34), Jephthah (Judg 11:29), and Samson (Judg 13:25; 14:6, 19; 15:14). David had access to the strength of God’s presence, and his awareness of God’s actions—in history and in his own experience—made him a great leader (e.g., 1 Sam 16:13; 17:45; 18:12, 28). The prophets knew that their special ministry was possible because of the Spirit’s presence and power (e.g., Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Zech 4:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus was filled with God’s Spirit and empowered for a unique ministry (see Matt 12:18; Luke 4:1, 14, 18; John 3:34; Acts 10:38), and he spoke about the Spirit’s special role in the church (Acts 1:8). The arrival of the Spirit enabled the assembled believers to speak powerfully on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:4-5, 16-18; cp. Joel 2:28-29). The Spirit emboldened and empowered the church after Pentecost (Acts 4:31; 19:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 12:1-31; Gal 3:2-5) and remains with God’s people today. The Spirit moves as circumstances require to provide spiritual renewal and strength to God’s people, and the Spirit continues to equip God’s people for whatever tasks he calls them to do.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 11:16-30; 24:1-9; 27:18-23; Deut 34:10-12; Judg 3:9-10; 6:34; 11:29; 14:5-6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam 16:13; Pss 23; 46:1; 94:16-19; 116:1-9; 121:1-8; 143:10-12; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Joel 2:28-29; Zech 4:6; Matt 12:18; Luke 4:1, 14, 18; John 3:34; Acts 1:8; 2:4, 16-18; 4:31; 10:38; 19:6; 20:28; 1 Cor 12:1-31; Gal 3:2-5<\/p>","summary_ro":"Spirit Empowerment Throughout Scripture, when the need arises, God empowers in special ways those who are committed to his service. The account of Moses and the seventy elders is one early instance, and it reminds us that God has moved and worked among his people in special ways throughout the ages. When Moses reached the end of his patience and his ability to manage rebellious Israel (Num 11:1-15), God told him to select seventy men to help him (11:16-17; cp. Exod 18:14-26). Then the Lord re...","summary_en":"Spirit Empowerment Throughout Scripture, when the need arises, God empowers in special ways those who are committed to his service. The account of Moses and the seventy elders is one early instance, and it reminds us that God has moved and worked among his people in special ways throughout the ages. When Moses reached the end of his patience and his ability to manage rebellious Israel (Num 11:1-15), God told him to select seventy men to help him (11:16-17; cp. Exod 18:14-26). Then the Lord re...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143897,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Charismatic Leadership","title_en":"Charismatic Leadership","content_ro":"<h3>Charismatic Leadership<\/h3>\n<p>Some leaders in Scripture are described as <em>charismatic<\/em> (gifted) because their authority did not come from an office or a structure but from the inspiration of God’s Spirit, who gave them particular qualities.<\/p>\n<p>The judges are often included among this group. These charismatic leaders arose in troubled and unsettled times and in response to a crisis. In Judges, these crises were repeatedly precipitated by the fact that “the Israelites did evil in the <span>Lord<\/span>’s sight” (Judg 3:12; 4:1; 6:1; Judg 10:6; 13:1), with enemy oppression as the inevitable result.<\/p>\n<p>The inspired leadership of the judges fits a pattern. The judges were “raised up” by the Spirit and were sustained by prophetic affirmation. What might have led to prophetic utterance in other periods of Israel’s history (e.g., 1 Sam 10:6; 2 Sam 23:2; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8), in the times of the judges led to physical prowess (e.g., Samson, Judg 14:6, 19; 15:14), skill, or commanding authority (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the apostles exercised charismatic leadership. As the Jewish authorities were fond of pointing out, Jesus had no “official” authority; yet, he displayed tremendous power and gained a signifcant following. And although the apostles were appointed to what we might consider to be an “office,” there was at that time virtually no structure to back up the office; when they exercised authority, it was purely charismatic. Peter’s healing of the beggar (Acts 3:1-8) provides a classic contrast between the accoutrements of office, such as “silver and gold,” and true spiritual power.<\/p>\n<p>Charisma has been a powerful tool for effective leadership from the heroes of Israel to the present time. But the successes of charismatic leadership can also be fleeting, particularly when the Spirit, who equips such leaders, is no longer operational in the leader’s life (see Judg 16:20-21; 1 Sam 16:14; Isa 63:10). Those who have been specially gifted by the Spirit to lead must continually be mindful of and dependent on that same Spirit.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 31:2-5; Judg 2:16-19; 3:10, 27-28; 6:34-35; 11:29; 14:6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam 10:6; 16:13-18; 2 Sam 23:2; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8; Matt 3:16–4:2; Acts 6:8; 8:4-40; Rom 1:11; 12:6-8; 1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Charismatic Leadership<\/h3>\n<p>Some leaders in Scripture are described as <em>charismatic<\/em> (gifted) because their authority did not come from an office or a structure but from the inspiration of God’s Spirit, who gave them particular qualities.<\/p>\n<p>The judges are often included among this group. These charismatic leaders arose in troubled and unsettled times and in response to a crisis. In Judges, these crises were repeatedly precipitated by the fact that “the Israelites did evil in the <span>Lord<\/span>’s sight” (Judg 3:12; 4:1; 6:1; Judg 10:6; 13:1), with enemy oppression as the inevitable result.<\/p>\n<p>The inspired leadership of the judges fits a pattern. The judges were “raised up” by the Spirit and were sustained by prophetic affirmation. What might have led to prophetic utterance in other periods of Israel’s history (e.g., 1 Sam 10:6; 2 Sam 23:2; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8), in the times of the judges led to physical prowess (e.g., Samson, Judg 14:6, 19; 15:14), skill, or commanding authority (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the apostles exercised charismatic leadership. As the Jewish authorities were fond of pointing out, Jesus had no “official” authority; yet, he displayed tremendous power and gained a signifcant following. And although the apostles were appointed to what we might consider to be an “office,” there was at that time virtually no structure to back up the office; when they exercised authority, it was purely charismatic. Peter’s healing of the beggar (Acts 3:1-8) provides a classic contrast between the accoutrements of office, such as “silver and gold,” and true spiritual power.<\/p>\n<p>Charisma has been a powerful tool for effective leadership from the heroes of Israel to the present time. But the successes of charismatic leadership can also be fleeting, particularly when the Spirit, who equips such leaders, is no longer operational in the leader’s life (see Judg 16:20-21; 1 Sam 16:14; Isa 63:10). Those who have been specially gifted by the Spirit to lead must continually be mindful of and dependent on that same Spirit.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 31:2-5; Judg 2:16-19; 3:10, 27-28; 6:34-35; 11:29; 14:6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam 10:6; 16:13-18; 2 Sam 23:2; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8; Matt 3:16–4:2; Acts 6:8; 8:4-40; Rom 1:11; 12:6-8; 1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Charismatic Leadership Some leaders in Scripture are described as charismatic (gifted) because their authority did not come from an office or a structure but from the inspiration of God’s Spirit, who gave them particular qualities. The judges are often included among this group. These charismatic leaders arose in troubled and unsettled times and in response to a crisis. In Judges, these crises were repeatedly precipitated by the fact that “the Israelites did evil in the Lord’s sight” (Judg 3:...","summary_en":"Charismatic Leadership Some leaders in Scripture are described as charismatic (gifted) because their authority did not come from an office or a structure but from the inspiration of God’s Spirit, who gave them particular qualities. The judges are often included among this group. These charismatic leaders arose in troubled and unsettled times and in response to a crisis. In Judges, these crises were repeatedly precipitated by the fact that “the Israelites did evil in the Lord’s sight” (Judg 3:...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":144088,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Spirit’s Presence","title_en":"The Spirit’s Presence","content_ro":"<h3>The Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the Spirit of the Lord came upon a person or group when they were called to do a task or ordained for an office. The Spirit “came upon” the judges Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29), empowering them for service. Saul and David both received the Spirit of God when they were anointed king (1 Sam 10:1, 9-10; 16:13). The Spirit would depart when the task had been completed or when the officeholder was removed from office. When Samuel anointed David as the next king (16:13), the Spirit left Saul (16:14), who was disobedient and had been rejected by God as king (13:7-14; 15:10-29; cp. 28:15; Judg 16:20). After David had sinned with Bathsheba, he prayed to be spared this same judgment (Ps 51:11).<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, God’s Holy Spirit is given to all who put their faith in Christ for salvation, not just to individuals in specific roles (see Acts 2:14-21; 1 Cor 12:1-13; Eph 1:13-14). Still, the Spirit performs a similar role in equipping God’s servants to do the work that God has called them to do (see 1 Cor 12:7-10). The Old Testament departure of the Spirit from Saul tangibly demonstrates the need for the New Testament warnings not to sin against the Spirit and not to bring sorrow to the Spirit (see Mark 3:28-29; Eph 4:30; Heb 6:1-8).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 41:37-40; Exod 31:1-6; Judg 3:9-11; 6:34; 11:29; 14:5-6; 16:20-21; 1 Sam 10:1-10; 11:6-7; 16:13-23; 19:19-23; 2 Chr 20:13-19; 24:20-22; Ps 51:11-12; Isa 11:1-5; Jer 31:33-34; Joel 2:28-29; Mark 3:28-29; Acts 2:1-21; 4:31; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Heb 6:4-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the Spirit of the Lord came upon a person or group when they were called to do a task or ordained for an office. The Spirit “came upon” the judges Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29), empowering them for service. Saul and David both received the Spirit of God when they were anointed king (1 Sam 10:1, 9-10; 16:13). The Spirit would depart when the task had been completed or when the officeholder was removed from office. When Samuel anointed David as the next king (16:13), the Spirit left Saul (16:14), who was disobedient and had been rejected by God as king (13:7-14; 15:10-29; cp. 28:15; Judg 16:20). After David had sinned with Bathsheba, he prayed to be spared this same judgment (Ps 51:11).<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, God’s Holy Spirit is given to all who put their faith in Christ for salvation, not just to individuals in specific roles (see Acts 2:14-21; 1 Cor 12:1-13; Eph 1:13-14). Still, the Spirit performs a similar role in equipping God’s servants to do the work that God has called them to do (see 1 Cor 12:7-10). The Old Testament departure of the Spirit from Saul tangibly demonstrates the need for the New Testament warnings not to sin against the Spirit and not to bring sorrow to the Spirit (see Mark 3:28-29; Eph 4:30; Heb 6:1-8).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 41:37-40; Exod 31:1-6; Judg 3:9-11; 6:34; 11:29; 14:5-6; 16:20-21; 1 Sam 10:1-10; 11:6-7; 16:13-23; 19:19-23; 2 Chr 20:13-19; 24:20-22; Ps 51:11-12; Isa 11:1-5; Jer 31:33-34; Joel 2:28-29; Mark 3:28-29; Acts 2:1-21; 4:31; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Heb 6:4-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Spirit’s Presence In the Old Testament, the Spirit of the Lord came upon a person or group when they were called to do a task or ordained for an office. The Spirit “came upon” the judges Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29), empowering them for service. Saul and David both received the Spirit of God when they were anointed king (1 Sam 10:1, 9-10; 16:13). The Spirit would depart when the task had been completed or when the officeholder was removed from office. When Samuel...","summary_en":"The Spirit’s Presence In the Old Testament, the Spirit of the Lord came upon a person or group when they were called to do a task or ordained for an office. The Spirit “came upon” the judges Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29), empowering them for service. Saul and David both received the Spirit of God when they were anointed king (1 Sam 10:1, 9-10; 16:13). The Spirit would depart when the task had been completed or when the officeholder was removed from office. When Samuel...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":148658,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Coming of the Spirit of God","title_en":"The Coming of the Spirit of God","content_ro":"<h3>The Coming of the Spirit of God<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the Spirit of God occasionally came upon individuals to empower them for God’s service and to prophesy (Num 24:2; Judg 3:10; 1 Sam 10:10; 16:13; Ezek 11:5). In the Judaism of Jesus’ day, there was a widespread belief that the Spirit of prophecy had departed from Israel with the last of the Old Testament prophets. But the prophets had predicted that when God’s salvation arrived, he would pour out his Spirit on all people (Isa 32:15; Ezek 36:26-27; Joel 2:28-32).<\/p>\n<p>This prophecy finds its initial fulfillment in the birth narrative in Luke. The Holy Spirit inspired prophetic witness and guided the events of Jesus’ birth. John the Baptist was filled with the Spirit even before he was born (Luke 1:15, 41), and Zechariah broke forth in a Spirit-filled hymn of praise to God (1:67). Mary conceived Jesus and prophesied through the power of the Spirit (1:35; 1:46-55), and Simeon was led by the Spirit to the Temple to see the Messiah (2:25-27). Later in his life, Jesus was anointed by the Spirit at his baptism and empowered to accomplish his role as the Messiah (3:21-22; 4:1, 18).<\/p>\n<p>Following his ascension, Jesus fulfilled the Old Testament prophecies by pouring out his Spirit on his disciples on the Day of Pentecost, empowering them to take the Good News of salvation to the ends of the earth (Luke 24:49; Acts 1:8; 2:4, 17-18). Throughout Acts, the church accomplished its mission through the guidance, power, and direction of the Holy Spirit. The coming of the Spirit marks the beginning of God’s salvation—God’s presence and power now reside with his people.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 24:2; Judg 3:10; 1 Sam 10:10; 16:13; Isa 32:15; Ezek 11:5; 36:26-27; Joel 2:28-32; Luke 1:15, 35, 41, 67; 2:24-27; 3:22; 4:1, 18; 24:49; Acts 2:4, 17-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Coming of the Spirit of God<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the Spirit of God occasionally came upon individuals to empower them for God’s service and to prophesy (Num 24:2; Judg 3:10; 1 Sam 10:10; 16:13; Ezek 11:5). In the Judaism of Jesus’ day, there was a widespread belief that the Spirit of prophecy had departed from Israel with the last of the Old Testament prophets. But the prophets had predicted that when God’s salvation arrived, he would pour out his Spirit on all people (Isa 32:15; Ezek 36:26-27; Joel 2:28-32).<\/p>\n<p>This prophecy finds its initial fulfillment in the birth narrative in Luke. The Holy Spirit inspired prophetic witness and guided the events of Jesus’ birth. John the Baptist was filled with the Spirit even before he was born (Luke 1:15, 41), and Zechariah broke forth in a Spirit-filled hymn of praise to God (1:67). Mary conceived Jesus and prophesied through the power of the Spirit (1:35; 1:46-55), and Simeon was led by the Spirit to the Temple to see the Messiah (2:25-27). Later in his life, Jesus was anointed by the Spirit at his baptism and empowered to accomplish his role as the Messiah (3:21-22; 4:1, 18).<\/p>\n<p>Following his ascension, Jesus fulfilled the Old Testament prophecies by pouring out his Spirit on his disciples on the Day of Pentecost, empowering them to take the Good News of salvation to the ends of the earth (Luke 24:49; Acts 1:8; 2:4, 17-18). Throughout Acts, the church accomplished its mission through the guidance, power, and direction of the Holy Spirit. The coming of the Spirit marks the beginning of God’s salvation—God’s presence and power now reside with his people.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Num 24:2; Judg 3:10; 1 Sam 10:10; 16:13; Isa 32:15; Ezek 11:5; 36:26-27; Joel 2:28-32; Luke 1:15, 35, 41, 67; 2:24-27; 3:22; 4:1, 18; 24:49; Acts 2:4, 17-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Coming of the Spirit of God In the Old Testament, the Spirit of God occasionally came upon individuals to empower them for God’s service and to prophesy (Num 24:2; Judg 3:10; 1 Sam 10:10; 16:13; Ezek 11:5). In the Judaism of Jesus’ day, there was a widespread belief that the Spirit of prophecy had departed from Israel with the last of the Old Testament prophets. But the prophets had predicted that when God’s salvation arrived, he would pour out his Spirit on all people (Isa 32:15; Ezek 36...","summary_en":"The Coming of the Spirit of God In the Old Testament, the Spirit of God occasionally came upon individuals to empower them for God’s service and to prophesy (Num 24:2; Judg 3:10; 1 Sam 10:10; 16:13; Ezek 11:5). In the Judaism of Jesus’ day, there was a widespread belief that the Spirit of prophecy had departed from Israel with the last of the Old Testament prophets. But the prophets had predicted that when God’s salvation arrived, he would pour out his Spirit on all people (Isa 32:15; Ezek 36...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"14":[{"id":41298,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"David","title_en":"David","content_ro":"<h3>David<\/h3>\n<p>David is one of the monumental figures of biblical history. His reign was a high point in God’s plan for Israel, and it had great and lasting significance.<\/p>\n<p>David was born in Bethlehem as Jesse’s youngest son; his lineage is traced back to Judah (Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr 2:3-15; Matt 1:3-6; Luke 3:31-33). At the time of his birth, Jerusalem was occupied by the Jebusites, and large parts of the Promised Land were still occupied by foreign people, most notably the Philistines. God would use David to complete the conquest of the land.<\/p>\n<p>As a youth, David was a simple shepherd, watching his father’s sheep (1 Sam 16:11; 17:14-15). His life took an unexpected turn when the prophet Samuel came to Jesse and anointed David as the next king of Israel. However, David’s kingship was not initiated by a coup or an assassination. In fact, David became a faithful servant to King Saul. David first entered Saul’s service as a musician, playing songs that soothed Saul’s tormented soul (16:14-23). This service anticipated David’s role as the composer of many of the psalms. The youthful David also helped Saul by famously defeating the Philistine champion Goliath in individual combat (17:32-51). This victory anticipated David’s role as a victorious military leader.<\/p>\n<p>Although David was loyal, Saul grew deeply suspicious of him, and David had to flee. He was able to escape with help from Saul’s own children, Jonathan and Michal. David led a virtual kingdom in exile. He had a standing army of six hundred men. The prophet Gad and the priest Abiathar were also with him, providing direction and guidance from the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>God’s long-suffering patience finally ran out with Saul, and Saul died on the battlefield. Yet it was still not easy for David to establish his rule over all Israel. The tribe of Judah immediately proclaimed him its king, but at first the northern tribes chose Ishbosheth, a son of Saul, to be their leader. Ishbosheth was not a powerful or good leader; he only stayed in power because of the protection of his father’s military leader, Abner. However, Ishbosheth foolishly insulted Abner, so the general helped turn the kingdom over to David.<\/p>\n<p>As king over a united Israel, David proceeded to solidify the kingdom. He and his men captured Jerusalem from the Jebusites and made this central city his capital. He also expelled the remaining Philistines from the land. He then brought the Ark of the Covenant into Jerusalem. David wanted to build a permanent temple to God in Jerusalem to replace the Tabernacle. God denied this wish, but he showed his love for David by entering into a covenant with him that established his descendants as a dynasty (2 Sam 7).<\/p>\n<p>David’s life soon took a turn for the worse, however (see 2 Sam 11–12). At a time when he probably should have been on the battlefield with his army, he was lounging around on the palace roof. He saw a beautiful woman named Bathsheba taking a bath. He wanted her, so, like a Near Eastern despot, he took her. She became pregnant, and his attempt to cover up his adultery failed. In a desperate attempt to keep things secret, he had her husband, Uriah, killed. But not even a great king like David can keep secrets from God, and God sent his prophet Nathan to confront David. David repented (see Pss 32, 51), but the consequences of his actions plagued his family and the rest of his reign.<\/p>\n<p>From that point on, David’s family fell apart. David’s son Amnon raped his half sister Tamar (2 Sam 13:1-14). Her brother Absalom then murdered Amnon (2 Sam 13:20-29). Absalom later created a civil war as he tried to steal the throne from his father (2 Sam 15–18). Another son, Adonijah, tried to take the throne from David by having himself proclaimed king while his father was still alive (1 Kgs 1:5-10). But David was able to muster enough strength to ensure that Solomon would succeed him (1 Kgs 1:28-40). David died, Solomon was proclaimed king, and David’s long dynasty began (as promised in 2 Sam 7).<\/p>\n<p>David’s successors seldom measured up. Only rarely did his descendants lead the nation to worship God faithfully; the united monarchy did not even outlive Solomon. In the centuries that followed, the descendants of David ruled only Judah in the south. Eventually, the kingdom of Judah was destroyed. Never again did a descendant of David reign as king in Israel.<\/p>\n<p>What, then, of the promise to David that “your throne will be secure forever” (2 Sam 7:16)? The New Testament points to Jesus. He was the descendant of David, and God proclaimed him the Christ, or Messiah—the anointed king (see Matt 1:1; 9:27; 12:23; Mark 10:47-48; 11:10; 12:35-37; Luke 18:38-39; 20:41-44; John 7:42; Rev 5:5; 22:16). The life and rule of David foreshadows the messianic reign of Jesus Christ, which will last forever (see Luke 1:32-33; Rev 11:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ruth 4:13-22; 1 Sam 16:1–17:58; 18:1–27:12; 29:1–30:31; 2 Sam 1:1–24:25; 1 Kgs 1:1–2:12; 1 Chr 11:1–29:30; Pss 1–32, 34–41, 51–71, 86, 91–110, 122, 124, 131, 133, 138–145; Matt 1:1; 9:27; 22:41-46; Mark 12:35-37; Luke 20:41-44; John 7:40-44; Acts 2:22-37; 13:20-43; Rom 1:3; Rev 22:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>David<\/h3>\n<p>David is one of the monumental figures of biblical history. His reign was a high point in God’s plan for Israel, and it had great and lasting significance.<\/p>\n<p>David was born in Bethlehem as Jesse’s youngest son; his lineage is traced back to Judah (Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr 2:3-15; Matt 1:3-6; Luke 3:31-33). At the time of his birth, Jerusalem was occupied by the Jebusites, and large parts of the Promised Land were still occupied by foreign people, most notably the Philistines. God would use David to complete the conquest of the land.<\/p>\n<p>As a youth, David was a simple shepherd, watching his father’s sheep (1 Sam 16:11; 17:14-15). His life took an unexpected turn when the prophet Samuel came to Jesse and anointed David as the next king of Israel. However, David’s kingship was not initiated by a coup or an assassination. In fact, David became a faithful servant to King Saul. David first entered Saul’s service as a musician, playing songs that soothed Saul’s tormented soul (16:14-23). This service anticipated David’s role as the composer of many of the psalms. The youthful David also helped Saul by famously defeating the Philistine champion Goliath in individual combat (17:32-51). This victory anticipated David’s role as a victorious military leader.<\/p>\n<p>Although David was loyal, Saul grew deeply suspicious of him, and David had to flee. He was able to escape with help from Saul’s own children, Jonathan and Michal. David led a virtual kingdom in exile. He had a standing army of six hundred men. The prophet Gad and the priest Abiathar were also with him, providing direction and guidance from the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>God’s long-suffering patience finally ran out with Saul, and Saul died on the battlefield. Yet it was still not easy for David to establish his rule over all Israel. The tribe of Judah immediately proclaimed him its king, but at first the northern tribes chose Ishbosheth, a son of Saul, to be their leader. Ishbosheth was not a powerful or good leader; he only stayed in power because of the protection of his father’s military leader, Abner. However, Ishbosheth foolishly insulted Abner, so the general helped turn the kingdom over to David.<\/p>\n<p>As king over a united Israel, David proceeded to solidify the kingdom. He and his men captured Jerusalem from the Jebusites and made this central city his capital. He also expelled the remaining Philistines from the land. He then brought the Ark of the Covenant into Jerusalem. David wanted to build a permanent temple to God in Jerusalem to replace the Tabernacle. God denied this wish, but he showed his love for David by entering into a covenant with him that established his descendants as a dynasty (2 Sam 7).<\/p>\n<p>David’s life soon took a turn for the worse, however (see 2 Sam 11–12). At a time when he probably should have been on the battlefield with his army, he was lounging around on the palace roof. He saw a beautiful woman named Bathsheba taking a bath. He wanted her, so, like a Near Eastern despot, he took her. She became pregnant, and his attempt to cover up his adultery failed. In a desperate attempt to keep things secret, he had her husband, Uriah, killed. But not even a great king like David can keep secrets from God, and God sent his prophet Nathan to confront David. David repented (see Pss 32, 51), but the consequences of his actions plagued his family and the rest of his reign.<\/p>\n<p>From that point on, David’s family fell apart. David’s son Amnon raped his half sister Tamar (2 Sam 13:1-14). Her brother Absalom then murdered Amnon (2 Sam 13:20-29). Absalom later created a civil war as he tried to steal the throne from his father (2 Sam 15–18). Another son, Adonijah, tried to take the throne from David by having himself proclaimed king while his father was still alive (1 Kgs 1:5-10). But David was able to muster enough strength to ensure that Solomon would succeed him (1 Kgs 1:28-40). David died, Solomon was proclaimed king, and David’s long dynasty began (as promised in 2 Sam 7).<\/p>\n<p>David’s successors seldom measured up. Only rarely did his descendants lead the nation to worship God faithfully; the united monarchy did not even outlive Solomon. In the centuries that followed, the descendants of David ruled only Judah in the south. Eventually, the kingdom of Judah was destroyed. Never again did a descendant of David reign as king in Israel.<\/p>\n<p>What, then, of the promise to David that “your throne will be secure forever” (2 Sam 7:16)? The New Testament points to Jesus. He was the descendant of David, and God proclaimed him the Christ, or Messiah—the anointed king (see Matt 1:1; 9:27; 12:23; Mark 10:47-48; 11:10; 12:35-37; Luke 18:38-39; 20:41-44; John 7:42; Rev 5:5; 22:16). The life and rule of David foreshadows the messianic reign of Jesus Christ, which will last forever (see Luke 1:32-33; Rev 11:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ruth 4:13-22; 1 Sam 16:1–17:58; 18:1–27:12; 29:1–30:31; 2 Sam 1:1–24:25; 1 Kgs 1:1–2:12; 1 Chr 11:1–29:30; Pss 1–32, 34–41, 51–71, 86, 91–110, 122, 124, 131, 133, 138–145; Matt 1:1; 9:27; 22:41-46; Mark 12:35-37; Luke 20:41-44; John 7:40-44; Acts 2:22-37; 13:20-43; Rom 1:3; Rev 22:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"David David is one of the monumental figures of biblical history. His reign was a high point in God’s plan for Israel, and it had great and lasting significance. David was born in Bethlehem as Jesse’s youngest son; his lineage is traced back to Judah (Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr 2:3-15; Matt 1:3-6; Luke 3:31-33). At the time of his birth, Jerusalem was occupied by the Jebusites, and large parts of the Promised Land were still occupied by foreign people, most notably the Philistines. God would use Dav...","summary_en":"David David is one of the monumental figures of biblical history. His reign was a high point in God’s plan for Israel, and it had great and lasting significance. David was born in Bethlehem as Jesse’s youngest son; his lineage is traced back to Judah (Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr 2:3-15; Matt 1:3-6; Luke 3:31-33). At the time of his birth, Jerusalem was occupied by the Jebusites, and large parts of the Promised Land were still occupied by foreign people, most notably the Philistines. God would use Dav...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68924,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"David","title_en":"David","content_ro":"<h3>David<\/h3>\n<p>David is one of the monumental figures of biblical history. His reign was a high point in God’s plan for Israel, and it had great and lasting significance.<\/p>\n<p>David was born in Bethlehem as Jesse’s youngest son; his lineage is traced back to Judah (Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr 2:3-15; Matt 1:3-6; Luke 3:31-33). At the time of his birth, Jerusalem was occupied by the Jebusites, and large parts of the Promised Land were still occupied by foreign people, most notably the Philistines. God would use David to complete the conquest of the land.<\/p>\n<p>As a youth, David was a simple shepherd, watching his father’s sheep (1 Sam 16:11; 17:14-15). His life took an unexpected turn when the prophet Samuel came to Jesse and anointed David as the next king of Israel. However, David’s kingship was not initiated by a coup or an assassination. In fact, David became a faithful servant to King Saul. David first entered Saul’s service as a musician, playing songs that soothed Saul’s tormented soul (16:14-23). This service anticipated David’s role as the composer of many of the psalms. The youthful David also helped Saul by famously defeating the Philistine champion Goliath in individual combat (17:32-51). This victory anticipated David’s role as a victorious military leader.<\/p>\n<p>Although David was loyal, Saul grew deeply suspicious of him, and David had to flee. He was able to escape with help from Saul’s own children, Jonathan and Michal. David led a virtual kingdom in exile. He had a standing army of six hundred men. The prophet Gad and the priest Abiathar were also with him, providing direction and guidance from the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>God’s long-suffering patience finally ran out with Saul, and Saul died on the battlefield. Yet it was still not easy for David to establish his rule over all Israel. The tribe of Judah immediately proclaimed him its king, but at first the northern tribes chose Ishbosheth, a son of Saul, to be their leader. Ishbosheth was not a powerful or good leader; he only stayed in power because of the protection of his father’s military leader, Abner. However, Ishbosheth foolishly insulted Abner, so the general helped turn the kingdom over to David.<\/p>\n<p>As king over a united Israel, David proceeded to solidify the kingdom. He and his men captured Jerusalem from the Jebusites and made this central city his capital. He also expelled the remaining Philistines from the land. He then brought the Ark of the Covenant into Jerusalem. David wanted to build a permanent temple to God in Jerusalem to replace the Tabernacle. God denied this wish, but he showed his love for David by entering into a covenant with him that established his descendants as a dynasty (2 Sam 7).<\/p>\n<p>David’s life soon took a turn for the worse, however (see 2 Sam 11–12). At a time when he probably should have been on the battlefield with his army, he was lounging around on the palace roof. He saw a beautiful woman named Bathsheba taking a bath. He wanted her, so, like a Near Eastern despot, he took her. She became pregnant, and his attempt to cover up his adultery failed. In a desperate attempt to keep things secret, he had her husband, Uriah, killed. But not even a great king like David can keep secrets from God, and God sent his prophet Nathan to confront David. David repented (see Pss 32, 51), but the consequences of his actions plagued his family and the rest of his reign.<\/p>\n<p>From that point on, David’s family fell apart. David’s son Amnon raped his half sister Tamar (2 Sam 13:1-14). Her brother Absalom then murdered Amnon (2 Sam 13:20-29). Absalom later created a civil war as he tried to steal the throne from his father (2 Sam 15–18). Another son, Adonijah, tried to take the throne from David by having himself proclaimed king while his father was still alive (1 Kgs 1:5-10). But David was able to muster enough strength to ensure that Solomon would succeed him (1 Kgs 1:28-40). David died, Solomon was proclaimed king, and David’s long dynasty began (as promised in 2 Sam 7).<\/p>\n<p>David’s successors seldom measured up. Only rarely did his descendants lead the nation to worship God faithfully; the united monarchy did not even outlive Solomon. In the centuries that followed, the descendants of David ruled only Judah in the south. Eventually, the kingdom of Judah was destroyed. Never again did a descendant of David reign as king in Israel.<\/p>\n<p>What, then, of the promise to David that “your throne will be secure forever” (2 Sam 7:16)? The New Testament points to Jesus. He was the descendant of David, and God proclaimed him the Christ, or Messiah—the anointed king (see Matt 1:1; 9:27; 12:23; Mark 10:47-48; 11:10; 12:35-37; Luke 18:38-39; 20:41-44; John 7:42; Rev 5:5; 22:16). The life and rule of David foreshadows the messianic reign of Jesus Christ, which will last forever (see Luke 1:32-33; Rev 11:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ruth 4:13-22; 1 Sam 16:1–17:58; 18:1–27:12; 29:1–30:31; 2 Sam 1:1–24:25; 1 Kgs 1:1–2:12; 1 Chr 11:1–29:30; Pss 1–32, 34–41, 51–71, 86, 91–110, 122, 124, 131, 133, 138–145; Matt 1:1; 9:27; 22:41-46; Mark 12:35-37; Luke 20:41-44; John 7:40-44; Acts 2:22-37; 13:20-43; Rom 1:3; Rev 22:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>David<\/h3>\n<p>David is one of the monumental figures of biblical history. His reign was a high point in God’s plan for Israel, and it had great and lasting significance.<\/p>\n<p>David was born in Bethlehem as Jesse’s youngest son; his lineage is traced back to Judah (Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr 2:3-15; Matt 1:3-6; Luke 3:31-33). At the time of his birth, Jerusalem was occupied by the Jebusites, and large parts of the Promised Land were still occupied by foreign people, most notably the Philistines. God would use David to complete the conquest of the land.<\/p>\n<p>As a youth, David was a simple shepherd, watching his father’s sheep (1 Sam 16:11; 17:14-15). His life took an unexpected turn when the prophet Samuel came to Jesse and anointed David as the next king of Israel. However, David’s kingship was not initiated by a coup or an assassination. In fact, David became a faithful servant to King Saul. David first entered Saul’s service as a musician, playing songs that soothed Saul’s tormented soul (16:14-23). This service anticipated David’s role as the composer of many of the psalms. The youthful David also helped Saul by famously defeating the Philistine champion Goliath in individual combat (17:32-51). This victory anticipated David’s role as a victorious military leader.<\/p>\n<p>Although David was loyal, Saul grew deeply suspicious of him, and David had to flee. He was able to escape with help from Saul’s own children, Jonathan and Michal. David led a virtual kingdom in exile. He had a standing army of six hundred men. The prophet Gad and the priest Abiathar were also with him, providing direction and guidance from the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>God’s long-suffering patience finally ran out with Saul, and Saul died on the battlefield. Yet it was still not easy for David to establish his rule over all Israel. The tribe of Judah immediately proclaimed him its king, but at first the northern tribes chose Ishbosheth, a son of Saul, to be their leader. Ishbosheth was not a powerful or good leader; he only stayed in power because of the protection of his father’s military leader, Abner. However, Ishbosheth foolishly insulted Abner, so the general helped turn the kingdom over to David.<\/p>\n<p>As king over a united Israel, David proceeded to solidify the kingdom. He and his men captured Jerusalem from the Jebusites and made this central city his capital. He also expelled the remaining Philistines from the land. He then brought the Ark of the Covenant into Jerusalem. David wanted to build a permanent temple to God in Jerusalem to replace the Tabernacle. God denied this wish, but he showed his love for David by entering into a covenant with him that established his descendants as a dynasty (2 Sam 7).<\/p>\n<p>David’s life soon took a turn for the worse, however (see 2 Sam 11–12). At a time when he probably should have been on the battlefield with his army, he was lounging around on the palace roof. He saw a beautiful woman named Bathsheba taking a bath. He wanted her, so, like a Near Eastern despot, he took her. She became pregnant, and his attempt to cover up his adultery failed. In a desperate attempt to keep things secret, he had her husband, Uriah, killed. But not even a great king like David can keep secrets from God, and God sent his prophet Nathan to confront David. David repented (see Pss 32, 51), but the consequences of his actions plagued his family and the rest of his reign.<\/p>\n<p>From that point on, David’s family fell apart. David’s son Amnon raped his half sister Tamar (2 Sam 13:1-14). Her brother Absalom then murdered Amnon (2 Sam 13:20-29). Absalom later created a civil war as he tried to steal the throne from his father (2 Sam 15–18). Another son, Adonijah, tried to take the throne from David by having himself proclaimed king while his father was still alive (1 Kgs 1:5-10). But David was able to muster enough strength to ensure that Solomon would succeed him (1 Kgs 1:28-40). David died, Solomon was proclaimed king, and David’s long dynasty began (as promised in 2 Sam 7).<\/p>\n<p>David’s successors seldom measured up. Only rarely did his descendants lead the nation to worship God faithfully; the united monarchy did not even outlive Solomon. In the centuries that followed, the descendants of David ruled only Judah in the south. Eventually, the kingdom of Judah was destroyed. Never again did a descendant of David reign as king in Israel.<\/p>\n<p>What, then, of the promise to David that “your throne will be secure forever” (2 Sam 7:16)? The New Testament points to Jesus. He was the descendant of David, and God proclaimed him the Christ, or Messiah—the anointed king (see Matt 1:1; 9:27; 12:23; Mark 10:47-48; 11:10; 12:35-37; Luke 18:38-39; 20:41-44; John 7:42; Rev 5:5; 22:16). The life and rule of David foreshadows the messianic reign of Jesus Christ, which will last forever (see Luke 1:32-33; Rev 11:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ruth 4:13-22; 1 Sam 16:1–17:58; 18:1–27:12; 29:1–30:31; 2 Sam 1:1–24:25; 1 Kgs 1:1–2:12; 1 Chr 11:1–29:30; Pss 1–32, 34–41, 51–71, 86, 91–110, 122, 124, 131, 133, 138–145; Matt 1:1; 9:27; 22:41-46; Mark 12:35-37; Luke 20:41-44; John 7:40-44; Acts 2:22-37; 13:20-43; Rom 1:3; Rev 22:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"David David is one of the monumental figures of biblical history. His reign was a high point in God’s plan for Israel, and it had great and lasting significance. David was born in Bethlehem as Jesse’s youngest son; his lineage is traced back to Judah (Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr 2:3-15; Matt 1:3-6; Luke 3:31-33). At the time of his birth, Jerusalem was occupied by the Jebusites, and large parts of the Promised Land were still occupied by foreign people, most notably the Philistines. God would use Dav...","summary_en":"David David is one of the monumental figures of biblical history. His reign was a high point in God’s plan for Israel, and it had great and lasting significance. David was born in Bethlehem as Jesse’s youngest son; his lineage is traced back to Judah (Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr 2:3-15; Matt 1:3-6; Luke 3:31-33). At the time of his birth, Jerusalem was occupied by the Jebusites, and large parts of the Promised Land were still occupied by foreign people, most notably the Philistines. God would use Dav...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96550,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"David","title_en":"David","content_ro":"<h3>David<\/h3>\n<p>David is one of the monumental figures of biblical history. His reign was a high point in God’s plan for Israel, and it had great and lasting significance.<\/p>\n<p>David was born in Bethlehem as Jesse’s youngest son; his lineage is traced back to Judah (Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr 2:3-15; Matt 1:3-6; Luke 3:31-33). At the time of his birth, Jerusalem was occupied by the Jebusites, and large parts of the Promised Land were still occupied by foreign people, most notably the Philistines. God would use David to complete the conquest of the land.<\/p>\n<p>As a youth, David was a simple shepherd, watching his father’s sheep (1 Sam 16:11; 17:14-15). His life took an unexpected turn when the prophet Samuel came to Jesse and anointed David as the next king of Israel. However, David’s kingship was not initiated by a coup or an assassination. In fact, David became a faithful servant to King Saul. David first entered Saul’s service as a musician, playing songs that soothed Saul’s tormented soul (16:14-23). This service anticipated David’s role as the composer of many of the psalms. The youthful David also helped Saul by famously defeating the Philistine champion Goliath in individual combat (17:32-51). This victory anticipated David’s role as a victorious military leader.<\/p>\n<p>Although David was loyal, Saul grew deeply suspicious of him, and David had to flee. He was able to escape with help from Saul’s own children, Jonathan and Michal. David led a virtual kingdom in exile. He had a standing army of six hundred men. The prophet Gad and the priest Abiathar were also with him, providing direction and guidance from the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>God’s long-suffering patience finally ran out with Saul, and Saul died on the battlefield. Yet it was still not easy for David to establish his rule over all Israel. The tribe of Judah immediately proclaimed him its king, but at first the northern tribes chose Ishbosheth, a son of Saul, to be their leader. Ishbosheth was not a powerful or good leader; he only stayed in power because of the protection of his father’s military leader, Abner. However, Ishbosheth foolishly insulted Abner, so the general helped turn the kingdom over to David.<\/p>\n<p>As king over a united Israel, David proceeded to solidify the kingdom. He and his men captured Jerusalem from the Jebusites and made this central city his capital. He also expelled the remaining Philistines from the land. He then brought the Ark of the Covenant into Jerusalem. David wanted to build a permanent temple to God in Jerusalem to replace the Tabernacle. God denied this wish, but he showed his love for David by entering into a covenant with him that established his descendants as a dynasty (2 Sam 7).<\/p>\n<p>David’s life soon took a turn for the worse, however (see 2 Sam 11–12). At a time when he probably should have been on the battlefield with his army, he was lounging around on the palace roof. He saw a beautiful woman named Bathsheba taking a bath. He wanted her, so, like a Near Eastern despot, he took her. She became pregnant, and his attempt to cover up his adultery failed. In a desperate attempt to keep things secret, he had her husband, Uriah, killed. But not even a great king like David can keep secrets from God, and God sent his prophet Nathan to confront David. David repented (see Pss 32, 51), but the consequences of his actions plagued his family and the rest of his reign.<\/p>\n<p>From that point on, David’s family fell apart. David’s son Amnon raped his half sister Tamar (2 Sam 13:1-14). Her brother Absalom then murdered Amnon (2 Sam 13:20-29). Absalom later created a civil war as he tried to steal the throne from his father (2 Sam 15–18). Another son, Adonijah, tried to take the throne from David by having himself proclaimed king while his father was still alive (1 Kgs 1:5-10). But David was able to muster enough strength to ensure that Solomon would succeed him (1 Kgs 1:28-40). David died, Solomon was proclaimed king, and David’s long dynasty began (as promised in 2 Sam 7).<\/p>\n<p>David’s successors seldom measured up. Only rarely did his descendants lead the nation to worship God faithfully; the united monarchy did not even outlive Solomon. In the centuries that followed, the descendants of David ruled only Judah in the south. Eventually, the kingdom of Judah was destroyed. Never again did a descendant of David reign as king in Israel.<\/p>\n<p>What, then, of the promise to David that “your throne will be secure forever” (2 Sam 7:16)? The New Testament points to Jesus. He was the descendant of David, and God proclaimed him the Christ, or Messiah—the anointed king (see Matt 1:1; 9:27; 12:23; Mark 10:47-48; 11:10; 12:35-37; Luke 18:38-39; 20:41-44; John 7:42; Rev 5:5; 22:16). The life and rule of David foreshadows the messianic reign of Jesus Christ, which will last forever (see Luke 1:32-33; Rev 11:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ruth 4:13-22; 1 Sam 16:1–17:58; 18:1–27:12; 29:1–30:31; 2 Sam 1:1–24:25; 1 Kgs 1:1–2:12; 1 Chr 11:1–29:30; Pss 1–32, 34–41, 51–71, 86, 91–110, 122, 124, 131, 133, 138–145; Matt 1:1; 9:27; 22:41-46; Mark 12:35-37; Luke 20:41-44; John 7:40-44; Acts 2:22-37; 13:20-43; Rom 1:3; Rev 22:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>David<\/h3>\n<p>David is one of the monumental figures of biblical history. His reign was a high point in God’s plan for Israel, and it had great and lasting significance.<\/p>\n<p>David was born in Bethlehem as Jesse’s youngest son; his lineage is traced back to Judah (Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr 2:3-15; Matt 1:3-6; Luke 3:31-33). At the time of his birth, Jerusalem was occupied by the Jebusites, and large parts of the Promised Land were still occupied by foreign people, most notably the Philistines. God would use David to complete the conquest of the land.<\/p>\n<p>As a youth, David was a simple shepherd, watching his father’s sheep (1 Sam 16:11; 17:14-15). His life took an unexpected turn when the prophet Samuel came to Jesse and anointed David as the next king of Israel. However, David’s kingship was not initiated by a coup or an assassination. In fact, David became a faithful servant to King Saul. David first entered Saul’s service as a musician, playing songs that soothed Saul’s tormented soul (16:14-23). This service anticipated David’s role as the composer of many of the psalms. The youthful David also helped Saul by famously defeating the Philistine champion Goliath in individual combat (17:32-51). This victory anticipated David’s role as a victorious military leader.<\/p>\n<p>Although David was loyal, Saul grew deeply suspicious of him, and David had to flee. He was able to escape with help from Saul’s own children, Jonathan and Michal. David led a virtual kingdom in exile. He had a standing army of six hundred men. The prophet Gad and the priest Abiathar were also with him, providing direction and guidance from the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>God’s long-suffering patience finally ran out with Saul, and Saul died on the battlefield. Yet it was still not easy for David to establish his rule over all Israel. The tribe of Judah immediately proclaimed him its king, but at first the northern tribes chose Ishbosheth, a son of Saul, to be their leader. Ishbosheth was not a powerful or good leader; he only stayed in power because of the protection of his father’s military leader, Abner. However, Ishbosheth foolishly insulted Abner, so the general helped turn the kingdom over to David.<\/p>\n<p>As king over a united Israel, David proceeded to solidify the kingdom. He and his men captured Jerusalem from the Jebusites and made this central city his capital. He also expelled the remaining Philistines from the land. He then brought the Ark of the Covenant into Jerusalem. David wanted to build a permanent temple to God in Jerusalem to replace the Tabernacle. God denied this wish, but he showed his love for David by entering into a covenant with him that established his descendants as a dynasty (2 Sam 7).<\/p>\n<p>David’s life soon took a turn for the worse, however (see 2 Sam 11–12). At a time when he probably should have been on the battlefield with his army, he was lounging around on the palace roof. He saw a beautiful woman named Bathsheba taking a bath. He wanted her, so, like a Near Eastern despot, he took her. She became pregnant, and his attempt to cover up his adultery failed. In a desperate attempt to keep things secret, he had her husband, Uriah, killed. But not even a great king like David can keep secrets from God, and God sent his prophet Nathan to confront David. David repented (see Pss 32, 51), but the consequences of his actions plagued his family and the rest of his reign.<\/p>\n<p>From that point on, David’s family fell apart. David’s son Amnon raped his half sister Tamar (2 Sam 13:1-14). Her brother Absalom then murdered Amnon (2 Sam 13:20-29). Absalom later created a civil war as he tried to steal the throne from his father (2 Sam 15–18). Another son, Adonijah, tried to take the throne from David by having himself proclaimed king while his father was still alive (1 Kgs 1:5-10). But David was able to muster enough strength to ensure that Solomon would succeed him (1 Kgs 1:28-40). David died, Solomon was proclaimed king, and David’s long dynasty began (as promised in 2 Sam 7).<\/p>\n<p>David’s successors seldom measured up. Only rarely did his descendants lead the nation to worship God faithfully; the united monarchy did not even outlive Solomon. In the centuries that followed, the descendants of David ruled only Judah in the south. Eventually, the kingdom of Judah was destroyed. Never again did a descendant of David reign as king in Israel.<\/p>\n<p>What, then, of the promise to David that “your throne will be secure forever” (2 Sam 7:16)? The New Testament points to Jesus. He was the descendant of David, and God proclaimed him the Christ, or Messiah—the anointed king (see Matt 1:1; 9:27; 12:23; Mark 10:47-48; 11:10; 12:35-37; Luke 18:38-39; 20:41-44; John 7:42; Rev 5:5; 22:16). The life and rule of David foreshadows the messianic reign of Jesus Christ, which will last forever (see Luke 1:32-33; Rev 11:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ruth 4:13-22; 1 Sam 16:1–17:58; 18:1–27:12; 29:1–30:31; 2 Sam 1:1–24:25; 1 Kgs 1:1–2:12; 1 Chr 11:1–29:30; Pss 1–32, 34–41, 51–71, 86, 91–110, 122, 124, 131, 133, 138–145; Matt 1:1; 9:27; 22:41-46; Mark 12:35-37; Luke 20:41-44; John 7:40-44; Acts 2:22-37; 13:20-43; Rom 1:3; Rev 22:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"David David is one of the monumental figures of biblical history. His reign was a high point in God’s plan for Israel, and it had great and lasting significance. David was born in Bethlehem as Jesse’s youngest son; his lineage is traced back to Judah (Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr 2:3-15; Matt 1:3-6; Luke 3:31-33). At the time of his birth, Jerusalem was occupied by the Jebusites, and large parts of the Promised Land were still occupied by foreign people, most notably the Philistines. God would use Dav...","summary_en":"David David is one of the monumental figures of biblical history. His reign was a high point in God’s plan for Israel, and it had great and lasting significance. David was born in Bethlehem as Jesse’s youngest son; his lineage is traced back to Judah (Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr 2:3-15; Matt 1:3-6; Luke 3:31-33). At the time of his birth, Jerusalem was occupied by the Jebusites, and large parts of the Promised Land were still occupied by foreign people, most notably the Philistines. God would use Dav...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":124176,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"David","title_en":"David","content_ro":"<h3>David<\/h3>\n<p>David is one of the monumental figures of biblical history. His reign was a high point in God’s plan for Israel, and it had great and lasting significance.<\/p>\n<p>David was born in Bethlehem as Jesse’s youngest son; his lineage is traced back to Judah (Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr 2:3-15; Matt 1:3-6; Luke 3:31-33). At the time of his birth, Jerusalem was occupied by the Jebusites, and large parts of the Promised Land were still occupied by foreign people, most notably the Philistines. God would use David to complete the conquest of the land.<\/p>\n<p>As a youth, David was a simple shepherd, watching his father’s sheep (1 Sam 16:11; 17:14-15). His life took an unexpected turn when the prophet Samuel came to Jesse and anointed David as the next king of Israel. However, David’s kingship was not initiated by a coup or an assassination. In fact, David became a faithful servant to King Saul. David first entered Saul’s service as a musician, playing songs that soothed Saul’s tormented soul (16:14-23). This service anticipated David’s role as the composer of many of the psalms. The youthful David also helped Saul by famously defeating the Philistine champion Goliath in individual combat (17:32-51). This victory anticipated David’s role as a victorious military leader.<\/p>\n<p>Although David was loyal, Saul grew deeply suspicious of him, and David had to flee. He was able to escape with help from Saul’s own children, Jonathan and Michal. David led a virtual kingdom in exile. He had a standing army of six hundred men. The prophet Gad and the priest Abiathar were also with him, providing direction and guidance from the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>God’s long-suffering patience finally ran out with Saul, and Saul died on the battlefield. Yet it was still not easy for David to establish his rule over all Israel. The tribe of Judah immediately proclaimed him its king, but at first the northern tribes chose Ishbosheth, a son of Saul, to be their leader. Ishbosheth was not a powerful or good leader; he only stayed in power because of the protection of his father’s military leader, Abner. However, Ishbosheth foolishly insulted Abner, so the general helped turn the kingdom over to David.<\/p>\n<p>As king over a united Israel, David proceeded to solidify the kingdom. He and his men captured Jerusalem from the Jebusites and made this central city his capital. He also expelled the remaining Philistines from the land. He then brought the Ark of the Covenant into Jerusalem. David wanted to build a permanent temple to God in Jerusalem to replace the Tabernacle. God denied this wish, but he showed his love for David by entering into a covenant with him that established his descendants as a dynasty (2 Sam 7).<\/p>\n<p>David’s life soon took a turn for the worse, however (see 2 Sam 11–12). At a time when he probably should have been on the battlefield with his army, he was lounging around on the palace roof. He saw a beautiful woman named Bathsheba taking a bath. He wanted her, so, like a Near Eastern despot, he took her. She became pregnant, and his attempt to cover up his adultery failed. In a desperate attempt to keep things secret, he had her husband, Uriah, killed. But not even a great king like David can keep secrets from God, and God sent his prophet Nathan to confront David. David repented (see Pss 32, 51), but the consequences of his actions plagued his family and the rest of his reign.<\/p>\n<p>From that point on, David’s family fell apart. David’s son Amnon raped his half sister Tamar (2 Sam 13:1-14). Her brother Absalom then murdered Amnon (2 Sam 13:20-29). Absalom later created a civil war as he tried to steal the throne from his father (2 Sam 15–18). Another son, Adonijah, tried to take the throne from David by having himself proclaimed king while his father was still alive (1 Kgs 1:5-10). But David was able to muster enough strength to ensure that Solomon would succeed him (1 Kgs 1:28-40). David died, Solomon was proclaimed king, and David’s long dynasty began (as promised in 2 Sam 7).<\/p>\n<p>David’s successors seldom measured up. Only rarely did his descendants lead the nation to worship God faithfully; the united monarchy did not even outlive Solomon. In the centuries that followed, the descendants of David ruled only Judah in the south. Eventually, the kingdom of Judah was destroyed. Never again did a descendant of David reign as king in Israel.<\/p>\n<p>What, then, of the promise to David that “your throne will be secure forever” (2 Sam 7:16)? The New Testament points to Jesus. He was the descendant of David, and God proclaimed him the Christ, or Messiah—the anointed king (see Matt 1:1; 9:27; 12:23; Mark 10:47-48; 11:10; 12:35-37; Luke 18:38-39; 20:41-44; John 7:42; Rev 5:5; 22:16). The life and rule of David foreshadows the messianic reign of Jesus Christ, which will last forever (see Luke 1:32-33; Rev 11:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ruth 4:13-22; 1 Sam 16:1–17:58; 18:1–27:12; 29:1–30:31; 2 Sam 1:1–24:25; 1 Kgs 1:1–2:12; 1 Chr 11:1–29:30; Pss 1–32, 34–41, 51–71, 86, 91–110, 122, 124, 131, 133, 138–145; Matt 1:1; 9:27; 22:41-46; Mark 12:35-37; Luke 20:41-44; John 7:40-44; Acts 2:22-37; 13:20-43; Rom 1:3; Rev 22:16<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>David<\/h3>\n<p>David is one of the monumental figures of biblical history. His reign was a high point in God’s plan for Israel, and it had great and lasting significance.<\/p>\n<p>David was born in Bethlehem as Jesse’s youngest son; his lineage is traced back to Judah (Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr 2:3-15; Matt 1:3-6; Luke 3:31-33). At the time of his birth, Jerusalem was occupied by the Jebusites, and large parts of the Promised Land were still occupied by foreign people, most notably the Philistines. God would use David to complete the conquest of the land.<\/p>\n<p>As a youth, David was a simple shepherd, watching his father’s sheep (1 Sam 16:11; 17:14-15). His life took an unexpected turn when the prophet Samuel came to Jesse and anointed David as the next king of Israel. However, David’s kingship was not initiated by a coup or an assassination. In fact, David became a faithful servant to King Saul. David first entered Saul’s service as a musician, playing songs that soothed Saul’s tormented soul (16:14-23). This service anticipated David’s role as the composer of many of the psalms. The youthful David also helped Saul by famously defeating the Philistine champion Goliath in individual combat (17:32-51). This victory anticipated David’s role as a victorious military leader.<\/p>\n<p>Although David was loyal, Saul grew deeply suspicious of him, and David had to flee. He was able to escape with help from Saul’s own children, Jonathan and Michal. David led a virtual kingdom in exile. He had a standing army of six hundred men. The prophet Gad and the priest Abiathar were also with him, providing direction and guidance from the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>God’s long-suffering patience finally ran out with Saul, and Saul died on the battlefield. Yet it was still not easy for David to establish his rule over all Israel. The tribe of Judah immediately proclaimed him its king, but at first the northern tribes chose Ishbosheth, a son of Saul, to be their leader. Ishbosheth was not a powerful or good leader; he only stayed in power because of the protection of his father’s military leader, Abner. However, Ishbosheth foolishly insulted Abner, so the general helped turn the kingdom over to David.<\/p>\n<p>As king over a united Israel, David proceeded to solidify the kingdom. He and his men captured Jerusalem from the Jebusites and made this central city his capital. He also expelled the remaining Philistines from the land. He then brought the Ark of the Covenant into Jerusalem. David wanted to build a permanent temple to God in Jerusalem to replace the Tabernacle. God denied this wish, but he showed his love for David by entering into a covenant with him that established his descendants as a dynasty (2 Sam 7).<\/p>\n<p>David’s life soon took a turn for the worse, however (see 2 Sam 11–12). At a time when he probably should have been on the battlefield with his army, he was lounging around on the palace roof. He saw a beautiful woman named Bathsheba taking a bath. He wanted her, so, like a Near Eastern despot, he took her. She became pregnant, and his attempt to cover up his adultery failed. In a desperate attempt to keep things secret, he had her husband, Uriah, killed. But not even a great king like David can keep secrets from God, and God sent his prophet Nathan to confront David. David repented (see Pss 32, 51), but the consequences of his actions plagued his family and the rest of his reign.