1
Ioram, fiul lui Ahab, a început să domnească peste Israel la Samaria, în al optsprezecelea an al lui Iosafat, împăratul lui Iuda. A domnit doisprezece ani.
2
El a făcut ce este rău înaintea Domnului, totuş nu ca tatăl său şi ca mama sa. A răsturnat stâlpii lui Baal, pe cari-i făcuse tatăl său;
3
dar s-a dedat la păcatele lui Ieroboam, fiul lui Nebat, care făcuse pe Israel să păcătuiască, şi nu s-a abătut dela ele.
4
Meşa, împăratul Moabului, avea turme mari şi plătea împăratului lui Israel un bir de o sută de mii de miei şi o sută de mii de berbeci cu lâna lor.
5
La moartea lui Ahab, împăratul Moabului s-a răsculat împotriva împăratului lui Israel.
6
Împăratul Ioram a ieşit atunci din Samaria, şi a numărat pe tot Israelul.
7
A pornit, şi a trimes să spună lui Iosafat, împăratul lui Iuda: ,,Împăratul Moabului s-a răsculat împotriva mea; vrei să vii cu mine să luptăm împotriva Moabului?`` Iosafat a răspuns: ,,Voi merge, eu ca tine, poporul meu ca poporul tău, caii mei ca ai tăi.``
8
Şi a zis: ,,Pe care drum să ne suim?`` Ioram a zis: ,,Pe drumul care duce în pustia Edomului.``
9
Împăratul lui Israel, împăratul lui Iuda şi împăratul Edomului, au plecat; şi, după un drum de şapte zile, n-au avut apă pentru oştire şi pentru vitele cari veneau după ea.
10
Atunci împăratul lui Israel a zis: ,,Vai! Domnul a chemat pe aceşti trei împăraţi ca să-i dea în mânile Moabului!``
11
Dar Iosafat a zis: ,,Nu este aici nici un prooroc al Domnului, prin care să putem întreba pe Domnul?`` Unul din slujitorii împăratului lui Israel a răspuns: ,,Este aici Elisei, fiul lui Şafat, care turna apă pe mânile lui Ilie.``
12
Şi Iosafat a zis: ,,Cuvântul Domnului este cu el.`` Împăratul lui Israel, Iosafat, şi împăratul Edomului s-au pogorât la el.
13
Elisei a zis împăratului lui Israel: ,,Ce am eu a face cu tine? Du-te la proorocii tatălui tău şi la proorocii mamei tale.`` Şi împăratul lui Israel i-a zis: ,,Nu! căci Domnul a chemat pe aceşti trei împăraţi ca să-i dea în mânile Moabului!``
14
Elisei a zis: ,,Viu este Domnul oştirilor, al cărui slujitor sânt, că, dacă n-aş avea în vedere pe Iosafat, împăratul lui Iuda, pe tine nu te-aş băga de loc în seamă, şi nici nu m-aş uita la tine.
15
Acum aduceţi-mi un cântăreţ cu arfa.`` Şi pe când cânta cântăreţul din arfă, mâna Domnului a fost peste Elisei.
16
Şi a zis: ,,Aşa vorbeşte Domnul: ,,Faceţi gropi în valea aceasta, groapă lângă groapă!
17
Căci aşa vorbeşte Domnul: ,Nu veţi vedea vânt şi nu veţi vedea ploaie, dar totuş valea aceasta se va umplea de apă, şi veţi bea, voi, turmele voastre şi vitele voastre.
18
Dar aceasta este puţin lucru înaintea Domnului. El va da pe Moab în mânile voastre;
19
veţi sfărâma toate cetăţile întărite şi toate cetăţile alese, veţi tăia toţi copacii cei buni, veţi astupa toate izvoarele de apă, şi veţi strica cu pietre toate ogoarele cele mai bune.``
20
Şi dimineaţa, în clipa când se aducea jertfa, iată că a venit apa de pe drumul Edomului, şi s-a umplut ţara de apă.
21
Însă, toţi Moabiţii, auzind că împăraţii se suie să lupte împotriva lor, au chemat pe toţi cei în vârstă să poarte armele şi mai mari chiar, şi au stătut la hotar.
22
S-au sculat disdedimineaţă, şi când a strălucit soarele peste ape, Moabiţii au văzut în faţa lor apele roşi ca sângele.
23
Ei au zis: ,,Este sânge! Împăraţii au scos sabia între ei, s-au tăiat unii pe alţii; acum, la pradă, Moabiţi!``
24
Şi au mers împotriva taberei lui Israel. Dar Israel s-a sculat, şi a bătut pe Moab, care a luat-o la fugă dinaintea lor. Au pătruns în ţară, şi au bătut pe Moab.
25
Au sfărâmat cetăţile, au aruncat fiecare pietre, în toate ogoarele cele mai bune şi le-au umplut cu pietre au astupat toate izvoarele de apă, şi au tăiat toţi copacii cei buni; prăştiaşii au înconjurat şi au bătut Chir-Hareset, din care n-au lăsat decât pietrele.
26
Împăratul Moabului, văzând că fusese înfrânt în luptă, a luat cu el şapte sute de oameni, cari scoteau sabia, să-şi croiască drum până la împăratului Edomului; dar n-au putut.
27
A luat atunci pe fiul său întâi născut, care trebuia să domnească în locul lui, şi l-a adus ca ardere de tot pe zid. Şi o mare mânie a cuprins pe Israel, care s-a depărtat de împăratul Moabului, şi s-a întors în ţară.
{"verseMap":{"1":[{"id":41057,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Moab and Ammon","title_en":"Moab and Ammon","content_ro":"<h3>Moab and Ammon<\/h3>\n<p>The Moabites were descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter (Gen 19:36-38). They settled on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea. Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland divided by ravines. Even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, but its location on the King’s Highway was strategically important (see Num 21:21-22; Judg 11:15-18). Prior to the Israelites’ passage through the Transjordan, the Moabites were dominated by Sihon, the Amorite king who ruled at Heshbon (see Num 21:13, 26). After Israel defeated Sihon, King Balak of Moab feared that Israel might conquer his land, and Moab waged war against them (Num 22:1–25:3; Josh 24:9). From that time onward, Moab and Israel were often in conflict (Judg 3:12-30; 1 Sam 14:47; 2 Sam 8:2; 2 Kgs 3), but there were also periods of peace (Ruth 1:1-2) between them. A Moabite woman named Ruth displayed great kindness to her tragedy-plagued Israelite mother-in-law, Naomi, and she came to be part of the family line that produced King David and Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>The Ammonites traced their ancestry to Ammon, son of the younger daughter of Lot (Gen 19:36-38). They settled in an area of the Transjordan northeast of the Dead Sea. When the Israelites arrived in the area after leaving Egypt, God instructed them not to try to occupy Ammonite territory, as it had already been given to the descendants of Lot (Deut 2:18-19, 37). The Ammonites helped the Moabites oppose Israel and were excluded from the congregation of the Lord to the tenth generation (Deut 23:3-6; Neh 13:1-2; see Num 22:1–25:3). Thereafter the Ammonites were frequent enemies of Israel (Judg 10–11; 1 Sam 11; 14:47; 1 Chr 20:1-3; 2 Chr 20:1-24), though David seems to have allied with them for a time (2 Sam 17:27-29; 23:37).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 23:3-6<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Moab and Ammon<\/h3>\n<p>The Moabites were descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter (Gen 19:36-38). They settled on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea. Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland divided by ravines. Even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, but its location on the King’s Highway was strategically important (see Num 21:21-22; Judg 11:15-18). Prior to the Israelites’ passage through the Transjordan, the Moabites were dominated by Sihon, the Amorite king who ruled at Heshbon (see Num 21:13, 26). After Israel defeated Sihon, King Balak of Moab feared that Israel might conquer his land, and Moab waged war against them (Num 22:1–25:3; Josh 24:9). From that time onward, Moab and Israel were often in conflict (Judg 3:12-30; 1 Sam 14:47; 2 Sam 8:2; 2 Kgs 3), but there were also periods of peace (Ruth 1:1-2) between them. A Moabite woman named Ruth displayed great kindness to her tragedy-plagued Israelite mother-in-law, Naomi, and she came to be part of the family line that produced King David and Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>The Ammonites traced their ancestry to Ammon, son of the younger daughter of Lot (Gen 19:36-38). They settled in an area of the Transjordan northeast of the Dead Sea. When the Israelites arrived in the area after leaving Egypt, God instructed them not to try to occupy Ammonite territory, as it had already been given to the descendants of Lot (Deut 2:18-19, 37). The Ammonites helped the Moabites oppose Israel and were excluded from the congregation of the Lord to the tenth generation (Deut 23:3-6; Neh 13:1-2; see Num 22:1–25:3). Thereafter the Ammonites were frequent enemies of Israel (Judg 10–11; 1 Sam 11; 14:47; 1 Chr 20:1-3; 2 Chr 20:1-24), though David seems to have allied with them for a time (2 Sam 17:27-29; 23:37).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 23:3-6<\/p>","summary_ro":"Moab and Ammon The Moabites were descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter (Gen 19:36-38). They settled on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea. Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland divided by ravines. Even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, but its location on the King’s Highway was strategically important (see Num 21:21-22; Judg 11:15-18). Prior to the Israelites’ passage through the Transjordan, the Moabites were dominated...","summary_en":"Moab and Ammon The Moabites were descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter (Gen 19:36-38). They settled on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea. Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland divided by ravines. Even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, but its location on the King’s Highway was strategically important (see Num 21:21-22; Judg 11:15-18). Prior to the Israelites’ passage through the Transjordan, the Moabites were dominated...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":41727,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jehoshaphat","title_en":"Jehoshaphat","content_ro":"<h3>Jehoshaphat<\/h3>\n<p>Jehoshaphat succeeded his father Asa to become the fourth king of Judah (872–848 <span>BC<\/span>). Like Hezekiah and Josiah after him, Jehoshaphat trusted the Lord throughout his life and worked to remove most forms of pagan worship from Israel (2 Chr 17:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jehoshaphat continued his father Asa’s religious reforms but reversed his foreign policy. Jehoshaphat discontinued Judah’s war with Israel over their boundaries (see 1 Kgs 22:2) and made an alliance with Ahab. To confirm this alliance, he arranged for his son Jehoram to marry Ahab’s daughter Athaliah (2 Chr 18:1-2; 2 Kgs 8:18) and supported the north in its wars against the Arameans and Moabites (2 Chr 18:3-34; 1 Kgs 22; 2 Kgs 3:4-27). The prophet Jehu rebuked Jehoshaphat for his unwise alliance with Israel (2 Chr 19:1-3), which resulted in his son Jehoram falling under the influence of Ahab and Jezebel. Jehoram and his son Ahaziah turned Judah toward idol worship.<\/p>\n<p>Yet during his reign, Jehoshaphat kept the worship of the Lord pure. He closed the temples of prostitution (1 Kgs 22:46) and sent teachers of God’s law throughout the land (2 Chr 17:7-9). He also established a system of judges and admonished them to function as the Lord’s representatives so that justice might prevail (19:4-7). He appointed Levites, priests, and family heads to handle cases pertaining to religious practice and to negotiate disputes among citizens (19:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>Before going to battle, Jehoshaphat would insist on hearing from a true prophet of the Lord. And in one of the most stirring descriptions of war in the Old Testament, Jehoshaphat preached to the army before entering a battle. As a result, God caused the armies from Ammon, Moab, and their allies to turn against each other (2 Chr 20).<\/p>\n<p>Jehoshaphat died when he was about sixty years old and was buried in Jerusalem. His son Jehoram became Judah’s next king (21:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 15:24; 22:1-50; 2 Kgs 3:1-27; 2 Chr 17:1–21:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jehoshaphat<\/h3>\n<p>Jehoshaphat succeeded his father Asa to become the fourth king of Judah (872–848 <span>BC<\/span>). Like Hezekiah and Josiah after him, Jehoshaphat trusted the Lord throughout his life and worked to remove most forms of pagan worship from Israel (2 Chr 17:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jehoshaphat continued his father Asa’s religious reforms but reversed his foreign policy. Jehoshaphat discontinued Judah’s war with Israel over their boundaries (see 1 Kgs 22:2) and made an alliance with Ahab. To confirm this alliance, he arranged for his son Jehoram to marry Ahab’s daughter Athaliah (2 Chr 18:1-2; 2 Kgs 8:18) and supported the north in its wars against the Arameans and Moabites (2 Chr 18:3-34; 1 Kgs 22; 2 Kgs 3:4-27). The prophet Jehu rebuked Jehoshaphat for his unwise alliance with Israel (2 Chr 19:1-3), which resulted in his son Jehoram falling under the influence of Ahab and Jezebel. Jehoram and his son Ahaziah turned Judah toward idol worship.<\/p>\n<p>Yet during his reign, Jehoshaphat kept the worship of the Lord pure. He closed the temples of prostitution (1 Kgs 22:46) and sent teachers of God’s law throughout the land (2 Chr 17:7-9). He also established a system of judges and admonished them to function as the Lord’s representatives so that justice might prevail (19:4-7). He appointed Levites, priests, and family heads to handle cases pertaining to religious practice and to negotiate disputes among citizens (19:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>Before going to battle, Jehoshaphat would insist on hearing from a true prophet of the Lord. And in one of the most stirring descriptions of war in the Old Testament, Jehoshaphat preached to the army before entering a battle. As a result, God caused the armies from Ammon, Moab, and their allies to turn against each other (2 Chr 20).<\/p>\n<p>Jehoshaphat died when he was about sixty years old and was buried in Jerusalem. His son Jehoram became Judah’s next king (21:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 15:24; 22:1-50; 2 Kgs 3:1-27; 2 Chr 17:1–21:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jehoshaphat Jehoshaphat succeeded his father Asa to become the fourth king of Judah (872–848 BC). Like Hezekiah and Josiah after him, Jehoshaphat trusted the Lord throughout his life and worked to remove most forms of pagan worship from Israel (2 Chr 17:6). Jehoshaphat continued his father Asa’s religious reforms but reversed his foreign policy. Jehoshaphat discontinued Judah’s war with Israel over their boundaries (see 1 Kgs 22:2) and made an alliance with Ahab. To confirm this alliance, he ...","summary_en":"Jehoshaphat Jehoshaphat succeeded his father Asa to become the fourth king of Judah (872–848 BC). Like Hezekiah and Josiah after him, Jehoshaphat trusted the Lord throughout his life and worked to remove most forms of pagan worship from Israel (2 Chr 17:6). Jehoshaphat continued his father Asa’s religious reforms but reversed his foreign policy. Jehoshaphat discontinued Judah’s war with Israel over their boundaries (see 1 Kgs 22:2) and made an alliance with Ahab. To confirm this alliance, he ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68683,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Moab and Ammon","title_en":"Moab and Ammon","content_ro":"<h3>Moab and Ammon<\/h3>\n<p>The Moabites were descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter (Gen 19:36-38). They settled on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea. Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland divided by ravines. Even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, but its location on the King’s Highway was strategically important (see Num 21:21-22; Judg 11:15-18). Prior to the Israelites’ passage through the Transjordan, the Moabites were dominated by Sihon, the Amorite king who ruled at Heshbon (see Num 21:13, 26). After Israel defeated Sihon, King Balak of Moab feared that Israel might conquer his land, and Moab waged war against them (Num 22:1–25:3; Josh 24:9). From that time onward, Moab and Israel were often in conflict (Judg 3:12-30; 1 Sam 14:47; 2 Sam 8:2; 2 Kgs 3), but there were also periods of peace (Ruth 1:1-2) between them. A Moabite woman named Ruth displayed great kindness to her tragedy-plagued Israelite mother-in-law, Naomi, and she came to be part of the family line that produced King David and Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>The Ammonites traced their ancestry to Ammon, son of the younger daughter of Lot (Gen 19:36-38). They settled in an area of the Transjordan northeast of the Dead Sea. When the Israelites arrived in the area after leaving Egypt, God instructed them not to try to occupy Ammonite territory, as it had already been given to the descendants of Lot (Deut 2:18-19, 37). The Ammonites helped the Moabites oppose Israel and were excluded from the congregation of the Lord to the tenth generation (Deut 23:3-6; Neh 13:1-2; see Num 22:1–25:3). Thereafter the Ammonites were frequent enemies of Israel (Judg 10–11; 1 Sam 11; 14:47; 1 Chr 20:1-3; 2 Chr 20:1-24), though David seems to have allied with them for a time (2 Sam 17:27-29; 23:37).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 23:3-6<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Moab and Ammon<\/h3>\n<p>The Moabites were descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter (Gen 19:36-38). They settled on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea. Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland divided by ravines. Even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, but its location on the King’s Highway was strategically important (see Num 21:21-22; Judg 11:15-18). Prior to the Israelites’ passage through the Transjordan, the Moabites were dominated by Sihon, the Amorite king who ruled at Heshbon (see Num 21:13, 26). After Israel defeated Sihon, King Balak of Moab feared that Israel might conquer his land, and Moab waged war against them (Num 22:1–25:3; Josh 24:9). From that time onward, Moab and Israel were often in conflict (Judg 3:12-30; 1 Sam 14:47; 2 Sam 8:2; 2 Kgs 3), but there were also periods of peace (Ruth 1:1-2) between them. A Moabite woman named Ruth displayed great kindness to her tragedy-plagued Israelite mother-in-law, Naomi, and she came to be part of the family line that produced King David and Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>The Ammonites traced their ancestry to Ammon, son of the younger daughter of Lot (Gen 19:36-38). They settled in an area of the Transjordan northeast of the Dead Sea. When the Israelites arrived in the area after leaving Egypt, God instructed them not to try to occupy Ammonite territory, as it had already been given to the descendants of Lot (Deut 2:18-19, 37). The Ammonites helped the Moabites oppose Israel and were excluded from the congregation of the Lord to the tenth generation (Deut 23:3-6; Neh 13:1-2; see Num 22:1–25:3). Thereafter the Ammonites were frequent enemies of Israel (Judg 10–11; 1 Sam 11; 14:47; 1 Chr 20:1-3; 2 Chr 20:1-24), though David seems to have allied with them for a time (2 Sam 17:27-29; 23:37).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 23:3-6<\/p>","summary_ro":"Moab and Ammon The Moabites were descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter (Gen 19:36-38). They settled on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea. Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland divided by ravines. Even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, but its location on the King’s Highway was strategically important (see Num 21:21-22; Judg 11:15-18). Prior to the Israelites’ passage through the Transjordan, the Moabites were dominated...","summary_en":"Moab and Ammon The Moabites were descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter (Gen 19:36-38). They settled on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea. Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland divided by ravines. Even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, but its location on the King’s Highway was strategically important (see Num 21:21-22; Judg 11:15-18). Prior to the Israelites’ passage through the Transjordan, the Moabites were dominated...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":69353,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jehoshaphat","title_en":"Jehoshaphat","content_ro":"<h3>Jehoshaphat<\/h3>\n<p>Jehoshaphat succeeded his father Asa to become the fourth king of Judah (872–848 <span>BC<\/span>). Like Hezekiah and Josiah after him, Jehoshaphat trusted the Lord throughout his life and worked to remove most forms of pagan worship from Israel (2 Chr 17:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jehoshaphat continued his father Asa’s religious reforms but reversed his foreign policy. Jehoshaphat discontinued Judah’s war with Israel over their boundaries (see 1 Kgs 22:2) and made an alliance with Ahab. To confirm this alliance, he arranged for his son Jehoram to marry Ahab’s daughter Athaliah (2 Chr 18:1-2; 2 Kgs 8:18) and supported the north in its wars against the Arameans and Moabites (2 Chr 18:3-34; 1 Kgs 22; 2 Kgs 3:4-27). The prophet Jehu rebuked Jehoshaphat for his unwise alliance with Israel (2 Chr 19:1-3), which resulted in his son Jehoram falling under the influence of Ahab and Jezebel. Jehoram and his son Ahaziah turned Judah toward idol worship.<\/p>\n<p>Yet during his reign, Jehoshaphat kept the worship of the Lord pure. He closed the temples of prostitution (1 Kgs 22:46) and sent teachers of God’s law throughout the land (2 Chr 17:7-9). He also established a system of judges and admonished them to function as the Lord’s representatives so that justice might prevail (19:4-7). He appointed Levites, priests, and family heads to handle cases pertaining to religious practice and to negotiate disputes among citizens (19:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>Before going to battle, Jehoshaphat would insist on hearing from a true prophet of the Lord. And in one of the most stirring descriptions of war in the Old Testament, Jehoshaphat preached to the army before entering a battle. As a result, God caused the armies from Ammon, Moab, and their allies to turn against each other (2 Chr 20).<\/p>\n<p>Jehoshaphat died when he was about sixty years old and was buried in Jerusalem. His son Jehoram became Judah’s next king (21:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 15:24; 22:1-50; 2 Kgs 3:1-27; 2 Chr 17:1–21:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jehoshaphat<\/h3>\n<p>Jehoshaphat succeeded his father Asa to become the fourth king of Judah (872–848 <span>BC<\/span>). Like Hezekiah and Josiah after him, Jehoshaphat trusted the Lord throughout his life and worked to remove most forms of pagan worship from Israel (2 Chr 17:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jehoshaphat continued his father Asa’s religious reforms but reversed his foreign policy. Jehoshaphat discontinued Judah’s war with Israel over their boundaries (see 1 Kgs 22:2) and made an alliance with Ahab. To confirm this alliance, he arranged for his son Jehoram to marry Ahab’s daughter Athaliah (2 Chr 18:1-2; 2 Kgs 8:18) and supported the north in its wars against the Arameans and Moabites (2 Chr 18:3-34; 1 Kgs 22; 2 Kgs 3:4-27). The prophet Jehu rebuked Jehoshaphat for his unwise alliance with Israel (2 Chr 19:1-3), which resulted in his son Jehoram falling under the influence of Ahab and Jezebel. Jehoram and his son Ahaziah turned Judah toward idol worship.<\/p>\n<p>Yet during his reign, Jehoshaphat kept the worship of the Lord pure. He closed the temples of prostitution (1 Kgs 22:46) and sent teachers of God’s law throughout the land (2 Chr 17:7-9). He also established a system of judges and admonished them to function as the Lord’s representatives so that justice might prevail (19:4-7). He appointed Levites, priests, and family heads to handle cases pertaining to religious practice and to negotiate disputes among citizens (19:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>Before going to battle, Jehoshaphat would insist on hearing from a true prophet of the Lord. And in one of the most stirring descriptions of war in the Old Testament, Jehoshaphat preached to the army before entering a battle. As a result, God caused the armies from Ammon, Moab, and their allies to turn against each other (2 Chr 20).<\/p>\n<p>Jehoshaphat died when he was about sixty years old and was buried in Jerusalem. His son Jehoram became Judah’s next king (21:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 15:24; 22:1-50; 2 Kgs 3:1-27; 2 Chr 17:1–21:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jehoshaphat Jehoshaphat succeeded his father Asa to become the fourth king of Judah (872–848 BC). Like Hezekiah and Josiah after him, Jehoshaphat trusted the Lord throughout his life and worked to remove most forms of pagan worship from Israel (2 Chr 17:6). Jehoshaphat continued his father Asa’s religious reforms but reversed his foreign policy. Jehoshaphat discontinued Judah’s war with Israel over their boundaries (see 1 Kgs 22:2) and made an alliance with Ahab. To confirm this alliance, he ...","summary_en":"Jehoshaphat Jehoshaphat succeeded his father Asa to become the fourth king of Judah (872–848 BC). Like Hezekiah and Josiah after him, Jehoshaphat trusted the Lord throughout his life and worked to remove most forms of pagan worship from Israel (2 Chr 17:6). Jehoshaphat continued his father Asa’s religious reforms but reversed his foreign policy. Jehoshaphat discontinued Judah’s war with Israel over their boundaries (see 1 Kgs 22:2) and made an alliance with Ahab. To confirm this alliance, he ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96309,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Moab and Ammon","title_en":"Moab and Ammon","content_ro":"<h3>Moab and Ammon<\/h3>\n<p>The Moabites were descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter (Gen 19:36-38). They settled on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea. Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland divided by ravines. Even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, but its location on the King’s Highway was strategically important (see Num 21:21-22; Judg 11:15-18). Prior to the Israelites’ passage through the Transjordan, the Moabites were dominated by Sihon, the Amorite king who ruled at Heshbon (see Num 21:13, 26). After Israel defeated Sihon, King Balak of Moab feared that Israel might conquer his land, and Moab waged war against them (Num 22:1–25:3; Josh 24:9). From that time onward, Moab and Israel were often in conflict (Judg 3:12-30; 1 Sam 14:47; 2 Sam 8:2; 2 Kgs 3), but there were also periods of peace (Ruth 1:1-2) between them. A Moabite woman named Ruth displayed great kindness to her tragedy-plagued Israelite mother-in-law, Naomi, and she came to be part of the family line that produced King David and Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>The Ammonites traced their ancestry to Ammon, son of the younger daughter of Lot (Gen 19:36-38). They settled in an area of the Transjordan northeast of the Dead Sea. When the Israelites arrived in the area after leaving Egypt, God instructed them not to try to occupy Ammonite territory, as it had already been given to the descendants of Lot (Deut 2:18-19, 37). The Ammonites helped the Moabites oppose Israel and were excluded from the congregation of the Lord to the tenth generation (Deut 23:3-6; Neh 13:1-2; see Num 22:1–25:3). Thereafter the Ammonites were frequent enemies of Israel (Judg 10–11; 1 Sam 11; 14:47; 1 Chr 20:1-3; 2 Chr 20:1-24), though David seems to have allied with them for a time (2 Sam 17:27-29; 23:37).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 23:3-6<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Moab and Ammon<\/h3>\n<p>The Moabites were descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter (Gen 19:36-38). They settled on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea. Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland divided by ravines. Even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, but its location on the King’s Highway was strategically important (see Num 21:21-22; Judg 11:15-18). Prior to the Israelites’ passage through the Transjordan, the Moabites were dominated by Sihon, the Amorite king who ruled at Heshbon (see Num 21:13, 26). After Israel defeated Sihon, King Balak of Moab feared that Israel might conquer his land, and Moab waged war against them (Num 22:1–25:3; Josh 24:9). From that time onward, Moab and Israel were often in conflict (Judg 3:12-30; 1 Sam 14:47; 2 Sam 8:2; 2 Kgs 3), but there were also periods of peace (Ruth 1:1-2) between them. A Moabite woman named Ruth displayed great kindness to her tragedy-plagued Israelite mother-in-law, Naomi, and she came to be part of the family line that produced King David and Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>The Ammonites traced their ancestry to Ammon, son of the younger daughter of Lot (Gen 19:36-38). They settled in an area of the Transjordan northeast of the Dead Sea. When the Israelites arrived in the area after leaving Egypt, God instructed them not to try to occupy Ammonite territory, as it had already been given to the descendants of Lot (Deut 2:18-19, 37). The Ammonites helped the Moabites oppose Israel and were excluded from the congregation of the Lord to the tenth generation (Deut 23:3-6; Neh 13:1-2; see Num 22:1–25:3). Thereafter the Ammonites were frequent enemies of Israel (Judg 10–11; 1 Sam 11; 14:47; 1 Chr 20:1-3; 2 Chr 20:1-24), though David seems to have allied with them for a time (2 Sam 17:27-29; 23:37).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 23:3-6<\/p>","summary_ro":"Moab and Ammon The Moabites were descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter (Gen 19:36-38). They settled on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea. Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland divided by ravines. Even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, but its location on the King’s Highway was strategically important (see Num 21:21-22; Judg 11:15-18). Prior to the Israelites’ passage through the Transjordan, the Moabites were dominated...","summary_en":"Moab and Ammon The Moabites were descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter (Gen 19:36-38). They settled on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea. Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland divided by ravines. Even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, but its location on the King’s Highway was strategically important (see Num 21:21-22; Judg 11:15-18). Prior to the Israelites’ passage through the Transjordan, the Moabites were dominated...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96979,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jehoshaphat","title_en":"Jehoshaphat","content_ro":"<h3>Jehoshaphat<\/h3>\n<p>Jehoshaphat succeeded his father Asa to become the fourth king of Judah (872–848 <span>BC<\/span>). Like Hezekiah and Josiah after him, Jehoshaphat trusted the Lord throughout his life and worked to remove most forms of pagan worship from Israel (2 Chr 17:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jehoshaphat continued his father Asa’s religious reforms but reversed his foreign policy. Jehoshaphat discontinued Judah’s war with Israel over their boundaries (see 1 Kgs 22:2) and made an alliance with Ahab. To confirm this alliance, he arranged for his son Jehoram to marry Ahab’s daughter Athaliah (2 Chr 18:1-2; 2 Kgs 8:18) and supported the north in its wars against the Arameans and Moabites (2 Chr 18:3-34; 1 Kgs 22; 2 Kgs 3:4-27). The prophet Jehu rebuked Jehoshaphat for his unwise alliance with Israel (2 Chr 19:1-3), which resulted in his son Jehoram falling under the influence of Ahab and Jezebel. Jehoram and his son Ahaziah turned Judah toward idol worship.<\/p>\n<p>Yet during his reign, Jehoshaphat kept the worship of the Lord pure. He closed the temples of prostitution (1 Kgs 22:46) and sent teachers of God’s law throughout the land (2 Chr 17:7-9). He also established a system of judges and admonished them to function as the Lord’s representatives so that justice might prevail (19:4-7). He appointed Levites, priests, and family heads to handle cases pertaining to religious practice and to negotiate disputes among citizens (19:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>Before going to battle, Jehoshaphat would insist on hearing from a true prophet of the Lord. And in one of the most stirring descriptions of war in the Old Testament, Jehoshaphat preached to the army before entering a battle. As a result, God caused the armies from Ammon, Moab, and their allies to turn against each other (2 Chr 20).<\/p>\n<p>Jehoshaphat died when he was about sixty years old and was buried in Jerusalem. His son Jehoram became Judah’s next king (21:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 15:24; 22:1-50; 2 Kgs 3:1-27; 2 Chr 17:1–21:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jehoshaphat<\/h3>\n<p>Jehoshaphat succeeded his father Asa to become the fourth king of Judah (872–848 <span>BC<\/span>). Like Hezekiah and Josiah after him, Jehoshaphat trusted the Lord throughout his life and worked to remove most forms of pagan worship from Israel (2 Chr 17:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jehoshaphat continued his father Asa’s religious reforms but reversed his foreign policy. Jehoshaphat discontinued Judah’s war with Israel over their boundaries (see 1 Kgs 22:2) and made an alliance with Ahab. To confirm this alliance, he arranged for his son Jehoram to marry Ahab’s daughter Athaliah (2 Chr 18:1-2; 2 Kgs 8:18) and supported the north in its wars against the Arameans and Moabites (2 Chr 18:3-34; 1 Kgs 22; 2 Kgs 3:4-27). The prophet Jehu rebuked Jehoshaphat for his unwise alliance with Israel (2 Chr 19:1-3), which resulted in his son Jehoram falling under the influence of Ahab and Jezebel. Jehoram and his son Ahaziah turned Judah toward idol worship.<\/p>\n<p>Yet during his reign, Jehoshaphat kept the worship of the Lord pure. He closed the temples of prostitution (1 Kgs 22:46) and sent teachers of God’s law throughout the land (2 Chr 17:7-9). He also established a system of judges and admonished them to function as the Lord’s representatives so that justice might prevail (19:4-7). He appointed Levites, priests, and family heads to handle cases pertaining to religious practice and to negotiate disputes among citizens (19:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>Before going to battle, Jehoshaphat would insist on hearing from a true prophet of the Lord. And in one of the most stirring descriptions of war in the Old Testament, Jehoshaphat preached to the army before entering a battle. As a result, God caused the armies from Ammon, Moab, and their allies to turn against each other (2 Chr 20).<\/p>\n<p>Jehoshaphat died when he was about sixty years old and was buried in Jerusalem. His son Jehoram became Judah’s next king (21:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 15:24; 22:1-50; 2 Kgs 3:1-27; 2 Chr 17:1–21:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jehoshaphat Jehoshaphat succeeded his father Asa to become the fourth king of Judah (872–848 BC). Like Hezekiah and Josiah after him, Jehoshaphat trusted the Lord throughout his life and worked to remove most forms of pagan worship from Israel (2 Chr 17:6). Jehoshaphat continued his father Asa’s religious reforms but reversed his foreign policy. Jehoshaphat discontinued Judah’s war with Israel over their boundaries (see 1 Kgs 22:2) and made an alliance with Ahab. To confirm this alliance, he ...","summary_en":"Jehoshaphat Jehoshaphat succeeded his father Asa to become the fourth king of Judah (872–848 BC). Like Hezekiah and Josiah after him, Jehoshaphat trusted the Lord throughout his life and worked to remove most forms of pagan worship from Israel (2 Chr 17:6). Jehoshaphat continued his father Asa’s religious reforms but reversed his foreign policy. Jehoshaphat discontinued Judah’s war with Israel over their boundaries (see 1 Kgs 22:2) and made an alliance with Ahab. To confirm this alliance, he ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":123935,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Moab and Ammon","title_en":"Moab and Ammon","content_ro":"<h3>Moab and Ammon<\/h3>\n<p>The Moabites were descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter (Gen 19:36-38). They settled on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea. Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland divided by ravines. Even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, but its location on the King’s Highway was strategically important (see Num 21:21-22; Judg 11:15-18). Prior to the Israelites’ passage through the Transjordan, the Moabites were dominated by Sihon, the Amorite king who ruled at Heshbon (see Num 21:13, 26). After Israel defeated Sihon, King Balak of Moab feared that Israel might conquer his land, and Moab waged war against them (Num 22:1–25:3; Josh 24:9). From that time onward, Moab and Israel were often in conflict (Judg 3:12-30; 1 Sam 14:47; 2 Sam 8:2; 2 Kgs 3), but there were also periods of peace (Ruth 1:1-2) between them. A Moabite woman named Ruth displayed great kindness to her tragedy-plagued Israelite mother-in-law, Naomi, and she came to be part of the family line that produced King David and Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>The Ammonites traced their ancestry to Ammon, son of the younger daughter of Lot (Gen 19:36-38). They settled in an area of the Transjordan northeast of the Dead Sea. When the Israelites arrived in the area after leaving Egypt, God instructed them not to try to occupy Ammonite territory, as it had already been given to the descendants of Lot (Deut 2:18-19, 37). The Ammonites helped the Moabites oppose Israel and were excluded from the congregation of the Lord to the tenth generation (Deut 23:3-6; Neh 13:1-2; see Num 22:1–25:3). Thereafter the Ammonites were frequent enemies of Israel (Judg 10–11; 1 Sam 11; 14:47; 1 Chr 20:1-3; 2 Chr 20:1-24), though David seems to have allied with them for a time (2 Sam 17:27-29; 23:37).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 23:3-6<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Moab and Ammon<\/h3>\n<p>The Moabites were descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter (Gen 19:36-38). They settled on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea. Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland divided by ravines. Even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, but its location on the King’s Highway was strategically important (see Num 21:21-22; Judg 11:15-18). Prior to the Israelites’ passage through the Transjordan, the Moabites were dominated by Sihon, the Amorite king who ruled at Heshbon (see Num 21:13, 26). After Israel defeated Sihon, King Balak of Moab feared that Israel might conquer his land, and Moab waged war against them (Num 22:1–25:3; Josh 24:9). From that time onward, Moab and Israel were often in conflict (Judg 3:12-30; 1 Sam 14:47; 2 Sam 8:2; 2 Kgs 3), but there were also periods of peace (Ruth 1:1-2) between them. A Moabite woman named Ruth displayed great kindness to her tragedy-plagued Israelite mother-in-law, Naomi, and she came to be part of the family line that produced King David and Jesus.<\/p>\n<p>The Ammonites traced their ancestry to Ammon, son of the younger daughter of Lot (Gen 19:36-38). They settled in an area of the Transjordan northeast of the Dead Sea. When the Israelites arrived in the area after leaving Egypt, God instructed them not to try to occupy Ammonite territory, as it had already been given to the descendants of Lot (Deut 2:18-19, 37). The Ammonites helped the Moabites oppose Israel and were excluded from the congregation of the Lord to the tenth generation (Deut 23:3-6; Neh 13:1-2; see Num 22:1–25:3). Thereafter the Ammonites were frequent enemies of Israel (Judg 10–11; 1 Sam 11; 14:47; 1 Chr 20:1-3; 2 Chr 20:1-24), though David seems to have allied with them for a time (2 Sam 17:27-29; 23:37).