<\/p>\n<p>From that point on, David’s family fell apart. David’s son Amnon raped his half sister Tamar (2 Sam 13:1-14). Her brother Absalom then murdered Amnon (2 Sam 13:20-29). Absalom later created a civil war as he tried to steal the throne from his father (2 Sam 15–18). Another son, Adonijah, tried to take the throne from David by having himself proclaimed king while his father was still alive (1 Kgs 1:5-10). But David was able to muster enough strength to ensure that Solomon would succeed him (1 Kgs 1:28-40). David died, Solomon was proclaimed king, and David’s long dynasty began (as promised in 2 Sam 7).<\/p>\n<p>David’s successors seldom measured up. Only rarely did his descendants lead the nation to worship God faithfully; the united monarchy did not even outlive Solomon. In the centuries that followed, the descendants of David ruled only Judah in the south. Eventually, the kingdom of Judah was destroyed. Never again did a descendant of David reign as king in Israel.<\/p>\n<p>What, then, of the promise to David that “your throne will be secure forever” (2 Sam 7:16)? The New Testament points to Jesus. He was the descendant of David, and God proclaimed him the Christ, or Messiah—the anointed king (see Matt 1:1; 9:27; 12:23; Mark 10:47-48; 11:10; 12:35-37; Luke 18:38-39; 20:41-44; John 7:42; Rev 5:5; 22:16). The life and rule of David foreshadows the messianic reign of Jesus Christ, which will last forever (see Luke 1:32-33; Rev 11:15).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ruth 4:13-22; 1 Sam 16:1–17:58; 18:1–27:12; 29:1–30:31; 2 Sam 1:1–24:25; 1 Kgs 1:1–2:12; 1 Chr 11:1–29:30; Pss 1–32, 34–41, 51–71, 86, 91–110, 122, 124, 131, 133, 138–145; Matt 1:1; 9:27; 22:41-46; Mark 12:35-37; Luke 20:41-44; John 7:40-44; Acts 2:22-37; 13:20-43; Rom 1:3; Rev 22:16<\/p>","summary_ro":"David David is one of the monumental figures of biblical history. His reign was a high point in God’s plan for Israel, and it had great and lasting significance. David was born in Bethlehem as Jesse’s youngest son; his lineage is traced back to Judah (Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr 2:3-15; Matt 1:3-6; Luke 3:31-33). At the time of his birth, Jerusalem was occupied by the Jebusites, and large parts of the Promised Land were still occupied by foreign people, most notably the Philistines. God would use Dav...","summary_en":"David David is one of the monumental figures of biblical history. His reign was a high point in God’s plan for Israel, and it had great and lasting significance. David was born in Bethlehem as Jesse’s youngest son; his lineage is traced back to Judah (Ruth 4:18-22; 1 Chr 2:3-15; Matt 1:3-6; Luke 3:31-33). At the time of his birth, Jerusalem was occupied by the Jebusites, and large parts of the Promised Land were still occupied by foreign people, most notably the Philistines. God would use Dav...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":9263,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Demon","title_en":"Demon","content_ro":"<h3>DEMON<\/h3>\n<p>Fallen angel who, under the leadership of Satan, rebelled against God. Demonism is the activity of demons, while demonology is the study of demons and their activity for the purpose of knowing the tactics of the enemy (2 Cor 2:11) in order to properly exercise authority over them (Lk 10:19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WhoDemonsAre\">Who Demons Are<\/p>\n<p>The English word “demon” is derived from the Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">daimon<\/span><em>,<\/em> which essentially means “a divinity, a deity” (i.e., a false deity, a demon; cf. 1 Cor 10:20). Any deity other than the one true God is a spirit opposed to him; therefore, such a spirit is an evil spirit, or demon. The word “demon” does not appear in the <span>kjv<\/span>, which mistranslates <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">daimon<\/span> as “devil.” There is only one devil (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">diabolos<\/span>), who is known by a variety of names, titles, and epithets in the Bible. He is the prince or ruler of all the other demons, who are subject to him.<\/p>\n<p>Often in the Bible the word “spirit” is used for demon, along with a descriptive or identifying phrase; for example, “evil spirit” (Acts 19:12-13), “unclean spirit” (Mt 10:1; Mk 1:23, 26; Acts 5:16), “spirit of infirmity” (Lk 13:11), “dumb and deaf spirit” (Mk 9:25) (all quotes from the <span>rsv<\/span>). Spirits may be identified by their specific role or function, such as a spirit of murder, suicide, lust, depression, fear, lying, etc., associating them with various sins or attitudes contrary to God.<\/p>\n<p>In the Hebrew OT there is no word for “demon.” The term “evil spirit” occurs (Jgs 9:23; 1 Sm 16:14-23; 18:10; 19:9). In the <span>kjv<\/span> there are references to “a lying spirit” (1 Kgs 22:22-23; 2 Chr 18:20-22), “familiar spirit” (1 Chr 10:13; 2 Chr 33:6), “perverse spirit” (Is 19:14), “spirit of deep sleep” (29:10), and “spirit of whoredoms” (Hos 4:12; 5:4).<\/p>\n<p>A specific powerful demon referred to by title in the OT is “the prince of the kingdom of Persia,” who hindered the archangel Gabriel from coming to bring information to Daniel, so that the archangel Michael came to Gabriel’s assistance (Dn 10:13).<\/p>\n<p>The number of demons is unknown; it appears that it is a vast number, perhaps incalculable. From Revelation 12:4 it is inferred that one-third of the angels were led astray by Satan. This means that the hosts of heaven outnumber Satan’s powers by two to one. Ephesians 6:12 suggests an order or rank of demons: “principalities,” “powers,” “world rulers of this present darkness,” “spiritual hosts of wickedness in the heavenly places” (<span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Demons are created beings—personal, immortal, and incapable of reconciliation with God. They have great power as compared with humans, but little power as compared with God. God has given us authority over them, so that in the name of Jesus they must obey God’s people, even as they must obey the Lord himself.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WhatDemonsDo\">What Demons Do<\/p>\n<p>Angels were created to worship and praise God, to serve him, and to act as his messengers. The Bible states that they are “spirits sent from God to care for those who will receive salvation” (Heb 1:14, <span>nlt<\/span>). The fallen angels have a similar function but a different master. Their allegiance is to the devil, whom they serve out of fear and delusion. They desire to work with human beings, but their purpose is to carry out the schemes of Satan and to oppose God. They tempt, deceive, and delude people so as to bring them to eternal damnation. In opposing God they attack, oppress, hinder, and accuse the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>Since Satan is not omnipresent, he uses his demonic hosts to execute his will; for example, in the parable of the sower (Mt 13:3-9; Mk 4:1-20; Lk 8:4-15) they snatch away the word before it can take root (Mk 4:15). By persecution, Satan causes some to fall away before they have made a genuine commitment (v 17). By the cares of the world and the delight in riches and the desire for material things, he chokes the word so that little or no fruit is produced (v 19).<\/p>\n<p>Basically, demons operate according to the pattern set by Satan in his threefold approach with Eve: (1) they deny the truth of the word of God and challenge its statements; (2) they deny the reality of death (typically they substitute something like reincarnation); and (3) they appeal to human vanity and pride by telling men and women that they can become like God or be gods (Gn 3:1-5). These also are the basic methods and teachings underlying most cults and false religions.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheFinalDestinyofDemons\">The Final Destiny of Demons<\/p>\n<p>It is written concerning the angels who sinned that God “cast them into hell and committed them to pits of nether gloom to be kept until the judgment” (2 Pt 2:4, <span>rsv<\/span>). The Lord spoke of the eternal fire prepared for the devil and his angels, into which the cursed among humans are also to go (Mt 25:41). Eventually Satan and his host will be thrown into the lake of fire (Rv 20:10), which is also the place of eternal torment for all whose names are not written in the Book of Life (vv 12-15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Demon-possession.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DEMON<\/h3>\n<p>Fallen angel who, under the leadership of Satan, rebelled against God. Demonism is the activity of demons, while demonology is the study of demons and their activity for the purpose of knowing the tactics of the enemy (2 Cor 2:11) in order to properly exercise authority over them (Lk 10:19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WhoDemonsAre\">Who Demons Are<\/p>\n<p>The English word “demon” is derived from the Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">daimon<\/span><em>,<\/em> which essentially means “a divinity, a deity” (i.e., a false deity, a demon; cf. 1 Cor 10:20). Any deity other than the one true God is a spirit opposed to him; therefore, such a spirit is an evil spirit, or demon. The word “demon” does not appear in the <span>kjv<\/span>, which mistranslates <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">daimon<\/span> as “devil.” There is only one devil (Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">diabolos<\/span>), who is known by a variety of names, titles, and epithets in the Bible. He is the prince or ruler of all the other demons, who are subject to him.<\/p>\n<p>Often in the Bible the word “spirit” is used for demon, along with a descriptive or identifying phrase; for example, “evil spirit” (Acts 19:12-13), “unclean spirit” (Mt 10:1; Mk 1:23, 26; Acts 5:16), “spirit of infirmity” (Lk 13:11), “dumb and deaf spirit” (Mk 9:25) (all quotes from the <span>rsv<\/span>). Spirits may be identified by their specific role or function, such as a spirit of murder, suicide, lust, depression, fear, lying, etc., associating them with various sins or attitudes contrary to God.<\/p>\n<p>In the Hebrew OT there is no word for “demon.” The term “evil spirit” occurs (Jgs 9:23; 1 Sm 16:14-23; 18:10; 19:9). In the <span>kjv<\/span> there are references to “a lying spirit” (1 Kgs 22:22-23; 2 Chr 18:20-22), “familiar spirit” (1 Chr 10:13; 2 Chr 33:6), “perverse spirit” (Is 19:14), “spirit of deep sleep” (29:10), and “spirit of whoredoms” (Hos 4:12; 5:4).<\/p>\n<p>A specific powerful demon referred to by title in the OT is “the prince of the kingdom of Persia,” who hindered the archangel Gabriel from coming to bring information to Daniel, so that the archangel Michael came to Gabriel’s assistance (Dn 10:13).<\/p>\n<p>The number of demons is unknown; it appears that it is a vast number, perhaps incalculable. From Revelation 12:4 it is inferred that one-third of the angels were led astray by Satan. This means that the hosts of heaven outnumber Satan’s powers by two to one. Ephesians 6:12 suggests an order or rank of demons: “principalities,” “powers,” “world rulers of this present darkness,” “spiritual hosts of wickedness in the heavenly places” (<span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Demons are created beings—personal, immortal, and incapable of reconciliation with God. They have great power as compared with humans, but little power as compared with God. God has given us authority over them, so that in the name of Jesus they must obey God’s people, even as they must obey the Lord himself.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WhatDemonsDo\">What Demons Do<\/p>\n<p>Angels were created to worship and praise God, to serve him, and to act as his messengers. The Bible states that they are “spirits sent from God to care for those who will receive salvation” (Heb 1:14, <span>nlt<\/span>). The fallen angels have a similar function but a different master. Their allegiance is to the devil, whom they serve out of fear and delusion. They desire to work with human beings, but their purpose is to carry out the schemes of Satan and to oppose God. They tempt, deceive, and delude people so as to bring them to eternal damnation. In opposing God they attack, oppress, hinder, and accuse the people of God.<\/p>\n<p>Since Satan is not omnipresent, he uses his demonic hosts to execute his will; for example, in the parable of the sower (Mt 13:3-9; Mk 4:1-20; Lk 8:4-15) they snatch away the word before it can take root (Mk 4:15). By persecution, Satan causes some to fall away before they have made a genuine commitment (v 17). By the cares of the world and the delight in riches and the desire for material things, he chokes the word so that little or no fruit is produced (v 19).<\/p>\n<p>Basically, demons operate according to the pattern set by Satan in his threefold approach with Eve: (1) they deny the truth of the word of God and challenge its statements; (2) they deny the reality of death (typically they substitute something like reincarnation); and (3) they appeal to human vanity and pride by telling men and women that they can become like God or be gods (Gn 3:1-5). These also are the basic methods and teachings underlying most cults and false religions.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheFinalDestinyofDemons\">The Final Destiny of Demons<\/p>\n<p>It is written concerning the angels who sinned that God “cast them into hell and committed them to pits of nether gloom to be kept until the judgment” (2 Pt 2:4, <span>rsv<\/span>). The Lord spoke of the eternal fire prepared for the devil and his angels, into which the cursed among humans are also to go (Mt 25:41). Eventually Satan and his host will be thrown into the lake of fire (Rv 20:10), which is also the place of eternal torment for all whose names are not written in the Book of Life (vv 12-15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Demon-possession.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DEMON Fallen angel who, under the leadership of Satan, rebelled against God. Demonism is the activity of demons, while demonology is the study of demons and their activity for the purpose of knowing the tactics of the enemy (2 Cor 2:11) in order to properly exercise authority over them (Lk 10:19). Who Demons Are The English word “demon” is derived from the Greek daimon, which essentially means “a divinity, a deity” (i.e., a false deity, a demon; cf. 1 Cor 10:20). Any deity other than the one ...","summary_en":"DEMON Fallen angel who, under the leadership of Satan, rebelled against God. Demonism is the activity of demons, while demonology is the study of demons and their activity for the purpose of knowing the tactics of the enemy (2 Cor 2:11) in order to properly exercise authority over them (Lk 10:19). Who Demons Are The English word “demon” is derived from the Greek daimon, which essentially means “a divinity, a deity” (i.e., a false deity, a demon; cf. 1 Cor 10:20). Any deity other than the one ...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":11516,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Exorcism*, Exorcist*","title_en":"Exorcism*, Exorcist*","content_ro":"<h3>EXORCISM*, EXORCIST*<\/h3>\n<p>Art of expelling demons and evil spirits, and the practitioner of this art.<\/p>\n<p>The ability to expel or control demons was claimed by many in the ancient Near East. Aside from the miracles of Jesus recorded in the Gospels, only in Acts 19:13 is there a biblical reference to exorcism among the Jews. However in 1 Samuel 16:14-23 David functioned as an exorcist by playing a lyre to cast out an evil spirit from Saul.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Demon; Demon-possession.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EXORCISM*, EXORCIST*<\/h3>\n<p>Art of expelling demons and evil spirits, and the practitioner of this art.<\/p>\n<p>The ability to expel or control demons was claimed by many in the ancient Near East. Aside from the miracles of Jesus recorded in the Gospels, only in Acts 19:13 is there a biblical reference to exorcism among the Jews. However in 1 Samuel 16:14-23 David functioned as an exorcist by playing a lyre to cast out an evil spirit from Saul.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Demon; Demon-possession.<\/p>","summary_ro":"EXORCISM*, EXORCIST* Art of expelling demons and evil spirits, and the practitioner of this art. The ability to expel or control demons was claimed by many in the ancient Near East. Aside from the miracles of Jesus recorded in the Gospels, only in Acts 19:13 is there a biblical reference to exorcism among the Jews. However in 1 Samuel 16:14-23 David functioned as an exorcist by playing a lyre to cast out an evil spirit from Saul. See also Demon; Demon-possession.","summary_en":"EXORCISM*, EXORCIST* Art of expelling demons and evil spirits, and the practitioner of this art. The ability to expel or control demons was claimed by many in the ancient Near East. Aside from the miracles of Jesus recorded in the Gospels, only in Acts 19:13 is there a biblical reference to exorcism among the Jews. However in 1 Samuel 16:14-23 David functioned as an exorcist by playing a lyre to cast out an evil spirit from Saul. See also Demon; Demon-possession.","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":33802,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Books of First and Second Samuel","title_en":"Books of First and Second Samuel","content_ro":"<h3>SAMUEL, Books of First and Second<\/h3>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Name<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Name\">Name<\/p>\n<p>First and Second Samuel derive their names from the individual whom God used to establish kingship in Israel. Samuel is the most prominent figure in the early narratives of 1 Samuel. His key role in leading the nation of Israel through the transition from the period of the judges to that of the monarchy warrants the use of his name as the title for the book.<\/p>\n<p>These books, however, have not always been so designated, nor was the material originally divided into two books. As far as is known, the Septuagint (the Greek translation of the OT dating from the third century <span>BC<\/span>) translators were the first to separate the material of Samuel into two books (they made a similar division in the material of Kings). The Hebrew original of these books was written, as is characteristic of Hebrew, with symbols only for consonants and none for vowels. When translated into Greek, it was necessary to use symbols for both vowels and consonants, thus greatly lengthening the manuscript. Presumably the practical consideration of the length of the scroll was the cause for dividing the material of both Samuel and Kings into two books (scrolls) instead of retaining just one. The Septuagint translators, recognizing the continuity of content and emphasis in Samuel and Kings, designated what is now known as 1 and 2 Samuel as “The First and Second Books of Kingdoms” and then designated what now is known as 1 and 2 Kings as “The Third and Fourth Books of Kingdoms.” The Latin Vulgate (the Latin translation of the Bible prepared by Jerome in the late fourth century <span>AD<\/span>) slightly modified the Septuagint titles to “First, Second, Third, and Fourth Kings.” These titles were utilized all through the Middle Ages and were modified into our present titles by the Protestant Reformers in the 16th century <span>AD<\/span> in agreement with Jewish rabbinic tradition. The Reformers, however, retained the division into two books, and this has been followed in modern English versions.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>Even though Samuel is prominent in the early part of the book, and the book bears his name in our English versions, it is clear that he is not the author of the entirety of 1 and 2 Samuel. Samuel’s death is recorded in 1 Samuel 25:1, prior to the time of the accession of David to the throne in place of Saul. Who wrote the material of 1 and 2 Samuel if it was not Samuel? On the basis of the statement in 1 Chronicles 29:29, it has been suggested by some that Samuel composed the early narratives of the book and that his work was later supplemented by the writings of the prophets Nathan and Gad. Others have suggested one of David’s contemporaries, such as Ahimaaz (2 Sm 15:27, 36; 17:17), Hushai (2 Sm 15:32; 16:16), or Zabud (1 Kgs 4:5). Presumably, these men would have had access to the writings of Samuel, Nathan, and Gad, as well as to other sources (see 2 Sm 1:18) pertaining to the life and reigns of Saul and David. Who the real author was, however, cannot be determined from available evidence. Whoever it was, it is clear that he lived after the death of Solomon and the division of the kingdom in 930 <span>BC<\/span> (see references to “Israel in Judah” in 1 Sm 11:8; 17:52; 18:16; 2 Sm 5:5; 24:1-9; and “kings of Judah” in 1 Sm 27:6). Thus, 1 and 2 Samuel was published in its final form sometime after 930 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The theme binding together the narratives of 1 and 2 Samuel pertains to the relationship between kingship and the covenant. Kingship as requested by the people was a denial of the covenant; kingship as instituted by Samuel was compatible with the covenant; kingship as practiced by Saul failed to correspond to the covenantal idea; and kingship as practiced by David was an imperfect but true representation of the ideal of the covenantal king.<\/p>\n<p>It has often been pointed out that there is ambivalence in the description of the establishment of kingship in Israel (1 Sm 8–12), because in some places it seems to be suggested that kingship is improper for Israel, while in other places it seems to be suggested that kingship was God’s will for his people. Resolution to this tension is provided in 1 Samuel 12, when Samuel inaugurates Saul as Israel’s first king in the context of a covenant renewal ceremony by which Israel renews its allegiance to the Lord. Here it becomes clear that kingship in itself was not wrong for Israel; God desired Israel to have a king. But kingship of the type Israel desired (“like the other nations”) and for the reasons she wanted a king (to give a sense of national security and lead her to victory in battle) involved a denial of the Lord as her ultimate sovereign. Samuel defined the role of the king in Israel and presented Saul to the people in a ceremony in which they renewed their allegiance to the Lord. The monarchy in Israel was first established in a form that was compatible with the covenant. The king in Israel, as every other citizen of the nation, was to be subject to the law of the Lord and to the word of the prophet. From this perspective, the author depicts the reign of Saul as failing to correspond to the covenantal requirements, while the reign of David, although imperfect, reflected the covenantal ideal.<\/p>\n<p>There are at least two other important themes recorded in 1 and 2 Samuel. The first of these is that David conquers and acquires the land promised to Abraham. It is in the time of David that Israel’s borders are extended from Egypt to the Euphrates, as had been promised. A second event of major significance for the remainder of the Bible is David’s selection of Jerusalem to be the political and religious center of Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Samuel (1 Sm 1–7)<\/h5>\n<h6>Samuel’s Youth (1 Sm 1–3)<\/h6>\n<p>God granted the request of Hannah for a son after a long period of barrenness. She named her son Samuel (a wordplay on the Hebrew expression “heard of God”) and dedicated him to the service of the Lord—with Eli the priest at the tabernacle in Shiloh. Hannah’s beautiful song of praise to God, who hears and answers prayer (2:1-10), exalts the sovereignty of God and prophetically anticipates not only the establishment of kingship in Israel but ultimately the highest fulfillment of the royal office in Christ himself (v 10). The evil practices of the sons of the priest Eli are described in verses 11-26. These men not only used their office for personal gain (vv 12-17) but also committed immoral acts with the women serving at the entrance to the tabernacle (v 22). Although Eli rebuked his sons (vv 22-25), his warnings were too little too late. It was in this lax environment that Samuel grew up (vv 18-21, 26).<\/p>\n<p>In 1 Samuel 2:27-36, an unnamed prophet pronounced judgment on Eli and his priestly line. The prediction of the imminent death of Hophni and Phinehas, Eli’s sons, was fulfilled when the Philistines took the ark and destroyed the tabernacle at Shiloh (4:11; Jer 7:14). In 1 Samuel 3:1–4:1, Samuel is called to be a prophet, and he too is given a message of judgment for the house of Eli (3:11-14). As the reliability of Samuel’s words are attested, it is recognized by the people that he was a true prophet of the Lord (3:19–4:1).<\/p>\n\n<h6>The Loss and Return of the Ark (1 Sm 4–6)<\/h6>\n<p>In a battle with the Philistines, the prophecy of 2:27-36 and 3:11-14 was partially fulfilled. The Israelites were defeated, the ark was taken, and Hophni and Phinehas were killed. Upon hearing the report of these calamities, Eli also died (4:17-18). The Philistines placed the ark of the Lord in the temple of their god Dagon in Ashdod (5:1-2). However, when the idol of Dagon broke in pieces and fell before the ark and a plague broke out in Ashdod, the ark was moved to Gath. When the plague broke out in Gath, it was moved to Ekron. When the plague erupted in Ekron, the Philistines were compelled to return the ark to Israel—as a test, it was placed on a cart pulled by two nursing cows. These cows, going against their motherly instincts, left their penned-up calves and headed for the Israelite border and the town of Beth-shemesh (6:1-21). By this the Lord demonstrated that the victory over the Israelites and the capture of the ark could not be attributed to the Philistines’ god Dagon.<\/p>\n<h6>The Defeat of the Philistines (1 Sm 7)<\/h6>\n<p>Twenty years went by. Samuel assured the people of deliverance from Philistine oppression if they would confess their sin and turn from the worship of Baals and Ashtaroths. He called for a national assembly at Mizpah to renew allegiance to the Lord. While the Israelites were assembled, the Philistines attacked and the Lord gave the Israelites a miraculous victory, thereby demonstrating that obedience to covenant obligations would ensure national security (see Ex 23:22; Dt 20:1-4).<\/p>\n<h5>Kingship Established in Israel (1 Sm 8–12)<\/h5>\n<h6>The People Request a King (1 Sm 8:1-22)<\/h6>\n<p>When Samuel was an old man, the elders of the nation approached him and requested that he give them a king. Samuel immediately perceived that their request was tantamount to a rejection of the Lord, who was their King, for the people desired a king “like the other nations”—as a symbol of national unity and military security. Nevertheless, the Lord told Samuel to give the people a king. At the same time, however, he told Samuel to warn the people concerning what having a king “like the nations” would mean. The warning, descriptive of the practices of contemporary Canaanite kings, fell on deaf ears; the people persisted in their desire for a king.<\/p>\n<h6>Samuel Privately Anoints Saul (1 Sm 9:1–10:16)<\/h6>\n<p>The narrative of Saul’s search for the lost donkeys of his father and his encounter with Samuel in the process of his search is given to explain how Samuel and Saul first met, and how the Lord indicated to Samuel who the person was that he was to anoint as Israel’s first king (9:16-17). After Samuel privately anointed Saul (10:1), he was given three signs to confirm that his new calling came from the Lord.<\/p>\n<h6>Saul Publicly Chosen by Lot at Mizpah (1 Sm 10:17-27)<\/h6>\n<p>After the private designation and anointing of Saul to be king (9:1–10:16), Samuel convened a national assembly at Mizpah to make the Lord’s choice known to the people (10:20-24) and to define the king’s task (v 25). Again, at this assembly, Samuel emphasized that the people had rejected the Lord in requesting a king because they sought a king for the wrong reasons and failed to recognize the Lord’s past faithfulness in delivering them from their enemies. But again it was clear that the time for kingship in Israel had come and it was the Lord’s desire to give the people a king. Samuel’s explanation of the “regulations of the kingship” was an important step in resolving the tension between, on the one hand, Israel’s sin in desiring a king, and on the other, the Lord’s intent to give them a king. This document, which was preserved at the tabernacle, probably contained an enlarged version of the “law of the king” in Deuteronomy 17:14-20 and spelled out regulations governing the role of the king in Israel for the benefit of both the king and the people. This document undoubtedly distinguished Israelite kingship from that of the kings of the surrounding nations.<\/p>\n<h6>Saul Leads Israel to Victory over the Ammonites (1 Sm 11:1-13)<\/h6>\n<p>When Nahash, king of the Ammonites, attacked Jabesh-gilead, a town east of the Jordan in the territory of Manasseh, Saul left his farmwork to lead a volunteer army in support of the inhabitants of Jabesh-gilead. The victory over the Ammonites under Saul’s leadership placed another seal of divine approval on his selection to be king. Saul attributed the victory to the Lord rather than to his own military strategies.<\/p>\n<h6>Saul Inaugurated as King (1 Sm 11:14–12:25)<\/h6>\n<p>The victory at Jabesh-gilead prompted Samuel to call for a national assembly at Gilgal to renew the kingdom and make Saul king (11:14-15). At the Gilgal assembly, Samuel led the people in confessing the sin of their initial request for a king and in renewing their allegiance to the Lord. In the context of this covenant renewal ceremony, Saul was formally inaugurated in his office as king. By inaugurating Saul in this manner, Samuel effectively provided for covenantal continuity in the transition from the period of the judges to that of the monarchy.<\/p>\n<h5>Saul Rejected as King (1 Sm 13–15)<\/h5>\n<h6>Saul’s Disobedience (1 Sm 13:1-22)<\/h6>\n<p>When Saul was threatened with an imminent attack from the Philistines, he gathered troops at Gilgal and awaited Samuel, as he had been instructed (10:8; 13:8). When it appeared that Samuel would not come within the prearranged time, Saul became impatient and offered a sacrifice himself (13:9). Just as the sacrifice was completed, Samuel appeared and rebuked Saul for not keeping the commandment of the Lord. In disobeying Samuel’s previous instructions, Saul had violated a fundamental requirement of his office. He was seriously mistaken in thinking he could strengthen Israel’s hand against the Philistines by sacrifice to the Lord when this was done in violation of the Lord’s specific command. Samuel told Saul that because of his disobedience his dynasty would not endure (v 14).<\/p>\n<h6>Jonathan’s Victory (1 Sm 13:23–14:52)<\/h6>\n<p>Saul’s son Jonathan and Jonathan’s armor bearer skillfully and courageously attacked a Philistine outpost, killing about 20 men (14:8-14). The Lord used this defeat, along with an earthquake, to bring panic to the entire Philistine force. In the meantime, Saul sought divine guidance on whether to join the fray with his own forces. When the Lord’s answer did not come immediately, Saul concluded that waiting for the Lord’s word might jeopardize his military advantage. Here again he demonstrated that he trusted more in his own insight than in waiting upon the Lord. Saul further damaged his own stature in the eyes of his troops by pronouncing a foolish curse on any who would eat food before the battle was won. This nearly cost Jonathan his life; he was spared only because of the intervention of the troops in his defense.<\/p>\n<h6>Saul Rejected as King (1 Sm 15:1-35)<\/h6>\n<p>Saul was commanded by the Lord through Samuel to attack the Amalekites and totally destroy them, sparing neither human nor animal life. The Amalekites had previously attempted to destroy Israel shortly after their exodus from Egypt while journeying to Sinai (Ex 17:8-16). Saul disobeyed the Lord in sparing the best of the animals for sacrifice and in sparing Agag, the Amalekite king. The Lord sent Samuel again to rebuke Saul for his disobedience. Samuel charged Saul with rebellion against the Lord and told him that, because he had rejected the word of the Lord, the Lord had rejected him as king.<\/p>\n<h5>Saul and David (1 Sm 16:1—2 Sm 1:27)<\/h5>\n<h6>Samuel Anoints David (1 Sm 16:1-13)<\/h6>\n<p>The Lord instructed Samuel to go to the house of Jesse in Bethlehem to anoint one of his sons to be king in place of Saul. By divine leading, Jesse’s youngest son, David, was shown to be the one whom the Lord had chosen. When Samuel anointed him as king, the Spirit of the Lord came upon him with power.<\/p>\n<h6>David in the Service of Saul (1 Sm 16:14–17:58)<\/h6>\n<p>When Saul became plagued by an evil spirit, his attendants sought a harpist whose music would soothe him. David was the one chosen for this purpose. The position at the court, however, was not permanent, and David divided his time between the court and his home duties. In due time, the Philistines, led by the giant Goliath, encamped against the Israelites. Goliath challenged any Israelite who dared to meet him in individual combat. No Israelite ventured to accept his challenge until David, who was visiting the camp of the Israelite forces to bring food to his brothers, heard the challenge and responded in the strength and power of the Lord. The Lord gave David a great victory because he acknowledged that “the battle is the <span>Lord<\/span>’s” (17:47, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h6>Saul’s Hatred toward David (1 Sm 18:1–19:24)<\/h6>\n<p>In the aftermath of David’s victory over Goliath, Saul’s son Jonathan pledged loyalty to David in a covenant of friendship. As David achieved further successes in leading Israel’s armies, and as his public acclaim grew, Saul began to fear that David was a threat to his throne (18:14-16, 28-30). Saul, hating David, made several attempts to kill him (18:17, 25; 19:1, 10). David was finally forced to flee and sought refuge with Samuel at Ramah. When Saul and three of his messengers went to Ramah to arrest David, they were so overcome by the Spirit of God that they were incapable of fulfilling their mission.<\/p>\n<h6>David and Jonathan (1 Sm 20:1-42)<\/h6>\n<p>David’s absence from the royal table at the new moon festival provoked Saul to again threaten David’s life. Jonathan met with David at a prearranged place to inform him of the danger and say good-bye. Jonathan and David again pledged themselves to mutual loyalty and kindness. In the encounter it is clear that both men knew that David, not Jonathan, would be the successor to Saul on the throne of Israel.<\/p>\n<h6>David at Nob (1 Sm 21:1-9)<\/h6>\n<p>David went to the priest Ahimelech at Nob and, indicating he was on a secret mission for Saul, asked for bread and for the sword of Goliath, both of which were given to him. One of Saul’s servants, Doeg the Edomite, who was at Nob, observed the transaction.<\/p>\n<h6>David at Gath (1 Sm 21:10-15)<\/h6>\n<p>David then went into Philistine territory to King Achish at Gath. When his identity was discovered, he feigned insanity in order to escape.<\/p>\n<h6>David at Adullam (1 Sm 22:1-5)<\/h6>\n<p>From Gath David went to the cave of Adullam where he was joined by about 400 supporters. He took his parents to Moab for their own protection and then returned to the Forest of Hereth in Judah.<\/p>\n<h6>Saul Kills the Priests at Nob (1 Sm 22:6-23)<\/h6>\n<p>Doeg the Edomite reported to Saul that Ahimelech the priest had given assistance to David. At Saul’s command Doeg massacred all the priests at Nob except Abiathar, who escaped with the ephod and joined David.<\/p>\n<h6>David at Keilah (1 Sm 23:1-13)<\/h6>\n<p>David and his men delivered the citizens of Keilah from Philistine raiders but were forced to leave the city when it was apparent that its unthankful inhabitants were prepared to hand David over to Saul.<\/p>\n<h6>David in the Desert of Ziph (1 Sm 23:14-29)<\/h6>\n<p>While David was in the desert of Ziph, he was encouraged by a visit from Jonathan, who again pledged to him his loyalty. Although the Ziphites promised to aid Saul in capturing David, a Philistine attack forced Saul to abandon his attempt to apprehend him.<\/p>\n<h6>David Spares Saul’s Life (1 Sm 24:1-22)<\/h6>\n<p>While hiding deep in a cave at En-gedi, David was unexpectedly provided the opportunity to take Saul’s life when Saul relieved himself at the entrance to the cave. Nevertheless, because Saul was “the anointed of the Lord,” David spared his life and shamed him into confessing his own wickedness. David did this by showing Saul a piece of his robe that he had cut off while Saul was in the entrance to the cave.<\/p>\n<h6>David, Nabal, and Abigail (1 Sm 25:1-44)<\/h6>\n<p>David was badly mistreated by a sheepherder named Nabal. David was deterred, however, from foolishly taking the man’s life by the discerning words of Nabal’s wife, Abigail. Shortly after this incident, Nabal died and David took Abigail as his wife.<\/p>\n<h6>David Spares Saul’s Life a Second Time (1 Sm 26:1-25)<\/h6>\n<p>For a second time, the Ziphites joined Saul in attempting to capture David. While Saul and his men were sleeping, David and Abishai crept into their camp and took Saul’s spear and water jug. On the next day, David was again able to demonstrate to Saul that he did not seek to steal the kingship from his hands.<\/p>\n<h6>David among the Philistines (1 Sm 27:1-12)<\/h6>\n<p>David eventually became weary of hiding from Saul in Israelite territory; in a time of discouragement, he went again to Philistia to seek refuge beyond Saul’s reach. Ingratiating himself with Achish, a Philistine ruler, he was given the town of Ziklag as a place for himself and his men to reside. From Ziklag, David raided various tribes inhabiting the area south of Philistia, but deceived Achish into thinking he was raiding the territory of Judah.<\/p>\n<h6>Saul and the Medium of Endor (1 Sm 28:1-25)<\/h6>\n<p>The Philistines again gathered an army to fight Israel, and Saul, terrified and seemingly anticipating an imminent defeat, vainly sought for some word from the Lord concerning the outcome of the battle. When this was denied, he went in disguise to a medium at Endor and requested her to bring up to him the spirit of Samuel. Saul was told by this spirit that Israel would be defeated and that he and his sons would die in the upcoming battle.<\/p>\n<h6>The Philistines Mistrust David (1 Sm 29:1-11)<\/h6>\n<p>Although Achish desired David to join the Philistine army in its battle with Israel, the other Philistine commanders mistrusted him and forced Achish to send David and his men back to Ziklag. This turn of events rescued David from a serious dilemma created by his apparent friendship with Achish.<\/p>\n<h6>David Defeats the Amalekites (1 Sm 30:1-31)<\/h6>\n<p>Upon returning to Ziklag, David discovered that in his absence the city had been raided and burned by the Amalekites and that their wives, children, and cattle had been taken captive. After inquiring of the Lord through Abiathar the priest, David and his men went in pursuit of the Amalekites and recovered all they had taken and more. He divided the plunder among his troops and sent gifts from it to various towns in Judah.<\/p>\n<h6>The Death of Saul and His Sons (1 Sm 31:1—2 Sm 1:27)<\/h6>\n<p>As had been predicted, the battle with the Philistines ended in a disastrous defeat for Israel, in which Saul took his own life after being seriously wounded. Jonathan and two other sons of Saul were killed. David mourned for Saul and Jonathan and exalted their memory in his tribute to them recorded in 2 Samuel 1:19-27.<\/p>\n<h5>David (2 Sm 2–24)<\/h5>\n\n<h6>David Anointed King over Judah (2 Sm 2:1-7)<\/h6>\n<p>Subsequent to Saul’s death, the Lord instructed David to go to Hebron, where the tribe of Judah anointed him as their king.<\/p>\n<h6>David, Ishbosheth, and Abner (2 Sm 2:8–4:12)<\/h6>\n<p>Although David became king over Judah, the remaining tribes—under the influence of Abner, commander of Saul’s army—recognized Ishbosheth as Saul’s successor (2:8-10). Ishbosheth was a son of Saul who had survived the battle with the Philistines. Conflict quickly broke out between the men of David, led by Joab, and the men of Ishbosheth, led by Abner. In this conflict Asahel, Joab’s brother, was slain by Abner. As David grew stronger and Ishbosheth weaker, Abner shifted his allegiance from Ishbosheth to David (3:1-21). Joab, however, avenged the blood of his brother Asahel by murdering Abner under the pretense of negotiating with him. Although David detested this act, mourned for Abner, and cursed Joab, the crime was not punished until early in the reign of Solomon (see 1 Kgs 2:5-6, 29-34). Shortly afterward, Ishbosheth was killed by two soldiers, who brought his head to David at Hebron, expecting to be rewarded (2 Sm 4:1-8). David, however, had them both put to death. The only male survivor of Saul’s line was the crippled son of Jonathan named Mephibosheth.<\/p>\n<h6>David King over All Israel (2 Sm 5)<\/h6>\n<p>After Ishbosheth’s death, David was made king over all the tribes at Hebron. One of David’s first acts as king was to capture the fortress of Zion from the Jebusites. David established Zion as his capital and built a palace there for his residence.<\/p>\n<h6>The Ark Brought to Jerusalem (2 Sm 6)<\/h6>\n<p>Recognizing the importance of the ark as a symbol of God’s presence with his people, David determined that it should be brought to Jerusalem from the obscurity of the house of Abinadab in Kiriath-jearim, where it had remained throughout the entirety of Saul’s reign. Violation of prescriptions for handling the ark led to the death of Uzzah, one of Abinadab’s sons, and delayed the ark’s conveyance to Jerusalem for three months. In a second attempt David led a joyful procession into the city of Jerusalem, where the ark was placed in a tent that had been prepared for it.<\/p>\n<h6>David, Nathan, and the Temple (2 Sm 7)<\/h6>\n<p>It soon became David’s desire to build a temple to house the ark and provide a center for Israel’s worship of the Lord. The Lord told David through Nathan the prophet that he was not to build the Lord a house (temple) but that the Lord would build him a house (a dynasty) that would endure forever. Here the line of the promised seed is narrowed to the house of David within the tribe of Judah. This promise finds its fulfillment in the birth of Jesus, who was the “son of David, the son of Abraham” (see Mt 1:1). It would be the task of Solomon, David’s son, to construct the temple (2 Sm 7:13).<\/p>\n<h6>David’s Victories (2 Sm 8)<\/h6>\n<p>David was able to defeat numerous surrounding peoples, to extend Israel’s borders, and to establish a time of prosperity and rest for the nation.<\/p>\n<h6>David and Mephibosheth (2 Sm 9)<\/h6>\n<p>Remembering his covenant with Jonathan (see 1 Sm 18:1-3; 20:13-16, 42), David inquired concerning survivors of the house of Saul to whom he could show kindness. When Mephibosheth was sought out, David brought him to the court to enjoy the honor of eating at the king’s table.<\/p>\n<h6>David and Bathsheba (2 Sm 10–12)<\/h6>\n<p>During a war with the Ammonites, David committed adultery with the wife of one of his soldiers, Uriah the Hittite. When Bathsheba became pregnant, David attempted to get Uriah to sleep with her. When this failed, David arranged for Uriah’s certain death in battle. These sinful acts provoked God’s wrath (2 Sm 12:10-12) and David experienced the bitter fruits of his misconduct during the remainder of his life.<\/p>\n<h6>Amnon, Absalom, and Tamar (2 Sm 13)<\/h6>\n<p>David’s oldest son, Amnon, feigned sickness in order to arrange for his half sister, Tamar, to care for him. When Tamar refused Amnon’s sexual advances to her, he raped her. This incident enraged Tamar’s full brother Absalom, who determined to avenge his sister by killing Amnon. Absalom waited two years and then arranged for the murder of Amnon during the festivities of the time of sheepshearing. He then fled to Geshur, a small city-state in Syria, where his maternal grandfather was king.<\/p>\n<h6>David and Absalom (2 Sm 14–19)<\/h6>\n<p>Absalom remained in exile for three years until Joab arranged for his return by securing a renunciation of blood revenge from David (14:1-27). Upon Absalom’s return, however, David refused to see him for two years, until they were finally reconciled. In this whole episode David sidestepped the issues of repentance and justice and took no effective disciplinary action. In the meantime Absalom conspired to take the throne from David his father by attempting to discredit his administration of justice, and by seeking to win the favor of the people and members of David’s court. After four years, Absalom proclaimed himself king in Hebron and gathered sufficient military strength to force his father to flee from Jerusalem (ch 15). Failure to immediately pursue David led to the defeat of Absalom’s forces and to Absalom’s own death at the hand of Joab, David’s commander. David mourned for his son Absalom (19:1-8), but he was able to return to Jerusalem and to reestablish his government. David disciplined Joab for killing Absalom by replacing him as commander of his troops with Amasa.<\/p>\n<h6>Rebellion of Sheba (2 Sm 20)<\/h6>\n<p>In the unsettled conditions immediately after David’s return to Jerusalem, another abortive revolt was attempted by Sheba of the tribe of Benjamin. Joab, in defiance of David’s disciplinary action, killed Amasa, pursued Sheba, and crushed his revolt.<\/p>\n<h6>David and the Gibeonites (2 Sm 21:1-14)<\/h6>\n<p>At some unspecified time during David’s reign, the land suffered a three-year famine. It was revealed to David by the Lord that the famine was due to Saul’s violation of an Israelite treaty with the Gibeonites (see Jos 9:15, 18-27). This offense was atoned for by giving seven descendants of Saul to the Gibeonites for execution.<\/p>\n<h6>David and the Philistines (2 Sm 21:15-22)<\/h6>\n<p>In this pericope four episodes of heroic accomplishments by David’s mighty men against the Philistines are recounted.<\/p>\n<h6>David’s Song of Praise (2 Sm 22)<\/h6>\n<p>In a beautiful song of praise, David described his deliverance from his enemies and the help with which the Lord sustained him. The same song occurs with minor variations in Psalm 18.<\/p>\n<h6>David’s Last Words (2 Sm 23:1-7)<\/h6>\n<p>In a brief statement, David acknowledges the work of God’s Spirit in enabling him to speak God’s word, and proclaims his confidence in the realization of the Lord’s promise to him and his dynasty.<\/p>\n<h6>David’s Mighty Men (2 Sm 23:8-39)<\/h6>\n<p>This pericope contains a list of 37 of David’s warriors and a description of some of their accomplishments.<\/p>\n<h6>The Census and David’s Punishment (2 Sm 24:1-25)<\/h6>\n<p>David’s decision to take a census of his fighting men reflected an improper trust in military-political organization and power. The Lord judged him by sending a plague on the land that killed many people. At the word of the Lord through Gad the prophet, David built an altar on the threshing floor of Araunah, which was later to become the site of the temple (see 2 Chr 3:1). The Lord responded to David’s sacrifices and prayers on behalf of the people; the plague was stopped.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> David; Samuel (Person); Saul #2.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SAMUEL, Books of First and Second<\/h3>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Name<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Name\">Name<\/p>\n<p>First and Second Samuel derive their names from the individual whom God used to establish kingship in Israel. Samuel is the most prominent figure in the early narratives of 1 Samuel. His key role in leading the nation of Israel through the transition from the period of the judges to that of the monarchy warrants the use of his name as the title for the book.<\/p>\n<p>These books, however, have not always been so designated, nor was the material originally divided into two books. As far as is known, the Septuagint (the Greek translation of the OT dating from the third century <span>BC<\/span>) translators were the first to separate the material of Samuel into two books (they made a similar division in the material of Kings). The Hebrew original of these books was written, as is characteristic of Hebrew, with symbols only for consonants and none for vowels. When translated into Greek, it was necessary to use symbols for both vowels and consonants, thus greatly lengthening the manuscript. Presumably the practical consideration of the length of the scroll was the cause for dividing the material of both Samuel and Kings into two books (scrolls) instead of retaining just one. The Septuagint translators, recognizing the continuity of content and emphasis in Samuel and Kings, designated what is now known as 1 and 2 Samuel as “The First and Second Books of Kingdoms” and then designated what now is known as 1 and 2 Kings as “The Third and Fourth Books of Kingdoms.” The Latin Vulgate (the Latin translation of the Bible prepared by Jerome in the late fourth century <span>AD<\/span>) slightly modified the Septuagint titles to “First, Second, Third, and Fourth Kings.” These titles were utilized all through the Middle Ages and were modified into our present titles by the Protestant Reformers in the 16th century <span>AD<\/span> in agreement with Jewish rabbinic tradition. The Reformers, however, retained the division into two books, and this has been followed in modern English versions.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>Even though Samuel is prominent in the early part of the book, and the book bears his name in our English versions, it is clear that he is not the author of the entirety of 1 and 2 Samuel. Samuel’s death is recorded in 1 Samuel 25:1, prior to the time of the accession of David to the throne in place of Saul. Who wrote the material of 1 and 2 Samuel if it was not Samuel? On the basis of the statement in 1 Chronicles 29:29, it has been suggested by some that Samuel composed the early narratives of the book and that his work was later supplemented by the writings of the prophets Nathan and Gad. Others have suggested one of David’s contemporaries, such as Ahimaaz (2 Sm 15:27, 36; 17:17), Hushai (2 Sm 15:32; 16:16), or Zabud (1 Kgs 4:5). Presumably, these men would have had access to the writings of Samuel, Nathan, and Gad, as well as to other sources (see 2 Sm 1:18) pertaining to the life and reigns of Saul and David. Who the real author was, however, cannot be determined from available evidence. Whoever it was, it is clear that he lived after the death of Solomon and the division of the kingdom in 930 <span>BC<\/span> (see references to “Israel in Judah” in 1 Sm 11:8; 17:52; 18:16; 2 Sm 5:5; 24:1-9; and “kings of Judah” in 1 Sm 27:6). Thus, 1 and 2 Samuel was published in its final form sometime after 930 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The theme binding together the narratives of 1 and 2 Samuel pertains to the relationship between kingship and the covenant. Kingship as requested by the people was a denial of the covenant; kingship as instituted by Samuel was compatible with the covenant; kingship as practiced by Saul failed to correspond to the covenantal idea; and kingship as practiced by David was an imperfect but true representation of the ideal of the covenantal king.<\/p>\n<p>It has often been pointed out that there is ambivalence in the description of the establishment of kingship in Israel (1 Sm 8–12), because in some places it seems to be suggested that kingship is improper for Israel, while in other places it seems to be suggested that kingship was God’s will for his people. Resolution to this tension is provided in 1 Samuel 12, when Samuel inaugurates Saul as Israel’s first king in the context of a covenant renewal ceremony by which Israel renews its allegiance to the Lord. Here it becomes clear that kingship in itself was not wrong for Israel; God desired Israel to have a king. But kingship of the type Israel desired (“like the other nations”) and for the reasons she wanted a king (to give a sense of national security and lead her to victory in battle) involved a denial of the Lord as her ultimate sovereign. Samuel defined the role of the king in Israel and presented Saul to the people in a ceremony in which they renewed their allegiance to the Lord. The monarchy in Israel was first established in a form that was compatible with the covenant. The king in Israel, as every other citizen of the nation, was to be subject to the law of the Lord and to the word of the prophet. From this perspective, the author depicts the reign of Saul as failing to correspond to the covenantal requirements, while the reign of David, although imperfect, reflected the covenantal ideal.<\/p>\n<p>There are at least two other important themes recorded in 1 and 2 Samuel. The first of these is that David conquers and acquires the land promised to Abraham. It is in the time of David that Israel’s borders are extended from Egypt to the Euphrates, as had been promised. A second event of major significance for the remainder of the Bible is David’s selection of Jerusalem to be the political and religious center of Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Samuel (1 Sm 1–7)<\/h5>\n<h6>Samuel’s Youth (1 Sm 1–3)<\/h6>\n<p>God granted the request of Hannah for a son after a long period of barrenness. She named her son Samuel (a wordplay on the Hebrew expression “heard of God”) and dedicated him to the service of the Lord—with Eli the priest at the tabernacle in Shiloh. Hannah’s beautiful song of praise to God, who hears and answers prayer (2:1-10), exalts the sovereignty of God and prophetically anticipates not only the establishment of kingship in Israel but ultimately the highest fulfillment of the royal office in Christ himself (v 10). The evil practices of the sons of the priest Eli are described in verses 11-26. These men not only used their office for personal gain (vv 12-17) but also committed immoral acts with the women serving at the entrance to the tabernacle (v 22). Although Eli rebuked his sons (vv 22-25), his warnings were too little too late. It was in this lax environment that Samuel grew up (vv 18-21, 26).<\/p>\n<p>In 1 Samuel 2:27-36, an unnamed prophet pronounced judgment on Eli and his priestly line. The prediction of the imminent death of Hophni and Phinehas, Eli’s sons, was fulfilled when the Philistines took the ark and destroyed the tabernacle at Shiloh (4:11; Jer 7:14). In 1 Samuel 3:1–4:1, Samuel is called to be a prophet, and he too is given a message of judgment for the house of Eli (3:11-14). As the reliability of Samuel’s words are attested, it is recognized by the people that he was a true prophet of the Lord (3:19–4:1).<\/p>\n\n<h6>The Loss and Return of the Ark (1 Sm 4–6)<\/h6>\n<p>In a battle with the Philistines, the prophecy of 2:27-36 and 3:11-14 was partially fulfilled. The Israelites were defeated, the ark was taken, and Hophni and Phinehas were killed. Upon hearing the report of these calamities, Eli also died (4:17-18). The Philistines placed the ark of the Lord in the temple of their god Dagon in Ashdod (5:1-2). However, when the idol of Dagon broke in pieces and fell before the ark and a plague broke out in Ashdod, the ark was moved to Gath. When the plague broke out in Gath, it was moved to Ekron. When the plague erupted in Ekron, the Philistines were compelled to return the ark to Israel—as a test, it was placed on a cart pulled by two nursing cows. These cows, going against their motherly instincts, left their penned-up calves and headed for the Israelite border and the town of Beth-shemesh (6:1-21). By this the Lord demonstrated that the victory over the Israelites and the capture of the ark could not be attributed to the Philistines’ god Dagon.<\/p>\n<h6>The Defeat of the Philistines (1 Sm 7)<\/h6>\n<p>Twenty years went by. Samuel assured the people of deliverance from Philistine oppression if they would confess their sin and turn from the worship of Baals and Ashtaroths. He called for a national assembly at Mizpah to renew allegiance to the Lord. While the Israelites were assembled, the Philistines attacked and the Lord gave the Israelites a miraculous victory, thereby demonstrating that obedience to covenant obligations would ensure national security (see Ex 23:22; Dt 20:1-4).<\/p>\n<h5>Kingship Established in Israel (1 Sm 8–12)<\/h5>\n<h6>The People Request a King (1 Sm 8:1-22)<\/h6>\n<p>When Samuel was an old man, the elders of the nation approached him and requested that he give them a king. Samuel immediately perceived that their request was tantamount to a rejection of the Lord, who was their King, for the people desired a king “like the other nations”—as a symbol of national unity and military security. Nevertheless, the Lord told Samuel to give the people a king. At the same time, however, he told Samuel to warn the people concerning what having a king “like the nations” would mean. The warning, descriptive of the practices of contemporary Canaanite kings, fell on deaf ears; the people persisted in their desire for a king.<\/p>\n<h6>Samuel Privately Anoints Saul (1 Sm 9:1–10:16)<\/h6>\n<p>The narrative of Saul’s search for the lost donkeys of his father and his encounter with Samuel in the process of his search is given to explain how Samuel and Saul first met, and how the Lord indicated to Samuel who the person was that he was to anoint as Israel’s first king (9:16-17). After Samuel privately anointed Saul (10:1), he was given three signs to confirm that his new calling came from the Lord.<\/p>\n<h6>Saul Publicly Chosen by Lot at Mizpah (1 Sm 10:17-27)<\/h6>\n<p>After the private designation and anointing of Saul to be king (9:1–10:16), Samuel convened a national assembly at Mizpah to make the Lord’s choice known to the people (10:20-24) and to define the king’s task (v 25). Again, at this assembly, Samuel emphasized that the people had rejected the Lord in requesting a king because they sought a king for the wrong reasons and failed to recognize the Lord’s past faithfulness in delivering them from their enemies. But again it was clear that the time for kingship in Israel had come and it was the Lord’s desire to give the people a king. Samuel’s explanation of the “regulations of the kingship” was an important step in resolving the tension between, on the one hand, Israel’s sin in desiring a king, and on the other, the Lord’s intent to give them a king. This document, which was preserved at the tabernacle, probably contained an enlarged version of the “law of the king” in Deuteronomy 17:14-20 and spelled out regulations governing the role of the king in Israel for the benefit of both the king and the people. This document undoubtedly distinguished Israelite kingship from that of the kings of the surrounding nations.<\/p>\n<h6>Saul Leads Israel to Victory over the Ammonites (1 Sm 11:1-13)<\/h6>\n<p>When Nahash, king of the Ammonites, attacked Jabesh-gilead, a town east of the Jordan in the territory of Manasseh, Saul left his farmwork to lead a volunteer army in support of the inhabitants of Jabesh-gilead. The victory over the Ammonites under Saul’s leadership placed another seal of divine approval on his selection to be king. Saul attributed the victory to the Lord rather than to his own military strategies.<\/p>\n<h6>Saul Inaugurated as King (1 Sm 11:14–12:25)<\/h6>\n<p>The victory at Jabesh-gilead prompted Samuel to call for a national assembly at Gilgal to renew the kingdom and make Saul king (11:14-15). At the Gilgal assembly, Samuel led the people in confessing the sin of their initial request for a king and in renewing their allegiance to the Lord. In the context of this covenant renewal ceremony, Saul was formally inaugurated in his office as king. By inaugurating Saul in this manner, Samuel effectively provided for covenantal continuity in the transition from the period of the judges to that of the monarchy.<\/p>\n<h5>Saul Rejected as King (1 Sm 13–15)<\/h5>\n<h6>Saul’s Disobedience (1 Sm 13:1-22)<\/h6>\n<p>When Saul was threatened with an imminent attack from the Philistines, he gathered troops at Gilgal and awaited Samuel, as he had been instructed (10:8; 13:8). When it appeared that Samuel would not come within the prearranged time, Saul became impatient and offered a sacrifice himself (13:9). Just as the sacrifice was completed, Samuel appeared and rebuked Saul for not keeping the commandment of the Lord. In disobeying Samuel’s previous instructions, Saul had violated a fundamental requirement of his office. He was seriously mistaken in thinking he could strengthen Israel’s hand against the Philistines by sacrifice to the Lord when this was done in violation of the Lord’s specific command. Samuel told Saul that because of his disobedience his dynasty would not endure (v 14).<\/p>\n<h6>Jonathan’s Victory (1 Sm 13:23–14:52)<\/h6>\n<p>Saul’s son Jonathan and Jonathan’s armor bearer skillfully and courageously attacked a Philistine outpost, killing about 20 men (14:8-14). The Lord used this defeat, along with an earthquake, to bring panic to the entire Philistine force. In the meantime, Saul sought divine guidance on whether to join the fray with his own forces. When the Lord’s answer did not come immediately, Saul concluded that waiting for the Lord’s word might jeopardize his military advantage. Here again he demonstrated that he trusted more in his own insight than in waiting upon the Lord. Saul further damaged his own stature in the eyes of his troops by pronouncing a foolish curse on any who would eat food before the battle was won. This nearly cost Jonathan his life; he was spared only because of the intervention of the troops in his defense.<\/p>\n<h6>Saul Rejected as King (1 Sm 15:1-35)<\/h6>\n<p>Saul was commanded by the Lord through Samuel to attack the Amalekites and totally destroy them, sparing neither human nor animal life. The Amalekites had previously attempted to destroy Israel shortly after their exodus from Egypt while journeying to Sinai (Ex 17:8-16). Saul disobeyed the Lord in sparing the best of the animals for sacrifice and in sparing Agag, the Amalekite king. The Lord sent Samuel again to rebuke Saul for his disobedience. Samuel charged Saul with rebellion against the Lord and told him that, because he had rejected the word of the Lord, the Lord had rejected him as king.<\/p>\n<h5>Saul and David (1 Sm 16:1—2 Sm 1:27)<\/h5>\n<h6>Samuel Anoints David (1 Sm 16:1-13)<\/h6>\n<p>The Lord instructed Samuel to go to the house of Jesse in Bethlehem to anoint one of his sons to be king in place of Saul. By divine leading, Jesse’s youngest son, David, was shown to be the one whom the Lord had chosen. When Samuel anointed him as king, the Spirit of the Lord came upon him with power.<\/p>\n<h6>David in the Service of Saul (1 Sm 16:14–17:58)<\/h6>\n<p>When Saul became plagued by an evil spirit, his attendants sought a harpist whose music would soothe him. David was the one chosen for this purpose. The position at the court, however, was not permanent, and David divided his time between the court and his home duties. In due time, the Philistines, led by the giant Goliath, encamped against the Israelites. Goliath challenged any Israelite who dared to meet him in individual combat. No Israelite ventured to accept his challenge until David, who was visiting the camp of the Israelite forces to bring food to his brothers, heard the challenge and responded in the strength and power of the Lord. The Lord gave David a great victory because he acknowledged that “the battle is the <span>Lord<\/span>’s” (17:47, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h6>Saul’s Hatred toward David (1 Sm 18:1–19:24)<\/h6>\n<p>In the aftermath of David’s victory over Goliath, Saul’s son Jonathan pledged loyalty to David in a covenant of friendship. As David achieved further successes in leading Israel’s armies, and as his public acclaim grew, Saul began to fear that David was a threat to his throne (18:14-16, 28-30). Saul, hating David, made several attempts to kill him (18:17, 25; 19:1, 10). David was finally forced to flee and sought refuge with Samuel at Ramah. When Saul and three of his messengers went to Ramah to arrest David, they were so overcome by the Spirit of God that they were incapable of fulfilling their mission.<\/p>\n<h6>David and Jonathan (1 Sm 20:1-42)<\/h6>\n<p>David’s absence from the royal table at the new moon festival provoked Saul to again threaten David’s life. Jonathan met with David at a prearranged place to inform him of the danger and say good-bye. Jonathan and David again pledged themselves to mutual loyalty and kindness. In the encounter it is clear that both men knew that David, not Jonathan, would be the successor to Saul on the throne of Israel.<\/p>\n<h6>David at Nob (1 Sm 21:1-9)<\/h6>\n<p>David went to the priest Ahimelech at Nob and, indicating he was on a secret mission for Saul, asked for bread and for the sword of Goliath, both of which were given to him. One of Saul’s servants, Doeg the Edomite, who was at Nob, observed the transaction.<\/p>\n<h6>David at Gath (1 Sm 21:10-15)<\/h6>\n<p>David then went into Philistine territory to King Achish at Gath. When his identity was discovered, he feigned insanity in order to escape.<\/p>\n<h6>David at Adullam (1 Sm 22:1-5)<\/h6>\n<p>From Gath David went to the cave of Adullam where he was joined by about 400 supporters. He took his parents to Moab for their own protection and then returned to the Forest of Hereth in Judah.<\/p>\n<h6>Saul Kills the Priests at Nob (1 Sm 22:6-23)<\/h6>\n<p>Doeg the Edomite reported to Saul that Ahimelech the priest had given assistance to David. At Saul’s command Doeg massacred all the priests at Nob except Abiathar, who escaped with the ephod and joined David.<\/p>\n<h6>David at Keilah (1 Sm 23:1-13)<\/h6>\n<p>David and his men delivered the citizens of Keilah from Philistine raiders but were forced to leave the city when it was apparent that its unthankful inhabitants were prepared to hand David over to Saul.<\/p>\n<h6>David in the Desert of Ziph (1 Sm 23:14-29)<\/h6>\n<p>While David was in the desert of Ziph, he was encouraged by a visit from Jonathan, who again pledged to him his loyalty. Although the Ziphites promised to aid Saul in capturing David, a Philistine attack forced Saul to abandon his attempt to apprehend him.<\/p>\n<h6>David Spares Saul’s Life (1 Sm 24:1-22)<\/h6>\n<p>While hiding deep in a cave at En-gedi, David was unexpectedly provided the opportunity to take Saul’s life when Saul relieved himself at the entrance to the cave. Nevertheless, because Saul was “the anointed of the Lord,” David spared his life and shamed him into confessing his own wickedness. David did this by showing Saul a piece of his robe that he had cut off while Saul was in the entrance to the cave.<\/p>\n<h6>David, Nabal, and Abigail (1 Sm 25:1-44)<\/h6>\n<p>David was badly mistreated by a sheepherder named Nabal. David was deterred, however, from foolishly taking the man’s life by the discerning words of Nabal’s wife, Abigail. Shortly after this incident, Nabal died and David took Abigail as his wife.<\/p>\n<h6>David Spares Saul’s Life a Second Time (1 Sm 26:1-25)<\/h6>\n<p>For a second time, the Ziphites joined Saul in attempting to capture David. While Saul and his men were sleeping, David and Abishai crept into their camp and took Saul’s spear and water jug. On the next day, David was again able to demonstrate to Saul that he did not seek to steal the kingship from his hands.<\/p>\n<h6>David among the Philistines (1 Sm 27:1-12)<\/h6>\n<p>David eventually became weary of hiding from Saul in Israelite territory; in a time of discouragement, he went again to Philistia to seek refuge beyond Saul’s reach. Ingratiating himself with Achish, a Philistine ruler, he was given the town of Ziklag as a place for himself and his men to reside. From Ziklag, David raided various tribes inhabiting the area south of Philistia, but deceived Achish into thinking he was raiding the territory of Judah.<\/p>\n<h6>Saul and the Medium of Endor (1 Sm 28:1-25)<\/h6>\n<p>The Philistines again gathered an army to fight Israel, and Saul, terrified and seemingly anticipating an imminent defeat, vainly sought for some word from the Lord concerning the outcome of the battle. When this was denied, he went in disguise to a medium at Endor and requested her to bring up to him the spirit of Samuel. Saul was told by this spirit that Israel would be defeated and that he and his sons would die in the upcoming battle.<\/p>\n<h6>The Philistines Mistrust David (1 Sm 29:1-11)<\/h6>\n<p>Although Achish desired David to join the Philistine army in its battle with Israel, the other Philistine commanders mistrusted him and forced Achish to send David and his men back to Ziklag. This turn of events rescued David from a serious dilemma created by his apparent friendship with Achish.<\/p>\n<h6>David Defeats the Amalekites (1 Sm 30:1-31)<\/h6>\n<p>Upon returning to Ziklag, David discovered that in his absence the city had been raided and burned by the Amalekites and that their wives, children, and cattle had been taken captive. After inquiring of the Lord through Abiathar the priest, David and his men went in pursuit of the Amalekites and recovered all they had taken and more. He divided the plunder among his troops and sent gifts from it to various towns in Judah.<\/p>\n<h6>The Death of Saul and His Sons (1 Sm 31:1—2 Sm 1:27)<\/h6>\n<p>As had been predicted, the battle with the Philistines ended in a disastrous defeat for Israel, in which Saul took his own life after being seriously wounded. Jonathan and two other sons of Saul were killed. David mourned for Saul and Jonathan and exalted their memory in his tribute to them recorded in 2 Samuel 1:19-27.<\/p>\n<h5>David (2 Sm 2–24)<\/h5>\n\n<h6>David Anointed King over Judah (2 Sm 2:1-7)<\/h6>\n<p>Subsequent to Saul’s death, the Lord instructed David to go to Hebron, where the tribe of Judah anointed him as their king.<\/p>\n<h6>David, Ishbosheth, and Abner (2 Sm 2:8–4:12)<\/h6>\n<p>Although David became king over Judah, the remaining tribes—under the influence of Abner, commander of Saul’s army—recognized Ishbosheth as Saul’s successor (2:8-10). Ishbosheth was a son of Saul who had survived the battle with the Philistines. Conflict quickly broke out between the men of David, led by Joab, and the men of Ishbosheth, led by Abner. In this conflict Asahel, Joab’s brother, was slain by Abner. As David grew stronger and Ishbosheth weaker, Abner shifted his allegiance from Ishbosheth to David (3:1-21). Joab, however, avenged the blood of his brother Asahel by murdering Abner under the pretense of negotiating with him. Although David detested this act, mourned for Abner, and cursed Joab, the crime was not punished until early in the reign of Solomon (see 1 Kgs 2:5-6, 29-34). Shortly afterward, Ishbosheth was killed by two soldiers, who brought his head to David at Hebron, expecting to be rewarded (2 Sm 4:1-8). David, however, had them both put to death. The only male survivor of Saul’s line was the crippled son of Jonathan named Mephibosheth.<\/p>\n<h6>David King over All Israel (2 Sm 5)<\/h6>\n<p>After Ishbosheth’s death, David was made king over all the tribes at Hebron. One of David’s first acts as king was to capture the fortress of Zion from the Jebusites. David established Zion as his capital and built a palace there for his residence.<\/p>\n<h6>The Ark Brought to Jerusalem (2 Sm 6)<\/h6>\n<p>Recognizing the importance of the ark as a symbol of God’s presence with his people, David determined that it should be brought to Jerusalem from the obscurity of the house of Abinadab in Kiriath-jearim, where it had remained throughout the entirety of Saul’s reign. Violation of prescriptions for handling the ark led to the death of Uzzah, one of Abinadab’s sons, and delayed the ark’s conveyance to Jerusalem for three months. In a second attempt David led a joyful procession into the city of Jerusalem, where the ark was placed in a tent that had been prepared for it.<\/p>\n<h6>David, Nathan, and the Temple (2 Sm 7)<\/h6>\n<p>It soon became David’s desire to build a temple to house the ark and provide a center for Israel’s worship of the Lord. The Lord told David through Nathan the prophet that he was not to build the Lord a house (temple) but that the Lord would build him a house (a dynasty) that would endure forever. Here the line of the promised seed is narrowed to the house of David within the tribe of Judah. This promise finds its fulfillment in the birth of Jesus, who was the “son of David, the son of Abraham” (see Mt 1:1). It would be the task of Solomon, David’s son, to construct the temple (2 Sm 7:13).<\/p>\n<h6>David’s Victories (2 Sm 8)<\/h6>\n<p>David was able to defeat numerous surrounding peoples, to extend Israel’s borders, and to establish a time of prosperity and rest for the nation.<\/p>\n<h6>David and Mephibosheth (2 Sm 9)<\/h6>\n<p>Remembering his covenant with Jonathan (see 1 Sm 18:1-3; 20:13-16, 42), David inquired concerning survivors of the house of Saul to whom he could show kindness. When Mephibosheth was sought out, David brought him to the court to enjoy the honor of eating at the king’s table.<\/p>\n<h6>David and Bathsheba (2 Sm 10–12)<\/h6>\n<p>During a war with the Ammonites, David committed adultery with the wife of one of his soldiers, Uriah the Hittite. When Bathsheba became pregnant, David attempted to get Uriah to sleep with her. When this failed, David arranged for Uriah’s certain death in battle. These sinful acts provoked God’s wrath (2 Sm 12:10-12) and David experienced the bitter fruits of his misconduct during the remainder of his life.<\/p>\n<h6>Amnon, Absalom, and Tamar (2 Sm 13)<\/h6>\n<p>David’s oldest son, Amnon, feigned sickness in order to arrange for his half sister, Tamar, to care for him. When Tamar refused Amnon’s sexual advances to her, he raped her. This incident enraged Tamar’s full brother Absalom, who determined to avenge his sister by killing Amnon. Absalom waited two years and then arranged for the murder of Amnon during the festivities of the time of sheepshearing. He then fled to Geshur, a small city-state in Syria, where his maternal grandfather was king.<\/p>\n<h6>David and Absalom (2 Sm 14–19)<\/h6>\n<p>Absalom remained in exile for three years until Joab arranged for his return by securing a renunciation of blood revenge from David (14:1-27). Upon Absalom’s return, however, David refused to see him for two years, until they were finally reconciled. In this whole episode David sidestepped the issues of repentance and justice and took no effective disciplinary action. In the meantime Absalom conspired to take the throne from David his father by attempting to discredit his administration of justice, and by seeking to win the favor of the people and members of David’s court. After four years, Absalom proclaimed himself king in Hebron and gathered sufficient military strength to force his father to flee from Jerusalem (ch 15). Failure to immediately pursue David led to the defeat of Absalom’s forces and to Absalom’s own death at the hand of Joab, David’s commander. David mourned for his son Absalom (19:1-8), but he was able to return to Jerusalem and to reestablish his government. David disciplined Joab for killing Absalom by replacing him as commander of his troops with Amasa.<\/p>\n<h6>Rebellion of Sheba (2 Sm 20)<\/h6>\n<p>In the unsettled conditions immediately after David’s return to Jerusalem, another abortive revolt was attempted by Sheba of the tribe of Benjamin. Joab, in defiance of David’s disciplinary action, killed Amasa, pursued Sheba, and crushed his revolt.<\/p>\n<h6>David and the Gibeonites (2 Sm 21:1-14)<\/h6>\n<p>At some unspecified time during David’s reign, the land suffered a three-year famine. It was revealed to David by the Lord that the famine was due to Saul’s violation of an Israelite treaty with the Gibeonites (see Jos 9:15, 18-27). This offense was atoned for by giving seven descendants of Saul to the Gibeonites for execution.<\/p>\n<h6>David and the Philistines (2 Sm 21:15-22)<\/h6>\n<p>In this pericope four episodes of heroic accomplishments by David’s mighty men against the Philistines are recounted.<\/p>\n<h6>David’s Song of Praise (2 Sm 22)<\/h6>\n<p>In a beautiful song of praise, David described his deliverance from his enemies and the help with which the Lord sustained him. The same song occurs with minor variations in Psalm 18.<\/p>\n<h6>David’s Last Words (2 Sm 23:1-7)<\/h6>\n<p>In a brief statement, David acknowledges the work of God’s Spirit in enabling him to speak God’s word, and proclaims his confidence in the realization of the Lord’s promise to him and his dynasty.<\/p>\n<h6>David’s Mighty Men (2 Sm 23:8-39)<\/h6>\n<p>This pericope contains a list of 37 of David’s warriors and a description of some of their accomplishments.<\/p>\n<h6>The Census and David’s Punishment (2 Sm 24:1-25)<\/h6>\n<p>David’s decision to take a census of his fighting men reflected an improper trust in military-political organization and power. The Lord judged him by sending a plague on the land that killed many people. At the word of the Lord through Gad the prophet, David built an altar on the threshing floor of Araunah, which was later to become the site of the temple (see 2 Chr 3:1). The Lord responded to David’s sacrifices and prayers on behalf of the people; the plague was stopped.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> David; Samuel (Person); Saul #2.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SAMUEL, Books of First and Second Preview • Name • Author and Date • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Name First and Second Samuel derive their names from the individual whom God used to establish kingship in Israel. Samuel is the most prominent figure in the early narratives of 1 Samuel. His key role in leading the nation of Israel through the transition from the period of the judges to that of the monarchy warrants the use of his name as the title for the book. These books, howeve...","summary_en":"SAMUEL, Books of First and Second Preview • Name • Author and Date • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Name First and Second Samuel derive their names from the individual whom God used to establish kingship in Israel. Samuel is the most prominent figure in the early narratives of 1 Samuel. His key role in leading the nation of Israel through the transition from the period of the judges to that of the monarchy warrants the use of his name as the title for the book. These books, howeve...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34027,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Saul","title_en":"Saul","content_ro":"<h3>SAUL<\/h3>\n<p>Name meaning “asked,” with the implication being “asked <em>of God.”<\/em> A name with a usage extending far back into prebiblical times, it is attested in third-millennium texts from Tell Mardikh in Syria (ancient Ebla) and appears also to have been used in the second millennium in the city of Ugarit on the coast of Syria.<\/p>\n<p>In addition to the conventional spelling, it is sometimes spelled Shaul in older English versions. Apart from King Saul, the most famous bearer of the name, one other person called Saul (Shaul) is referred to in the OT, though little is known about him (<em>see<\/em> Shaul).<\/p>\n<p>1. Saul, king of Edom, is mentioned in an ancient list of kings who ruled Edom (in Transjordan) in pre-Israelite times (Gn 36:37-38; 1 Chr 1:48-49). He is described as coming from “Rehoboth on the river,” the “river” perhaps referring to a small river in the vicinity of Edom.<\/p>\n<li>2. Saul, the first king of Israel, is the best known and documented person with his name in the OT. He was a member of the tribe of Benjamin, one of the smallest of the Israelite tribes, whose territory was located just north of the Canaanite city of Jerusalem. His father was Kish, son of Abiel. Saul was born in Gibeah, a small town just a few miles north of Jerusalem in the hill country, and apart from his travels and military expeditions, Gibeah was Saul’s hometown for his entire life. He was a married man with one wife, Ahinoam, and five children—three sons and two daughters (1 Sm 14:49-50). His best-known son, Jonathan, later served him in a senior military capacity; three of Saul’s sons died with him in battle (31:2). Of his two daughters, the best-known is Michal, the younger daughter, who married David.<\/li>\n<p>Saul the Soldier<\/p>\n<p>Saul lived during a critical period in the history of the Israelite tribes. Though the dates cannot be determined with any certainty, he lived during the latter half of the 11th century <span>BC<\/span> and probably ruled as king from about 1020 to 1000 <span>BC<\/span>. Before he became king, the Israelite tribes were on the verge of military collapse. The Philistines, a powerful military people, had settled along the Mediterranean coast; they were well established on the coast and planned to move eastward and take control of Palestine as a whole. In order to do this, they first had to eliminate the Israelites, who were settled in the hill country on the west of the Jordan and also in Transjordan. The absence of any strong and permanent military authority among the Israelites meant that the Philistines were a grave military threat to the continued existence of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The immediate crisis, which was to contribute to Saul’s rise to power, was a crushing defeat of the Israelite army by the Philistines at Ebenezer, in the vicinity of Aphek (1 Sm 4:1ff). The victory gave the Philistines more or less complete control of Israelite territories lying to the west of the Jordan; they attempted to maintain that control by establishing military garrisons throughout the country they had captured. Israel, weakened by the Philistine defeat, became vulnerable to enemies on other borders. The nation of Ammon, situated to the east of the Israelites’ land in Transjordan, attacked and laid siege to the town of Jabesh (11:1). Saul, summoning an army of volunteers, delivered the inhabitants of Jabesh and defeated the Ammonites (v 11). It was after this event that Saul became king. He had already been anointed a prince or leader among the people by Samuel; after his military success at Jabesh, he assumed the office formally at the sanctuary in Gilgal (v 15).<\/p>\n<p>The defeat of the Ammonites provided a significant boost to Israelite morale, but it did not change the military crisis and threat posed by the Philistines. Indeed, the location of Saul’s appointment to kingship is significant. Gilgal, in the Jordan Valley near Jericho, was chosen partly because the earlier shrine of Shiloh was held by the Philistines. Gilgal was in one of the few areas remaining outside Philistine control. Hence, if Saul’s kingship was to mean anything, he had to address the Philistine problem immediately; if he did not, there would be no Israel to rule.<\/p>\n<p>Saul acted promptly. Although the precise historical details are difficult to reconstruct, a general view of Saul’s anti-Philistine campaign is provided in the biblical text. He attacked garrisons at Gibeah and, later, at Micmash, about four miles (6.4 kilometers) northeast of Gibeah (1 Sm 13:16ff.). He had great success at Micmash, thanks in part to the military aid of his son Jonathan. The Philistines were routed and retreated from that portion of the hill country (14:15-23). Saul established his military base in his hometown, Gibeah, and built a citadel there.<\/p>\n<p>In the years that followed this initial campaign against the Philistines, Saul was constantly engaged in other military activities. He continued to fight with enemies on his eastern borders, particularly Ammon and Moab, to the east of the Dead Sea (1 Sm 14:47). He engaged in a major campaign on the southern border with the old enemies of the Israelites, the Amalekites (15:7); in this, too, he was successful. And throughout all this, he had to keep constant watch on Philistine activity on his western border.<\/p>\n<p>Saul was faced with an extraordinarily difficult task as military commander. His home ground had the advantage of being reasonably easy to protect, for most of it was mountainous countryside. But he was surrounded on all four sides by enemies who wanted his land, he had inadequate weapons (Philistines controlled the supply of iron), he had no large standing army, he had inadequate communication systems, and he did not have the wholehearted support of all the Israelites. For several years he was relatively successful against almost impossible odds, but eventually his military genius failed.<\/p>\n<p>The Philistines assembled a large army in the vicinity of Aphek (1 Sm 29:1), but instead of attacking Saul’s mountain territory directly, the army moved northward and then began to penetrate Israelite territory at a weak point in the vicinity of Jezreel (v 11). Saul attempted to gather an adequate military force to meet the Philistine threat, but he was unable to do so. With inadequate preparation and insufficient forces, he prepared for battle at Mt Gilboa (31:1); he should never have entered that battle, for it could not have been won. His sons were killed on the battlefield, and Saul, rather than fall into the hands of the Philistines, committed suicide (vv 2-6).<\/p>\n<p>From a military perspective, Saul had become king at a time of crisis; he had averted disaster and gained some respite for his country. But the battle in which he died was a disaster for Israel; the country he left behind after his death was in worse straits than it had been on his assumption of power.<\/p>\n<p>Saul the King<\/p>\n<p>If Saul had a difficult task as Israel’s military commander, he had an even more difficult task as Israel’s king. Before Saul’s time, there had been no king in Israel. The absence of any form of monarchy in Israel was largely a religious matter. God was the one and only true King of Israel; he was the one who reigned (Ex 15:18). Consequently, although there had been single, powerful rulers in Israel’s earlier history (Moses, Joshua, and certain judges), nobody had assumed the title or office of king, for it was thought that that would undermine the central position of God as King. However, provision had been made for the rise of kingship in the law (Dt 19:14-20); for more on kingship in Israel, <em>see<\/em> King, Kingship.<\/p>\n<p>It was sheer necessity that brought a monarchy to Israel, a necessity created by the constant military threat of the Philistines. A brief external threat could have been met by a temporary ruler, a judge. But a permanent and serious threat to Israel’s existence could not be thwarted by such temporary measures. If Israel was to survive as a nation (and it very nearly did not), it needed a central military government with recognized authority over the various tribes that constituted the nation of Israel. Thus the kingdom was established and Saul became the first king, facing incredible difficulties.<\/p>\n<p>Since there had never been a kingdom before in Israel, there were no precedents. What were his responsibilities? Primarily, they were military, for that was why the monarchy had been established. In this area, Saul was successful in the early years of his reign. But apart from his military responsibilities, King Saul faced an enormously difficult task. Given the nature of Hebrew theology, it was inevitable that many Israelites were opposed to the idea of kingship from the beginning. Indeed, Samuel, who was instrumental in the initial anointing of Saul and then in the formal coronation, appears to have been ambiguous in his attitudes toward the kingship (1 Sm 8:6), and later toward Saul himself (15:23). Furthermore, nobody had specified precisely what it was that the leader could do. He was a soldier—that much was clear. But did he also have religious responsibilities? Though the judgment of history upon Saul is often harsh, it is wise to recall the difficulty of the task he undertook. The military problems alone would have been more than sufficient for most great men; Saul also had to fashion the new role as king. In practical matters, Saul’s leadership was modest and praiseworthy. He sought none of the pomp and splendor of many Eastern kings. He had a small court, located in his military stronghold of Gibeah; there is little evidence that it was characterized by great wealth. For practical purposes, he had no standing army; he had only a few men close to him, in particular his son Jonathan and his general Abner. He also sought out young men of promise, like David. Saul’s court was rustic and feudal in comparison to the later splendor of David and Solomon. But Saul, as national leader, ran into difficulties with Samuel, who had appointed him and had influenced Israel prior to his kingship. While the responsibility for the trouble may lie primarily with Saul, Samuel himself does not appear to have been particularly supportive and helpful. On one occasion, Saul was roundly criticized and condemned by Samuel for assuming the priestly role of offering sacrifices in the absence of Samuel at Gilgal (1 Sm 13:8-15). The judgment was no doubt deserved, though one can perceive Saul’s dilemma. Did the king have a priestly role or not? This issue had not been made clear. Furthermore, Saul was at the time in a state of crisis; he had waited seven days for Samuel to turn up, and as each day passed, his army was reduced by deserters. So Saul acted. Perhaps he may not be excused, but his actions may easily be understood, and the incident itself is indicative of the difficulty of being a nation’s first king. Again, after the Amalekite war, Saul was subject to divine condemnation through Samuel.<\/p>\n<p>Saul was Israel’s first king but not its greatest. Yet no criticism of Saul’s leadership should be so harsh as to ignore his strengths. He faced extraordinary difficulties and for a while was successful. Few other men could have done what he did. Ultimately, he died in failure, yet his achievements might have been better remembered if he had been succeeded by any other leader than David. David’s gifts and competence were so magnificent and unusual that Saul’s modest achievements paled and only his failures are remembered.<\/p>\n<p>Saul the Man<\/p>\n<p>The writers of the OT have presented the story of Saul in a fascinating manner. While some OT characters remain shadowy figures, Saul stands out, with all his strengths and weaknesses, as a fully human figure. He was, in many ways, a great man, but there were also flaws in his personality that emerged more and more in the later years of his life. Born of a wealthy father, Saul is described as being tall and handsome (1 Sm 9:1-2). He was a man of immense courage, and part of his military success was rooted in his fearlessness. In his early years as king, Saul is portrayed as a man whose basic instincts were generous; he was kind and loyal to his friends and did not easily carry a grudge or hatred toward those who opposed him (11:12-13). But the real strength of Saul, in his early days, was in his relationship to God. For all his natural gifts and abilities, Saul became king as a result of divine appointment (10:1) and because the “Spirit of the Lord” came upon him (v 6).<\/p>\n<p>In his later life, a change came over Saul that transformed him into a tragic, pitiable person. The many incidents in Saul’s relationship to the young David provide insight into the transformation. Once a friend, then perceived as an enemy, David became the object of Saul’s unfounded suspicions and irrational jealousy. Saul’s periods of sanity became punctuated by periods of depression and paranoia. The paranoia affected his rational thought. Instead of warring against the invading Philistines, his energy was diverted toward the pursuit of David. The biblical writers describe this change as “the departure of the Spirit of God from Saul” and “an evil spirit from the <span>Lord<\/span> tormenting him” (1 Sm 16:14). Many modern writers have interpreted this as the onset of a form of mental illness, perhaps manic-depression, the alternation between active and lucid periods, followed by intense depression and paranoia. But there is a certain danger in psychoanalyzing the figures of ancient history, principally because the literary sources are rarely adequate to the task. The biblical writers indicated a theological basis for the change in Saul: the Spirit of God had departed from him. From a simple human perspective, the man was not equal to the enormity of the task before him. Overcome by its complexity, and lagging in the faith of the one who appointed him to such awesome responsibility, Saul ended his days in tragedy.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> David.<\/p>\n<li>3. Saul, mentioned in the NT, whose name was changed to Paul (Acts 13:9). <em>See<\/em> Paul, The Apostle.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>SAUL<\/h3>\n<p>Name meaning “asked,” with the implication being “asked <em>of God.”<\/em> A name with a usage extending far back into prebiblical times, it is attested in third-millennium texts from Tell Mardikh in Syria (ancient Ebla) and appears also to have been used in the second millennium in the city of Ugarit on the coast of Syria.<\/p>\n<p>In addition to the conventional spelling, it is sometimes spelled Shaul in older English versions. Apart from King Saul, the most famous bearer of the name, one other person called Saul (Shaul) is referred to in the OT, though little is known about him (<em>see<\/em> Shaul).<\/p>\n<p>1. Saul, king of Edom, is mentioned in an ancient list of kings who ruled Edom (in Transjordan) in pre-Israelite times (Gn 36:37-38; 1 Chr 1:48-49). He is described as coming from “Rehoboth on the river,” the “river” perhaps referring to a small river in the vicinity of Edom.<\/p>\n<li>2. Saul, the first king of Israel, is the best known and documented person with his name in the OT. He was a member of the tribe of Benjamin, one of the smallest of the Israelite tribes, whose territory was located just north of the Canaanite city of Jerusalem. His father was Kish, son of Abiel. Saul was born in Gibeah, a small town just a few miles north of Jerusalem in the hill country, and apart from his travels and military expeditions, Gibeah was Saul’s hometown for his entire life. He was a married man with one wife, Ahinoam, and five children—three sons and two daughters (1 Sm 14:49-50). His best-known son, Jonathan, later served him in a senior military capacity; three of Saul’s sons died with him in battle (31:2). Of his two daughters, the best-known is Michal, the younger daughter, who married David.<\/li>\n<p>Saul the Soldier<\/p>\n<p>Saul lived during a critical period in the history of the Israelite tribes. Though the dates cannot be determined with any certainty, he lived during the latter half of the 11th century <span>BC<\/span> and probably ruled as king from about 1020 to 1000 <span>BC<\/span>. Before he became king, the Israelite tribes were on the verge of military collapse. The Philistines, a powerful military people, had settled along the Mediterranean coast; they were well established on the coast and planned to move eastward and take control of Palestine as a whole. In order to do this, they first had to eliminate the Israelites, who were settled in the hill country on the west of the Jordan and also in Transjordan. The absence of any strong and permanent military authority among the Israelites meant that the Philistines were a grave military threat to the continued existence of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The immediate crisis, which was to contribute to Saul’s rise to power, was a crushing defeat of the Israelite army by the Philistines at Ebenezer, in the vicinity of Aphek (1 Sm 4:1ff). The victory gave the Philistines more or less complete control of Israelite territories lying to the west of the Jordan; they attempted to maintain that control by establishing military garrisons throughout the country they had captured. Israel, weakened by the Philistine defeat, became vulnerable to enemies on other borders. The nation of Ammon, situated to the east of the Israelites’ land in Transjordan, attacked and laid siege to the town of Jabesh (11:1). Saul, summoning an army of volunteers, delivered the inhabitants of Jabesh and defeated the Ammonites (v 11). It was after this event that Saul became king. He had already been anointed a prince or leader among the people by Samuel; after his military success at Jabesh, he assumed the office formally at the sanctuary in Gilgal (v 15).<\/p>\n<p>The defeat of the Ammonites provided a significant boost to Israelite morale, but it did not change the military crisis and threat posed by the Philistines. Indeed, the location of Saul’s appointment to kingship is significant. Gilgal, in the Jordan Valley near Jericho, was chosen partly because the earlier shrine of Shiloh was held by the Philistines. Gilgal was in one of the few areas remaining outside Philistine control. Hence, if Saul’s kingship was to mean anything, he had to address the Philistine problem immediately; if he did not, there would be no Israel to rule.<\/p>\n<p>Saul acted promptly. Although the precise historical details are difficult to reconstruct, a general view of Saul’s anti-Philistine campaign is provided in the biblical text. He attacked garrisons at Gibeah and, later, at Micmash, about four miles (6.4 kilometers) northeast of Gibeah (1 Sm 13:16ff.). He had great success at Micmash, thanks in part to the military aid of his son Jonathan. The Philistines were routed and retreated from that portion of the hill country (14:15-23). Saul established his military base in his hometown, Gibeah, and built a citadel there.<\/p>\n<p>In the years that followed this initial campaign against the Philistines, Saul was constantly engaged in other military activities. He continued to fight with enemies on his eastern borders, particularly Ammon and Moab, to the east of the Dead Sea (1 Sm 14:47). He engaged in a major campaign on the southern border with the old enemies of the Israelites, the Amalekites (15:7); in this, too, he was successful. And throughout all this, he had to keep constant watch on Philistine activity on his western border.<\/p>\n<p>Saul was faced with an extraordinarily difficult task as military commander. His home ground had the advantage of being reasonably easy to protect, for most of it was mountainous countryside. But he was surrounded on all four sides by enemies who wanted his land, he had inadequate weapons (Philistines controlled the supply of iron), he had no large standing army, he had inadequate communication systems, and he did not have the wholehearted support of all the Israelites. For several years he was relatively successful against almost impossible odds, but eventually his military genius failed.<\/p>\n<p>The Philistines assembled a large army in the vicinity of Aphek (1 Sm 29:1), but instead of attacking Saul’s mountain territory directly, the army moved northward and then began to penetrate Israelite territory at a weak point in the vicinity of Jezreel (v 11). Saul attempted to gather an adequate military force to meet the Philistine threat, but he was unable to do so. With inadequate preparation and insufficient forces, he prepared for battle at Mt Gilboa (31:1); he should never have entered that battle, for it could not have been won. His sons were killed on the battlefield, and Saul, rather than fall into the hands of the Philistines, committed suicide (vv 2-6).<\/p>\n<p>From a military perspective, Saul had become king at a time of crisis; he had averted disaster and gained some respite for his country. But the battle in which he died was a disaster for Israel; the country he left behind after his death was in worse straits than it had been on his assumption of power.<\/p>\n<p>Saul the King<\/p>\n<p>If Saul had a difficult task as Israel’s military commander, he had an even more difficult task as Israel’s king. Before Saul’s time, there had been no king in Israel. The absence of any form of monarchy in Israel was largely a religious matter. God was the one and only true King of Israel; he was the one who reigned (Ex 15:18). Consequently, although there had been single, powerful rulers in Israel’s earlier history (Moses, Joshua, and certain judges), nobody had assumed the title or office of king, for it was thought that that would undermine the central position of God as King. However, provision had been made for the rise of kingship in the law (Dt 19:14-20); for more on kingship in Israel, <em>see<\/em> King, Kingship.<\/p>\n<p>It was sheer necessity that brought a monarchy to Israel, a necessity created by the constant military threat of the Philistines. A brief external threat could have been met by a temporary ruler, a judge. But a permanent and serious threat to Israel’s existence could not be thwarted by such temporary measures. If Israel was to survive as a nation (and it very nearly did not), it needed a central military government with recognized authority over the various tribes that constituted the nation of Israel. Thus the kingdom was established and Saul became the first king, facing incredible difficulties.<\/p>\n<p>Since there had never been a kingdom before in Israel, there were no precedents. What were his responsibilities? Primarily, they were military, for that was why the monarchy had been established. In this area, Saul was successful in the early years of his reign. But apart from his military responsibilities, King Saul faced an enormously difficult task. Given the nature of Hebrew theology, it was inevitable that many Israelites were opposed to the idea of kingship from the beginning. Indeed, Samuel, who was instrumental in the initial anointing of Saul and then in the formal coronation, appears to have been ambiguous in his attitudes toward the kingship (1 Sm 8:6), and later toward Saul himself (15:23). Furthermore, nobody had specified precisely what it was that the leader could do. He was a soldier—that much was clear. But did he also have religious responsibilities? Though the judgment of history upon Saul is often harsh, it is wise to recall the difficulty of the task he undertook. The military problems alone would have been more than sufficient for most great men; Saul also had to fashion the new role as king. In practical matters, Saul’s leadership was modest and praiseworthy. He sought none of the pomp and splendor of many Eastern kings. He had a small court, located in his military stronghold of Gibeah; there is little evidence that it was characterized by great wealth. For practical purposes, he had no standing army; he had only a few men close to him, in particular his son Jonathan and his general Abner. He also sought out young men of promise, like David. Saul’s court was rustic and feudal in comparison to the later splendor of David and Solomon. But Saul, as national leader, ran into difficulties with Samuel, who had appointed him and had influenced Israel prior to his kingship. While the responsibility for the trouble may lie primarily with Saul, Samuel himself does not appear to have been particularly supportive and helpful. On one occasion, Saul was roundly criticized and condemned by Samuel for assuming the priestly role of offering sacrifices in the absence of Samuel at Gilgal (1 Sm 13:8-15). The judgment was no doubt deserved, though one can perceive Saul’s dilemma. Did the king have a priestly role or not? This issue had not been made clear. Furthermore, Saul was at the time in a state of crisis; he had waited seven days for Samuel to turn up, and as each day passed, his army was reduced by deserters. So Saul acted. Perhaps he may not be excused, but his actions may easily be understood, and the incident itself is indicative of the difficulty of being a nation’s first king. Again, after the Amalekite war, Saul was subject to divine condemnation through Samuel.<\/p>\n<p>Saul was Israel’s first king but not its greatest. Yet no criticism of Saul’s leadership should be so harsh as to ignore his strengths. He faced extraordinary difficulties and for a while was successful. Few other men could have done what he did. Ultimately, he died in failure, yet his achievements might have been better remembered if he had been succeeded by any other leader than David. David’s gifts and competence were so magnificent and unusual that Saul’s modest achievements paled and only his failures are remembered.<\/p>\n<p>Saul the Man<\/p>\n<p>The writers of the OT have presented the story of Saul in a fascinating manner. While some OT characters remain shadowy figures, Saul stands out, with all his strengths and weaknesses, as a fully human figure. He was, in many ways, a great man, but there were also flaws in his personality that emerged more and more in the later years of his life. Born of a wealthy father, Saul is described as being tall and handsome (1 Sm 9:1-2). He was a man of immense courage, and part of his military success was rooted in his fearlessness. In his early years as king, Saul is portrayed as a man whose basic instincts were generous; he was kind and loyal to his friends and did not easily carry a grudge or hatred toward those who opposed him (11:12-13). But the real strength of Saul, in his early days, was in his relationship to God. For all his natural gifts and abilities, Saul became king as a result of divine appointment (10:1) and because the “Spirit of the Lord” came upon him (v 6).<\/p>\n<p>In his later life, a change came over Saul that transformed him into a tragic, pitiable person. The many incidents in Saul’s relationship to the young David provide insight into the transformation. Once a friend, then perceived as an enemy, David became the object of Saul’s unfounded suspicions and irrational jealousy. Saul’s periods of sanity became punctuated by periods of depression and paranoia. The paranoia affected his rational thought. Instead of warring against the invading Philistines, his energy was diverted toward the pursuit of David. The biblical writers describe this change as “the departure of the Spirit of God from Saul” and “an evil spirit from the <span>Lord<\/span> tormenting him” (1 Sm 16:14). Many modern writers have interpreted this as the onset of a form of mental illness, perhaps manic-depression, the alternation between active and lucid periods, followed by intense depression and paranoia. But there is a certain danger in psychoanalyzing the figures of ancient history, principally because the literary sources are rarely adequate to the task. The biblical writers indicated a theological basis for the change in Saul: the Spirit of God had departed from him. From a simple human perspective, the man was not equal to the enormity of the task before him. Overcome by its complexity, and lagging in the faith of the one who appointed him to such awesome responsibility, Saul ended his days in tragedy.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> David.<\/p>\n<li>3. Saul, mentioned in the NT, whose name was changed to Paul (Acts 13:9). <em>See<\/em> Paul, The Apostle.<\/li>","summary_ro":"SAUL Name meaning “asked,” with the implication being “asked of God.” A name with a usage extending far back into prebiblical times, it is attested in third-millennium texts from Tell Mardikh in Syria (ancient Ebla) and appears also to have been used in the second millennium in the city of Ugarit on the coast of Syria. In addition to the conventional spelling, it is sometimes spelled Shaul in older English versions. Apart from King Saul, the most famous bearer of the name, one other person ca...","summary_en":"SAUL Name meaning “asked,” with the implication being “asked of God.” A name with a usage extending far back into prebiblical times, it is attested in third-millennium texts from Tell Mardikh in Syria (ancient Ebla) and appears also to have been used in the second millennium in the city of Ugarit on the coast of Syria. In addition to the conventional spelling, it is sometimes spelled Shaul in older English versions. Apart from King Saul, the most famous bearer of the name, one other person ca...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":36055,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Spirit of God","title_en":"Spirit of God","content_ro":"<h3>SPIRIT OF GOD<\/h3>\n<p>Description of God in action, God in motion. The word “spirit” (Hebrew, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ruach<\/span><em>;<\/em> Greek, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">pneuma<\/span>) is the word used from ancient times to describe and explain the experience of divine power working in, upon, and around people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>There are three basic meanings evident in the use of “spirit” from the earliest Hebrew writings: It was a wind from God, it was the breath of life, and it was a spirit of ecstasy.<\/p>\n<p>First, it was a wind from God (the same Hebrew word translated “Spirit” in Gn 1:2) that caused the waters of the Flood to subside (8:1). A wind from God blew locusts over Egypt (Ex 10:13) and quail over the camp of Israel. The blast of his nostrils separated the waters of the Red Sea at the exodus (14:21).<\/p>\n<p>Second, it was the breath of God that made man a living being (Gn 2:7). It is one of the earliest perceptions of Hebrew faith that humans live only because of the stirring of the divine breath or spirit within them (Gn 6:3; Jb 33:4; 34:14-15; Ps 104:29-30). Later, a clearer distinction was drawn between divine Spirit and human spirit, and between spirit and soul, but at the earliest stage these were all more or less perceived to be synonymous manifestations of the same divine power, the source of all life—animal as well as human (Gn 7:15, 22; see Eccl 3:19-21).<\/p>\n<p>Third, there were occasions when this divine power seemed to overtake and possess an individual fully, so that his or her words or actions far transcended those of normal behavior. Such a person was clearly marked as an agent of God’s purpose and given respect. This was apparently how leaders were recognized in the premonarchy period—Othniel (Jgs 3:10), Gideon (6:34), Jephthah (11:29), and the first king, Saul (1 Sm 11:6), as well. So, too, the earliest prophets were those whose inspiration came in ecstasy (1 Sm 19:20-24).<\/p>\n<p>In the earlier stages of Hebrew thought, ecstatic experience was seen as the direct effect of divine power. This was true even when the ecstasy was recognized as evil in character, as in the case of Saul’s seizure by the Spirit (1 Sm 16:14-16). A spirit from God could be for evil as well as for good (see Jgs 9:23; 1 Kgs 22:19-23).<\/p>\n<h5>In the Writings of the Prophets<\/h5>\n<p>For Isaiah, the spirit was that which characterized God and distinguished him and his actions from human affairs (Is 31:3). Later, the adjective “holy” appeared as that which distinguished the Spirit of God from any other spirit, human or divine (Ps 51:11; Is 63:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>The problem of false prophecy emphasized the danger of assuming that every message delivered in ecstasy was the word of the Lord. Thus, tests of prophecy evaluated the content of the message delivered or the character of the prophet’s life, not the degree or quality of inspiration (see Dt 13:1-5; 18:22; Jer 23:14; Mi 3:5). This sense of a need to discriminate between true and false inspiration and to distinguish the word of God from the merely ecstatic oracle may help to explain the otherwise puzzling reluctance of the major eighth- and seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> prophets to attribute their inspiration to the Spirit.<\/p>\n<h5>In the Exilic and Postexilic Writings<\/h5>\n<p>In exilic and postexilic literature, the role of the Spirit is narrowed to two major functions: that of the prophetic Spirit and that of the Spirit of the age to come.<\/p>\n<p>The later prophets again spoke of the Spirit in explicit terms as the inspirer of prophecy (see Ez 3:1-4, 22-24; Hg 2:5; Zec 4:6). As they looked back to the preexilic period, these prophets freely attributed the inspiration of “the former prophets” to the Spirit as well (Zec 7:12).<\/p>\n<p>This tendency to exalt the Spirit’s role as the inspirer of prophecy became steadily stronger in the period between the OT and NT, until in rabbinic Judaism the Spirit was almost exclusively the inspirer of the prophetic writings now regarded as Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>The other understanding of the Spirit’s role during exilic and postexilic times was that the Spirit would be the manifestation of the power of God in the age to come. That eschatological hope of divine power effecting a final cleansing and a renewed creation is rooted principally in Isaiah’s prophecies (Is 4:4; 32:15; 44:3-4). Isaiah speaks of one anointed by the Spirit to accomplish complete and final salvation (11:2; 42:1; 61:1). Elsewhere, the same longing is expressed in terms of the Spirit being freely dispensed to all Israel (Ez 39:29; Jl 2:28-29; Zec 12:10) in the new covenant (Jer 31:31-34; Ez 36:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>In the period prior to Jesus, the understanding of the Spirit as the Spirit of prophecy and as the Spirit of the age to come had developed into the widespread dogma that the Spirit was no longer to be experienced in the present. The Spirit had been known in the past as the inspirer of prophetic writings, but after Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi, the Spirit had withdrawn (1 Macc 4:44-46; 9:27; 2 Bar 85:1-3; see also Ps 74:9; Zec 13:2-6). The Spirit would be known again in the age of the Messiah, but in the interim the Spirit was absent from Israel. Even the great Hillel (learned Jewish leader and teacher, 60? <span>BC<\/span>–<span>AD<\/span> 20?), a near contemporary of Jesus, had not received the Spirit—though if anyone was worthy of the Spirit, it was he. There is a tradition that at a meeting of Hillel and other wise men, a voice from heaven said, “Among those here present is one who would have deserved the Holy Spirit to rest upon him, if his time had been worthy of it.” The wise men all looked at Hillel.<\/p>\n<p>The consequence of this accepted dearth of the Spirit was that the Spirit in effect became subordinated to the law. The Spirit was the inspirer of the law, but since the Spirit could no longer be experienced directly, the law became the sole voice of the Spirit. It was this increasing dominance of the law and its authoritative interpreters that provided the background for the mission of Jesus and the initial spread of Christianity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>If we are to understand the NT’s teaching on the Spirit, we must recognize both its continuity and discontinuity with the OT. At many points NT usage cannot be fully understood except against the background of OT concepts or passages. For example, the ambiguity of John 3:8 (“wind,” “Spirit”), 2 Thessalonians 2:8 (“breath”), and Revelation 11:11 (“breath of life”) takes us back to the basic Hebrew meanings of “spirit.” Acts 8:39 and Revelation 17:3 and 21:10 reflect the same conception of the Spirit that we find in 1 Kings 18:12, 2 Kings 2:16, and Ezekiel 3:14. The NT writers generally share the rabbinic view that Scripture has the authority of the Spirit behind it (see Mk 12:36; Acts 28:25; Heb 3:7; 2 Pt 1:21). The principal continuity is that the NT brings the fulfillment of what the OT writers looked forward to. At the same time, Christianity is not simply fulfilled Judaism. Jesus’ coming and his giving of his Spirit to live within his believers marks off the new faith as something new and distinct.<\/p>\n<h5>The Spirit of the New Age<\/h5>\n<p>The most striking feature of Jesus’ ministry and of the message of the earliest Christians was their conviction and proclamation that the blessings of the new age were already present, that the eschatological Spirit had already been poured out. With the exception of the Essenes at Qumran, no other group or individual within the Jewish religion of that time had dared to make such a bold claim. The prophets and the rabbis looked for a messianic age yet to come, and the apocalyptic writers warned of its imminent arrival, but none thought of it as already present. Even John the Baptist spoke only of one about to come and of the Spirit’s operation in the imminent future (Mk 1:8). But for Jesus and first-century Christians, the longed for hope was a living reality, and the claim carried with it the exciting sense of being in “the last days.” Without some recognition of that eschatological dimension of the Christians’ faith and life, we cannot understand this teaching on, and experience of, the Spirit.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus clearly thought of his teachings and healings as fulfillment of the prophetic hope (Mt 12:41-42; 13:16-17; Lk 17:20-21). In particular, he saw himself as the one anointed by the Spirit to provide salvation (Mt 5:3-6; 11:5; Lk 4:17-19). So, too, Jesus understood his exorcisms as the effect of the power of God and as manifestations of the end-time rule of God (Mt 12:27-28; Mk 3:22-26). The Gospel writers, especially Luke, emphasize the eschatological character of Jesus’ life and ministry by stressing the role of the Spirit in his birth (Mt 1:18; Lk 1:35, 41, 67; 2:25-27), his baptism (Mk 1:9-10; Acts 10:38), and his ministry (Mt 4:1; 12:18; Mk 1:12; Lk 4:1, 14; 10:21; Jn 3:34).<\/p>\n<p>The Christian church began with the in-breathing of the Holy Spirit on the day of Christ’s resurrection (Jn 20:22), followed by the outpouring of the Spirit at Pentecost “in the last days.” The overwhelming experience of vision and inspired utterance was taken as proof positive that the new age prophesied by Joel had now arrived (Acts 2:2-5, 17-18). Similarly, in Hebrews the gift of the Spirit is spoken of as “the powers of the age to come” (Heb 6:4-5). More striking still is Paul’s understanding of the Spirit as the guarantee of God’s complete salvation (2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Eph 1:13-14), and as the first installment of the believer’s inheritance of God’s kingdom (Rom 8:15-17; 1 Cor 6:9-11; 15:42-50; Gal 4:6-7; 5:16-18, 21-23; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit is here again thought of as the power of the age to come, as that power (which will characterize God’s rule at the end of time) already shaping and transforming the lives of believers.<\/p>\n<p>For Paul, this means also that the gift of the Spirit is but the beginning of a lifelong process that will not end until the believer’s whole person is brought under the Spirit’s power (Rom 8:11, 23; 1 Cor 15:44-49; 2 Cor 3:18; 5:1-5). It also means that the present experience of faith is one of lifelong tension between what God has already begun to bring about in the believer’s life and what has not yet been brought under God’s grace (Phil 1:6). It is this tension between life “in the Spirit” and life “in the flesh” (see Gal 2:20) that comes to poignant expression in Romans 7:24 and 2 Corinthians 5:2-4.<\/p>\n<h5>The Spirit of New Life<\/h5>\n<p>Since the Spirit is the mark of the new age, it is not surprising that the NT writers understood the gift of the Spirit to be that which brings an individual into the new age. John the Baptist described the way the coming one would baptize with the Holy Spirit and with fire (Mt 3:11). According to Acts 1:5 and 11:16, this imagery was taken up by Jesus, and the promise is seen as fulfilled at Pentecost—the outpouring of the Spirit here being understood as the risen Christ’s action in drawing his disciples into the new age (Acts 2:17, 33).<\/p>\n<p>It seems to be one of Luke’s aims in the book of Acts to highlight the central importance of the gift of the Spirit in conversion-initiation—it is that decisive “gift of the Holy Spirit” that makes one a Christian (Acts 2:38-39). People could have been followers of Jesus on earth, but it was only when they received the gift of the Spirit that they could be said to have “believed in the Lord Jesus Christ” (11:16-17). When the Spirit’s presence was manifested in and upon a person’s life, that was recognized by Peter as proof enough that God had accepted that person, even though he or she had not yet made any formal profession of faith or been baptized (10:44-48; 11:15-18; 15:7-9). So too Apollos, already aglow with the Spirit (18:25), even though his knowledge of “the way of God” was slightly defective (vv 24-26), apparently was not required to supplement his “baptism of John” with Christian baptism. However, the 12 so-called disciples at Ephesus proved by their very ignorance of the Spirit that they were not yet disciples of the Lord Jesus (19:1-6). Paul asked these 12 men, “Did you receive the Holy Spirit when you believed?” (19:2).<\/p>\n<p>This accords with Paul’s emphasis in his letters. Belief and reception of the Spirit go together: to receive the Spirit is to begin the Christian life (Gal 3:2-3); to be baptized in the Spirit is to become a member of the body of Christ (1 Cor 12:13); to “have the Spirit of Christ” is to belong to Christ (Rom 8:9-11); to receive the Spirit is tantamount to becoming a child of God (Rom 8:14-17; Gal 4:6-7). The Spirit so characterizes the new age and the life of the new age that only the gift of the Spirit can bring a person into the new age to experience the life of the new age. For the Spirit is distinctively and peculiarly the life-giver; the Spirit indeed <em>is<\/em> the life of the new age (Rom 8:2, 6, 10; 1 Cor 15:45; 2 Cor 3:6; Gal 5:25).<\/p>\n<p>In just the same way in John’s writings, the Spirit is characteristically the life-giving Spirit (Jn 6:63), the power from above, the seed of divine life that brings about the new birth (Jn 3:3-8; 1 Jn 3:9), and a river of living water that brings life when one believes in Christ (Jn 7:37-39; so also 4:10, 14). Or again, reception of the Spirit in John 20:22 is depicted as a new creation analogous to Genesis 2:7. Consequently, in 1 John 3:24 and 4:13, possession and experience of the Spirit count as one of the “tests of life” listed in that letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Manifestations of the Spirit<\/h5>\n<p>It will be clear from what has already been said that when the first Christians, like the ancient Hebrews, spoke of the Spirit, they were thinking of experiences of divine power. In the NT, as in the OT, “Spirit” is the word used to explain the experience of new life and vitality (see above), of liberation from legalism (e.g., Rom 8:2; 2 Cor 3:17), of spiritual refreshing and renewal (cf. e.g., Is 32:15; Ez 39:29 with Jn 7:37-39; Rom 5:5; 1 Cor 12:13; 1 Tm 3:5-6). It is important to realize how wide a range of experiences were attributed to the Spirit: ecstatic experiences (Acts 2:24; 10:43-47; 19:6; cf. 10:10; 22:17—“in ecstasy”; 2 Cor 12:1-4; Rv 1:10), emotional experiences (e.g., love—Rom 5:5; joy—Acts 13:52; 1 Thes 1:6; see also Gal 5:22; Phil 2:1-2), experiences of illumination (2 Cor 3:14-17; Eph 1:17-18; Heb 6:4-5; 1 Jn 2:20-21), and experiences issuing in moral transformation (1 Cor 6:9-11). Likewise, when Paul speaks of spiritual gifts, called <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">charismata<\/span> (acts or words that bring divine grace to concrete expression), he evidently has a wide range of actual events in mind: inspired speech (1 Cor 12:8-10; 1 Thes 1:5), miracles and healings (1 Cor 12:9; Gal 3:5; cf. Heb 2:4), and various acts of service and help, of counsel and administration, and of aid and mercy (Rom 12:7-8; 1 Cor 12:28).<\/p>\n<p>In talking thus of the Spirit in terms of experience, we should not overemphasize particular experiences or manifestations, as though earliest Christianity consisted of a sequence of mountaintop experiences or spiritual highs. There clearly were such experiences, indeed a wide range of experiences, but no one experience is singled out to be sought by all (except prophecy). There is no distinctively second (or third) experience of the Spirit in the NT, and Paul warned against overvaluing particular manifestations of the Spirit (1 Cor 14:6-19; 2 Cor 12:1-10; cf. Mk 8:11-13). Where particular experiences are valued, it is as manifestations of a more sustained experience, particular expressions of an underlying relationship (cf. Acts 6:3-5; 11:24—“full of the Spirit”; Eph 5:18). What we are in touch with here is the vigor of the experiential dimension of earliest Christianity. If the Spirit is the breath of the new life in Christ (cf. Ez 37:9-10, 14; Jn 20:22; 1 Cor 15:45), then presumably the analogy extends further, and the experience of the Spirit is like the experience of breathing: one is not conscious of it all the time, but if one is not conscious of it, at least sometimes, something is wrong.<\/p>\n<h5>The Fellowship of the Spirit<\/h5>\n<p>It was out of this shared experience of the Spirit that the earliest Christian community grew and developed, for this is what “the fellowship [<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">koinonia<\/span>] of the Spirit” properly means: common participation in the same Spirit (Phil 2:1; cf. Acts 2:42; 1 Cor 1:4-9). It was the gift of the Spirit that brought those in Samaria, Caesarea, and elsewhere effectively into the community of the Spirit (Act 8, 10). So also, it was the experience of the one Spirit that provided the unifying bond in the churches of Paul’s mission (1 Cor 12:13; Eph 4:3-4; Phil 2:1-2). Here we see the real importance of the divine manifestations of the Spirit for Paul: it is out of the diversity of these particular manifestations that the body of Christ grows in unity (Rom 12:4-8; 1 Cor 12:12-17; Eph 4:4-16).