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Deut 23:3-6<\/p>","summary_ro":"Moab and Ammon The Moabites were descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter (Gen 19:36-38). They settled on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea. Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland divided by ravines. Even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, but its location on the King’s Highway was strategically important (see Num 21:21-22; Judg 11:15-18). Prior to the Israelites’ passage through the Transjordan, the Moabites were dominated...","summary_en":"Moab and Ammon The Moabites were descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter (Gen 19:36-38). They settled on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea. Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland divided by ravines. Even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, but its location on the King’s Highway was strategically important (see Num 21:21-22; Judg 11:15-18). Prior to the Israelites’ passage through the Transjordan, the Moabites were dominated...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":124605,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jehoshaphat","title_en":"Jehoshaphat","content_ro":"<h3>Jehoshaphat<\/h3>\n<p>Jehoshaphat succeeded his father Asa to become the fourth king of Judah (872–848 <span>BC<\/span>). Like Hezekiah and Josiah after him, Jehoshaphat trusted the Lord throughout his life and worked to remove most forms of pagan worship from Israel (2 Chr 17:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jehoshaphat continued his father Asa’s religious reforms but reversed his foreign policy. Jehoshaphat discontinued Judah’s war with Israel over their boundaries (see 1 Kgs 22:2) and made an alliance with Ahab. To confirm this alliance, he arranged for his son Jehoram to marry Ahab’s daughter Athaliah (2 Chr 18:1-2; 2 Kgs 8:18) and supported the north in its wars against the Arameans and Moabites (2 Chr 18:3-34; 1 Kgs 22; 2 Kgs 3:4-27). The prophet Jehu rebuked Jehoshaphat for his unwise alliance with Israel (2 Chr 19:1-3), which resulted in his son Jehoram falling under the influence of Ahab and Jezebel. Jehoram and his son Ahaziah turned Judah toward idol worship.<\/p>\n<p>Yet during his reign, Jehoshaphat kept the worship of the Lord pure. He closed the temples of prostitution (1 Kgs 22:46) and sent teachers of God’s law throughout the land (2 Chr 17:7-9). He also established a system of judges and admonished them to function as the Lord’s representatives so that justice might prevail (19:4-7). He appointed Levites, priests, and family heads to handle cases pertaining to religious practice and to negotiate disputes among citizens (19:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>Before going to battle, Jehoshaphat would insist on hearing from a true prophet of the Lord. And in one of the most stirring descriptions of war in the Old Testament, Jehoshaphat preached to the army before entering a battle. As a result, God caused the armies from Ammon, Moab, and their allies to turn against each other (2 Chr 20).<\/p>\n<p>Jehoshaphat died when he was about sixty years old and was buried in Jerusalem. His son Jehoram became Judah’s next king (21:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 15:24; 22:1-50; 2 Kgs 3:1-27; 2 Chr 17:1–21:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jehoshaphat<\/h3>\n<p>Jehoshaphat succeeded his father Asa to become the fourth king of Judah (872–848 <span>BC<\/span>). Like Hezekiah and Josiah after him, Jehoshaphat trusted the Lord throughout his life and worked to remove most forms of pagan worship from Israel (2 Chr 17:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jehoshaphat continued his father Asa’s religious reforms but reversed his foreign policy. Jehoshaphat discontinued Judah’s war with Israel over their boundaries (see 1 Kgs 22:2) and made an alliance with Ahab. To confirm this alliance, he arranged for his son Jehoram to marry Ahab’s daughter Athaliah (2 Chr 18:1-2; 2 Kgs 8:18) and supported the north in its wars against the Arameans and Moabites (2 Chr 18:3-34; 1 Kgs 22; 2 Kgs 3:4-27). The prophet Jehu rebuked Jehoshaphat for his unwise alliance with Israel (2 Chr 19:1-3), which resulted in his son Jehoram falling under the influence of Ahab and Jezebel. Jehoram and his son Ahaziah turned Judah toward idol worship.<\/p>\n<p>Yet during his reign, Jehoshaphat kept the worship of the Lord pure. He closed the temples of prostitution (1 Kgs 22:46) and sent teachers of God’s law throughout the land (2 Chr 17:7-9). He also established a system of judges and admonished them to function as the Lord’s representatives so that justice might prevail (19:4-7). He appointed Levites, priests, and family heads to handle cases pertaining to religious practice and to negotiate disputes among citizens (19:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>Before going to battle, Jehoshaphat would insist on hearing from a true prophet of the Lord. And in one of the most stirring descriptions of war in the Old Testament, Jehoshaphat preached to the army before entering a battle. As a result, God caused the armies from Ammon, Moab, and their allies to turn against each other (2 Chr 20).<\/p>\n<p>Jehoshaphat died when he was about sixty years old and was buried in Jerusalem. His son Jehoram became Judah’s next king (21:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 15:24; 22:1-50; 2 Kgs 3:1-27; 2 Chr 17:1–21:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jehoshaphat Jehoshaphat succeeded his father Asa to become the fourth king of Judah (872–848 BC). Like Hezekiah and Josiah after him, Jehoshaphat trusted the Lord throughout his life and worked to remove most forms of pagan worship from Israel (2 Chr 17:6). Jehoshaphat continued his father Asa’s religious reforms but reversed his foreign policy. Jehoshaphat discontinued Judah’s war with Israel over their boundaries (see 1 Kgs 22:2) and made an alliance with Ahab. To confirm this alliance, he ...","summary_en":"Jehoshaphat Jehoshaphat succeeded his father Asa to become the fourth king of Judah (872–848 BC). Like Hezekiah and Josiah after him, Jehoshaphat trusted the Lord throughout his life and worked to remove most forms of pagan worship from Israel (2 Chr 17:6). Jehoshaphat continued his father Asa’s religious reforms but reversed his foreign policy. Jehoshaphat discontinued Judah’s war with Israel over their boundaries (see 1 Kgs 22:2) and made an alliance with Ahab. To confirm this alliance, he ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":6444,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"of the Bible* (Old Testament), Chronology","title_en":"of the Bible* (Old Testament), Chronology","content_ro":"<h3>CHRONOLOGY OF THE BIBLE* (Old Testament)<\/h3>\n<p>Branch of biblical studies that attempts to assign dates and sequences to OT events. Chronology is a science. It deals with evidence, theories, assumptions, and the balance of probabilities. Often it boils down to a matter of choosing among theories that are equally unable to solve all the problems raised by other points of view. OT chronology is an accredited branch of biblical studies primarily because it is essential for understanding the proper historical background of the biblical texts. In general, the chronology of the OT is understood well enough to vindicate the basic accuracy and sequential order of Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Both biblical and nonbiblical materials are utilized by students of OT chronology. Biblical data include (1) genealogies showing personal and tribal affiliations among various peoples; (2) specific numbers given by biblical authors to indicate a person’s longevity, a king’s reign, or the duration of a specific event; (3) synchronizing statements that date an event in a specific year of a king’s reign or relate it to a natural phenomenon assumed to be common knowledge at the time of writing (e.g., Am 1:1; Zec 14:5).<\/p>\n<p>From the abundance of such chronological passages in the OT, one might conclude that establishment of OT dates and sequences would be a simple procedure. Each of the three kinds of biblical materials, however, exhibits special problems that must be solved first.<\/p>\n<p>Nonbiblical materials that shed light on OT chronology are quite numerous, and more are discovered year by year. They include (1) official records of important affairs such as military campaigns from countries like Egypt or Babylonia; (2) official inscriptions that are dedicatory or commemorate a great victory; (3) annals listing major accomplishments of a ruler year by year; (4) ostraca (inscribed pieces of pottery) containing letters, tax transactions and economic records, military dispatches between field leaders and command headquarters, or other information. Ostraca may be dated archaeologically and are often used to supplement the biblical record.<\/p>\n<p>The chronologist tries to examine the pertinent biblical and nonbiblical information, notes areas of correlation among all the data, and finally establishes a working system into which the most facts can be fitted. New evidence uncovered at any time may necessitate shifts in the present working system. Although the basic structure of biblical chronology seems reasonably firm, many details will no doubt be subject to change as new evidence is discovered.<\/p>\n<p>As a general rule, the earlier the period, the less certain one can be of one’s dating. In the second millennium <span>BC<\/span>, for example, many dates can be assigned within a range of about 100 years. By the time of David and Solomon (c. 1000 <span>BC<\/span>), the margin of error over which scholars debate is a decade or less. The range narrows as one comes toward the present, so that, with the exception of one or two problem eras, dates accurate to within one or two years are possible by roughly the middle of the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>. Such limitations must be kept in mind in any examination of the major periods of OT history.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Prepatriarchal Period<\/p>\n<p>• From Abraham to Moses<\/p>\n<p>• Conquest and Consolidation<\/p>\n<p>• The Monarchy<\/p>\n<p>• Judah after the Fall of Israel<\/p>\n<p>• Beyond 587 <span>BC<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PrepatriarchalPeriod\">Prepatriarchal Period<\/p>\n<h5>Biblical Evidence<\/h5>\n<p>In the first 11 chapters of Genesis are found accounts of the Creation (chs 1–2), the fall (ch 3), Cain and Abel (ch 4), the Flood (chs 6–9), and the Tower of Babel (ch 11). Those events are set within a certain chronological framework.<\/p>\n<p>According to Genesis 5, a period of 10 generations elapsed between the Creation and the Flood. Although the individuals listed enjoyed a total life span of a hefty 847 years plus, the total time elapsing between Adam and the Flood was only 1,656 years.<\/p>\n<p>According to Genesis 11, another 10 generations elapsed from the time of the Flood until the time of Abraham (at least in the Septuagint, the third-century <span>BC<\/span> Greek translation of the OT; the Hebrew Masoretic text has 9). In that period the average age attained by individuals in the list is 346 years (using a figure of 460 for Arphaxad’s son Cainan, who is included in v 13 of the LXX; cf. Lk 3:36); the total elapsed time from the Flood to Abraham is only 520 years. Taken literally, that would mean that all of Abraham’s ancestors as far back as Noah’s son Shem were still alive at Abraham’s birth, and that a total of only 2,176 years elapsed from the time of Creation to Abraham.<\/p>\n<h5>Interpretation of the Biblical Data<\/h5>\n<p>A literalistic or slavishly mathematical interpretation of the figures, as has appeared in the margin of many <span>kjv<\/span> Bibles, requires a number of assumptions: that no names are omitted from the genealogies, that all the numbers given are consecutive, and especially that numbers used in an ancient biblical source carry the same meaning as that associated with them in the modern Western mind. Each assumption needs serious examination in the light of other established facts.<\/p>\n<p>A cursory reading of other biblical genealogies, for example, reveals that not all the names of a given family were always included. Even Matthew recorded a total of 28 generations (two sets of 14 each) between David and Jesus, and comparison with OT genealogies reveals that Matthew omitted several names. Luke listed a total of 42 generations for the same interval. Omissions are also obvious when one compares the genealogical lists given in 1 Chronicles 1–8 with those recorded earlier in Genesis, Exodus, Numbers, Joshua, 1 and 2 Samuel, and 1 and 2 Kings.<\/p>\n<p>Further, ancient peoples thought of numbers in a schematic or stylized way. Use of numbers among the ancient Near Eastern nations differed sharply from current Western practice. Examples of that practice are known from both biblical and nonbiblical sources. For example, a list of eight Sumerian kings who ruled in the city of Shurruppak before the “great flood” of the Jemdet Nar era (c. 3000 <span>BC<\/span>) assigns each man an average reign of more than 30,000 years. Berossus, a Babylonian priest of Marduk living in the third century <span>BC<\/span>, added two names to the eight found in that earlier list of kings and assigned an average of 43,200 years to each king. Such extraordinarily high numbers provide a perspective for considering the numbers of Genesis.<\/p>\n<p>Therefore, although one can assume that the numbers assigned to the ages of the patriarchs preceding Abraham in Genesis had real meaning for those responsible for their preservation, they should not be employed in a purely literal sense to compute the length of the various generations mentioned in the text. Further, the numbers given in the Septuagint and in the Samaritan Pentateuch, another early version of the Pentateuch, diverge in many details from those of the Hebrew Masoretic Text. That means, among other things, that the Genesis numbers caused problems for even the earliest scholars of Scripture.<\/p>\n<h5>Nonbiblical Evidence<\/h5>\n<p>Archaeology provides no evidence that may be used to date either the Creation or any other account preserved in Genesis 1–11. The Flood is an example that illustrates some of the difficulties. Many claims have been made by persons from a wide variety of backgrounds (scientists, explorers, theologians, and others) to the effect that archaeology has proven the Genesis Flood narrative to be true. Yet no city so far excavated in Palestine and Syria (including some of the oldest towns in the world) shows archaeological evidence of the Flood.<\/p>\n<p>Although several cities in Mesopotamia do exhibit evidence of a flood, three factors make it difficult to link that evidence with Genesis 6–9. Each of the flood levels so far discovered dates from a different period. Further, since nearby sites show no evidence of flooding, all of the Mesopotamian flood evidence points to relatively small local floods. Finally, the evidence indicates no great cultural discontinuities of the sort that would result from destruction of an entire population. Thus, it seems that the ancient Mesopotamian floods discovered through archaeological research are of the same kind as the floods that still occur in the Euphrates River valley.<\/p>\n<p>Clearly, certain questions one might ask of the Genesis narratives simply cannot be answered. Many who regard the Bible as the Word of God have concluded that the dating of events found in Genesis 1–11 must be less important than the theological truths of salvation, faith, and obedience that these accounts present.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FromAbrahamtoMoses\">From Abraham to Moses<\/p>\n<h5>The Patriarchal Age<\/h5>\n<p>The date of Abraham is still a lively topic among biblical scholars who agree that Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob were indeed historical persons. Opinions range from an early-date view that estimates that the patriarchal age extended from 2086 to 1871 <span>BC<\/span>, to a late-date view placing Abraham at around 1400 <span>BC<\/span>. Since each position claims to fit the biblical data, a closer look at the two points of view is in order.<\/p>\n<p>Many OT passages seem to support the view that puts Abraham at a comparatively early date. First Kings 6:1 computes 480 years back from the founding of the temple in the fourth year of Solomon’s reign (961 <span>BC<\/span>, according to the early-date view) to the exodus from Egypt, which would then be dated 1441 <span>BC<\/span>. Counting 430 years as the period of the Israelite sojourn in Egypt (see Gn 15:13; Ex 12:40) takes the date back to 1871 <span>BC<\/span>. To that date are added the 215 years demanded by the total of (1) Abraham’s age upon entering Canaan (75 years according to Gn 12:4); (2) 25 additional years before the birth of Isaac (Gn 21:5); (3) 60 more years to the birth of Jacob (Gn 25:26); and (4) the appearance of Jacob before the pharaoh at age 130 (Gn 47:9). Those 215 years added to the previous total give a date of 2086 <span>BC<\/span> for the entrance of Abraham into Canaan and a date of 2161 <span>BC<\/span> for his birth.<\/p>\n<p>Such a calculation does not use all of the chronological evidence presented in the OT; consequently, the date for Abraham is open to challenge. For example, the 480 years between the exodus and Solomon’s fourth regnal year represent a period of time into which the wilderness wanderings, the career of Joshua and his immediate successors, the period of the judges, Samuel, Saul, and David must all be placed. Although the OT does not specifically say how long were the careers of Joshua, Samuel, or Saul, even a modest reckoning pushes the total years required by all the biblical data together to approximately 600.<\/p>\n<p>In addition, the length of time to be assigned to the Egyptian sojourn is problematic. The Samaritan Pentateuch and the Septuagint both view the number 430 (in Ex 12:40) as applicable not only to the years in Egypt but to the years of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob in Canaan as well. Evidently Paul followed the Septuagint tradition when he dated the giving of the law 430 years later than the time of God’s promise to Abraham (see Gal 3:15-18). That means the Septuagint figure cannot be dismissed lightly.<\/p>\n<p>The late dating of Abraham (c. 1400 <span>BC<\/span>) is based on two propositions: (1) The picture of patriarchal society portrayed in Genesis most closely parallels that reflected in the cuneiform tablets recovered from Nuzi, a town in northeastern Mesopotamia about 175 miles (282 kilometers) north of Baghdad. (2) Because those tablets must be dated in the 15th and 14th centuries <span>BC<\/span>, the parallel patriarchal age must have fallen within the same general time period.<\/p>\n<p>Those who hold the late-date view are aware that their date for Abraham cannot be equated with the set of numbers on which the early-date view depends. They point to other data, also from the OT. Joseph, who was already a highly placed Egyptian official when Jacob moved to Egypt, lived to be 110 years old (Gn 50:26). Moses was a great-grandson of Levi, Joseph’s older brother. Since Joseph lived to see his own greatgrandchildren born (who would probably be younger than Moses since their great-grandfather was younger than his), the late-date view concludes that Joseph could have been alive when Moses was born. The four-generation genealogy of Moses (Levi-Kohath-Amram-Moses, in Ex 6:16-20; Nm 3:17-19; 26:58-59; 1 Chr 6:1-3) was evidently thought to be complete according to Genesis 15:16, which predicted that Abraham’s descendants would be freed from Egyptian bondage “in the fourth generation.”<\/p>\n<p>However, a date of around 1400 <span>BC<\/span> for Abraham cannot be aligned with certain other biblical data, including the long Egyptian sojourn demanded by Genesis 15:13 and Exodus 12:40 and a 40-year (or “one-generation”) wilderness existence. Some normally moderate scholars are forced to reduce the wilderness time to two years in order to maintain their late date for Abraham.<\/p>\n<p>In short, the late-date theory is consistent with part of the biblical evidence (the genealogies of Moses), but the early-date theory conforms to another part (the actual year figures listed in scattered verses from Genesis and Exodus). The late-date theory holds that the genealogies represent more reliable information in Semitic societies generally, whereas the early-date theory computes years given in the biblical account literally throughout its scheme.<\/p>\n<p>Because of problems attached to both positions, a large group of scholars take a middle ground in dating the patriarchal age. Archaeologically, they say, Abraham and his life and times fit perfectly within the early second millennium, but imperfectly within any later period. By placing Abraham roughly between 1800 and 1600 <span>BC<\/span>, they provide enough latitude for a merging of all the available evidence, biblical and nonbiblical, into a workable chronological scheme. Archaeology provides four major bits of evidence for an early second-millennium patriarchal era.<\/p>\n<p>1. Though the Nuzi tablets furnish a clear parallel to patriarchal social life, other tablets from other towns and an earlier era reflect many of the same customs common to Nuzi and Genesis. Since the Nuzians were Hurrians who came to northeastern Mesopotamia from elsewhere (perhaps Armenia), their social customs originated no doubt much earlier than the time of their tablets now in our possession. Accordingly, the 15th-century <span>BC<\/span> date of the Nuzi tablets does not preclude an earlier date for Abraham.<\/p>\n<li>2. The names of several of Abraham’s ancestors listed in Genesis 11 can now be identified with towns in the northern area of Mesopotamia around Haran, the city from which Abraham migrated to Canaan (Gn 11:31–12:3). Significantly, Haran flourished in the 19th and 18th centuries <span>BC<\/span>.<\/li>\n<li>3. Shortly after 2000 <span>BC<\/span> Semitic nomads from the desert invaded the civilized communities of the Fertile Crescent. Those invaders, called Amorites in the OT, established themselves in several cities in northern Syria and Mesopotamia. One of the Amorite cities was Babylon, ruled by Hammurabi sometime around the beginning of the 18th century <span>BC<\/span>. Although the King Amraphel of Genesis 14:1 is not linguistically identifiable with the Babylonian king Hammurabi, as earlier scholars believed, the picture of the times following the Amorite invasion still accords well with the Genesis narratives generally.<\/li>\n<li>4. Mari, another Amorite town, is now well known because of more than 20,000 tablets recovered from its royal palace and archives. Geographically, Mari is located in the general area of Haran. Chronologically, the tablets recovered come from the 18th century <span>BC<\/span>. One 18th-century king of Mari, Zimri Lim, carried on extensive correspondence with Hammurabi of Babylon. The tablets from Mari also furnish valuable information about tribal and ethnic groups and their movements in the general region. Of basic importance for dating the Genesis materials are certain documents from Mari that include personal names very similar to Abraham (Abi-ram), Jacob, Laban, and several other West Semitic names.<\/li>\n<p>Archaeological evidence neither proves nor disproves the actual existence of Abraham, Isaac, or Jacob. That is admitted on all sides. What archaeology has done is to provide a framework of probabilities within which the biblical patriarchal narratives appear more and more to be at home.<\/p>\n<h5>Date of the Exodus<\/h5>\n<p>The problem of dating the patriarchal age is closely related to the problem of assigning a date to the exodus of the Israelites from Egypt. Since the evidence does not permit a precise date for Abraham, a precise date for the entry of Joseph or Jacob into Egypt is likewise unobtainable. Further, the biblical evidence does not yield an exact figure for the length of the Israelite sojourn in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>For many years biblical scholars viewed 1 Kings 6:1 as a foundation upon which to build an unshakable date for the exodus. Because Solomon’s fourth year could be unquestionably fixed to within at least a 10-year span (967–958 <span>BC<\/span>), the exodus too could be dated with the same precision simply by adding 480 years. But other biblical data raise serious questions about that simple procedure. When the Bible deals with all the events between the time of the exodus and the founding of Solomon’s temple, that is, from Numbers to 1 Kings 5:18, the precise numbers given total not 480 but closer to 600 years.<\/p>\n<p>Because the evidence is insufficient to allow a precise date for the exodus, scholarly opinion remains divided between two possibilities. A 15th-century exodus is supported by several pieces of evidence. The chronology in 1 Kings 6:1 appears to be independently corroborated by a passage in Judges 11:26. It claims that Israel had occupied the area around Heshbon for 300 years preceding Jephthah’s own day. If Jephthah is dated at roughly 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, one is obviously led back to an exodus in the middle of the 15th century. Also, three successive generations of pharaohs who ruled in the 16th and 15th centuries produced no male offspring, making it more likely that Moses would have become the foster son of a royal princess during that time; all of the 19th-dynasty kings (1306–1200 <span>BC<\/span>) had legitimate male heirs.<\/p>\n<p>In addition, a 15th-century date makes possible a connection between the Habiru invasion of Canaan (1400–1350 <span>BC<\/span>)—described in the Amarna letters found at Tell el-Amarna, Egypt—and the invasion of Canaan by the Hebrews described in the OT book of Joshua. Related to that is a reference to “Israel” in the Merneptah Stele, a stone pillar inscribed with the deeds of the Egyptian king, Merneptah, of about 1220 <span>BC<\/span>. It implies that the people referred to, met by Merneptah in the course of a Canaanite military campaign, had been in existence for some time. Finally, an excavator of Jericho, John Garstang, placed the destruction of that city at around 1400 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Other evidence, however, strongly implies not a 15th- but a 13th-century date for the exodus. Many scholars assign a date between 1290 and 1275 <span>BC<\/span> on the basis of that evidence. First, the 480 years of 1 Kings 6:1 discussed above may be interpreted as schematically representing 12 generations, as indicated by 1 Chronicles 6:3-8. Thus if 12 generations averaged 25 years instead of 40 years, the reduction of 480 schematized years to 300 actual years would point to an exodus date of around 1266 <span>BC<\/span>. Second, archaeological evidence exists that dates destruction at the assumed sites of several cities conquered by Joshua (Lachish, Debir, Bethel, and Hazor) to the late 13th century. Third, there is no biblical mention of Egyptian military campaigns (such as Merneptah’s 1220 <span>BC<\/span> incursion); Israelites living in Canaan before the time of the militarily active pharaohs Seti I (1319–1301 <span>BC<\/span>) and Ramses II (1301–1234 <span>BC<\/span>) would certainly have been affected by such activity. Fourth, Exodus 1:11 mentions the city of Rameses, the capital built by Ramses II, according to his own inscriptions. A fifth line of argument comes from archaeological conclusions that Transjordan and the Negev Desert were not occupied by sedentary people between 1900 and 1300 <span>BC<\/span>, whereas the Bible states clearly that the Israelites encountered stiff opposition from groups in that same region. Thus, it is argued, the Israelites must have entered that region after 1300 <span>BC<\/span>. Sixth, connecting the Habiru with the Israelites of the Conquest lacks weight because many texts besides the Amarna tablets attest to the existence of Habiru groups virtually all over the ancient Near East. “Habiru” seems to be a much broader term, possibly meaning “trespasser,” and is probably unrelated etymologically or semantically to “Hebrew.” Seventh, and finally, Garstang’s work at Jericho has now been revised by archaeologist Kathleen Kenyon, who showed that the fallen walls that Garstang had dated about 1400 <span>BC<\/span> in reality were destroyed in 1800 <span>BC<\/span> or earlier.<\/p>\n<p>So far, it has been impossible to decide with precision between the two centuries proposed for the exodus. The majority opinion among OT scholars generally, including a growing number of moderate or conservative scholars, is in favor of the 13th-century option. On the other hand, many other conservative scholars continue to favor the 15th-century date. Dogmatism is unwarranted since problems remain unresolved with either option.<\/p>\n<p>In accordance with the majority opinion, however, a date of about 1290 <span>BC<\/span> for the exodus will be used in dealing with subsequent problems.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConquestandConsolidation\">Conquest and Consolidation<\/p>\n<p>The chronological task for the period of conquest and consolidation is to fit all the events narrated by the OT, chiefly in Joshua and Judges, between the exodus (c. 1290 <span>BC<\/span>) and the times of David (c. 1000 <span>BC<\/span>) and Solomon (d. 930 <span>BC<\/span>). In other words, one must fit roughly 550 years of biblical events between Moses and David into a 290-year span.<\/p>\n<p>Although assigning an early date for the exodus (c. 1447 <span>BC<\/span>) would make the task somewhat easier, the mere addition of about 157 years does not by itself solve all the problems. Neither date allows enough time for all the OT events from Joshua to David to take place singly and consecutively. Accordingly, advocates of both dates assume that some of the judges ruled simultaneously rather than consecutively. The difference is one of degree only.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Joshua furnishes most of the OT evidence regarding the conquest of Canaan by the Israelites. Unfortunately, the book of Joshua has no chronological notes that specify the amount of time elapsing during Joshua’s career. Further, there are no biblical references to major contemporary events in other parts of the ancient world, the dates of which could be used to fix the chronology. Rather, in what is obviously a telescoped account, the book of Joshua records the fall of Jericho and Ai, followed closely by a southern and then a northern campaign. After those victories, covering much of the total territory of Canaan, various parcels of land were distributed to the tribal groups of Israel; the tribes were expected to complete the task of destroying whatever Canaanite inhabitants remained in their particular region. One seeks in vain, however, for any statements indicating how long those events took.<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Judges a slightly different circumstance prevails. There the OT furnishes a rather complete list of figures to indicate the duration of periods of foreign oppression, judgeships, and ensuing peace. The total number of years described for that period is 410, but that total does not include any time for the many “minor” judges. It seems obvious, therefore, that most if not all of the judges were simply local chieftains whose activity was simultaneous with that of other judges, at least for part of their reign. Unfortunately, the book of Judges provides no cross-reference system to indicate which judges were contemporaries of which others. Perhaps the best one can do is to assume general guidelines for the chronology of that period between Moses and David.<\/p>\n<p>Two significant facts should be kept in mind. First, archaeological information seems to demand a Conquest date beginning about 1250 <span>BC<\/span> rather than 200 years earlier. Assuming concurrent careers for the judges allows one to compress the literal OT figures into the general scheme demanded by other evidence.<\/p>\n<p>Second, the ancient scribes evidently related the chronology of the period to a 40-year or generation-based schema, a practice that lasted until the time of the divided kingdom, when a regular dynastic chronology was introduced. In the face of so many careers being assigned exactly 40 years, the fact remains that the literal totals of such numbers cannot be harmonized with either the biblical or the archaeological evidence for the period. Accordingly, most scholars doubt that the number 40 was ever intended to be an exact mathematical calculation. That view permits enough leeway for cautious fitting of biblical and other evidence into a general timetable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheMonarchy\">The Monarchy<\/p>\n<h5>Types of Evidence<\/h5>\n<p>For the period of the Israelite monarchy, chronological evidence is abundant.<\/p>\n<p>The OT itself strives to provide all the information necessary for the chronology of the period, including (1) a complete list of all the kings in Israel and in Judah both before and after the division of the kingdom; (2) the age of each king (except Saul) at his accession; (3) synchronisms of the northern kingdom of Israel and the southern kingdom of Judah showing in what year of his contemporary in the other kingdom each king came to the throne; and (4) precise calculations of the length of each king’s reign. In addition some important events are dated by reference to another event; others are coordinated with concurrent events in secular history.<\/p>\n<p>Outside the OT an abundance of material provides evidence for a chronology of the period. By far the most important single source is a collection of Assyrian <em>limmu<\/em> lists. In Assyria a record of each king’s reign was kept on a particular kind of annal. Each year of reign was named after an individual of high rank in the court; the first year was named after the king himself, the second after the next highest-ranking official (though that name appears to have been selected by lot originally), and so on, down until the death of the king. The word <em>limmu<\/em> was used to introduce the name of the official after whom the current year was to be named, hence the designation <em>“limmu<\/em> lists.”<\/p>\n<p>Assyrian <em>limmu<\/em> lists are tied precisely to the solar year, making the documents highly reliable. Further, in addition to many events in Assyrian history, notable natural phenomena were dated on the basis of the <em>limmu<\/em> in which they occurred. For example, a solar eclipse dated by the Assyrian scribes in the <em>limmu<\/em> year of Bur-Sagale has been computed astronomically as June 15, 763 <span>BC<\/span>. Beginning with the year 763, then, and working both backward and forward, a complete list of Assyrian <em>limmu<\/em> officials has been obtained for the period between 891 and 648 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>With the accuracy of the Assyrian <em>limmu<\/em> lists corroborated by a number of sources, they can be used with confidence in reconstructing the chronology of the corresponding period of biblical history. That is especially true where a biblical writer related an Israelite or a Judahite event to a particular year in the reign of an Assyrian king whose <em>limmu<\/em> list indicates the precise years of his reign.<\/p>\n<p>There are also records from Chaldean (Babylonian) king lists and from later Greek historians. Ptolemy, in the second century <span>AD<\/span>, for example, gave dates for Babylonian kings from 747 <span>BC<\/span> and continued with dates for Persian, Greek, and Roman rulers down to <span>AD<\/span> 161. Finally, useful information is found in inscriptions from monuments, stelae, and other artifacts from Assyria and elsewhere.<\/p>\n<h5>Monarchical Chronology<\/h5>\n<p>The <em>limmu<\/em> list of the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III provides a basis for the first comparison of dates among Assyria, Israel, and Judah. In the <em>limmu<\/em> of Daian-Assur, Shalmaneser’s sixth year on the throne, Ahab of Israel was listed as one of the kings who fought against the Assyrians in the battle of Qarqar. Thus the date for that battle may be placed confidently in 853 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Assyrian records also indicate that Shalmaneser III came into contact with an Israelite king 12 years later, in 841 <span>BC<\/span>. That king was Jehu. Thus two fixed points are available for correlating the biblical information. Following the death of Ahab, which is not dated exactly by reference to the Assyrian records, two of his sons came to power. The first, Ahaziah, reigned two years (1 Kgs 22:51); the second, Joram (also called Jehoram), reigned a total of 12 years (2 Kgs 3:1). Recognizing a nonaccession-year reckoning by the Israelites in that era, the apparent total of 14 years may be reduced to an actual total of 12. Thus it seems evident that Ahab not only fought Shalmaneser III in 853 <span>BC<\/span> but also died in that year. Ahab was then followed by his two sons for a total of 12 years before the accession of Jehu in time to account for his contact with Shalmaneser II in 841 <span>BC<\/span>. Further, because Jehu murdered both the king of Israel (Jehoram) and the king of Judah (Ahaziah) at the same time (2 Kgs 9:24-27), a fixed synchronism is provided between the two kingdoms for the year 841 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The first nine kings of Israel ruled an apparent total of 98 years or an actual total (taking into account Israel’s nonaccession-year policy) of 90 years. Zimri, who ruled only seven days (1 Kgs 16:15-18), counts as one of the nine but does not insert an extra year in either the actual or apparent totals. The accession of Jeroboam I thus occurred in 930 <span>BC<\/span> (adding 90 years to 841 <span>BC<\/span>), and Rehoboam of Judah began to rule in that same year as well. Allowing Solomon the 40-year reign indicated in 1 Kings 11:42 points to the year 970 <span>BC<\/span> for his accession. The death of David would also be pinpointed in that period, although allowance must be made for the possibility of a short co-regency of David and Solomon before David’s death. The reign of Saul then falls approximately in the late 11th century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>In Judah the period between the death of Solomon in 930 <span>BC<\/span> and the murder of Ahaziah by Jehu in 841 <span>BC<\/span> was occupied by the kingships of six men whose time on the throne totals 95 biblical years. Computation of that era in Judah is not as simple as for the Israelite kings for several reasons. Problems include a change from accession- to nonaccession-year reckoning sometime around 850 <span>BC<\/span>, at least two co-regencies (Jehoshaphat with Asa and then Jehoram with Jehoshaphat), and the calendar differences between the two kingdoms. It is clear that the 95 apparent years must be reduced, on the basis of the differences in computation and calendar, to 90 actual years in order to bring the Judahite figures into line with the established Assyrian and Israelite synchronisms.