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SPIRIT OF GOD<\/h3>\n<p>Description of God in action, God in motion. The word “spirit” (Hebrew, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ruach<\/span><em>;<\/em> Greek, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">pneuma<\/span>) is the word used from ancient times to describe and explain the experience of divine power working in, upon, and around people.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>There are three basic meanings evident in the use of “spirit” from the earliest Hebrew writings: It was a wind from God, it was the breath of life, and it was a spirit of ecstasy.<\/p>\n<p>First, it was a wind from God (the same Hebrew word translated “Spirit” in Gn 1:2) that caused the waters of the Flood to subside (8:1). A wind from God blew locusts over Egypt (Ex 10:13) and quail over the camp of Israel. The blast of his nostrils separated the waters of the Red Sea at the exodus (14:21).<\/p>\n<p>Second, it was the breath of God that made man a living being (Gn 2:7). It is one of the earliest perceptions of Hebrew faith that humans live only because of the stirring of the divine breath or spirit within them (Gn 6:3; Jb 33:4; 34:14-15; Ps 104:29-30). Later, a clearer distinction was drawn between divine Spirit and human spirit, and between spirit and soul, but at the earliest stage these were all more or less perceived to be synonymous manifestations of the same divine power, the source of all life—animal as well as human (Gn 7:15, 22; see Eccl 3:19-21).<\/p>\n<p>Third, there were occasions when this divine power seemed to overtake and possess an individual fully, so that his or her words or actions far transcended those of normal behavior. Such a person was clearly marked as an agent of God’s purpose and given respect. This was apparently how leaders were recognized in the premonarchy period—Othniel (Jgs 3:10), Gideon (6:34), Jephthah (11:29), and the first king, Saul (1 Sm 11:6), as well. So, too, the earliest prophets were those whose inspiration came in ecstasy (1 Sm 19:20-24).<\/p>\n<p>In the earlier stages of Hebrew thought, ecstatic experience was seen as the direct effect of divine power. This was true even when the ecstasy was recognized as evil in character, as in the case of Saul’s seizure by the Spirit (1 Sm 16:14-16). A spirit from God could be for evil as well as for good (see Jgs 9:23; 1 Kgs 22:19-23).<\/p>\n<h5>In the Writings of the Prophets<\/h5>\n<p>For Isaiah, the spirit was that which characterized God and distinguished him and his actions from human affairs (Is 31:3). Later, the adjective “holy” appeared as that which distinguished the Spirit of God from any other spirit, human or divine (Ps 51:11; Is 63:10-11).<\/p>\n<p>The problem of false prophecy emphasized the danger of assuming that every message delivered in ecstasy was the word of the Lord. Thus, tests of prophecy evaluated the content of the message delivered or the character of the prophet’s life, not the degree or quality of inspiration (see Dt 13:1-5; 18:22; Jer 23:14; Mi 3:5). This sense of a need to discriminate between true and false inspiration and to distinguish the word of God from the merely ecstatic oracle may help to explain the otherwise puzzling reluctance of the major eighth- and seventh-century <span>BC<\/span> prophets to attribute their inspiration to the Spirit.<\/p>\n<h5>In the Exilic and Postexilic Writings<\/h5>\n<p>In exilic and postexilic literature, the role of the Spirit is narrowed to two major functions: that of the prophetic Spirit and that of the Spirit of the age to come.<\/p>\n<p>The later prophets again spoke of the Spirit in explicit terms as the inspirer of prophecy (see Ez 3:1-4, 22-24; Hg 2:5; Zec 4:6). As they looked back to the preexilic period, these prophets freely attributed the inspiration of “the former prophets” to the Spirit as well (Zec 7:12).<\/p>\n<p>This tendency to exalt the Spirit’s role as the inspirer of prophecy became steadily stronger in the period between the OT and NT, until in rabbinic Judaism the Spirit was almost exclusively the inspirer of the prophetic writings now regarded as Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>The other understanding of the Spirit’s role during exilic and postexilic times was that the Spirit would be the manifestation of the power of God in the age to come. That eschatological hope of divine power effecting a final cleansing and a renewed creation is rooted principally in Isaiah’s prophecies (Is 4:4; 32:15; 44:3-4). Isaiah speaks of one anointed by the Spirit to accomplish complete and final salvation (11:2; 42:1; 61:1). Elsewhere, the same longing is expressed in terms of the Spirit being freely dispensed to all Israel (Ez 39:29; Jl 2:28-29; Zec 12:10) in the new covenant (Jer 31:31-34; Ez 36:26-27).<\/p>\n<p>In the period prior to Jesus, the understanding of the Spirit as the Spirit of prophecy and as the Spirit of the age to come had developed into the widespread dogma that the Spirit was no longer to be experienced in the present. The Spirit had been known in the past as the inspirer of prophetic writings, but after Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi, the Spirit had withdrawn (1 Macc 4:44-46; 9:27; 2 Bar 85:1-3; see also Ps 74:9; Zec 13:2-6). The Spirit would be known again in the age of the Messiah, but in the interim the Spirit was absent from Israel. Even the great Hillel (learned Jewish leader and teacher, 60? <span>BC<\/span>–<span>AD<\/span> 20?), a near contemporary of Jesus, had not received the Spirit—though if anyone was worthy of the Spirit, it was he. There is a tradition that at a meeting of Hillel and other wise men, a voice from heaven said, “Among those here present is one who would have deserved the Holy Spirit to rest upon him, if his time had been worthy of it.” The wise men all looked at Hillel.<\/p>\n<p>The consequence of this accepted dearth of the Spirit was that the Spirit in effect became subordinated to the law. The Spirit was the inspirer of the law, but since the Spirit could no longer be experienced directly, the law became the sole voice of the Spirit. It was this increasing dominance of the law and its authoritative interpreters that provided the background for the mission of Jesus and the initial spread of Christianity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>If we are to understand the NT’s teaching on the Spirit, we must recognize both its continuity and discontinuity with the OT. At many points NT usage cannot be fully understood except against the background of OT concepts or passages. For example, the ambiguity of John 3:8 (“wind,” “Spirit”), 2 Thessalonians 2:8 (“breath”), and Revelation 11:11 (“breath of life”) takes us back to the basic Hebrew meanings of “spirit.” Acts 8:39 and Revelation 17:3 and 21:10 reflect the same conception of the Spirit that we find in 1 Kings 18:12, 2 Kings 2:16, and Ezekiel 3:14. The NT writers generally share the rabbinic view that Scripture has the authority of the Spirit behind it (see Mk 12:36; Acts 28:25; Heb 3:7; 2 Pt 1:21). The principal continuity is that the NT brings the fulfillment of what the OT writers looked forward to. At the same time, Christianity is not simply fulfilled Judaism. Jesus’ coming and his giving of his Spirit to live within his believers marks off the new faith as something new and distinct.<\/p>\n<h5>The Spirit of the New Age<\/h5>\n<p>The most striking feature of Jesus’ ministry and of the message of the earliest Christians was their conviction and proclamation that the blessings of the new age were already present, that the eschatological Spirit had already been poured out. With the exception of the Essenes at Qumran, no other group or individual within the Jewish religion of that time had dared to make such a bold claim. The prophets and the rabbis looked for a messianic age yet to come, and the apocalyptic writers warned of its imminent arrival, but none thought of it as already present. Even John the Baptist spoke only of one about to come and of the Spirit’s operation in the imminent future (Mk 1:8). But for Jesus and first-century Christians, the longed for hope was a living reality, and the claim carried with it the exciting sense of being in “the last days.” Without some recognition of that eschatological dimension of the Christians’ faith and life, we cannot understand this teaching on, and experience of, the Spirit.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus clearly thought of his teachings and healings as fulfillment of the prophetic hope (Mt 12:41-42; 13:16-17; Lk 17:20-21). In particular, he saw himself as the one anointed by the Spirit to provide salvation (Mt 5:3-6; 11:5; Lk 4:17-19). So, too, Jesus understood his exorcisms as the effect of the power of God and as manifestations of the end-time rule of God (Mt 12:27-28; Mk 3:22-26). The Gospel writers, especially Luke, emphasize the eschatological character of Jesus’ life and ministry by stressing the role of the Spirit in his birth (Mt 1:18; Lk 1:35, 41, 67; 2:25-27), his baptism (Mk 1:9-10; Acts 10:38), and his ministry (Mt 4:1; 12:18; Mk 1:12; Lk 4:1, 14; 10:21; Jn 3:34).<\/p>\n<p>The Christian church began with the in-breathing of the Holy Spirit on the day of Christ’s resurrection (Jn 20:22), followed by the outpouring of the Spirit at Pentecost “in the last days.” The overwhelming experience of vision and inspired utterance was taken as proof positive that the new age prophesied by Joel had now arrived (Acts 2:2-5, 17-18). Similarly, in Hebrews the gift of the Spirit is spoken of as “the powers of the age to come” (Heb 6:4-5). More striking still is Paul’s understanding of the Spirit as the guarantee of God’s complete salvation (2 Cor 1:22; 5:5; Eph 1:13-14), and as the first installment of the believer’s inheritance of God’s kingdom (Rom 8:15-17; 1 Cor 6:9-11; 15:42-50; Gal 4:6-7; 5:16-18, 21-23; Eph 1:13-14). The Spirit is here again thought of as the power of the age to come, as that power (which will characterize God’s rule at the end of time) already shaping and transforming the lives of believers.<\/p>\n<p>For Paul, this means also that the gift of the Spirit is but the beginning of a lifelong process that will not end until the believer’s whole person is brought under the Spirit’s power (Rom 8:11, 23; 1 Cor 15:44-49; 2 Cor 3:18; 5:1-5). It also means that the present experience of faith is one of lifelong tension between what God has already begun to bring about in the believer’s life and what has not yet been brought under God’s grace (Phil 1:6). It is this tension between life “in the Spirit” and life “in the flesh” (see Gal 2:20) that comes to poignant expression in Romans 7:24 and 2 Corinthians 5:2-4.<\/p>\n<h5>The Spirit of New Life<\/h5>\n<p>Since the Spirit is the mark of the new age, it is not surprising that the NT writers understood the gift of the Spirit to be that which brings an individual into the new age. John the Baptist described the way the coming one would baptize with the Holy Spirit and with fire (Mt 3:11). According to Acts 1:5 and 11:16, this imagery was taken up by Jesus, and the promise is seen as fulfilled at Pentecost—the outpouring of the Spirit here being understood as the risen Christ’s action in drawing his disciples into the new age (Acts 2:17, 33).<\/p>\n<p>It seems to be one of Luke’s aims in the book of Acts to highlight the central importance of the gift of the Spirit in conversion-initiation—it is that decisive “gift of the Holy Spirit” that makes one a Christian (Acts 2:38-39). People could have been followers of Jesus on earth, but it was only when they received the gift of the Spirit that they could be said to have “believed in the Lord Jesus Christ” (11:16-17). When the Spirit’s presence was manifested in and upon a person’s life, that was recognized by Peter as proof enough that God had accepted that person, even though he or she had not yet made any formal profession of faith or been baptized (10:44-48; 11:15-18; 15:7-9). So too Apollos, already aglow with the Spirit (18:25), even though his knowledge of “the way of God” was slightly defective (vv 24-26), apparently was not required to supplement his “baptism of John” with Christian baptism. However, the 12 so-called disciples at Ephesus proved by their very ignorance of the Spirit that they were not yet disciples of the Lord Jesus (19:1-6). Paul asked these 12 men, “Did you receive the Holy Spirit when you believed?” (19:2).<\/p>\n<p>This accords with Paul’s emphasis in his letters. Belief and reception of the Spirit go together: to receive the Spirit is to begin the Christian life (Gal 3:2-3); to be baptized in the Spirit is to become a member of the body of Christ (1 Cor 12:13); to “have the Spirit of Christ” is to belong to Christ (Rom 8:9-11); to receive the Spirit is tantamount to becoming a child of God (Rom 8:14-17; Gal 4:6-7). The Spirit so characterizes the new age and the life of the new age that only the gift of the Spirit can bring a person into the new age to experience the life of the new age. For the Spirit is distinctively and peculiarly the life-giver; the Spirit indeed <em>is<\/em> the life of the new age (Rom 8:2, 6, 10; 1 Cor 15:45; 2 Cor 3:6; Gal 5:25).<\/p>\n<p>In just the same way in John’s writings, the Spirit is characteristically the life-giving Spirit (Jn 6:63), the power from above, the seed of divine life that brings about the new birth (Jn 3:3-8; 1 Jn 3:9), and a river of living water that brings life when one believes in Christ (Jn 7:37-39; so also 4:10, 14). Or again, reception of the Spirit in John 20:22 is depicted as a new creation analogous to Genesis 2:7. Consequently, in 1 John 3:24 and 4:13, possession and experience of the Spirit count as one of the “tests of life” listed in that letter.<\/p>\n<h5>Manifestations of the Spirit<\/h5>\n<p>It will be clear from what has already been said that when the first Christians, like the ancient Hebrews, spoke of the Spirit, they were thinking of experiences of divine power. In the NT, as in the OT, “Spirit” is the word used to explain the experience of new life and vitality (see above), of liberation from legalism (e.g., Rom 8:2; 2 Cor 3:17), of spiritual refreshing and renewal (cf. e.g., Is 32:15; Ez 39:29 with Jn 7:37-39; Rom 5:5; 1 Cor 12:13; 1 Tm 3:5-6). It is important to realize how wide a range of experiences were attributed to the Spirit: ecstatic experiences (Acts 2:24; 10:43-47; 19:6; cf. 10:10; 22:17—“in ecstasy”; 2 Cor 12:1-4; Rv 1:10), emotional experiences (e.g., love—Rom 5:5; joy—Acts 13:52; 1 Thes 1:6; see also Gal 5:22; Phil 2:1-2), experiences of illumination (2 Cor 3:14-17; Eph 1:17-18; Heb 6:4-5; 1 Jn 2:20-21), and experiences issuing in moral transformation (1 Cor 6:9-11). Likewise, when Paul speaks of spiritual gifts, called <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">charismata<\/span> (acts or words that bring divine grace to concrete expression), he evidently has a wide range of actual events in mind: inspired speech (1 Cor 12:8-10; 1 Thes 1:5), miracles and healings (1 Cor 12:9; Gal 3:5; cf. Heb 2:4), and various acts of service and help, of counsel and administration, and of aid and mercy (Rom 12:7-8; 1 Cor 12:28).<\/p>\n<p>In talking thus of the Spirit in terms of experience, we should not overemphasize particular experiences or manifestations, as though earliest Christianity consisted of a sequence of mountaintop experiences or spiritual highs. There clearly were such experiences, indeed a wide range of experiences, but no one experience is singled out to be sought by all (except prophecy). There is no distinctively second (or third) experience of the Spirit in the NT, and Paul warned against overvaluing particular manifestations of the Spirit (1 Cor 14:6-19; 2 Cor 12:1-10; cf. Mk 8:11-13). Where particular experiences are valued, it is as manifestations of a more sustained experience, particular expressions of an underlying relationship (cf. Acts 6:3-5; 11:24—“full of the Spirit”; Eph 5:18). What we are in touch with here is the vigor of the experiential dimension of earliest Christianity. If the Spirit is the breath of the new life in Christ (cf. Ez 37:9-10, 14; Jn 20:22; 1 Cor 15:45), then presumably the analogy extends further, and the experience of the Spirit is like the experience of breathing: one is not conscious of it all the time, but if one is not conscious of it, at least sometimes, something is wrong.<\/p>\n<h5>The Fellowship of the Spirit<\/h5>\n<p>It was out of this shared experience of the Spirit that the earliest Christian community grew and developed, for this is what “the fellowship [<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">koinonia<\/span>] of the Spirit” properly means: common participation in the same Spirit (Phil 2:1; cf. Acts 2:42; 1 Cor 1:4-9). It was the gift of the Spirit that brought those in Samaria, Caesarea, and elsewhere effectively into the community of the Spirit (Act 8, 10). So also, it was the experience of the one Spirit that provided the unifying bond in the churches of Paul’s mission (1 Cor 12:13; Eph 4:3-4; Phil 2:1-2). Here we see the real importance of the divine manifestations of the Spirit for Paul: it is out of the diversity of these particular manifestations that the body of Christ grows in unity (Rom 12:4-8; 1 Cor 12:12-17; Eph 4:4-16).<\/p>","summary_ro":"SPIRIT OF GOD Description of God in action, God in motion. The word “spirit” (Hebrew, ruach; Greek, pneuma) is the word used from ancient times to describe and explain the experience of divine power working in, upon, and around people. In the Old Testament There are three basic meanings evident in the use of “spirit” from the earliest Hebrew writings: It was a wind from God, it was the breath of life, and it was a spirit of ecstasy. First, it was a wind from God (the same Hebrew word translat...","summary_en":"SPIRIT OF GOD Description of God in action, God in motion. The word “spirit” (Hebrew, ruach; Greek, pneuma) is the word used from ancient times to describe and explain the experience of divine power working in, upon, and around people. In the Old Testament There are three basic meanings evident in the use of “spirit” from the earliest Hebrew writings: It was a wind from God, it was the breath of life, and it was a spirit of ecstasy. First, it was a wind from God (the same Hebrew word translat...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":46276,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:14","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:14–31:13<\/strong> Saul’s kingship continued its downward spiral after God’s Spirit departed from him. His reign ended in shame and defeat (ch 31).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:14–31:13<\/strong> Saul’s kingship continued its downward spiral after God’s Spirit departed from him. His reign ended in shame and defeat (ch 31).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:14–31:13 Saul’s kingship continued its downward spiral after God’s Spirit departed from him. His reign ended in shame and defeat (ch 31).","summary_en":"16:14–31:13 Saul’s kingship continued its downward spiral after God’s Spirit departed from him. His reign ended in shame and defeat (ch 31).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":46277,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:14","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:14<\/strong> <em>Spirit . . . left Saul:<\/em> In contrast with David’s receiving the Spirit (see “The Spirit’s Presence” Theme Note). • <em>The<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> sent a tormenting spirit<\/em> as a consequence of Saul’s disobedience (see also 18:10; 19:9; cp. Judg 9:23; Rom 1:28-29).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:14<\/strong> <em>Spirit . . . left Saul:<\/em> In contrast with David’s receiving the Spirit (see “The Spirit’s Presence” Theme Note). • <em>The<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> sent a tormenting spirit<\/em> as a consequence of Saul’s disobedience (see also 18:10; 19:9; cp. Judg 9:23; Rom 1:28-29).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:14 Spirit . . . left Saul: In contrast with David’s receiving the Spirit (see “The Spirit’s Presence” Theme Note). • The Lord sent a tormenting spirit as a consequence of Saul’s disobedience (see also 18:10; 19:9; cp. Judg 9:23; Rom 1:28-29).","summary_en":"16:14 Spirit . . . left Saul: In contrast with David’s receiving the Spirit (see “The Spirit’s Presence” Theme Note). • The Lord sent a tormenting spirit as a consequence of Saul’s disobedience (see also 18:10; 19:9; cp. Judg 9:23; Rom 1:28-29).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":73902,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:14","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:14–31:13<\/strong> Saul’s kingship continued its downward spiral after God’s Spirit departed from him. His reign ended in shame and defeat (ch 31).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:14–31:13<\/strong> Saul’s kingship continued its downward spiral after God’s Spirit departed from him. His reign ended in shame and defeat (ch 31).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:14–31:13 Saul’s kingship continued its downward spiral after God’s Spirit departed from him. His reign ended in shame and defeat (ch 31).","summary_en":"16:14–31:13 Saul’s kingship continued its downward spiral after God’s Spirit departed from him. His reign ended in shame and defeat (ch 31).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":73903,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:14","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:14<\/strong> <em>Spirit . . . left Saul:<\/em> In contrast with David’s receiving the Spirit (see “The Spirit’s Presence” Theme Note). • <em>The<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> sent a tormenting spirit<\/em> as a consequence of Saul’s disobedience (see also 18:10; 19:9; cp. Judg 9:23; Rom 1:28-29).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:14<\/strong> <em>Spirit . . . left Saul:<\/em> In contrast with David’s receiving the Spirit (see “The Spirit’s Presence” Theme Note). • <em>The<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> sent a tormenting spirit<\/em> as a consequence of Saul’s disobedience (see also 18:10; 19:9; cp. Judg 9:23; Rom 1:28-29).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:14 Spirit . . . left Saul: In contrast with David’s receiving the Spirit (see “The Spirit’s Presence” Theme Note). • The Lord sent a tormenting spirit as a consequence of Saul’s disobedience (see also 18:10; 19:9; cp. Judg 9:23; Rom 1:28-29).","summary_en":"16:14 Spirit . . . left Saul: In contrast with David’s receiving the Spirit (see “The Spirit’s Presence” Theme Note). • The Lord sent a tormenting spirit as a consequence of Saul’s disobedience (see also 18:10; 19:9; cp. Judg 9:23; Rom 1:28-29).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101528,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:14","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:14–31:13<\/strong> Saul’s kingship continued its downward spiral after God’s Spirit departed from him. His reign ended in shame and defeat (ch 31).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:14–31:13<\/strong> Saul’s kingship continued its downward spiral after God’s Spirit departed from him. His reign ended in shame and defeat (ch 31).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:14–31:13 Saul’s kingship continued its downward spiral after God’s Spirit departed from him. His reign ended in shame and defeat (ch 31).","summary_en":"16:14–31:13 Saul’s kingship continued its downward spiral after God’s Spirit departed from him. His reign ended in shame and defeat (ch 31).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101529,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:14","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:14<\/strong> <em>Spirit . . . left Saul:<\/em> In contrast with David’s receiving the Spirit (see “The Spirit’s Presence” Theme Note). • <em>The<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> sent a tormenting spirit<\/em> as a consequence of Saul’s disobedience (see also 18:10; 19:9; cp. Judg 9:23; Rom 1:28-29).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:14<\/strong> <em>Spirit . . . left Saul:<\/em> In contrast with David’s receiving the Spirit (see “The Spirit’s Presence” Theme Note). • <em>The<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> sent a tormenting spirit<\/em> as a consequence of Saul’s disobedience (see also 18:10; 19:9; cp. Judg 9:23; Rom 1:28-29).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:14 Spirit . . . left Saul: In contrast with David’s receiving the Spirit (see “The Spirit’s Presence” Theme Note). • The Lord sent a tormenting spirit as a consequence of Saul’s disobedience (see also 18:10; 19:9; cp. Judg 9:23; Rom 1:28-29).","summary_en":"16:14 Spirit . . . left Saul: In contrast with David’s receiving the Spirit (see “The Spirit’s Presence” Theme Note). • The Lord sent a tormenting spirit as a consequence of Saul’s disobedience (see also 18:10; 19:9; cp. Judg 9:23; Rom 1:28-29).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":129154,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:14","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:14–31:13<\/strong> Saul’s kingship continued its downward spiral after God’s Spirit departed from him. His reign ended in shame and defeat (ch 31).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:14–31:13<\/strong> Saul’s kingship continued its downward spiral after God’s Spirit departed from him. His reign ended in shame and defeat (ch 31).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:14–31:13 Saul’s kingship continued its downward spiral after God’s Spirit departed from him. His reign ended in shame and defeat (ch 31).","summary_en":"16:14–31:13 Saul’s kingship continued its downward spiral after God’s Spirit departed from him. His reign ended in shame and defeat (ch 31).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":129155,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:14","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:14<\/strong> <em>Spirit . . . left Saul:<\/em> In contrast with David’s receiving the Spirit (see “The Spirit’s Presence” Theme Note). • <em>The<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> sent a tormenting spirit<\/em> as a consequence of Saul’s disobedience (see also 18:10; 19:9; cp. Judg 9:23; Rom 1:28-29).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:14<\/strong> <em>Spirit . . . left Saul:<\/em> In contrast with David’s receiving the Spirit (see “The Spirit’s Presence” Theme Note). • <em>The<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> sent a tormenting spirit<\/em> as a consequence of Saul’s disobedience (see also 18:10; 19:9; cp. Judg 9:23; Rom 1:28-29).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:14 Spirit . . . left Saul: In contrast with David’s receiving the Spirit (see “The Spirit’s Presence” Theme Note). • The Lord sent a tormenting spirit as a consequence of Saul’s disobedience (see also 18:10; 19:9; cp. Judg 9:23; Rom 1:28-29).","summary_en":"16:14 Spirit . . . left Saul: In contrast with David’s receiving the Spirit (see “The Spirit’s Presence” Theme Note). • The Lord sent a tormenting spirit as a consequence of Saul’s disobedience (see also 18:10; 19:9; cp. Judg 9:23; Rom 1:28-29).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":61014,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Charismatic Leadership","title_en":"Charismatic Leadership","content_ro":"<h3>Charismatic Leadership<\/h3>\n<p>Some leaders in Scripture are described as <em>charismatic<\/em> (gifted) because their authority did not come from an office or a structure but from the inspiration of God’s Spirit, who gave them particular qualities.<\/p>\n<p>The judges are often included among this group. These charismatic leaders arose in troubled and unsettled times and in response to a crisis. In Judges, these crises were repeatedly precipitated by the fact that “the Israelites did evil in the <span>Lord<\/span>’s sight” (Judg 3:12; 4:1; 6:1; Judg 10:6; 13:1), with enemy oppression as the inevitable result.<\/p>\n<p>The inspired leadership of the judges fits a pattern. The judges were “raised up” by the Spirit and were sustained by prophetic affirmation. What might have led to prophetic utterance in other periods of Israel’s history (e.g., 1 Sam 10:6; 2 Sam 23:2; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8), in the times of the judges led to physical prowess (e.g., Samson, Judg 14:6, 19; 15:14), skill, or commanding authority (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the apostles exercised charismatic leadership. As the Jewish authorities were fond of pointing out, Jesus had no “official” authority; yet, he displayed tremendous power and gained a signifcant following. And although the apostles were appointed to what we might consider to be an “office,” there was at that time virtually no structure to back up the office; when they exercised authority, it was purely charismatic. Peter’s healing of the beggar (Acts 3:1-8) provides a classic contrast between the accoutrements of office, such as “silver and gold,” and true spiritual power.<\/p>\n<p>Charisma has been a powerful tool for effective leadership from the heroes of Israel to the present time. But the successes of charismatic leadership can also be fleeting, particularly when the Spirit, who equips such leaders, is no longer operational in the leader’s life (see Judg 16:20-21; 1 Sam 16:14; Isa 63:10). Those who have been specially gifted by the Spirit to lead must continually be mindful of and dependent on that same Spirit.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 31:2-5; Judg 2:16-19; 3:10, 27-28; 6:34-35; 11:29; 14:6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam 10:6; 16:13-18; 2 Sam 23:2; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8; Matt 3:16–4:2; Acts 6:8; 8:4-40; Rom 1:11; 12:6-8; 1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Charismatic Leadership<\/h3>\n<p>Some leaders in Scripture are described as <em>charismatic<\/em> (gifted) because their authority did not come from an office or a structure but from the inspiration of God’s Spirit, who gave them particular qualities.<\/p>\n<p>The judges are often included among this group. These charismatic leaders arose in troubled and unsettled times and in response to a crisis. In Judges, these crises were repeatedly precipitated by the fact that “the Israelites did evil in the <span>Lord<\/span>’s sight” (Judg 3:12; 4:1; 6:1; Judg 10:6; 13:1), with enemy oppression as the inevitable result.<\/p>\n<p>The inspired leadership of the judges fits a pattern. The judges were “raised up” by the Spirit and were sustained by prophetic affirmation. What might have led to prophetic utterance in other periods of Israel’s history (e.g., 1 Sam 10:6; 2 Sam 23:2; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8), in the times of the judges led to physical prowess (e.g., Samson, Judg 14:6, 19; 15:14), skill, or commanding authority (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the apostles exercised charismatic leadership. As the Jewish authorities were fond of pointing out, Jesus had no “official” authority; yet, he displayed tremendous power and gained a signifcant following. And although the apostles were appointed to what we might consider to be an “office,” there was at that time virtually no structure to back up the office; when they exercised authority, it was purely charismatic. Peter’s healing of the beggar (Acts 3:1-8) provides a classic contrast between the accoutrements of office, such as “silver and gold,” and true spiritual power.<\/p>\n<p>Charisma has been a powerful tool for effective leadership from the heroes of Israel to the present time. But the successes of charismatic leadership can also be fleeting, particularly when the Spirit, who equips such leaders, is no longer operational in the leader’s life (see Judg 16:20-21; 1 Sam 16:14; Isa 63:10). Those who have been specially gifted by the Spirit to lead must continually be mindful of and dependent on that same Spirit.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 31:2-5; Judg 2:16-19; 3:10, 27-28; 6:34-35; 11:29; 14:6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam 10:6; 16:13-18; 2 Sam 23:2; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8; Matt 3:16–4:2; Acts 6:8; 8:4-40; Rom 1:11; 12:6-8; 1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Charismatic Leadership Some leaders in Scripture are described as charismatic (gifted) because their authority did not come from an office or a structure but from the inspiration of God’s Spirit, who gave them particular qualities. The judges are often included among this group. These charismatic leaders arose in troubled and unsettled times and in response to a crisis. In Judges, these crises were repeatedly precipitated by the fact that “the Israelites did evil in the Lord’s sight” (Judg 3:...","summary_en":"Charismatic Leadership Some leaders in Scripture are described as charismatic (gifted) because their authority did not come from an office or a structure but from the inspiration of God’s Spirit, who gave them particular qualities. The judges are often included among this group. These charismatic leaders arose in troubled and unsettled times and in response to a crisis. In Judges, these crises were repeatedly precipitated by the fact that “the Israelites did evil in the Lord’s sight” (Judg 3:...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":61211,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Spirit’s Presence","title_en":"The Spirit’s Presence","content_ro":"<h3>The Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the Spirit of the Lord came upon a person or group when they were called to do a task or ordained for an office. The Spirit “came upon” the judges Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29), empowering them for service. Saul and David both received the Spirit of God when they were anointed king (1 Sam 10:1, 9-10; 16:13). The Spirit would depart when the task had been completed or when the officeholder was removed from office. When Samuel anointed David as the next king (16:13), the Spirit left Saul (16:14), who was disobedient and had been rejected by God as king (13:7-14; 15:10-29; cp. 28:15; Judg 16:20). After David had sinned with Bathsheba, he prayed to be spared this same judgment (Ps 51:11).<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, God’s Holy Spirit is given to all who put their faith in Christ for salvation, not just to individuals in specific roles (see Acts 2:14-21; 1 Cor 12:1-13; Eph 1:13-14). Still, the Spirit performs a similar role in equipping God’s servants to do the work that God has called them to do (see 1 Cor 12:7-10). The Old Testament departure of the Spirit from Saul tangibly demonstrates the need for the New Testament warnings not to sin against the Spirit and not to bring sorrow to the Spirit (see Mark 3:28-29; Eph 4:30; Heb 6:1-8).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 41:37-40; Exod 31:1-6; Judg 3:9-11; 6:34; 11:29; 14:5-6; 16:20-21; 1 Sam 10:1-10; 11:6-7; 16:13-23; 19:19-23; 2 Chr 20:13-19; 24:20-22; Ps 51:11-12; Isa 11:1-5; Jer 31:33-34; Joel 2:28-29; Mark 3:28-29; Acts 2:1-21; 4:31; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Heb 6:4-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the Spirit of the Lord came upon a person or group when they were called to do a task or ordained for an office. The Spirit “came upon” the judges Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29), empowering them for service. Saul and David both received the Spirit of God when they were anointed king (1 Sam 10:1, 9-10; 16:13). The Spirit would depart when the task had been completed or when the officeholder was removed from office. When Samuel anointed David as the next king (16:13), the Spirit left Saul (16:14), who was disobedient and had been rejected by God as king (13:7-14; 15:10-29; cp. 28:15; Judg 16:20). After David had sinned with Bathsheba, he prayed to be spared this same judgment (Ps 51:11).<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, God’s Holy Spirit is given to all who put their faith in Christ for salvation, not just to individuals in specific roles (see Acts 2:14-21; 1 Cor 12:1-13; Eph 1:13-14). Still, the Spirit performs a similar role in equipping God’s servants to do the work that God has called them to do (see 1 Cor 12:7-10). The Old Testament departure of the Spirit from Saul tangibly demonstrates the need for the New Testament warnings not to sin against the Spirit and not to bring sorrow to the Spirit (see Mark 3:28-29; Eph 4:30; Heb 6:1-8).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 41:37-40; Exod 31:1-6; Judg 3:9-11; 6:34; 11:29; 14:5-6; 16:20-21; 1 Sam 10:1-10; 11:6-7; 16:13-23; 19:19-23; 2 Chr 20:13-19; 24:20-22; Ps 51:11-12; Isa 11:1-5; Jer 31:33-34; Joel 2:28-29; Mark 3:28-29; Acts 2:1-21; 4:31; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Heb 6:4-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Spirit’s Presence In the Old Testament, the Spirit of the Lord came upon a person or group when they were called to do a task or ordained for an office. The Spirit “came upon” the judges Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29), empowering them for service. Saul and David both received the Spirit of God when they were anointed king (1 Sam 10:1, 9-10; 16:13). The Spirit would depart when the task had been completed or when the officeholder was removed from office. When Samuel...","summary_en":"The Spirit’s Presence In the Old Testament, the Spirit of the Lord came upon a person or group when they were called to do a task or ordained for an office. The Spirit “came upon” the judges Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29), empowering them for service. Saul and David both received the Spirit of God when they were anointed king (1 Sam 10:1, 9-10; 16:13). The Spirit would depart when the task had been completed or when the officeholder was removed from office. When Samuel...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":88640,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Charismatic Leadership","title_en":"Charismatic Leadership","content_ro":"<h3>Charismatic Leadership<\/h3>\n<p>Some leaders in Scripture are described as <em>charismatic<\/em> (gifted) because their authority did not come from an office or a structure but from the inspiration of God’s Spirit, who gave them particular qualities.<\/p>\n<p>The judges are often included among this group. These charismatic leaders arose in troubled and unsettled times and in response to a crisis. In Judges, these crises were repeatedly precipitated by the fact that “the Israelites did evil in the <span>Lord<\/span>’s sight” (Judg 3:12; 4:1; 6:1; Judg 10:6; 13:1), with enemy oppression as the inevitable result.<\/p>\n<p>The inspired leadership of the judges fits a pattern. The judges were “raised up” by the Spirit and were sustained by prophetic affirmation. What might have led to prophetic utterance in other periods of Israel’s history (e.g., 1 Sam 10:6; 2 Sam 23:2; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8), in the times of the judges led to physical prowess (e.g., Samson, Judg 14:6, 19; 15:14), skill, or commanding authority (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the apostles exercised charismatic leadership. As the Jewish authorities were fond of pointing out, Jesus had no “official” authority; yet, he displayed tremendous power and gained a signifcant following. And although the apostles were appointed to what we might consider to be an “office,” there was at that time virtually no structure to back up the office; when they exercised authority, it was purely charismatic. Peter’s healing of the beggar (Acts 3:1-8) provides a classic contrast between the accoutrements of office, such as “silver and gold,” and true spiritual power.<\/p>\n<p>Charisma has been a powerful tool for effective leadership from the heroes of Israel to the present time. But the successes of charismatic leadership can also be fleeting, particularly when the Spirit, who equips such leaders, is no longer operational in the leader’s life (see Judg 16:20-21; 1 Sam 16:14; Isa 63:10). Those who have been specially gifted by the Spirit to lead must continually be mindful of and dependent on that same Spirit.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 31:2-5; Judg 2:16-19; 3:10, 27-28; 6:34-35; 11:29; 14:6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam 10:6; 16:13-18; 2 Sam 23:2; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8; Matt 3:16–4:2; Acts 6:8; 8:4-40; Rom 1:11; 12:6-8; 1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Charismatic Leadership<\/h3>\n<p>Some leaders in Scripture are described as <em>charismatic<\/em> (gifted) because their authority did not come from an office or a structure but from the inspiration of God’s Spirit, who gave them particular qualities.<\/p>\n<p>The judges are often included among this group. These charismatic leaders arose in troubled and unsettled times and in response to a crisis. In Judges, these crises were repeatedly precipitated by the fact that “the Israelites did evil in the <span>Lord<\/span>’s sight” (Judg 3:12; 4:1; 6:1; Judg 10:6; 13:1), with enemy oppression as the inevitable result.<\/p>\n<p>The inspired leadership of the judges fits a pattern. The judges were “raised up” by the Spirit and were sustained by prophetic affirmation. What might have led to prophetic utterance in other periods of Israel’s history (e.g., 1 Sam 10:6; 2 Sam 23:2; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8), in the times of the judges led to physical prowess (e.g., Samson, Judg 14:6, 19; 15:14), skill, or commanding authority (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the apostles exercised charismatic leadership. As the Jewish authorities were fond of pointing out, Jesus had no “official” authority; yet, he displayed tremendous power and gained a signifcant following. And although the apostles were appointed to what we might consider to be an “office,” there was at that time virtually no structure to back up the office; when they exercised authority, it was purely charismatic. Peter’s healing of the beggar (Acts 3:1-8) provides a classic contrast between the accoutrements of office, such as “silver and gold,” and true spiritual power.<\/p>\n<p>Charisma has been a powerful tool for effective leadership from the heroes of Israel to the present time. But the successes of charismatic leadership can also be fleeting, particularly when the Spirit, who equips such leaders, is no longer operational in the leader’s life (see Judg 16:20-21; 1 Sam 16:14; Isa 63:10). Those who have been specially gifted by the Spirit to lead must continually be mindful of and dependent on that same Spirit.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 31:2-5; Judg 2:16-19; 3:10, 27-28; 6:34-35; 11:29; 14:6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam 10:6; 16:13-18; 2 Sam 23:2; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8; Matt 3:16–4:2; Acts 6:8; 8:4-40; Rom 1:11; 12:6-8; 1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Charismatic Leadership Some leaders in Scripture are described as charismatic (gifted) because their authority did not come from an office or a structure but from the inspiration of God’s Spirit, who gave them particular qualities. The judges are often included among this group. These charismatic leaders arose in troubled and unsettled times and in response to a crisis. In Judges, these crises were repeatedly precipitated by the fact that “the Israelites did evil in the Lord’s sight” (Judg 3:...","summary_en":"Charismatic Leadership Some leaders in Scripture are described as charismatic (gifted) because their authority did not come from an office or a structure but from the inspiration of God’s Spirit, who gave them particular qualities. The judges are often included among this group. These charismatic leaders arose in troubled and unsettled times and in response to a crisis. In Judges, these crises were repeatedly precipitated by the fact that “the Israelites did evil in the Lord’s sight” (Judg 3:...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":88837,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Spirit’s Presence","title_en":"The Spirit’s Presence","content_ro":"<h3>The Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the Spirit of the Lord came upon a person or group when they were called to do a task or ordained for an office. The Spirit “came upon” the judges Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29), empowering them for service. Saul and David both received the Spirit of God when they were anointed king (1 Sam 10:1, 9-10; 16:13). The Spirit would depart when the task had been completed or when the officeholder was removed from office. When Samuel anointed David as the next king (16:13), the Spirit left Saul (16:14), who was disobedient and had been rejected by God as king (13:7-14; 15:10-29; cp. 28:15; Judg 16:20). After David had sinned with Bathsheba, he prayed to be spared this same judgment (Ps 51:11).<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, God’s Holy Spirit is given to all who put their faith in Christ for salvation, not just to individuals in specific roles (see Acts 2:14-21; 1 Cor 12:1-13; Eph 1:13-14). Still, the Spirit performs a similar role in equipping God’s servants to do the work that God has called them to do (see 1 Cor 12:7-10). The Old Testament departure of the Spirit from Saul tangibly demonstrates the need for the New Testament warnings not to sin against the Spirit and not to bring sorrow to the Spirit (see Mark 3:28-29; Eph 4:30; Heb 6:1-8).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 41:37-40; Exod 31:1-6; Judg 3:9-11; 6:34; 11:29; 14:5-6; 16:20-21; 1 Sam 10:1-10; 11:6-7; 16:13-23; 19:19-23; 2 Chr 20:13-19; 24:20-22; Ps 51:11-12; Isa 11:1-5; Jer 31:33-34; Joel 2:28-29; Mark 3:28-29; Acts 2:1-21; 4:31; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Heb 6:4-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the Spirit of the Lord came upon a person or group when they were called to do a task or ordained for an office. The Spirit “came upon” the judges Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29), empowering them for service. Saul and David both received the Spirit of God when they were anointed king (1 Sam 10:1, 9-10; 16:13). The Spirit would depart when the task had been completed or when the officeholder was removed from office. When Samuel anointed David as the next king (16:13), the Spirit left Saul (16:14), who was disobedient and had been rejected by God as king (13:7-14; 15:10-29; cp. 28:15; Judg 16:20). After David had sinned with Bathsheba, he prayed to be spared this same judgment (Ps 51:11).<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, God’s Holy Spirit is given to all who put their faith in Christ for salvation, not just to individuals in specific roles (see Acts 2:14-21; 1 Cor 12:1-13; Eph 1:13-14). Still, the Spirit performs a similar role in equipping God’s servants to do the work that God has called them to do (see 1 Cor 12:7-10). The Old Testament departure of the Spirit from Saul tangibly demonstrates the need for the New Testament warnings not to sin against the Spirit and not to bring sorrow to the Spirit (see Mark 3:28-29; Eph 4:30; Heb 6:1-8).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 41:37-40; Exod 31:1-6; Judg 3:9-11; 6:34; 11:29; 14:5-6; 16:20-21; 1 Sam 10:1-10; 11:6-7; 16:13-23; 19:19-23; 2 Chr 20:13-19; 24:20-22; Ps 51:11-12; Isa 11:1-5; Jer 31:33-34; Joel 2:28-29; Mark 3:28-29; Acts 2:1-21; 4:31; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Heb 6:4-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Spirit’s Presence In the Old Testament, the Spirit of the Lord came upon a person or group when they were called to do a task or ordained for an office. The Spirit “came upon” the judges Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29), empowering them for service. Saul and David both received the Spirit of God when they were anointed king (1 Sam 10:1, 9-10; 16:13). The Spirit would depart when the task had been completed or when the officeholder was removed from office. When Samuel...","summary_en":"The Spirit’s Presence In the Old Testament, the Spirit of the Lord came upon a person or group when they were called to do a task or ordained for an office. The Spirit “came upon” the judges Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29), empowering them for service. Saul and David both received the Spirit of God when they were anointed king (1 Sam 10:1, 9-10; 16:13). The Spirit would depart when the task had been completed or when the officeholder was removed from office. When Samuel...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":116266,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Charismatic Leadership","title_en":"Charismatic Leadership","content_ro":"<h3>Charismatic Leadership<\/h3>\n<p>Some leaders in Scripture are described as <em>charismatic<\/em> (gifted) because their authority did not come from an office or a structure but from the inspiration of God’s Spirit, who gave them particular qualities.<\/p>\n<p>The judges are often included among this group. These charismatic leaders arose in troubled and unsettled times and in response to a crisis. In Judges, these crises were repeatedly precipitated by the fact that “the Israelites did evil in the <span>Lord<\/span>’s sight” (Judg 3:12; 4:1; 6:1; Judg 10:6; 13:1), with enemy oppression as the inevitable result.<\/p>\n<p>The inspired leadership of the judges fits a pattern. The judges were “raised up” by the Spirit and were sustained by prophetic affirmation. What might have led to prophetic utterance in other periods of Israel’s history (e.g., 1 Sam 10:6; 2 Sam 23:2; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8), in the times of the judges led to physical prowess (e.g., Samson, Judg 14:6, 19; 15:14), skill, or commanding authority (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the apostles exercised charismatic leadership. As the Jewish authorities were fond of pointing out, Jesus had no “official” authority; yet, he displayed tremendous power and gained a signifcant following. And although the apostles were appointed to what we might consider to be an “office,” there was at that time virtually no structure to back up the office; when they exercised authority, it was purely charismatic. Peter’s healing of the beggar (Acts 3:1-8) provides a classic contrast between the accoutrements of office, such as “silver and gold,” and true spiritual power.<\/p>\n<p>Charisma has been a powerful tool for effective leadership from the heroes of Israel to the present time. But the successes of charismatic leadership can also be fleeting, particularly when the Spirit, who equips such leaders, is no longer operational in the leader’s life (see Judg 16:20-21; 1 Sam 16:14; Isa 63:10). Those who have been specially gifted by the Spirit to lead must continually be mindful of and dependent on that same Spirit.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 31:2-5; Judg 2:16-19; 3:10, 27-28; 6:34-35; 11:29; 14:6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam 10:6; 16:13-18; 2 Sam 23:2; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8; Matt 3:16–4:2; Acts 6:8; 8:4-40; Rom 1:11; 12:6-8; 1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Charismatic Leadership<\/h3>\n<p>Some leaders in Scripture are described as <em>charismatic<\/em> (gifted) because their authority did not come from an office or a structure but from the inspiration of God’s Spirit, who gave them particular qualities.<\/p>\n<p>The judges are often included among this group. These charismatic leaders arose in troubled and unsettled times and in response to a crisis. In Judges, these crises were repeatedly precipitated by the fact that “the Israelites did evil in the <span>Lord<\/span>’s sight” (Judg 3:12; 4:1; 6:1; Judg 10:6; 13:1), with enemy oppression as the inevitable result.<\/p>\n<p>The inspired leadership of the judges fits a pattern. The judges were “raised up” by the Spirit and were sustained by prophetic affirmation. What might have led to prophetic utterance in other periods of Israel’s history (e.g., 1 Sam 10:6; 2 Sam 23:2; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8), in the times of the judges led to physical prowess (e.g., Samson, Judg 14:6, 19; 15:14), skill, or commanding authority (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the apostles exercised charismatic leadership. As the Jewish authorities were fond of pointing out, Jesus had no “official” authority; yet, he displayed tremendous power and gained a signifcant following. And although the apostles were appointed to what we might consider to be an “office,” there was at that time virtually no structure to back up the office; when they exercised authority, it was purely charismatic. Peter’s healing of the beggar (Acts 3:1-8) provides a classic contrast between the accoutrements of office, such as “silver and gold,” and true spiritual power.<\/p>\n<p>Charisma has been a powerful tool for effective leadership from the heroes of Israel to the present time. But the successes of charismatic leadership can also be fleeting, particularly when the Spirit, who equips such leaders, is no longer operational in the leader’s life (see Judg 16:20-21; 1 Sam 16:14; Isa 63:10). Those who have been specially gifted by the Spirit to lead must continually be mindful of and dependent on that same Spirit.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 31:2-5; Judg 2:16-19; 3:10, 27-28; 6:34-35; 11:29; 14:6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam 10:6; 16:13-18; 2 Sam 23:2; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8; Matt 3:16–4:2; Acts 6:8; 8:4-40; Rom 1:11; 12:6-8; 1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Charismatic Leadership Some leaders in Scripture are described as charismatic (gifted) because their authority did not come from an office or a structure but from the inspiration of God’s Spirit, who gave them particular qualities. The judges are often included among this group. These charismatic leaders arose in troubled and unsettled times and in response to a crisis. In Judges, these crises were repeatedly precipitated by the fact that “the Israelites did evil in the Lord’s sight” (Judg 3:...","summary_en":"Charismatic Leadership Some leaders in Scripture are described as charismatic (gifted) because their authority did not come from an office or a structure but from the inspiration of God’s Spirit, who gave them particular qualities. The judges are often included among this group. These charismatic leaders arose in troubled and unsettled times and in response to a crisis. In Judges, these crises were repeatedly precipitated by the fact that “the Israelites did evil in the Lord’s sight” (Judg 3:...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":116463,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Spirit’s Presence","title_en":"The Spirit’s Presence","content_ro":"<h3>The Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the Spirit of the Lord came upon a person or group when they were called to do a task or ordained for an office. The Spirit “came upon” the judges Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29), empowering them for service. Saul and David both received the Spirit of God when they were anointed king (1 Sam 10:1, 9-10; 16:13). The Spirit would depart when the task had been completed or when the officeholder was removed from office. When Samuel anointed David as the next king (16:13), the Spirit left Saul (16:14), who was disobedient and had been rejected by God as king (13:7-14; 15:10-29; cp. 28:15; Judg 16:20). After David had sinned with Bathsheba, he prayed to be spared this same judgment (Ps 51:11).<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, God’s Holy Spirit is given to all who put their faith in Christ for salvation, not just to individuals in specific roles (see Acts 2:14-21; 1 Cor 12:1-13; Eph 1:13-14). Still, the Spirit performs a similar role in equipping God’s servants to do the work that God has called them to do (see 1 Cor 12:7-10). The Old Testament departure of the Spirit from Saul tangibly demonstrates the need for the New Testament warnings not to sin against the Spirit and not to bring sorrow to the Spirit (see Mark 3:28-29; Eph 4:30; Heb 6:1-8).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 41:37-40; Exod 31:1-6; Judg 3:9-11; 6:34; 11:29; 14:5-6; 16:20-21; 1 Sam 10:1-10; 11:6-7; 16:13-23; 19:19-23; 2 Chr 20:13-19; 24:20-22; Ps 51:11-12; Isa 11:1-5; Jer 31:33-34; Joel 2:28-29; Mark 3:28-29; Acts 2:1-21; 4:31; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Heb 6:4-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the Spirit of the Lord came upon a person or group when they were called to do a task or ordained for an office. The Spirit “came upon” the judges Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29), empowering them for service. Saul and David both received the Spirit of God when they were anointed king (1 Sam 10:1, 9-10; 16:13). The Spirit would depart when the task had been completed or when the officeholder was removed from office. When Samuel anointed David as the next king (16:13), the Spirit left Saul (16:14), who was disobedient and had been rejected by God as king (13:7-14; 15:10-29; cp. 28:15; Judg 16:20). After David had sinned with Bathsheba, he prayed to be spared this same judgment (Ps 51:11).<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, God’s Holy Spirit is given to all who put their faith in Christ for salvation, not just to individuals in specific roles (see Acts 2:14-21; 1 Cor 12:1-13; Eph 1:13-14). Still, the Spirit performs a similar role in equipping God’s servants to do the work that God has called them to do (see 1 Cor 12:7-10). The Old Testament departure of the Spirit from Saul tangibly demonstrates the need for the New Testament warnings not to sin against the Spirit and not to bring sorrow to the Spirit (see Mark 3:28-29; Eph 4:30; Heb 6:1-8).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 41:37-40; Exod 31:1-6; Judg 3:9-11; 6:34; 11:29; 14:5-6; 16:20-21; 1 Sam 10:1-10; 11:6-7; 16:13-23; 19:19-23; 2 Chr 20:13-19; 24:20-22; Ps 51:11-12; Isa 11:1-5; Jer 31:33-34; Joel 2:28-29; Mark 3:28-29; Acts 2:1-21; 4:31; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Heb 6:4-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Spirit’s Presence In the Old Testament, the Spirit of the Lord came upon a person or group when they were called to do a task or ordained for an office. The Spirit “came upon” the judges Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29), empowering them for service. Saul and David both received the Spirit of God when they were anointed king (1 Sam 10:1, 9-10; 16:13). The Spirit would depart when the task had been completed or when the officeholder was removed from office. When Samuel...","summary_en":"The Spirit’s Presence In the Old Testament, the Spirit of the Lord came upon a person or group when they were called to do a task or ordained for an office. The Spirit “came upon” the judges Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29), empowering them for service. Saul and David both received the Spirit of God when they were anointed king (1 Sam 10:1, 9-10; 16:13). The Spirit would depart when the task had been completed or when the officeholder was removed from office. When Samuel...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":143892,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Charismatic Leadership","title_en":"Charismatic Leadership","content_ro":"<h3>Charismatic Leadership<\/h3>\n<p>Some leaders in Scripture are described as <em>charismatic<\/em> (gifted) because their authority did not come from an office or a structure but from the inspiration of God’s Spirit, who gave them particular qualities.<\/p>\n<p>The judges are often included among this group. These charismatic leaders arose in troubled and unsettled times and in response to a crisis. In Judges, these crises were repeatedly precipitated by the fact that “the Israelites did evil in the <span>Lord<\/span>’s sight” (Judg 3:12; 4:1; 6:1; Judg 10:6; 13:1), with enemy oppression as the inevitable result.<\/p>\n<p>The inspired leadership of the judges fits a pattern. The judges were “raised up” by the Spirit and were sustained by prophetic affirmation. What might have led to prophetic utterance in other periods of Israel’s history (e.g., 1 Sam 10:6; 2 Sam 23:2; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8), in the times of the judges led to physical prowess (e.g., Samson, Judg 14:6, 19; 15:14), skill, or commanding authority (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the apostles exercised charismatic leadership. As the Jewish authorities were fond of pointing out, Jesus had no “official” authority; yet, he displayed tremendous power and gained a signifcant following. And although the apostles were appointed to what we might consider to be an “office,” there was at that time virtually no structure to back up the office; when they exercised authority, it was purely charismatic. Peter’s healing of the beggar (Acts 3:1-8) provides a classic contrast between the accoutrements of office, such as “silver and gold,” and true spiritual power.<\/p>\n<p>Charisma has been a powerful tool for effective leadership from the heroes of Israel to the present time. But the successes of charismatic leadership can also be fleeting, particularly when the Spirit, who equips such leaders, is no longer operational in the leader’s life (see Judg 16:20-21; 1 Sam 16:14; Isa 63:10). Those who have been specially gifted by the Spirit to lead must continually be mindful of and dependent on that same Spirit.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 31:2-5; Judg 2:16-19; 3:10, 27-28; 6:34-35; 11:29; 14:6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam 10:6; 16:13-18; 2 Sam 23:2; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8; Matt 3:16–4:2; Acts 6:8; 8:4-40; Rom 1:11; 12:6-8; 1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Charismatic Leadership<\/h3>\n<p>Some leaders in Scripture are described as <em>charismatic<\/em> (gifted) because their authority did not come from an office or a structure but from the inspiration of God’s Spirit, who gave them particular qualities.<\/p>\n<p>The judges are often included among this group. These charismatic leaders arose in troubled and unsettled times and in response to a crisis. In Judges, these crises were repeatedly precipitated by the fact that “the Israelites did evil in the <span>Lord<\/span>’s sight” (Judg 3:12; 4:1; 6:1; Judg 10:6; 13:1), with enemy oppression as the inevitable result.<\/p>\n<p>The inspired leadership of the judges fits a pattern. The judges were “raised up” by the Spirit and were sustained by prophetic affirmation. What might have led to prophetic utterance in other periods of Israel’s history (e.g., 1 Sam 10:6; 2 Sam 23:2; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8), in the times of the judges led to physical prowess (e.g., Samson, Judg 14:6, 19; 15:14), skill, or commanding authority (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus and the apostles exercised charismatic leadership. As the Jewish authorities were fond of pointing out, Jesus had no “official” authority; yet, he displayed tremendous power and gained a signifcant following. And although the apostles were appointed to what we might consider to be an “office,” there was at that time virtually no structure to back up the office; when they exercised authority, it was purely charismatic. Peter’s healing of the beggar (Acts 3:1-8) provides a classic contrast between the accoutrements of office, such as “silver and gold,” and true spiritual power.<\/p>\n<p>Charisma has been a powerful tool for effective leadership from the heroes of Israel to the present time. But the successes of charismatic leadership can also be fleeting, particularly when the Spirit, who equips such leaders, is no longer operational in the leader’s life (see Judg 16:20-21; 1 Sam 16:14; Isa 63:10). Those who have been specially gifted by the Spirit to lead must continually be mindful of and dependent on that same Spirit.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 31:2-5; Judg 2:16-19; 3:10, 27-28; 6:34-35; 11:29; 14:6, 19; 15:14; 1 Sam 10:6; 16:13-18; 2 Sam 23:2; Isa 61:1; Ezek 11:5; Mic 3:8; Matt 3:16–4:2; Acts 6:8; 8:4-40; Rom 1:11; 12:6-8; 1 Cor 12:4-11; Eph 4:11-12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Charismatic Leadership Some leaders in Scripture are described as charismatic (gifted) because their authority did not come from an office or a structure but from the inspiration of God’s Spirit, who gave them particular qualities. The judges are often included among this group. These charismatic leaders arose in troubled and unsettled times and in response to a crisis. In Judges, these crises were repeatedly precipitated by the fact that “the Israelites did evil in the Lord’s sight” (Judg 3:...","summary_en":"Charismatic Leadership Some leaders in Scripture are described as charismatic (gifted) because their authority did not come from an office or a structure but from the inspiration of God’s Spirit, who gave them particular qualities. The judges are often included among this group. These charismatic leaders arose in troubled and unsettled times and in response to a crisis. In Judges, these crises were repeatedly precipitated by the fact that “the Israelites did evil in the Lord’s sight” (Judg 3:...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":144089,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Spirit’s Presence","title_en":"The Spirit’s Presence","content_ro":"<h3>The Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the Spirit of the Lord came upon a person or group when they were called to do a task or ordained for an office. The Spirit “came upon” the judges Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29), empowering them for service. Saul and David both received the Spirit of God when they were anointed king (1 Sam 10:1, 9-10; 16:13). The Spirit would depart when the task had been completed or when the officeholder was removed from office. When Samuel anointed David as the next king (16:13), the Spirit left Saul (16:14), who was disobedient and had been rejected by God as king (13:7-14; 15:10-29; cp. 28:15; Judg 16:20). After David had sinned with Bathsheba, he prayed to be spared this same judgment (Ps 51:11).<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, God’s Holy Spirit is given to all who put their faith in Christ for salvation, not just to individuals in specific roles (see Acts 2:14-21; 1 Cor 12:1-13; Eph 1:13-14). Still, the Spirit performs a similar role in equipping God’s servants to do the work that God has called them to do (see 1 Cor 12:7-10). The Old Testament departure of the Spirit from Saul tangibly demonstrates the need for the New Testament warnings not to sin against the Spirit and not to bring sorrow to the Spirit (see Mark 3:28-29; Eph 4:30; Heb 6:1-8).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 41:37-40; Exod 31:1-6; Judg 3:9-11; 6:34; 11:29; 14:5-6; 16:20-21; 1 Sam 10:1-10; 11:6-7; 16:13-23; 19:19-23; 2 Chr 20:13-19; 24:20-22; Ps 51:11-12; Isa 11:1-5; Jer 31:33-34; Joel 2:28-29; Mark 3:28-29; Acts 2:1-21; 4:31; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Heb 6:4-8<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Spirit’s Presence<\/h3>\n<p>In the Old Testament, the Spirit of the Lord came upon a person or group when they were called to do a task or ordained for an office. The Spirit “came upon” the judges Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29), empowering them for service. Saul and David both received the Spirit of God when they were anointed king (1 Sam 10:1, 9-10; 16:13). The Spirit would depart when the task had been completed or when the officeholder was removed from office. When Samuel anointed David as the next king (16:13), the Spirit left Saul (16:14), who was disobedient and had been rejected by God as king (13:7-14; 15:10-29; cp. 28:15; Judg 16:20). After David had sinned with Bathsheba, he prayed to be spared this same judgment (Ps 51:11).<\/p>\n<p>In the New Testament, God’s Holy Spirit is given to all who put their faith in Christ for salvation, not just to individuals in specific roles (see Acts 2:14-21; 1 Cor 12:1-13; Eph 1:13-14). Still, the Spirit performs a similar role in equipping God’s servants to do the work that God has called them to do (see 1 Cor 12:7-10). The Old Testament departure of the Spirit from Saul tangibly demonstrates the need for the New Testament warnings not to sin against the Spirit and not to bring sorrow to the Spirit (see Mark 3:28-29; Eph 4:30; Heb 6:1-8).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 41:37-40; Exod 31:1-6; Judg 3:9-11; 6:34; 11:29; 14:5-6; 16:20-21; 1 Sam 10:1-10; 11:6-7; 16:13-23; 19:19-23; 2 Chr 20:13-19; 24:20-22; Ps 51:11-12; Isa 11:1-5; Jer 31:33-34; Joel 2:28-29; Mark 3:28-29; Acts 2:1-21; 4:31; Eph 1:13-14; 4:30; Heb 6:4-8<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Spirit’s Presence In the Old Testament, the Spirit of the Lord came upon a person or group when they were called to do a task or ordained for an office. The Spirit “came upon” the judges Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29), empowering them for service. Saul and David both received the Spirit of God when they were anointed king (1 Sam 10:1, 9-10; 16:13). The Spirit would depart when the task had been completed or when the officeholder was removed from office. When Samuel...","summary_en":"The Spirit’s Presence In the Old Testament, the Spirit of the Lord came upon a person or group when they were called to do a task or ordained for an office. The Spirit “came upon” the judges Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah (Judg 3:10; 6:34; 11:29), empowering them for service. Saul and David both received the Spirit of God when they were anointed king (1 Sam 10:1, 9-10; 16:13). The Spirit would depart when the task had been completed or when the officeholder was removed from office. When Samuel...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"15":[{"id":61262,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Hostile Authority: David’s Response","title_en":"Hostile Authority: David’s Response","content_ro":"<h3>Hostile Authority: David’s Response<\/h3>\n<p>As David became successful, King Saul became his enemy. The Lord had left Saul as a result of the king’s unfaithfulness, and the anointing of the Spirit now rested on David (1 Sam 15:1–16:14). When Saul needed someone to soothe his mind, he found that David’s harp playing was music to his soul (16:15-23). When Saul needed someone to deal with the ominous threat of Goliath, he found in David a capable and successful young warrior (1 Sam 17). But as others began noticing David and praising his success, Saul became frightened and jealous (18:6-9), and his jealousy soon developed into anger, rage, and murderous hatred.<\/p>\n<p>After Saul tried to kill David with a spear on two occasions (18:10-11), David continued serving him: He led a contingent of the king’s troops (18:13), married the king’s daughter (18:17-27), and served in Saul’s court as a harpist (19:7, 9). But David’s continuing success was too much for the paranoid Saul, who again tried to murder him (19:9-11). David had no choice but to escape (19:11-18; 20:1-42).<\/p>\n<p>For the rest of Saul’s reign, David was a fugitive, hunted by the king he had faithfully served. Even then, he refused to harm Saul. On two occasions, David had the opportunity to assassinate Saul (1 Sam 24; 26), but he refused to “attack the <span>Lord<\/span>’s anointed one” (24:6; 26:9).<\/p>\n<p>During these years as a fugitive, David continued to serve the Lord and the people of Israel (23:1-6; 25:4-9, 14-16; 27:8-9). When news reached David that Saul and Jonathan had been killed, he deeply mourned the death of a “beloved and gracious” king and his son (2 Sam 1:17-27).<\/p>\n<p>David was persistently faithful to a king who hated him and wanted him dead. Similarly, Jeremiah prophesied in the court of kings who burned his words in the fireplace and put him in a cistern to die (Jer 36:21-26; 38:1-13). And Daniel and his friends faithfully served in the court of Babylonian and Persian kings, even when the kings’ decisions were hostile to their faith or to them personally (Dan 3; 6).<\/p>\n<p>Faithfulness under an enemy in authority doesn’t always bring success. The ultimate example of this is Jesus himself: He was hounded by authorities who eventually succeeded in having him executed. Jesus never “succeeded” in life, but he continued to trust his Father in heaven. Success for Jesus lay beyond death in the Resurrection. It may be the same for some of us: We may die under authorities who hate us without seeing any good come of our suffering. In the age to come, God will right every wrong and will reward the faithfulness of those who suffered under hostile authority.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 24:1-22; 2 Sam 1:1-27; 11:1-27; Jer 36:21-27; 38:1-13; Dan 3:1-30; 6:1-28; John 8:29; Phil 2:6-11; Heb 5:7-10; 1 Pet 2:13–3:7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Hostile Authority: David’s Response<\/h3>\n<p>As David became successful, King Saul became his enemy. The Lord had left Saul as a result of the king’s unfaithfulness, and the anointing of the Spirit now rested on David (1 Sam 15:1–16:14). When Saul needed someone to soothe his mind, he found that David’s harp playing was music to his soul (16:15-23). When Saul needed someone to deal with the ominous threat of Goliath, he found in David a capable and successful young warrior (1 Sam 17). But as others began noticing David and praising his success, Saul became frightened and jealous (18:6-9), and his jealousy soon developed into anger, rage, and murderous hatred.<\/p>\n<p>After Saul tried to kill David with a spear on two occasions (18:10-11), David continued serving him: He led a contingent of the king’s troops (18:13), married the king’s daughter (18:17-27), and served in Saul’s court as a harpist (19:7, 9). But David’s continuing success was too much for the paranoid Saul, who again tried to murder him (19:9-11). David had no choice but to escape (19:11-18; 20:1-42).<\/p>\n<p>For the rest of Saul’s reign, David was a fugitive, hunted by the king he had faithfully served. Even then, he refused to harm Saul. On two occasions, David had the opportunity to assassinate Saul (1 Sam 24; 26), but he refused to “attack the <span>Lord<\/span>’s anointed one” (24:6; 26:9).<\/p>\n<p>During these years as a fugitive, David continued to serve the Lord and the people of Israel (23:1-6; 25:4-9, 14-16; 27:8-9). When news reached David that Saul and Jonathan had been killed, he deeply mourned the death of a “beloved and gracious” king and his son (2 Sam 1:17-27).<\/p>\n<p>David was persistently faithful to a king who hated him and wanted him dead. Similarly, Jeremiah prophesied in the court of kings who burned his words in the fireplace and put him in a cistern to die (Jer 36:21-26; 38:1-13). And Daniel and his friends faithfully served in the court of Babylonian and Persian kings, even when the kings’ decisions were hostile to their faith or to them personally (Dan 3; 6).<\/p>\n<p>Faithfulness under an enemy in authority doesn’t always bring success. The ultimate example of this is Jesus himself: He was hounded by authorities who eventually succeeded in having him executed. Jesus never “succeeded” in life, but he continued to trust his Father in heaven. Success for Jesus lay beyond death in the Resurrection. It may be the same for some of us: We may die under authorities who hate us without seeing any good come of our suffering. In the age to come, God will right every wrong and will reward the faithfulness of those who suffered under hostile authority.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 24:1-22; 2 Sam 1:1-27; 11:1-27; Jer 36:21-27; 38:1-13; Dan 3:1-30; 6:1-28; John 8:29; Phil 2:6-11; Heb 5:7-10; 1 Pet 2:13–3:7<\/p>","summary_ro":"Hostile Authority: David’s Response As David became successful, King Saul became his enemy. The Lord had left Saul as a result of the king’s unfaithfulness, and the anointing of the Spirit now rested on David (1 Sam 15:1–16:14). When Saul needed someone to soothe his mind, he found that David’s harp playing was music to his soul (16:15-23). When Saul needed someone to deal with the ominous threat of Goliath, he found in David a capable and successful young warrior (1 Sam 17). But as others be...","summary_en":"Hostile Authority: David’s Response As David became successful, King Saul became his enemy. The Lord had left Saul as a result of the king’s unfaithfulness, and the anointing of the Spirit now rested on David (1 Sam 15:1–16:14). When Saul needed someone to soothe his mind, he found that David’s harp playing was music to his soul (16:15-23). When Saul needed someone to deal with the ominous threat of Goliath, he found in David a capable and successful young warrior (1 Sam 17). But as others be...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":88888,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Hostile Authority: David’s Response","title_en":"Hostile Authority: David’s Response","content_ro":"<h3>Hostile Authority: David’s Response<\/h3>\n<p>As David became successful, King Saul became his enemy. The Lord had left Saul as a result of the king’s unfaithfulness, and the anointing of the Spirit now rested on David (1 Sam 15:1–16:14). When Saul needed someone to soothe his mind, he found that David’s harp playing was music to his soul (16:15-23). When Saul needed someone to deal with the ominous threat of Goliath, he found in David a capable and successful young warrior (1 Sam 17). But as others began noticing David and praising his success, Saul became frightened and jealous (18:6-9), and his jealousy soon developed into anger, rage, and murderous hatred.<\/p>\n<p>After Saul tried to kill David with a spear on two occasions (18:10-11), David continued serving him: He led a contingent of the king’s troops (18:13), married the king’s daughter (18:17-27), and served in Saul’s court as a harpist (19:7, 9). But David’s continuing success was too much for the paranoid Saul, who again tried to murder him (19:9-11). David had no choice but to escape (19:11-18; 20:1-42).<\/p>\n<p>For the rest of Saul’s reign, David was a fugitive, hunted by the king he had faithfully served. Even then, he refused to harm Saul. On two occasions, David had the opportunity to assassinate Saul (1 Sam 24; 26), but he refused to “attack the <span>Lord<\/span>’s anointed one” (24:6; 26:9).<\/p>\n<p>During these years as a fugitive, David continued to serve the Lord and the people of Israel (23:1-6; 25:4-9, 14-16; 27:8-9). When news reached David that Saul and Jonathan had been killed, he deeply mourned the death of a “beloved and gracious” king and his son (2 Sam 1:17-27).<\/p>\n<p>David was persistently faithful to a king who hated him and wanted him dead. Similarly, Jeremiah prophesied in the court of kings who burned his words in the fireplace and put him in a cistern to die (Jer 36:21-26; 38:1-13). And Daniel and his friends faithfully served in the court of Babylonian and Persian kings, even when the kings’ decisions were hostile to their faith or to them personally (Dan 3; 6).<\/p>\n<p>Faithfulness under an enemy in authority doesn’t always bring success. The ultimate example of this is Jesus himself: He was hounded by authorities who eventually succeeded in having him executed. Jesus never “succeeded” in life, but he continued to trust his Father in heaven. Success for Jesus lay beyond death in the Resurrection. It may be the same for some of us: We may die under authorities who hate us without seeing any good come of our suffering. In the age to come, God will right every wrong and will reward the faithfulness of those who suffered under hostile authority.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 24:1-22; 2 Sam 1:1-27; 11:1-27; Jer 36:21-27; 38:1-13; Dan 3:1-30; 6:1-28; John 8:29; Phil 2:6-11; Heb 5:7-10; 1 Pet 2:13–3:7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Hostile Authority: David’s Response<\/h3>\n<p>As David became successful, King Saul became his enemy. The Lord had left Saul as a result of the king’s unfaithfulness, and the anointing of the Spirit now rested on David (1 Sam 15:1–16:14). When Saul needed someone to soothe his mind, he found that David’s harp playing was music to his soul (16:15-23). When Saul needed someone to deal with the ominous threat of Goliath, he found in David a capable and successful young warrior (1 Sam 17). But as others began noticing David and praising his success, Saul became frightened and jealous (18:6-9), and his jealousy soon developed into anger, rage, and murderous hatred.<\/p>\n<p>After Saul tried to kill David with a spear on two occasions (18:10-11), David continued serving him: He led a contingent of the king’s troops (18:13), married the king’s daughter (18:17-27), and served in Saul’s court as a harpist (19:7, 9). But David’s continuing success was too much for the paranoid Saul, who again tried to murder him (19:9-11). David had no choice but to escape (19:11-18; 20:1-42).<\/p>\n<p>For the rest of Saul’s reign, David was a fugitive, hunted by the king he had faithfully served. Even then, he refused to harm Saul. On two occasions, David had the opportunity to assassinate Saul (1 Sam 24; 26), but he refused to “attack the <span>Lord<\/span>’s anointed one” (24:6; 26:9).<\/p>\n<p>During these years as a fugitive, David continued to serve the Lord and the people of Israel (23:1-6; 25:4-9, 14-16; 27:8-9). When news reached David that Saul and Jonathan had been killed, he deeply mourned the death of a “beloved and gracious” king and his son (2 Sam 1:17-27).<\/p>\n<p>David was persistently faithful to a king who hated him and wanted him dead. Similarly, Jeremiah prophesied in the court of kings who burned his words in the fireplace and put him in a cistern to die (Jer 36:21-26; 38:1-13). And Daniel and his friends faithfully served in the court of Babylonian and Persian kings, even when the kings’ decisions were hostile to their faith or to them personally (Dan 3; 6).<\/p>\n<p>Faithfulness under an enemy in authority doesn’t always bring success. The ultimate example of this is Jesus himself: He was hounded by authorities who eventually succeeded in having him executed. Jesus never “succeeded” in life, but he continued to trust his Father in heaven. Success for Jesus lay beyond death in the Resurrection. It may be the same for some of us: We may die under authorities who hate us without seeing any good come of our suffering. In the age to come, God will right every wrong and will reward the faithfulness of those who suffered under hostile authority.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 24:1-22; 2 Sam 1:1-27; 11:1-27; Jer 36:21-27; 38:1-13; Dan 3:1-30; 6:1-28; John 8:29; Phil 2:6-11; Heb 5:7-10; 1 Pet 2:13–3:7<\/p>","summary_ro":"Hostile Authority: David’s Response As David became successful, King Saul became his enemy. The Lord had left Saul as a result of the king’s unfaithfulness, and the anointing of the Spirit now rested on David (1 Sam 15:1–16:14). When Saul needed someone to soothe his mind, he found that David’s harp playing was music to his soul (16:15-23). When Saul needed someone to deal with the ominous threat of Goliath, he found in David a capable and successful young warrior (1 Sam 17). But as others be...","summary_en":"Hostile Authority: David’s Response As David became successful, King Saul became his enemy. The Lord had left Saul as a result of the king’s unfaithfulness, and the anointing of the Spirit now rested on David (1 Sam 15:1–16:14). When Saul needed someone to soothe his mind, he found that David’s harp playing was music to his soul (16:15-23). When Saul needed someone to deal with the ominous threat of Goliath, he found in David a capable and successful young warrior (1 Sam 17). But as others be...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":116514,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Hostile Authority: David’s Response","title_en":"Hostile Authority: David’s Response","content_ro":"<h3>Hostile Authority: David’s Response<\/h3>\n<p>As David became successful, King Saul became his enemy. The Lord had left Saul as a result of the king’s unfaithfulness, and the anointing of the Spirit now rested on David (1 Sam 15:1–16:14). When Saul needed someone to soothe his mind, he found that David’s harp playing was music to his soul (16:15-23). When Saul needed someone to deal with the ominous threat of Goliath, he found in David a capable and successful young warrior (1 Sam 17). But as others began noticing David and praising his success, Saul became frightened and jealous (18:6-9), and his jealousy soon developed into anger, rage, and murderous hatred.<\/p>\n<p>After Saul tried to kill David with a spear on two occasions (18:10-11), David continued serving him: He led a contingent of the king’s troops (18:13), married the king’s daughter (18:17-27), and served in Saul’s court as a harpist (19:7, 9). But David’s continuing success was too much for the paranoid Saul, who again tried to murder him (19:9-11). David had no choice but to escape (19:11-18; 20:1-42).<\/p>\n<p>For the rest of Saul’s reign, David was a fugitive, hunted by the king he had faithfully served. Even then, he refused to harm Saul. On two occasions, David had the opportunity to assassinate Saul (1 Sam 24; 26), but he refused to “attack the <span>Lord<\/span>’s anointed one” (24:6; 26:9).<\/p>\n<p>During these years as a fugitive, David continued to serve the Lord and the people of Israel (23:1-6; 25:4-9, 14-16; 27:8-9). When news reached David that Saul and Jonathan had been killed, he deeply mourned the death of a “beloved and gracious” king and his son (2 Sam 1:17-27).<\/p>\n<p>David was persistently faithful to a king who hated him and wanted him dead. Similarly, Jeremiah prophesied in the court of kings who burned his words in the fireplace and put him in a cistern to die (Jer 36:21-26; 38:1-13). And Daniel and his friends faithfully served in the court of Babylonian and Persian kings, even when the kings’ decisions were hostile to their faith or to them personally (Dan 3; 6).<\/p>\n<p>Faithfulness under an enemy in authority doesn’t always bring success. The ultimate example of this is Jesus himself: He was hounded by authorities who eventually succeeded in having him executed. Jesus never “succeeded” in life, but he continued to trust his Father in heaven. Success for Jesus lay beyond death in the Resurrection. It may be the same for some of us: We may die under authorities who hate us without seeing any good come of our suffering. In the age to come, God will right every wrong and will reward the faithfulness of those who suffered under hostile authority.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 24:1-22; 2 Sam 1:1-27; 11:1-27; Jer 36:21-27; 38:1-13; Dan 3:1-30; 6:1-28; John 8:29; Phil 2:6-11; Heb 5:7-10; 1 Pet 2:13–3:7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Hostile Authority: David’s Response<\/h3>\n<p>As David became successful, King Saul became his enemy. The Lord had left Saul as a result of the king’s unfaithfulness, and the anointing of the Spirit now rested on David (1 Sam 15:1–16:14). When Saul needed someone to soothe his mind, he found that David’s harp playing was music to his soul (16:15-23). When Saul needed someone to deal with the ominous threat of Goliath, he found in David a capable and successful young warrior (1 Sam 17). But as others began noticing David and praising his success, Saul became frightened and jealous (18:6-9), and his jealousy soon developed into anger, rage, and murderous hatred.<\/p>\n<p>After Saul tried to kill David with a spear on two occasions (18:10-11), David continued serving him: He led a contingent of the king’s troops (18:13), married the king’s daughter (18:17-27), and served in Saul’s court as a harpist (19:7, 9). But David’s continuing success was too much for the paranoid Saul, who again tried to murder him (19:9-11). David had no choice but to escape (19:11-18; 20:1-42).<\/p>\n<p>For the rest of Saul’s reign, David was a fugitive, hunted by the king he had faithfully served. Even then, he refused to harm Saul. On two occasions, David had the opportunity to assassinate Saul (1 Sam 24; 26), but he refused to “attack the <span>Lord<\/span>’s anointed one” (24:6; 26:9).<\/p>\n<p>During these years as a fugitive, David continued to serve the Lord and the people of Israel (23:1-6; 25:4-9, 14-16; 27:8-9). When news reached David that Saul and Jonathan had been killed, he deeply mourned the death of a “beloved and gracious” king and his son (2 Sam 1:17-27).<\/p>\n<p>David was persistently faithful to a king who hated him and wanted him dead. Similarly, Jeremiah prophesied in the court of kings who burned his words in the fireplace and put him in a cistern to die (Jer 36:21-26; 38:1-13). And Daniel and his friends faithfully served in the court of Babylonian and Persian kings, even when the kings’ decisions were hostile to their faith or to them personally (Dan 3; 6).<\/p>\n<p>Faithfulness under an enemy in authority doesn’t always bring success. The ultimate example of this is Jesus himself: He was hounded by authorities who eventually succeeded in having him executed. Jesus never “succeeded” in life, but he continued to trust his Father in heaven. Success for Jesus lay beyond death in the Resurrection. It may be the same for some of us: We may die under authorities who hate us without seeing any good come of our suffering. In the age to come, God will right every wrong and will reward the faithfulness of those who suffered under hostile authority.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 24:1-22; 2 Sam 1:1-27; 11:1-27; Jer 36:21-27; 38:1-13; Dan 3:1-30; 6:1-28; John 8:29; Phil 2:6-11; Heb 5:7-10; 1 Pet 2:13–3:7<\/p>","summary_ro":"Hostile Authority: David’s Response As David became successful, King Saul became his enemy. The Lord had left Saul as a result of the king’s unfaithfulness, and the anointing of the Spirit now rested on David (1 Sam 15:1–16:14). When Saul needed someone to soothe his mind, he found that David’s harp playing was music to his soul (16:15-23). When Saul needed someone to deal with the ominous threat of Goliath, he found in David a capable and successful young warrior (1 Sam 17). But as others be...","summary_en":"Hostile Authority: David’s Response As David became successful, King Saul became his enemy. The Lord had left Saul as a result of the king’s unfaithfulness, and the anointing of the Spirit now rested on David (1 Sam 15:1–16:14). When Saul needed someone to soothe his mind, he found that David’s harp playing was music to his soul (16:15-23). When Saul needed someone to deal with the ominous threat of Goliath, he found in David a capable and successful young warrior (1 Sam 17). But as others be...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":144140,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Hostile Authority: David’s Response","title_en":"Hostile Authority: David’s Response","content_ro":"<h3>Hostile Authority: David’s Response<\/h3>\n<p>As David became successful, King Saul became his enemy. The Lord had left Saul as a result of the king’s unfaithfulness, and the anointing of the Spirit now rested on David (1 Sam 15:1–16:14). When Saul needed someone to soothe his mind, he found that David’s harp playing was music to his soul (16:15-23). When Saul needed someone to deal with the ominous threat of Goliath, he found in David a capable and successful young warrior (1 Sam 17). But as others began noticing David and praising his success, Saul became frightened and jealous (18:6-9), and his jealousy soon developed into anger, rage, and murderous hatred.<\/p>\n<p>After Saul tried to kill David with a spear on two occasions (18:10-11), David continued serving him: He led a contingent of the king’s troops (18:13), married the king’s daughter (18:17-27), and served in Saul’s court as a harpist (19:7, 9). But David’s continuing success was too much for the paranoid Saul, who again tried to murder him (19:9-11). David had no choice but to escape (19:11-18; 20:1-42).<\/p>\n<p>For the rest of Saul’s reign, David was a fugitive, hunted by the king he had faithfully served. Even then, he refused to harm Saul. On two occasions, David had the opportunity to assassinate Saul (1 Sam 24; 26), but he refused to “attack the <span>Lord<\/span>’s anointed one” (24:6; 26:9).<\/p>\n<p>During these years as a fugitive, David continued to serve the Lord and the people of Israel (23:1-6; 25:4-9, 14-16; 27:8-9). When news reached David that Saul and Jonathan had been killed, he deeply mourned the death of a “beloved and gracious” king and his son (2 Sam 1:17-27).<\/p>\n<p>David was persistently faithful to a king who hated him and wanted him dead. Similarly, Jeremiah prophesied in the court of kings who burned his words in the fireplace and put him in a cistern to die (Jer 36:21-26; 38:1-13). And Daniel and his friends faithfully served in the court of Babylonian and Persian kings, even when the kings’ decisions were hostile to their faith or to them personally (Dan 3; 6).<\/p>\n<p>Faithfulness under an enemy in authority doesn’t always bring success. The ultimate example of this is Jesus himself: He was hounded by authorities who eventually succeeded in having him executed. Jesus never “succeeded” in life, but he continued to trust his Father in heaven. Success for Jesus lay beyond death in the Resurrection. It may be the same for some of us: We may die under authorities who hate us without seeing any good come of our suffering. In the age to come, God will right every wrong and will reward the faithfulness of those who suffered under hostile authority.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 24:1-22; 2 Sam 1:1-27; 11:1-27; Jer 36:21-27; 38:1-13; Dan 3:1-30; 6:1-28; John 8:29; Phil 2:6-11; Heb 5:7-10; 1 Pet 2:13–3:7<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Hostile Authority: David’s Response<\/h3>\n<p>As David became successful, King Saul became his enemy. The Lord had left Saul as a result of the king’s unfaithfulness, and the anointing of the Spirit now rested on David (1 Sam 15:1–16:14). When Saul needed someone to soothe his mind, he found that David’s harp playing was music to his soul (16:15-23). When Saul needed someone to deal with the ominous threat of Goliath, he found in David a capable and successful young warrior (1 Sam 17). But as others began noticing David and praising his success, Saul became frightened and jealous (18:6-9), and his jealousy soon developed into anger, rage, and murderous hatred.<\/p>\n<p>After Saul tried to kill David with a spear on two occasions (18:10-11), David continued serving him: He led a contingent of the king’s troops (18:13), married the king’s daughter (18:17-27), and served in Saul’s court as a harpist (19:7, 9). But David’s continuing success was too much for the paranoid Saul, who again tried to murder him (19:9-11). David had no choice but to escape (19:11-18; 20:1-42).<\/p>\n<p>For the rest of Saul’s reign, David was a fugitive, hunted by the king he had faithfully served. Even then, he refused to harm Saul. On two occasions, David had the opportunity to assassinate Saul (1 Sam 24; 26), but he refused to “attack the <span>Lord<\/span>’s anointed one” (24:6; 26:9).<\/p>\n<p>During these years as a fugitive, David continued to serve the Lord and the people of Israel (23:1-6; 25:4-9, 14-16; 27:8-9). When news reached David that Saul and Jonathan had been killed, he deeply mourned the death of a “beloved and gracious” king and his son (2 Sam 1:17-27).<\/p>\n<p>David was persistently faithful to a king who hated him and wanted him dead. Similarly, Jeremiah prophesied in the court of kings who burned his words in the fireplace and put him in a cistern to die (Jer 36:21-26; 38:1-13). And Daniel and his friends faithfully served in the court of Babylonian and Persian kings, even when the kings’ decisions were hostile to their faith or to them personally (Dan 3; 6).<\/p>\n<p>Faithfulness under an enemy in authority doesn’t always bring success. The ultimate example of this is Jesus himself: He was hounded by authorities who eventually succeeded in having him executed. Jesus never “succeeded” in life, but he continued to trust his Father in heaven. Success for Jesus lay beyond death in the Resurrection. It may be the same for some of us: We may die under authorities who hate us without seeing any good come of our suffering. In the age to come, God will right every wrong and will reward the faithfulness of those who suffered under hostile authority.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 24:1-22; 2 Sam 1:1-27; 11:1-27; Jer 36:21-27; 38:1-13; Dan 3:1-30; 6:1-28; John 8:29; Phil 2:6-11; Heb 5:7-10; 1 Pet 2:13–3:7<\/p>","summary_ro":"Hostile Authority: David’s Response As David became successful, King Saul became his enemy. The Lord had left Saul as a result of the king’s unfaithfulness, and the anointing of the Spirit now rested on David (1 Sam 15:1–16:14). When Saul needed someone to soothe his mind, he found that David’s harp playing was music to his soul (16:15-23). When Saul needed someone to deal with the ominous threat of Goliath, he found in David a capable and successful young warrior (1 Sam 17). But as others be...","summary_en":"Hostile Authority: David’s Response As David became successful, King Saul became his enemy. The Lord had left Saul as a result of the king’s unfaithfulness, and the anointing of the Spirit now rested on David (1 Sam 15:1–16:14). When Saul needed someone to soothe his mind, he found that David’s harp playing was music to his soul (16:15-23). When Saul needed someone to deal with the ominous threat of Goliath, he found in David a capable and successful young warrior (1 Sam 17). But as others be...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"16":[{"id":8785,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"City of David","title_en":"City of David","content_ro":"<h3>DAVID, City of<\/h3>\n<li>1. In the OT, the city of Jerusalem. “City of David” referred originally to the old Jebusite stronghold captured by King David (2 Sm 5:6-9). David, Solomon, and many of their descendants who ruled over Judah were buried in the City of David (1 Kgs 2:10; 11:43). Solomon considered it a holy place because of the presence of the ark of the Lord. Therefore, he moved his pagan wife, Pharaoh’s daughter, away from the City of David and built a house for her in another place (2 Chr 8:11).<\/li>\n<p>After Solomon’s time, the term “city of David” was also used in a larger sense to describe the entire city of Jerusalem, including the newly built temple area. The old section of Jerusalem below the temple site was still specifically designated as the “city of David,” however (Neh 3:15). David’s tomb was close to the pool of Siloam and to the stairway that descended from the City of David (Neh 3:15-16). <em>See<\/em> Jerusalem; Zion.<\/p>\n<li>2. In the NT, the town of Bethlehem. Bethlehem was David’s birthplace and home until he went to Saul’s palace as a musician (1 Sm 16:16-23). When David became Judah’s king, he chose Hebron to be his capital, as the Lord had instructed him (2 Sm 2:1-11). Bethlehem was the birthplace of Jesus, who was a descendant of David (Mi 5:2-4; Lk 2:11).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bethlehem #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DAVID, City of<\/h3>\n<li>1. In the OT, the city of Jerusalem. “City of David” referred originally to the old Jebusite stronghold captured by King David (2 Sm 5:6-9). David, Solomon, and many of their descendants who ruled over Judah were buried in the City of David (1 Kgs 2:10; 11:43). Solomon considered it a holy place because of the presence of the ark of the Lord. Therefore, he moved his pagan wife, Pharaoh’s daughter, away from the City of David and built a house for her in another place (2 Chr 8:11).<\/li>\n<p>After Solomon’s time, the term “city of David” was also used in a larger sense to describe the entire city of Jerusalem, including the newly built temple area. The old section of Jerusalem below the temple site was still specifically designated as the “city of David,” however (Neh 3:15). David’s tomb was close to the pool of Siloam and to the stairway that descended from the City of David (Neh 3:15-16). <em>See<\/em> Jerusalem; Zion.<\/p>\n<li>2. In the NT, the town of Bethlehem. Bethlehem was David’s birthplace and home until he went to Saul’s palace as a musician (1 Sm 16:16-23). When David became Judah’s king, he chose Hebron to be his capital, as the Lord had instructed him (2 Sm 2:1-11). Bethlehem was the birthplace of Jesus, who was a descendant of David (Mi 5:2-4; Lk 2:11).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bethlehem #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DAVID, City of 1. In the OT, the city of Jerusalem. “City of David” referred originally to the old Jebusite stronghold captured by King David (2 Sm 5:6-9). David, Solomon, and many of their descendants who ruled over Judah were buried in the City of David (1 Kgs 2:10; 11:43). Solomon considered it a holy place because of the presence of the ark of the Lord. Therefore, he moved his pagan wife, Pharaoh’s daughter, away from the City of David and built a house for her in another place (2 Chr 8:1...","summary_en":"DAVID, City of 1. In the OT, the city of Jerusalem. “City of David” referred originally to the old Jebusite stronghold captured by King David (2 Sm 5:6-9). David, Solomon, and many of their descendants who ruled over Judah were buried in the City of David (1 Kgs 2:10; 11:43). Solomon considered it a holy place because of the presence of the ark of the Lord. Therefore, he moved his pagan wife, Pharaoh’s daughter, away from the City of David and built a house for her in another place (2 Chr 8:1...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26670,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Musical Instruments","title_en":"Musical Instruments","content_ro":"<h3>MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS<\/h3>\n<p>Stringed, wind, and percussion instruments used to make music.<\/p>\n<p>In contrast to the detailed accounts of liturgical music in the OT, the descriptions of the musical instruments themselves are rather sparse. Because of the injunction of the second commandment, interpreted by the Hebrews as discouraging pictorial representations, there are few drawings of Hebrew instruments. In addition to the instruments used in the temple, the book of Daniel lists six instruments played in King Nebuchadnezzar’s court.<\/p>\n<p>The ancient Hebrews made certain distinctions among the instruments, not on musical but on ethical grounds. Some instruments were considered “unclean” and were not allowed in temple worship.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StringedInstruments\">Stringed Instruments<\/p>\n<p>The stringed instruments were favored by the Jewish people. In many ancient civilizations the strings were considered the most masculine and noble (e.g., David playing the lyre); the Jews considered them the most suitable for accompaniment in the temple service. The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">minim<\/span> is used in Psalm 150:4 to designate the entire family of stringed instruments used in the praise of God.<\/p>\n\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Asor<\/span> appears three times in the book of Psalms (Pss 33:2; 92:3; 144:9). Although the word derives from a Hebrew root meaning “ten,” the actual description of the instrument remains unclear. The most common theory identifies it with the Phoenician zither having ten strings; it is perhaps the lute.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Kathros<\/span> was a stringed instrument included in the list of those played at Nebuchadnezzar’s court and was probably a kind of lyre (Dn 3:5, 7, 10, 15).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Kinnor<\/span> is the most frequently mentioned instrument in the Bible, found in 42 places. It is often called David’s harp and is the most beloved instrument of the Jewish people. We can say with reasonable certainty that it was a lyre and not a harp. The strings, the number of which is not clear, were made of sheep tripe and the sounding box was at the bottom of the instrument. It is not certain whether it was played with a plectrum or with bare hands, but the specific comment that David “played it with his hand” (1 Sm 16:23, <span>rsv<\/span>) may have implied that this was not the common practice. The biblical descriptions of the sound of the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kinnor<\/span> include “pleasant” and “sweet” (Ps 81:2). The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kinnor<\/span> was played mainly in worship but also in celebrations (Is 5:12), for state occasions (1 Sm 10:5; 2 Sm 6:5), and by shepherds (1 Sm 16:16).<\/p>\n\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Nebel<\/span> was another stringed instrument (literally meaning “skin” or “skin bottle”) mentioned 27 times in Scripture. Its shape was probably similar to a bottle, with the belly-shaped sounding box on the bottom. It definitely belongs to the family of harps (2 Sm 6:5; 1 Kgs 10:12; Neh 12:27; Ps 57:8; Am 5:23) and may have been influenced by similar Egyptian instruments. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nebel<\/span> was probably played without a plectrum and was a larger and louder instrument than the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kinnor<\/span><em>.<\/em> It is translated as “harp” in most modern English translations, compared to the <span>kjv<\/span> (“psaltery,” or “viol”).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Psantrin<\/span> or <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">pesanterin<\/span> was a Greek instrument, mentioned in the description of King Nebuchadnezzar’s orchestra. It may have resembled a dulcimer, having strings played with hammers (Dn 3:5-15).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Sabcha<\/span> or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sabbeka<\/span><em>,<\/em> identical with the Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">sambyke<\/span> and the Roman <em>sambuca,<\/em> was a stringed instrument (<span>rsv<\/span> “trigon,” <span>kjv<\/span> “sackbut”) played in the Babylonian court. It was a triangle with four strings, having a high and harsh tone (Dn 3:5-15).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WindInstruments\">Wind Instruments<\/p>\n<p>The wind instruments can be divided into two groups: pipes and horns.<\/p>\n\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Halil<\/span> is mentioned only six times in the Bible but was referred to frequently by postbiblical writers. This kind of piped instrument was similar to the Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">aulos<\/span> (Mt 9:23; 1 Cor 14:7; Rv 18:22), a primitive oboe, rendered “flute” in many translations. The root word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">halal<\/span> means “to pierce,” thus the meaning “hollow tube.” The early pipes were made from reedlike plants. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">halil<\/span> had a double-reed mouthpiece and probably produced a shrill and penetrating sound. It was connected with joyful events such as banquets (Is 5:12) and prophetic frenzies (1 Sm 10:5), but its tone was also associated with wailing and mourning (Jer 48:36).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Hatzotzrot<\/span> was a sort of trumpet. Modern scholars have more information about this horn than many of its ancient Hebrew counterparts. The triumphal arch built by Titus in Rome includes depictions of the captured implements of the temple, among which are two trumpets. The form of these horns may have been influenced by the Israelites’ knowledge of Egyptian trumpets. Similar instruments were also known in Assyria, in the Hittite Empire, and in Greece. Moses was commanded to make two silver trumpets (Nm 10:2); playing these instruments became the exclusive privilege of the descendants of Aaron. These trumpets were made of silver or gold, about a yard (.9 meter) long, but narrow, with a pronounced bell. The descendants of the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hatzotzrot<\/span> are the herald trumpets. Numbers 10:10 says the trumpets were used “for a memorial before . . . God.” Trumpets and horns were used to signal the gathering of the congregation to the tent of meeting, to sound alarm, to alert the camps to move forward, and to announce when war was at hand. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hatzotzrot<\/span> became an important part of the temple service. There were at least two trumpets in the daily services, but at high holidays the number could be increased indefinitely (1 Chr 15:28; 2 Chr 15:14; Ps 98:6; Dn 3:5-15; Hos 5:8).<\/p>\n\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mashroqita<\/span><em>,<\/em> considered by modern scholars to be a Pan’s pipe similar to the Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">syrinx<\/span><em>,<\/em> is included in the list of orchestral instruments of King Nebuchadnezzar’s court (Dn 3:5, 7, 10, 15).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shophar<\/span> is mentioned in the Bible 72 times, more than any other Hebrew instrument. It is the only instrument of ancient Israel that survives in its original form and is still used in Jewish liturgy. The early <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shophar<\/span> was curved like a ram’s horn, but the later form was straight with a bend near the bell of the horn. There is some question whether any of the hornlike instruments can actually be considered musical instruments. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shophar<\/span> could produce two, maybe three tones, and was used for giving signals, not for playing music. It was used in such religious ceremonies as the transfer of the ark (2 Sm 6:15; 1 Chr 15:28), the renewal of the covenant by King Asa (2 Chr 15:14), thanksgiving to God (Ps 98:6; 150:3), and was blown at the new moon and the beginning of the jubilee year. Its secular use included such royal occasions as Absalom’s accession to the throne (2 Sm 15:10), Solomon’s anointing as king (1 Kgs 1:34), and Jehu’s accession to the throne (2 Kgs 9:13).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Sumponia<\/span> is an uncertain term included in Daniel 3. Many commentators have interpreted it as a bagpipe (<span>rsv<\/span>), but musicologists strongly argue that at the time of King Nebuchadnezzar there was no such instrument. It has been suggested that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sumponia<\/span> was not a musical instrument at all but signified the playing of the entire ensemble. This could come from the Greek root <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">sym<\/span><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">phonia<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “sounding together.” The word is also found in Luke 15:25, where it is translated as “music.”<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Ugab<\/span><em>,<\/em> a flutelike instrument, is mentioned in Scripture four times (Gn 4:21; Jb 21:12; 30:31; Ps 150:4; <span>kjv<\/span> mistranslates it as “organ”). It is only in Psalm 150 that the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ugab<\/span> is connected with a sacred occasion.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PercussionInstruments\">Percussion Instruments<\/p>\n<p>Most of the accounts of percussion instruments are found in the early history of the Hebrew people. They were gradually eliminated from the temple orchestra, perhaps because of their association with idolatrous practices.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mena anim<\/span> was a loud metal rattle, constructed with a frame carrying loose rings. It is included in a list of instruments in 2 Samuel 6:5 (<span>rsv<\/span> “castanet”; <span>kjv<\/span> mistranslates as “cornet”). It was likely a form of the <em>sistrum,<\/em> an Egyptian instrument.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Pamonim<\/span> were the bells attached to the lower hem of the priest’s garment, described in Exodus 28:33-34 and 39:25-26. They were not loud but indicated the position of the high priest as he entered the sanctuary.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shalishim<\/span><em>,<\/em> often translated as <em>sistrum<\/em> or <em>timbrel,<\/em> is a kind of rattle. It is not clear whether this term actually refers to a musical instrument. It appears in 1 Samuel 18:6 as part of the reception of King Saul and David after the battle with the Philistines.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Toph<\/span> or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tof<\/span> was an instrument used mainly by women, but there are some indications that men might have played it as well (1 Sm 10:5; <span>kjv<\/span> “tabret”; 2 Sm 6:5; 1 Chr 13:8). The mention of this kind of hand drum appears 15 times in the Bible. A wooden or metal hoop was covered with the skin of a ram or wild goat and was played with the hand. It is not clear whether the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">toph<\/span> had skin on just one side or two. Some commentators have described it as a tambourine or timbrel but there is no indication that it included jangles. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">toph<\/span> was used in merrymaking and was rather loud (Ex 15:20; Ps 81:2).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Zelzelim<\/span> or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">meziltayim<\/span> were cymbals. Both of these words come from the Hebrew root <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">zala<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “to resound” or “to tingle,” and the noun forms represent the instrument known as the cymbal. Sometimes these terms are wrongly translated as “castanets.” These were the only percussion instruments included in the temple music and were always referred to in a dual form, suggesting a pair of cymbals, but played by one man. Cymbals made of metal were known to most ancient cultures. They appear for the first time in the Bible when the ark was transferred to Jerusalem (2 Sm 6:5; 1 Chr 13:8). Later they were played in the temple by the leaders of the Levitical singers (1 Chr 15:19). The function of the cymbals was less musical than liturgical, being used as signals for the singing to begin and between the sections of the psalms. Two different kinds of cymbals are mentioned in Psalm 150, but their difference is not clear, probably involving either size or material.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS<\/h3>\n<p>Stringed, wind, and percussion instruments used to make music.<\/p>\n<p>In contrast to the detailed accounts of liturgical music in the OT, the descriptions of the musical instruments themselves are rather sparse. Because of the injunction of the second commandment, interpreted by the Hebrews as discouraging pictorial representations, there are few drawings of Hebrew instruments. In addition to the instruments used in the temple, the book of Daniel lists six instruments played in King Nebuchadnezzar’s court.<\/p>\n<p>The ancient Hebrews made certain distinctions among the instruments, not on musical but on ethical grounds. Some instruments were considered “unclean” and were not allowed in temple worship.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StringedInstruments\">Stringed Instruments<\/p>\n<p>The stringed instruments were favored by the Jewish people. In many ancient civilizations the strings were considered the most masculine and noble (e.g., David playing the lyre); the Jews considered them the most suitable for accompaniment in the temple service. The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">minim<\/span> is used in Psalm 150:4 to designate the entire family of stringed instruments used in the praise of God.<\/p>\n\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Asor<\/span> appears three times in the book of Psalms (Pss 33:2; 92:3; 144:9). Although the word derives from a Hebrew root meaning “ten,” the actual description of the instrument remains unclear. The most common theory identifies it with the Phoenician zither having ten strings; it is perhaps the lute.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Kathros<\/span> was a stringed instrument included in the list of those played at Nebuchadnezzar’s court and was probably a kind of lyre (Dn 3:5, 7, 10, 15).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Kinnor<\/span> is the most frequently mentioned instrument in the Bible, found in 42 places. It is often called David’s harp and is the most beloved instrument of the Jewish people. We can say with reasonable certainty that it was a lyre and not a harp. The strings, the number of which is not clear, were made of sheep tripe and the sounding box was at the bottom of the instrument. It is not certain whether it was played with a plectrum or with bare hands, but the specific comment that David “played it with his hand” (1 Sm 16:23, <span>rsv<\/span>) may have implied that this was not the common practice. The biblical descriptions of the sound of the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kinnor<\/span> include “pleasant” and “sweet” (Ps 81:2). The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kinnor<\/span> was played mainly in worship but also in celebrations (Is 5:12), for state occasions (1 Sm 10:5; 2 Sm 6:5), and by shepherds (1 Sm 16:16).<\/p>\n\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Nebel<\/span> was another stringed instrument (literally meaning “skin” or “skin bottle”) mentioned 27 times in Scripture. Its shape was probably similar to a bottle, with the belly-shaped sounding box on the bottom. It definitely belongs to the family of harps (2 Sm 6:5; 1 Kgs 10:12; Neh 12:27; Ps 57:8; Am 5:23) and may have been influenced by similar Egyptian instruments. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nebel<\/span> was probably played without a plectrum and was a larger and louder instrument than the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kinnor<\/span><em>.<\/em> It is translated as “harp” in most modern English translations, compared to the <span>kjv<\/span> (“psaltery,” or “viol”).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Psantrin<\/span> or <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">pesanterin<\/span> was a Greek instrument, mentioned in the description of King Nebuchadnezzar’s orchestra. It may have resembled a dulcimer, having strings played with hammers (Dn 3:5-15).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Sabcha<\/span> or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sabbeka<\/span><em>,<\/em> identical with the Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">sambyke<\/span> and the Roman <em>sambuca,<\/em> was a stringed instrument (<span>rsv<\/span> “trigon,” <span>kjv<\/span> “sackbut”) played in the Babylonian court. It was a triangle with four strings, having a high and harsh tone (Dn 3:5-15).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WindInstruments\">Wind Instruments<\/p>\n<p>The wind instruments can be divided into two groups: pipes and horns.<\/p>\n\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Halil<\/span> is mentioned only six times in the Bible but was referred to frequently by postbiblical writers. This kind of piped instrument was similar to the Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">aulos<\/span> (Mt 9:23; 1 Cor 14:7; Rv 18:22), a primitive oboe, rendered “flute” in many translations. The root word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">halal<\/span> means “to pierce,” thus the meaning “hollow tube.” The early pipes were made from reedlike plants. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">halil<\/span> had a double-reed mouthpiece and probably produced a shrill and penetrating sound. It was connected with joyful events such as banquets (Is 5:12) and prophetic frenzies (1 Sm 10:5), but its tone was also associated with wailing and mourning (Jer 48:36).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Hatzotzrot<\/span> was a sort of trumpet. Modern scholars have more information about this horn than many of its ancient Hebrew counterparts. The triumphal arch built by Titus in Rome includes depictions of the captured implements of the temple, among which are two trumpets. The form of these horns may have been influenced by the Israelites’ knowledge of Egyptian trumpets. Similar instruments were also known in Assyria, in the Hittite Empire, and in Greece. Moses was commanded to make two silver trumpets (Nm 10:2); playing these instruments became the exclusive privilege of the descendants of Aaron. These trumpets were made of silver or gold, about a yard (.9 meter) long, but narrow, with a pronounced bell. The descendants of the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hatzotzrot<\/span> are the herald trumpets. Numbers 10:10 says the trumpets were used “for a memorial before . . . God.” Trumpets and horns were used to signal the gathering of the congregation to the tent of meeting, to sound alarm, to alert the camps to move forward, and to announce when war was at hand. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hatzotzrot<\/span> became an important part of the temple service. There were at least two trumpets in the daily services, but at high holidays the number could be increased indefinitely (1 Chr 15:28; 2 Chr 15:14; Ps 98:6; Dn 3:5-15; Hos 5:8).<\/p>\n\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mashroqita<\/span><em>,<\/em> considered by modern scholars to be a Pan’s pipe similar to the Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">syrinx<\/span><em>,<\/em> is included in the list of orchestral instruments of King Nebuchadnezzar’s court (Dn 3:5, 7, 10, 15).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shophar<\/span> is mentioned in the Bible 72 times, more than any other Hebrew instrument. It is the only instrument of ancient Israel that survives in its original form and is still used in Jewish liturgy. The early <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shophar<\/span> was curved like a ram’s horn, but the later form was straight with a bend near the bell of the horn. There is some question whether any of the hornlike instruments can actually be considered musical instruments. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shophar<\/span> could produce two, maybe three tones, and was used for giving signals, not for playing music. It was used in such religious ceremonies as the transfer of the ark (2 Sm 6:15; 1 Chr 15:28), the renewal of the covenant by King Asa (2 Chr 15:14), thanksgiving to God (Ps 98:6; 150:3), and was blown at the new moon and the beginning of the jubilee year. Its secular use included such royal occasions as Absalom’s accession to the throne (2 Sm 15:10), Solomon’s anointing as king (1 Kgs 1:34), and Jehu’s accession to the throne (2 Kgs 9:13).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Sumponia<\/span> is an uncertain term included in Daniel 3. Many commentators have interpreted it as a bagpipe (<span>rsv<\/span>), but musicologists strongly argue that at the time of King Nebuchadnezzar there was no such instrument. It has been suggested that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sumponia<\/span> was not a musical instrument at all but signified the playing of the entire ensemble. This could come from the Greek root <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">sym<\/span><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">phonia<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “sounding together.” The word is also found in Luke 15:25, where it is translated as “music.”<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Ugab<\/span><em>,<\/em> a flutelike instrument, is mentioned in Scripture four times (Gn 4:21; Jb 21:12; 30:31; Ps 150:4; <span>kjv<\/span> mistranslates it as “organ”). It is only in Psalm 150 that the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ugab<\/span> is connected with a sacred occasion.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PercussionInstruments\">Percussion Instruments<\/p>\n<p>Most of the accounts of percussion instruments are found in the early history of the Hebrew people. They were gradually eliminated from the temple orchestra, perhaps because of their association with idolatrous practices.