<\/p>\n<p>After the year 841, the next biblical event to be certified by nonbiblical materials is the fall of Samaria in 722 <span>BC<\/span>. That date is furnished by the annals of Sargon II of Assyria (722–705 <span>BC<\/span>), successor to Shalmaneser V (727–722 <span>BC<\/span>). Although that date comes just 120 years after the fixed point of 841 <span>BC<\/span> in Israelite history, the chronological materials for that period are quite difficult to interpret accurately. In the past, scholars resorted to assumptions of extensive co-regencies, to presumed confusion on the part of certain scribes over methods to be followed in computations, or to other theories in attempting to understand the period. In spite of the many difficulties, however, all the biblical and Assyrian dates for the period of the divided monarchy have been harmonized—with the exception of four figures related to the closing years of the Israelite kingdom, all connected in some way with the problematic reign of Hoshea.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JudahaftertheFallofIsrael\">Judah after the Fall of Israel<\/p>\n<p>Following the fall of Samaria in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, OT chronology is concerned only with the southern kingdom of Judah until its destruction some 135 years later. Two events in the biblical record important for establishing a chronology for that period are the siege of Jerusalem by Sennacherib of Assyria in the late eighth century and the eventual fall of Jerusalem to the Babylonians in the early sixth century.<\/p>\n<h5>Sennacherib’s Invasion of Judah<\/h5>\n<p>The Assyrian invasion (704–681 <span>BC<\/span>) is recorded in 2 Kings 18:13-16, where verse 13 dates the event to the 14th year of King Hezekiah. Sennacherib’s own inscriptions include a lengthier version of the affair. From them the date of 701 <span>BC<\/span> is established, placing the accession of Hezekiah in 715 <span>BC<\/span>. That much is simple, but problems still arise. For example, 2 Kings 19:9 reports that Sennacherib was in contact with an Ethiopian king, Tirhakah (c. 690–664 <span>BC<\/span>), during the course of his campaign, which included a siege of Jerusalem. Obviously, contact with a ruler who came to power in 690 <span>BC<\/span> at the earliest could not refer to events in 701 <span>BC<\/span>. It is possible, however, that Sennacherib actually made two invasions of Judah, the first in 701 and the second sometime later. The date of that supposed second invasion is not assured, although 2 Kings 19:35-37 may imply that Sennacherib was murdered only shortly after his withdrawal from Jerusalem. Since Sennacherib was succeeded by his son Esarhaddon in the year 681, the presumed second invasion of Judah would have occurred somewhere in the last half of the same decade.<\/p>\n<p>A number of scholars oppose the assumption of a second invasion of Jerusalem by Sennacherib. They suggest the possibility that Tirhakah, though king only from 690 <span>BC<\/span>, may have led troops against Sennacherib as early as 701, before acceding to the throne. The reference to King Tirhakah in 2 Kings 19:9 would then be understood as use of his eventual title in an effort to identify him to a later generation of readers.<\/p>\n<p>However the question of the number of invasions is decided, it is certain that Sennacherib invaded Judah in 701 <span>BC<\/span>, the 14th regnal year of Hezekiah. Such a synchronism establishes Hezekiah’s accession year as 715 <span>BC<\/span>, but that date raises another problem. The fall of Samaria, now established at 722, is dated by 2 Kings 18:10 in the sixth year of Hezekiah’s reign. The most likely solution is that Hezekiah began a co-regency with his father, Ahaz, six years before Samaria fell. The possibility for confusion arises from the fact that one verse (2 Kgs 18:13; repeated in Is 36:1) synchronizes Sennacherib’s 701 <span>BC<\/span> invasion with the 14th year of Hezekiah’s independent reign; another verse (2 Kgs 18:10) correlates the fall of Samaria with the beginning of Hezekiah’s co-regency. Thus from about 728 to 715 <span>BC<\/span> Hezekiah was co-regent with Ahaz. From 715 to 697 he reigned alone. From 696 to 686 his son Manasseh was co-ruler with him.<\/p>\n<p>According to the chronological information given by a number of verses in 2 Kings, a total of 128 years and six months elapsed between the time of Hezekiah’s accession in 715 and the capture of King Jehoiachin in 597, a date to be discussed below. Thus another problem is to explain the more than 10-year excess apparently demanded by the biblical totals. The best solution appears to lie in the assumption that Manasseh first came to power in 697 as co-regent with his father, Hezekiah. Manasseh died in 642, following what 2 Kings 21:1 states was a 55-year reign. Hezekiah, who came to the throne in 715, is said to have reigned 29 years (2 Kgs 18:2), which would mean that he was king until 686, roughly 11 years after the time when Manasseh must have come to the throne in order to have completed a 55-year reign by 642.<\/p>\n<h5>Fall of Jerusalem<\/h5>\n<p>Contemporary Babylonian records are available to shed valuable light on the last few years of Judah’s existence. For the years 626–623, 618–595, and 556 <span>BC<\/span> the Babylonian Chronicle, a formal record of Babylonian affairs of state, has been recovered. From information contained in that chronicle and other cuneiform documents of the period, three dates in Judah’s history may be fixed firmly. The first is the death of Josiah in 609; the second is the battle of Carchemish in 605; the third is the end of the reign of Jehoiachin, which is dated by the Babylonian Chronicle to the second month of Adar in the ninth year of Nebuchadnezzar, or March 16, 597.<\/p>\n<p>After Jehoiachin’s capture, Zedekiah became puppet king of Judah for 11 years (2 Kgs 24:18). On the tenth day of the tenth month during Zedekiah’s ninth regnal year (2 Kgs 25:1), the final siege of Jerusalem was begun by the Babylonian army. That day was January 15, 588. On the ninth day of the fourth month during the 11th regnal year of Zedekiah, after a siege of almost 18 months, the wall of Jerusalem was broken through (2 Kgs 25:3-4). The temple was burned on day seven of the following (fifth) month.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Beyond587bc\">Beyond 586 <span>BC<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Following the tragedy of 586 <span>BC<\/span>, several further developments are given chronological notice in the OT. Jeremiah 52:30 records a third deportation of Jews to Babylonia in the 23d year of King Nebuchadnezzar (582 or 581 <span>BC<\/span>). Both 2 Kings 25:27 and Jeremiah 52:31 give evidence of the release of King Jehoiachin from prison; the Babylonian Chronicle dates that event at 27 Adar, or March 21, 561 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>In 539 <span>BC<\/span> the Babylonians themselves were destined to learn the meaning of defeat. In that year a Persian ruler, Cyrus the Great, launched a successful campaign against Babylon and its king, Nabonidus. Inheriting control over the exiled Jews and many other groups of people conquered earlier by Babylonia, Cyrus moved quickly to initiate a policy of tolerance toward his new subjects. In the first year of his rule Cyrus issued an edict making it possible for Jews to return to their former land (Ezr 1:1). On the first day of the following year, 1 Tishri (Ezr 3:6), an altar was set up in Jerusalem. In Iyyar of the following year (April\/May 536) work was begun on the temple itself (Ezr 3:8).<\/p>\n<p>After a period of frustrating work stoppages of varying lengths, the preaching of Haggai and Zechariah spurred on the Jews to complete the temple. Work resumed in 520 (Ezr 4:24; Hg 1:1, 15) and was finally completed on 3 Adar, or March 12, 515 (Ezr 6:15). The final stages of OT chronology pertain to the careers of Ezra and Nehemiah. The traditional view of their era places Ezra in the seventh year of Artaxerxes I (458 <span>BC<\/span>) and Nehemiah in the 20th (445 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> “Date” under each OT book; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Diaspora of the Jews; Exodus, The; Israel, History of; Patriarchs, Period of the; Postexilic Period; Wilderness Wanderings.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CHRONOLOGY OF THE BIBLE* (Old Testament)<\/h3>\n<p>Branch of biblical studies that attempts to assign dates and sequences to OT events. Chronology is a science. It deals with evidence, theories, assumptions, and the balance of probabilities. Often it boils down to a matter of choosing among theories that are equally unable to solve all the problems raised by other points of view. OT chronology is an accredited branch of biblical studies primarily because it is essential for understanding the proper historical background of the biblical texts. In general, the chronology of the OT is understood well enough to vindicate the basic accuracy and sequential order of Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Both biblical and nonbiblical materials are utilized by students of OT chronology. Biblical data include (1) genealogies showing personal and tribal affiliations among various peoples; (2) specific numbers given by biblical authors to indicate a person’s longevity, a king’s reign, or the duration of a specific event; (3) synchronizing statements that date an event in a specific year of a king’s reign or relate it to a natural phenomenon assumed to be common knowledge at the time of writing (e.g., Am 1:1; Zec 14:5).<\/p>\n<p>From the abundance of such chronological passages in the OT, one might conclude that establishment of OT dates and sequences would be a simple procedure. Each of the three kinds of biblical materials, however, exhibits special problems that must be solved first.<\/p>\n<p>Nonbiblical materials that shed light on OT chronology are quite numerous, and more are discovered year by year. They include (1) official records of important affairs such as military campaigns from countries like Egypt or Babylonia; (2) official inscriptions that are dedicatory or commemorate a great victory; (3) annals listing major accomplishments of a ruler year by year; (4) ostraca (inscribed pieces of pottery) containing letters, tax transactions and economic records, military dispatches between field leaders and command headquarters, or other information. Ostraca may be dated archaeologically and are often used to supplement the biblical record.<\/p>\n<p>The chronologist tries to examine the pertinent biblical and nonbiblical information, notes areas of correlation among all the data, and finally establishes a working system into which the most facts can be fitted. New evidence uncovered at any time may necessitate shifts in the present working system. Although the basic structure of biblical chronology seems reasonably firm, many details will no doubt be subject to change as new evidence is discovered.<\/p>\n<p>As a general rule, the earlier the period, the less certain one can be of one’s dating. In the second millennium <span>BC<\/span>, for example, many dates can be assigned within a range of about 100 years. By the time of David and Solomon (c. 1000 <span>BC<\/span>), the margin of error over which scholars debate is a decade or less. The range narrows as one comes toward the present, so that, with the exception of one or two problem eras, dates accurate to within one or two years are possible by roughly the middle of the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>. Such limitations must be kept in mind in any examination of the major periods of OT history.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Prepatriarchal Period<\/p>\n<p>• From Abraham to Moses<\/p>\n<p>• Conquest and Consolidation<\/p>\n<p>• The Monarchy<\/p>\n<p>• Judah after the Fall of Israel<\/p>\n<p>• Beyond 587 <span>BC<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PrepatriarchalPeriod\">Prepatriarchal Period<\/p>\n<h5>Biblical Evidence<\/h5>\n<p>In the first 11 chapters of Genesis are found accounts of the Creation (chs 1–2), the fall (ch 3), Cain and Abel (ch 4), the Flood (chs 6–9), and the Tower of Babel (ch 11). Those events are set within a certain chronological framework.<\/p>\n<p>According to Genesis 5, a period of 10 generations elapsed between the Creation and the Flood. Although the individuals listed enjoyed a total life span of a hefty 847 years plus, the total time elapsing between Adam and the Flood was only 1,656 years.<\/p>\n<p>According to Genesis 11, another 10 generations elapsed from the time of the Flood until the time of Abraham (at least in the Septuagint, the third-century <span>BC<\/span> Greek translation of the OT; the Hebrew Masoretic text has 9). In that period the average age attained by individuals in the list is 346 years (using a figure of 460 for Arphaxad’s son Cainan, who is included in v 13 of the LXX; cf. Lk 3:36); the total elapsed time from the Flood to Abraham is only 520 years. Taken literally, that would mean that all of Abraham’s ancestors as far back as Noah’s son Shem were still alive at Abraham’s birth, and that a total of only 2,176 years elapsed from the time of Creation to Abraham.<\/p>\n<h5>Interpretation of the Biblical Data<\/h5>\n<p>A literalistic or slavishly mathematical interpretation of the figures, as has appeared in the margin of many <span>kjv<\/span> Bibles, requires a number of assumptions: that no names are omitted from the genealogies, that all the numbers given are consecutive, and especially that numbers used in an ancient biblical source carry the same meaning as that associated with them in the modern Western mind. Each assumption needs serious examination in the light of other established facts.<\/p>\n<p>A cursory reading of other biblical genealogies, for example, reveals that not all the names of a given family were always included. Even Matthew recorded a total of 28 generations (two sets of 14 each) between David and Jesus, and comparison with OT genealogies reveals that Matthew omitted several names. Luke listed a total of 42 generations for the same interval. Omissions are also obvious when one compares the genealogical lists given in 1 Chronicles 1–8 with those recorded earlier in Genesis, Exodus, Numbers, Joshua, 1 and 2 Samuel, and 1 and 2 Kings.<\/p>\n<p>Further, ancient peoples thought of numbers in a schematic or stylized way. Use of numbers among the ancient Near Eastern nations differed sharply from current Western practice. Examples of that practice are known from both biblical and nonbiblical sources. For example, a list of eight Sumerian kings who ruled in the city of Shurruppak before the “great flood” of the Jemdet Nar era (c. 3000 <span>BC<\/span>) assigns each man an average reign of more than 30,000 years. Berossus, a Babylonian priest of Marduk living in the third century <span>BC<\/span>, added two names to the eight found in that earlier list of kings and assigned an average of 43,200 years to each king. Such extraordinarily high numbers provide a perspective for considering the numbers of Genesis.<\/p>\n<p>Therefore, although one can assume that the numbers assigned to the ages of the patriarchs preceding Abraham in Genesis had real meaning for those responsible for their preservation, they should not be employed in a purely literal sense to compute the length of the various generations mentioned in the text. Further, the numbers given in the Septuagint and in the Samaritan Pentateuch, another early version of the Pentateuch, diverge in many details from those of the Hebrew Masoretic Text. That means, among other things, that the Genesis numbers caused problems for even the earliest scholars of Scripture.<\/p>\n<h5>Nonbiblical Evidence<\/h5>\n<p>Archaeology provides no evidence that may be used to date either the Creation or any other account preserved in Genesis 1–11. The Flood is an example that illustrates some of the difficulties. Many claims have been made by persons from a wide variety of backgrounds (scientists, explorers, theologians, and others) to the effect that archaeology has proven the Genesis Flood narrative to be true. Yet no city so far excavated in Palestine and Syria (including some of the oldest towns in the world) shows archaeological evidence of the Flood.<\/p>\n<p>Although several cities in Mesopotamia do exhibit evidence of a flood, three factors make it difficult to link that evidence with Genesis 6–9. Each of the flood levels so far discovered dates from a different period. Further, since nearby sites show no evidence of flooding, all of the Mesopotamian flood evidence points to relatively small local floods. Finally, the evidence indicates no great cultural discontinuities of the sort that would result from destruction of an entire population. Thus, it seems that the ancient Mesopotamian floods discovered through archaeological research are of the same kind as the floods that still occur in the Euphrates River valley.<\/p>\n<p>Clearly, certain questions one might ask of the Genesis narratives simply cannot be answered. Many who regard the Bible as the Word of God have concluded that the dating of events found in Genesis 1–11 must be less important than the theological truths of salvation, faith, and obedience that these accounts present.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FromAbrahamtoMoses\">From Abraham to Moses<\/p>\n<h5>The Patriarchal Age<\/h5>\n<p>The date of Abraham is still a lively topic among biblical scholars who agree that Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob were indeed historical persons. Opinions range from an early-date view that estimates that the patriarchal age extended from 2086 to 1871 <span>BC<\/span>, to a late-date view placing Abraham at around 1400 <span>BC<\/span>. Since each position claims to fit the biblical data, a closer look at the two points of view is in order.<\/p>\n<p>Many OT passages seem to support the view that puts Abraham at a comparatively early date. First Kings 6:1 computes 480 years back from the founding of the temple in the fourth year of Solomon’s reign (961 <span>BC<\/span>, according to the early-date view) to the exodus from Egypt, which would then be dated 1441 <span>BC<\/span>. Counting 430 years as the period of the Israelite sojourn in Egypt (see Gn 15:13; Ex 12:40) takes the date back to 1871 <span>BC<\/span>. To that date are added the 215 years demanded by the total of (1) Abraham’s age upon entering Canaan (75 years according to Gn 12:4); (2) 25 additional years before the birth of Isaac (Gn 21:5); (3) 60 more years to the birth of Jacob (Gn 25:26); and (4) the appearance of Jacob before the pharaoh at age 130 (Gn 47:9). Those 215 years added to the previous total give a date of 2086 <span>BC<\/span> for the entrance of Abraham into Canaan and a date of 2161 <span>BC<\/span> for his birth.<\/p>\n<p>Such a calculation does not use all of the chronological evidence presented in the OT; consequently, the date for Abraham is open to challenge. For example, the 480 years between the exodus and Solomon’s fourth regnal year represent a period of time into which the wilderness wanderings, the career of Joshua and his immediate successors, the period of the judges, Samuel, Saul, and David must all be placed. Although the OT does not specifically say how long were the careers of Joshua, Samuel, or Saul, even a modest reckoning pushes the total years required by all the biblical data together to approximately 600.<\/p>\n<p>In addition, the length of time to be assigned to the Egyptian sojourn is problematic. The Samaritan Pentateuch and the Septuagint both view the number 430 (in Ex 12:40) as applicable not only to the years in Egypt but to the years of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob in Canaan as well. Evidently Paul followed the Septuagint tradition when he dated the giving of the law 430 years later than the time of God’s promise to Abraham (see Gal 3:15-18). That means the Septuagint figure cannot be dismissed lightly.<\/p>\n<p>The late dating of Abraham (c. 1400 <span>BC<\/span>) is based on two propositions: (1) The picture of patriarchal society portrayed in Genesis most closely parallels that reflected in the cuneiform tablets recovered from Nuzi, a town in northeastern Mesopotamia about 175 miles (282 kilometers) north of Baghdad. (2) Because those tablets must be dated in the 15th and 14th centuries <span>BC<\/span>, the parallel patriarchal age must have fallen within the same general time period.<\/p>\n<p>Those who hold the late-date view are aware that their date for Abraham cannot be equated with the set of numbers on which the early-date view depends. They point to other data, also from the OT. Joseph, who was already a highly placed Egyptian official when Jacob moved to Egypt, lived to be 110 years old (Gn 50:26). Moses was a great-grandson of Levi, Joseph’s older brother. Since Joseph lived to see his own greatgrandchildren born (who would probably be younger than Moses since their great-grandfather was younger than his), the late-date view concludes that Joseph could have been alive when Moses was born. The four-generation genealogy of Moses (Levi-Kohath-Amram-Moses, in Ex 6:16-20; Nm 3:17-19; 26:58-59; 1 Chr 6:1-3) was evidently thought to be complete according to Genesis 15:16, which predicted that Abraham’s descendants would be freed from Egyptian bondage “in the fourth generation.”<\/p>\n<p>However, a date of around 1400 <span>BC<\/span> for Abraham cannot be aligned with certain other biblical data, including the long Egyptian sojourn demanded by Genesis 15:13 and Exodus 12:40 and a 40-year (or “one-generation”) wilderness existence. Some normally moderate scholars are forced to reduce the wilderness time to two years in order to maintain their late date for Abraham.<\/p>\n<p>In short, the late-date theory is consistent with part of the biblical evidence (the genealogies of Moses), but the early-date theory conforms to another part (the actual year figures listed in scattered verses from Genesis and Exodus). The late-date theory holds that the genealogies represent more reliable information in Semitic societies generally, whereas the early-date theory computes years given in the biblical account literally throughout its scheme.<\/p>\n<p>Because of problems attached to both positions, a large group of scholars take a middle ground in dating the patriarchal age. Archaeologically, they say, Abraham and his life and times fit perfectly within the early second millennium, but imperfectly within any later period. By placing Abraham roughly between 1800 and 1600 <span>BC<\/span>, they provide enough latitude for a merging of all the available evidence, biblical and nonbiblical, into a workable chronological scheme. Archaeology provides four major bits of evidence for an early second-millennium patriarchal era.<\/p>\n<p>1. Though the Nuzi tablets furnish a clear parallel to patriarchal social life, other tablets from other towns and an earlier era reflect many of the same customs common to Nuzi and Genesis. Since the Nuzians were Hurrians who came to northeastern Mesopotamia from elsewhere (perhaps Armenia), their social customs originated no doubt much earlier than the time of their tablets now in our possession. Accordingly, the 15th-century <span>BC<\/span> date of the Nuzi tablets does not preclude an earlier date for Abraham.<\/p>\n<li>2. The names of several of Abraham’s ancestors listed in Genesis 11 can now be identified with towns in the northern area of Mesopotamia around Haran, the city from which Abraham migrated to Canaan (Gn 11:31–12:3). Significantly, Haran flourished in the 19th and 18th centuries <span>BC<\/span>.<\/li>\n<li>3. Shortly after 2000 <span>BC<\/span> Semitic nomads from the desert invaded the civilized communities of the Fertile Crescent. Those invaders, called Amorites in the OT, established themselves in several cities in northern Syria and Mesopotamia. One of the Amorite cities was Babylon, ruled by Hammurabi sometime around the beginning of the 18th century <span>BC<\/span>. Although the King Amraphel of Genesis 14:1 is not linguistically identifiable with the Babylonian king Hammurabi, as earlier scholars believed, the picture of the times following the Amorite invasion still accords well with the Genesis narratives generally.<\/li>\n<li>4. Mari, another Amorite town, is now well known because of more than 20,000 tablets recovered from its royal palace and archives. Geographically, Mari is located in the general area of Haran. Chronologically, the tablets recovered come from the 18th century <span>BC<\/span>. One 18th-century king of Mari, Zimri Lim, carried on extensive correspondence with Hammurabi of Babylon. The tablets from Mari also furnish valuable information about tribal and ethnic groups and their movements in the general region. Of basic importance for dating the Genesis materials are certain documents from Mari that include personal names very similar to Abraham (Abi-ram), Jacob, Laban, and several other West Semitic names.<\/li>\n<p>Archaeological evidence neither proves nor disproves the actual existence of Abraham, Isaac, or Jacob. That is admitted on all sides. What archaeology has done is to provide a framework of probabilities within which the biblical patriarchal narratives appear more and more to be at home.<\/p>\n<h5>Date of the Exodus<\/h5>\n<p>The problem of dating the patriarchal age is closely related to the problem of assigning a date to the exodus of the Israelites from Egypt. Since the evidence does not permit a precise date for Abraham, a precise date for the entry of Joseph or Jacob into Egypt is likewise unobtainable. Further, the biblical evidence does not yield an exact figure for the length of the Israelite sojourn in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>For many years biblical scholars viewed 1 Kings 6:1 as a foundation upon which to build an unshakable date for the exodus. Because Solomon’s fourth year could be unquestionably fixed to within at least a 10-year span (967–958 <span>BC<\/span>), the exodus too could be dated with the same precision simply by adding 480 years. But other biblical data raise serious questions about that simple procedure. When the Bible deals with all the events between the time of the exodus and the founding of Solomon’s temple, that is, from Numbers to 1 Kings 5:18, the precise numbers given total not 480 but closer to 600 years.<\/p>\n<p>Because the evidence is insufficient to allow a precise date for the exodus, scholarly opinion remains divided between two possibilities. A 15th-century exodus is supported by several pieces of evidence. The chronology in 1 Kings 6:1 appears to be independently corroborated by a passage in Judges 11:26. It claims that Israel had occupied the area around Heshbon for 300 years preceding Jephthah’s own day. If Jephthah is dated at roughly 1100 <span>BC<\/span>, one is obviously led back to an exodus in the middle of the 15th century. Also, three successive generations of pharaohs who ruled in the 16th and 15th centuries produced no male offspring, making it more likely that Moses would have become the foster son of a royal princess during that time; all of the 19th-dynasty kings (1306–1200 <span>BC<\/span>) had legitimate male heirs.<\/p>\n<p>In addition, a 15th-century date makes possible a connection between the Habiru invasion of Canaan (1400–1350 <span>BC<\/span>)—described in the Amarna letters found at Tell el-Amarna, Egypt—and the invasion of Canaan by the Hebrews described in the OT book of Joshua. Related to that is a reference to “Israel” in the Merneptah Stele, a stone pillar inscribed with the deeds of the Egyptian king, Merneptah, of about 1220 <span>BC<\/span>. It implies that the people referred to, met by Merneptah in the course of a Canaanite military campaign, had been in existence for some time. Finally, an excavator of Jericho, John Garstang, placed the destruction of that city at around 1400 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Other evidence, however, strongly implies not a 15th- but a 13th-century date for the exodus. Many scholars assign a date between 1290 and 1275 <span>BC<\/span> on the basis of that evidence. First, the 480 years of 1 Kings 6:1 discussed above may be interpreted as schematically representing 12 generations, as indicated by 1 Chronicles 6:3-8. Thus if 12 generations averaged 25 years instead of 40 years, the reduction of 480 schematized years to 300 actual years would point to an exodus date of around 1266 <span>BC<\/span>. Second, archaeological evidence exists that dates destruction at the assumed sites of several cities conquered by Joshua (Lachish, Debir, Bethel, and Hazor) to the late 13th century. Third, there is no biblical mention of Egyptian military campaigns (such as Merneptah’s 1220 <span>BC<\/span> incursion); Israelites living in Canaan before the time of the militarily active pharaohs Seti I (1319–1301 <span>BC<\/span>) and Ramses II (1301–1234 <span>BC<\/span>) would certainly have been affected by such activity. Fourth, Exodus 1:11 mentions the city of Rameses, the capital built by Ramses II, according to his own inscriptions. A fifth line of argument comes from archaeological conclusions that Transjordan and the Negev Desert were not occupied by sedentary people between 1900 and 1300 <span>BC<\/span>, whereas the Bible states clearly that the Israelites encountered stiff opposition from groups in that same region. Thus, it is argued, the Israelites must have entered that region after 1300 <span>BC<\/span>. Sixth, connecting the Habiru with the Israelites of the Conquest lacks weight because many texts besides the Amarna tablets attest to the existence of Habiru groups virtually all over the ancient Near East. “Habiru” seems to be a much broader term, possibly meaning “trespasser,” and is probably unrelated etymologically or semantically to “Hebrew.” Seventh, and finally, Garstang’s work at Jericho has now been revised by archaeologist Kathleen Kenyon, who showed that the fallen walls that Garstang had dated about 1400 <span>BC<\/span> in reality were destroyed in 1800 <span>BC<\/span> or earlier.<\/p>\n<p>So far, it has been impossible to decide with precision between the two centuries proposed for the exodus. The majority opinion among OT scholars generally, including a growing number of moderate or conservative scholars, is in favor of the 13th-century option. On the other hand, many other conservative scholars continue to favor the 15th-century date. Dogmatism is unwarranted since problems remain unresolved with either option.<\/p>\n<p>In accordance with the majority opinion, however, a date of about 1290 <span>BC<\/span> for the exodus will be used in dealing with subsequent problems.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ConquestandConsolidation\">Conquest and Consolidation<\/p>\n<p>The chronological task for the period of conquest and consolidation is to fit all the events narrated by the OT, chiefly in Joshua and Judges, between the exodus (c. 1290 <span>BC<\/span>) and the times of David (c. 1000 <span>BC<\/span>) and Solomon (d. 930 <span>BC<\/span>). In other words, one must fit roughly 550 years of biblical events between Moses and David into a 290-year span.<\/p>\n<p>Although assigning an early date for the exodus (c. 1447 <span>BC<\/span>) would make the task somewhat easier, the mere addition of about 157 years does not by itself solve all the problems. Neither date allows enough time for all the OT events from Joshua to David to take place singly and consecutively. Accordingly, advocates of both dates assume that some of the judges ruled simultaneously rather than consecutively. The difference is one of degree only.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Joshua furnishes most of the OT evidence regarding the conquest of Canaan by the Israelites. Unfortunately, the book of Joshua has no chronological notes that specify the amount of time elapsing during Joshua’s career. Further, there are no biblical references to major contemporary events in other parts of the ancient world, the dates of which could be used to fix the chronology. Rather, in what is obviously a telescoped account, the book of Joshua records the fall of Jericho and Ai, followed closely by a southern and then a northern campaign. After those victories, covering much of the total territory of Canaan, various parcels of land were distributed to the tribal groups of Israel; the tribes were expected to complete the task of destroying whatever Canaanite inhabitants remained in their particular region. One seeks in vain, however, for any statements indicating how long those events took.<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Judges a slightly different circumstance prevails. There the OT furnishes a rather complete list of figures to indicate the duration of periods of foreign oppression, judgeships, and ensuing peace. The total number of years described for that period is 410, but that total does not include any time for the many “minor” judges. It seems obvious, therefore, that most if not all of the judges were simply local chieftains whose activity was simultaneous with that of other judges, at least for part of their reign. Unfortunately, the book of Judges provides no cross-reference system to indicate which judges were contemporaries of which others. Perhaps the best one can do is to assume general guidelines for the chronology of that period between Moses and David.<\/p>\n<p>Two significant facts should be kept in mind. First, archaeological information seems to demand a Conquest date beginning about 1250 <span>BC<\/span> rather than 200 years earlier. Assuming concurrent careers for the judges allows one to compress the literal OT figures into the general scheme demanded by other evidence.<\/p>\n<p>Second, the ancient scribes evidently related the chronology of the period to a 40-year or generation-based schema, a practice that lasted until the time of the divided kingdom, when a regular dynastic chronology was introduced. In the face of so many careers being assigned exactly 40 years, the fact remains that the literal totals of such numbers cannot be harmonized with either the biblical or the archaeological evidence for the period. Accordingly, most scholars doubt that the number 40 was ever intended to be an exact mathematical calculation. That view permits enough leeway for cautious fitting of biblical and other evidence into a general timetable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheMonarchy\">The Monarchy<\/p>\n<h5>Types of Evidence<\/h5>\n<p>For the period of the Israelite monarchy, chronological evidence is abundant.<\/p>\n<p>The OT itself strives to provide all the information necessary for the chronology of the period, including (1) a complete list of all the kings in Israel and in Judah both before and after the division of the kingdom; (2) the age of each king (except Saul) at his accession; (3) synchronisms of the northern kingdom of Israel and the southern kingdom of Judah showing in what year of his contemporary in the other kingdom each king came to the throne; and (4) precise calculations of the length of each king’s reign. In addition some important events are dated by reference to another event; others are coordinated with concurrent events in secular history.<\/p>\n<p>Outside the OT an abundance of material provides evidence for a chronology of the period. By far the most important single source is a collection of Assyrian <em>limmu<\/em> lists. In Assyria a record of each king’s reign was kept on a particular kind of annal. Each year of reign was named after an individual of high rank in the court; the first year was named after the king himself, the second after the next highest-ranking official (though that name appears to have been selected by lot originally), and so on, down until the death of the king. The word <em>limmu<\/em> was used to introduce the name of the official after whom the current year was to be named, hence the designation <em>“limmu<\/em> lists.”<\/p>\n<p>Assyrian <em>limmu<\/em> lists are tied precisely to the solar year, making the documents highly reliable. Further, in addition to many events in Assyrian history, notable natural phenomena were dated on the basis of the <em>limmu<\/em> in which they occurred. For example, a solar eclipse dated by the Assyrian scribes in the <em>limmu<\/em> year of Bur-Sagale has been computed astronomically as June 15, 763 <span>BC<\/span>. Beginning with the year 763, then, and working both backward and forward, a complete list of Assyrian <em>limmu<\/em> officials has been obtained for the period between 891 and 648 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>With the accuracy of the Assyrian <em>limmu<\/em> lists corroborated by a number of sources, they can be used with confidence in reconstructing the chronology of the corresponding period of biblical history. That is especially true where a biblical writer related an Israelite or a Judahite event to a particular year in the reign of an Assyrian king whose <em>limmu<\/em> list indicates the precise years of his reign.<\/p>\n<p>There are also records from Chaldean (Babylonian) king lists and from later Greek historians. Ptolemy, in the second century <span>AD<\/span>, for example, gave dates for Babylonian kings from 747 <span>BC<\/span> and continued with dates for Persian, Greek, and Roman rulers down to <span>AD<\/span> 161. Finally, useful information is found in inscriptions from monuments, stelae, and other artifacts from Assyria and elsewhere.<\/p>\n<h5>Monarchical Chronology<\/h5>\n<p>The <em>limmu<\/em> list of the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III provides a basis for the first comparison of dates among Assyria, Israel, and Judah. In the <em>limmu<\/em> of Daian-Assur, Shalmaneser’s sixth year on the throne, Ahab of Israel was listed as one of the kings who fought against the Assyrians in the battle of Qarqar. Thus the date for that battle may be placed confidently in 853 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Assyrian records also indicate that Shalmaneser III came into contact with an Israelite king 12 years later, in 841 <span>BC<\/span>. That king was Jehu. Thus two fixed points are available for correlating the biblical information. Following the death of Ahab, which is not dated exactly by reference to the Assyrian records, two of his sons came to power. The first, Ahaziah, reigned two years (1 Kgs 22:51); the second, Joram (also called Jehoram), reigned a total of 12 years (2 Kgs 3:1). Recognizing a nonaccession-year reckoning by the Israelites in that era, the apparent total of 14 years may be reduced to an actual total of 12. Thus it seems evident that Ahab not only fought Shalmaneser III in 853 <span>BC<\/span> but also died in that year. Ahab was then followed by his two sons for a total of 12 years before the accession of Jehu in time to account for his contact with Shalmaneser II in 841 <span>BC<\/span>. Further, because Jehu murdered both the king of Israel (Jehoram) and the king of Judah (Ahaziah) at the same time (2 Kgs 9:24-27), a fixed synchronism is provided between the two kingdoms for the year 841 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The first nine kings of Israel ruled an apparent total of 98 years or an actual total (taking into account Israel’s nonaccession-year policy) of 90 years. Zimri, who ruled only seven days (1 Kgs 16:15-18), counts as one of the nine but does not insert an extra year in either the actual or apparent totals. The accession of Jeroboam I thus occurred in 930 <span>BC<\/span> (adding 90 years to 841 <span>BC<\/span>), and Rehoboam of Judah began to rule in that same year as well. Allowing Solomon the 40-year reign indicated in 1 Kings 11:42 points to the year 970 <span>BC<\/span> for his accession. The death of David would also be pinpointed in that period, although allowance must be made for the possibility of a short co-regency of David and Solomon before David’s death. The reign of Saul then falls approximately in the late 11th century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>In Judah the period between the death of Solomon in 930 <span>BC<\/span> and the murder of Ahaziah by Jehu in 841 <span>BC<\/span> was occupied by the kingships of six men whose time on the throne totals 95 biblical years. Computation of that era in Judah is not as simple as for the Israelite kings for several reasons. Problems include a change from accession- to nonaccession-year reckoning sometime around 850 <span>BC<\/span>, at least two co-regencies (Jehoshaphat with Asa and then Jehoram with Jehoshaphat), and the calendar differences between the two kingdoms. It is clear that the 95 apparent years must be reduced, on the basis of the differences in computation and calendar, to 90 actual years in order to bring the Judahite figures into line with the established Assyrian and Israelite synchronisms.