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mena anim<\/span> was a loud metal rattle, constructed with a frame carrying loose rings. It is included in a list of instruments in 2 Samuel 6:5 (<span>rsv<\/span> “castanet”; <span>kjv<\/span> mistranslates as “cornet”). It was likely a form of the <em>sistrum,<\/em> an Egyptian instrument.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Pamonim<\/span> were the bells attached to the lower hem of the priest’s garment, described in Exodus 28:33-34 and 39:25-26. They were not loud but indicated the position of the high priest as he entered the sanctuary.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shalishim<\/span><em>,<\/em> often translated as <em>sistrum<\/em> or <em>timbrel,<\/em> is a kind of rattle. It is not clear whether this term actually refers to a musical instrument. It appears in 1 Samuel 18:6 as part of the reception of King Saul and David after the battle with the Philistines.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Toph<\/span> or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tof<\/span> was an instrument used mainly by women, but there are some indications that men might have played it as well (1 Sm 10:5; <span>kjv<\/span> “tabret”; 2 Sm 6:5; 1 Chr 13:8). The mention of this kind of hand drum appears 15 times in the Bible. A wooden or metal hoop was covered with the skin of a ram or wild goat and was played with the hand. It is not clear whether the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">toph<\/span> had skin on just one side or two. Some commentators have described it as a tambourine or timbrel but there is no indication that it included jangles. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">toph<\/span> was used in merrymaking and was rather loud (Ex 15:20; Ps 81:2).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Zelzelim<\/span> or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">meziltayim<\/span> were cymbals. Both of these words come from the Hebrew root <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">zala<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “to resound” or “to tingle,” and the noun forms represent the instrument known as the cymbal. Sometimes these terms are wrongly translated as “castanets.” These were the only percussion instruments included in the temple music and were always referred to in a dual form, suggesting a pair of cymbals, but played by one man. Cymbals made of metal were known to most ancient cultures. They appear for the first time in the Bible when the ark was transferred to Jerusalem (2 Sm 6:5; 1 Chr 13:8). Later they were played in the temple by the leaders of the Levitical singers (1 Chr 15:19). The function of the cymbals was less musical than liturgical, being used as signals for the singing to begin and between the sections of the psalms. Two different kinds of cymbals are mentioned in Psalm 150, but their difference is not clear, probably involving either size or material.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS Stringed, wind, and percussion instruments used to make music. In contrast to the detailed accounts of liturgical music in the OT, the descriptions of the musical instruments themselves are rather sparse. Because of the injunction of the second commandment, interpreted by the Hebrews as discouraging pictorial representations, there are few drawings of Hebrew instruments. In addition to the instruments used in the temple, the book of Daniel lists six instruments played in K...","summary_en":"MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS Stringed, wind, and percussion instruments used to make music. In contrast to the detailed accounts of liturgical music in the OT, the descriptions of the musical instruments themselves are rather sparse. Because of the injunction of the second commandment, interpreted by the Hebrews as discouraging pictorial representations, there are few drawings of Hebrew instruments. In addition to the instruments used in the temple, the book of Daniel lists six instruments played in K...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":31954,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Book of Psalms","title_en":"Book of Psalms","content_ro":"<h3>PSALMS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Poems sung to musical accompaniment, originally the harp. The alternative title, the Psalter, refers to a collection of songs sung to harp accompaniment. The English title, therefore, broadly defines the form employed, whereas the Hebrew title of the book, “Praises,” or “Book of Praises,” suggests the content.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Authors<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Structure<\/p>\n<p>• Canonicity<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theology<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Authors\">Authors<\/p>\n<h5>The Evidence of the Titles<\/h5>\n<p>The Hebrew Bible credits David with 73 psalms, compared with 84 in the Septuagint and 85 in the Latin Vulgate. Korah and Asaph, the leaders of the Levitical singing groups, are connected with 11 and 12 psalms, respectively (although Ps 43 is almost certainly to be attributed to Korah also). Two psalms are ascribed to Solomon (Pss 72; 127), one to Moses (Ps 90), and one to Ethan (Ps 89), while Heman shares the credit for one psalm with the sons of Korah (Ps 88). The remainder are sometimes called “orphan psalms” because of their anonymity.<\/p>\n<p>The preposition “of” found in the titles (for example, “A Psalm of David”) usually indicates authorship. But in the case of groups, such as the sons of Asaph or Korah, it may simply indicate that the psalms were included in their repertoire. Less plausible is the idea that it may also be rendered “for the use of.” For example, some of the “Psalms of David” might be “for the use of” the Davidic king on some occasion.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Allusions in the Titles<\/h5>\n<p>Many of the titles refer to specific events in the life of David (e.g., Pss 3; 7; 18; 30; 34; 51). There is evidence that the titles were added at an early date. When the psalms were translated into Greek, there appears to have been some difficulty in translating the titles, possibly because of their antiquity. If the historical references were added at a late date, there is no reason why plausible backgrounds could not have been supplied for all the Davidic psalms, instead of only a few. Moreover, the apparent disparity between the title and the actual content of some psalms (e.g., Ps 30) indicates that the titles were supplied by those who knew about a connection unknown to a later editor. Admittedly, there are minor discrepancies between the titles and the references in the historical books. For example, in Psalm 34 David acts the madman before Abimelech, whereas in 1 Samuel it is before Achish. But probably Abimelech was the general name (like Pharaoh for the kings of Egypt) for all the Philistine kings (e.g., Gn 21:32; 26:26).<\/p>\n<p>Evidence of authorship and historical background in the titles, therefore, may be taken as a reasonably reliable guide. But the internal difficulties, together with the freedom exercised by successive translators into Greek, Syriac, and Latin, indicates that they were not regarded as inspired.<\/p>\n<h5>The Case for Davidic Authorship<\/h5>\n<p>Five points can be offered to support David’s authorship of several psalms:<\/p>\n<p>1. The authenticity of David’s lament over Saul and Jonathan (2 Sm 1:19-27) is generally accepted. This indicates a deeply poetic spirit and a generous temperament that prepares us to accept those psalms ascribed to David that evidence similar characteristics. “The last words of David” is another Davidic poem in the historical books (2 Sm 23:1-7).<\/p>\n<li>2. David had a reputation as a skillful musician at Saul’s court (1 Sm 16:16-18). Amos comments on his inventiveness as a musician (Am 6:5), while the Chronicler repeatedly stresses his contribution to the musical aspect of temple worship (e.g., 1 Chr 6:31; 16:7; Ezr 3:10). The Jewish historian Josephus said that David composed songs and hymns to God in varied meters. The probability is that David, as well as amassing materials and preparing the plans for Solomon’s temple, also gave attention to the temple worship. This is his place in Jewish tradition.<\/li>\n<li>3. The early monarchy, with a freshly secured independence, national prestige, and a new prosperity, would most likely be a time of artistic creativity. David was at the heart of this movement.<\/li>\n<li>4. There is a close correspondence between David’s life as described in the historical books and certain psalms, for example, his sin concerning Bathsheba and Uriah (2 Sm 11:2–12:25) and Psalm 51, as witnessed in the title. David’s lapses and genuine repentance, as well as the varied aspects of his career—shepherd, fugitive, warrior, and so on—find expression in many of the psalms attributed to him. The correspondence between the David of the psalms and the David of the historical books is close, especially in the display of strong faith in God.<\/li>\n<li>5. Although some scholars believe that when “David” is mentioned in the NT, it is simply a reference to the book of Psalms and not an ascription of authorship, a straightforward interpretation of the NT text strengthens the case for Davidic authorship. David is specifically named as the author of various psalms in Matthew 22:41-45; Acts 1:16; 2:25, 34; Romans 4:6; 11:9.<\/li>\n<p>In conclusion, there is strong support for the view that the substantial nucleus of the Psalter is Davidic. Moreover, it is probable that some of the anonymous psalms were the work of the “sweet psalmist of Israel” (2 Sm 23:1). Hebrews 4:7 refers one of these, Psalm 95, to David (see also Acts 4:25 and Ps 2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Once David’s authorship of several psalms is established, then it must follow that these psalms are dated during David’s life. Thus, most of the psalms formed the hymnbook of Israel in the period of the monarchy. Other psalms were written later. For example, Psalm 137 is clearly exilic, and Psalms 107:2-3 and 126:1 allude to the return from captivity. Psalms 44 and 79 are probably, but not conclusively, postexilic.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Psalms was probably the product of a considerable period of growth. The incidence of Davidic psalms in the first section indicates that it was completed early, possibly toward the end of David’s reign. The remainder of the process of compilation is difficult to reconstruct, but the fact that the titles, with their allusions to authors, events, and musical directions, become less frequent in the two final collections (Pss 90–150) lends support to the probability that the collections were combined chronologically in the sequence in which they are found today. Ezra is traditionally credited with the final grouping and editing of the psalms, a hypothesis that appears reasonable in light of his vital contribution to the systematic reshaping of the national religious life. In any case, the process was completed before the translation of the Psalter into Greek (the Septuagint) at the end of the third century <span>BC<\/span>, since the traditional order is found there. General, but not complete, support comes also from the evidence of the Dead Sea Scrolls. At some point minor dislocations occurred. Psalms 9 and 10 may have originally formed one psalm (as in the Septuagint), and there is a strong case for combining Psalms 42 and 43.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>As the book of Psalms lies before us, its connection with temple worship is apparent. Fifty-five psalms are addressed to the choirmaster, and as we have noted, 23 or 24 are linked with the two main guilds of Levitical singers, Asaph and Korah. The musical instruments, such as stringed instruments (Ps 55 title) and flutes (Ps 5 title) are noted. Probably other terms concern musical directions: <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Selah<\/span><em>,<\/em> which occurs 71 times, may indicate a pause or crescendo; <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Higgaion<\/span> (Ps 9:16) may recommend a meditative attitude. Seemingly obscure references like “The Hind of the Dawn” (Ps 22 title), “Lilies” (Pss 45 title; 80 title) and “The Dove on Far-off Terebinths” (Ps 56 title) may indicate the tunes to which the psalms were to be sung. The precise meaning of other terms, such as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shiggaion<\/span> (Ps 7 title) or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Alamoth<\/span> (conjecturally a choir of ladies, Ps 46 title), may also be in the realm of musical directions.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Structure\">Structure<\/p>\n<p>The Psalter, possibly in conscious imitation of the five books of Moses in the Law, is divided into five sections (Pss 1–41; 42–72; 73–89; 90–106; 107–150), separated by four doxologies (41:13; 72:18-19; 89:52; 106:48). While the editorial comment in Psalm 72:20 notes that the psalms of David were ended, Davidic psalms are found later in the book (Pss 86; 101; 103), suggesting that at least some of these sections circulated independently until their inclusion in the final collection. Such independence is further indicated by the duplications in the various sections (e.g., Pss 14 and 53; 40:13-17 and 70) and by the use of different names for God, who is usually referred to as “Lord” in the first collection and as “God” in the second.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Canonicity\">Canonicity<\/p>\n<p>In the various recensions of the third section of the Hebrew canon, the Writings or Holy Books, the book of Psalms is almost invariably placed first. It was clearly regarded as the most important book in this section, and in Luke 24:44, “Psalms” is synonymous with “Writings” as its title. While the canonicity of all the contents of the Writings was not finalized until the end of the first century <span>AD<\/span>, it is likely that the book of Psalms was accepted as inspired long before this, probably by 300 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>It must not be inferred that all the psalms had their origin in the cultic life of the community, but the sanctuary was the focal point of Israel’s worship for the greater part of the OT period. Prayer was possible elsewhere, but whenever practicable, it was customary for the worshiper to present his petitions at the main sanctuary. And thanksgiving in ancient Israel was almost invariably connected with a thank offering, vow offering, or freewill offering. The psalms could have been composed by individuals, like David, who had the requisite technical ability. And it must be appreciated that poetry, an unfamiliar medium to most Western civilizations, was the natural way for the ancient Easterner to express his emotions. Or the individual could have engaged a member of the Levitical guilds of musicians to frame either his supplication or his thanksgiving. Gradually, a comprehensive collection of psalms would be available for the use of individuals, the congregation, and even the entire nation in any conceivable situation. Once finalized, this collection served not only the subsequent needs of Israel but the devotional requirements of successive generations of Christians as well. Whatever the origin of an individual psalm, each has finally been incorporated in a cultic setting, and it may be assumed that the best of Israel’s psalmody has thus been preserved.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheology\">Purpose and Theology<\/p>\n<h5>The Doctrine of God<\/h5>\n<p>In both adversity and prosperity, the psalmists indicate a strong faith in God and a clear conception of his attributes. Understandably, anthropomorphisms (ascribing human characteristics to nonhuman things) abound, with references to God’s voice, words, ears, eyes, face, or hands and fingers. No exception needs to be taken to this. Anthropomorphisms of this kind are, in fact, widely used by present-day Christians. Their great value is that they make God real to the worshiper. How else could humans describe God, except in terms of their own understanding?<\/p>\n<p>The monotheism of the psalms emerges clearly in Psalms 115:3-8; 135:15-18; 139. God is viewed as the Creator (Pss 8:3; 89:11; 95:3-5), with references to the creation mythology of surrounding nations (e.g., Ps 89:10) serving merely as illustrations of his almighty creative power. He is proclaimed as the Lord of history (Pss 44, 78, 80, 81, 105, 106) and as the sovereign controller of nature (Pss 18:7; 19:1-6; 65:8-13; 105:26-42; 135:5-7). The psalmists never tired of celebrating God’s absolute greatness.<\/p>\n<h5>The Human Perspective<\/h5>\n<p>The Psalter is a God-centered book, but humanity has a worthy place, in spite of the vast gulf between them and their Creator (Pss 8:3-4; 145:3-4) and the limitations of their earthly life (Ps 90:9-10). By the will of God, humans occupy a responsible, mediating position between God and all other created beings (Ps 8:5-8). The relationship with a righteous God is endangered by sin (Ps 106), but God is gracious and long-suffering (Ps 103), faithful and forgiving (Ps 130). While references to the sacrificial system are not lacking (Pss 20:3; 50:8-9), the emphasis is upon a personal piety that demands obedience and a surrendered heart (Ps 40:6-8). Psalm 51 indicates a depth of sin with which the sacrificial system was totally inadequate to cope; the psalmist could only cast himself, in total penitence, upon God’s mercy. Man’s moral obligations (Pss 15; 24:3-5) and loyalty to the law (Pss 19:7-11; 119) are fully accepted. Throughout, there is the revelation of a strong personal relationship that encourages prayer and praise and invites trust.<\/p>\n<h5>The Afterlife<\/h5>\n<p>The Psalms maintain the traditional Hebrew view of Sheol as the abode of the departed, without distinction between the good and evil, where all but mere existence has perished. The chief complaint of the devout man was that, in Sheol, all meaningful relationship with God ceased (Pss 6:5; 88:10-12). However, it was recognized that, since God was almighty, even Sheol was not exempt from his reach (Ps 139:8). Added to this was the preciousness and strength of fellowship with God, which could not be terminated even by death. Psalms 16:9-11, 49:15, and 73:23-26 well illustrate this insight. The Psalter, therefore, witnesses to an important transitional phase in Israel’s belief.<\/p>\n<h5>Universal Recognition of God<\/h5>\n<p>Passages like Psalms 9:11; 47:1-2, 7-9; 66:8; 67; and 117:1 call upon all nations to acknowledge and praise God and show an awareness of his sovereignty over all nations. But this universalism does not appear to involve any desire to convert the heathen nations and, indeed, it is balanced by strong particularistic elements. God’s covenant relationship with his people and his mighty deeds on their behalf are the chief items for which the praise of all nations is summoned (Pss 47:3-4; 66:8-9; 126:2). As elsewhere in the OT, the role of Israel is passive; her continued existence witnesses to God’s faithfulness and brings glory to him.<\/p>\n<h5>Lasting Value<\/h5>\n<p>Whatever the emotion of the psalmists, be it bitter complaint, anguished lament, or joyous exultation, all the psalms reflect one or other of the many aspects of communion with God. The reader may look “into the heart of all the saints” (so said Luther) as they faced life’s experiences in the awareness of a God who was all-seeing, all-knowing, and all-powerful. The strength of that personal relationship with God that typified OT worship at its best is exemplified here, and the many echoes of the psalms elsewhere in Israel’s literature show the powerful influence of these testimonies on the faithful. The fact that, almost invariably, little specific detail is given of the psalmists’ actual conditions has made it easier for the Psalter to become the universal hymnbook and devotional treasury of God’s people, in both public and private worship, until and including the present day. Modern life, materially, is vastly different from that of ancient Israel, but God remains unchanged and so do the basic needs of the human heart. The Holy Spirit, therefore, can still use this spiritual treasury as a means of revelation and communication between God and man. Few books in the Bible have exercised so profound an influence or been so widely used.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Introduction<\/h5>\n<p>It is more helpful to describe the psalms in categories than to explain them one by one in canonical order. The psalms can be categorized as follows:<\/p>\n<p>Psalms of praise<\/p>\n<p>Royal, messianic psalms<\/p>\n<p>Passion psalms<\/p>\n<p>Psalms about Zion<\/p>\n<p>Laments<\/p>\n<p>Imprecatory psalms<\/p>\n<p>Penitential psalms<\/p>\n<p>Wisdom psalms and historical psalms<\/p>\n<p>Psalms of trust<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms of Praise<\/h5>\n<p>The Hebrew title, “Praises,” defines accurately a large part of the contents of the book. Each of the first four sections concludes with a doxology, while the fifth section concludes with five psalms, each of which begins and ends with one or two “Hallelujahs.” The last of these, Psalm 150, sounds the call to total praise. God is to be praised for his being, for his great acts in creation, nature, and history on both the individual and the communal level.<\/p>\n<p>1. Individual praise. In comparison with the number of individual laments, there are relatively few psalms in this category. Those normally included are Psalms 9, 18, 32, 34, 116, and 138. This may, in part, be due to the universal tendency to complain rather than to express thanks. But a number of the laments do, in fact, include the note of thanksgiving for the anticipated deliverance, and the normal round of congregational thanksgiving would allow the individual to express his personal praise. However, it was customary in temple worship to give a verbal act of thanksgiving before the whole assembly whenever a vow offering or a thank offering was made. Such public testimony, and the communal meal associated with this type of sacrifice, is indicated in Psalms 22:22-26; 66:13-20; 116:17-19. The inclusion of such opportunities for personal praise and testimony must have added warmth and significance to worship. Each act of deliverance and every experience of God’s mercy became part of salvation history, which was a cumulative, ongoing concept, not simply a recital of God’s deeds in earlier centuries.<\/p>\n<li>2. General communal praise. This is sometimes entitled “hymns” or “descriptive praise,” its main feature being linked to a particular act of deliverance. God is usually referred to in the third person, not directly. Psalm 103 may be taken as representative of this group. It begins and ends with individual references (vv 1-5, 22b), but the central section (esp. vv 6-14) shows that the psalmist was part of a worshiping community. There is first of all the imperative call to praise God for the full range of his mercy to each individual, including physical and spiritual deliverance and his sustaining and satisfying grace. Then the focus changes to his great works in history (vv 6-7). This forms a natural basis for the recital of those gracious qualities revealed so consistently during the course of the national history, especially his tender, fatherly care (vv 8-14). The frailty of humanity contrasts with God’s constancy (vv 15-18), and his rule, being universal and absolute (v 19), merits the praise of all things, living and inanimate, in heaven and on earth (vv 19-22). There is, however, a great number of possible variations in the way in which God is celebrated, as Psalms 113 and 136, which come within this class, illustrate.<\/li>\n<li>3. Specific communal praise. Occasionally termed “declarative praise,” this type of psalm connects with a particular outstanding evidence of God’s mercy and would most naturally follow soon after the event itself. Deliverance from an enemy provides the occasion for most of the psalms in this category (e.g., Pss 124, 129). Psalm 66:8-12, now the nucleus of an expanded recital of God’s goodness, was possibly once complete in itself. Psalms 46–48 may form a trilogy connected with the remarkable deliverance of Jerusalem from Sennacherib’s Assyrians in 701 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 18:17–19:37). Psalm 67 was probably composed in gratitude for a particular harvest. It is easy to see how psalms of this type could, in the process of time, acquire a more general usage.<\/li>\n<li>4. Praise for the God of nature. The first part of Psalm 19 pictures the praise of God sounding from the heavens; Psalm 29 celebrates him as the God of the thunderstorm, which, sweeping in from the Mediterranean near Lebanon, pursues its awe-inspiring path southward into the wilderness of Kadesh, with the result that “in his temple” (the created world?) all are praising, “Glory, glory to the <span>Lord<\/span>” (v 9). His sovereignty and self-sufficiency in this world are celebrated in Psalm 50:10-12; he is the God of growth and harvest (Ps 65:9-13); in Psalm 104, often called the “Hymn of Creation,” he sustains and supplies everything on the earth and in the seas and is the absolute Lord of all life (vv 29-30). There is no confusion between God and his creation; even the seemingly permanent heaven and earth will perish, but “you go on forever” (Ps 102:25-27). Nature’s role is to proclaim the glory of God (Ps 19:1) and to praise him (Ps 148). People see themselves as insignificant when set against those forces of nature, which are themselves dwarfed by God—hence, the awareness of the immeasurable gulf between God and people that God has bridged by his grace (Ps 8).<\/li>\n<li>5. Praise for God’s kingship. A relatively small group of psalms (Pss 47, 93, 96–99) celebrate the kingship of God in a way that goes beyond the ascription of praise noted in the foregoing groups. They are marked by acclamation, by both shouting and clapping when God “ascends.” Presumably, the reference is to his throne (Ps 47:1-5; cf. 99:1-2). “The <span>Lord<\/span> reigns” (Pss 93:1; 97:1; 99:1) is the frequent cry, and the nature of his reign is extolled (Ps 99:4-5).<\/li>\n<h5>Royal, Messianic Psalms<\/h5>\n<p>Psalms 2, 18, 20, 21, 45, 61, 72, 89, 101, 110, 132, and 144 are usually included as the royal psalms. They do not form a literary category, since psalms of various types are included, but they all have some reference to the king, the nature of his rule, and his relationship to God. Since the Davidic monarchy was terminated in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, these psalms, almost certainly, were composed before that date. The language in these psalms often shows the king as being God’s vice-regent. For example, Psalm 45, a royal marriage psalm, contains the assertion “Your throne, O God, endures for ever and ever” (45:6). But this is best understood in terms of the throne being regarded as the Lord’s, occupied by the king as his representative. Similarly, the wording in Psalm 110:1, “Sit at my right hand,” indicates the privileges and prerogatives that the king enjoys as God’s vice-regent. The balance of the OT evidence concerning the king shows that the monarchy in Israel was qualified by the nature of God’s covenantal relationship with his people; the king did not enjoy the absolutism claimed by most of the rulers of surrounding kingdoms.<\/p>\n<p>Most of the royal psalms can also be called messianic psalms. They were interpreted as such in the early Christian church, as witnessed in Jesus Christ’s general statement that the psalmists wrote of him (Lk 24:44) and by particular NT quotations. The main psalms concerned, and the NT references, are the following:<\/p>\n<p>1. Psalm 2 (Acts 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), while linked with the Davidic king, nevertheless speaks of a universal vindication and rule, which far transcended even David’s rule. Further, the picture of the Davidic king, anointed to rule on the earth as the representative of God, who is enthroned in heaven, strongly suggests Christ’s mediating, incarnate ministry.<\/p>\n<li>2. Psalm 45 (Heb 1:8-9), a marriage psalm for one of the Davidic kings, possibly Solomon, speaks not only of love and marriage but also a permanence and quality of rule. In the most obvious translation of verse 6, the writer addresses God, “Your divine throne endures for ever and ever.” The writer to the Hebrews clearly accepted this interpretation (Heb 1:8-9) and used it in contrast to the exalted status of even the angels, reinforcing it with two other quotations from the psalms that originally applied to God (Ps 97:7; 102:25-27; cf. Heb 1:6, 10-12).<\/li>\n<li>3. Psalm 110 is the most frequently quoted messianic psalm (Mt 22:43-45; Acts 2:34-35; Heb 1:13; 5:5-10; 6:20; 7:21). The language, speaking of the privileges, universal victory and continuing priesthood of David and his successors, would be considered hyperbolic and possibly misleading except for its fulfillment in “great David’s greater Son.” In contrast to the angels, who are privileged to stand in God’s presence (Lk 1:19), Christ the Son sits in the place of power and authority (Heb 1:13).<\/li>\n<p>Other psalms that could also be designated messianic but are not specifically included among the royal psalms are Psalm 8 (1 Cor 15:27); Psalm 40 (Heb 10:5-10); Psalm 72, with its idealized picture of the nature, consequences, and extent of the rule of God’s representative; Psalm 118:22-23; and Psalm 132 (Acts 2:30).<\/p>\n\n<h5>Passion Psalms<\/h5>\n<p>The four psalms in this group (Pss 16; 22; 40; 69; some scholars would also include Pss 102; 109) may also be regarded as messianic. They connect with that line of OT prophecy that interprets the Messiah’s ministry in terms of the Suffering Servant who features prominently in Isaiah (e.g., Is 42:1-9; 52:13–53:12). Of these four, Psalm 22 is the most remarkable. Jesus recited part of it when he was on the cross (Ps 22:1; cf. Mt 27:46), and other connections with the crucifixion scene are noteworthy (e.g., Ps 22:6-8, 14-18). Some further considerations are even more significant: there is no suggestion of any awareness of sin; the suffering of the psalmist appears completely unjustified; there is no imprecatory element, even in the face of bitter persecution. This connects with the sinless Christ (2 Cor 5:21), who could even pray for his executioners (Lk 23:34). Psalm 16:10 anticipates the triumph of the incorruptible Christ over the grave (cf. Acts 2:24-31). Psalm 40:6-8 foreshadows the Incarnation and self-giving redemptive work of Christ (Heb 10:5-10). Psalm 69 refers to the isolation resulting from a commitment to God’s cause (Ps 69:8-9) and anticipates the part played by Judas in what was fundamentally God’s work in Christ (Ps 69:25-26; cf. Ps 109:8; Is 53:10; Acts 1:20).<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms about Zion<\/h5>\n<p>This group could have been classified as a subsection of communal praise, but due to the close historical connection between God’s choice of the house of David and Jerusalem (Pss 78:68-72; 132:11-13), and their subsequent interrelated fortunes, we consider them at this point. There was a biting satire in the request of the Babylonians to the refugees of a shattered city to “Sing us one of the songs of Zion!” (Ps 137:3, <span>niv<\/span>), but it witnesses to the existence of such a collection. Praise of Zion was, in fact, almost synonymous with the praise of the Lord who dwelt there. Jerusalem’s continued survival, in spite of its difficulties, was ample demonstration of God’s enduring greatness (Ps 48:11-14) and peculiar affection for the city that housed his temple (Ps 87:1-3). Psalms 48, 76, 84, 87 and 122 are the main psalms in this category, but the theme itself appears widely throughout the psalms (e.g., 102:16; 125:1; 126:1-3; 133:3; 147:2). The basis of the NT concept of a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of the regenerate of all nations, finds its origin in this concept, especially in Psalm 87.<\/p>\n<h5>Laments<\/h5>\n<p>These are associated with specific occasions of distress and are of two types:<\/p>\n<p>1. National. The prophetic and historical books give several examples of the kind of occasion, such as drought, locust infestation, or enemy attack, that could prompt national laments, and also the inward and outward attitudes that accompanied them (e.g., Jgs 20:23, 26; Jer 14:1-12; 36:9; Jl 1:13-14; 2:12-17; Jon 3:5). There is a regular structure in the psalms of this class: the distressing situation is first described; God is petitioned to come to the aid of his people, often with the reminder of his past mercies for Israel; finally, there is often an expression of confidence that God would heed their cry. Israel’s adversaries are clearly in mind in Psalms 14, 44, 60, 74, 80, and 83, while Psalms 58, 106, and 125 reflect situations less critical.<\/p>\n<li>2. Individual. There are so many of this type (approximately 50) that it is frequently described as the backbone of the Psalter. Their most obvious features are the sharpness of complaint and the bitterness of attack upon those responsible. As in the national laments, there is often complaint against God, especially for his lack of attention or his tardiness in intervening. The basic components of this type are almost identical to the national laments, except that they often conclude with the avowal to praise God in anticipation of deliverance (e.g., Ps 13:5-6). Frequently, the lament is accompanied by thanksgiving for the deliverance sought and experienced, as illustrated in the two sections of Psalms 22:1-21 and 28:1-9.<\/li>\n<h5>Imprecatory Psalms<\/h5>\n<p>Approximately 20 psalms contain passionate pleas for the overthrow of the wicked, in language that is often shocking. Any instant condemnation of this attitude must, however, be tempered by certain relevant considerations:<\/p>\n<p>The cry for vengeance was not purely personal; it was firmly believed that God’s honor was at stake (e.g., Ps 109:21). In an age where there was a less developed view of an afterlife, it was axiomatic that rewards and punishments resulting from obedience or disobedience to God, must be observable within this lifetime. Whenever this was not apparent, it would seem that no righteous God existed, and the name of God was dishonored (e.g., Ps 74:10). This burning desire for the eradication of evil and evil men sprang from a consciousness of a moral God and virtually demanded the triumph of truth.<\/p>\n<p>The poetic language is also prone to hyperbole—a feature not confined to the psalms (e.g., Neh 4:4-5; Jer 20:14-18; Am 7:17). Such language is startling; indeed, part of its function was probably to startle—to express and promote a sense of outrage.<\/p>\n<p>In the pre-Christian period, therefore, such outbursts were not completely unjustifiable. But in the light of the fuller revelation in the NT, such an attitude cannot be condoned. The Christian is to love as Christ loved (Jn 13:34), to pray for his enemies and to forgive them (Mt 5:38-48; Col 3:13). The theme of judgment continues into the NT and is indeed heightened there, since Christ’s coming has left people without excuse to live in sin (Jn 16:8-11), but there can be no place for purely private vengeance.<\/p>\n<h5>Penitential Psalms<\/h5>\n<p>Psalms 32, 38, 51, and 130 are the clearest examples of penitential psalms, although traditionally the church has also included Psalms 6, 102, 143, where there is no explicit confession of sin. In an age when adversity in its various forms was seen as God’s judgment for wrongdoing, the admission of distress was tantamount to a confession of guilt. In the four main examples there is an intensity of feeling and a deep sense of the enormity of sin in God’s sight, although, as elsewhere, there is no indication of specific sin, even in Psalm 51, which is surely to be connected with David’s sin against Bathsheba (2 Sm 11–12). Significantly, David bypasses the sacrificial system, which was totally inefficacious in his case, casting himself entirely on the mercy of God (Ps 51:1, 16). The burden of unconfessed sin is clearly revealed in Psalm 32, and sin’s searing and corrupting effect in Psalm 38.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom Psalms and Historical Psalms<\/h5>\n<p>While it is accepted that prophets, priests, and wise men all functioned at the major sanctuaries, some overlap in their modes of expression is to be expected. Proverbial forms are not infrequently found in the psalms (Pss 37:5, 8, 16, 21-22; 111:10; 127:1-5). Psalm 1, probably an introduction to the whole Psalter, contrasts the diverging paths of the righteous and ungodly (cf. Ps 112), while Psalms 127 and 128 concentrate on the blessings given to the godly. Psalm 133 is written in praise of unity. The problem of explaining the sufferings of a righteous person and the apparent prosperity of evil people, dealt with in the Wisdom Literature in the book of Job and in the prophets also (e.g., Jer 12:1-4), is taken up in Psalms 37, 49, and 73.<\/p>\n<p>The historical psalms should be included in this category, since they underscore the lessons arising from the favored nation’s often bitter experience. It is apparent that Israel delighted in the recital of salvation history. The main psalms, and the periods covered are Psalm 78, from the exodus to the establishment of the Davidic monarchy (note the declared intention to teach in vv 1-4); Psalm 105, from Abraham to the conquest of Canaan; Psalm 106, from Egypt to the judges; and Psalm 136, from the Creation to the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms of Trust<\/h5>\n<p>While some of these may also be classified as laments, the dominant feature of this group is the serene trust in God revealed, which makes them particularly suitable for devotional use. Many of these psalms begin with an affirmation of gratitude to and affection for God. Psalms 23 and 27 are the outstanding examples of this type, which could also include Psalms 11, 16, 62, 116, 131, and 138.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Conclusion\">Conclusion<\/p>\n<p>The difficulties in any precise categorization of psalms are obvious; many do not neatly fall into one group—hence, the occasional overlap. What is clearly evident is a pulsating, vital devotional life that has found its clearest expression in the book of Psalms. To say that it expresses the worship and devotion of the ordinary person is a simplification; kings and priests, wise men and prophets all contributed to this remarkable collection. Yet there remains the truth that, in God’s sight, all people, regardless of human achievement or privilege, are “ordinary,” for all are sinners in need of God’s grace and goodness. So the worshiping community of ancient Israel, and the saints of every succeeding generation, in the vastness of their diversity, have found the expression of their own hearts’ condition, desires, and devotion in this unique treasury—the Psalms.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> David; Messiah; Music; Poetry, Biblical; Singers in the Temple; Tabernacle; Temple; Wisdom; Wisdom Literature.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PSALMS, Book of<\/h3>\n<p>Poems sung to musical accompaniment, originally the harp. The alternative title, the Psalter, refers to a collection of songs sung to harp accompaniment. The English title, therefore, broadly defines the form employed, whereas the Hebrew title of the book, “Praises,” or “Book of Praises,” suggests the content.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Authors<\/p>\n<p>• Date<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Structure<\/p>\n<p>• Canonicity<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theology<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Authors\">Authors<\/p>\n<h5>The Evidence of the Titles<\/h5>\n<p>The Hebrew Bible credits David with 73 psalms, compared with 84 in the Septuagint and 85 in the Latin Vulgate. Korah and Asaph, the leaders of the Levitical singing groups, are connected with 11 and 12 psalms, respectively (although Ps 43 is almost certainly to be attributed to Korah also). Two psalms are ascribed to Solomon (Pss 72; 127), one to Moses (Ps 90), and one to Ethan (Ps 89), while Heman shares the credit for one psalm with the sons of Korah (Ps 88). The remainder are sometimes called “orphan psalms” because of their anonymity.<\/p>\n<p>The preposition “of” found in the titles (for example, “A Psalm of David”) usually indicates authorship. But in the case of groups, such as the sons of Asaph or Korah, it may simply indicate that the psalms were included in their repertoire. Less plausible is the idea that it may also be rendered “for the use of.” For example, some of the “Psalms of David” might be “for the use of” the Davidic king on some occasion.<\/p>\n<h5>Historical Allusions in the Titles<\/h5>\n<p>Many of the titles refer to specific events in the life of David (e.g., Pss 3; 7; 18; 30; 34; 51). There is evidence that the titles were added at an early date. When the psalms were translated into Greek, there appears to have been some difficulty in translating the titles, possibly because of their antiquity. If the historical references were added at a late date, there is no reason why plausible backgrounds could not have been supplied for all the Davidic psalms, instead of only a few. Moreover, the apparent disparity between the title and the actual content of some psalms (e.g., Ps 30) indicates that the titles were supplied by those who knew about a connection unknown to a later editor. Admittedly, there are minor discrepancies between the titles and the references in the historical books. For example, in Psalm 34 David acts the madman before Abimelech, whereas in 1 Samuel it is before Achish. But probably Abimelech was the general name (like Pharaoh for the kings of Egypt) for all the Philistine kings (e.g., Gn 21:32; 26:26).<\/p>\n<p>Evidence of authorship and historical background in the titles, therefore, may be taken as a reasonably reliable guide. But the internal difficulties, together with the freedom exercised by successive translators into Greek, Syriac, and Latin, indicates that they were not regarded as inspired.<\/p>\n<h5>The Case for Davidic Authorship<\/h5>\n<p>Five points can be offered to support David’s authorship of several psalms:<\/p>\n<p>1. The authenticity of David’s lament over Saul and Jonathan (2 Sm 1:19-27) is generally accepted. This indicates a deeply poetic spirit and a generous temperament that prepares us to accept those psalms ascribed to David that evidence similar characteristics. “The last words of David” is another Davidic poem in the historical books (2 Sm 23:1-7).<\/p>\n<li>2. David had a reputation as a skillful musician at Saul’s court (1 Sm 16:16-18). Amos comments on his inventiveness as a musician (Am 6:5), while the Chronicler repeatedly stresses his contribution to the musical aspect of temple worship (e.g., 1 Chr 6:31; 16:7; Ezr 3:10). The Jewish historian Josephus said that David composed songs and hymns to God in varied meters. The probability is that David, as well as amassing materials and preparing the plans for Solomon’s temple, also gave attention to the temple worship. This is his place in Jewish tradition.<\/li>\n<li>3. The early monarchy, with a freshly secured independence, national prestige, and a new prosperity, would most likely be a time of artistic creativity. David was at the heart of this movement.<\/li>\n<li>4. There is a close correspondence between David’s life as described in the historical books and certain psalms, for example, his sin concerning Bathsheba and Uriah (2 Sm 11:2–12:25) and Psalm 51, as witnessed in the title. David’s lapses and genuine repentance, as well as the varied aspects of his career—shepherd, fugitive, warrior, and so on—find expression in many of the psalms attributed to him. The correspondence between the David of the psalms and the David of the historical books is close, especially in the display of strong faith in God.<\/li>\n<li>5. Although some scholars believe that when “David” is mentioned in the NT, it is simply a reference to the book of Psalms and not an ascription of authorship, a straightforward interpretation of the NT text strengthens the case for Davidic authorship. David is specifically named as the author of various psalms in Matthew 22:41-45; Acts 1:16; 2:25, 34; Romans 4:6; 11:9.<\/li>\n<p>In conclusion, there is strong support for the view that the substantial nucleus of the Psalter is Davidic. Moreover, it is probable that some of the anonymous psalms were the work of the “sweet psalmist of Israel” (2 Sm 23:1). Hebrews 4:7 refers one of these, Psalm 95, to David (see also Acts 4:25 and Ps 2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Date\">Date<\/p>\n<p>Once David’s authorship of several psalms is established, then it must follow that these psalms are dated during David’s life. Thus, most of the psalms formed the hymnbook of Israel in the period of the monarchy. Other psalms were written later. For example, Psalm 137 is clearly exilic, and Psalms 107:2-3 and 126:1 allude to the return from captivity. Psalms 44 and 79 are probably, but not conclusively, postexilic.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Psalms was probably the product of a considerable period of growth. The incidence of Davidic psalms in the first section indicates that it was completed early, possibly toward the end of David’s reign. The remainder of the process of compilation is difficult to reconstruct, but the fact that the titles, with their allusions to authors, events, and musical directions, become less frequent in the two final collections (Pss 90–150) lends support to the probability that the collections were combined chronologically in the sequence in which they are found today. Ezra is traditionally credited with the final grouping and editing of the psalms, a hypothesis that appears reasonable in light of his vital contribution to the systematic reshaping of the national religious life. In any case, the process was completed before the translation of the Psalter into Greek (the Septuagint) at the end of the third century <span>BC<\/span>, since the traditional order is found there. General, but not complete, support comes also from the evidence of the Dead Sea Scrolls. At some point minor dislocations occurred. Psalms 9 and 10 may have originally formed one psalm (as in the Septuagint), and there is a strong case for combining Psalms 42 and 43.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>As the book of Psalms lies before us, its connection with temple worship is apparent. Fifty-five psalms are addressed to the choirmaster, and as we have noted, 23 or 24 are linked with the two main guilds of Levitical singers, Asaph and Korah. The musical instruments, such as stringed instruments (Ps 55 title) and flutes (Ps 5 title) are noted. Probably other terms concern musical directions: <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Selah<\/span><em>,<\/em> which occurs 71 times, may indicate a pause or crescendo; <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Higgaion<\/span> (Ps 9:16) may recommend a meditative attitude. Seemingly obscure references like “The Hind of the Dawn” (Ps 22 title), “Lilies” (Pss 45 title; 80 title) and “The Dove on Far-off Terebinths” (Ps 56 title) may indicate the tunes to which the psalms were to be sung. The precise meaning of other terms, such as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shiggaion<\/span> (Ps 7 title) or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Alamoth<\/span> (conjecturally a choir of ladies, Ps 46 title), may also be in the realm of musical directions.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Structure\">Structure<\/p>\n<p>The Psalter, possibly in conscious imitation of the five books of Moses in the Law, is divided into five sections (Pss 1–41; 42–72; 73–89; 90–106; 107–150), separated by four doxologies (41:13; 72:18-19; 89:52; 106:48). While the editorial comment in Psalm 72:20 notes that the psalms of David were ended, Davidic psalms are found later in the book (Pss 86; 101; 103), suggesting that at least some of these sections circulated independently until their inclusion in the final collection. Such independence is further indicated by the duplications in the various sections (e.g., Pss 14 and 53; 40:13-17 and 70) and by the use of different names for God, who is usually referred to as “Lord” in the first collection and as “God” in the second.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Canonicity\">Canonicity<\/p>\n<p>In the various recensions of the third section of the Hebrew canon, the Writings or Holy Books, the book of Psalms is almost invariably placed first. It was clearly regarded as the most important book in this section, and in Luke 24:44, “Psalms” is synonymous with “Writings” as its title. While the canonicity of all the contents of the Writings was not finalized until the end of the first century <span>AD<\/span>, it is likely that the book of Psalms was accepted as inspired long before this, probably by 300 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>It must not be inferred that all the psalms had their origin in the cultic life of the community, but the sanctuary was the focal point of Israel’s worship for the greater part of the OT period. Prayer was possible elsewhere, but whenever practicable, it was customary for the worshiper to present his petitions at the main sanctuary. And thanksgiving in ancient Israel was almost invariably connected with a thank offering, vow offering, or freewill offering. The psalms could have been composed by individuals, like David, who had the requisite technical ability. And it must be appreciated that poetry, an unfamiliar medium to most Western civilizations, was the natural way for the ancient Easterner to express his emotions. Or the individual could have engaged a member of the Levitical guilds of musicians to frame either his supplication or his thanksgiving. Gradually, a comprehensive collection of psalms would be available for the use of individuals, the congregation, and even the entire nation in any conceivable situation. Once finalized, this collection served not only the subsequent needs of Israel but the devotional requirements of successive generations of Christians as well. Whatever the origin of an individual psalm, each has finally been incorporated in a cultic setting, and it may be assumed that the best of Israel’s psalmody has thus been preserved.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheology\">Purpose and Theology<\/p>\n<h5>The Doctrine of God<\/h5>\n<p>In both adversity and prosperity, the psalmists indicate a strong faith in God and a clear conception of his attributes. Understandably, anthropomorphisms (ascribing human characteristics to nonhuman things) abound, with references to God’s voice, words, ears, eyes, face, or hands and fingers. No exception needs to be taken to this. Anthropomorphisms of this kind are, in fact, widely used by present-day Christians. Their great value is that they make God real to the worshiper. How else could humans describe God, except in terms of their own understanding?<\/p>\n<p>The monotheism of the psalms emerges clearly in Psalms 115:3-8; 135:15-18; 139. God is viewed as the Creator (Pss 8:3; 89:11; 95:3-5), with references to the creation mythology of surrounding nations (e.g., Ps 89:10) serving merely as illustrations of his almighty creative power. He is proclaimed as the Lord of history (Pss 44, 78, 80, 81, 105, 106) and as the sovereign controller of nature (Pss 18:7; 19:1-6; 65:8-13; 105:26-42; 135:5-7). The psalmists never tired of celebrating God’s absolute greatness.<\/p>\n<h5>The Human Perspective<\/h5>\n<p>The Psalter is a God-centered book, but humanity has a worthy place, in spite of the vast gulf between them and their Creator (Pss 8:3-4; 145:3-4) and the limitations of their earthly life (Ps 90:9-10). By the will of God, humans occupy a responsible, mediating position between God and all other created beings (Ps 8:5-8). The relationship with a righteous God is endangered by sin (Ps 106), but God is gracious and long-suffering (Ps 103), faithful and forgiving (Ps 130). While references to the sacrificial system are not lacking (Pss 20:3; 50:8-9), the emphasis is upon a personal piety that demands obedience and a surrendered heart (Ps 40:6-8). Psalm 51 indicates a depth of sin with which the sacrificial system was totally inadequate to cope; the psalmist could only cast himself, in total penitence, upon God’s mercy. Man’s moral obligations (Pss 15; 24:3-5) and loyalty to the law (Pss 19:7-11; 119) are fully accepted. Throughout, there is the revelation of a strong personal relationship that encourages prayer and praise and invites trust.<\/p>\n<h5>The Afterlife<\/h5>\n<p>The Psalms maintain the traditional Hebrew view of Sheol as the abode of the departed, without distinction between the good and evil, where all but mere existence has perished. The chief complaint of the devout man was that, in Sheol, all meaningful relationship with God ceased (Pss 6:5; 88:10-12). However, it was recognized that, since God was almighty, even Sheol was not exempt from his reach (Ps 139:8). Added to this was the preciousness and strength of fellowship with God, which could not be terminated even by death. Psalms 16:9-11, 49:15, and 73:23-26 well illustrate this insight. The Psalter, therefore, witnesses to an important transitional phase in Israel’s belief.<\/p>\n<h5>Universal Recognition of God<\/h5>\n<p>Passages like Psalms 9:11; 47:1-2, 7-9; 66:8; 67; and 117:1 call upon all nations to acknowledge and praise God and show an awareness of his sovereignty over all nations. But this universalism does not appear to involve any desire to convert the heathen nations and, indeed, it is balanced by strong particularistic elements. God’s covenant relationship with his people and his mighty deeds on their behalf are the chief items for which the praise of all nations is summoned (Pss 47:3-4; 66:8-9; 126:2). As elsewhere in the OT, the role of Israel is passive; her continued existence witnesses to God’s faithfulness and brings glory to him.<\/p>\n<h5>Lasting Value<\/h5>\n<p>Whatever the emotion of the psalmists, be it bitter complaint, anguished lament, or joyous exultation, all the psalms reflect one or other of the many aspects of communion with God. The reader may look “into the heart of all the saints” (so said Luther) as they faced life’s experiences in the awareness of a God who was all-seeing, all-knowing, and all-powerful. The strength of that personal relationship with God that typified OT worship at its best is exemplified here, and the many echoes of the psalms elsewhere in Israel’s literature show the powerful influence of these testimonies on the faithful. The fact that, almost invariably, little specific detail is given of the psalmists’ actual conditions has made it easier for the Psalter to become the universal hymnbook and devotional treasury of God’s people, in both public and private worship, until and including the present day. Modern life, materially, is vastly different from that of ancient Israel, but God remains unchanged and so do the basic needs of the human heart. The Holy Spirit, therefore, can still use this spiritual treasury as a means of revelation and communication between God and man. Few books in the Bible have exercised so profound an influence or been so widely used.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Introduction<\/h5>\n<p>It is more helpful to describe the psalms in categories than to explain them one by one in canonical order. The psalms can be categorized as follows:<\/p>\n<p>Psalms of praise<\/p>\n<p>Royal, messianic psalms<\/p>\n<p>Passion psalms<\/p>\n<p>Psalms about Zion<\/p>\n<p>Laments<\/p>\n<p>Imprecatory psalms<\/p>\n<p>Penitential psalms<\/p>\n<p>Wisdom psalms and historical psalms<\/p>\n<p>Psalms of trust<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms of Praise<\/h5>\n<p>The Hebrew title, “Praises,” defines accurately a large part of the contents of the book. Each of the first four sections concludes with a doxology, while the fifth section concludes with five psalms, each of which begins and ends with one or two “Hallelujahs.” The last of these, Psalm 150, sounds the call to total praise. God is to be praised for his being, for his great acts in creation, nature, and history on both the individual and the communal level.<\/p>\n<p>1. Individual praise. In comparison with the number of individual laments, there are relatively few psalms in this category. Those normally included are Psalms 9, 18, 32, 34, 116, and 138. This may, in part, be due to the universal tendency to complain rather than to express thanks. But a number of the laments do, in fact, include the note of thanksgiving for the anticipated deliverance, and the normal round of congregational thanksgiving would allow the individual to express his personal praise. However, it was customary in temple worship to give a verbal act of thanksgiving before the whole assembly whenever a vow offering or a thank offering was made. Such public testimony, and the communal meal associated with this type of sacrifice, is indicated in Psalms 22:22-26; 66:13-20; 116:17-19. The inclusion of such opportunities for personal praise and testimony must have added warmth and significance to worship. Each act of deliverance and every experience of God’s mercy became part of salvation history, which was a cumulative, ongoing concept, not simply a recital of God’s deeds in earlier centuries.<\/p>\n<li>2. General communal praise. This is sometimes entitled “hymns” or “descriptive praise,” its main feature being linked to a particular act of deliverance. God is usually referred to in the third person, not directly. Psalm 103 may be taken as representative of this group. It begins and ends with individual references (vv 1-5, 22b), but the central section (esp. vv 6-14) shows that the psalmist was part of a worshiping community. There is first of all the imperative call to praise God for the full range of his mercy to each individual, including physical and spiritual deliverance and his sustaining and satisfying grace. Then the focus changes to his great works in history (vv 6-7). This forms a natural basis for the recital of those gracious qualities revealed so consistently during the course of the national history, especially his tender, fatherly care (vv 8-14). The frailty of humanity contrasts with God’s constancy (vv 15-18), and his rule, being universal and absolute (v 19), merits the praise of all things, living and inanimate, in heaven and on earth (vv 19-22). There is, however, a great number of possible variations in the way in which God is celebrated, as Psalms 113 and 136, which come within this class, illustrate.<\/li>\n<li>3. Specific communal praise. Occasionally termed “declarative praise,” this type of psalm connects with a particular outstanding evidence of God’s mercy and would most naturally follow soon after the event itself. Deliverance from an enemy provides the occasion for most of the psalms in this category (e.g., Pss 124, 129). Psalm 66:8-12, now the nucleus of an expanded recital of God’s goodness, was possibly once complete in itself. Psalms 46–48 may form a trilogy connected with the remarkable deliverance of Jerusalem from Sennacherib’s Assyrians in 701 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 18:17–19:37). Psalm 67 was probably composed in gratitude for a particular harvest. It is easy to see how psalms of this type could, in the process of time, acquire a more general usage.<\/li>\n<li>4. Praise for the God of nature. The first part of Psalm 19 pictures the praise of God sounding from the heavens; Psalm 29 celebrates him as the God of the thunderstorm, which, sweeping in from the Mediterranean near Lebanon, pursues its awe-inspiring path southward into the wilderness of Kadesh, with the result that “in his temple” (the created world?) all are praising, “Glory, glory to the <span>Lord<\/span>” (v 9). His sovereignty and self-sufficiency in this world are celebrated in Psalm 50:10-12; he is the God of growth and harvest (Ps 65:9-13); in Psalm 104, often called the “Hymn of Creation,” he sustains and supplies everything on the earth and in the seas and is the absolute Lord of all life (vv 29-30). There is no confusion between God and his creation; even the seemingly permanent heaven and earth will perish, but “you go on forever” (Ps 102:25-27). Nature’s role is to proclaim the glory of God (Ps 19:1) and to praise him (Ps 148). People see themselves as insignificant when set against those forces of nature, which are themselves dwarfed by God—hence, the awareness of the immeasurable gulf between God and people that God has bridged by his grace (Ps 8).<\/li>\n<li>5. Praise for God’s kingship. A relatively small group of psalms (Pss 47, 93, 96–99) celebrate the kingship of God in a way that goes beyond the ascription of praise noted in the foregoing groups. They are marked by acclamation, by both shouting and clapping when God “ascends.” Presumably, the reference is to his throne (Ps 47:1-5; cf. 99:1-2). “The <span>Lord<\/span> reigns” (Pss 93:1; 97:1; 99:1) is the frequent cry, and the nature of his reign is extolled (Ps 99:4-5).<\/li>\n<h5>Royal, Messianic Psalms<\/h5>\n<p>Psalms 2, 18, 20, 21, 45, 61, 72, 89, 101, 110, 132, and 144 are usually included as the royal psalms. They do not form a literary category, since psalms of various types are included, but they all have some reference to the king, the nature of his rule, and his relationship to God. Since the Davidic monarchy was terminated in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, these psalms, almost certainly, were composed before that date. The language in these psalms often shows the king as being God’s vice-regent. For example, Psalm 45, a royal marriage psalm, contains the assertion “Your throne, O God, endures for ever and ever” (45:6). But this is best understood in terms of the throne being regarded as the Lord’s, occupied by the king as his representative. Similarly, the wording in Psalm 110:1, “Sit at my right hand,” indicates the privileges and prerogatives that the king enjoys as God’s vice-regent. The balance of the OT evidence concerning the king shows that the monarchy in Israel was qualified by the nature of God’s covenantal relationship with his people; the king did not enjoy the absolutism claimed by most of the rulers of surrounding kingdoms.<\/p>\n<p>Most of the royal psalms can also be called messianic psalms. They were interpreted as such in the early Christian church, as witnessed in Jesus Christ’s general statement that the psalmists wrote of him (Lk 24:44) and by particular NT quotations. The main psalms concerned, and the NT references, are the following:<\/p>\n<p>1. Psalm 2 (Acts 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), while linked with the Davidic king, nevertheless speaks of a universal vindication and rule, which far transcended even David’s rule. Further, the picture of the Davidic king, anointed to rule on the earth as the representative of God, who is enthroned in heaven, strongly suggests Christ’s mediating, incarnate ministry.<\/p>\n<li>2. Psalm 45 (Heb 1:8-9), a marriage psalm for one of the Davidic kings, possibly Solomon, speaks not only of love and marriage but also a permanence and quality of rule. In the most obvious translation of verse 6, the writer addresses God, “Your divine throne endures for ever and ever.” The writer to the Hebrews clearly accepted this interpretation (Heb 1:8-9) and used it in contrast to the exalted status of even the angels, reinforcing it with two other quotations from the psalms that originally applied to God (Ps 97:7; 102:25-27; cf. Heb 1:6, 10-12).<\/li>\n<li>3. Psalm 110 is the most frequently quoted messianic psalm (Mt 22:43-45; Acts 2:34-35; Heb 1:13; 5:5-10; 6:20; 7:21). The language, speaking of the privileges, universal victory and continuing priesthood of David and his successors, would be considered hyperbolic and possibly misleading except for its fulfillment in “great David’s greater Son.” In contrast to the angels, who are privileged to stand in God’s presence (Lk 1:19), Christ the Son sits in the place of power and authority (Heb 1:13).<\/li>\n<p>Other psalms that could also be designated messianic but are not specifically included among the royal psalms are Psalm 8 (1 Cor 15:27); Psalm 40 (Heb 10:5-10); Psalm 72, with its idealized picture of the nature, consequences, and extent of the rule of God’s representative; Psalm 118:22-23; and Psalm 132 (Acts 2:30).<\/p>\n\n<h5>Passion Psalms<\/h5>\n<p>The four psalms in this group (Pss 16; 22; 40; 69; some scholars would also include Pss 102; 109) may also be regarded as messianic. They connect with that line of OT prophecy that interprets the Messiah’s ministry in terms of the Suffering Servant who features prominently in Isaiah (e.g., Is 42:1-9; 52:13–53:12). Of these four, Psalm 22 is the most remarkable. Jesus recited part of it when he was on the cross (Ps 22:1; cf. Mt 27:46), and other connections with the crucifixion scene are noteworthy (e.g., Ps 22:6-8, 14-18). Some further considerations are even more significant: there is no suggestion of any awareness of sin; the suffering of the psalmist appears completely unjustified; there is no imprecatory element, even in the face of bitter persecution. This connects with the sinless Christ (2 Cor 5:21), who could even pray for his executioners (Lk 23:34). Psalm 16:10 anticipates the triumph of the incorruptible Christ over the grave (cf. Acts 2:24-31). Psalm 40:6-8 foreshadows the Incarnation and self-giving redemptive work of Christ (Heb 10:5-10). Psalm 69 refers to the isolation resulting from a commitment to God’s cause (Ps 69:8-9) and anticipates the part played by Judas in what was fundamentally God’s work in Christ (Ps 69:25-26; cf. Ps 109:8; Is 53:10; Acts 1:20).<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms about Zion<\/h5>\n<p>This group could have been classified as a subsection of communal praise, but due to the close historical connection between God’s choice of the house of David and Jerusalem (Pss 78:68-72; 132:11-13), and their subsequent interrelated fortunes, we consider them at this point. There was a biting satire in the request of the Babylonians to the refugees of a shattered city to “Sing us one of the songs of Zion!” (Ps 137:3, <span>niv<\/span>), but it witnesses to the existence of such a collection. Praise of Zion was, in fact, almost synonymous with the praise of the Lord who dwelt there. Jerusalem’s continued survival, in spite of its difficulties, was ample demonstration of God’s enduring greatness (Ps 48:11-14) and peculiar affection for the city that housed his temple (Ps 87:1-3). Psalms 48, 76, 84, 87 and 122 are the main psalms in this category, but the theme itself appears widely throughout the psalms (e.g., 102:16; 125:1; 126:1-3; 133:3; 147:2). The basis of the NT concept of a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of the regenerate of all nations, finds its origin in this concept, especially in Psalm 87.<\/p>\n<h5>Laments<\/h5>\n<p>These are associated with specific occasions of distress and are of two types:<\/p>\n<p>1. National. The prophetic and historical books give several examples of the kind of occasion, such as drought, locust infestation, or enemy attack, that could prompt national laments, and also the inward and outward attitudes that accompanied them (e.g., Jgs 20:23, 26; Jer 14:1-12; 36:9; Jl 1:13-14; 2:12-17; Jon 3:5). There is a regular structure in the psalms of this class: the distressing situation is first described; God is petitioned to come to the aid of his people, often with the reminder of his past mercies for Israel; finally, there is often an expression of confidence that God would heed their cry. Israel’s adversaries are clearly in mind in Psalms 14, 44, 60, 74, 80, and 83, while Psalms 58, 106, and 125 reflect situations less critical.<\/p>\n<li>2. Individual. There are so many of this type (approximately 50) that it is frequently described as the backbone of the Psalter. Their most obvious features are the sharpness of complaint and the bitterness of attack upon those responsible. As in the national laments, there is often complaint against God, especially for his lack of attention or his tardiness in intervening. The basic components of this type are almost identical to the national laments, except that they often conclude with the avowal to praise God in anticipation of deliverance (e.g., Ps 13:5-6). Frequently, the lament is accompanied by thanksgiving for the deliverance sought and experienced, as illustrated in the two sections of Psalms 22:1-21 and 28:1-9.<\/li>\n<h5>Imprecatory Psalms<\/h5>\n<p>Approximately 20 psalms contain passionate pleas for the overthrow of the wicked, in language that is often shocking. Any instant condemnation of this attitude must, however, be tempered by certain relevant considerations:<\/p>\n<p>The cry for vengeance was not purely personal; it was firmly believed that God’s honor was at stake (e.g., Ps 109:21). In an age where there was a less developed view of an afterlife, it was axiomatic that rewards and punishments resulting from obedience or disobedience to God, must be observable within this lifetime. Whenever this was not apparent, it would seem that no righteous God existed, and the name of God was dishonored (e.g., Ps 74:10). This burning desire for the eradication of evil and evil men sprang from a consciousness of a moral God and virtually demanded the triumph of truth.<\/p>\n<p>The poetic language is also prone to hyperbole—a feature not confined to the psalms (e.g., Neh 4:4-5; Jer 20:14-18; Am 7:17). Such language is startling; indeed, part of its function was probably to startle—to express and promote a sense of outrage.<\/p>\n<p>In the pre-Christian period, therefore, such outbursts were not completely unjustifiable. But in the light of the fuller revelation in the NT, such an attitude cannot be condoned. The Christian is to love as Christ loved (Jn 13:34), to pray for his enemies and to forgive them (Mt 5:38-48; Col 3:13). The theme of judgment continues into the NT and is indeed heightened there, since Christ’s coming has left people without excuse to live in sin (Jn 16:8-11), but there can be no place for purely private vengeance.<\/p>\n<h5>Penitential Psalms<\/h5>\n<p>Psalms 32, 38, 51, and 130 are the clearest examples of penitential psalms, although traditionally the church has also included Psalms 6, 102, 143, where there is no explicit confession of sin. In an age when adversity in its various forms was seen as God’s judgment for wrongdoing, the admission of distress was tantamount to a confession of guilt. In the four main examples there is an intensity of feeling and a deep sense of the enormity of sin in God’s sight, although, as elsewhere, there is no indication of specific sin, even in Psalm 51, which is surely to be connected with David’s sin against Bathsheba (2 Sm 11–12). Significantly, David bypasses the sacrificial system, which was totally inefficacious in his case, casting himself entirely on the mercy of God (Ps 51:1, 16). The burden of unconfessed sin is clearly revealed in Psalm 32, and sin’s searing and corrupting effect in Psalm 38.<\/p>\n<h5>Wisdom Psalms and Historical Psalms<\/h5>\n<p>While it is accepted that prophets, priests, and wise men all functioned at the major sanctuaries, some overlap in their modes of expression is to be expected. Proverbial forms are not infrequently found in the psalms (Pss 37:5, 8, 16, 21-22; 111:10; 127:1-5). Psalm 1, probably an introduction to the whole Psalter, contrasts the diverging paths of the righteous and ungodly (cf. Ps 112), while Psalms 127 and 128 concentrate on the blessings given to the godly. Psalm 133 is written in praise of unity. The problem of explaining the sufferings of a righteous person and the apparent prosperity of evil people, dealt with in the Wisdom Literature in the book of Job and in the prophets also (e.g., Jer 12:1-4), is taken up in Psalms 37, 49, and 73.<\/p>\n<p>The historical psalms should be included in this category, since they underscore the lessons arising from the favored nation’s often bitter experience. It is apparent that Israel delighted in the recital of salvation history. The main psalms, and the periods covered are Psalm 78, from the exodus to the establishment of the Davidic monarchy (note the declared intention to teach in vv 1-4); Psalm 105, from Abraham to the conquest of Canaan; Psalm 106, from Egypt to the judges; and Psalm 136, from the Creation to the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<h5>Psalms of Trust<\/h5>\n<p>While some of these may also be classified as laments, the dominant feature of this group is the serene trust in God revealed, which makes them particularly suitable for devotional use. Many of these psalms begin with an affirmation of gratitude to and affection for God. Psalms 23 and 27 are the outstanding examples of this type, which could also include Psalms 11, 16, 62, 116, 131, and 138.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Conclusion\">Conclusion<\/p>\n<p>The difficulties in any precise categorization of psalms are obvious; many do not neatly fall into one group—hence, the occasional overlap. What is clearly evident is a pulsating, vital devotional life that has found its clearest expression in the book of Psalms. To say that it expresses the worship and devotion of the ordinary person is a simplification; kings and priests, wise men and prophets all contributed to this remarkable collection. Yet there remains the truth that, in God’s sight, all people, regardless of human achievement or privilege, are “ordinary,” for all are sinners in need of God’s grace and goodness. So the worshiping community of ancient Israel, and the saints of every succeeding generation, in the vastness of their diversity, have found the expression of their own hearts’ condition, desires, and devotion in this unique treasury—the Psalms.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> David; Messiah; Music; Poetry, Biblical; Singers in the Temple; Tabernacle; Temple; Wisdom; Wisdom Literature.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PSALMS, Book of Poems sung to musical accompaniment, originally the harp. The alternative title, the Psalter, refers to a collection of songs sung to harp accompaniment. The English title, therefore, broadly defines the form employed, whereas the Hebrew title of the book, “Praises,” or “Book of Praises,” suggests the content. Preview • Authors • Date • Background • Structure • Canonicity • Purpose and Theology • Content Authors The Evidence of the Titles The Hebrew Bible credits David with 73...","summary_en":"PSALMS, Book of Poems sung to musical accompaniment, originally the harp. The alternative title, the Psalter, refers to a collection of songs sung to harp accompaniment. The English title, therefore, broadly defines the form employed, whereas the Hebrew title of the book, “Praises,” or “Book of Praises,” suggests the content. Preview • Authors • Date • Background • Structure • Canonicity • Purpose and Theology • Content Authors The Evidence of the Titles The Hebrew Bible credits David with 73...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"18":[{"id":4500,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bethlehem","title_en":"Bethlehem","content_ro":"<h3>BETHLEHEM<\/h3>\n<li>1. “City of David” and the birthplace of Jesus Christ, five miles (8 kilometers) south of Jerusalem. This city is sometimes called Bethlehem-judah (<span>kjv<\/span>) or Ephrath (Gn 35:19; Mi 5:2) to distinguish it from the Bethlehem of Zebulun.<\/li>\n<p>As an early Canaanite settlement, it was associated with the patriarchs, for Rachel died and was buried in its vicinity (Gn 35:16, 19; 48:7). The earliest known historical reference to Bethlehem occurs in the Amarna texts (14th century <span>BC<\/span>) in which battle reports refer to <em>bitil u-lahama<\/em> south of Jerusalem. The name may have meant “house of (the goddess) Lahama.” A branch of Caleb’s family settled there, and Caleb’s son Salma was known as “the father of Bethlehem” (1 Chr 2:51). Bethlehem was the home of a young Levite who served as priest to Micah (Jgs 17:7-8), and of Boaz, Ruth, Obed, and Jesse, the Bethlehemite, David’s father (Ru 4:11, 17; 1 Sm 16:18).<\/p>\n<p>Bethlehem was the birthplace of David (1 Sm 17:12) and the home of one of David’s mighty men, Elhanan (2 Sm 23:24; 1 Chr 11:26). It was the scene of a daring exploit by three of David’s warriors; they broke through the cordon of Philistine marauders occupying Bethlehem to bring David water from the well (or cistern) near the city gate of his hometown (2 Sm 23:14-17). Much later, Bethlehem is mentioned as being adjacent to the village of Geruth-kimham, where Jews fleeing from the Babylonians stayed en route to Egypt (Jer 41:17). People from Bethlehem were among those returning from the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:21; Neh 7:26; 1 Esd 5:17).<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus was born there, Bethlehem was only a village (Mt 2:1-16; Lk 2:4-6, 15; Jn 7:42). Under the census decree of Caesar Augustus, Joseph had to go to Bethlehem “because he was of the house and lineage of David” (Lk 2:4). The family may still have had property there. The birth of Jesus possibly took place in a cave in the rocks outside the town. The early Christian writer Justin Martyr thought so, as did Origen some years later. Origen frequently resided in the Holy Land and wrote, “In Bethlehem you are shown the cave where he was born, and within the cave the manger where he was wrapped in swaddling clothes.”<\/p>\n<p>Jerome later described the grotto over which the Emperor Constantine had built a basilica. In excavations in 1934–35, evidence indicated a second period of building in the reign of Justinian (<span>AD<\/span> 527–565), when Constantine’s basilica was extended beyond its original proportions. Steps lead down to the grotto, the rectangular shape of which suggests that Constantine’s builders reshaped the original. But there is no description of the grotto prior to the construction of Constantine’s basilica.<\/p>\n<li>2. Town in Zebulun (Jos 19:15), probably the home of the judge Ibzan (Jgs 12:8-10), an early ruler of Israel. It is identified today with the village of Beit Lahm, some seven miles (11.3 kilometers) northwest of Nazareth.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>BETHLEHEM<\/h3>\n<li>1. “City of David” and the birthplace of Jesus Christ, five miles (8 kilometers) south of Jerusalem. This city is sometimes called Bethlehem-judah (<span>kjv<\/span>) or Ephrath (Gn 35:19; Mi 5:2) to distinguish it from the Bethlehem of Zebulun.<\/li>\n<p>As an early Canaanite settlement, it was associated with the patriarchs, for Rachel died and was buried in its vicinity (Gn 35:16, 19; 48:7). The earliest known historical reference to Bethlehem occurs in the Amarna texts (14th century <span>BC<\/span>) in which battle reports refer to <em>bitil u-lahama<\/em> south of Jerusalem. The name may have meant “house of (the goddess) Lahama.” A branch of Caleb’s family settled there, and Caleb’s son Salma was known as “the father of Bethlehem” (1 Chr 2:51). Bethlehem was the home of a young Levite who served as priest to Micah (Jgs 17:7-8), and of Boaz, Ruth, Obed, and Jesse, the Bethlehemite, David’s father (Ru 4:11, 17; 1 Sm 16:18).<\/p>\n<p>Bethlehem was the birthplace of David (1 Sm 17:12) and the home of one of David’s mighty men, Elhanan (2 Sm 23:24; 1 Chr 11:26). It was the scene of a daring exploit by three of David’s warriors; they broke through the cordon of Philistine marauders occupying Bethlehem to bring David water from the well (or cistern) near the city gate of his hometown (2 Sm 23:14-17). Much later, Bethlehem is mentioned as being adjacent to the village of Geruth-kimham, where Jews fleeing from the Babylonians stayed en route to Egypt (Jer 41:17). People from Bethlehem were among those returning from the Babylonian exile (Ezr 2:21; Neh 7:26; 1 Esd 5:17).<\/p>\n<p>When Jesus was born there, Bethlehem was only a village (Mt 2:1-16; Lk 2:4-6, 15; Jn 7:42). Under the census decree of Caesar Augustus, Joseph had to go to Bethlehem “because he was of the house and lineage of David” (Lk 2:4). The family may still have had property there. The birth of Jesus possibly took place in a cave in the rocks outside the town. The early Christian writer Justin Martyr thought so, as did Origen some years later. Origen frequently resided in the Holy Land and wrote, “In Bethlehem you are shown the cave where he was born, and within the cave the manger where he was wrapped in swaddling clothes.”<\/p>\n<p>Jerome later described the grotto over which the Emperor Constantine had built a basilica. In excavations in 1934–35, evidence indicated a second period of building in the reign of Justinian (<span>AD<\/span> 527–565), when Constantine’s basilica was extended beyond its original proportions. Steps lead down to the grotto, the rectangular shape of which suggests that Constantine’s builders reshaped the original. But there is no description of the grotto prior to the construction of Constantine’s basilica.<\/p>\n<li>2. Town in Zebulun (Jos 19:15), probably the home of the judge Ibzan (Jgs 12:8-10), an early ruler of Israel. It is identified today with the village of Beit Lahm, some seven miles (11.3 kilometers) northwest of Nazareth.<\/li>","summary_ro":"BETHLEHEM 1. “City of David” and the birthplace of Jesus Christ, five miles (8 kilometers) south of Jerusalem. This city is sometimes called Bethlehem-judah (kjv) or Ephrath (Gn 35:19; Mi 5:2) to distinguish it from the Bethlehem of Zebulun. As an early Canaanite settlement, it was associated with the patriarchs, for Rachel died and was buried in its vicinity (Gn 35:16, 19; 48:7). The earliest known historical reference to Bethlehem occurs in the Amarna texts (14th century BC) in which battle...","summary_en":"BETHLEHEM 1. “City of David” and the birthplace of Jesus Christ, five miles (8 kilometers) south of Jerusalem. This city is sometimes called Bethlehem-judah (kjv) or Ephrath (Gn 35:19; Mi 5:2) to distinguish it from the Bethlehem of Zebulun. As an early Canaanite settlement, it was associated with the patriarchs, for Rachel died and was buried in its vicinity (Gn 35:16, 19; 48:7). The earliest known historical reference to Bethlehem occurs in the Amarna texts (14th century BC) in which battle...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":46278,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:18","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:18<\/strong> <em>harp:<\/em> The instrument was probably a lyre (as in 10:5). • <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> is with him:<\/em> People recognized that God’s Spirit was upon David (16:13).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:18<\/strong> <em>harp:<\/em> The instrument was probably a lyre (as in 10:5). • <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> is with him:<\/em> People recognized that God’s Spirit was upon David (16:13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:18 harp: The instrument was probably a lyre (as in 10:5). • the Lord is with him: People recognized that God’s Spirit was upon David (16:13).","summary_en":"16:18 harp: The instrument was probably a lyre (as in 10:5). • the Lord is with him: People recognized that God’s Spirit was upon David (16:13).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":73904,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:18","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:18<\/strong> <em>harp:<\/em> The instrument was probably a lyre (as in 10:5). • <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> is with him:<\/em> People recognized that God’s Spirit was upon David (16:13).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:18<\/strong> <em>harp:<\/em> The instrument was probably a lyre (as in 10:5). • <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> is with him:<\/em> People recognized that God’s Spirit was upon David (16:13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:18 harp: The instrument was probably a lyre (as in 10:5). • the Lord is with him: People recognized that God’s Spirit was upon David (16:13).","summary_en":"16:18 harp: The instrument was probably a lyre (as in 10:5). • the Lord is with him: People recognized that God’s Spirit was upon David (16:13).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101530,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:18","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:18<\/strong> <em>harp:<\/em> The instrument was probably a lyre (as in 10:5). • <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> is with him:<\/em> People recognized that God’s Spirit was upon David (16:13).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:18<\/strong> <em>harp:<\/em> The instrument was probably a lyre (as in 10:5). • <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> is with him:<\/em> People recognized that God’s Spirit was upon David (16:13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:18 harp: The instrument was probably a lyre (as in 10:5). • the Lord is with him: People recognized that God’s Spirit was upon David (16:13).","summary_en":"16:18 harp: The instrument was probably a lyre (as in 10:5). • the Lord is with him: People recognized that God’s Spirit was upon David (16:13).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":129156,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:18","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:18<\/strong> <em>harp:<\/em> The instrument was probably a lyre (as in 10:5). • <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> is with him:<\/em> People recognized that God’s Spirit was upon David (16:13).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:18<\/strong> <em>harp:<\/em> The instrument was probably a lyre (as in 10:5). • <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> is with him:<\/em> People recognized that God’s Spirit was upon David (16:13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:18 harp: The instrument was probably a lyre (as in 10:5). • the Lord is with him: People recognized that God’s Spirit was upon David (16:13).","summary_en":"16:18 harp: The instrument was probably a lyre (as in 10:5). • the Lord is with him: People recognized that God’s Spirit was upon David (16:13).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"19":[{"id":19376,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jesse (Person)","title_en":"Jesse (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>JESSE (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Son of Obed and grandson of Ruth and Boaz (Ru 4:17, 22). Jesse was a shepherd from Bethlehem. He had eight sons, of whom David was the youngest. He had at least two daughters, Zeruiah and Abigail, who became mothers of famous warriors.<\/p>\n<p>When Samuel went to Jesse’s home to search for and anoint a king, Jesse did not at first feel it worthwhile to call David for examination (1 Sm 16:11). Later he sent David to play the lyre for Saul (vv 19-21). After David became a fugitive from Saul, Jesse and others of the family came to David in the cave of Adullam. David then brought his father and mother to Mizpah in Moab (22:3). Nothing further is heard of Jesse.<\/p>\n<p>After Saul broke with David, he commonly spoke of David derisively as a “son of Jesse” to underscore his humble origins (1 Sm 20:31; 22:7). This same emphasis on Jesse’s modest station in life is found in such messianic references as Isaiah 11:1 and 10, which speak of the “shoot from the stump of Jesse” and “the root of Jesse” (<span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> David; Jesse, Root of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JESSE (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<p>Son of Obed and grandson of Ruth and Boaz (Ru 4:17, 22). Jesse was a shepherd from Bethlehem. He had eight sons, of whom David was the youngest. He had at least two daughters, Zeruiah and Abigail, who became mothers of famous warriors.<\/p>\n<p>When Samuel went to Jesse’s home to search for and anoint a king, Jesse did not at first feel it worthwhile to call David for examination (1 Sm 16:11). Later he sent David to play the lyre for Saul (vv 19-21). After David became a fugitive from Saul, Jesse and others of the family came to David in the cave of Adullam. David then brought his father and mother to Mizpah in Moab (22:3). Nothing further is heard of Jesse.<\/p>\n<p>After Saul broke with David, he commonly spoke of David derisively as a “son of Jesse” to underscore his humble origins (1 Sm 20:31; 22:7). This same emphasis on Jesse’s modest station in life is found in such messianic references as Isaiah 11:1 and 10, which speak of the “shoot from the stump of Jesse” and “the root of Jesse” (<span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> David; Jesse, Root of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JESSE (Person) Son of Obed and grandson of Ruth and Boaz (Ru 4:17, 22). Jesse was a shepherd from Bethlehem. He had eight sons, of whom David was the youngest. He had at least two daughters, Zeruiah and Abigail, who became mothers of famous warriors. When Samuel went to Jesse’s home to search for and anoint a king, Jesse did not at first feel it worthwhile to call David for examination (1 Sm 16:11). Later he sent David to play the lyre for Saul (vv 19-21). After David became a fugitive from S...","summary_en":"JESSE (Person) Son of Obed and grandson of Ruth and Boaz (Ru 4:17, 22). Jesse was a shepherd from Bethlehem. He had eight sons, of whom David was the youngest. He had at least two daughters, Zeruiah and Abigail, who became mothers of famous warriors. When Samuel went to Jesse’s home to search for and anoint a king, Jesse did not at first feel it worthwhile to call David for examination (1 Sm 16:11). Later he sent David to play the lyre for Saul (vv 19-21). After David became a fugitive from S...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":25350,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Messenger","title_en":"Messenger","content_ro":"<h3>MESSENGER<\/h3>\n<p>One who carries a message, a herald. The word “messenger” is used in the Bible in four ways.<\/p>\n<li>1. The word is used of messengers carrying messages from one person to another. Such messengers might bring news (2 Sm 11:22), requests or demands (1 Sm 11:3; 16:19), or act as envoys of one nation to another (Is 37:9). In the NT we read of messengers of the churches (2 Cor 8:23; Phil 2:25). The blessing of a good messenger is spoken of in Proverbs 25:13: “Faithful messengers are as refreshing as snow in the heat of summer. They revive the spirit of their employer” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/li>\n<li>2. The word is used of messengers bringing messages from God. Israel was intended to be God’s messenger but often showed herself blind and deaf (Is 42:19). Prophets (Hg 1:13) and priests (Mal 2:7) were God’s messengers. God sent many such messengers to his people, even though they were often unheeded (2 Chr 36:15-16). In Malachi 3:1 we have the prophecy of a special messenger, “Look! I am sending my messenger, and he will prepare the way before me. Then the Lord you are seeking will suddenly come to his Temple. The messenger of the covenant, whom you look for so eagerly, is surely coming” (<span>nlt<\/span>). This verse is quoted in the NT in Matthew 11:10, Mark 1:2, and Luke 7:27 as fulfilled in John the Baptist.<\/li>\n<li>3. In both the OT and NT the most common word for “messenger” is also that for “angel.” God’s angels are distinctively his messengers. <em>See<\/em> Angel.<\/li>\n<li>4. The word is used in a metaphorical sense, as in Proverbs 16:14, “The wrath of a king is as messengers of death” (<span>kjv<\/span>), and in 2 Corinthians 12:7, where Paul’s constant physical ailment is called “a messenger from Satan to torment” him.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>MESSENGER<\/h3>\n<p>One who carries a message, a herald. The word “messenger” is used in the Bible in four ways.<\/p>\n<li>1. The word is used of messengers carrying messages from one person to another. Such messengers might bring news (2 Sm 11:22), requests or demands (1 Sm 11:3; 16:19), or act as envoys of one nation to another (Is 37:9). In the NT we read of messengers of the churches (2 Cor 8:23; Phil 2:25). The blessing of a good messenger is spoken of in Proverbs 25:13: “Faithful messengers are as refreshing as snow in the heat of summer. They revive the spirit of their employer” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/li>\n<li>2. The word is used of messengers bringing messages from God. Israel was intended to be God’s messenger but often showed herself blind and deaf (Is 42:19). Prophets (Hg 1:13) and priests (Mal 2:7) were God’s messengers. God sent many such messengers to his people, even though they were often unheeded (2 Chr 36:15-16). In Malachi 3:1 we have the prophecy of a special messenger, “Look! I am sending my messenger, and he will prepare the way before me. Then the Lord you are seeking will suddenly come to his Temple. The messenger of the covenant, whom you look for so eagerly, is surely coming” (<span>nlt<\/span>). This verse is quoted in the NT in Matthew 11:10, Mark 1:2, and Luke 7:27 as fulfilled in John the Baptist.<\/li>\n<li>3. In both the OT and NT the most common word for “messenger” is also that for “angel.” God’s angels are distinctively his messengers. <em>See<\/em> Angel.<\/li>\n<li>4. The word is used in a metaphorical sense, as in Proverbs 16:14, “The wrath of a king is as messengers of death” (<span>kjv<\/span>), and in 2 Corinthians 12:7, where Paul’s constant physical ailment is called “a messenger from Satan to torment” him.<\/li>","summary_ro":"MESSENGER One who carries a message, a herald. The word “messenger” is used in the Bible in four ways. 1. The word is used of messengers carrying messages from one person to another. Such messengers might bring news (2 Sm 11:22), requests or demands (1 Sm 11:3; 16:19), or act as envoys of one nation to another (Is 37:9). In the NT we read of messengers of the churches (2 Cor 8:23; Phil 2:25). The blessing of a good messenger is spoken of in Proverbs 25:13: “Faithful messengers are as refreshi...","summary_en":"MESSENGER One who carries a message, a herald. The word “messenger” is used in the Bible in four ways. 1. The word is used of messengers carrying messages from one person to another. Such messengers might bring news (2 Sm 11:22), requests or demands (1 Sm 11:3; 16:19), or act as envoys of one nation to another (Is 37:9). In the NT we read of messengers of the churches (2 Cor 8:23; Phil 2:25). The blessing of a good messenger is spoken of in Proverbs 25:13: “Faithful messengers are as refreshi...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"20":[{"id":38436,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Wine","title_en":"Wine","content_ro":"<h3>WINE<\/h3>\n<p>Beverage made from fermented grape juice.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Origin\">Origin<\/p>\n<p>Noah was among the first to produce wine (Gn 9:21), presumably on the slopes of Mt Ararat. But wine making was not confined to that region, because Egypt, and later Greece, had a fondness for the juice. In fact, wine making was known to have existed in the prehistoric period of Mesopotamia and was brought to Egypt before 3000 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The word “wine” may be identified with words for vine, vineyard, and black grapes. The vine, which brings forth the wine, was often identified in the Near Eastern world with the “tree of life.” In both Egypt and Mesopotamia a goddess was thought to protect the vine. The “mistress of the heavenly tree of life,” the goddess Siris, lived in the mountains of northwestern Assyria. First Enoch 32:4 calls the vine the tree of knowledge. According to Jewish tradition, the vine was saved from the Flood by Noah.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProductionofWine\">Production of Wine<\/p>\n<p>Few ancient documents are extant on the art of wine making. Experience and the interests of a few early botanists appear to be the only source of knowledge available about the early vine growers. Aristotle’s gifted student Theophrastus of Eresos wrote a book entitled <em>Enquiry into Plants<\/em> showing a blend of practical experience and theory. Later, he followed with <em>On the Life of Plants,<\/em> a work giving detailed observations about wine making. His ideas on when to plant, how to prune, statements against grafting, and how to care for the vine demonstrate the Greek genius. They raised viticulture to a science that has changed little in the last 2200 years.<\/p>\n<p>Great care was taken by Greek vine growers to ensure the success of their crops. The vines were close to the ground instead of being propped. In view of this, mice and foxes were especially undesirable, and much hoeing was needed to keep the soil free of weeds. But their method, overall, was very effective.<\/p>\n<p>In early September the grapes were collected in the plains, and at the end of the month in the hills. With an initial festival of song and dance, the workers brought the bunches of grapes to the winepresses, low cement vats inclined toward one corner. After this, workers trod the grapes. The first <em>must<\/em> (juice from the crushing) was highly valued because it provided the choicest wines. The remaining juice was extracted by wringing the trodden grapes in a bag press usually made of cloth. A third class of wine was produced by mixing or even cooking the remaining grapes with some water and expressing the mixture. This type of wine was drunk only by the poor.<\/p>\n<p>At a later time the Greeks invented a beam press in which a long beam, having a turning portion at one end and heavy stones on the other, compressed layers of grapes. The ancient Near East had these different methods of extracting wine, but the treading of grapes, even in Greece, was always the favorite method.<\/p>\n<p>In Greece the fermentation period was usually six months, during which the liquid was constantly skimmed. However, in the ancient Near East the fermentation process was usually over in three or four days, the optimum growth temperature being 77 degrees. The ancients knew that any further fermentation would produce acid.<\/p>\n<p>After desired fermentation, the wine was transferred to skins or pottery jars for transport or sale. The handles and stoppers were stamped to indicate the brand, the origin, and the vintage. At this time the wine was strained through perforated metal sieves or cloth to eliminate contaminates such as grit or insects.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"KindsofWine\">Kinds of Wine<\/p>\n<p>Ancient poets discuss many different brands of wine, with Athenaeus mentioning 85 different varieties. Galen cites 60; Pliny mentions 150; and Strabo, 30. Wines are distinguished by different colors (black, red, white, or yellow) and by their taste (dry, harsh, light, or sweet). The biblical account enumerates various kinds of wine, such as the wines of Lebanon and Helbon. Hebron and Samaria were famous for their wine making. The Hebrew language has at least nine different words for wine, and the Greek has four that are mentioned in the NT.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NatureofWine\">Nature of Wine<\/p>\n<p>Few would question that at least some wine of the OT was fermented. Some scholars argue, however, that certain forms of wine in the ancient world were unfermented. They contrast two Hebrew words for wine, concluding that one particular Hebrew word that refers to fresh wine meant only grape juice (Prv 3:10; Hos 9:2; Jl 2:24; Mi 6:15). The inconclusiveness of these arguments may be seen from the following points: (1) the Hebrew word is found in primarily neutral contexts; (2) often that particular word is found in contexts definitely including a fermented beverage (e.g., Gn 27:28; Hos 4:11; Mi 6:15); (3) the Ugaritic parallel to the term in question refers with certainty to a fermented wine; (4) the Septuagint equivalents refer to fermented wine; (5) fermentation in the ancient Near East, unlike Greece, took only about three days; and (6) the Mishnah provides no such evidence of the practice of having unfermented wine. There seems to have been no attempts to preserve wine in an unfermented state; it may have been a near-impossible task. A careful examination of all the Hebrew words (as well as their Semitic cognates) and the Greek words for wine demonstrates that the ancients knew little, if anything, about unfermented wine.<\/p>\n<p>Ample evidence is available to demonstrate that wine, though always fermented, was usually mixed with water in the classical and Hellenistic world. The wine was stored in large jugs called <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">amphorae<\/span><em>,<\/em> from which the wine was poured through a strainer into a large mixing bowl called a <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">krater<\/span><em>.<\/em> In the krater the wine was mixed with water. Then the drinking bowls or cups were filled.<\/p>\n<p>The amount of wine per volume varied. The mixture that represented the greatest amount of water to wine was 20 to 1, apparently because the wine was so strong (Homer, <em>Odyssey<\/em> 10.208).<\/p>\n<p>In the western Mediterranean world, the term “wine” referred to the mixture of wine and water. If one desired to mention wine without water, it was necessary to add the word “unmixed.” For the Greeks, to drink wine unmixed was regarded as barbaric. The evidence, however, seems to indicate that in the OT era wine was used without being mixed with water. The terminology of mixing water and wine is strikingly unattested. Wine diluted with water was symbolic of spiritual adulteration (Is 1:22). By Roman times, this attitude had changed. The Mishnah assumes a ratio of two parts of water to one part wine; however, later Talmudic sources speak of three to one. A natural, nondistilled wine could reach as high as 15 percent alcohol content. If watered down three parts water to one part wine, the alcohol content would be 5 percent and still fairly potent.<\/p>\n<p>Wine was mixed not only with water but also with other ingredients, similar to mixed drinks today. An example of this is seen in the Homeric “Hymn to Demeter,” where the goddess rejects straight wine and desires the drink mixed with meal, water, and a soft mint. Often strong wine was mixed into weak wine, resulting in a stronger drink. This is what is meant by “mixture” in the Bible (Ps 75:8; Is 5:22; Rv 18:6; 19:13-15). At times the fresh wine, high in sugar content, was evaporated, and this concentrated <em>must<\/em> was mixed with wine to obtain a higher alcohol content.<\/p>\n<p>There is no mention of wine being mixed with water to make it safe for drinking, as is commonly accepted. Modern examples of pollution were not common in the ancient world, although this problem appeared occasionally. Examples are myriad concerning the fresh wells, springs, and moving bodies of water in biblical times, and methods were available to purify any impure water.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WineintheOldTestament\">Wine in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The evidence, as seen above, suggests that wine in the OT was not mixed with water and was looked on with favor when taken in moderation. Judges 9:13 presents wine as that “which cheers God and men.” Psalm 104:15 portrays wine similarly: “wine which makes man’s heart glad” (cf. also Est 1:10; Eccl 10:19; Is 55:1-2; Zec 10:7). The temperate use of wine was a normal and accepted part of life (Gn 14:18; Jgs 19:19; 1 Sm 16:20). Levitical priests in service at the temple (Lv 10:8-9), Nazirites (Nm 6:3), and the Recabites (Jer 35:1-6) were forbidden to drink wine.<\/p>\n<p>Wine had many uses in the OT world. The “drink offering” was wine (Ex 29:40; Lv 23:13), and the worshiper regularly brought wine when offering sacrifice (1 Sm 1:24). In addition, a supply of wine was kept in the temple for sacrificial purposes (1 Chr 9:29). At times, wine was used in helping the weak and sick (2 Sm 16:2; Prv 31:6).<\/p>\n<p>The strong drink of the OT seems to be closely related to Mesopotamian date wine. This same date wine, high in sugar content, must have also been high in alcohol content. One Hebrew word is consistently used as strong drink (Lv 10:9; Dt 29:6; 1 Sm 1:15; Prv 20:1; 31:6; Is 29:9). There is an equivalent word to this in Ugaritic, translated “drunk,” which parallels the normal word for wine.<\/p>\n<p>Negative reactions to intemperate wine drinking abound in the OT. Isaiah condemned those who drank wine to excess (Is 28:1-8). Many admonitions of drinking wine in excess are given in the Scriptures (Prv 20:1; 21:17; 23:20-21; 23:32-34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WineintheNewTestament\">Wine in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>Wine in the NT was a fermented beverage that was mixed with various amounts of water. It was also mixed with gall (Mt 27:34) and myrrh (Mk 15:23). Evidence strongly suggests that the wine used at the Lord’s Supper was a mixture of water and wine, probably three to one in agreement with the dictates of the Mishnah. The phrase “fruit of the vine” (Mt 26:27-29) is often interpreted to mean fresh grape juice. However, fresh grape juice would be all but impossible to find.<\/p>\n<p>The NT, as the OT, argues forcefully against the unrestrained use of wine. The biblical admonition is not to be drunk with wine (Eph 5:18; 1 Pt 4:3). Leaders in the church were to practice moderation in the use of wine (1 Tm 3:3, 8; Ti 1:7); the Greek says that they should “not be addicted to wine.”<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Vines, Vineyard; Winepress.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>WINE<\/h3>\n<p>Beverage made from fermented grape juice.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Origin\">Origin<\/p>\n<p>Noah was among the first to produce wine (Gn 9:21), presumably on the slopes of Mt Ararat. But wine making was not confined to that region, because Egypt, and later Greece, had a fondness for the juice. In fact, wine making was known to have existed in the prehistoric period of Mesopotamia and was brought to Egypt before 3000 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The word “wine” may be identified with words for vine, vineyard, and black grapes. The vine, which brings forth the wine, was often identified in the Near Eastern world with the “tree of life.” In both Egypt and Mesopotamia a goddess was thought to protect the vine. The “mistress of the heavenly tree of life,” the goddess Siris, lived in the mountains of northwestern Assyria. First Enoch 32:4 calls the vine the tree of knowledge. According to Jewish tradition, the vine was saved from the Flood by Noah.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProductionofWine\">Production of Wine<\/p>\n<p>Few ancient documents are extant on the art of wine making. Experience and the interests of a few early botanists appear to be the only source of knowledge available about the early vine growers. Aristotle’s gifted student Theophrastus of Eresos wrote a book entitled <em>Enquiry into Plants<\/em> showing a blend of practical experience and theory. Later, he followed with <em>On the Life of Plants,<\/em> a work giving detailed observations about wine making. His ideas on when to plant, how to prune, statements against grafting, and how to care for the vine demonstrate the Greek genius. They raised viticulture to a science that has changed little in the last 2200 years.<\/p>\n<p>Great care was taken by Greek vine growers to ensure the success of their crops. The vines were close to the ground instead of being propped. In view of this, mice and foxes were especially undesirable, and much hoeing was needed to keep the soil free of weeds. But their method, overall, was very effective.<\/p>\n<p>In early September the grapes were collected in the plains, and at the end of the month in the hills. With an initial festival of song and dance, the workers brought the bunches of grapes to the winepresses, low cement vats inclined toward one corner. After this, workers trod the grapes. The first <em>must<\/em> (juice from the crushing) was highly valued because it provided the choicest wines. The remaining juice was extracted by wringing the trodden grapes in a bag press usually made of cloth. A third class of wine was produced by mixing or even cooking the remaining grapes with some water and expressing the mixture. This type of wine was drunk only by the poor.<\/p>\n<p>At a later time the Greeks invented a beam press in which a long beam, having a turning portion at one end and heavy stones on the other, compressed layers of grapes. The ancient Near East had these different methods of extracting wine, but the treading of grapes, even in Greece, was always the favorite method.<\/p>\n<p>In Greece the fermentation period was usually six months, during which the liquid was constantly skimmed. However, in the ancient Near East the fermentation process was usually over in three or four days, the optimum growth temperature being 77 degrees. The ancients knew that any further fermentation would produce acid.<\/p>\n<p>After desired fermentation, the wine was transferred to skins or pottery jars for transport or sale. The handles and stoppers were stamped to indicate the brand, the origin, and the vintage. At this time the wine was strained through perforated metal sieves or cloth to eliminate contaminates such as grit or insects.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"KindsofWine\">Kinds of Wine<\/p>\n<p>Ancient poets discuss many different brands of wine, with Athenaeus mentioning 85 different varieties. Galen cites 60; Pliny mentions 150; and Strabo, 30. Wines are distinguished by different colors (black, red, white, or yellow) and by their taste (dry, harsh, light, or sweet). The biblical account enumerates various kinds of wine, such as the wines of Lebanon and Helbon. Hebron and Samaria were famous for their wine making. The Hebrew language has at least nine different words for wine, and the Greek has four that are mentioned in the NT.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NatureofWine\">Nature of Wine<\/p>\n<p>Few would question that at least some wine of the OT was fermented. Some scholars argue, however, that certain forms of wine in the ancient world were unfermented. They contrast two Hebrew words for wine, concluding that one particular Hebrew word that refers to fresh wine meant only grape juice (Prv 3:10; Hos 9:2; Jl 2:24; Mi 6:15). The inconclusiveness of these arguments may be seen from the following points: (1) the Hebrew word is found in primarily neutral contexts; (2) often that particular word is found in contexts definitely including a fermented beverage (e.g., Gn 27:28; Hos 4:11; Mi 6:15); (3) the Ugaritic parallel to the term in question refers with certainty to a fermented wine; (4) the Septuagint equivalents refer to fermented wine; (5) fermentation in the ancient Near East, unlike Greece, took only about three days; and (6) the Mishnah provides no such evidence of the practice of having unfermented wine. There seems to have been no attempts to preserve wine in an unfermented state; it may have been a near-impossible task. A careful examination of all the Hebrew words (as well as their Semitic cognates) and the Greek words for wine demonstrates that the ancients knew little, if anything, about unfermented wine.<\/p>\n<p>Ample evidence is available to demonstrate that wine, though always fermented, was usually mixed with water in the classical and Hellenistic world. The wine was stored in large jugs called <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">amphorae<\/span><em>,<\/em> from which the wine was poured through a strainer into a large mixing bowl called a <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">krater<\/span><em>.<\/em> In the krater the wine was mixed with water. Then the drinking bowls or cups were filled.<\/p>\n<p>The amount of wine per volume varied. The mixture that represented the greatest amount of water to wine was 20 to 1, apparently because the wine was so strong (Homer, <em>Odyssey<\/em> 10.208).<\/p>\n<p>In the western Mediterranean world, the term “wine” referred to the mixture of wine and water. If one desired to mention wine without water, it was necessary to add the word “unmixed.” For the Greeks, to drink wine unmixed was regarded as barbaric. The evidence, however, seems to indicate that in the OT era wine was used without being mixed with water. The terminology of mixing water and wine is strikingly unattested. Wine diluted with water was symbolic of spiritual adulteration (Is 1:22). By Roman times, this attitude had changed. The Mishnah assumes a ratio of two parts of water to one part wine; however, later Talmudic sources speak of three to one. A natural, nondistilled wine could reach as high as 15 percent alcohol content. If watered down three parts water to one part wine, the alcohol content would be 5 percent and still fairly potent.<\/p>\n<p>Wine was mixed not only with water but also with other ingredients, similar to mixed drinks today. An example of this is seen in the Homeric “Hymn to Demeter,” where the goddess rejects straight wine and desires the drink mixed with meal, water, and a soft mint. Often strong wine was mixed into weak wine, resulting in a stronger drink. This is what is meant by “mixture” in the Bible (Ps 75:8; Is 5:22; Rv 18:6; 19:13-15). At times the fresh wine, high in sugar content, was evaporated, and this concentrated <em>must<\/em> was mixed with wine to obtain a higher alcohol content.<\/p>\n<p>There is no mention of wine being mixed with water to make it safe for drinking, as is commonly accepted. Modern examples of pollution were not common in the ancient world, although this problem appeared occasionally. Examples are myriad concerning the fresh wells, springs, and moving bodies of water in biblical times, and methods were available to purify any impure water.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WineintheOldTestament\">Wine in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The evidence, as seen above, suggests that wine in the OT was not mixed with water and was looked on with favor when taken in moderation. Judges 9:13 presents wine as that “which cheers God and men.” Psalm 104:15 portrays wine similarly: “wine which makes man’s heart glad” (cf. also Est 1:10; Eccl 10:19; Is 55:1-2; Zec 10:7). The temperate use of wine was a normal and accepted part of life (Gn 14:18; Jgs 19:19; 1 Sm 16:20). Levitical priests in service at the temple (Lv 10:8-9), Nazirites (Nm 6:3), and the Recabites (Jer 35:1-6) were forbidden to drink wine.<\/p>\n<p>Wine had many uses in the OT world. The “drink offering” was wine (Ex 29:40; Lv 23:13), and the worshiper regularly brought wine when offering sacrifice (1 Sm 1:24). In addition, a supply of wine was kept in the temple for sacrificial purposes (1 Chr 9:29). At times, wine was used in helping the weak and sick (2 Sm 16:2; Prv 31:6).<\/p>\n<p>The strong drink of the OT seems to be closely related to Mesopotamian date wine. This same date wine, high in sugar content, must have also been high in alcohol content. One Hebrew word is consistently used as strong drink (Lv 10:9; Dt 29:6; 1 Sm 1:15; Prv 20:1; 31:6; Is 29:9). There is an equivalent word to this in Ugaritic, translated “drunk,” which parallels the normal word for wine.<\/p>\n<p>Negative reactions to intemperate wine drinking abound in the OT. Isaiah condemned those who drank wine to excess (Is 28:1-8). Many admonitions of drinking wine in excess are given in the Scriptures (Prv 20:1; 21:17; 23:20-21; 23:32-34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WineintheNewTestament\">Wine in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>Wine in the NT was a fermented beverage that was mixed with various amounts of water. It was also mixed with gall (Mt 27:34) and myrrh (Mk 15:23). Evidence strongly suggests that the wine used at the Lord’s Supper was a mixture of water and wine, probably three to one in agreement with the dictates of the Mishnah. The phrase “fruit of the vine” (Mt 26:27-29) is often interpreted to mean fresh grape juice. However, fresh grape juice would be all but impossible to find.<\/p>\n<p>The NT, as the OT, argues forcefully against the unrestrained use of wine. The biblical admonition is not to be drunk with wine (Eph 5:18; 1 Pt 4:3). Leaders in the church were to practice moderation in the use of wine (1 Tm 3:3, 8; Ti 1:7); the Greek says that they should “not be addicted to wine.”<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Vines, Vineyard; Winepress.<\/p>","summary_ro":"WINE Beverage made from fermented grape juice. Origin Noah was among the first to produce wine (Gn 9:21), presumably on the slopes of Mt Ararat. But wine making was not confined to that region, because Egypt, and later Greece, had a fondness for the juice. In fact, wine making was known to have existed in the prehistoric period of Mesopotamia and was brought to Egypt before 3000 BC. The word “wine” may be identified with words for vine, vineyard, and black grapes. The vine, which brings forth...","summary_en":"WINE Beverage made from fermented grape juice. Origin Noah was among the first to produce wine (Gn 9:21), presumably on the slopes of Mt Ararat. But wine making was not confined to that region, because Egypt, and later Greece, had a fondness for the juice. In fact, wine making was known to have existed in the prehistoric period of Mesopotamia and was brought to Egypt before 3000 BC. The word “wine” may be identified with words for vine, vineyard, and black grapes. The vine, which brings forth...","source":"Articles\/W.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"21":[{"id":28746,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Palace","title_en":"Palace","content_ro":"<h3>PALACE<\/h3>\n<p>Residence for royalty. Excavations suggest that any city that enjoyed royal patronage would boast of a building that could be described as a palace. Royal cities had a second surrounding wall that shut off the royal palace and its outbuildings, forming the acropolis of the city. Jerusalem had the equivalent in the City of David, which formerly was the Citadel of Zion (2 Sm 5:7-9).<\/p>\n<p>The OT’s references to palaces in Palestine are vague—for example, David’s palace (2 Sm 11:2, 9), the palace of Tirzah (1 Kgs 16:18) and Ahab’s palace in Jezreel (21:1). Even the references to Solomon’s palace in Jerusalem are quite imprecise. In 1 Kings 7:1-12 the construction of public and private buildings close to the temple went on for 13 years. Only the choicest of materials were used. But from the details supplied, it is quite impossible to reproduce plans of the House of the Forest of Lebanon, the Porch of Pillars, the Porch of the Throne, the palace for Solomon’s Egyptian wife, or the royal palace. What the situation of these buildings was in relation to one another is matter only for conjecture. Round about the whole complex was a great court of hewn stones and cedar beams.<\/p>\n<p>Forced labor was universal in the ancient Near East. Samuel’s warning that a king would introduce the system into Israel (1 Sm 8:12-17) was fulfilled, and it came to full development under Solomon when he undertook his massive building program, including his palace. Solomon raised his workforce from all over Israel. The system incited Jeroboam to revolt (1 Kgs 12:4, 16). King Asa used it (15:22), and it continued on into Jeremiah’s time (Jer 22:13). Nehemiah’s builders were volunteers (see Neh 3:5).<\/p>\n<p>Prominent among Solomon’s royal buildings was the temple. Apparently, it stood in the middle of a courtyard called the inner court (1 Kgs 6:36), by contrast with the great court (7:12), which included both the temple and the palace. The palace itself had an inner court too (v 8), the northern wall of which was common to the inner court of the temple. Hence it was but a step from the king’s domain to the Lord’s domain.<\/p>\n<p>The king’s enthronement took place in the palace, in the Porch of the Throne (1 Kgs 1:46; 2 Kgs 11:19). When he took his seat on the throne, it marked his assumption of power (1 Kgs 16:11; 2 Kgs 13:13). Solomon’s throne in his palace became the symbol of royal power, although his throne was still called the throne of David (1 Kgs 2:24, 45; Is 9:7). Solomon’s palace throne is described as one of the wonders of the world (1 Kgs 10:18-20). It was around this throne that the high officials came to do him homage (1:47).<\/p>\n<p>The king’s daughters lived in the palace until their marriage under the care of women (2 Sm 13:7). They wore a distinctive dress (vv 18-19). The king’s sons were reared in the palace by nurses (2 Kgs 11:2) and tutored under leading men of the city (10:1, 6-7), until they were able to perform certain duties at the court (2 Sm 8:18; 1 Chr 18:17). Then they led an independent life and were provided for by the king (2 Chr 21:3). Amnon evidently lived outside the palace (2 Sm 13:5), and Absalom had his own house (13:20; 14:24), lands, and livestock (13:23; 14:30). Palace or court officials surrounded the royal family (1 Kgs 10:4-5). Whatever their office, they were called the king’s “servants.” There were those “who saw the king’s face,” meaning they were admitted to the king’s presence (2 Sm 14:24, 28, 32), or stood before the king (1 Sm 16:21-22; Jer 52:12). It was a signal mark of favor to be admitted to the royal table (2 Sm 9:7, 13).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PALACE<\/h3>\n<p>Residence for royalty. Excavations suggest that any city that enjoyed royal patronage would boast of a building that could be described as a palace. Royal cities had a second surrounding wall that shut off the royal palace and its outbuildings, forming the acropolis of the city. Jerusalem had the equivalent in the City of David, which formerly was the Citadel of Zion (2 Sm 5:7-9).<\/p>\n<p>The OT’s references to palaces in Palestine are vague—for example, David’s palace (2 Sm 11:2, 9), the palace of Tirzah (1 Kgs 16:18) and Ahab’s palace in Jezreel (21:1). Even the references to Solomon’s palace in Jerusalem are quite imprecise. In 1 Kings 7:1-12 the construction of public and private buildings close to the temple went on for 13 years. Only the choicest of materials were used. But from the details supplied, it is quite impossible to reproduce plans of the House of the Forest of Lebanon, the Porch of Pillars, the Porch of the Throne, the palace for Solomon’s Egyptian wife, or the royal palace. What the situation of these buildings was in relation to one another is matter only for conjecture. Round about the whole complex was a great court of hewn stones and cedar beams.<\/p>\n<p>Forced labor was universal in the ancient Near East. Samuel’s warning that a king would introduce the system into Israel (1 Sm 8:12-17) was fulfilled, and it came to full development under Solomon when he undertook his massive building program, including his palace. Solomon raised his workforce from all over Israel. The system incited Jeroboam to revolt (1 Kgs 12:4, 16). King Asa used it (15:22), and it continued on into Jeremiah’s time (Jer 22:13). Nehemiah’s builders were volunteers (see Neh 3:5).<\/p>\n<p>Prominent among Solomon’s royal buildings was the temple. Apparently, it stood in the middle of a courtyard called the inner court (1 Kgs 6:36), by contrast with the great court (7:12), which included both the temple and the palace. The palace itself had an inner court too (v 8), the northern wall of which was common to the inner court of the temple. Hence it was but a step from the king’s domain to the Lord’s domain.<\/p>\n<p>The king’s enthronement took place in the palace, in the Porch of the Throne (1 Kgs 1:46; 2 Kgs 11:19). When he took his seat on the throne, it marked his assumption of power (1 Kgs 16:11; 2 Kgs 13:13). Solomon’s throne in his palace became the symbol of royal power, although his throne was still called the throne of David (1 Kgs 2:24, 45; Is 9:7). Solomon’s palace throne is described as one of the wonders of the world (1 Kgs 10:18-20). It was around this throne that the high officials came to do him homage (1:47).<\/p>\n<p>The king’s daughters lived in the palace until their marriage under the care of women (2 Sm 13:7). They wore a distinctive dress (vv 18-19). The king’s sons were reared in the palace by nurses (2 Kgs 11:2) and tutored under leading men of the city (10:1, 6-7), until they were able to perform certain duties at the court (2 Sm 8:18; 1 Chr 18:17). Then they led an independent life and were provided for by the king (2 Chr 21:3). Amnon evidently lived outside the palace (2 Sm 13:5), and Absalom had his own house (13:20; 14:24), lands, and livestock (13:23; 14:30). Palace or court officials surrounded the royal family (1 Kgs 10:4-5). Whatever their office, they were called the king’s “servants.” There were those “who saw the king’s face,” meaning they were admitted to the king’s presence (2 Sm 14:24, 28, 32), or stood before the king (1 Sm 16:21-22; Jer 52:12). It was a signal mark of favor to be admitted to the royal table (2 Sm 9:7, 13).