<\/p>\n<p>After the year 841, the next biblical event to be certified by nonbiblical materials is the fall of Samaria in 722 <span>BC<\/span>. That date is furnished by the annals of Sargon II of Assyria (722–705 <span>BC<\/span>), successor to Shalmaneser V (727–722 <span>BC<\/span>). Although that date comes just 120 years after the fixed point of 841 <span>BC<\/span> in Israelite history, the chronological materials for that period are quite difficult to interpret accurately. In the past, scholars resorted to assumptions of extensive co-regencies, to presumed confusion on the part of certain scribes over methods to be followed in computations, or to other theories in attempting to understand the period. In spite of the many difficulties, however, all the biblical and Assyrian dates for the period of the divided monarchy have been harmonized—with the exception of four figures related to the closing years of the Israelite kingdom, all connected in some way with the problematic reign of Hoshea.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JudahaftertheFallofIsrael\">Judah after the Fall of Israel<\/p>\n<p>Following the fall of Samaria in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, OT chronology is concerned only with the southern kingdom of Judah until its destruction some 135 years later. Two events in the biblical record important for establishing a chronology for that period are the siege of Jerusalem by Sennacherib of Assyria in the late eighth century and the eventual fall of Jerusalem to the Babylonians in the early sixth century.<\/p>\n<h5>Sennacherib’s Invasion of Judah<\/h5>\n<p>The Assyrian invasion (704–681 <span>BC<\/span>) is recorded in 2 Kings 18:13-16, where verse 13 dates the event to the 14th year of King Hezekiah. Sennacherib’s own inscriptions include a lengthier version of the affair. From them the date of 701 <span>BC<\/span> is established, placing the accession of Hezekiah in 715 <span>BC<\/span>. That much is simple, but problems still arise. For example, 2 Kings 19:9 reports that Sennacherib was in contact with an Ethiopian king, Tirhakah (c. 690–664 <span>BC<\/span>), during the course of his campaign, which included a siege of Jerusalem. Obviously, contact with a ruler who came to power in 690 <span>BC<\/span> at the earliest could not refer to events in 701 <span>BC<\/span>. It is possible, however, that Sennacherib actually made two invasions of Judah, the first in 701 and the second sometime later. The date of that supposed second invasion is not assured, although 2 Kings 19:35-37 may imply that Sennacherib was murdered only shortly after his withdrawal from Jerusalem. Since Sennacherib was succeeded by his son Esarhaddon in the year 681, the presumed second invasion of Judah would have occurred somewhere in the last half of the same decade.<\/p>\n<p>A number of scholars oppose the assumption of a second invasion of Jerusalem by Sennacherib. They suggest the possibility that Tirhakah, though king only from 690 <span>BC<\/span>, may have led troops against Sennacherib as early as 701, before acceding to the throne. The reference to King Tirhakah in 2 Kings 19:9 would then be understood as use of his eventual title in an effort to identify him to a later generation of readers.<\/p>\n<p>However the question of the number of invasions is decided, it is certain that Sennacherib invaded Judah in 701 <span>BC<\/span>, the 14th regnal year of Hezekiah. Such a synchronism establishes Hezekiah’s accession year as 715 <span>BC<\/span>, but that date raises another problem. The fall of Samaria, now established at 722, is dated by 2 Kings 18:10 in the sixth year of Hezekiah’s reign. The most likely solution is that Hezekiah began a co-regency with his father, Ahaz, six years before Samaria fell. The possibility for confusion arises from the fact that one verse (2 Kgs 18:13; repeated in Is 36:1) synchronizes Sennacherib’s 701 <span>BC<\/span> invasion with the 14th year of Hezekiah’s independent reign; another verse (2 Kgs 18:10) correlates the fall of Samaria with the beginning of Hezekiah’s co-regency. Thus from about 728 to 715 <span>BC<\/span> Hezekiah was co-regent with Ahaz. From 715 to 697 he reigned alone. From 696 to 686 his son Manasseh was co-ruler with him.<\/p>\n<p>According to the chronological information given by a number of verses in 2 Kings, a total of 128 years and six months elapsed between the time of Hezekiah’s accession in 715 and the capture of King Jehoiachin in 597, a date to be discussed below. Thus another problem is to explain the more than 10-year excess apparently demanded by the biblical totals. The best solution appears to lie in the assumption that Manasseh first came to power in 697 as co-regent with his father, Hezekiah. Manasseh died in 642, following what 2 Kings 21:1 states was a 55-year reign. Hezekiah, who came to the throne in 715, is said to have reigned 29 years (2 Kgs 18:2), which would mean that he was king until 686, roughly 11 years after the time when Manasseh must have come to the throne in order to have completed a 55-year reign by 642.<\/p>\n<h5>Fall of Jerusalem<\/h5>\n<p>Contemporary Babylonian records are available to shed valuable light on the last few years of Judah’s existence. For the years 626–623, 618–595, and 556 <span>BC<\/span> the Babylonian Chronicle, a formal record of Babylonian affairs of state, has been recovered. From information contained in that chronicle and other cuneiform documents of the period, three dates in Judah’s history may be fixed firmly. The first is the death of Josiah in 609; the second is the battle of Carchemish in 605; the third is the end of the reign of Jehoiachin, which is dated by the Babylonian Chronicle to the second month of Adar in the ninth year of Nebuchadnezzar, or March 16, 597.<\/p>\n<p>After Jehoiachin’s capture, Zedekiah became puppet king of Judah for 11 years (2 Kgs 24:18). On the tenth day of the tenth month during Zedekiah’s ninth regnal year (2 Kgs 25:1), the final siege of Jerusalem was begun by the Babylonian army. That day was January 15, 588. On the ninth day of the fourth month during the 11th regnal year of Zedekiah, after a siege of almost 18 months, the wall of Jerusalem was broken through (2 Kgs 25:3-4). The temple was burned on day seven of the following (fifth) month.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Beyond587bc\">Beyond 586 <span>BC<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Following the tragedy of 586 <span>BC<\/span>, several further developments are given chronological notice in the OT. Jeremiah 52:30 records a third deportation of Jews to Babylonia in the 23d year of King Nebuchadnezzar (582 or 581 <span>BC<\/span>). Both 2 Kings 25:27 and Jeremiah 52:31 give evidence of the release of King Jehoiachin from prison; the Babylonian Chronicle dates that event at 27 Adar, or March 21, 561 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>In 539 <span>BC<\/span> the Babylonians themselves were destined to learn the meaning of defeat. In that year a Persian ruler, Cyrus the Great, launched a successful campaign against Babylon and its king, Nabonidus. Inheriting control over the exiled Jews and many other groups of people conquered earlier by Babylonia, Cyrus moved quickly to initiate a policy of tolerance toward his new subjects. In the first year of his rule Cyrus issued an edict making it possible for Jews to return to their former land (Ezr 1:1). On the first day of the following year, 1 Tishri (Ezr 3:6), an altar was set up in Jerusalem. In Iyyar of the following year (April\/May 536) work was begun on the temple itself (Ezr 3:8).<\/p>\n<p>After a period of frustrating work stoppages of varying lengths, the preaching of Haggai and Zechariah spurred on the Jews to complete the temple. Work resumed in 520 (Ezr 4:24; Hg 1:1, 15) and was finally completed on 3 Adar, or March 12, 515 (Ezr 6:15). The final stages of OT chronology pertain to the careers of Ezra and Nehemiah. The traditional view of their era places Ezra in the seventh year of Artaxerxes I (458 <span>BC<\/span>) and Nehemiah in the 20th (445 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> “Date” under each OT book; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Diaspora of the Jews; Exodus, The; Israel, History of; Patriarchs, Period of the; Postexilic Period; Wilderness Wanderings.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CHRONOLOGY OF THE BIBLE* (Old Testament) Branch of biblical studies that attempts to assign dates and sequences to OT events. Chronology is a science. It deals with evidence, theories, assumptions, and the balance of probabilities. Often it boils down to a matter of choosing among theories that are equally unable to solve all the problems raised by other points of view. OT chronology is an accredited branch of biblical studies primarily because it is essential for understanding the proper his...","summary_en":"CHRONOLOGY OF THE BIBLE* (Old Testament) Branch of biblical studies that attempts to assign dates and sequences to OT events. Chronology is a science. It deals with evidence, theories, assumptions, and the balance of probabilities. Often it boils down to a matter of choosing among theories that are equally unable to solve all the problems raised by other points of view. OT chronology is an accredited branch of biblical studies primarily because it is essential for understanding the proper his...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":10645,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Elisha","title_en":"Elisha","content_ro":"<h3>ELISHA<\/h3>\n<p>Prophet in Israel during the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<h4>Background and Call<\/h4>\n<p>Elisha is first mentioned in 1 Kings 19:16, where he is described as the son of Shaphat, who lived at Abel-meholah. That place has been tentatively identified with the modern Tel Abu Sifri, west of the river Jordan, though many scholars place it to the river’s east. The prophet Elijah had been ordered by God to anoint Elisha as his successor, but the narrative does not make it clear whether Elisha was already one of Elijah’s disciples. When the two met, Elisha was busy plowing a field, and he does not seem to have greeted Elijah with the respect that a disciple would normally show to his teacher.<\/p>\n<p>Elisha’s use of 12 yokes of oxen in his agricultural work has been taken as a sign that he was wealthy, for normally two yoked oxen would be handled by one person. When Elijah passed by and placed his cloak on Elisha’s shoulder, the latter man knew it was a sign that he should inherit the great prophet’s mission. The nation needed a prophet, for it was increasingly indulging in Canaanite idolatry with the encouragement of King Ahab and his Phoenician wife, Jezebel.<\/p>\n<p>After Elijah commissioned him symbolically and strode away, Elisha hurried after the prophet to request a brief interval of time to announce his new vocation to his parents before leaving home. The prophet’s reply, “Go back again; for what have I done to you?” (1 Kgs 19:20, <span>rsv<\/span>), helped Elisha to make up his mind immediately. Delay in implementing his vocation would almost certainly have been fatal for Elisha (cf. Mt 8:21-22; Lk 9:61-62).<\/p>\n<p>To mark the change in his way of life, Elisha made a great feast for his neighbors, roasting two oxen. This is another hint that he came from a wealthy family. From that time, he was no longer a farmer; by associating with Elijah, he began to prepare for his own ministry. There is no record of Elisha being anointed to the prophetic office, but the transfer of prophetic authority by means of the cloak would leave no doubt in anyone’s mind that Elisha was the next official prophet in Israel.<\/p>\n<h4>“Sons of the Prophets”<\/h4>\n<p>That there could have been some question of Elisha’s authority is implied by the existence of groups of people known as “sons of the prophets.” The phrase meant that those persons were heirs of the prophetic teachings and traditions, though apparently none of them was a major prophet. The prophet Amos even denied any connection with such groups, which seem to have died out in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> (Am 7:14). In the time of Elisha, the “sons of the prophets” were located in Gilgal, Bethel, and Jericho, and seem to have exercised a primarily local ministry. They may have gone out under the instructions of Elijah and Elisha to teach people God’s law and to pronounce divine revelations, as in the days of Saul (cf. 1 Sm 10:5, 10).<\/p>\n<p>Just before Elijah was taken to heaven, he and Elisha visited such prophetic groups, and Elijah tried in vain to persuade Elisha to stay behind at Gilgal and at Bethel (2 Kgs 2:1-4). The prophetic group at Bethel may have been warned by God that Elijah would be taken from them, for they questioned Elisha about the matter and ascertained that he also was aware of the situation.<\/p>\n<h4>Successor to Elijah<\/h4>\n<p>After miraculously parting the waters of Jordan, Elijah asked his successor what he might do for him (2 Kgs 2:9). Elisha requested a “double share” of his spirit as they parted, the share of an inheritance normally given to a firstborn son (Dt 21:17). His request was granted when Elisha saw his master taken up to heaven in a fiery chariot, and it took immediate effect when Elisha parted the Jordan’s waters and crossed over (2 Kgs 2:14).<\/p>\n<p>His prophetic authority now recognized, Elisha began his ministry to Israel at approximately the end of King Ahab’s reign (c. 853 <span>BC<\/span>). His work lasted for half a century, and in contrast with the harried, austere, and sometimes dramatic ministry of Elijah, the activities of Elisha were mostly quieter and took place among the ordinary people of Israel. But he also addressed the royal court, though not in conflicts with Canaanite priests, such as Elijah had experienced.<\/p>\n<h4>Miracles<\/h4>\n<p>The miraculous element was prominent in Elisha’s ministry. When the people of Jericho reported that the local springwater was brackish, Elisha purified it (2 Kgs 2:19-22). To this day, it is the only significant freshwater spring in the area (Tell es-Sultan).<\/p>\n<p>As the prophet left for Bethel, he encountered a group of youths who mocked his baldness (2 Kgs 2:23-24). He cursed them in the name of the Lord, and two bears came from the woods and mauled the offenders. What at first sight seems to be an immoral act on God’s part was actually full of foreboding for the nation. The youths at Bethel were a generation of Israelites who had so absorbed the immoral, pagan culture of their city that they rejected both the person and the message of God’s prophets. They were not merely irreligious but also unbelievably discourteous, according to ancient Near Eastern standards, in ridiculing a bald man instead of respecting his seniority.<\/p>\n<p>The curses Elisha pronounced “in the name of the <span>Lord<\/span>” were not his own reactions to the treatment he had received, but instead were covenant curses (Dt 28:15-68) that would come upon all who rejected the Sinaitic laws and went back on their promises to God (see Ex 24:3-8). The two bears were also symbolic of Assyria and Babylonia, which would tear apart the nation at different times. One small incident was thus a somber forecast of what the future held for a wicked and disobedient people.<\/p>\n<p>In one of his contacts with royalty Elisha gave a message (although unwillingly) from God to King Jehoram of Israel (853–841 <span>BC<\/span>). The king had allied with King Jehoshaphat of Judah (872–848 <span>BC<\/span>) and the Edomite ruler against Mesha, king of Moab. The allied forces were deep in Edomite territory when they ran out of water, and in despair they turned to Elisha, the local prophet. He refused to say anything at first, but finally predicted ample supplies of water and victory for the coalition. Both occurred on the following day (2 Kgs 3:1-27).<\/p>\n<h4>Miracles of Charity<\/h4>\n<p>The kind of work for which Elisha was justly renowned was usually performed for people who could not help themselves. Such a person was a poor widow who had almost pledged her two children to a creditor. Her only asset was a jar of oil. Elisha instructed her to borrow empty jars from her neighbors and fill them with the oil from her own jar. In a miraculous manner every jar was filled. Elisha then told her to sell the oil, pay her debts, and use the balance of the money for living expenses (2 Kgs 4:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>A similar act of charity was performed for a Shunammite woman, who had persuaded her husband to provide a room where the prophet could stay when in the area. In return for her kindness Elisha predicted that the woman, previously childless, would have her own son. About a year later it happened (2 Kgs 4:8-17). The boy later contracted a severe ailment, perhaps meningitis, and died suddenly. His mother laid the body on Elisha’s bed while she hurried to Mt Carmel to seek the prophet. Elisha was apparently unaware of the situation until the distraught mother informed him of the boy’s death. As an emergency measure Elisha dispatched his servant Gehazi to put the prophet’s staff on the child’s face. That did not revive the child, but when Elisha arrived and lay down on the body, the boy was healed and returned to his parents (vv 18-37).<\/p>\n<p>Another beneficial incident was the correction of a potentially disastrous situation. When some poisonous gourds were accidentally cooked and served, Elisha rendered the mixture harmless by adding meal to the contents of the cooking pot (2 Kgs 4:38-41). A miracle similar to Christ’s multiplying of the bread loaves (see Mt 14:16-21; 15:32-38) occurred when someone brought the prophet several loaves of bread and fresh ears of corn. Elisha instructed his servant to set the food out for 100 people, and when that was done, the people ate and had food left (2 Kgs 4:42-44).<\/p>\n<p>The healing of Naaman, a Syrian commander, came through the influence of a Hebrew maid in the man’s household, who persuaded Naaman’s wife that Elisha could heal her husband. The Assyrian king sent his general to the Israelite ruler with instructions for Naaman to be healed. The afflicted man was sent to Elisha, who ordered him to wash in the Jordan River. Reluctant at first, Naaman finally obeyed and was cured of his affliction. In gratitude the Syrian leader acknowledged the power of Israel’s God (2 Kgs 5:1-19).<\/p>\n<h4>Encounters with Royalty<\/h4>\n<p>When Syria attacked Israel, Elisha revealed the movements of the Syrians to the Israelite king. Syrians tried to capture the prophet at Dothan, but God blinded them and Elisha led them to the Israelite capital of Samaria. Their sight returned, and Elisha advised the Israelite king to spare the captives, feed them well, and send them home. Because their evil was rewarded with good, the Syrians did not attack Israel for a while (2 Kgs 6:8-23).<\/p>\n<p>When the Syrian king Ben-hadad besieged Samaria years later, famine conditions there became so severe that the king threatened to execute Elisha. In response, the prophet promised an abundance of food the following day. The Syrians fled from their camp for some unspecified reason, and the prophecy was fulfilled (2 Kgs 6:24–7:20). In an unusual encounter with the ailing king of Syria, Elisha was visited by Hazael, servant of Ben-hadad, who had been sent to ask about the prospects for his master’s improvement. Elisha sent back a reassuring reply, but at the same time said that Hazael would shortly succeed Ben-hadad (8:7-13). On another occasion Elisha sent a prophet to Ramoth-gilead to anoint Jehu, son of Jehoshaphat, as king of Israel to replace Joram, whom Jehu proceeded to kill in battle (9:1-28).<\/p>\n<p>Elisha’s final contact with Israelite rulers came at the time of his own death, when Joash the king visited him to lament the prophet’s illness. On that occasion, by the symbolic handling of arrows, the dying prophet promised Joash that he would defeat the Syrians in battle but would not exterminate them (2 Kgs 13:14-19).<\/p>\n<p>The prophet also intervened a second time on behalf of the Shunammite woman whose son he had healed, instructing her to move her household into Philistine territory during a seven-year famine in Israel. When she came back, her house and property had apparently been occupied by others, so she appealed to the king for help in recovering it. Elisha’s servant Gehazi told the ruler about her, and on interviewing her himself, the king ordered all her property to be returned (2 Kgs 8:1-6).<\/p>\n<h4>Continuing Influence<\/h4>\n<p>Elisha’s final miracle occurred after his death, when a corpse that was tossed hurriedly into the prophet’s tomb came abruptly to life (2 Kgs 13:21). Jesus mentioned Elisha once in connection with the healing of Naaman; Jesus declared that God’s mercy was not restricted to the Israelites (Lk 4:27).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Elijah; Israel, History of; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ELISHA<\/h3>\n<p>Prophet in Israel during the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<h4>Background and Call<\/h4>\n<p>Elisha is first mentioned in 1 Kings 19:16, where he is described as the son of Shaphat, who lived at Abel-meholah. That place has been tentatively identified with the modern Tel Abu Sifri, west of the river Jordan, though many scholars place it to the river’s east. The prophet Elijah had been ordered by God to anoint Elisha as his successor, but the narrative does not make it clear whether Elisha was already one of Elijah’s disciples. When the two met, Elisha was busy plowing a field, and he does not seem to have greeted Elijah with the respect that a disciple would normally show to his teacher.<\/p>\n<p>Elisha’s use of 12 yokes of oxen in his agricultural work has been taken as a sign that he was wealthy, for normally two yoked oxen would be handled by one person. When Elijah passed by and placed his cloak on Elisha’s shoulder, the latter man knew it was a sign that he should inherit the great prophet’s mission. The nation needed a prophet, for it was increasingly indulging in Canaanite idolatry with the encouragement of King Ahab and his Phoenician wife, Jezebel.<\/p>\n<p>After Elijah commissioned him symbolically and strode away, Elisha hurried after the prophet to request a brief interval of time to announce his new vocation to his parents before leaving home. The prophet’s reply, “Go back again; for what have I done to you?” (1 Kgs 19:20, <span>rsv<\/span>), helped Elisha to make up his mind immediately. Delay in implementing his vocation would almost certainly have been fatal for Elisha (cf. Mt 8:21-22; Lk 9:61-62).<\/p>\n<p>To mark the change in his way of life, Elisha made a great feast for his neighbors, roasting two oxen. This is another hint that he came from a wealthy family. From that time, he was no longer a farmer; by associating with Elijah, he began to prepare for his own ministry. There is no record of Elisha being anointed to the prophetic office, but the transfer of prophetic authority by means of the cloak would leave no doubt in anyone’s mind that Elisha was the next official prophet in Israel.<\/p>\n<h4>“Sons of the Prophets”<\/h4>\n<p>That there could have been some question of Elisha’s authority is implied by the existence of groups of people known as “sons of the prophets.” The phrase meant that those persons were heirs of the prophetic teachings and traditions, though apparently none of them was a major prophet. The prophet Amos even denied any connection with such groups, which seem to have died out in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> (Am 7:14). In the time of Elisha, the “sons of the prophets” were located in Gilgal, Bethel, and Jericho, and seem to have exercised a primarily local ministry. They may have gone out under the instructions of Elijah and Elisha to teach people God’s law and to pronounce divine revelations, as in the days of Saul (cf. 1 Sm 10:5, 10).<\/p>\n<p>Just before Elijah was taken to heaven, he and Elisha visited such prophetic groups, and Elijah tried in vain to persuade Elisha to stay behind at Gilgal and at Bethel (2 Kgs 2:1-4). The prophetic group at Bethel may have been warned by God that Elijah would be taken from them, for they questioned Elisha about the matter and ascertained that he also was aware of the situation.<\/p>\n<h4>Successor to Elijah<\/h4>\n<p>After miraculously parting the waters of Jordan, Elijah asked his successor what he might do for him (2 Kgs 2:9). Elisha requested a “double share” of his spirit as they parted, the share of an inheritance normally given to a firstborn son (Dt 21:17). His request was granted when Elisha saw his master taken up to heaven in a fiery chariot, and it took immediate effect when Elisha parted the Jordan’s waters and crossed over (2 Kgs 2:14).<\/p>\n<p>His prophetic authority now recognized, Elisha began his ministry to Israel at approximately the end of King Ahab’s reign (c. 853 <span>BC<\/span>). His work lasted for half a century, and in contrast with the harried, austere, and sometimes dramatic ministry of Elijah, the activities of Elisha were mostly quieter and took place among the ordinary people of Israel. But he also addressed the royal court, though not in conflicts with Canaanite priests, such as Elijah had experienced.<\/p>\n<h4>Miracles<\/h4>\n<p>The miraculous element was prominent in Elisha’s ministry. When the people of Jericho reported that the local springwater was brackish, Elisha purified it (2 Kgs 2:19-22). To this day, it is the only significant freshwater spring in the area (Tell es-Sultan).<\/p>\n<p>As the prophet left for Bethel, he encountered a group of youths who mocked his baldness (2 Kgs 2:23-24). He cursed them in the name of the Lord, and two bears came from the woods and mauled the offenders. What at first sight seems to be an immoral act on God’s part was actually full of foreboding for the nation. The youths at Bethel were a generation of Israelites who had so absorbed the immoral, pagan culture of their city that they rejected both the person and the message of God’s prophets. They were not merely irreligious but also unbelievably discourteous, according to ancient Near Eastern standards, in ridiculing a bald man instead of respecting his seniority.<\/p>\n<p>The curses Elisha pronounced “in the name of the <span>Lord<\/span>” were not his own reactions to the treatment he had received, but instead were covenant curses (Dt 28:15-68) that would come upon all who rejected the Sinaitic laws and went back on their promises to God (see Ex 24:3-8). The two bears were also symbolic of Assyria and Babylonia, which would tear apart the nation at different times. One small incident was thus a somber forecast of what the future held for a wicked and disobedient people.<\/p>\n<p>In one of his contacts with royalty Elisha gave a message (although unwillingly) from God to King Jehoram of Israel (853–841 <span>BC<\/span>). The king had allied with King Jehoshaphat of Judah (872–848 <span>BC<\/span>) and the Edomite ruler against Mesha, king of Moab. The allied forces were deep in Edomite territory when they ran out of water, and in despair they turned to Elisha, the local prophet. He refused to say anything at first, but finally predicted ample supplies of water and victory for the coalition. Both occurred on the following day (2 Kgs 3:1-27).<\/p>\n<h4>Miracles of Charity<\/h4>\n<p>The kind of work for which Elisha was justly renowned was usually performed for people who could not help themselves. Such a person was a poor widow who had almost pledged her two children to a creditor. Her only asset was a jar of oil. Elisha instructed her to borrow empty jars from her neighbors and fill them with the oil from her own jar. In a miraculous manner every jar was filled. Elisha then told her to sell the oil, pay her debts, and use the balance of the money for living expenses (2 Kgs 4:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>A similar act of charity was performed for a Shunammite woman, who had persuaded her husband to provide a room where the prophet could stay when in the area. In return for her kindness Elisha predicted that the woman, previously childless, would have her own son. About a year later it happened (2 Kgs 4:8-17). The boy later contracted a severe ailment, perhaps meningitis, and died suddenly. His mother laid the body on Elisha’s bed while she hurried to Mt Carmel to seek the prophet. Elisha was apparently unaware of the situation until the distraught mother informed him of the boy’s death. As an emergency measure Elisha dispatched his servant Gehazi to put the prophet’s staff on the child’s face. That did not revive the child, but when Elisha arrived and lay down on the body, the boy was healed and returned to his parents (vv 18-37).<\/p>\n<p>Another beneficial incident was the correction of a potentially disastrous situation. When some poisonous gourds were accidentally cooked and served, Elisha rendered the mixture harmless by adding meal to the contents of the cooking pot (2 Kgs 4:38-41). A miracle similar to Christ’s multiplying of the bread loaves (see Mt 14:16-21; 15:32-38) occurred when someone brought the prophet several loaves of bread and fresh ears of corn. Elisha instructed his servant to set the food out for 100 people, and when that was done, the people ate and had food left (2 Kgs 4:42-44).<\/p>\n<p>The healing of Naaman, a Syrian commander, came through the influence of a Hebrew maid in the man’s household, who persuaded Naaman’s wife that Elisha could heal her husband. The Assyrian king sent his general to the Israelite ruler with instructions for Naaman to be healed. The afflicted man was sent to Elisha, who ordered him to wash in the Jordan River. Reluctant at first, Naaman finally obeyed and was cured of his affliction. In gratitude the Syrian leader acknowledged the power of Israel’s God (2 Kgs 5:1-19).<\/p>\n<h4>Encounters with Royalty<\/h4>\n<p>When Syria attacked Israel, Elisha revealed the movements of the Syrians to the Israelite king. Syrians tried to capture the prophet at Dothan, but God blinded them and Elisha led them to the Israelite capital of Samaria. Their sight returned, and Elisha advised the Israelite king to spare the captives, feed them well, and send them home. Because their evil was rewarded with good, the Syrians did not attack Israel for a while (2 Kgs 6:8-23).<\/p>\n<p>When the Syrian king Ben-hadad besieged Samaria years later, famine conditions there became so severe that the king threatened to execute Elisha. In response, the prophet promised an abundance of food the following day. The Syrians fled from their camp for some unspecified reason, and the prophecy was fulfilled (2 Kgs 6:24–7:20). In an unusual encounter with the ailing king of Syria, Elisha was visited by Hazael, servant of Ben-hadad, who had been sent to ask about the prospects for his master’s improvement. Elisha sent back a reassuring reply, but at the same time said that Hazael would shortly succeed Ben-hadad (8:7-13). On another occasion Elisha sent a prophet to Ramoth-gilead to anoint Jehu, son of Jehoshaphat, as king of Israel to replace Joram, whom Jehu proceeded to kill in battle (9:1-28).<\/p>\n<p>Elisha’s final contact with Israelite rulers came at the time of his own death, when Joash the king visited him to lament the prophet’s illness. On that occasion, by the symbolic handling of arrows, the dying prophet promised Joash that he would defeat the Syrians in battle but would not exterminate them (2 Kgs 13:14-19).<\/p>\n<p>The prophet also intervened a second time on behalf of the Shunammite woman whose son he had healed, instructing her to move her household into Philistine territory during a seven-year famine in Israel. When she came back, her house and property had apparently been occupied by others, so she appealed to the king for help in recovering it. Elisha’s servant Gehazi told the ruler about her, and on interviewing her himself, the king ordered all her property to be returned (2 Kgs 8:1-6).<\/p>\n<h4>Continuing Influence<\/h4>\n<p>Elisha’s final miracle occurred after his death, when a corpse that was tossed hurriedly into the prophet’s tomb came abruptly to life (2 Kgs 13:21). Jesus mentioned Elisha once in connection with the healing of Naaman; Jesus declared that God’s mercy was not restricted to the Israelites (Lk 4:27).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Elijah; Israel, History of; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ELISHA Prophet in Israel during the ninth century BC. Background and Call Elisha is first mentioned in 1 Kings 19:16, where he is described as the son of Shaphat, who lived at Abel-meholah. That place has been tentatively identified with the modern Tel Abu Sifri, west of the river Jordan, though many scholars place it to the river’s east. The prophet Elijah had been ordered by God to anoint Elisha as his successor, but the narrative does not make it clear whether Elisha was already one of Eli...","summary_en":"ELISHA Prophet in Israel during the ninth century BC. Background and Call Elisha is first mentioned in 1 Kings 19:16, where he is described as the son of Shaphat, who lived at Abel-meholah. That place has been tentatively identified with the modern Tel Abu Sifri, west of the river Jordan, though many scholars place it to the river’s east. The prophet Elijah had been ordered by God to anoint Elisha as his successor, but the narrative does not make it clear whether Elisha was already one of Eli...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":18781,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jehoram","title_en":"Jehoram","content_ro":"<h3>JEHORAM<\/h3>\n<li>1. Jehoshaphat’s son and Judah’s fifth king (853–841 <span>BC<\/span>; also called Joram). Prior to the rule of the Omride dynasty in the northern kingdom of Israel (885–841 <span>BC<\/span>), the relationship between Judah and Israel had been strained. The political influence and economic stability of the united monarchy had long since vanished. Power and wealth had been diminished by Egyptian overlordship under Shishak (2 Chr 12) and by civil war: the unsuccessful Shechem conference (ch 10); Rehoboam of Judah versus Jeroboam of Israel (12:15); Abijah of Judah versus Jeroboam of Israel (13:1-22); and Asa of Judah versus Baasha of Israel (16:1-4). The Omride dynasty in the mid-ninth century <span>BC<\/span>, however, cast aside familial rivalry and sought to forge a new alliance between the two nations.<\/li>\n<p>The two kingdoms of Judah and Israel were increasingly threatened by the surrounding peoples—the Ammonites, Moabites, Edomites, Syrians, Philistines, Arabs, and Assyrians. In response to this threat Ahab, the second king of the Omride dynasty, secured diplomatic relations with Phoenicia (1 Kgs 16:31) and Judah (22:4). During this time, joint military expeditions by Israel and Judah were not infrequent (1 Kgs 22; 2 Kgs 3; 8:28), though these political alliances were not without their liabilities. The intrusion of the worship of Baal and Asherah led to religious apostasy in Judah and Israel (1 Kgs 16:31-33; 2 Kgs 3:2; 2 Chr 21:11). It was within this political-religious context that Jehoram reigned over Judah.<\/p>\n<p>Though he may have served as co-regent as early as 853 <span>BC<\/span>, Jehoram was the sole ruler for eight years (848–841 <span>BC<\/span>). His reign was marked by unnecessary internecine fighting and religious apostasy. His father had generously provided for his six brothers, a decision that Jehoram quickly reversed once he had secured the throne (2 Chr 21:2-3). He executed not only his brothers but also several Israelite princes, thereby removing any political threat to himself (v 4). In addition, he reverted to the idolatrous practices that his father had tried to eliminate by restoring forbidden worship sites, “the high places” (v 11). Jehoram had apparently fallen under the influence of his wife, Athaliah, the daughter of Jezebel (2 Kgs 8:18). As her mother had done in Israel, Athaliah imported Baal worship into Judah. As a result, Elijah the prophet pronounced judgment on Jehoram and the people of Judah—a curse that brought a great plague upon Jehoram’s people, children, wives, and possessions, and a gross intestinal disorder upon the king himself. In spite of this pervasive wickedness in Judah, the Lord did not destroy the southern kingdom, because of his promise to David (2 Kgs 8:19; cf. 2 Sm 7:12-16).<\/p>\n<p>Politically, Judah was vulnerable, having lost its control of Edom (2 Chr 21:9) and having sustained attacks by the Philistines and the Arabs. Jehoram was left bereft of possessions, wives, and sons except for Jehoahaz (Ahaziah), his youngest (vv 16-17). At his death Jehoram was not honored and was deprived of burial in the tomb of the kings within the city of David (vv 19-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Israel, History of.<\/p>\n<li>2. Ahab and Jezebel’s son, and Israel’s tenth king (852–841 <span>BC<\/span>; also called Joram). He succeeded his brother Ahaziah, whose premature death led to Jehoram’s ascension to the throne in Samaria (2 Kgs 1:2, 17); he was a contemporary of the Judean kings Jehoshaphat, Jehoram, and Ahaziah.<\/li>\n<p>Jehoram was preoccupied with the political resurgence of the two neighboring kingdoms of Moab and Syria. When Moab withheld its annual tribute to Israel, he sought assistance from both Jehoshaphat and Judah’s vassal kingdom, Edom. Jehoram and Jehoshaphat joined forces with the king of Edom but were halted in their attack on Moab when they encountered a serious lack of water. Hesitant to advance with their troops, they summoned Elisha the prophet and asked him to inquire of the Lord’s will regarding the expedition. Because of the high regard that Elisha held for Jehoshaphat, the prophet sought the Lord on their behalf, gaining both the Lord’s blessing and an abundance of water. The account of the battle records the slaughter of the Moabites as well as the horrible incident of a human sacrifice by the Moabite king. Having won the battle, Israel withdrew (2 Kgs 3:4-27).<\/p>\n<p>Jehoram’s conflict with Syria was less successful because the Israelite king sustained a battle wound. Retreating from Ramoth-gilead in Transjordan to his palace in Jezreel (2 Kgs 8:29), he found his problems compounded when one of his generals, Jehu, led an insurrection against him. Commissioned by the Lord and declared to be king of Israel, Jehu confronted Jehoram and his nephew, Ahaziah, king of Judah. The incident culminated in the death of the two reigning monarchs of Israel and Judah (2 Kgs 9:14-24, 27). While Ahaziah was buried in the tomb of the kings in Jerusalem (v 28), Jehoram’s corpse was cast into Naboth’s field outside the city of Jezreel. His end was the appropriate judgment against the last king of the wicked Omride dynasty (vv 25-26).<\/p>\n<li>3. Levite member of a traveling group of scholars who taught the people from the Book of the Law during the reign of Jehoshaphat (2 Chr 17:7-9).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Israel, History of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JEHORAM<\/h3>\n<li>1. Jehoshaphat’s son and Judah’s fifth king (853–841 <span>BC<\/span>; also called Joram). Prior to the rule of the Omride dynasty in the northern kingdom of Israel (885–841 <span>BC<\/span>), the relationship between Judah and Israel had been strained. The political influence and economic stability of the united monarchy had long since vanished. Power and wealth had been diminished by Egyptian overlordship under Shishak (2 Chr 12) and by civil war: the unsuccessful Shechem conference (ch 10); Rehoboam of Judah versus Jeroboam of Israel (12:15); Abijah of Judah versus Jeroboam of Israel (13:1-22); and Asa of Judah versus Baasha of Israel (16:1-4). The Omride dynasty in the mid-ninth century <span>BC<\/span>, however, cast aside familial rivalry and sought to forge a new alliance between the two nations.<\/li>\n<p>The two kingdoms of Judah and Israel were increasingly threatened by the surrounding peoples—the Ammonites, Moabites, Edomites, Syrians, Philistines, Arabs, and Assyrians. In response to this threat Ahab, the second king of the Omride dynasty, secured diplomatic relations with Phoenicia (1 Kgs 16:31) and Judah (22:4). During this time, joint military expeditions by Israel and Judah were not infrequent (1 Kgs 22; 2 Kgs 3; 8:28), though these political alliances were not without their liabilities. The intrusion of the worship of Baal and Asherah led to religious apostasy in Judah and Israel (1 Kgs 16:31-33; 2 Kgs 3:2; 2 Chr 21:11). It was within this political-religious context that Jehoram reigned over Judah.<\/p>\n<p>Though he may have served as co-regent as early as 853 <span>BC<\/span>, Jehoram was the sole ruler for eight years (848–841 <span>BC<\/span>). His reign was marked by unnecessary internecine fighting and religious apostasy. His father had generously provided for his six brothers, a decision that Jehoram quickly reversed once he had secured the throne (2 Chr 21:2-3). He executed not only his brothers but also several Israelite princes, thereby removing any political threat to himself (v 4). In addition, he reverted to the idolatrous practices that his father had tried to eliminate by restoring forbidden worship sites, “the high places” (v 11). Jehoram had apparently fallen under the influence of his wife, Athaliah, the daughter of Jezebel (2 Kgs 8:18). As her mother had done in Israel, Athaliah imported Baal worship into Judah. As a result, Elijah the prophet pronounced judgment on Jehoram and the people of Judah—a curse that brought a great plague upon Jehoram’s people, children, wives, and possessions, and a gross intestinal disorder upon the king himself. In spite of this pervasive wickedness in Judah, the Lord did not destroy the southern kingdom, because of his promise to David (2 Kgs 8:19; cf. 2 Sm 7:12-16).<\/p>\n<p>Politically, Judah was vulnerable, having lost its control of Edom (2 Chr 21:9) and having sustained attacks by the Philistines and the Arabs. Jehoram was left bereft of possessions, wives, and sons except for Jehoahaz (Ahaziah), his youngest (vv 16-17). At his death Jehoram was not honored and was deprived of burial in the tomb of the kings within the city of David (vv 19-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Israel, History of.<\/p>\n<li>2. Ahab and Jezebel’s son, and Israel’s tenth king (852–841 <span>BC<\/span>; also called Joram). He succeeded his brother Ahaziah, whose premature death led to Jehoram’s ascension to the throne in Samaria (2 Kgs 1:2, 17); he was a contemporary of the Judean kings Jehoshaphat, Jehoram, and Ahaziah.<\/li>\n<p>Jehoram was preoccupied with the political resurgence of the two neighboring kingdoms of Moab and Syria. When Moab withheld its annual tribute to Israel, he sought assistance from both Jehoshaphat and Judah’s vassal kingdom, Edom. Jehoram and Jehoshaphat joined forces with the king of Edom but were halted in their attack on Moab when they encountered a serious lack of water. Hesitant to advance with their troops, they summoned Elisha the prophet and asked him to inquire of the Lord’s will regarding the expedition. Because of the high regard that Elisha held for Jehoshaphat, the prophet sought the Lord on their behalf, gaining both the Lord’s blessing and an abundance of water. The account of the battle records the slaughter of the Moabites as well as the horrible incident of a human sacrifice by the Moabite king. Having won the battle, Israel withdrew (2 Kgs 3:4-27).<\/p>\n<p>Jehoram’s conflict with Syria was less successful because the Israelite king sustained a battle wound. Retreating from Ramoth-gilead in Transjordan to his palace in Jezreel (2 Kgs 8:29), he found his problems compounded when one of his generals, Jehu, led an insurrection against him. Commissioned by the Lord and declared to be king of Israel, Jehu confronted Jehoram and his nephew, Ahaziah, king of Judah. The incident culminated in the death of the two reigning monarchs of Israel and Judah (2 Kgs 9:14-24, 27). While Ahaziah was buried in the tomb of the kings in Jerusalem (v 28), Jehoram’s corpse was cast into Naboth’s field outside the city of Jezreel. His end was the appropriate judgment against the last king of the wicked Omride dynasty (vv 25-26).<\/p>\n<li>3. Levite member of a traveling group of scholars who taught the people from the Book of the Law during the reign of Jehoshaphat (2 Chr 17:7-9).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Israel, History of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JEHORAM 1. Jehoshaphat’s son and Judah’s fifth king (853–841 BC; also called Joram). Prior to the rule of the Omride dynasty in the northern kingdom of Israel (885–841 BC), the relationship between Judah and Israel had been strained. The political influence and economic stability of the united monarchy had long since vanished. Power and wealth had been diminished by Egyptian overlordship under Shishak (2 Chr 12) and by civil war: the unsuccessful Shechem conference (ch 10); Rehoboam of Judah ...","summary_en":"JEHORAM 1. Jehoshaphat’s son and Judah’s fifth king (853–841 BC; also called Joram). Prior to the rule of the Omride dynasty in the northern kingdom of Israel (885–841 BC), the relationship between Judah and Israel had been strained. The political influence and economic stability of the united monarchy had long since vanished. Power and wealth had been diminished by Egyptian overlordship under Shishak (2 Chr 12) and by civil war: the unsuccessful Shechem conference (ch 10); Rehoboam of Judah ...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26153,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Moabites Moab","title_en":"Moabites Moab","content_ro":"<h3>MOAB, MOABITES<\/h3>\n<p>Name of a small kingdom in central Transjordan and also its inhabitants. The land of Moab was situated on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea; the escarpment of the Jordan Rift formed an effective boundary between Moab and Judah. Moab’s northern boundary shifted in accordance with the kingdom’s military might, with the Heshbon vicinity forming the northern limit of Moab in periods of strength, and the Arnon River (modern Wadi el-Mojib) functioning as the northern border in times of weakness. The kingdom’s eastern boundary was formed by the fringe of the Syrian desert, since the latter demarcated Moab’s agricultural zone. On the south, Moab was separated from Edom by the Zered River (modern Wadi el-Hesa). Thus, even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, measuring only about 60 miles (96.5 kilometers) north-south by about 20 miles (32.2 kilometers) east-west.<\/p>\n<p>Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland that is divided by numerous ravines. Running through the heart of Moab is the King’s Highway, a route that probably had military and commercial importance throughout this region’s history (Nm 21:21-22; Jgs 11:17). The plateau has always been famous for its abundant pasturage (2 Kgs 3:4), and Moab’s soil and climate are quite suitable for growing wheat and barley.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OriginandHistory\">Origin and History<\/p>\n<p>According to Genesis 19:37, the Moabites descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter. Deuteronomy 2:10-11, a passage whose context relates to the Moabites at the time of the Hebrew invasion, says that the pre-Moabite inhabitants of this region were the Emim, but the connection between Lot’s descendants, the Emim, and the occupants of Moab at the time of the Hebrew invasion is not identified. There is thus far no specific information concerning the establishing of the Moabite kingdom proper, which existed from around 1300 <span>BC<\/span> to 600 <span>BC<\/span>. Knowledge of this period of Moabite history and culture is derived from archaeological and textual sources, including Egyptian, Assyrian, and OT texts.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the Israelites’ passage through Transjordan, the Moabites had lost control of the land north of the Arnon and were dominated by Sihon, the Amorite king who ruled at Heshbon (Nm 21:13, 26). Having been refused permission to travel through Edom and Moab along the King’s Highway, the Hebrews defeated Sihon in one of their most celebrated military campaigns. Fearing that Israel might conquer his land, King Balak of Moab waged war against the Hebrews (Nm 22:6; Jos 24:9) and hired the Mesopotamian diviner, Balaam, to pronounce a curse upon his enemies (Nm 22–24). The tribes of Reuben and Gad settled in Sihon’s territory, and the Arnon formed the border between Israel and Moab (ch 32). From the time of the Israelites’ apostasy at Shittim onward (ch 25), the Moabite tableland north of the Arnon was a source of contention between Moab and Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Until his assassination by Ehud, the Moabite king Eglon oppressed the Hebrew tribes on both sides of the Jordan (Jgs 3:12-30). By Jephthah’s day, northern Moab was once again under Israelite control (11:26). Obviously, as the book of Ruth indicates, there were also periods in which Moab and Israel lived in peace.<\/p>\n<p>During the reigns of Saul and David, from the late-11th until the mid-10th centuries <span>BC<\/span>, Moab and Israel were at war, with the latter usually holding the upper hand (1 Sm 14:47; 2 Sm 8:2). Solomon’s harem included Moabite women, and he also built a high place for Chemosh, the chief god of the Moabites (1 Kgs 11:1, 7). Following the division of the Israelite monarchy in 930 <span>BC<\/span>, Moab experienced a brief period of independence, but this ended when Omri and Ahab dominated the Moabites and their king, Mesha, during the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>. (The famous Moabite Stone, which describes Mesha’s conflict with the Omride dynasty, and several shorter texts demonstrate that the language of Moab was closely related to OT Hebrew.) Conflict between Moab and her neighbors (e.g., Israel, Judah, Edom, and most importantly, Assyria) continued until the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar destroyed the Moabite kingdom early in the sixth century <span>BC<\/span> (Ez 25:8-11). This conflict is documented in the Assyrian literature, which indicates that Moab became an Assyrian vassal in the late eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, and in the OT (2 Kgs 3; 10:32-33; 13:20; 24:2). Indeed, the enmity between Moab, Israel, and Judah is especially evident in a series of prophetic oracles leveled against the Moabites (Is 15–16; Jer 9:25-26; 48; Am 2:1-3; Zep 2:8-11). These passages call attention to some of the major towns in ancient Moab (Nebo, Medeba, Heshbon, Dibon, Ar, Kir, and Horonaim).<\/p>\n<p>Following the Babylonian conquest, the region of Moab fell under Persian control and was occupied by various Arab peoples, most notably the Nabateans. Although a Moabite state was never reestablished, people of Moabite ancestry were recognized in late OT times (Ezr 9:1; Neh 13:1, 23), since the postexilic Jewish community was concerned about observing the law recorded in Deuteronomy 23:3-6. In <span>AD<\/span> 106 the region of Moab became part of the Roman province of Arabia. Archaeological research has added much to the body of information that relates to Moabite history and culture from the prehistoric through Ottoman periods.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Religion\">Religion<\/p>\n<p>During the third and second millennia <span>BC<\/span>, Moabite religion was probably similar to that practiced by the Canaanites, though the religion of Moab eventually developed into a relatively distinct system. Although other deities were worshiped by the Moabites, Chemosh was their national god. The OT refers to the Moabites as “people of Chemosh” (Nm 21:29; Jer 48:46), and the frequent appearance of “Chemosh” in Moabite personal names points to this god’s elevated status. In general, the Moabite Stone’s dozen references to Chemosh portray him as a god of war who leads his people against their enemies.<\/p>\n<p>Divine guidance and favor were sought, and diviners and oracles were respected (Nm 22–24). A priesthood (Jer 48:7) and sacrificial system (Nm 22:40–23:30; 25:1-5; 2 Kgs 3:27; Jer 48:35) were important aspects of Moabite religion. No Moabite sanctuary has been discovered, but their existence is mentioned in the Moabite Stone and the OT (1 Kgs 11:7; 2 Kgs 23:13). Elaborately furnished tombs, like those found at Dibon, point to the Moabites’ belief in the afterlife.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Canaanite Deities and Religion; Moabite Stone.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MOAB, MOABITES<\/h3>\n<p>Name of a small kingdom in central Transjordan and also its inhabitants. The land of Moab was situated on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea; the escarpment of the Jordan Rift formed an effective boundary between Moab and Judah. Moab’s northern boundary shifted in accordance with the kingdom’s military might, with the Heshbon vicinity forming the northern limit of Moab in periods of strength, and the Arnon River (modern Wadi el-Mojib) functioning as the northern border in times of weakness. The kingdom’s eastern boundary was formed by the fringe of the Syrian desert, since the latter demarcated Moab’s agricultural zone. On the south, Moab was separated from Edom by the Zered River (modern Wadi el-Hesa). Thus, even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, measuring only about 60 miles (96.5 kilometers) north-south by about 20 miles (32.2 kilometers) east-west.<\/p>\n<p>Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland that is divided by numerous ravines. Running through the heart of Moab is the King’s Highway, a route that probably had military and commercial importance throughout this region’s history (Nm 21:21-22; Jgs 11:17). The plateau has always been famous for its abundant pasturage (2 Kgs 3:4), and Moab’s soil and climate are quite suitable for growing wheat and barley.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OriginandHistory\">Origin and History<\/p>\n<p>According to Genesis 19:37, the Moabites descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter. Deuteronomy 2:10-11, a passage whose context relates to the Moabites at the time of the Hebrew invasion, says that the pre-Moabite inhabitants of this region were the Emim, but the connection between Lot’s descendants, the Emim, and the occupants of Moab at the time of the Hebrew invasion is not identified. There is thus far no specific information concerning the establishing of the Moabite kingdom proper, which existed from around 1300 <span>BC<\/span> to 600 <span>BC<\/span>. Knowledge of this period of Moabite history and culture is derived from archaeological and textual sources, including Egyptian, Assyrian, and OT texts.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the Israelites’ passage through Transjordan, the Moabites had lost control of the land north of the Arnon and were dominated by Sihon, the Amorite king who ruled at Heshbon (Nm 21:13, 26). Having been refused permission to travel through Edom and Moab along the King’s Highway, the Hebrews defeated Sihon in one of their most celebrated military campaigns. Fearing that Israel might conquer his land, King Balak of Moab waged war against the Hebrews (Nm 22:6; Jos 24:9) and hired the Mesopotamian diviner, Balaam, to pronounce a curse upon his enemies (Nm 22–24). The tribes of Reuben and Gad settled in Sihon’s territory, and the Arnon formed the border between Israel and Moab (ch 32). From the time of the Israelites’ apostasy at Shittim onward (ch 25), the Moabite tableland north of the Arnon was a source of contention between Moab and Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Until his assassination by Ehud, the Moabite king Eglon oppressed the Hebrew tribes on both sides of the Jordan (Jgs 3:12-30). By Jephthah’s day, northern Moab was once again under Israelite control (11:26). Obviously, as the book of Ruth indicates, there were also periods in which Moab and Israel lived in peace.<\/p>\n<p>During the reigns of Saul and David, from the late-11th until the mid-10th centuries <span>BC<\/span>, Moab and Israel were at war, with the latter usually holding the upper hand (1 Sm 14:47; 2 Sm 8:2). Solomon’s harem included Moabite women, and he also built a high place for Chemosh, the chief god of the Moabites (1 Kgs 11:1, 7). Following the division of the Israelite monarchy in 930 <span>BC<\/span>, Moab experienced a brief period of independence, but this ended when Omri and Ahab dominated the Moabites and their king, Mesha, during the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>. (The famous Moabite Stone, which describes Mesha’s conflict with the Omride dynasty, and several shorter texts demonstrate that the language of Moab was closely related to OT Hebrew.) Conflict between Moab and her neighbors (e.g., Israel, Judah, Edom, and most importantly, Assyria) continued until the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar destroyed the Moabite kingdom early in the sixth century <span>BC<\/span> (Ez 25:8-11). This conflict is documented in the Assyrian literature, which indicates that Moab became an Assyrian vassal in the late eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, and in the OT (2 Kgs 3; 10:32-33; 13:20; 24:2). Indeed, the enmity between Moab, Israel, and Judah is especially evident in a series of prophetic oracles leveled against the Moabites (Is 15–16; Jer 9:25-26; 48; Am 2:1-3; Zep 2:8-11). These passages call attention to some of the major towns in ancient Moab (Nebo, Medeba, Heshbon, Dibon, Ar, Kir, and Horonaim).<\/p>\n<p>Following the Babylonian conquest, the region of Moab fell under Persian control and was occupied by various Arab peoples, most notably the Nabateans. Although a Moabite state was never reestablished, people of Moabite ancestry were recognized in late OT times (Ezr 9:1; Neh 13:1, 23), since the postexilic Jewish community was concerned about observing the law recorded in Deuteronomy 23:3-6. In <span>AD<\/span> 106 the region of Moab became part of the Roman province of Arabia. Archaeological research has added much to the body of information that relates to Moabite history and culture from the prehistoric through Ottoman periods.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Religion\">Religion<\/p>\n<p>During the third and second millennia <span>BC<\/span>, Moabite religion was probably similar to that practiced by the Canaanites, though the religion of Moab eventually developed into a relatively distinct system. Although other deities were worshiped by the Moabites, Chemosh was their national god. The OT refers to the Moabites as “people of Chemosh” (Nm 21:29; Jer 48:46), and the frequent appearance of “Chemosh” in Moabite personal names points to this god’s elevated status. In general, the Moabite Stone’s dozen references to Chemosh portray him as a god of war who leads his people against their enemies.<\/p>\n<p>Divine guidance and favor were sought, and diviners and oracles were respected (Nm 22–24). A priesthood (Jer 48:7) and sacrificial system (Nm 22:40–23:30; 25:1-5; 2 Kgs 3:27; Jer 48:35) were important aspects of Moabite religion. No Moabite sanctuary has been discovered, but their existence is mentioned in the Moabite Stone and the OT (1 Kgs 11:7; 2 Kgs 23:13). Elaborately furnished tombs, like those found at Dibon, point to the Moabites’ belief in the afterlife.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Canaanite Deities and Religion; Moabite Stone.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MOAB, MOABITES Name of a small kingdom in central Transjordan and also its inhabitants. The land of Moab was situated on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea; the escarpment of the Jordan Rift formed an effective boundary between Moab and Judah. Moab’s northern boundary shifted in accordance with the kingdom’s military might, with the Heshbon vicinity forming the northern limit of Moab in periods of strength, and the Arnon River (modern Wadi el-Mojib) functioning as the northern ...","summary_en":"MOAB, MOABITES Name of a small kingdom in central Transjordan and also its inhabitants. The land of Moab was situated on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea; the escarpment of the Jordan Rift formed an effective boundary between Moab and Judah. Moab’s northern boundary shifted in accordance with the kingdom’s military might, with the Heshbon vicinity forming the northern limit of Moab in periods of strength, and the Arnon River (modern Wadi el-Mojib) functioning as the northern ...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"2":[{"id":18783,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jehoram","title_en":"Jehoram","content_ro":"<h3>JEHORAM<\/h3>\n<li>1. Jehoshaphat’s son and Judah’s fifth king (853–841 <span>BC<\/span>; also called Joram). Prior to the rule of the Omride dynasty in the northern kingdom of Israel (885–841 <span>BC<\/span>), the relationship between Judah and Israel had been strained. The political influence and economic stability of the united monarchy had long since vanished. Power and wealth had been diminished by Egyptian overlordship under Shishak (2 Chr 12) and by civil war: the unsuccessful Shechem conference (ch 10); Rehoboam of Judah versus Jeroboam of Israel (12:15); Abijah of Judah versus Jeroboam of Israel (13:1-22); and Asa of Judah versus Baasha of Israel (16:1-4). The Omride dynasty in the mid-ninth century <span>BC<\/span>, however, cast aside familial rivalry and sought to forge a new alliance between the two nations.<\/li>\n<p>The two kingdoms of Judah and Israel were increasingly threatened by the surrounding peoples—the Ammonites, Moabites, Edomites, Syrians, Philistines, Arabs, and Assyrians. In response to this threat Ahab, the second king of the Omride dynasty, secured diplomatic relations with Phoenicia (1 Kgs 16:31) and Judah (22:4). During this time, joint military expeditions by Israel and Judah were not infrequent (1 Kgs 22; 2 Kgs 3; 8:28), though these political alliances were not without their liabilities. The intrusion of the worship of Baal and Asherah led to religious apostasy in Judah and Israel (1 Kgs 16:31-33; 2 Kgs 3:2; 2 Chr 21:11). It was within this political-religious context that Jehoram reigned over Judah.<\/p>\n<p>Though he may have served as co-regent as early as 853 <span>BC<\/span>, Jehoram was the sole ruler for eight years (848–841 <span>BC<\/span>). His reign was marked by unnecessary internecine fighting and religious apostasy. His father had generously provided for his six brothers, a decision that Jehoram quickly reversed once he had secured the throne (2 Chr 21:2-3). He executed not only his brothers but also several Israelite princes, thereby removing any political threat to himself (v 4). In addition, he reverted to the idolatrous practices that his father had tried to eliminate by restoring forbidden worship sites, “the high places” (v 11). Jehoram had apparently fallen under the influence of his wife, Athaliah, the daughter of Jezebel (2 Kgs 8:18). As her mother had done in Israel, Athaliah imported Baal worship into Judah. As a result, Elijah the prophet pronounced judgment on Jehoram and the people of Judah—a curse that brought a great plague upon Jehoram’s people, children, wives, and possessions, and a gross intestinal disorder upon the king himself. In spite of this pervasive wickedness in Judah, the Lord did not destroy the southern kingdom, because of his promise to David (2 Kgs 8:19; cf. 2 Sm 7:12-16).<\/p>\n<p>Politically, Judah was vulnerable, having lost its control of Edom (2 Chr 21:9) and having sustained attacks by the Philistines and the Arabs. Jehoram was left bereft of possessions, wives, and sons except for Jehoahaz (Ahaziah), his youngest (vv 16-17). At his death Jehoram was not honored and was deprived of burial in the tomb of the kings within the city of David (vv 19-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Israel, History of.<\/p>\n<li>2. Ahab and Jezebel’s son, and Israel’s tenth king (852–841 <span>BC<\/span>; also called Joram). He succeeded his brother Ahaziah, whose premature death led to Jehoram’s ascension to the throne in Samaria (2 Kgs 1:2, 17); he was a contemporary of the Judean kings Jehoshaphat, Jehoram, and Ahaziah.<\/li>\n<p>Jehoram was preoccupied with the political resurgence of the two neighboring kingdoms of Moab and Syria. When Moab withheld its annual tribute to Israel, he sought assistance from both Jehoshaphat and Judah’s vassal kingdom, Edom. Jehoram and Jehoshaphat joined forces with the king of Edom but were halted in their attack on Moab when they encountered a serious lack of water. Hesitant to advance with their troops, they summoned Elisha the prophet and asked him to inquire of the Lord’s will regarding the expedition. Because of the high regard that Elisha held for Jehoshaphat, the prophet sought the Lord on their behalf, gaining both the Lord’s blessing and an abundance of water. The account of the battle records the slaughter of the Moabites as well as the horrible incident of a human sacrifice by the Moabite king. Having won the battle, Israel withdrew (2 Kgs 3:4-27).<\/p>\n<p>Jehoram’s conflict with Syria was less successful because the Israelite king sustained a battle wound. Retreating from Ramoth-gilead in Transjordan to his palace in Jezreel (2 Kgs 8:29), he found his problems compounded when one of his generals, Jehu, led an insurrection against him. Commissioned by the Lord and declared to be king of Israel, Jehu confronted Jehoram and his nephew, Ahaziah, king of Judah. The incident culminated in the death of the two reigning monarchs of Israel and Judah (2 Kgs 9:14-24, 27). While Ahaziah was buried in the tomb of the kings in Jerusalem (v 28), Jehoram’s corpse was cast into Naboth’s field outside the city of Jezreel. His end was the appropriate judgment against the last king of the wicked Omride dynasty (vv 25-26).<\/p>\n<li>3. Levite member of a traveling group of scholars who taught the people from the Book of the Law during the reign of Jehoshaphat (2 Chr 17:7-9).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Israel, History of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JEHORAM<\/h3>\n<li>1. Jehoshaphat’s son and Judah’s fifth king (853–841 <span>BC<\/span>; also called Joram). Prior to the rule of the Omride dynasty in the northern kingdom of Israel (885–841 <span>BC<\/span>), the relationship between Judah and Israel had been strained. The political influence and economic stability of the united monarchy had long since vanished. Power and wealth had been diminished by Egyptian overlordship under Shishak (2 Chr 12) and by civil war: the unsuccessful Shechem conference (ch 10); Rehoboam of Judah versus Jeroboam of Israel (12:15); Abijah of Judah versus Jeroboam of Israel (13:1-22); and Asa of Judah versus Baasha of Israel (16:1-4). The Omride dynasty in the mid-ninth century <span>BC<\/span>, however, cast aside familial rivalry and sought to forge a new alliance between the two nations.<\/li>\n<p>The two kingdoms of Judah and Israel were increasingly threatened by the surrounding peoples—the Ammonites, Moabites, Edomites, Syrians, Philistines, Arabs, and Assyrians. In response to this threat Ahab, the second king of the Omride dynasty, secured diplomatic relations with Phoenicia (1 Kgs 16:31) and Judah (22:4). During this time, joint military expeditions by Israel and Judah were not infrequent (1 Kgs 22; 2 Kgs 3; 8:28), though these political alliances were not without their liabilities. The intrusion of the worship of Baal and Asherah led to religious apostasy in Judah and Israel (1 Kgs 16:31-33; 2 Kgs 3:2; 2 Chr 21:11). It was within this political-religious context that Jehoram reigned over Judah.<\/p>\n<p>Though he may have served as co-regent as early as 853 <span>BC<\/span>, Jehoram was the sole ruler for eight years (848–841 <span>BC<\/span>). His reign was marked by unnecessary internecine fighting and religious apostasy. His father had generously provided for his six brothers, a decision that Jehoram quickly reversed once he had secured the throne (2 Chr 21:2-3). He executed not only his brothers but also several Israelite princes, thereby removing any political threat to himself (v 4). In addition, he reverted to the idolatrous practices that his father had tried to eliminate by restoring forbidden worship sites, “the high places” (v 11). Jehoram had apparently fallen under the influence of his wife, Athaliah, the daughter of Jezebel (2 Kgs 8:18). As her mother had done in Israel, Athaliah imported Baal worship into Judah. As a result, Elijah the prophet pronounced judgment on Jehoram and the people of Judah—a curse that brought a great plague upon Jehoram’s people, children, wives, and possessions, and a gross intestinal disorder upon the king himself. In spite of this pervasive wickedness in Judah, the Lord did not destroy the southern kingdom, because of his promise to David (2 Kgs 8:19; cf. 2 Sm 7:12-16).<\/p>\n<p>Politically, Judah was vulnerable, having lost its control of Edom (2 Chr 21:9) and having sustained attacks by the Philistines and the Arabs. Jehoram was left bereft of possessions, wives, and sons except for Jehoahaz (Ahaziah), his youngest (vv 16-17). At his death Jehoram was not honored and was deprived of burial in the tomb of the kings within the city of David (vv 19-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Israel, History of.<\/p>\n<li>2. Ahab and Jezebel’s son, and Israel’s tenth king (852–841 <span>BC<\/span>; also called Joram). He succeeded his brother Ahaziah, whose premature death led to Jehoram’s ascension to the throne in Samaria (2 Kgs 1:2, 17); he was a contemporary of the Judean kings Jehoshaphat, Jehoram, and Ahaziah.<\/li>\n<p>Jehoram was preoccupied with the political resurgence of the two neighboring kingdoms of Moab and Syria. When Moab withheld its annual tribute to Israel, he sought assistance from both Jehoshaphat and Judah’s vassal kingdom, Edom. Jehoram and Jehoshaphat joined forces with the king of Edom but were halted in their attack on Moab when they encountered a serious lack of water. Hesitant to advance with their troops, they summoned Elisha the prophet and asked him to inquire of the Lord’s will regarding the expedition. Because of the high regard that Elisha held for Jehoshaphat, the prophet sought the Lord on their behalf, gaining both the Lord’s blessing and an abundance of water. The account of the battle records the slaughter of the Moabites as well as the horrible incident of a human sacrifice by the Moabite king. Having won the battle, Israel withdrew (2 Kgs 3:4-27).<\/p>\n<p>Jehoram’s conflict with Syria was less successful because the Israelite king sustained a battle wound. Retreating from Ramoth-gilead in Transjordan to his palace in Jezreel (2 Kgs 8:29), he found his problems compounded when one of his generals, Jehu, led an insurrection against him. Commissioned by the Lord and declared to be king of Israel, Jehu confronted Jehoram and his nephew, Ahaziah, king of Judah. The incident culminated in the death of the two reigning monarchs of Israel and Judah (2 Kgs 9:14-24, 27). While Ahaziah was buried in the tomb of the kings in Jerusalem (v 28), Jehoram’s corpse was cast into Naboth’s field outside the city of Jezreel. His end was the appropriate judgment against the last king of the wicked Omride dynasty (vv 25-26).<\/p>\n<li>3. Levite member of a traveling group of scholars who taught the people from the Book of the Law during the reign of Jehoshaphat (2 Chr 17:7-9).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Israel, History of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JEHORAM 1. Jehoshaphat’s son and Judah’s fifth king (853–841 BC; also called Joram). Prior to the rule of the Omride dynasty in the northern kingdom of Israel (885–841 BC), the relationship between Judah and Israel had been strained. The political influence and economic stability of the united monarchy had long since vanished. Power and wealth had been diminished by Egyptian overlordship under Shishak (2 Chr 12) and by civil war: the unsuccessful Shechem conference (ch 10); Rehoboam of Judah ...","summary_en":"JEHORAM 1. Jehoshaphat’s son and Judah’s fifth king (853–841 BC; also called Joram). Prior to the rule of the Omride dynasty in the northern kingdom of Israel (885–841 BC), the relationship between Judah and Israel had been strained. The political influence and economic stability of the united monarchy had long since vanished. Power and wealth had been diminished by Egyptian overlordship under Shishak (2 Chr 12) and by civil war: the unsuccessful Shechem conference (ch 10); Rehoboam of Judah ...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":47207,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Împărați 3:2","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Împărați 3:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:2<\/strong> Ahab apparently erected <em>the sacred pillar<\/em> (or <em>stela<\/em>) <em>of Baal<\/em> when instituting Baal worship (see 1 Kgs 16:32-33). Similar stones were also erected to pagan deities in Judah (1 Kgs 14:23); such pillars were later purged by Jehu (2 Kgs 10:26-27) and Josiah (23:13-15).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:2<\/strong> Ahab apparently erected <em>the sacred pillar<\/em> (or <em>stela<\/em>) <em>of Baal<\/em> when instituting Baal worship (see 1 Kgs 16:32-33). Similar stones were also erected to pagan deities in Judah (1 Kgs 14:23); such pillars were later purged by Jehu (2 Kgs 10:26-27) and Josiah (23:13-15).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:2 Ahab apparently erected the sacred pillar (or stela) of Baal when instituting Baal worship (see 1 Kgs 16:32-33). Similar stones were also erected to pagan deities in Judah (1 Kgs 14:23); such pillars were later purged by Jehu (2 Kgs 10:26-27) and Josiah (23:13-15).","summary_en":"3:2 Ahab apparently erected the sacred pillar (or stela) of Baal when instituting Baal worship (see 1 Kgs 16:32-33). Similar stones were also erected to pagan deities in Judah (1 Kgs 14:23); such pillars were later purged by Jehu (2 Kgs 10:26-27) and Josiah (23:13-15).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":74833,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Împărați 3:2","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Împărați 3:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:2<\/strong> Ahab apparently erected <em>the sacred pillar<\/em> (or <em>stela<\/em>) <em>of Baal<\/em> when instituting Baal worship (see 1 Kgs 16:32-33). Similar stones were also erected to pagan deities in Judah (1 Kgs 14:23); such pillars were later purged by Jehu (2 Kgs 10:26-27) and Josiah (23:13-15).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:2<\/strong> Ahab apparently erected <em>the sacred pillar<\/em> (or <em>stela<\/em>) <em>of Baal<\/em> when instituting Baal worship (see 1 Kgs 16:32-33). Similar stones were also erected to pagan deities in Judah (1 Kgs 14:23); such pillars were later purged by Jehu (2 Kgs 10:26-27) and Josiah (23:13-15).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:2 Ahab apparently erected the sacred pillar (or stela) of Baal when instituting Baal worship (see 1 Kgs 16:32-33). Similar stones were also erected to pagan deities in Judah (1 Kgs 14:23); such pillars were later purged by Jehu (2 Kgs 10:26-27) and Josiah (23:13-15).","summary_en":"3:2 Ahab apparently erected the sacred pillar (or stela) of Baal when instituting Baal worship (see 1 Kgs 16:32-33). Similar stones were also erected to pagan deities in Judah (1 Kgs 14:23); such pillars were later purged by Jehu (2 Kgs 10:26-27) and Josiah (23:13-15).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":102459,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Împărați 3:2","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Împărați 3:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:2<\/strong> Ahab apparently erected <em>the sacred pillar<\/em> (or <em>stela<\/em>) <em>of Baal<\/em> when instituting Baal worship (see 1 Kgs 16:32-33). Similar stones were also erected to pagan deities in Judah (1 Kgs 14:23); such pillars were later purged by Jehu (2 Kgs 10:26-27) and Josiah (23:13-15).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:2<\/strong> Ahab apparently erected <em>the sacred pillar<\/em> (or <em>stela<\/em>) <em>of Baal<\/em> when instituting Baal worship (see 1 Kgs 16:32-33). Similar stones were also erected to pagan deities in Judah (1 Kgs 14:23); such pillars were later purged by Jehu (2 Kgs 10:26-27) and Josiah (23:13-15).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:2 Ahab apparently erected the sacred pillar (or stela) of Baal when instituting Baal worship (see 1 Kgs 16:32-33). Similar stones were also erected to pagan deities in Judah (1 Kgs 14:23); such pillars were later purged by Jehu (2 Kgs 10:26-27) and Josiah (23:13-15).","summary_en":"3:2 Ahab apparently erected the sacred pillar (or stela) of Baal when instituting Baal worship (see 1 Kgs 16:32-33). Similar stones were also erected to pagan deities in Judah (1 Kgs 14:23); such pillars were later purged by Jehu (2 Kgs 10:26-27) and Josiah (23:13-15).