<\/p>","summary_ro":"PALACE Residence for royalty. Excavations suggest that any city that enjoyed royal patronage would boast of a building that could be described as a palace. Royal cities had a second surrounding wall that shut off the royal palace and its outbuildings, forming the acropolis of the city. Jerusalem had the equivalent in the City of David, which formerly was the Citadel of Zion (2 Sm 5:7-9). The OT’s references to palaces in Palestine are vague—for example, David’s palace (2 Sm 11:2, 9), the pala...","summary_en":"PALACE Residence for royalty. Excavations suggest that any city that enjoyed royal patronage would boast of a building that could be described as a palace. Royal cities had a second surrounding wall that shut off the royal palace and its outbuildings, forming the acropolis of the city. Jerusalem had the equivalent in the City of David, which formerly was the Citadel of Zion (2 Sm 5:7-9). The OT’s references to palaces in Palestine are vague—for example, David’s palace (2 Sm 11:2, 9), the pala...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":46279,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:21","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:21<\/strong> Although at first <em>Saul loved David very much<\/em><em>,<\/em> this love soon turned to intense jealousy and hatred (see 18:8-14). • An <em>armor bearer<\/em> in ancient Israel served as the personal attendant of a warrior chieftain (see 14:1-15; 31:4-6; Judg 9:54; 2 Sam 18:15).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:21<\/strong> Although at first <em>Saul loved David very much<\/em><em>,<\/em> this love soon turned to intense jealousy and hatred (see 18:8-14). • An <em>armor bearer<\/em> in ancient Israel served as the personal attendant of a warrior chieftain (see 14:1-15; 31:4-6; Judg 9:54; 2 Sam 18:15).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:21 Although at first Saul loved David very much, this love soon turned to intense jealousy and hatred (see 18:8-14). • An armor bearer in ancient Israel served as the personal attendant of a warrior chieftain (see 14:1-15; 31:4-6; Judg 9:54; 2 Sam 18:15).","summary_en":"16:21 Although at first Saul loved David very much, this love soon turned to intense jealousy and hatred (see 18:8-14). • An armor bearer in ancient Israel served as the personal attendant of a warrior chieftain (see 14:1-15; 31:4-6; Judg 9:54; 2 Sam 18:15).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":73905,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:21","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:21<\/strong> Although at first <em>Saul loved David very much<\/em><em>,<\/em> this love soon turned to intense jealousy and hatred (see 18:8-14). • An <em>armor bearer<\/em> in ancient Israel served as the personal attendant of a warrior chieftain (see 14:1-15; 31:4-6; Judg 9:54; 2 Sam 18:15).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:21<\/strong> Although at first <em>Saul loved David very much<\/em><em>,<\/em> this love soon turned to intense jealousy and hatred (see 18:8-14). • An <em>armor bearer<\/em> in ancient Israel served as the personal attendant of a warrior chieftain (see 14:1-15; 31:4-6; Judg 9:54; 2 Sam 18:15).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:21 Although at first Saul loved David very much, this love soon turned to intense jealousy and hatred (see 18:8-14). • An armor bearer in ancient Israel served as the personal attendant of a warrior chieftain (see 14:1-15; 31:4-6; Judg 9:54; 2 Sam 18:15).","summary_en":"16:21 Although at first Saul loved David very much, this love soon turned to intense jealousy and hatred (see 18:8-14). • An armor bearer in ancient Israel served as the personal attendant of a warrior chieftain (see 14:1-15; 31:4-6; Judg 9:54; 2 Sam 18:15).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101531,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:21","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:21<\/strong> Although at first <em>Saul loved David very much<\/em><em>,<\/em> this love soon turned to intense jealousy and hatred (see 18:8-14). • An <em>armor bearer<\/em> in ancient Israel served as the personal attendant of a warrior chieftain (see 14:1-15; 31:4-6; Judg 9:54; 2 Sam 18:15).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:21<\/strong> Although at first <em>Saul loved David very much<\/em><em>,<\/em> this love soon turned to intense jealousy and hatred (see 18:8-14). • An <em>armor bearer<\/em> in ancient Israel served as the personal attendant of a warrior chieftain (see 14:1-15; 31:4-6; Judg 9:54; 2 Sam 18:15).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:21 Although at first Saul loved David very much, this love soon turned to intense jealousy and hatred (see 18:8-14). • An armor bearer in ancient Israel served as the personal attendant of a warrior chieftain (see 14:1-15; 31:4-6; Judg 9:54; 2 Sam 18:15).","summary_en":"16:21 Although at first Saul loved David very much, this love soon turned to intense jealousy and hatred (see 18:8-14). • An armor bearer in ancient Israel served as the personal attendant of a warrior chieftain (see 14:1-15; 31:4-6; Judg 9:54; 2 Sam 18:15).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":129157,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:21","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:21<\/strong> Although at first <em>Saul loved David very much<\/em><em>,<\/em> this love soon turned to intense jealousy and hatred (see 18:8-14). • An <em>armor bearer<\/em> in ancient Israel served as the personal attendant of a warrior chieftain (see 14:1-15; 31:4-6; Judg 9:54; 2 Sam 18:15).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:21<\/strong> Although at first <em>Saul loved David very much<\/em><em>,<\/em> this love soon turned to intense jealousy and hatred (see 18:8-14). • An <em>armor bearer<\/em> in ancient Israel served as the personal attendant of a warrior chieftain (see 14:1-15; 31:4-6; Judg 9:54; 2 Sam 18:15).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:21 Although at first Saul loved David very much, this love soon turned to intense jealousy and hatred (see 18:8-14). • An armor bearer in ancient Israel served as the personal attendant of a warrior chieftain (see 14:1-15; 31:4-6; Judg 9:54; 2 Sam 18:15).","summary_en":"16:21 Although at first Saul loved David very much, this love soon turned to intense jealousy and hatred (see 18:8-14). • An armor bearer in ancient Israel served as the personal attendant of a warrior chieftain (see 14:1-15; 31:4-6; Judg 9:54; 2 Sam 18:15).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"22":[{"id":46280,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:22","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:22<\/strong> David’s father, <em>Jesse<\/em> (16:18), arranged for David to continue serving Saul while still fulfilling his shepherding duties at home (see 17:14-15).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:22<\/strong> David’s father, <em>Jesse<\/em> (16:18), arranged for David to continue serving Saul while still fulfilling his shepherding duties at home (see 17:14-15).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:22 David’s father, Jesse (16:18), arranged for David to continue serving Saul while still fulfilling his shepherding duties at home (see 17:14-15).","summary_en":"16:22 David’s father, Jesse (16:18), arranged for David to continue serving Saul while still fulfilling his shepherding duties at home (see 17:14-15).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":73906,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:22","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:22<\/strong> David’s father, <em>Jesse<\/em> (16:18), arranged for David to continue serving Saul while still fulfilling his shepherding duties at home (see 17:14-15).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:22<\/strong> David’s father, <em>Jesse<\/em> (16:18), arranged for David to continue serving Saul while still fulfilling his shepherding duties at home (see 17:14-15).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:22 David’s father, Jesse (16:18), arranged for David to continue serving Saul while still fulfilling his shepherding duties at home (see 17:14-15).","summary_en":"16:22 David’s father, Jesse (16:18), arranged for David to continue serving Saul while still fulfilling his shepherding duties at home (see 17:14-15).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101532,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:22","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:22<\/strong> David’s father, <em>Jesse<\/em> (16:18), arranged for David to continue serving Saul while still fulfilling his shepherding duties at home (see 17:14-15).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:22<\/strong> David’s father, <em>Jesse<\/em> (16:18), arranged for David to continue serving Saul while still fulfilling his shepherding duties at home (see 17:14-15).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:22 David’s father, Jesse (16:18), arranged for David to continue serving Saul while still fulfilling his shepherding duties at home (see 17:14-15).","summary_en":"16:22 David’s father, Jesse (16:18), arranged for David to continue serving Saul while still fulfilling his shepherding duties at home (see 17:14-15).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":129158,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:22","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:22<\/strong> David’s father, <em>Jesse<\/em> (16:18), arranged for David to continue serving Saul while still fulfilling his shepherding duties at home (see 17:14-15).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:22<\/strong> David’s father, <em>Jesse<\/em> (16:18), arranged for David to continue serving Saul while still fulfilling his shepherding duties at home (see 17:14-15).<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:22 David’s father, Jesse (16:18), arranged for David to continue serving Saul while still fulfilling his shepherding duties at home (see 17:14-15).","summary_en":"16:22 David’s father, Jesse (16:18), arranged for David to continue serving Saul while still fulfilling his shepherding duties at home (see 17:14-15).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":66021,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Remaining in Christ","title_en":"Remaining in Christ","content_ro":"<h3>Remaining in Christ<\/h3>\n<p>The Greek term <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">menō<\/span><em>,<\/em> often translated “remain,” “stay,” or “abide,” occurs frequently in relation to Jesus’ descriptions of profound, intimate, and enduring relationships. For example, Jesus said, “You are truly my disciples if you remain faithful to [<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">menō en,<\/span> ‘stay in’] my teachings” (John 8:31). The idea is that a disciple’s life is fully formed by Jesus’ word. Jesus also described how the Son is in the Father and the Father is in the Son (John 14:10-11). Likewise, when we remain in Christ, the Son is in us and we are in the Father and the Son (17:21-23). Both the Father and the Son come and make their home within disciples.<\/p>\n<p>This mutual indwelling is precisely what it means that the disciple remains in Christ. We cannot gain the permanence of our relationship by our own effort; this relationship is only made permanent by the gracious initiative of God indwelling our lives through his Spirit. This means commitment on the part of both God and the disciple. The mutual indwelling between God and the believer is not a fleeting or temporary commitment, but an enduring, permanent, and eternal relationship (see 1 Jn 2:14, 17).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:11; 34:28; Josh 7:11-12; 1 Sam 16:22; Pss 22:11, 19; 101:7; Dan 1:21; 2:49; Hag 2:5; Luke 15:31; 22:28; John 6:56; 8:31; 15:1-17; Phil 4:1; 1 Jn 2:19, 27-28; 3:24; 2 Jn 1:9; Rev 2:10; 13:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Remaining in Christ<\/h3>\n<p>The Greek term <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">menō<\/span><em>,<\/em> often translated “remain,” “stay,” or “abide,” occurs frequently in relation to Jesus’ descriptions of profound, intimate, and enduring relationships. For example, Jesus said, “You are truly my disciples if you remain faithful to [<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">menō en,<\/span> ‘stay in’] my teachings” (John 8:31). The idea is that a disciple’s life is fully formed by Jesus’ word. Jesus also described how the Son is in the Father and the Father is in the Son (John 14:10-11). Likewise, when we remain in Christ, the Son is in us and we are in the Father and the Son (17:21-23). Both the Father and the Son come and make their home within disciples.<\/p>\n<p>This mutual indwelling is precisely what it means that the disciple remains in Christ. We cannot gain the permanence of our relationship by our own effort; this relationship is only made permanent by the gracious initiative of God indwelling our lives through his Spirit. This means commitment on the part of both God and the disciple. The mutual indwelling between God and the believer is not a fleeting or temporary commitment, but an enduring, permanent, and eternal relationship (see 1 Jn 2:14, 17).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:11; 34:28; Josh 7:11-12; 1 Sam 16:22; Pss 22:11, 19; 101:7; Dan 1:21; 2:49; Hag 2:5; Luke 15:31; 22:28; John 6:56; 8:31; 15:1-17; Phil 4:1; 1 Jn 2:19, 27-28; 3:24; 2 Jn 1:9; Rev 2:10; 13:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"Remaining in Christ The Greek term menō, often translated “remain,” “stay,” or “abide,” occurs frequently in relation to Jesus’ descriptions of profound, intimate, and enduring relationships. For example, Jesus said, “You are truly my disciples if you remain faithful to [menō en, ‘stay in’] my teachings” (John 8:31). The idea is that a disciple’s life is fully formed by Jesus’ word. Jesus also described how the Son is in the Father and the Father is in the Son (John 14:10-11). Likewise, when ...","summary_en":"Remaining in Christ The Greek term menō, often translated “remain,” “stay,” or “abide,” occurs frequently in relation to Jesus’ descriptions of profound, intimate, and enduring relationships. For example, Jesus said, “You are truly my disciples if you remain faithful to [menō en, ‘stay in’] my teachings” (John 8:31). The idea is that a disciple’s life is fully formed by Jesus’ word. Jesus also described how the Son is in the Father and the Father is in the Son (John 14:10-11). Likewise, when ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":93647,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Remaining in Christ","title_en":"Remaining in Christ","content_ro":"<h3>Remaining in Christ<\/h3>\n<p>The Greek term <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">menō<\/span><em>,<\/em> often translated “remain,” “stay,” or “abide,” occurs frequently in relation to Jesus’ descriptions of profound, intimate, and enduring relationships. For example, Jesus said, “You are truly my disciples if you remain faithful to [<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">menō en,<\/span> ‘stay in’] my teachings” (John 8:31). The idea is that a disciple’s life is fully formed by Jesus’ word. Jesus also described how the Son is in the Father and the Father is in the Son (John 14:10-11). Likewise, when we remain in Christ, the Son is in us and we are in the Father and the Son (17:21-23). Both the Father and the Son come and make their home within disciples.<\/p>\n<p>This mutual indwelling is precisely what it means that the disciple remains in Christ. We cannot gain the permanence of our relationship by our own effort; this relationship is only made permanent by the gracious initiative of God indwelling our lives through his Spirit. This means commitment on the part of both God and the disciple. The mutual indwelling between God and the believer is not a fleeting or temporary commitment, but an enduring, permanent, and eternal relationship (see 1 Jn 2:14, 17).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:11; 34:28; Josh 7:11-12; 1 Sam 16:22; Pss 22:11, 19; 101:7; Dan 1:21; 2:49; Hag 2:5; Luke 15:31; 22:28; John 6:56; 8:31; 15:1-17; Phil 4:1; 1 Jn 2:19, 27-28; 3:24; 2 Jn 1:9; Rev 2:10; 13:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Remaining in Christ<\/h3>\n<p>The Greek term <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">menō<\/span><em>,<\/em> often translated “remain,” “stay,” or “abide,” occurs frequently in relation to Jesus’ descriptions of profound, intimate, and enduring relationships. For example, Jesus said, “You are truly my disciples if you remain faithful to [<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">menō en,<\/span> ‘stay in’] my teachings” (John 8:31). The idea is that a disciple’s life is fully formed by Jesus’ word. Jesus also described how the Son is in the Father and the Father is in the Son (John 14:10-11). Likewise, when we remain in Christ, the Son is in us and we are in the Father and the Son (17:21-23). Both the Father and the Son come and make their home within disciples.<\/p>\n<p>This mutual indwelling is precisely what it means that the disciple remains in Christ. We cannot gain the permanence of our relationship by our own effort; this relationship is only made permanent by the gracious initiative of God indwelling our lives through his Spirit. This means commitment on the part of both God and the disciple. The mutual indwelling between God and the believer is not a fleeting or temporary commitment, but an enduring, permanent, and eternal relationship (see 1 Jn 2:14, 17).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:11; 34:28; Josh 7:11-12; 1 Sam 16:22; Pss 22:11, 19; 101:7; Dan 1:21; 2:49; Hag 2:5; Luke 15:31; 22:28; John 6:56; 8:31; 15:1-17; Phil 4:1; 1 Jn 2:19, 27-28; 3:24; 2 Jn 1:9; Rev 2:10; 13:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"Remaining in Christ The Greek term menō, often translated “remain,” “stay,” or “abide,” occurs frequently in relation to Jesus’ descriptions of profound, intimate, and enduring relationships. For example, Jesus said, “You are truly my disciples if you remain faithful to [menō en, ‘stay in’] my teachings” (John 8:31). The idea is that a disciple’s life is fully formed by Jesus’ word. Jesus also described how the Son is in the Father and the Father is in the Son (John 14:10-11). Likewise, when ...","summary_en":"Remaining in Christ The Greek term menō, often translated “remain,” “stay,” or “abide,” occurs frequently in relation to Jesus’ descriptions of profound, intimate, and enduring relationships. For example, Jesus said, “You are truly my disciples if you remain faithful to [menō en, ‘stay in’] my teachings” (John 8:31). The idea is that a disciple’s life is fully formed by Jesus’ word. Jesus also described how the Son is in the Father and the Father is in the Son (John 14:10-11). Likewise, when ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":121273,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Remaining in Christ","title_en":"Remaining in Christ","content_ro":"<h3>Remaining in Christ<\/h3>\n<p>The Greek term <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">menō<\/span><em>,<\/em> often translated “remain,” “stay,” or “abide,” occurs frequently in relation to Jesus’ descriptions of profound, intimate, and enduring relationships. For example, Jesus said, “You are truly my disciples if you remain faithful to [<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">menō en,<\/span> ‘stay in’] my teachings” (John 8:31). The idea is that a disciple’s life is fully formed by Jesus’ word. Jesus also described how the Son is in the Father and the Father is in the Son (John 14:10-11). Likewise, when we remain in Christ, the Son is in us and we are in the Father and the Son (17:21-23). Both the Father and the Son come and make their home within disciples.<\/p>\n<p>This mutual indwelling is precisely what it means that the disciple remains in Christ. We cannot gain the permanence of our relationship by our own effort; this relationship is only made permanent by the gracious initiative of God indwelling our lives through his Spirit. This means commitment on the part of both God and the disciple. The mutual indwelling between God and the believer is not a fleeting or temporary commitment, but an enduring, permanent, and eternal relationship (see 1 Jn 2:14, 17).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:11; 34:28; Josh 7:11-12; 1 Sam 16:22; Pss 22:11, 19; 101:7; Dan 1:21; 2:49; Hag 2:5; Luke 15:31; 22:28; John 6:56; 8:31; 15:1-17; Phil 4:1; 1 Jn 2:19, 27-28; 3:24; 2 Jn 1:9; Rev 2:10; 13:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Remaining in Christ<\/h3>\n<p>The Greek term <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">menō<\/span><em>,<\/em> often translated “remain,” “stay,” or “abide,” occurs frequently in relation to Jesus’ descriptions of profound, intimate, and enduring relationships. For example, Jesus said, “You are truly my disciples if you remain faithful to [<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">menō en,<\/span> ‘stay in’] my teachings” (John 8:31). The idea is that a disciple’s life is fully formed by Jesus’ word. Jesus also described how the Son is in the Father and the Father is in the Son (John 14:10-11). Likewise, when we remain in Christ, the Son is in us and we are in the Father and the Son (17:21-23). Both the Father and the Son come and make their home within disciples.<\/p>\n<p>This mutual indwelling is precisely what it means that the disciple remains in Christ. We cannot gain the permanence of our relationship by our own effort; this relationship is only made permanent by the gracious initiative of God indwelling our lives through his Spirit. This means commitment on the part of both God and the disciple. The mutual indwelling between God and the believer is not a fleeting or temporary commitment, but an enduring, permanent, and eternal relationship (see 1 Jn 2:14, 17).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:11; 34:28; Josh 7:11-12; 1 Sam 16:22; Pss 22:11, 19; 101:7; Dan 1:21; 2:49; Hag 2:5; Luke 15:31; 22:28; John 6:56; 8:31; 15:1-17; Phil 4:1; 1 Jn 2:19, 27-28; 3:24; 2 Jn 1:9; Rev 2:10; 13:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"Remaining in Christ The Greek term menō, often translated “remain,” “stay,” or “abide,” occurs frequently in relation to Jesus’ descriptions of profound, intimate, and enduring relationships. For example, Jesus said, “You are truly my disciples if you remain faithful to [menō en, ‘stay in’] my teachings” (John 8:31). The idea is that a disciple’s life is fully formed by Jesus’ word. Jesus also described how the Son is in the Father and the Father is in the Son (John 14:10-11). Likewise, when ...","summary_en":"Remaining in Christ The Greek term menō, often translated “remain,” “stay,” or “abide,” occurs frequently in relation to Jesus’ descriptions of profound, intimate, and enduring relationships. For example, Jesus said, “You are truly my disciples if you remain faithful to [menō en, ‘stay in’] my teachings” (John 8:31). The idea is that a disciple’s life is fully formed by Jesus’ word. Jesus also described how the Son is in the Father and the Father is in the Son (John 14:10-11). Likewise, when ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":148899,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Remaining in Christ","title_en":"Remaining in Christ","content_ro":"<h3>Remaining in Christ<\/h3>\n<p>The Greek term <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">menō<\/span><em>,<\/em> often translated “remain,” “stay,” or “abide,” occurs frequently in relation to Jesus’ descriptions of profound, intimate, and enduring relationships. For example, Jesus said, “You are truly my disciples if you remain faithful to [<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">menō en,<\/span> ‘stay in’] my teachings” (John 8:31). The idea is that a disciple’s life is fully formed by Jesus’ word. Jesus also described how the Son is in the Father and the Father is in the Son (John 14:10-11). Likewise, when we remain in Christ, the Son is in us and we are in the Father and the Son (17:21-23). Both the Father and the Son come and make their home within disciples.<\/p>\n<p>This mutual indwelling is precisely what it means that the disciple remains in Christ. We cannot gain the permanence of our relationship by our own effort; this relationship is only made permanent by the gracious initiative of God indwelling our lives through his Spirit. This means commitment on the part of both God and the disciple. The mutual indwelling between God and the believer is not a fleeting or temporary commitment, but an enduring, permanent, and eternal relationship (see 1 Jn 2:14, 17).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:11; 34:28; Josh 7:11-12; 1 Sam 16:22; Pss 22:11, 19; 101:7; Dan 1:21; 2:49; Hag 2:5; Luke 15:31; 22:28; John 6:56; 8:31; 15:1-17; Phil 4:1; 1 Jn 2:19, 27-28; 3:24; 2 Jn 1:9; Rev 2:10; 13:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Remaining in Christ<\/h3>\n<p>The Greek term <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">menō<\/span><em>,<\/em> often translated “remain,” “stay,” or “abide,” occurs frequently in relation to Jesus’ descriptions of profound, intimate, and enduring relationships. For example, Jesus said, “You are truly my disciples if you remain faithful to [<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">menō en,<\/span> ‘stay in’] my teachings” (John 8:31). The idea is that a disciple’s life is fully formed by Jesus’ word. Jesus also described how the Son is in the Father and the Father is in the Son (John 14:10-11). Likewise, when we remain in Christ, the Son is in us and we are in the Father and the Son (17:21-23). Both the Father and the Son come and make their home within disciples.<\/p>\n<p>This mutual indwelling is precisely what it means that the disciple remains in Christ. We cannot gain the permanence of our relationship by our own effort; this relationship is only made permanent by the gracious initiative of God indwelling our lives through his Spirit. This means commitment on the part of both God and the disciple. The mutual indwelling between God and the believer is not a fleeting or temporary commitment, but an enduring, permanent, and eternal relationship (see 1 Jn 2:14, 17).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 33:11; 34:28; Josh 7:11-12; 1 Sam 16:22; Pss 22:11, 19; 101:7; Dan 1:21; 2:49; Hag 2:5; Luke 15:31; 22:28; John 6:56; 8:31; 15:1-17; Phil 4:1; 1 Jn 2:19, 27-28; 3:24; 2 Jn 1:9; Rev 2:10; 13:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"Remaining in Christ The Greek term menō, often translated “remain,” “stay,” or “abide,” occurs frequently in relation to Jesus’ descriptions of profound, intimate, and enduring relationships. For example, Jesus said, “You are truly my disciples if you remain faithful to [menō en, ‘stay in’] my teachings” (John 8:31). The idea is that a disciple’s life is fully formed by Jesus’ word. Jesus also described how the Son is in the Father and the Father is in the Son (John 14:10-11). Likewise, when ...","summary_en":"Remaining in Christ The Greek term menō, often translated “remain,” “stay,” or “abide,” occurs frequently in relation to Jesus’ descriptions of profound, intimate, and enduring relationships. For example, Jesus said, “You are truly my disciples if you remain faithful to [menō en, ‘stay in’] my teachings” (John 8:31). The idea is that a disciple’s life is fully formed by Jesus’ word. Jesus also described how the Son is in the Father and the Father is in the Son (John 14:10-11). Likewise, when ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"23":[{"id":26665,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Musical Instruments","title_en":"Musical Instruments","content_ro":"<h3>MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS<\/h3>\n<p>Stringed, wind, and percussion instruments used to make music.<\/p>\n<p>In contrast to the detailed accounts of liturgical music in the OT, the descriptions of the musical instruments themselves are rather sparse. Because of the injunction of the second commandment, interpreted by the Hebrews as discouraging pictorial representations, there are few drawings of Hebrew instruments. In addition to the instruments used in the temple, the book of Daniel lists six instruments played in King Nebuchadnezzar’s court.<\/p>\n<p>The ancient Hebrews made certain distinctions among the instruments, not on musical but on ethical grounds. Some instruments were considered “unclean” and were not allowed in temple worship.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StringedInstruments\">Stringed Instruments<\/p>\n<p>The stringed instruments were favored by the Jewish people. In many ancient civilizations the strings were considered the most masculine and noble (e.g., David playing the lyre); the Jews considered them the most suitable for accompaniment in the temple service. The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">minim<\/span> is used in Psalm 150:4 to designate the entire family of stringed instruments used in the praise of God.<\/p>\n\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Asor<\/span> appears three times in the book of Psalms (Pss 33:2; 92:3; 144:9). Although the word derives from a Hebrew root meaning “ten,” the actual description of the instrument remains unclear. The most common theory identifies it with the Phoenician zither having ten strings; it is perhaps the lute.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Kathros<\/span> was a stringed instrument included in the list of those played at Nebuchadnezzar’s court and was probably a kind of lyre (Dn 3:5, 7, 10, 15).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Kinnor<\/span> is the most frequently mentioned instrument in the Bible, found in 42 places. It is often called David’s harp and is the most beloved instrument of the Jewish people. We can say with reasonable certainty that it was a lyre and not a harp. The strings, the number of which is not clear, were made of sheep tripe and the sounding box was at the bottom of the instrument. It is not certain whether it was played with a plectrum or with bare hands, but the specific comment that David “played it with his hand” (1 Sm 16:23, <span>rsv<\/span>) may have implied that this was not the common practice. The biblical descriptions of the sound of the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kinnor<\/span> include “pleasant” and “sweet” (Ps 81:2). The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kinnor<\/span> was played mainly in worship but also in celebrations (Is 5:12), for state occasions (1 Sm 10:5; 2 Sm 6:5), and by shepherds (1 Sm 16:16).<\/p>\n\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Nebel<\/span> was another stringed instrument (literally meaning “skin” or “skin bottle”) mentioned 27 times in Scripture. Its shape was probably similar to a bottle, with the belly-shaped sounding box on the bottom. It definitely belongs to the family of harps (2 Sm 6:5; 1 Kgs 10:12; Neh 12:27; Ps 57:8; Am 5:23) and may have been influenced by similar Egyptian instruments. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nebel<\/span> was probably played without a plectrum and was a larger and louder instrument than the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kinnor<\/span><em>.<\/em> It is translated as “harp” in most modern English translations, compared to the <span>kjv<\/span> (“psaltery,” or “viol”).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Psantrin<\/span> or <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">pesanterin<\/span> was a Greek instrument, mentioned in the description of King Nebuchadnezzar’s orchestra. It may have resembled a dulcimer, having strings played with hammers (Dn 3:5-15).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Sabcha<\/span> or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sabbeka<\/span><em>,<\/em> identical with the Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">sambyke<\/span> and the Roman <em>sambuca,<\/em> was a stringed instrument (<span>rsv<\/span> “trigon,” <span>kjv<\/span> “sackbut”) played in the Babylonian court. It was a triangle with four strings, having a high and harsh tone (Dn 3:5-15).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WindInstruments\">Wind Instruments<\/p>\n<p>The wind instruments can be divided into two groups: pipes and horns.<\/p>\n\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Halil<\/span> is mentioned only six times in the Bible but was referred to frequently by postbiblical writers. This kind of piped instrument was similar to the Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">aulos<\/span> (Mt 9:23; 1 Cor 14:7; Rv 18:22), a primitive oboe, rendered “flute” in many translations. The root word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">halal<\/span> means “to pierce,” thus the meaning “hollow tube.” The early pipes were made from reedlike plants. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">halil<\/span> had a double-reed mouthpiece and probably produced a shrill and penetrating sound. It was connected with joyful events such as banquets (Is 5:12) and prophetic frenzies (1 Sm 10:5), but its tone was also associated with wailing and mourning (Jer 48:36).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Hatzotzrot<\/span> was a sort of trumpet. Modern scholars have more information about this horn than many of its ancient Hebrew counterparts. The triumphal arch built by Titus in Rome includes depictions of the captured implements of the temple, among which are two trumpets. The form of these horns may have been influenced by the Israelites’ knowledge of Egyptian trumpets. Similar instruments were also known in Assyria, in the Hittite Empire, and in Greece. Moses was commanded to make two silver trumpets (Nm 10:2); playing these instruments became the exclusive privilege of the descendants of Aaron. These trumpets were made of silver or gold, about a yard (.9 meter) long, but narrow, with a pronounced bell. The descendants of the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hatzotzrot<\/span> are the herald trumpets. Numbers 10:10 says the trumpets were used “for a memorial before . . . God.” Trumpets and horns were used to signal the gathering of the congregation to the tent of meeting, to sound alarm, to alert the camps to move forward, and to announce when war was at hand. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hatzotzrot<\/span> became an important part of the temple service. There were at least two trumpets in the daily services, but at high holidays the number could be increased indefinitely (1 Chr 15:28; 2 Chr 15:14; Ps 98:6; Dn 3:5-15; Hos 5:8).<\/p>\n\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mashroqita<\/span><em>,<\/em> considered by modern scholars to be a Pan’s pipe similar to the Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">syrinx<\/span><em>,<\/em> is included in the list of orchestral instruments of King Nebuchadnezzar’s court (Dn 3:5, 7, 10, 15).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shophar<\/span> is mentioned in the Bible 72 times, more than any other Hebrew instrument. It is the only instrument of ancient Israel that survives in its original form and is still used in Jewish liturgy. The early <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shophar<\/span> was curved like a ram’s horn, but the later form was straight with a bend near the bell of the horn. There is some question whether any of the hornlike instruments can actually be considered musical instruments. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shophar<\/span> could produce two, maybe three tones, and was used for giving signals, not for playing music. It was used in such religious ceremonies as the transfer of the ark (2 Sm 6:15; 1 Chr 15:28), the renewal of the covenant by King Asa (2 Chr 15:14), thanksgiving to God (Ps 98:6; 150:3), and was blown at the new moon and the beginning of the jubilee year. Its secular use included such royal occasions as Absalom’s accession to the throne (2 Sm 15:10), Solomon’s anointing as king (1 Kgs 1:34), and Jehu’s accession to the throne (2 Kgs 9:13).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Sumponia<\/span> is an uncertain term included in Daniel 3. Many commentators have interpreted it as a bagpipe (<span>rsv<\/span>), but musicologists strongly argue that at the time of King Nebuchadnezzar there was no such instrument. It has been suggested that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sumponia<\/span> was not a musical instrument at all but signified the playing of the entire ensemble. This could come from the Greek root <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">sym<\/span><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">phonia<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “sounding together.” The word is also found in Luke 15:25, where it is translated as “music.”<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Ugab<\/span><em>,<\/em> a flutelike instrument, is mentioned in Scripture four times (Gn 4:21; Jb 21:12; 30:31; Ps 150:4; <span>kjv<\/span> mistranslates it as “organ”). It is only in Psalm 150 that the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ugab<\/span> is connected with a sacred occasion.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PercussionInstruments\">Percussion Instruments<\/p>\n<p>Most of the accounts of percussion instruments are found in the early history of the Hebrew people. They were gradually eliminated from the temple orchestra, perhaps because of their association with idolatrous practices.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mena anim<\/span> was a loud metal rattle, constructed with a frame carrying loose rings. It is included in a list of instruments in 2 Samuel 6:5 (<span>rsv<\/span> “castanet”; <span>kjv<\/span> mistranslates as “cornet”). It was likely a form of the <em>sistrum,<\/em> an Egyptian instrument.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Pamonim<\/span> were the bells attached to the lower hem of the priest’s garment, described in Exodus 28:33-34 and 39:25-26. They were not loud but indicated the position of the high priest as he entered the sanctuary.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shalishim<\/span><em>,<\/em> often translated as <em>sistrum<\/em> or <em>timbrel,<\/em> is a kind of rattle. It is not clear whether this term actually refers to a musical instrument. It appears in 1 Samuel 18:6 as part of the reception of King Saul and David after the battle with the Philistines.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Toph<\/span> or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tof<\/span> was an instrument used mainly by women, but there are some indications that men might have played it as well (1 Sm 10:5; <span>kjv<\/span> “tabret”; 2 Sm 6:5; 1 Chr 13:8). The mention of this kind of hand drum appears 15 times in the Bible. A wooden or metal hoop was covered with the skin of a ram or wild goat and was played with the hand. It is not clear whether the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">toph<\/span> had skin on just one side or two. Some commentators have described it as a tambourine or timbrel but there is no indication that it included jangles. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">toph<\/span> was used in merrymaking and was rather loud (Ex 15:20; Ps 81:2).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Zelzelim<\/span> or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">meziltayim<\/span> were cymbals. Both of these words come from the Hebrew root <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">zala<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “to resound” or “to tingle,” and the noun forms represent the instrument known as the cymbal. Sometimes these terms are wrongly translated as “castanets.” These were the only percussion instruments included in the temple music and were always referred to in a dual form, suggesting a pair of cymbals, but played by one man. Cymbals made of metal were known to most ancient cultures. They appear for the first time in the Bible when the ark was transferred to Jerusalem (2 Sm 6:5; 1 Chr 13:8). Later they were played in the temple by the leaders of the Levitical singers (1 Chr 15:19). The function of the cymbals was less musical than liturgical, being used as signals for the singing to begin and between the sections of the psalms. Two different kinds of cymbals are mentioned in Psalm 150, but their difference is not clear, probably involving either size or material.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS<\/h3>\n<p>Stringed, wind, and percussion instruments used to make music.<\/p>\n<p>In contrast to the detailed accounts of liturgical music in the OT, the descriptions of the musical instruments themselves are rather sparse. Because of the injunction of the second commandment, interpreted by the Hebrews as discouraging pictorial representations, there are few drawings of Hebrew instruments. In addition to the instruments used in the temple, the book of Daniel lists six instruments played in King Nebuchadnezzar’s court.<\/p>\n<p>The ancient Hebrews made certain distinctions among the instruments, not on musical but on ethical grounds. Some instruments were considered “unclean” and were not allowed in temple worship.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StringedInstruments\">Stringed Instruments<\/p>\n<p>The stringed instruments were favored by the Jewish people. In many ancient civilizations the strings were considered the most masculine and noble (e.g., David playing the lyre); the Jews considered them the most suitable for accompaniment in the temple service. The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">minim<\/span> is used in Psalm 150:4 to designate the entire family of stringed instruments used in the praise of God.<\/p>\n\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Asor<\/span> appears three times in the book of Psalms (Pss 33:2; 92:3; 144:9). Although the word derives from a Hebrew root meaning “ten,” the actual description of the instrument remains unclear. The most common theory identifies it with the Phoenician zither having ten strings; it is perhaps the lute.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Kathros<\/span> was a stringed instrument included in the list of those played at Nebuchadnezzar’s court and was probably a kind of lyre (Dn 3:5, 7, 10, 15).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Kinnor<\/span> is the most frequently mentioned instrument in the Bible, found in 42 places. It is often called David’s harp and is the most beloved instrument of the Jewish people. We can say with reasonable certainty that it was a lyre and not a harp. The strings, the number of which is not clear, were made of sheep tripe and the sounding box was at the bottom of the instrument. It is not certain whether it was played with a plectrum or with bare hands, but the specific comment that David “played it with his hand” (1 Sm 16:23, <span>rsv<\/span>) may have implied that this was not the common practice. The biblical descriptions of the sound of the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kinnor<\/span> include “pleasant” and “sweet” (Ps 81:2). The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kinnor<\/span> was played mainly in worship but also in celebrations (Is 5:12), for state occasions (1 Sm 10:5; 2 Sm 6:5), and by shepherds (1 Sm 16:16).<\/p>\n\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Nebel<\/span> was another stringed instrument (literally meaning “skin” or “skin bottle”) mentioned 27 times in Scripture. Its shape was probably similar to a bottle, with the belly-shaped sounding box on the bottom. It definitely belongs to the family of harps (2 Sm 6:5; 1 Kgs 10:12; Neh 12:27; Ps 57:8; Am 5:23) and may have been influenced by similar Egyptian instruments. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nebel<\/span> was probably played without a plectrum and was a larger and louder instrument than the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kinnor<\/span><em>.<\/em> It is translated as “harp” in most modern English translations, compared to the <span>kjv<\/span> (“psaltery,” or “viol”).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Psantrin<\/span> or <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">pesanterin<\/span> was a Greek instrument, mentioned in the description of King Nebuchadnezzar’s orchestra. It may have resembled a dulcimer, having strings played with hammers (Dn 3:5-15).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Sabcha<\/span> or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sabbeka<\/span><em>,<\/em> identical with the Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">sambyke<\/span> and the Roman <em>sambuca,<\/em> was a stringed instrument (<span>rsv<\/span> “trigon,” <span>kjv<\/span> “sackbut”) played in the Babylonian court. It was a triangle with four strings, having a high and harsh tone (Dn 3:5-15).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WindInstruments\">Wind Instruments<\/p>\n<p>The wind instruments can be divided into two groups: pipes and horns.<\/p>\n\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Halil<\/span> is mentioned only six times in the Bible but was referred to frequently by postbiblical writers. This kind of piped instrument was similar to the Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">aulos<\/span> (Mt 9:23; 1 Cor 14:7; Rv 18:22), a primitive oboe, rendered “flute” in many translations. The root word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">halal<\/span> means “to pierce,” thus the meaning “hollow tube.” The early pipes were made from reedlike plants. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">halil<\/span> had a double-reed mouthpiece and probably produced a shrill and penetrating sound. It was connected with joyful events such as banquets (Is 5:12) and prophetic frenzies (1 Sm 10:5), but its tone was also associated with wailing and mourning (Jer 48:36).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Hatzotzrot<\/span> was a sort of trumpet. Modern scholars have more information about this horn than many of its ancient Hebrew counterparts. The triumphal arch built by Titus in Rome includes depictions of the captured implements of the temple, among which are two trumpets. The form of these horns may have been influenced by the Israelites’ knowledge of Egyptian trumpets. Similar instruments were also known in Assyria, in the Hittite Empire, and in Greece. Moses was commanded to make two silver trumpets (Nm 10:2); playing these instruments became the exclusive privilege of the descendants of Aaron. These trumpets were made of silver or gold, about a yard (.9 meter) long, but narrow, with a pronounced bell. The descendants of the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hatzotzrot<\/span> are the herald trumpets. Numbers 10:10 says the trumpets were used “for a memorial before . . . God.” Trumpets and horns were used to signal the gathering of the congregation to the tent of meeting, to sound alarm, to alert the camps to move forward, and to announce when war was at hand. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hatzotzrot<\/span> became an important part of the temple service. There were at least two trumpets in the daily services, but at high holidays the number could be increased indefinitely (1 Chr 15:28; 2 Chr 15:14; Ps 98:6; Dn 3:5-15; Hos 5:8).<\/p>\n\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mashroqita<\/span><em>,<\/em> considered by modern scholars to be a Pan’s pipe similar to the Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">syrinx<\/span><em>,<\/em> is included in the list of orchestral instruments of King Nebuchadnezzar’s court (Dn 3:5, 7, 10, 15).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shophar<\/span> is mentioned in the Bible 72 times, more than any other Hebrew instrument. It is the only instrument of ancient Israel that survives in its original form and is still used in Jewish liturgy. The early <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shophar<\/span> was curved like a ram’s horn, but the later form was straight with a bend near the bell of the horn. There is some question whether any of the hornlike instruments can actually be considered musical instruments. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shophar<\/span> could produce two, maybe three tones, and was used for giving signals, not for playing music. It was used in such religious ceremonies as the transfer of the ark (2 Sm 6:15; 1 Chr 15:28), the renewal of the covenant by King Asa (2 Chr 15:14), thanksgiving to God (Ps 98:6; 150:3), and was blown at the new moon and the beginning of the jubilee year. Its secular use included such royal occasions as Absalom’s accession to the throne (2 Sm 15:10), Solomon’s anointing as king (1 Kgs 1:34), and Jehu’s accession to the throne (2 Kgs 9:13).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Sumponia<\/span> is an uncertain term included in Daniel 3. Many commentators have interpreted it as a bagpipe (<span>rsv<\/span>), but musicologists strongly argue that at the time of King Nebuchadnezzar there was no such instrument. It has been suggested that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sumponia<\/span> was not a musical instrument at all but signified the playing of the entire ensemble. This could come from the Greek root <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">sym<\/span><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">phonia<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “sounding together.” The word is also found in Luke 15:25, where it is translated as “music.”<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Ugab<\/span><em>,<\/em> a flutelike instrument, is mentioned in Scripture four times (Gn 4:21; Jb 21:12; 30:31; Ps 150:4; <span>kjv<\/span> mistranslates it as “organ”). It is only in Psalm 150 that the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ugab<\/span> is connected with a sacred occasion.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PercussionInstruments\">Percussion Instruments<\/p>\n<p>Most of the accounts of percussion instruments are found in the early history of the Hebrew people. They were gradually eliminated from the temple orchestra, perhaps because of their association with idolatrous practices.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mena anim<\/span> was a loud metal rattle, constructed with a frame carrying loose rings. It is included in a list of instruments in 2 Samuel 6:5 (<span>rsv<\/span> “castanet”; <span>kjv<\/span> mistranslates as “cornet”). It was likely a form of the <em>sistrum,<\/em> an Egyptian instrument.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Pamonim<\/span> were the bells attached to the lower hem of the priest’s garment, described in Exodus 28:33-34 and 39:25-26. They were not loud but indicated the position of the high priest as he entered the sanctuary.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shalishim<\/span><em>,<\/em> often translated as <em>sistrum<\/em> or <em>timbrel,<\/em> is a kind of rattle. It is not clear whether this term actually refers to a musical instrument. It appears in 1 Samuel 18:6 as part of the reception of King Saul and David after the battle with the Philistines.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Toph<\/span> or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tof<\/span> was an instrument used mainly by women, but there are some indications that men might have played it as well (1 Sm 10:5; <span>kjv<\/span> “tabret”; 2 Sm 6:5; 1 Chr 13:8). The mention of this kind of hand drum appears 15 times in the Bible. A wooden or metal hoop was covered with the skin of a ram or wild goat and was played with the hand. It is not clear whether the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">toph<\/span> had skin on just one side or two. Some commentators have described it as a tambourine or timbrel but there is no indication that it included jangles. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">toph<\/span> was used in merrymaking and was rather loud (Ex 15:20; Ps 81:2).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Zelzelim<\/span> or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">meziltayim<\/span> were cymbals. Both of these words come from the Hebrew root <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">zala<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “to resound” or “to tingle,” and the noun forms represent the instrument known as the cymbal. Sometimes these terms are wrongly translated as “castanets.” These were the only percussion instruments included in the temple music and were always referred to in a dual form, suggesting a pair of cymbals, but played by one man. Cymbals made of metal were known to most ancient cultures. They appear for the first time in the Bible when the ark was transferred to Jerusalem (2 Sm 6:5; 1 Chr 13:8). Later they were played in the temple by the leaders of the Levitical singers (1 Chr 15:19). The function of the cymbals was less musical than liturgical, being used as signals for the singing to begin and between the sections of the psalms. Two different kinds of cymbals are mentioned in Psalm 150, but their difference is not clear, probably involving either size or material.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS Stringed, wind, and percussion instruments used to make music. In contrast to the detailed accounts of liturgical music in the OT, the descriptions of the musical instruments themselves are rather sparse. Because of the injunction of the second commandment, interpreted by the Hebrews as discouraging pictorial representations, there are few drawings of Hebrew instruments. In addition to the instruments used in the temple, the book of Daniel lists six instruments played in K...","summary_en":"MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS Stringed, wind, and percussion instruments used to make music. In contrast to the detailed accounts of liturgical music in the OT, the descriptions of the musical instruments themselves are rather sparse. Because of the injunction of the second commandment, interpreted by the Hebrews as discouraging pictorial representations, there are few drawings of Hebrew instruments. In addition to the instruments used in the temple, the book of Daniel lists six instruments played in K...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":46281,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:23","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:23<\/strong> <em>Saul would feel better:<\/em> David was more than a handsome lad gifted in music; he was the anointed king. Here David illustrated what a king should be: one who brings relief. Later, David composed dozens of psalms that have brought comfort and relief through the ages. • <em>the tormenting spirit would go away:<\/em> Even those who are disobedient and rejected can receive relief and comfort through the Lord’s servant.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:23<\/strong> <em>Saul would feel better:<\/em> David was more than a handsome lad gifted in music; he was the anointed king. Here David illustrated what a king should be: one who brings relief. Later, David composed dozens of psalms that have brought comfort and relief through the ages. • <em>the tormenting spirit would go away:<\/em> Even those who are disobedient and rejected can receive relief and comfort through the Lord’s servant.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:23 Saul would feel better: David was more than a handsome lad gifted in music; he was the anointed king. Here David illustrated what a king should be: one who brings relief. Later, David composed dozens of psalms that have brought comfort and relief through the ages. • the tormenting spirit would go away: Even those who are disobedient and rejected can receive relief and comfort through the Lord’s servant.","summary_en":"16:23 Saul would feel better: David was more than a handsome lad gifted in music; he was the anointed king. Here David illustrated what a king should be: one who brings relief. Later, David composed dozens of psalms that have brought comfort and relief through the ages. • the tormenting spirit would go away: Even those who are disobedient and rejected can receive relief and comfort through the Lord’s servant.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":73907,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:23","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:23<\/strong> <em>Saul would feel better:<\/em> David was more than a handsome lad gifted in music; he was the anointed king. Here David illustrated what a king should be: one who brings relief. Later, David composed dozens of psalms that have brought comfort and relief through the ages. • <em>the tormenting spirit would go away:<\/em> Even those who are disobedient and rejected can receive relief and comfort through the Lord’s servant.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:23<\/strong> <em>Saul would feel better:<\/em> David was more than a handsome lad gifted in music; he was the anointed king. Here David illustrated what a king should be: one who brings relief. Later, David composed dozens of psalms that have brought comfort and relief through the ages. • <em>the tormenting spirit would go away:<\/em> Even those who are disobedient and rejected can receive relief and comfort through the Lord’s servant.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:23 Saul would feel better: David was more than a handsome lad gifted in music; he was the anointed king. Here David illustrated what a king should be: one who brings relief. Later, David composed dozens of psalms that have brought comfort and relief through the ages. • the tormenting spirit would go away: Even those who are disobedient and rejected can receive relief and comfort through the Lord’s servant.","summary_en":"16:23 Saul would feel better: David was more than a handsome lad gifted in music; he was the anointed king. Here David illustrated what a king should be: one who brings relief. Later, David composed dozens of psalms that have brought comfort and relief through the ages. • the tormenting spirit would go away: Even those who are disobedient and rejected can receive relief and comfort through the Lord’s servant.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101533,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:23","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:23<\/strong> <em>Saul would feel better:<\/em> David was more than a handsome lad gifted in music; he was the anointed king. Here David illustrated what a king should be: one who brings relief. Later, David composed dozens of psalms that have brought comfort and relief through the ages. • <em>the tormenting spirit would go away:<\/em> Even those who are disobedient and rejected can receive relief and comfort through the Lord’s servant.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:23<\/strong> <em>Saul would feel better:<\/em> David was more than a handsome lad gifted in music; he was the anointed king. Here David illustrated what a king should be: one who brings relief. Later, David composed dozens of psalms that have brought comfort and relief through the ages. • <em>the tormenting spirit would go away:<\/em> Even those who are disobedient and rejected can receive relief and comfort through the Lord’s servant.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:23 Saul would feel better: David was more than a handsome lad gifted in music; he was the anointed king. Here David illustrated what a king should be: one who brings relief. Later, David composed dozens of psalms that have brought comfort and relief through the ages. • the tormenting spirit would go away: Even those who are disobedient and rejected can receive relief and comfort through the Lord’s servant.","summary_en":"16:23 Saul would feel better: David was more than a handsome lad gifted in music; he was the anointed king. Here David illustrated what a king should be: one who brings relief. Later, David composed dozens of psalms that have brought comfort and relief through the ages. • the tormenting spirit would go away: Even those who are disobedient and rejected can receive relief and comfort through the Lord’s servant.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":129159,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 1 Samuel 16:23","title_en":"Study Note: 1 Samuel 16:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>16:23<\/strong> <em>Saul would feel better:<\/em> David was more than a handsome lad gifted in music; he was the anointed king. Here David illustrated what a king should be: one who brings relief. Later, David composed dozens of psalms that have brought comfort and relief through the ages. • <em>the tormenting spirit would go away:<\/em> Even those who are disobedient and rejected can receive relief and comfort through the Lord’s servant.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>16:23<\/strong> <em>Saul would feel better:<\/em> David was more than a handsome lad gifted in music; he was the anointed king. Here David illustrated what a king should be: one who brings relief. Later, David composed dozens of psalms that have brought comfort and relief through the ages. • <em>the tormenting spirit would go away:<\/em> Even those who are disobedient and rejected can receive relief and comfort through the Lord’s servant.<\/p>","summary_ro":"16:23 Saul would feel better: David was more than a handsome lad gifted in music; he was the anointed king. Here David illustrated what a king should be: one who brings relief. Later, David composed dozens of psalms that have brought comfort and relief through the ages. • the tormenting spirit would go away: Even those who are disobedient and rejected can receive relief and comfort through the Lord’s servant.","summary_en":"16:23 Saul would feel better: David was more than a handsome lad gifted in music; he was the anointed king. Here David illustrated what a king should be: one who brings relief. Later, David composed dozens of psalms that have brought comfort and relief through the ages. • the tormenting spirit would go away: Even those who are disobedient and rejected can receive relief and comfort through the Lord’s servant.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}
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1 Samuel 16
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