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":130085,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Împărați 3:2","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Împărați 3:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:2<\/strong> Ahab apparently erected <em>the sacred pillar<\/em> (or <em>stela<\/em>) <em>of Baal<\/em> when instituting Baal worship (see 1 Kgs 16:32-33). Similar stones were also erected to pagan deities in Judah (1 Kgs 14:23); such pillars were later purged by Jehu (2 Kgs 10:26-27) and Josiah (23:13-15).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:2<\/strong> Ahab apparently erected <em>the sacred pillar<\/em> (or <em>stela<\/em>) <em>of Baal<\/em> when instituting Baal worship (see 1 Kgs 16:32-33). Similar stones were also erected to pagan deities in Judah (1 Kgs 14:23); such pillars were later purged by Jehu (2 Kgs 10:26-27) and Josiah (23:13-15).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:2 Ahab apparently erected the sacred pillar (or stela) of Baal when instituting Baal worship (see 1 Kgs 16:32-33). Similar stones were also erected to pagan deities in Judah (1 Kgs 14:23); such pillars were later purged by Jehu (2 Kgs 10:26-27) and Josiah (23:13-15).","summary_en":"3:2 Ahab apparently erected the sacred pillar (or stela) of Baal when instituting Baal worship (see 1 Kgs 16:32-33). Similar stones were also erected to pagan deities in Judah (1 Kgs 14:23); such pillars were later purged by Jehu (2 Kgs 10:26-27) and Josiah (23:13-15).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":61726,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Dangers of Sin","title_en":"The Dangers of Sin","content_ro":"<h3>The Dangers of Sin<\/h3>\n<p>Choosing sin rather than faithfulness to the only true God invites disaster. This has been true since the very beginning, when Adam and Eve’s disobedience brought curses and banishment from their initial home (Gen 3). And it was true throughout Israel’s history (see, e.g., Num 16; Josh 7; 2 Sam 11:1–12:19). The New Testament offers numerous warnings about the eternal consequences of unrepented sinful behavior (1 Cor 6:9-10; Gal 5:19-21; Rev 22:15).<\/p>\n<p>The sinful acts of God’s people are prominent throughout the late monarchical period. Words such as <em>sin<\/em>, <em>evil<\/em>, and <em>wicked<\/em> appear frequently to assert that the kings of both Israel (2 Kgs 3:2; 13:2, 11; 14:24; 15:9, 18, 24, 28; 17:2) and Judah (8:18, 27; 21:2, 16, 20; 23:32, 37; 24:9, 19) did “what was evil in the <span>Lord<\/span>’s sight.”<\/p>\n<p>The northern kingdom was particularly culpable. Its kings and people were uniformly condemned for their godless ways (17:16-17, 22); the basic sin of apostate worship, introduced by Jeroboam I, continued in Israel until the end (10:29; 17:21-23; 23:15). God repeatedly warned the people through his prophets (17:13) and brought the chastisement of foreign invaders (13:3, 7). Nothing moved the Israelites’ hearts, for they were set in their ways (13:6; 17:14-17). Eventually God allowed foreign invaders to defeat them and occupy their land, sending many into exile (17:18, 20-23).<\/p>\n<p>The people of Judah were not innocent either. Many of their kings were guilty of gross wickedness, and Judean society grew increasingly apostate and followed “the evil practices that Israel had introduced” (17:19). Despite God’s repeated acts of kindness (e.g., 19:32-36) and warnings delivered through his prophets (21:8-15), the people persisted in their sin, and God’s judgment once again fell (21:10-15; 23:26-27; 24:1-4; 25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>Where there is genuine repentance, God will graciously forgive his people and remit the penalty. But how much better to be faithful to God’s Word (2 Kgs 18:5-6; 23:25; Ps 119:9-11, 33-37; 2 Tim 4:7; Rev 2:10), so that God’s blessings (Ps 112:1; 119:1-2; 144:15) might bring success (2 Kgs 18:7; see also 2 Chr 26:4-5; Prov 3:1-10; 2 Cor 3:5). God’s people need to give God first place in their lives (1 Kgs 18:21, 36-39; see Deut 6:13; 10:12-13; Mic 6:8; Matt 6:33), pray for God’s persevering grace (Ps 19:13), and let the word of God be their guide (Ps 119:9; Col 3:16; 2 Tim 3:16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 18:20-21; Exod 34:7; Lev 26:14-46; Num 15:30-31; Deut 31:16-18; 1 Kgs 8:46-51; 2 Kgs 8:18, 27; 2 Kgs 13:1-7; 14:23-24; 17:13-23; 18:9-12; 21:8-16; 23:25-27; 24:1-3, 19–25:21; 2 Chr 7:14; 33:12-13; Ps 119:9-11, 33-37; Jer 44:2-6; Mic 6:8; Matt 6:33; Col 3:16; 2 Tim 3:16; 4:7; Rev 2:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Dangers of Sin<\/h3>\n<p>Choosing sin rather than faithfulness to the only true God invites disaster. This has been true since the very beginning, when Adam and Eve’s disobedience brought curses and banishment from their initial home (Gen 3). And it was true throughout Israel’s history (see, e.g., Num 16; Josh 7; 2 Sam 11:1–12:19). The New Testament offers numerous warnings about the eternal consequences of unrepented sinful behavior (1 Cor 6:9-10; Gal 5:19-21; Rev 22:15).<\/p>\n<p>The sinful acts of God’s people are prominent throughout the late monarchical period. Words such as <em>sin<\/em>, <em>evil<\/em>, and <em>wicked<\/em> appear frequently to assert that the kings of both Israel (2 Kgs 3:2; 13:2, 11; 14:24; 15:9, 18, 24, 28; 17:2) and Judah (8:18, 27; 21:2, 16, 20; 23:32, 37; 24:9, 19) did “what was evil in the <span>Lord<\/span>’s sight.”<\/p>\n<p>The northern kingdom was particularly culpable. Its kings and people were uniformly condemned for their godless ways (17:16-17, 22); the basic sin of apostate worship, introduced by Jeroboam I, continued in Israel until the end (10:29; 17:21-23; 23:15). God repeatedly warned the people through his prophets (17:13) and brought the chastisement of foreign invaders (13:3, 7). Nothing moved the Israelites’ hearts, for they were set in their ways (13:6; 17:14-17). Eventually God allowed foreign invaders to defeat them and occupy their land, sending many into exile (17:18, 20-23).<\/p>\n<p>The people of Judah were not innocent either. Many of their kings were guilty of gross wickedness, and Judean society grew increasingly apostate and followed “the evil practices that Israel had introduced” (17:19). Despite God’s repeated acts of kindness (e.g., 19:32-36) and warnings delivered through his prophets (21:8-15), the people persisted in their sin, and God’s judgment once again fell (21:10-15; 23:26-27; 24:1-4; 25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>Where there is genuine repentance, God will graciously forgive his people and remit the penalty. But how much better to be faithful to God’s Word (2 Kgs 18:5-6; 23:25; Ps 119:9-11, 33-37; 2 Tim 4:7; Rev 2:10), so that God’s blessings (Ps 112:1; 119:1-2; 144:15) might bring success (2 Kgs 18:7; see also 2 Chr 26:4-5; Prov 3:1-10; 2 Cor 3:5). God’s people need to give God first place in their lives (1 Kgs 18:21, 36-39; see Deut 6:13; 10:12-13; Mic 6:8; Matt 6:33), pray for God’s persevering grace (Ps 19:13), and let the word of God be their guide (Ps 119:9; Col 3:16; 2 Tim 3:16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 18:20-21; Exod 34:7; Lev 26:14-46; Num 15:30-31; Deut 31:16-18; 1 Kgs 8:46-51; 2 Kgs 8:18, 27; 2 Kgs 13:1-7; 14:23-24; 17:13-23; 18:9-12; 21:8-16; 23:25-27; 24:1-3, 19–25:21; 2 Chr 7:14; 33:12-13; Ps 119:9-11, 33-37; Jer 44:2-6; Mic 6:8; Matt 6:33; Col 3:16; 2 Tim 3:16; 4:7; Rev 2:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Dangers of Sin Choosing sin rather than faithfulness to the only true God invites disaster. This has been true since the very beginning, when Adam and Eve’s disobedience brought curses and banishment from their initial home (Gen 3). And it was true throughout Israel’s history (see, e.g., Num 16; Josh 7; 2 Sam 11:1–12:19). The New Testament offers numerous warnings about the eternal consequences of unrepented sinful behavior (1 Cor 6:9-10; Gal 5:19-21; Rev 22:15). The sinful acts of God’s ...","summary_en":"The Dangers of Sin Choosing sin rather than faithfulness to the only true God invites disaster. This has been true since the very beginning, when Adam and Eve’s disobedience brought curses and banishment from their initial home (Gen 3). And it was true throughout Israel’s history (see, e.g., Num 16; Josh 7; 2 Sam 11:1–12:19). The New Testament offers numerous warnings about the eternal consequences of unrepented sinful behavior (1 Cor 6:9-10; Gal 5:19-21; Rev 22:15). The sinful acts of God’s ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89352,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Dangers of Sin","title_en":"The Dangers of Sin","content_ro":"<h3>The Dangers of Sin<\/h3>\n<p>Choosing sin rather than faithfulness to the only true God invites disaster. This has been true since the very beginning, when Adam and Eve’s disobedience brought curses and banishment from their initial home (Gen 3). And it was true throughout Israel’s history (see, e.g., Num 16; Josh 7; 2 Sam 11:1–12:19). The New Testament offers numerous warnings about the eternal consequences of unrepented sinful behavior (1 Cor 6:9-10; Gal 5:19-21; Rev 22:15).<\/p>\n<p>The sinful acts of God’s people are prominent throughout the late monarchical period. Words such as <em>sin<\/em>, <em>evil<\/em>, and <em>wicked<\/em> appear frequently to assert that the kings of both Israel (2 Kgs 3:2; 13:2, 11; 14:24; 15:9, 18, 24, 28; 17:2) and Judah (8:18, 27; 21:2, 16, 20; 23:32, 37; 24:9, 19) did “what was evil in the <span>Lord<\/span>’s sight.”<\/p>\n<p>The northern kingdom was particularly culpable. Its kings and people were uniformly condemned for their godless ways (17:16-17, 22); the basic sin of apostate worship, introduced by Jeroboam I, continued in Israel until the end (10:29; 17:21-23; 23:15). God repeatedly warned the people through his prophets (17:13) and brought the chastisement of foreign invaders (13:3, 7). Nothing moved the Israelites’ hearts, for they were set in their ways (13:6; 17:14-17). Eventually God allowed foreign invaders to defeat them and occupy their land, sending many into exile (17:18, 20-23).<\/p>\n<p>The people of Judah were not innocent either. Many of their kings were guilty of gross wickedness, and Judean society grew increasingly apostate and followed “the evil practices that Israel had introduced” (17:19). Despite God’s repeated acts of kindness (e.g., 19:32-36) and warnings delivered through his prophets (21:8-15), the people persisted in their sin, and God’s judgment once again fell (21:10-15; 23:26-27; 24:1-4; 25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>Where there is genuine repentance, God will graciously forgive his people and remit the penalty. But how much better to be faithful to God’s Word (2 Kgs 18:5-6; 23:25; Ps 119:9-11, 33-37; 2 Tim 4:7; Rev 2:10), so that God’s blessings (Ps 112:1; 119:1-2; 144:15) might bring success (2 Kgs 18:7; see also 2 Chr 26:4-5; Prov 3:1-10; 2 Cor 3:5). God’s people need to give God first place in their lives (1 Kgs 18:21, 36-39; see Deut 6:13; 10:12-13; Mic 6:8; Matt 6:33), pray for God’s persevering grace (Ps 19:13), and let the word of God be their guide (Ps 119:9; Col 3:16; 2 Tim 3:16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 18:20-21; Exod 34:7; Lev 26:14-46; Num 15:30-31; Deut 31:16-18; 1 Kgs 8:46-51; 2 Kgs 8:18, 27; 2 Kgs 13:1-7; 14:23-24; 17:13-23; 18:9-12; 21:8-16; 23:25-27; 24:1-3, 19–25:21; 2 Chr 7:14; 33:12-13; Ps 119:9-11, 33-37; Jer 44:2-6; Mic 6:8; Matt 6:33; Col 3:16; 2 Tim 3:16; 4:7; Rev 2:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Dangers of Sin<\/h3>\n<p>Choosing sin rather than faithfulness to the only true God invites disaster. This has been true since the very beginning, when Adam and Eve’s disobedience brought curses and banishment from their initial home (Gen 3). And it was true throughout Israel’s history (see, e.g., Num 16; Josh 7; 2 Sam 11:1–12:19). The New Testament offers numerous warnings about the eternal consequences of unrepented sinful behavior (1 Cor 6:9-10; Gal 5:19-21; Rev 22:15).<\/p>\n<p>The sinful acts of God’s people are prominent throughout the late monarchical period. Words such as <em>sin<\/em>, <em>evil<\/em>, and <em>wicked<\/em> appear frequently to assert that the kings of both Israel (2 Kgs 3:2; 13:2, 11; 14:24; 15:9, 18, 24, 28; 17:2) and Judah (8:18, 27; 21:2, 16, 20; 23:32, 37; 24:9, 19) did “what was evil in the <span>Lord<\/span>’s sight.”<\/p>\n<p>The northern kingdom was particularly culpable. Its kings and people were uniformly condemned for their godless ways (17:16-17, 22); the basic sin of apostate worship, introduced by Jeroboam I, continued in Israel until the end (10:29; 17:21-23; 23:15). God repeatedly warned the people through his prophets (17:13) and brought the chastisement of foreign invaders (13:3, 7). Nothing moved the Israelites’ hearts, for they were set in their ways (13:6; 17:14-17). Eventually God allowed foreign invaders to defeat them and occupy their land, sending many into exile (17:18, 20-23).<\/p>\n<p>The people of Judah were not innocent either. Many of their kings were guilty of gross wickedness, and Judean society grew increasingly apostate and followed “the evil practices that Israel had introduced” (17:19). Despite God’s repeated acts of kindness (e.g., 19:32-36) and warnings delivered through his prophets (21:8-15), the people persisted in their sin, and God’s judgment once again fell (21:10-15; 23:26-27; 24:1-4; 25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>Where there is genuine repentance, God will graciously forgive his people and remit the penalty. But how much better to be faithful to God’s Word (2 Kgs 18:5-6; 23:25; Ps 119:9-11, 33-37; 2 Tim 4:7; Rev 2:10), so that God’s blessings (Ps 112:1; 119:1-2; 144:15) might bring success (2 Kgs 18:7; see also 2 Chr 26:4-5; Prov 3:1-10; 2 Cor 3:5). God’s people need to give God first place in their lives (1 Kgs 18:21, 36-39; see Deut 6:13; 10:12-13; Mic 6:8; Matt 6:33), pray for God’s persevering grace (Ps 19:13), and let the word of God be their guide (Ps 119:9; Col 3:16; 2 Tim 3:16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 18:20-21; Exod 34:7; Lev 26:14-46; Num 15:30-31; Deut 31:16-18; 1 Kgs 8:46-51; 2 Kgs 8:18, 27; 2 Kgs 13:1-7; 14:23-24; 17:13-23; 18:9-12; 21:8-16; 23:25-27; 24:1-3, 19–25:21; 2 Chr 7:14; 33:12-13; Ps 119:9-11, 33-37; Jer 44:2-6; Mic 6:8; Matt 6:33; Col 3:16; 2 Tim 3:16; 4:7; Rev 2:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Dangers of Sin Choosing sin rather than faithfulness to the only true God invites disaster. This has been true since the very beginning, when Adam and Eve’s disobedience brought curses and banishment from their initial home (Gen 3). And it was true throughout Israel’s history (see, e.g., Num 16; Josh 7; 2 Sam 11:1–12:19). The New Testament offers numerous warnings about the eternal consequences of unrepented sinful behavior (1 Cor 6:9-10; Gal 5:19-21; Rev 22:15). The sinful acts of God’s ...","summary_en":"The Dangers of Sin Choosing sin rather than faithfulness to the only true God invites disaster. This has been true since the very beginning, when Adam and Eve’s disobedience brought curses and banishment from their initial home (Gen 3). And it was true throughout Israel’s history (see, e.g., Num 16; Josh 7; 2 Sam 11:1–12:19). The New Testament offers numerous warnings about the eternal consequences of unrepented sinful behavior (1 Cor 6:9-10; Gal 5:19-21; Rev 22:15). The sinful acts of God’s ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":116978,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Dangers of Sin","title_en":"The Dangers of Sin","content_ro":"<h3>The Dangers of Sin<\/h3>\n<p>Choosing sin rather than faithfulness to the only true God invites disaster. This has been true since the very beginning, when Adam and Eve’s disobedience brought curses and banishment from their initial home (Gen 3). And it was true throughout Israel’s history (see, e.g., Num 16; Josh 7; 2 Sam 11:1–12:19). The New Testament offers numerous warnings about the eternal consequences of unrepented sinful behavior (1 Cor 6:9-10; Gal 5:19-21; Rev 22:15).<\/p>\n<p>The sinful acts of God’s people are prominent throughout the late monarchical period. Words such as <em>sin<\/em>, <em>evil<\/em>, and <em>wicked<\/em> appear frequently to assert that the kings of both Israel (2 Kgs 3:2; 13:2, 11; 14:24; 15:9, 18, 24, 28; 17:2) and Judah (8:18, 27; 21:2, 16, 20; 23:32, 37; 24:9, 19) did “what was evil in the <span>Lord<\/span>’s sight.”<\/p>\n<p>The northern kingdom was particularly culpable. Its kings and people were uniformly condemned for their godless ways (17:16-17, 22); the basic sin of apostate worship, introduced by Jeroboam I, continued in Israel until the end (10:29; 17:21-23; 23:15). God repeatedly warned the people through his prophets (17:13) and brought the chastisement of foreign invaders (13:3, 7). Nothing moved the Israelites’ hearts, for they were set in their ways (13:6; 17:14-17). Eventually God allowed foreign invaders to defeat them and occupy their land, sending many into exile (17:18, 20-23).<\/p>\n<p>The people of Judah were not innocent either. Many of their kings were guilty of gross wickedness, and Judean society grew increasingly apostate and followed “the evil practices that Israel had introduced” (17:19). Despite God’s repeated acts of kindness (e.g., 19:32-36) and warnings delivered through his prophets (21:8-15), the people persisted in their sin, and God’s judgment once again fell (21:10-15; 23:26-27; 24:1-4; 25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>Where there is genuine repentance, God will graciously forgive his people and remit the penalty. But how much better to be faithful to God’s Word (2 Kgs 18:5-6; 23:25; Ps 119:9-11, 33-37; 2 Tim 4:7; Rev 2:10), so that God’s blessings (Ps 112:1; 119:1-2; 144:15) might bring success (2 Kgs 18:7; see also 2 Chr 26:4-5; Prov 3:1-10; 2 Cor 3:5). God’s people need to give God first place in their lives (1 Kgs 18:21, 36-39; see Deut 6:13; 10:12-13; Mic 6:8; Matt 6:33), pray for God’s persevering grace (Ps 19:13), and let the word of God be their guide (Ps 119:9; Col 3:16; 2 Tim 3:16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 18:20-21; Exod 34:7; Lev 26:14-46; Num 15:30-31; Deut 31:16-18; 1 Kgs 8:46-51; 2 Kgs 8:18, 27; 2 Kgs 13:1-7; 14:23-24; 17:13-23; 18:9-12; 21:8-16; 23:25-27; 24:1-3, 19–25:21; 2 Chr 7:14; 33:12-13; Ps 119:9-11, 33-37; Jer 44:2-6; Mic 6:8; Matt 6:33; Col 3:16; 2 Tim 3:16; 4:7; Rev 2:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Dangers of Sin<\/h3>\n<p>Choosing sin rather than faithfulness to the only true God invites disaster. This has been true since the very beginning, when Adam and Eve’s disobedience brought curses and banishment from their initial home (Gen 3). And it was true throughout Israel’s history (see, e.g., Num 16; Josh 7; 2 Sam 11:1–12:19). The New Testament offers numerous warnings about the eternal consequences of unrepented sinful behavior (1 Cor 6:9-10; Gal 5:19-21; Rev 22:15).<\/p>\n<p>The sinful acts of God’s people are prominent throughout the late monarchical period. Words such as <em>sin<\/em>, <em>evil<\/em>, and <em>wicked<\/em> appear frequently to assert that the kings of both Israel (2 Kgs 3:2; 13:2, 11; 14:24; 15:9, 18, 24, 28; 17:2) and Judah (8:18, 27; 21:2, 16, 20; 23:32, 37; 24:9, 19) did “what was evil in the <span>Lord<\/span>’s sight.”<\/p>\n<p>The northern kingdom was particularly culpable. Its kings and people were uniformly condemned for their godless ways (17:16-17, 22); the basic sin of apostate worship, introduced by Jeroboam I, continued in Israel until the end (10:29; 17:21-23; 23:15). God repeatedly warned the people through his prophets (17:13) and brought the chastisement of foreign invaders (13:3, 7). Nothing moved the Israelites’ hearts, for they were set in their ways (13:6; 17:14-17). Eventually God allowed foreign invaders to defeat them and occupy their land, sending many into exile (17:18, 20-23).<\/p>\n<p>The people of Judah were not innocent either. Many of their kings were guilty of gross wickedness, and Judean society grew increasingly apostate and followed “the evil practices that Israel had introduced” (17:19). Despite God’s repeated acts of kindness (e.g., 19:32-36) and warnings delivered through his prophets (21:8-15), the people persisted in their sin, and God’s judgment once again fell (21:10-15; 23:26-27; 24:1-4; 25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>Where there is genuine repentance, God will graciously forgive his people and remit the penalty. But how much better to be faithful to God’s Word (2 Kgs 18:5-6; 23:25; Ps 119:9-11, 33-37; 2 Tim 4:7; Rev 2:10), so that God’s blessings (Ps 112:1; 119:1-2; 144:15) might bring success (2 Kgs 18:7; see also 2 Chr 26:4-5; Prov 3:1-10; 2 Cor 3:5). God’s people need to give God first place in their lives (1 Kgs 18:21, 36-39; see Deut 6:13; 10:12-13; Mic 6:8; Matt 6:33), pray for God’s persevering grace (Ps 19:13), and let the word of God be their guide (Ps 119:9; Col 3:16; 2 Tim 3:16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 18:20-21; Exod 34:7; Lev 26:14-46; Num 15:30-31; Deut 31:16-18; 1 Kgs 8:46-51; 2 Kgs 8:18, 27; 2 Kgs 13:1-7; 14:23-24; 17:13-23; 18:9-12; 21:8-16; 23:25-27; 24:1-3, 19–25:21; 2 Chr 7:14; 33:12-13; Ps 119:9-11, 33-37; Jer 44:2-6; Mic 6:8; Matt 6:33; Col 3:16; 2 Tim 3:16; 4:7; Rev 2:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Dangers of Sin Choosing sin rather than faithfulness to the only true God invites disaster. This has been true since the very beginning, when Adam and Eve’s disobedience brought curses and banishment from their initial home (Gen 3). And it was true throughout Israel’s history (see, e.g., Num 16; Josh 7; 2 Sam 11:1–12:19). The New Testament offers numerous warnings about the eternal consequences of unrepented sinful behavior (1 Cor 6:9-10; Gal 5:19-21; Rev 22:15). The sinful acts of God’s ...","summary_en":"The Dangers of Sin Choosing sin rather than faithfulness to the only true God invites disaster. This has been true since the very beginning, when Adam and Eve’s disobedience brought curses and banishment from their initial home (Gen 3). And it was true throughout Israel’s history (see, e.g., Num 16; Josh 7; 2 Sam 11:1–12:19). The New Testament offers numerous warnings about the eternal consequences of unrepented sinful behavior (1 Cor 6:9-10; Gal 5:19-21; Rev 22:15). The sinful acts of God’s ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":144604,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Dangers of Sin","title_en":"The Dangers of Sin","content_ro":"<h3>The Dangers of Sin<\/h3>\n<p>Choosing sin rather than faithfulness to the only true God invites disaster. This has been true since the very beginning, when Adam and Eve’s disobedience brought curses and banishment from their initial home (Gen 3). And it was true throughout Israel’s history (see, e.g., Num 16; Josh 7; 2 Sam 11:1–12:19). The New Testament offers numerous warnings about the eternal consequences of unrepented sinful behavior (1 Cor 6:9-10; Gal 5:19-21; Rev 22:15).<\/p>\n<p>The sinful acts of God’s people are prominent throughout the late monarchical period. Words such as <em>sin<\/em>, <em>evil<\/em>, and <em>wicked<\/em> appear frequently to assert that the kings of both Israel (2 Kgs 3:2; 13:2, 11; 14:24; 15:9, 18, 24, 28; 17:2) and Judah (8:18, 27; 21:2, 16, 20; 23:32, 37; 24:9, 19) did “what was evil in the <span>Lord<\/span>’s sight.”<\/p>\n<p>The northern kingdom was particularly culpable. Its kings and people were uniformly condemned for their godless ways (17:16-17, 22); the basic sin of apostate worship, introduced by Jeroboam I, continued in Israel until the end (10:29; 17:21-23; 23:15). God repeatedly warned the people through his prophets (17:13) and brought the chastisement of foreign invaders (13:3, 7). Nothing moved the Israelites’ hearts, for they were set in their ways (13:6; 17:14-17). Eventually God allowed foreign invaders to defeat them and occupy their land, sending many into exile (17:18, 20-23).<\/p>\n<p>The people of Judah were not innocent either. Many of their kings were guilty of gross wickedness, and Judean society grew increasingly apostate and followed “the evil practices that Israel had introduced” (17:19). Despite God’s repeated acts of kindness (e.g., 19:32-36) and warnings delivered through his prophets (21:8-15), the people persisted in their sin, and God’s judgment once again fell (21:10-15; 23:26-27; 24:1-4; 25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>Where there is genuine repentance, God will graciously forgive his people and remit the penalty. But how much better to be faithful to God’s Word (2 Kgs 18:5-6; 23:25; Ps 119:9-11, 33-37; 2 Tim 4:7; Rev 2:10), so that God’s blessings (Ps 112:1; 119:1-2; 144:15) might bring success (2 Kgs 18:7; see also 2 Chr 26:4-5; Prov 3:1-10; 2 Cor 3:5). God’s people need to give God first place in their lives (1 Kgs 18:21, 36-39; see Deut 6:13; 10:12-13; Mic 6:8; Matt 6:33), pray for God’s persevering grace (Ps 19:13), and let the word of God be their guide (Ps 119:9; Col 3:16; 2 Tim 3:16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 18:20-21; Exod 34:7; Lev 26:14-46; Num 15:30-31; Deut 31:16-18; 1 Kgs 8:46-51; 2 Kgs 8:18, 27; 2 Kgs 13:1-7; 14:23-24; 17:13-23; 18:9-12; 21:8-16; 23:25-27; 24:1-3, 19–25:21; 2 Chr 7:14; 33:12-13; Ps 119:9-11, 33-37; Jer 44:2-6; Mic 6:8; Matt 6:33; Col 3:16; 2 Tim 3:16; 4:7; Rev 2:10<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Dangers of Sin<\/h3>\n<p>Choosing sin rather than faithfulness to the only true God invites disaster. This has been true since the very beginning, when Adam and Eve’s disobedience brought curses and banishment from their initial home (Gen 3). And it was true throughout Israel’s history (see, e.g., Num 16; Josh 7; 2 Sam 11:1–12:19). The New Testament offers numerous warnings about the eternal consequences of unrepented sinful behavior (1 Cor 6:9-10; Gal 5:19-21; Rev 22:15).<\/p>\n<p>The sinful acts of God’s people are prominent throughout the late monarchical period. Words such as <em>sin<\/em>, <em>evil<\/em>, and <em>wicked<\/em> appear frequently to assert that the kings of both Israel (2 Kgs 3:2; 13:2, 11; 14:24; 15:9, 18, 24, 28; 17:2) and Judah (8:18, 27; 21:2, 16, 20; 23:32, 37; 24:9, 19) did “what was evil in the <span>Lord<\/span>’s sight.”<\/p>\n<p>The northern kingdom was particularly culpable. Its kings and people were uniformly condemned for their godless ways (17:16-17, 22); the basic sin of apostate worship, introduced by Jeroboam I, continued in Israel until the end (10:29; 17:21-23; 23:15). God repeatedly warned the people through his prophets (17:13) and brought the chastisement of foreign invaders (13:3, 7). Nothing moved the Israelites’ hearts, for they were set in their ways (13:6; 17:14-17). Eventually God allowed foreign invaders to defeat them and occupy their land, sending many into exile (17:18, 20-23).<\/p>\n<p>The people of Judah were not innocent either. Many of their kings were guilty of gross wickedness, and Judean society grew increasingly apostate and followed “the evil practices that Israel had introduced” (17:19). Despite God’s repeated acts of kindness (e.g., 19:32-36) and warnings delivered through his prophets (21:8-15), the people persisted in their sin, and God’s judgment once again fell (21:10-15; 23:26-27; 24:1-4; 25:1-21).<\/p>\n<p>Where there is genuine repentance, God will graciously forgive his people and remit the penalty. But how much better to be faithful to God’s Word (2 Kgs 18:5-6; 23:25; Ps 119:9-11, 33-37; 2 Tim 4:7; Rev 2:10), so that God’s blessings (Ps 112:1; 119:1-2; 144:15) might bring success (2 Kgs 18:7; see also 2 Chr 26:4-5; Prov 3:1-10; 2 Cor 3:5). God’s people need to give God first place in their lives (1 Kgs 18:21, 36-39; see Deut 6:13; 10:12-13; Mic 6:8; Matt 6:33), pray for God’s persevering grace (Ps 19:13), and let the word of God be their guide (Ps 119:9; Col 3:16; 2 Tim 3:16).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 18:20-21; Exod 34:7; Lev 26:14-46; Num 15:30-31; Deut 31:16-18; 1 Kgs 8:46-51; 2 Kgs 8:18, 27; 2 Kgs 13:1-7; 14:23-24; 17:13-23; 18:9-12; 21:8-16; 23:25-27; 24:1-3, 19–25:21; 2 Chr 7:14; 33:12-13; Ps 119:9-11, 33-37; Jer 44:2-6; Mic 6:8; Matt 6:33; Col 3:16; 2 Tim 3:16; 4:7; Rev 2:10<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Dangers of Sin Choosing sin rather than faithfulness to the only true God invites disaster. This has been true since the very beginning, when Adam and Eve’s disobedience brought curses and banishment from their initial home (Gen 3). And it was true throughout Israel’s history (see, e.g., Num 16; Josh 7; 2 Sam 11:1–12:19). The New Testament offers numerous warnings about the eternal consequences of unrepented sinful behavior (1 Cor 6:9-10; Gal 5:19-21; Rev 22:15). The sinful acts of God’s ...","summary_en":"The Dangers of Sin Choosing sin rather than faithfulness to the only true God invites disaster. This has been true since the very beginning, when Adam and Eve’s disobedience brought curses and banishment from their initial home (Gen 3). And it was true throughout Israel’s history (see, e.g., Num 16; Josh 7; 2 Sam 11:1–12:19). The New Testament offers numerous warnings about the eternal consequences of unrepented sinful behavior (1 Cor 6:9-10; Gal 5:19-21; Rev 22:15). The sinful acts of God’s ...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"3":[{"id":17123,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Idolatry Idols","title_en":"Idolatry Idols","content_ro":"<h3>IDOLS, IDOLATRY<\/h3>\n<p>Man-made images or natural representations worshiped as deities; anything receiving worship other than the one true God. Idolatry is the spiritual worship of an idol. Many idolaters literally serve idols: in ancient Egypt statues of gods were regularly and ritually clothed and fed. Some concept of the worship of a false god, Baal, is given in the account of the contest on Mt Carmel: the priests of Baal cried aloud, they “limped” (<span>rsv<\/span>) around the altar, they cut themselves with swords and lances (1 Kgs 18:26-29). Baal worship was widely followed by Israel during the period of the monarchy.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Abraham’s ancestors were worshipers of idols in Mesopotamia (Jos 24:2). Archaeological excavations in that area have revealed the images of numerous deities, and Mesopotamian religious literature reveals the gross polytheism out of which Abraham came. The tendency of the Israelites toward idolatry was in part the expression of the universal human longing for a god one can see and know through the physical senses.<\/p>\n<p>Most of the idolatry of the Israelites was borrowed from their neighbors. During the more than 400 years that the descendants of Jacob spent in Egypt, they were exposed to polytheistic idolatry, which influenced their religious mind-set. At Sinai, while Moses was receiving the Ten Commandments from the Lord, the people were demanding that Aaron make gods for them (Ex 32:1-6). He fashioned a golden calf, following an Egyptian form, for the whole bovine family was worshiped in Egypt—the Apis bull, the Hathor cow, and the Mnevis calf.<\/p>\n<p>It was after his stay in Egypt (1 Kgs 11:40) that Jeroboam became king of Israel and set up golden calves, one at Bethel and one at Dan (12:26-33), an action that earned him the label as being the one who made Israel sin (2 Kgs 3:3).<\/p>\n<p>Already in patriarchal times there are references to the teraphim, or household gods. Examples of these idols have been found at Ur of the Chaldees, Nuzi, and other sites, and are referred to in the cuneiform tablets. The teraphim that Rachel stole from Laban could be hidden in her camel’s saddlebag (Gn 31:34). It seems, however, that in the time of David such idols were larger, for when Saul’s men came to kill David, Michal, David’s wife and the daughter of Saul, helped David to escape and then took such an image and placed it in a bed to make the men think that David was sick (1 Sm 19:11-16).<\/p>\n<p>The prohibition of idolatry is explicitly stated in the second commandment (Ex 20:4-5, <span>nlt<\/span>): “Do not make idols of any kind, whether in the shape of birds or animals or fish. You must never worship or bow down to them, for I, the <span>Lord<\/span> your God, am a jealous God who will not share your affection with any other god!” (cf. Ex 34:17; Lv 19:4; 26:1; Dt 4:15-19; 27:1-5). This commandment is an extension or auxiliary of the first, for it seeks to preserve God’s uniqueness and to protect his glory. The definition of idolatry was broadened during the time of Samuel, who confronted King Saul with the charge that stubbornness is the same as idolatry (1 Sm 15:23).<\/p>\n<p>Previous to the conquest of Canaan, the Lord kept warning Israel against marrying members of the native populace, which he had ordered Israel to annihilate. This measure was intended to prevent the weakening of moral life in Israel (Ex 34:16; Dt 7:3-4). This principle is again expanded in the NT (cf. 1 Cor 15:33; 2 Cor 6:14). The history of Israel demonstrated the practicality of the prohibition against such marriages, for they inevitably led to apostasy. Perhaps the saddest example is Solomon (1 Kgs 11:1-8). When Solomon was old, his wives turned his heart to other gods, so that he was not wholly true to the Lord his God (v 4).<\/p>\n<p>In the time of the judges there was an infamous case of idol worship (Jgs 17:1–18:31). The mother of an Ephraimite named Micah took 200 pieces of silver and had a silversmith make them into a graven image for her son. He also had a shrine, an ephod, and teraphim. He hired a wandering Levite to be his priest, but men from the tribe of Dan came along and took the Levite, the image, and all the accoutrements and set up this idol at Dan and used it as an object of their worship (18:30-31).<\/p>\n<p>In Scripture the kings of Israel are evaluated on the basis of what they did with respect to the “high places” and idols. Asa removed all the idols his ancestors had made (1 Kgs 15:12) and would not let Maacah be queen mother because she had an abominable image made for Asherah. He cut down and burned the image (v 13). The Israelite king Ahab, however, was an idolater (1 Kgs 21:26; cf. 16:30-33).<\/p>\n<p>Hezekiah destroyed the high places, broke down the pillars, and cut down the Asherim (2 Kgs 18:4; 2 Chr 31:1). He also put an end to a strange cult that illustrates the insidious nature of idolatry. The bronze serpent that Moses lifted up on a pole to save the Israelites from death by snakebite (Nm 21:9; cf. Jn 3:14) had been preserved until the time of Hezekiah. It had been given the name Nehushtan, and people venerated it and burned incense to it. Hezekiah destroyed it (2 Kgs 18:4) because what had been an instrument for good had become a thing of evil.<\/p>\n<p>The prophet Isaiah described the making of an idol in human form (Is 40:19-20; 44:9-17). Images were cast in a mold using molten metal (40:19; 44:10). Statues were forged by smiths (44:12), carved from wood (44:13-17), and overlaid with precious metal (40:19). Small clay images and plaques were also molded and fired in a kiln, and statues were sculptured from stone. The psalmist spoke out against idols and images (Pss 96:5; 97:7; 106:34-39) and the helplessness of idols is described in Psalms 115:4-8 and 135:15-18.<\/p>\n<p>The northern and southern kingdoms of Israel went into captivity because they forsook God and served idols. The Jews were well aware that idolatry had brought them into captivity, and during their time in Babylon, they developed an abhorrence to idols that has characterized Judaism to this very day.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The fullest discussion in the NT on idolatry <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">eidololatreia<\/span><em>)<\/em> and the idolworshiper <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">eidololatres<\/span><em>)<\/em> is found in Paul’s First Epistle to the Corinthians. In an earlier (no longer extant) epistle, Paul had told the Corinthians not to associate with those who called themselves believers but were still idol worshipers (1 Cor 5:9-11). After that letter the Corinthians must have asked Paul for clarification on this matter. Thus, in this epistle Paul provides a response to their question; the “idol worshiper” is mentioned in 5:10-11, 6:9, 10:7, and “idolatry” is spoken of in 10:14.<\/p>\n<p>The terms, “idolatry” and “idol worshiper,” are related to two other expressions: (1) “idol” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">eidolon<\/span><em>),<\/em> found in 1 Corinthians 8:4; 10:19; 12:2; and (2) “food sacrificed to idols” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">eidolothutos<\/span><em>),<\/em> found in 1 Corinthians 8:1, 4, 7; 10:19. The kind of idolatry that Paul condemns is that which involved Christians offering sacrifices to idols and then partaking of the food that had been sacrificed to them. The participants are called idol worshipers because their involvement in idolatrous sacrifices was perceived as having fellowship with demons. Paul strictly prohibited the eating of sacrificial food at the popular temples in the presence of idol-demons. As such, he shared the same view about idols as most Jews in his day. For the Jews, idols and heathen deities were identical. (See 1 Thes 1:9, where Paul contrasts “idols” with “the living and <em>true<\/em> God.”) To Paul, idols in and of themselves were nothing (1 Cor 8:4); behind the idol, however, was a demon (10:20).<\/p>\n<p>The eating of sacrificial food at the cultic meals in pagan temples was censured by Paul because it was understood that the participants thereby became united to demons (see 1 Cor 10:19-21). However, Paul had no problem with those who purchased food that had been left over from these events and that was later sold in the marketplace. In his judgment, if they ate it at home, they were not participating in idolatry. They could eat this food with a good conscience—unless, of course, in doing so they would be the means of destroying a weaker believer. For the sake of such believers, one should abstain. This was a matter of conscience (10:25-29). But going to pagan festivities and eating meals offered to idols was not permitted in any form.<\/p>\n<p>The Corinthians had participated in these meals regularly before they became Christians and apparently had continued to do so after their conversion. In Corinth such meals were the regular practice both at national festivals and private celebrations. The “gods” (whom Paul considered “demons”) were thought to be present at these events because the sacrifices were made to them. Thus, to participate in these events was to join oneself to demons and thereby become an idol worshiper. The ancient Israelites had been carried away into idolatry by their pagan neighbors on several occasions when they were enticed to participate in these pagan celebrations (e.g., Nm 25; cf. Ex 32:6). The festivities involved all sorts of licentiousness. In 1 Corinthians 10, Paul referred to this apostasy of the Israelites and used it as a negative example. Because the Israelites became involved in pagan festivities, they were carried away into idolatry and fornication, which incited God’s wrath and brought destruction.<\/p>\n<p>In other Pauline Epistles, idolatry is mentioned but not with the kind of definition and extended discussion that is found in 1 Corinthians. Nonetheless, Paul speaks out against actual idolatry and what we might call figurative idolatry (i.e., idolatry in the sense of desiring something above God).<\/p>\n<p>In Romans 1:18-32 sexual licentiousness and other sins are ultimately traced to idolatry. The Gentiles, who should have known that God existed, as evidenced in creation and conscience, abandoned the immortal, invisible God in exchange for mortal, visible images (i.e., idols). Because of this abandonment, God gave them over to do the filthy things their hearts desired (Rom 1:24). Thus, idolatry is included in Paul’s list of what he calls “the works of the flesh” (see Gal 5:19-20). And those who are idol worshipers are included in the catalog of all those evil people who will not inherit the kingdom of God (see 1 Cor 6:9).<\/p>\n<p>In Ephesians 5:5 Paul again includes idolaters among those who will not inherit the kingdom of God. However, such idolaters are not just those who go to pagan temples and worship idols; they are those who are greedy or covetous. According to superior manuscript evidence, the verse reads, “No fornicator or impure person or greedy person, which is the same as an idolater, has any inheritance in the kingdom of Christ and of God.” The point seems to be that the greedy, covetous person who makes his desires his god is much the same as an idolater. Thus, covetousness and idolatry are made synonymous. The parallel passage, Colossians 3:5, makes this explicit, which literally says covetousness is idolatry.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Canaanite Deities and Religion; Gods and Goddesses; Grove; High Place.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>IDOLS, IDOLATRY<\/h3>\n<p>Man-made images or natural representations worshiped as deities; anything receiving worship other than the one true God. Idolatry is the spiritual worship of an idol. Many idolaters literally serve idols: in ancient Egypt statues of gods were regularly and ritually clothed and fed. Some concept of the worship of a false god, Baal, is given in the account of the contest on Mt Carmel: the priests of Baal cried aloud, they “limped” (<span>rsv<\/span>) around the altar, they cut themselves with swords and lances (1 Kgs 18:26-29). Baal worship was widely followed by Israel during the period of the monarchy.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Abraham’s ancestors were worshipers of idols in Mesopotamia (Jos 24:2). Archaeological excavations in that area have revealed the images of numerous deities, and Mesopotamian religious literature reveals the gross polytheism out of which Abraham came. The tendency of the Israelites toward idolatry was in part the expression of the universal human longing for a god one can see and know through the physical senses.<\/p>\n<p>Most of the idolatry of the Israelites was borrowed from their neighbors. During the more than 400 years that the descendants of Jacob spent in Egypt, they were exposed to polytheistic idolatry, which influenced their religious mind-set. At Sinai, while Moses was receiving the Ten Commandments from the Lord, the people were demanding that Aaron make gods for them (Ex 32:1-6). He fashioned a golden calf, following an Egyptian form, for the whole bovine family was worshiped in Egypt—the Apis bull, the Hathor cow, and the Mnevis calf.<\/p>\n<p>It was after his stay in Egypt (1 Kgs 11:40) that Jeroboam became king of Israel and set up golden calves, one at Bethel and one at Dan (12:26-33), an action that earned him the label as being the one who made Israel sin (2 Kgs 3:3).<\/p>\n<p>Already in patriarchal times there are references to the teraphim, or household gods. Examples of these idols have been found at Ur of the Chaldees, Nuzi, and other sites, and are referred to in the cuneiform tablets. The teraphim that Rachel stole from Laban could be hidden in her camel’s saddlebag (Gn 31:34). It seems, however, that in the time of David such idols were larger, for when Saul’s men came to kill David, Michal, David’s wife and the daughter of Saul, helped David to escape and then took such an image and placed it in a bed to make the men think that David was sick (1 Sm 19:11-16).<\/p>\n<p>The prohibition of idolatry is explicitly stated in the second commandment (Ex 20:4-5, <span>nlt<\/span>): “Do not make idols of any kind, whether in the shape of birds or animals or fish. You must never worship or bow down to them, for I, the <span>Lord<\/span> your God, am a jealous God who will not share your affection with any other god!” (cf. Ex 34:17; Lv 19:4; 26:1; Dt 4:15-19; 27:1-5). This commandment is an extension or auxiliary of the first, for it seeks to preserve God’s uniqueness and to protect his glory. The definition of idolatry was broadened during the time of Samuel, who confronted King Saul with the charge that stubbornness is the same as idolatry (1 Sm 15:23).<\/p>\n<p>Previous to the conquest of Canaan, the Lord kept warning Israel against marrying members of the native populace, which he had ordered Israel to annihilate. This measure was intended to prevent the weakening of moral life in Israel (Ex 34:16; Dt 7:3-4). This principle is again expanded in the NT (cf. 1 Cor 15:33; 2 Cor 6:14). The history of Israel demonstrated the practicality of the prohibition against such marriages, for they inevitably led to apostasy. Perhaps the saddest example is Solomon (1 Kgs 11:1-8). When Solomon was old, his wives turned his heart to other gods, so that he was not wholly true to the Lord his God (v 4).<\/p>\n<p>In the time of the judges there was an infamous case of idol worship (Jgs 17:1–18:31). The mother of an Ephraimite named Micah took 200 pieces of silver and had a silversmith make them into a graven image for her son. He also had a shrine, an ephod, and teraphim. He hired a wandering Levite to be his priest, but men from the tribe of Dan came along and took the Levite, the image, and all the accoutrements and set up this idol at Dan and used it as an object of their worship (18:30-31).<\/p>\n<p>In Scripture the kings of Israel are evaluated on the basis of what they did with respect to the “high places” and idols. Asa removed all the idols his ancestors had made (1 Kgs 15:12) and would not let Maacah be queen mother because she had an abominable image made for Asherah. He cut down and burned the image (v 13). The Israelite king Ahab, however, was an idolater (1 Kgs 21:26; cf. 16:30-33).<\/p>\n<p>Hezekiah destroyed the high places, broke down the pillars, and cut down the Asherim (2 Kgs 18:4; 2 Chr 31:1). He also put an end to a strange cult that illustrates the insidious nature of idolatry. The bronze serpent that Moses lifted up on a pole to save the Israelites from death by snakebite (Nm 21:9; cf. Jn 3:14) had been preserved until the time of Hezekiah. It had been given the name Nehushtan, and people venerated it and burned incense to it. Hezekiah destroyed it (2 Kgs 18:4) because what had been an instrument for good had become a thing of evil.<\/p>\n<p>The prophet Isaiah described the making of an idol in human form (Is 40:19-20; 44:9-17). Images were cast in a mold using molten metal (40:19; 44:10). Statues were forged by smiths (44:12), carved from wood (44:13-17), and overlaid with precious metal (40:19). Small clay images and plaques were also molded and fired in a kiln, and statues were sculptured from stone. The psalmist spoke out against idols and images (Pss 96:5; 97:7; 106:34-39) and the helplessness of idols is described in Psalms 115:4-8 and 135:15-18.<\/p>\n<p>The northern and southern kingdoms of Israel went into captivity because they forsook God and served idols. The Jews were well aware that idolatry had brought them into captivity, and during their time in Babylon, they developed an abhorrence to idols that has characterized Judaism to this very day.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The fullest discussion in the NT on idolatry <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">eidololatreia<\/span><em>)<\/em> and the idolworshiper <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">eidololatres<\/span><em>)<\/em> is found in Paul’s First Epistle to the Corinthians. In an earlier (no longer extant) epistle, Paul had told the Corinthians not to associate with those who called themselves believers but were still idol worshipers (1 Cor 5:9-11). After that letter the Corinthians must have asked Paul for clarification on this matter. Thus, in this epistle Paul provides a response to their question; the “idol worshiper” is mentioned in 5:10-11, 6:9, 10:7, and “idolatry” is spoken of in 10:14.<\/p>\n<p>The terms, “idolatry” and “idol worshiper,” are related to two other expressions: (1) “idol” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">eidolon<\/span><em>),<\/em> found in 1 Corinthians 8:4; 10:19; 12:2; and (2) “food sacrificed to idols” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">eidolothutos<\/span><em>),<\/em> found in 1 Corinthians 8:1, 4, 7; 10:19. The kind of idolatry that Paul condemns is that which involved Christians offering sacrifices to idols and then partaking of the food that had been sacrificed to them. The participants are called idol worshipers because their involvement in idolatrous sacrifices was perceived as having fellowship with demons. Paul strictly prohibited the eating of sacrificial food at the popular temples in the presence of idol-demons. As such, he shared the same view about idols as most Jews in his day. For the Jews, idols and heathen deities were identical. (See 1 Thes 1:9, where Paul contrasts “idols” with “the living and <em>true<\/em> God.”) To Paul, idols in and of themselves were nothing (1 Cor 8:4); behind the idol, however, was a demon (10:20).<\/p>\n<p>The eating of sacrificial food at the cultic meals in pagan temples was censured by Paul because it was understood that the participants thereby became united to demons (see 1 Cor 10:19-21). However, Paul had no problem with those who purchased food that had been left over from these events and that was later sold in the marketplace. In his judgment, if they ate it at home, they were not participating in idolatry. They could eat this food with a good conscience—unless, of course, in doing so they would be the means of destroying a weaker believer. For the sake of such believers, one should abstain. This was a matter of conscience (10:25-29). But going to pagan festivities and eating meals offered to idols was not permitted in any form.<\/p>\n<p>The Corinthians had participated in these meals regularly before they became Christians and apparently had continued to do so after their conversion. In Corinth such meals were the regular practice both at national festivals and private celebrations. The “gods” (whom Paul considered “demons”) were thought to be present at these events because the sacrifices were made to them. Thus, to participate in these events was to join oneself to demons and thereby become an idol worshiper. The ancient Israelites had been carried away into idolatry by their pagan neighbors on several occasions when they were enticed to participate in these pagan celebrations (e.g., Nm 25; cf. Ex 32:6). The festivities involved all sorts of licentiousness. In 1 Corinthians 10, Paul referred to this apostasy of the Israelites and used it as a negative example. Because the Israelites became involved in pagan festivities, they were carried away into idolatry and fornication, which incited God’s wrath and brought destruction.<\/p>\n<p>In other Pauline Epistles, idolatry is mentioned but not with the kind of definition and extended discussion that is found in 1 Corinthians. Nonetheless, Paul speaks out against actual idolatry and what we might call figurative idolatry (i.e., idolatry in the sense of desiring something above God).<\/p>\n<p>In Romans 1:18-32 sexual licentiousness and other sins are ultimately traced to idolatry. The Gentiles, who should have known that God existed, as evidenced in creation and conscience, abandoned the immortal, invisible God in exchange for mortal, visible images (i.e., idols). Because of this abandonment, God gave them over to do the filthy things their hearts desired (Rom 1:24). Thus, idolatry is included in Paul’s list of what he calls “the works of the flesh” (see Gal 5:19-20). And those who are idol worshipers are included in the catalog of all those evil people who will not inherit the kingdom of God (see 1 Cor 6:9).<\/p>\n<p>In Ephesians 5:5 Paul again includes idolaters among those who will not inherit the kingdom of God. However, such idolaters are not just those who go to pagan temples and worship idols; they are those who are greedy or covetous. According to superior manuscript evidence, the verse reads, “No fornicator or impure person or greedy person, which is the same as an idolater, has any inheritance in the kingdom of Christ and of God.” The point seems to be that the greedy, covetous person who makes his desires his god is much the same as an idolater. Thus, covetousness and idolatry are made synonymous. The parallel passage, Colossians 3:5, makes this explicit, which literally says covetousness is idolatry.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Canaanite Deities and Religion; Gods and Goddesses; Grove; High Place.<\/p>","summary_ro":"IDOLS, IDOLATRY Man-made images or natural representations worshiped as deities; anything receiving worship other than the one true God. Idolatry is the spiritual worship of an idol. Many idolaters literally serve idols: in ancient Egypt statues of gods were regularly and ritually clothed and fed. Some concept of the worship of a false god, Baal, is given in the account of the contest on Mt Carmel: the priests of Baal cried aloud, they “limped” (rsv) around the altar, they cut themselves with...","summary_en":"IDOLS, IDOLATRY Man-made images or natural representations worshiped as deities; anything receiving worship other than the one true God. Idolatry is the spiritual worship of an idol. Many idolaters literally serve idols: in ancient Egypt statues of gods were regularly and ritually clothed and fed. Some concept of the worship of a false god, Baal, is given in the account of the contest on Mt Carmel: the priests of Baal cried aloud, they “limped” (rsv) around the altar, they cut themselves with...","source":"Articles\/I.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21995,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Books of First and Second Kings","title_en":"Books of First and Second Kings","content_ro":"<h3>KINGS, Books of First and Second<\/h3>\n<p>Books continuing the history of the covenant people as recorded in Joshua, Judges, and the books of Samuel. The record in Kings begins with the events at the end of David’s reign (1 Kgs 1–2). It continues through the reign of Solomon (chs 3–11); the histories of the divided kingdoms (1 Kgs 12—2 Kgs 17); and the history of the surviving kingdom in the south, through its fall in 586 <span>BC<\/span> and the subsequent kindness shown Jehoiachin by Evil-merodach, king of Babylon, around 561 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 18–25).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Authorship and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Sources<\/p>\n<p>• Theology and Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorshipandDate\">Authorship and Date<\/p>\n<p>Kings was originally regarded as one book in the Hebrew canon; the division into two books of approximately equal length appeared first in the Septuagint and finally entered the Hebrew Bible in the 15th century <span>AD<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The book itself is anonymous, and information about its author can only be deduced by examining the concerns and perspectives of the work. The Babylonian Talmud (<em>Baba Bathra<\/em> 15a) attributes Kings to Jeremiah. Although this identification could have arisen from the tendency of later Jewish tradition to assign biblical books to prophetic authors, the theory of origin in prophetic circles fits the evidence quite well. Substantial portions are given to the lives of the prophets; 16 of 47 chapters are devoted to the lives of Elijah and Elisha (1 Kgs 17—2 Kgs 10), and there is considerable interest in other prophetic figures such as Ahijah (1 Kgs 11:29-39; 14:1-16), an unnamed man of God (13:1-10), and Micaiah (22:13-28). Possible dependence on Isaiah (2 Kgs 18–20; cf. Is 36–39) and Jeremiah (2 Kgs 24–25; cf. Jer 52) also suggest prophetic origin. The author-compiler also shows intense concern with the efficacy of the prophetic word, frequently calling attention to the fulfillment of words spoken earlier by the prophets.<\/p>\n<p>One might initially think that such a history would be unlikely for a prophet, but the evidence is to the contrary. The prophets were the guardians of the covenant relationship and are known to have produced accounts used as sources by other biblical historians. The following are among such sources: the acts of Samuel the seer, the acts of Nathan the prophet, the acts of Gad the seer (1 Chr 29:29); the acts of Nathan the prophet, the prophecy of Ahijah the Shilonite, the visions of Iddo the seer (2 Chr 9:29); the chronicles of Shemaiah the prophet and of Iddo the seer (12:15); the annotations of the prophet Iddo (13:22); and the acts of Uzziah by Isaiah the prophet (26:22). Add to this the fact that Kings is positioned in the Hebrew canon in the Former Prophets (Joshua to 2 Kings), and a consistent picture of prophetic origin emerges.<\/p>\n<p>The date of the final part of the book must be after the last events recorded. Evil-merodach’s kindness toward Jehoiachin (c. 561 <span>BC<\/span>) is the terminus of the book and therefore fixes the earliest date. Since the work shows no knowledge of the restoration period, a date before 539 <span>BC<\/span> is probable. The author’s selection of his data to answer the burning theological questions of the exilic community also suggests a date between 561 and 539 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sources\">Sources<\/p>\n<p>The compiler of Kings specifically names three of the sources that he used in his work, and biblical scholars have suggested the presence of a number of other sources that may have been cited. Of course, the sources not mentioned specifically by the compiler are only the speculations of those who have studied his work and can have only varying degrees of probability. The sources both specified and alleged are as follows.<\/p>\n<h5>The Book of the Acts of Solomon<\/h5>\n<p>As 1 Kings 11:41 says, “The rest of the events in Solomon’s reign, including his wisdom, are recorded in <em>The Book of the Acts of Solomon”<\/em> (<span>nlt<\/span>). Presumably additional materials of a biographical nature were included, specifically accounts similar to the judgment between the two mothers (3:16-28) or the visit of the queen of Sheba (10:1-10). There has been debate as to whether these materials were official court records or nonofficial documents. Some scholars have attempted to isolate further materials within this section by identifying descriptions of the buildings as from temple archives (chs 6–7) and lists of administrators as from administrative documents (chs 4–5), but this must remain speculative.<\/p>\n<h5>The Book of the History of the Kings of Israel<\/h5>\n<p>This source is mentioned 17 times in Kings, usually in the closing formulas at the end of the account of the reign of a northern king. Some idea of the nature of these chronicles can be derived from looking at the type of information to which the compiler refers his readers (see 1 Kgs 14:19; 16:27; 22:39; 2 Kgs 13:12; 14:28). These passages suggest that this source was the official annals covering the reigns of the kings.<\/p>\n<h5>The Book of the History of the Kings of Judah<\/h5>\n<p>This source is mentioned in 15 passages, and as with the kings of Israel, is found in the concluding formulas to the accounts of the reigns. This source was to be consulted for additional details on individuals’ reigns (for example, see 1 Kgs 15:23; 22:45; 2 Kgs 20:20; 21:17). These sources for the histories of the two kingdoms were probably similar to the annals known from the surrounding cultures, particularly from the reigns of Assyrian kings. They were likely official court histories kept in Samaria and Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>In addition to these explicitly mentioned sources, scholars have suggested the compiler drew on other sources that he does not name.<\/p>\n<h5>Davidic Court History<\/h5>\n<p>Second Samuel 9–20 is often identified as a unit of material in the composition of the books of Samuel; it is variously called “the court history” or “the succession narrative.” Because of similar vocabulary and outlook, 1 Kings 1–2 are often associated with this material from Samuel. The statement of 1 Kings 2:46, “so the kingdom was now firmly in Solomon’s grip,” is taken to be the end of this record.<\/p>\n<h5>Sources for the House of Ahab<\/h5>\n<p>The reigns of individual kings are ordinarily given only brief notices; for example, the father of Ahab, Omri, is given eight verses, even though when judged by political and economic significance, he was among the greatest of the northern kings (1 Kgs 16:21-28). However, beginning with the reign of Ahab, the record becomes quite expansive, and extensive coverage is given the dynasty of Ahab through the coup by Jehu (1 Kgs 16—2 Kgs 12). The use of the stereotyped formulas for the reigns is suspended in this material, and the existence of other literature used by the compiler is probable. This material is commonly subdivided into further sources for the lives of Elijah and Elisha and the reign of Ahab.<\/p>\n<p>The Elijah section covers material in the following chapters: 1 Kings 17–19, including the feeding by the ravens, the incidents with the widow of Zarephath, the drought, the fire on Carmel, and the revelation of God at Sinai; 1 Kings 21, the affair of Naboth’s vineyard; and 2 Kings 1, the death of Ahaziah’s messengers. The reign of Ahab, which gets so much attention in Kings, is primarily a backdrop for the accounts concerning Elijah.<\/p>\n<p>The Elisha material found in 2 Kings 2–13 may have had an independent literary development from that of the Elijah accounts. It includes the following: chapter 2 (Elisha’s succession to the prophetic office, the purification of a spring, the death of mocking children); chapter 3 (on the campaign against Moab); chapter 4 (the widow’s oil, the Shunammite woman); chapter 5 (Naaman’s leprosy); chapter 6 (the Aramean attempt to capture Elisha); chapter 7 (the famine in Samaria); chapter 8 (the Shunammite’s property, the coup of Hazael); chapter 9 (the anointing of Jehu); and chapter 13 (the death of Elisha). No other portion of the OT takes the sheer delight in the miraculous that is seen in the Elisha narratives.<\/p>\n<p>In 1 Kings 16 to 2 Kings 13 there are additional incidents not directly related to the biographies of Elijah and Elisha; accounts such as the military campaigns of 1 Kings 20:1-34 and further details of Jehu’s coup (2 Kgs 9:11–10:36) are often attributed to a third source containing accounts of the dynasty of Ahab and his successors. In all three of these possible sources the orientation is toward affairs in the northern kingdom.<\/p>\n<h5>Isaiah Source<\/h5>\n<p>The account of the reign of Hezekiah contains a section (2 Kgs 18:13–20:19) that is nearly a verbatim citation of material also found in Isaiah (Is 36:1–39:8). The section records the invasion of Sennacherib, the mission of the Rabshakeh, Hezekiah’s prayer, Isaiah’s prophecy, Hezekiah’s illness, the regression of the sun, and the envoys from Merodach-baladan. The material must be regarded as based on the book of Isaiah or some other source used in both Isaiah and Kings.<\/p>\n<h5>A Prophetic Source<\/h5>\n<p>Because Kings shows great interest in the prophets and their ministries, various scholars have suggested that yet another source was used by the compiler; this would be an independent literary unit containing accounts of the prophets. This source would have contained the records for the material on Ahijah (1 Kgs 11:29-39; 14:1-16), unnamed prophets (ch 12; 20:35-43), Micaiah (22:13-28), and other references.<\/p>\n<p>Apart from the sources explicitly mentioned and inferences about their character, the remainder of the sources suggested have only varying degrees of probability. Considerable scholarly effort has gone into identifying and characterizing such sources, but it remains speculative. When considering the sources the compiler may have used, one important caution must be kept in mind. Even if such sources did exist, one cannot have confidence in a reconstruction of the compositional history. Which sources had already been integrated into a larger composition before they were used by the compiler of Kings? We cannot be certain that the life situation out of which these other sources grew has been correctly identified, nor can we know that even the compiler himself was aware of the past history of his sources. Biblical scholarship has expended considerable energy in trying to delineate the past history of the book of Kings, but it has often been at the neglect of the unity of perspective that is the product of the final compiler(s) in whose hands the book received its canonical form.<\/p>\n<p>What is important to understanding the book is not the perspective of its various sources (of which the compiler himself may have been unaware), but the perspective of the book as a whole on the history of the kingdoms. It is the outline that the compiler has imposed on the sources that establishes the teaching of the book; his sources are used in accord with his own purposes, a fact that makes the purposes for which the sources had been prepared largely irrelevant to the teaching of the book in its present form. Exploring possible sources, worthwhile in itself, must not eclipse the message of the book as a whole. This is not to imply that the books of Kings are simply a compilation of unaltered sources. The writer(s) undoubtedly exercised a measure of selectivity and literary skill in composing the historical narrative.<\/p>\n<p>One compositional technique of the compiler is quite prominent in the histories of the divided kingdoms: this is the use of formulaic introductions and conclusions to the various reigns. The formulas for both kingdoms are quite similar, differing only in minor details. For the kings of Judah, the full introductory formula is as follows: (1) year of accession synchronized with the regnal year of the northern king; (2) age of the king at his accession; (3) length of his reign; (4) name of his mother; (5) judgment on the character of the reign. The account of a Judean king’s reign is concluded as follows: (1) a reference to the chronicles of the kings of Judah for further information; (2) a statement regarding the death of the king, including the place of burial; (3) successor: “And his son reigned in his stead” (<span>rsv<\/span>). The full formula for a Judean king can be seen, for example, in the reign of Rehoboam (1 Kgs 14:21-22, 29-31).<\/p>\n<p>The formulas differ slightly for the kings of Israel; the introduction is as follows: (1) year of succession synchronized with the regnal year of the southern king; (2) length of his reign; (3) location of the royal residence; (4) condemnation for idolatry; (5) name of the king’s father. The account of an Israelite king’s reign ends as follows: (1) a reference to the chronicles of the kings of Israel for further information; (2) a statement regarding his death; (3) a statement of the succession of his son, unless a usurper follows. The full formula for an Israelite king can be seen, for example, in the reign of Baasha (1 Kgs 15:33-34; 16:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>There is some variation in the use of these patterns, but on the whole, they are consistently followed and provide the basic framework for the history of the divided kingdom. The synchronisms of the reigns provide data for constructing the chronology of the period. The variations in the formulas may reflect the characteristics of the sources the compiler was using or may reflect his own interests. The name of the mother of a Judean king is recorded, but not of an Israelite king, perhaps reflecting concern with a more exact and fuller record of the Davidic succession. The royal residence is presumed to be Jerusalem for the southern kings (though it may be mentioned) but is recorded for the northern kings since it moved several times, from Shechem to Penuel to Tirzah to Samaria. The mention of the king’s father for a northern ruler also reflects the frequent change in dynasties there, as opposed to the dynastic stability of Judah, which is reinforced by mentioning the burial of almost all its kings in the city of David.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologyandPurpose\">Theology and Purpose<\/p>\n<p>The books of Kings record the history of the covenant people from the end of the reign of David (961 <span>BC<\/span>) through the fall of the southern kingdom (586 <span>BC<\/span>). Yet it is not history written in accord with modern expectations for history textbooks. Rather than concentrating on economic, political, and military themes as they shaped the history of the period, the compiler of Kings is motivated by theological concerns.<\/p>\n<p>Evaluation of the theology and purpose of the books of Kings is made easier by the fact that there is a parallel history for much of Kings found in the books of Chronicles. By comparing the two accounts, especially where the later Chronicler adds or deletes material found in Kings, the interests of both histories are thrown into clearer relief.<\/p>\n<p>The books of Kings were composed during the exile, likely between 560 and 539 <span>BC<\/span>. Jerusalem had been turned into rubble, and there was no longer a throne of David. Those two pillars of the popular theology—the inviolability of the temple and the throne of David (Jer 7:4; 13:13-14; 22:1-9; see 1 Kgs 8:16, 29)—had tumbled. If Israel’s faith was to survive, the burning questions that had to be answered were “How did it all happen? Can’t God keep his promises to David and to Zion? Have the promises failed?” The writer of Kings aims to deal with the bewilderment of the chosen people in response to the disasters of 722 <span>BC<\/span> (fall of Samaria) and 586 <span>BC<\/span> (fall of Jerusalem). Kings, like the book of Job, is a theodicy, a justification of the ways of God to men.<\/p>\n<p>In order to answer the question “How did it happen?” the compiler adopts the procedure of recounting the history of the covenant people in light of standards propounded in the Law. For this reason Kings could be called Pentateuchal history, or even more pointedly, Deuteronomic history, for standards propounded only in the book of Deuteronomy in the Pentateuch are used by the compiler to measure the kingdoms. Among the prominent themes selected from Deuteronomy and applied to the kingdoms are the centralization of worship, the institution of the monarchy, the efficacy of the prophetic word, and the outworking of the covenant curses on disobedience.<\/p>\n<h5>Centralization of Worship<\/h5>\n<p>The primary concern of the writer is the purity of the worship of the Lord. His major criterion for measuring this purity is the attitude of the kings toward centralization of worship in the Jerusalem temple as opposed to the worship of the Lord elsewhere and the continuation of Canaanite cults mingled with Yahwism at the high places. Centralization of worship at the central shrine is called for in Deuteronomy 12. Perhaps “centralization of worship” is a misnomer, for worship was always centered around the tabernacle in the periods prior to the temple; the change that is envisaged in Deuteronomy is not the centralizing of worship but rather the fact that the shrine would no longer be mobile but stationary. For the kings of the northern kingdom, this criterion becomes virtually a stereotyped formula that “he did that which was evil in the sight of the Lord and walked in the way of Jeroboam son of Nebat, who sinned and made all Israel sin along with him” (see 1 Kgs 14:16; 15:30; 16:31; 2 Kgs 3:3; 10:31; 13:2, 11; 14:24; 15:9, 18, 24, 28; 17:22). The compiler of Kings sees the rival altars with the golden calves at Dan and Bethel as the great sin of which the northern kings never repented (1 Kgs 12:25–13:34). Rejecting the primacy of Jerusalem, these altars became the rod with which to measure the northern kings. All the kings of Israel are condemned by this standard (except for Shallum, who reigned but a month, and Hoshea, the last of the northern kings)—even Zimri, the murderer of Elah, who ruled only one week before committing suicide in the flames of his own palace (16:9-20). For the kings of Judah, a different standard is used: what their attitude was to the high places where heterodox worship was allowed to flourish in the environs of Jerusalem. Only Hezekiah and Josiah receive the compiler’s unqualified endorsement for following the ways of David (2 Kgs 18:3; 22:2). Six others are commended for their zeal in suppressing idolatry, though they did not remove the high places (Asa, 1 Kgs 15:9-15; Jehoshaphat, 22:43; Jehoash, 2 Kgs 12:2-3; Amaziah, 14:3-4; Azariah, 15:3-4; Jotham, 15:34-35). The remainder of the Judean kings are condemned for their participation in the high places and their desecration of the temple itself. This one theme is the preeminent motif in the book.<\/p>\n<h5>History of the Monarchy<\/h5>\n<p>A second prominent interest for the compiler was to trace the history of the monarchy. Deuteronomy 17:14-20 provides for the day when Israel would ask for a king and charges that king with the basic religious responsibility for the people. This provision for a king, again a feature found only in Deuteronomy, becomes the basis for the compiler’s intense interest in the history of the monarchy, and particularly the religious fidelity of the kings. David becomes the model of the ideal king, the one by whom the others are measured, the one whose sons “continue long in his kingdom in the midst of Israel” (17:20; see also 1 Kgs 15:11; 2 Kgs 18:3; 22:2 for following in the ways of David, and 1 Kgs 14:8; 15:3-5; 2 Kgs 14:3; 16:2 for the reverse). The compiler wanted to show that God had been faithful to David even though David’s sons were not faithful. While both kingdoms had about the same number of kings, the northern kingdom is marked by repeated dynastic changes and regicide through its 200 years, while the dynasty of David is maintained as a lamp in the south through 350 years (1 Kgs 11:13, 32, 36; 15:4-5; 2 Kgs 8:19; 19:34; 20:6). It is the disaster that had befallen the house of David, and the consequent doubts about the promises of God, that prompted the compiler to write.<\/p>\n<h5>Efficacy of the Prophetic Word<\/h5>\n<p>Another reason why Kings can be called Deuteronomic history is its concern with the efficacy of the prophetic word. There are three passages in the Pentateuch that deal with the institution of the prophetic order: Numbers 12:1-8; Deuteronomy 13:1-5; and Deuteronomy 18:14-22. It is only in Deuteronomy 18 that the test of a true prophet is given: that what he has spoken comes about, that his words are fulfilled. Notice the number of instances where the writer calls attention to the fulfillment of the words of the prophets: 2 Samuel 7:13 in 1 Kings 8:20; 1 Kings 11:29-36 in 12:15; 1 Kings 13:1-3 in 2 Kings 23:16-18; 1 Kings 14:6-12 in 14:17-18 and 15:29; 1 Kings 16:1-4 in 16:7, 11-12; Joshua 6:26 in 1 Kings 16:34; 1 Kings 22:17 in 22:35-38; 1 Kings 21:21-29 in 2 Kings 9:7-10, 30-37 and 10:10-11, 30; 2 Kings 1:6 in 1:17; 2 Kings 21:10-15 in 24:2; 2 Kings 22:15-20 in 23:30. The writer is concerned to show that the words of the prophets were efficacious, powerful words. His concern with the prophetic order is also seen in the material devoted to Elijah and Elisha and to other prophetic figures.<\/p>\n<h5>Fulfillment of the Curses<\/h5>\n<p>Another aspect of the compiler’s interest in Deuteronomy is seen in his concern to trace the fulfillment of the covenant curses on disobedience. God’s covenant with Israel would issue in curses or blessings depending on the obedience of the people; the compiler of Kings sees the curses inflicted on the two kingdoms because of their failure to meet the demands of the covenant. He takes care to show that most of the curses of Deuteronomy 28:15-68 had some historical realization in the life of the people. Moses had warned that disobedience would “bring a nation against you from afar, from the end of the earth, as the eagle swoops down” (Dt 28:49, <span>nasb<\/span>), and the Assyrians came to Samaria and the Babylonians to Jerusalem (28:52). The siege of Samaria lasted from 724 to 722 <span>BC<\/span>, and the siege of Jerusalem from 588 to 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The dire conditions of the siege would drive the people to devouring their own children; women would feed on their afterbirths. It happened to Israel in the siege of Ben-hadad (2 Kgs 6:24-30). Just as the Lord had delighted to prosper and multiply his people, so he would not refrain from destroying them and scattering them among the peoples of the earth (Dt 28:63-67).<\/p>\n<p>In these and other ways the writer of Kings set out to write the history of Israel and Judah to solve a theological dilemma. How was one to reconcile the exile with God’s promises to the nation and David? His answer is twofold: (1) the problem was not with God but with the people’s disobedience—God remains just; (2) the end of the state does not equal the end of the people or the house of David. Here the ending of the book is instructive: Evil-merodach releases Jehoiachin from prison, elevates him above the other kings, and provides his rations (2 Kgs 25:27-30). Even during the exile, though cut down to almost nothing, the house of David still enjoys the favor and blessing of God. God has not abandoned his promises; the people should keep hope.<\/p>\n<p>Other themes in Kings also show the theological motivations underlying the compiler’s selection and arrangement of the data, particularly his use of Deuteronomy as a framework for examining the history of the people. Compare the laws governing the observance of Passover in Exodus 12:1-20 and Deuteronomy 16:1-8: whereas the Passover is centered in the family in Exodus, it is celebrated at the sanctuary in Deuteronomy. The writer of Kings is careful to show that the Passover during the reign of Josiah was celebrated in accordance with the requirements of Deuteronomy (2 Kgs 23:21-23). A passage in Deuteronomy is explicitly cited with reference to Amaziah’s keeping the law (Dt 24:16 in 2 Kgs 14:6).<\/p>\n<h5>Contrast with Chronicles<\/h5>\n<p>The interests of Kings are further highlighted when compared with the parallel accounts in Chronicles. While the writer of Kings worked in the aftermath of the destruction of Jerusalem and had to answer the “how?” and “why?” questions, the Chronicler is part of the restoration community. Here the burning theological questions were not “how?” and “why?” but rather “What continuity do we have with David? Is God still interested in us?” The need is not to account for the exile but rather to relate the postexilic and the preexilic. The building of the second temple and the ordering of worship there show up in increased detail in Chronicles in any matter pertaining to the former temple. Chronicles is a history of Judah and of the Davidic line, reflecting the fact that it alone survives after the exile. Interesting, too, are the things omitted from the account by the Chronicler. Since he is not building a case for an indictment, as was done in Samuel and Kings, he is free to omit references to David’s sin with Bathsheba (2 Sm 11) or to Solomon’s difficulties in gaining the throne (1 Kgs 1–2). Since in his day the northern kingdom had not survived, the Chronicler did not go into detail about the sins of Jeroboam (chs 13–14). Chronicles is interested more in the affairs of the temple and does not show the marked interest in prophetic matters found in Kings, so that the lives of Elijah and Elisha are omitted (1 Kgs 16—2 Kgs 10). Nor does the Chronicler recite the sins that led to the demise of the northern kingdom (2 Kgs 17:1–18:12). In all these examples one can see the interplay of the historical moment and theological concerns of the people and the compilers. Each compiler has selected and arranged the data in accordance with the concerns and needs of the community in which he was a member; comparing the two accounts throws the interests of each into sharp relief.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n\n<p>The books of Kings fall into three parts: (1) the reign of Solomon (1 Kgs 1–11); (2) the history of the divided kingdom (1 Kgs 12–2 Kgs 17); (3) the history of the surviving kingdom in Judah (2 Kgs 18–25).<\/p>\n<h5>The Reign of Solomon (1 Kgs 1–11)<\/h5>\n<p>The record begins with an account of the court intrigue surrounding Solomon’s accession to the throne, set against the backdrop of the abortive coup by Adonijah (ch 1). The dying David charges Solomon to obey the commandments of God (2:1-4) and also to take vengeance on his enemies (vv 5-9). After David’s death Solomon orders the deaths of Adonijah, Joab, and Shimei, and the banishment of Abiathar, the priest who had supported Adonijah in his bid for the throne (vv 13-46). Enemies eliminated, the kingdom was firmly established by Solomon (v 46).<\/p>\n<p>The remainder of Solomon’s reign is divided into two parts: Solomon the good, who follows in the ways of his father, David (chs 3–10); and Solomon the bad, whose heart is led astray (ch 11). While sacrificing at Gibeon, Solomon asks God to give him the gift of wisdom to rule—wisdom promptly demonstrated in the quarrel of two prostitutes about a child (ch 3). An account is given of the administrative organization of the kingdom and the incomparable wisdom of Solomon (ch 4). The compiler of Kings gives extensive coverage to the preparations (ch 5), building (chs 6–7), and dedication (ch 8) of the temple. God appeared to Solomon a second time, reminding him to keep his commandments as David had done (9:1-9). Details are given of the king’s building and commercial activities (vv 10-27). The account of the visit by the queen of Sheba is followed with elaboration of Solomon’s splendor (ch 10). But Solomon did not keep God’s commands; seduced to pagan worship by his foreign wives, he was not fully devoted to the Lord as David had been (11:4), and God determined to take away the northern tribes from the rule of his son (vv 11-13). As punishment from the hand of God, Solomon faced rebellion among conquered peoples (vv 14-25) and within Israel in the person of Jeroboam (vv 26-40).<\/p>\n<h5>History of the Divided Kingdom (1 Kgs 12—2 Kgs 17)<\/h5>\n\n<p>The united monarchy dissolved after the death of Solomon. The northern kingdom (Israel) would exist for about two centuries, would be ruled by 20 kings from nine different dynasties, and would show a history of internal weakness riddled with regicide and usurpation. In contrast, the southern kingdom would last for three and a half centuries and would be ruled by 19 kings of Davidic descent (apart from a short period under the dynastic interloper Athaliah).<\/p>\n<p>There had been a long history of independent action and even warfare between the northern and southern tribes prior to David and Solomon, so it is no surprise that the division would take place along the lines that it did. The immediate cause, however, was the unwise severity with which Rehoboam replied to the representatives of the northern tribes while negotiating for the kingship. Jeroboam, the popular hero of the earlier insurrection against Solomon, became king in the north. He immediately erected the rival sanctuaries at Dan and Bethel (1 Kgs 12); these rival altars became the measure by which the kings of Israel were condemned for following in the sins of Jeroboam.<\/p>\n<p>For two generations there would be warfare between Israel and Judah over the border areas in Benjamin claimed by both sides. Fifty years of sporadic fighting on their mutual frontier, interlaced with invasions from the Arameans in the north or the Egyptians in the south, would consume the reigns of Jeroboam, Nadab, Baasha, Elah, and Zimri in Israel and of Rehoboam, Abijam, and Asa in Judah (1 Kgs 13:1–16:20).<\/p>\n<p>The accession of Omri in Israel introduced a ruling house that would last for a total of four generations and end the dynastic instability of the northern kingdom. Though Kings gives Omri a scant eight verses (1 Kgs 16:21-28), he was among the greatest of the northern kings, forging alliances with the Phoenicians and Judah; for over a century, the Assyrians would call Israel “the house of Omri.”<\/p>\n<p>The reigns of Omri’s successors, Ahab, Ahaziah, and Jehoram, are treated at disproportionate length, taking almost a third of the total book, 16 of 47 chapters (1 Kgs 17—2 Kgs 10). This is due to the fact that the compiler of Kings incorporated extensive coverage of the lives of Elijah and Elisha, weaving a contrast between good and evil by paralleling the dynasty of Omri with these prophets. Ahab and Jezebel were used as foils for the account of Elijah, so that Ahab became a paradigm of the evil king (e.g., 2 Kgs 21:3).<\/p>\n<p>Because of this preoccupation with the dynasty of Omri and the lives of Elijah and Elisha, the equivalent period in Judah is not given as extensive coverage. During this period, the northern kingdom appears to have exercised some hegemony over Judah, as attested by the marriage of an Omride (Athaliah, 2 Kgs 8:18, 26) to Jehoram of Judah and the subservient role of Jehoshaphat to Ahab at the battle of Ramoth-gilead (1 Kgs 22). Judah’s fortunes declined in this period when Edom revolted against Jehoram (2 Kgs 8:20-22), costing Judah control over the port at Ezion-geber and consequent economic losses.<\/p>\n<p>In 842 <span>BC<\/span> Jehu, after being anointed king by a prophet (2 Kgs 9:1-13), led a coup ending the house of Omri and also killing Ahaziah of Judah (vv 14-29). Jehu’s purge also brought the death of Jezebel, Ahab’s family, members of the family of Ahaziah, and the ministers of Baal (9:30–10:36). The consequences were severe politically: the murder of the Phoenician princess Jezebel and the king of Judah cost Israel its allies to the north and south.<\/p>\n<p>Jehu’s dynasty had the longest succession of any in Israel, including Jehoahaz, Jehoash, Jeroboam II, and Zechariah, a period spanning 90 years. Jehu’s murder of Ahaziah of Judah set the stage for the one threat to the continuity of the Davidic dynasty. Queen Athaliah, herself an Omride, seized the throne and attempted a purge of Davidic pretenders. She ruled for six years, until the faithful priest Jehoiada staged a countercoup to place the child Joash on the throne of David (ch 11).<\/p>\n<p>Israel endured a half century of weakness as a result of Jehu’s coup, during which the Arameans had a free hand, reducing the forces of Jehu’s son Jehoahaz to a small army and bodyguard (2 Kgs 13:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>The reemergence of Assyria early in the ninth century <span>BC<\/span> gave relief to Israel and Judah. Assyrian armies conquered the Arameans; with that threat removed, Israel and Judah enjoyed a dramatic resurgence. Jehoash of Israel, grandson of Jehu, reconquered cities lost to the Arameans (2 Kgs 13:25); Elisha died during his reign (v 20). In the south Amaziah reconquered the Edomites (14:7). Amaziah and Jehoash renewed the warfare between the kingdoms, with the north again victorious (vv 8-14).<\/p>\n<p>Under Jeroboam II, Israel enjoyed a period of prosperity when the borders of the kingdom reached the same extent as they had under Solomon (2 Kgs 14:23-28). Uzziah (Azariah), his contemporary in Judah, also fortified Jerusalem and undertook a program of offensive operations extending Judah’s sway to the south (14:21-22; 15:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>Yet this resurgence was but a brilliant sunset in the history of the two kingdoms. After the death of Jeroboam II, the history is one of successive disasters, culminating in the fall of Israel and the subjugation of Judah to the might of Assyria. The next 30 years in Israel would see four dynasties, three represented by only one king, and repeated regicides as the northern kingdom hastened to its demise. A period of civil war and anarchy would see five kings in just over ten years (2 Kgs 15). Heavy tribute was paid to Tiglath-pileser III in both the north and south (15:19-20; 16:7-10). Israel and the Arameans forged a coalition to throw back the Assyrians and sought to press Ahaz of Judah into the fight; Ahaz appealed to Tiglath-pileser III for help. The coalition was destroyed, and Israel and Judah became vassals. Hoshea defected as soon as he felt safe, looking to Egypt for help, but it was suicide for the northern kingdom. Shalmaneser V retaliated, and the political history of the state of Israel came to an end (17:1-23). The area was resettled with other displaced populations (vv 24-41).<\/p>\n<p>Israel had faced the Arameans and survived, only to fall to Assyria. And now, similarly, Judah would outlast Assyria, only to fall to Babylon.<\/p>\n<h5>History of the Surviving Kingdom of Judah (2 Kgs 18–25)<\/h5>\n<p>Ahaz’s appeal for Assyrian aid cost him his liberty, and Judah became a vassal of the Assyrian Empire. Illegitimate worship flourished under his rule (2 Kgs 16:1-19). Ahaz was succeeded by the first of the outstanding reform kings of Judah: Hezekiah. Much of the account of his reign is given to his rebellion against Sennacherib of Assyria: the rebellion, the Assyrian envoys and threats, Isaiah’s assurances of deliverance, and the destruction of the Assyrian armies (18:9–19:37). Hezekiah’s illness was averted after a sign and oracle from Isaiah (20:1-11). As part of what appears to be negotiations toward an anti-Assyrian alliance, Hezekiah also entertained envoys from Babylon, a decision that the prophet announced would be costly (vv 12-21).<\/p>\n<p>Hezekiah was followed by Manasseh, who ruled longer than any other king of Judah (a total of 55 years). His reign was marked by great apostasy—apostasy so severe that the compiler of Kings regarded his reign as sufficient reason for the exile that was unavoidable (2 Kgs 21:1-18; cf. 23:26; 24:3-4; Jer 15:1-4). Manasseh was followed by his son Amon, a carbon copy of his father, who ruled only two years before he was deposed by the people (2 Kings 21:19-26).<\/p>\n<p>The second great reform king of Judah, Josiah, followed. In his reign the Book of the Law was found while the temple was being refurbished; he led the people in a renewal of the covenant and suppressed illegitimate worship (2 Kgs 22:1–23:14). The Assyrian Empire was in rapid decline, so Josiah extended his borders to the north, destroying the altar at Bethel and the high places throughout Samaria (23:15-20). A great Passover celebration was convened in Jerusalem, and further measures were taken to rectify worship (vv 21-25). Josiah tried to block Pharaoh Neco’s foray to assist Assyria, and he lost his life at Megiddo (vv 26-30).<\/p>\n<p>Josiah was the only king of Judah to have three of his sons succeed him. At his death the people put Jehoahaz on the throne, but Neco removed him three months later and took him to Egypt in chains (2 Kgs 23:31-33), replacing him with another son of Josiah, Eliakim, whose name was changed to Jehoiakim (vv 34-37). During his reign, Nebuchadnezzar conquered Judah, and Jehoiakim became his vassal. Late in his life Jehoiakim rebelled against Nebuchadnezzar. Jehoiakim died, leaving his son Jehoiachin to face retaliation from Babylon (24:1-10). Nebuchadnezzar besieged Jerusalem; when the city fell, Jehoiachin, the queen mother, the army, and the leaders of the land were carried away captive. Nebuchadnezzar put Mattaniah (uncle of Jehoiachin and third son of Josiah) on the throne, changing his name to Zedekiah (vv 11-17). Nine years later Zedekiah, too, would rebel against Babylon. Nebuchadnezzar besieged the city for two years and, when it fell, utterly destroyed it. Zedekiah’s sons were killed before his eyes, and then his own eyes were put out, and he was taken to Babylon (24:18–25:21). Nebuchadnezzar appointed Gedaliah to rule as governor from nearby Mizpah; he was assassinated, and the conspirators fled to Egypt (25:22-26).<\/p>\n<p>The book concludes by showing that God had not forgotten his promise to David, mentioning that in captivity Jehoiachin enjoyed favor from the hand of Evil-merodach, successor of Nebuchadnezzar (2 Kgs 25:27-30).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronicles, Books of First and Second.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KINGS, Books of First and Second<\/h3>\n<p>Books continuing the history of the covenant people as recorded in Joshua, Judges, and the books of Samuel. The record in Kings begins with the events at the end of David’s reign (1 Kgs 1–2). It continues through the reign of Solomon (chs 3–11); the histories of the divided kingdoms (1 Kgs 12—2 Kgs 17); and the history of the surviving kingdom in the south, through its fall in 586 <span>BC<\/span> and the subsequent kindness shown Jehoiachin by Evil-merodach, king of Babylon, around 561 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 18–25).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Authorship and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Sources<\/p>\n<p>• Theology and Purpose<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorshipandDate\">Authorship and Date<\/p>\n<p>Kings was originally regarded as one book in the Hebrew canon; the division into two books of approximately equal length appeared first in the Septuagint and finally entered the Hebrew Bible in the 15th century <span>AD<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>The book itself is anonymous, and information about its author can only be deduced by examining the concerns and perspectives of the work. The Babylonian Talmud (<em>Baba Bathra<\/em> 15a) attributes Kings to Jeremiah. Although this identification could have arisen from the tendency of later Jewish tradition to assign biblical books to prophetic authors, the theory of origin in prophetic circles fits the evidence quite well. Substantial portions are given to the lives of the prophets; 16 of 47 chapters are devoted to the lives of Elijah and Elisha (1 Kgs 17—2 Kgs 10), and there is considerable interest in other prophetic figures such as Ahijah (1 Kgs 11:29-39; 14:1-16), an unnamed man of God (13:1-10), and Micaiah (22:13-28). Possible dependence on Isaiah (2 Kgs 18–20; cf. Is 36–39) and Jeremiah (2 Kgs 24–25; cf. Jer 52) also suggest prophetic origin. The author-compiler also shows intense concern with the efficacy of the prophetic word, frequently calling attention to the fulfillment of words spoken earlier by the prophets.<\/p>\n<p>One might initially think that such a history would be unlikely for a prophet, but the evidence is to the contrary. The prophets were the guardians of the covenant relationship and are known to have produced accounts used as sources by other biblical historians. The following are among such sources: the acts of Samuel the seer, the acts of Nathan the prophet, the acts of Gad the seer (1 Chr 29:29); the acts of Nathan the prophet, the prophecy of Ahijah the Shilonite, the visions of Iddo the seer (2 Chr 9:29); the chronicles of Shemaiah the prophet and of Iddo the seer (12:15); the annotations of the prophet Iddo (13:22); and the acts of Uzziah by Isaiah the prophet (26:22). Add to this the fact that Kings is positioned in the Hebrew canon in the Former Prophets (Joshua to 2 Kings), and a consistent picture of prophetic origin emerges.<\/p>\n<p>The date of the final part of the book must be after the last events recorded. Evil-merodach’s kindness toward Jehoiachin (c. 561 <span>BC<\/span>) is the terminus of the book and therefore fixes the earliest date. Since the work shows no knowledge of the restoration period, a date before 539 <span>BC<\/span> is probable. The author’s selection of his data to answer the burning theological questions of the exilic community also suggests a date between 561 and 539 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sources\">Sources<\/p>\n<p>The compiler of Kings specifically names three of the sources that he used in his work, and biblical scholars have suggested the presence of a number of other sources that may have been cited. Of course, the sources not mentioned specifically by the compiler are only the speculations of those who have studied his work and can have only varying degrees of probability. The sources both specified and alleged are as follows.<\/p>\n<h5>The Book of the Acts of Solomon<\/h5>\n<p>As 1 Kings 11:41 says, “The rest of the events in Solomon’s reign, including his wisdom, are recorded in <em>The Book of the Acts of Solomon”<\/em> (<span>nlt<\/span>). Presumably additional materials of a biographical nature were included, specifically accounts similar to the judgment between the two mothers (3:16-28) or the visit of the queen of Sheba (10:1-10). There has been debate as to whether these materials were official court records or nonofficial documents. Some scholars have attempted to isolate further materials within this section by identifying descriptions of the buildings as from temple archives (chs 6–7) and lists of administrators as from administrative documents (chs 4–5), but this must remain speculative.<\/p>\n<h5>The Book of the History of the Kings of Israel<\/h5>\n<p>This source is mentioned 17 times in Kings, usually in the closing formulas at the end of the account of the reign of a northern king. Some idea of the nature of these chronicles can be derived from looking at the type of information to which the compiler refers his readers (see 1 Kgs 14:19; 16:27; 22:39; 2 Kgs 13:12; 14:28). These passages suggest that this source was the official annals covering the reigns of the kings.<\/p>\n<h5>The Book of the History of the Kings of Judah<\/h5>\n<p>This source is mentioned in 15 passages, and as with the kings of Israel, is found in the concluding formulas to the accounts of the reigns. This source was to be consulted for additional details on individuals’ reigns (for example, see 1 Kgs 15:23; 22:45; 2 Kgs 20:20; 21:17). These sources for the histories of the two kingdoms were probably similar to the annals known from the surrounding cultures, particularly from the reigns of Assyrian kings. They were likely official court histories kept in Samaria and Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>In addition to these explicitly mentioned sources, scholars have suggested the compiler drew on other sources that he does not name.<\/p>\n<h5>Davidic Court History<\/h5>\n<p>Second Samuel 9–20 is often identified as a unit of material in the composition of the books of Samuel; it is variously called “the court history” or “the succession narrative.” Because of similar vocabulary and outlook, 1 Kings 1–2 are often associated with this material from Samuel. The statement of 1 Kings 2:46, “so the kingdom was now firmly in Solomon’s grip,” is taken to be the end of this record.<\/p>\n<h5>Sources for the House of Ahab<\/h5>\n<p>The reigns of individual kings are ordinarily given only brief notices; for example, the father of Ahab, Omri, is given eight verses, even though when judged by political and economic significance, he was among the greatest of the northern kings (1 Kgs 16:21-28). However, beginning with the reign of Ahab, the record becomes quite expansive, and extensive coverage is given the dynasty of Ahab through the coup by Jehu (1 Kgs 16—2 Kgs 12). The use of the stereotyped formulas for the reigns is suspended in this material, and the existence of other literature used by the compiler is probable. This material is commonly subdivided into further sources for the lives of Elijah and Elisha and the reign of Ahab.<\/p>\n<p>The Elijah section covers material in the following chapters: 1 Kings 17–19, including the feeding by the ravens, the incidents with the widow of Zarephath, the drought, the fire on Carmel, and the revelation of God at Sinai; 1 Kings 21, the affair of Naboth’s vineyard; and 2 Kings 1, the death of Ahaziah’s messengers. The reign of Ahab, which gets so much attention in Kings, is primarily a backdrop for the accounts concerning Elijah.<\/p>\n<p>The Elisha material found in 2 Kings 2–13 may have had an independent literary development from that of the Elijah accounts. It includes the following: chapter 2 (Elisha’s succession to the prophetic office, the purification of a spring, the death of mocking children); chapter 3 (on the campaign against Moab); chapter 4 (the widow’s oil, the Shunammite woman); chapter 5 (Naaman’s leprosy); chapter 6 (the Aramean attempt to capture Elisha); chapter 7 (the famine in Samaria); chapter 8 (the Shunammite’s property, the coup of Hazael); chapter 9 (the anointing of Jehu); and chapter 13 (the death of Elisha). No other portion of the OT takes the sheer delight in the miraculous that is seen in the Elisha narratives.<\/p>\n<p>In 1 Kings 16 to 2 Kings 13 there are additional incidents not directly related to the biographies of Elijah and Elisha; accounts such as the military campaigns of 1 Kings 20:1-34 and further details of Jehu’s coup (2 Kgs 9:11–10:36) are often attributed to a third source containing accounts of the dynasty of Ahab and his successors. In all three of these possible sources the orientation is toward affairs in the northern kingdom.<\/p>\n<h5>Isaiah Source<\/h5>\n<p>The account of the reign of Hezekiah contains a section (2 Kgs 18:13–20:19) that is nearly a verbatim citation of material also found in Isaiah (Is 36:1–39:8). The section records the invasion of Sennacherib, the mission of the Rabshakeh, Hezekiah’s prayer, Isaiah’s prophecy, Hezekiah’s illness, the regression of the sun, and the envoys from Merodach-baladan. The material must be regarded as based on the book of Isaiah or some other source used in both Isaiah and Kings.<\/p>\n<h5>A Prophetic Source<\/h5>\n<p>Because Kings shows great interest in the prophets and their ministries, various scholars have suggested that yet another source was used by the compiler; this would be an independent literary unit containing accounts of the prophets. This source would have contained the records for the material on Ahijah (1 Kgs 11:29-39; 14:1-16), unnamed prophets (ch 12; 20:35-43), Micaiah (22:13-28), and other references.<\/p>\n<p>Apart from the sources explicitly mentioned and inferences about their character, the remainder of the sources suggested have only varying degrees of probability. Considerable scholarly effort has gone into identifying and characterizing such sources, but it remains speculative. When considering the sources the compiler may have used, one important caution must be kept in mind. Even if such sources did exist, one cannot have confidence in a reconstruction of the compositional history. Which sources had already been integrated into a larger composition before they were used by the compiler of Kings? We cannot be certain that the life situation out of which these other sources grew has been correctly identified, nor can we know that even the compiler himself was aware of the past history of his sources. Biblical scholarship has expended considerable energy in trying to delineate the past history of the book of Kings, but it has often been at the neglect of the unity of perspective that is the product of the final compiler(s) in whose hands the book received its canonical form.<\/p>\n<p>What is important to understanding the book is not the perspective of its various sources (of which the compiler himself may have been unaware), but the perspective of the book as a whole on the history of the kingdoms. It is the outline that the compiler has imposed on the sources that establishes the teaching of the book; his sources are used in accord with his own purposes, a fact that makes the purposes for which the sources had been prepared largely irrelevant to the teaching of the book in its present form. Exploring possible sources, worthwhile in itself, must not eclipse the message of the book as a whole. This is not to imply that the books of Kings are simply a compilation of unaltered sources. The writer(s) undoubtedly exercised a measure of selectivity and literary skill in composing the historical narrative.<\/p>\n<p>One compositional technique of the compiler is quite prominent in the histories of the divided kingdoms: this is the use of formulaic introductions and conclusions to the various reigns. The formulas for both kingdoms are quite similar, differing only in minor details. For the kings of Judah, the full introductory formula is as follows: (1) year of accession synchronized with the regnal year of the northern king; (2) age of the king at his accession; (3) length of his reign; (4) name of his mother; (5) judgment on the character of the reign. The account of a Judean king’s reign is concluded as follows: (1) a reference to the chronicles of the kings of Judah for further information; (2) a statement regarding the death of the king, including the place of burial; (3) successor: “And his son reigned in his stead” (<span>rsv<\/span>). The full formula for a Judean king can be seen, for example, in the reign of Rehoboam (1 Kgs 14:21-22, 29-31).<\/p>\n<p>The formulas differ slightly for the kings of Israel; the introduction is as follows: (1) year of succession synchronized with the regnal year of the southern king; (2) length of his reign; (3) location of the royal residence; (4) condemnation for idolatry; (5) name of the king’s father. The account of an Israelite king’s reign ends as follows: (1) a reference to the chronicles of the kings of Israel for further information; (2) a statement regarding his death; (3) a statement of the succession of his son, unless a usurper follows. The full formula for an Israelite king can be seen, for example, in the reign of Baasha (1 Kgs 15:33-34; 16:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>There is some variation in the use of these patterns, but on the whole, they are consistently followed and provide the basic framework for the history of the divided kingdom. The synchronisms of the reigns provide data for constructing the chronology of the period. The variations in the formulas may reflect the characteristics of the sources the compiler was using or may reflect his own interests. The name of the mother of a Judean king is recorded, but not of an Israelite king, perhaps reflecting concern with a more exact and fuller record of the Davidic succession. The royal residence is presumed to be Jerusalem for the southern kings (though it may be mentioned) but is recorded for the northern kings since it moved several times, from Shechem to Penuel to Tirzah to Samaria. The mention of the king’s father for a northern ruler also reflects the frequent change in dynasties there, as opposed to the dynastic stability of Judah, which is reinforced by mentioning the burial of almost all its kings in the city of David.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheologyandPurpose\">Theology and Purpose<\/p>\n<p>The books of Kings record the history of the covenant people from the end of the reign of David (961 <span>BC<\/span>) through the fall of the southern kingdom (586 <span>BC<\/span>). Yet it is not history written in accord with modern expectations for history textbooks. Rather than concentrating on economic, political, and military themes as they shaped the history of the period, the compiler of Kings is motivated by theological concerns.<\/p>\n<p>Evaluation of the theology and purpose of the books of Kings is made easier by the fact that there is a parallel history for much of Kings found in the books of Chronicles. By comparing the two accounts, especially where the later Chronicler adds or deletes material found in Kings, the interests of both histories are thrown into clearer relief.<\/p>\n<p>The books of Kings were composed during the exile, likely between 560 and 539 <span>BC<\/span>. Jerusalem had been turned into rubble, and there was no longer a throne of David. Those two pillars of the popular theology—the inviolability of the temple and the throne of David (Jer 7:4; 13:13-14; 22:1-9; see 1 Kgs 8:16, 29)—had tumbled. If Israel’s faith was to survive, the burning questions that had to be answered were “How did it all happen? Can’t God keep his promises to David and to Zion? Have the promises failed?” The writer of Kings aims to deal with the bewilderment of the chosen people in response to the disasters of 722 <span>BC<\/span> (fall of Samaria) and 586 <span>BC<\/span> (fall of Jerusalem). Kings, like the book of Job, is a theodicy, a justification of the ways of God to men.<\/p>\n<p>In order to answer the question “How did it happen?” the compiler adopts the procedure of recounting the history of the covenant people in light of standards propounded in the Law. For this reason Kings could be called Pentateuchal history, or even more pointedly, Deuteronomic history, for standards propounded only in the book of Deuteronomy in the Pentateuch are used by the compiler to measure the kingdoms. Among the prominent themes selected from Deuteronomy and applied to the kingdoms are the centralization of worship, the institution of the monarchy, the efficacy of the prophetic word, and the outworking of the covenant curses on disobedience.<\/p>\n<h5>Centralization of Worship<\/h5>\n<p>The primary concern of the writer is the purity of the worship of the Lord. His major criterion for measuring this purity is the attitude of the kings toward centralization of worship in the Jerusalem temple as opposed to the worship of the Lord elsewhere and the continuation of Canaanite cults mingled with Yahwism at the high places. Centralization of worship at the central shrine is called for in Deuteronomy 12. Perhaps “centralization of worship” is a misnomer, for worship was always centered around the tabernacle in the periods prior to the temple; the change that is envisaged in Deuteronomy is not the centralizing of worship but rather the fact that the shrine would no longer be mobile but stationary. For the kings of the northern kingdom, this criterion becomes virtually a stereotyped formula that “he did that which was evil in the sight of the Lord and walked in the way of Jeroboam son of Nebat, who sinned and made all Israel sin along with him” (see 1 Kgs 14:16; 15:30; 16:31; 2 Kgs 3:3; 10:31; 13:2, 11; 14:24; 15:9, 18, 24, 28; 17:22). The compiler of Kings sees the rival altars with the golden calves at Dan and Bethel as the great sin of which the northern kings never repented (1 Kgs 12:25–13:34). Rejecting the primacy of Jerusalem, these altars became the rod with which to measure the northern kings. All the kings of Israel are condemned by this standard (except for Shallum, who reigned but a month, and Hoshea, the last of the northern kings)—even Zimri, the murderer of Elah, who ruled only one week before committing suicide in the flames of his own palace (16:9-20). For the kings of Judah, a different standard is used: what their attitude was to the high places where heterodox worship was allowed to flourish in the environs of Jerusalem. Only Hezekiah and Josiah receive the compiler’s unqualified endorsement for following the ways of David (2 Kgs 18:3; 22:2). Six others are commended for their zeal in suppressing idolatry, though they did not remove the high places (Asa, 1 Kgs 15:9-15; Jehoshaphat, 22:43; Jehoash, 2 Kgs 12:2-3; Amaziah, 14:3-4; Azariah, 15:3-4; Jotham, 15:34-35). The remainder of the Judean kings are condemned for their participation in the high places and their desecration of the temple itself. This one theme is the preeminent motif in the book.<\/p>\n<h5>History of the Monarchy<\/h5>\n<p>A second prominent interest for the compiler was to trace the history of the monarchy. Deuteronomy 17:14-20 provides for the day when Israel would ask for a king and charges that king with the basic religious responsibility for the people. This provision for a king, again a feature found only in Deuteronomy, becomes the basis for the compiler’s intense interest in the history of the monarchy, and particularly the religious fidelity of the kings. David becomes the model of the ideal king, the one by whom the others are measured, the one whose sons “continue long in his kingdom in the midst of Israel” (17:20; see also 1 Kgs 15:11; 2 Kgs 18:3; 22:2 for following in the ways of David, and 1 Kgs 14:8; 15:3-5; 2 Kgs 14:3; 16:2 for the reverse). The compiler wanted to show that God had been faithful to David even though David’s sons were not faithful. While both kingdoms had about the same number of kings, the northern kingdom is marked by repeated dynastic changes and regicide through its 200 years, while the dynasty of David is maintained as a lamp in the south through 350 years (1 Kgs 11:13, 32, 36; 15:4-5; 2 Kgs 8:19; 19:34; 20:6). It is the disaster that had befallen the house of David, and the consequent doubts about the promises of God, that prompted the compiler to write.<\/p>\n<h5>Efficacy of the Prophetic Word<\/h5>\n<p>Another reason why Kings can be called Deuteronomic history is its concern with the efficacy of the prophetic word. There are three passages in the Pentateuch that deal with the institution of the prophetic order: Numbers 12:1-8; Deuteronomy 13:1-5; and Deuteronomy 18:14-22. It is only in Deuteronomy 18 that the test of a true prophet is given: that what he has spoken comes about, that his words are fulfilled. Notice the number of instances where the writer calls attention to the fulfillment of the words of the prophets: 2 Samuel 7:13 in 1 Kings 8:20; 1 Kings 11:29-36 in 12:15; 1 Kings 13:1-3 in 2 Kings 23:16-18; 1 Kings 14:6-12 in 14:17-18 and 15:29; 1 Kings 16:1-4 in 16:7, 11-12; Joshua 6:26 in 1 Kings 16:34; 1 Kings 22:17 in 22:35-38; 1 Kings 21:21-29 in 2 Kings 9:7-10, 30-37 and 10:10-11, 30; 2 Kings 1:6 in 1:17; 2 Kings 21:10-15 in 24:2; 2 Kings 22:15-20 in 23:30. The writer is concerned to show that the words of the prophets were efficacious, powerful words. His concern with the prophetic order is also seen in the material devoted to Elijah and Elisha and to other prophetic figures.<\/p>\n<h5>Fulfillment of the Curses<\/h5>\n<p>Another aspect of the compiler’s interest in Deuteronomy is seen in his concern to trace the fulfillment of the covenant curses on disobedience. God’s covenant with Israel would issue in curses or blessings depending on the obedience of the people; the compiler of Kings sees the curses inflicted on the two kingdoms because of their failure to meet the demands of the covenant. He takes care to show that most of the curses of Deuteronomy 28:15-68 had some historical realization in the life of the people. Moses had warned that disobedience would “bring a nation against you from afar, from the end of the earth, as the eagle swoops down” (Dt 28:49, <span>nasb<\/span>), and the Assyrians came to Samaria and the Babylonians to Jerusalem (28:52). The siege of Samaria lasted from 724 to 722 <span>BC<\/span>, and the siege of Jerusalem from 588 to 586 <span>BC<\/span>. The dire conditions of the siege would drive the people to devouring their own children; women would feed on their afterbirths. It happened to Israel in the siege of Ben-hadad (2 Kgs 6:24-30). Just as the Lord had delighted to prosper and multiply his people, so he would not refrain from destroying them and scattering them among the peoples of the earth (Dt 28:63-67).<\/p>\n<p>In these and other ways the writer of Kings set out to write the history of Israel and Judah to solve a theological dilemma. How was one to reconcile the exile with God’s promises to the nation and David? His answer is twofold: (1) the problem was not with God but with the people’s disobedience—God remains just; (2) the end of the state does not equal the end of the people or the house of David. Here the ending of the book is instructive: Evil-merodach releases Jehoiachin from prison, elevates him above the other kings, and provides his rations (2 Kgs 25:27-30). Even during the exile, though cut down to almost nothing, the house of David still enjoys the favor and blessing of God. God has not abandoned his promises; the people should keep hope.<\/p>\n<p>Other themes in Kings also show the theological motivations underlying the compiler’s selection and arrangement of the data, particularly his use of Deuteronomy as a framework for examining the history of the people. Compare the laws governing the observance of Passover in Exodus 12:1-20 and Deuteronomy 16:1-8: whereas the Passover is centered in the family in Exodus, it is celebrated at the sanctuary in Deuteronomy. The writer of Kings is careful to show that the Passover during the reign of Josiah was celebrated in accordance with the requirements of Deuteronomy (2 Kgs 23:21-23). A passage in Deuteronomy is explicitly cited with reference to Amaziah’s keeping the law (Dt 24:16 in 2 Kgs 14:6).<\/p>\n<h5>Contrast with Chronicles<\/h5>\n<p>The interests of Kings are further highlighted when compared with the parallel accounts in Chronicles. While the writer of Kings worked in the aftermath of the destruction of Jerusalem and had to answer the “how?” and “why?” questions, the Chronicler is part of the restoration community. Here the burning theological questions were not “how?” and “why?” but rather “What continuity do we have with David? Is God still interested in us?” The need is not to account for the exile but rather to relate the postexilic and the preexilic. The building of the second temple and the ordering of worship there show up in increased detail in Chronicles in any matter pertaining to the former temple. Chronicles is a history of Judah and of the Davidic line, reflecting the fact that it alone survives after the exile. Interesting, too, are the things omitted from the account by the Chronicler. Since he is not building a case for an indictment, as was done in Samuel and Kings, he is free to omit references to David’s sin with Bathsheba (2 Sm 11) or to Solomon’s difficulties in gaining the throne (1 Kgs 1–2). Since in his day the northern kingdom had not survived, the Chronicler did not go into detail about the sins of Jeroboam (chs 13–14). Chronicles is interested more in the affairs of the temple and does not show the marked interest in prophetic matters found in Kings, so that the lives of Elijah and Elisha are omitted (1 Kgs 16—2 Kgs 10). Nor does the Chronicler recite the sins that led to the demise of the northern kingdom (2 Kgs 17:1–18:12). In all these examples one can see the interplay of the historical moment and theological concerns of the people and the compilers. Each compiler has selected and arranged the data in accordance with the concerns and needs of the community in which he was a member; comparing the two accounts throws the interests of each into sharp relief.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n\n<p>The books of Kings fall into three parts: (1) the reign of Solomon (1 Kgs 1–11); (2) the history of the divided kingdom (1 Kgs 12–2 Kgs 17); (3) the history of the surviving kingdom in Judah (2 Kgs 18–25).<\/p>\n<h5>The Reign of Solomon (1 Kgs 1–11)<\/h5>\n<p>The record begins with an account of the court intrigue surrounding Solomon’s accession to the throne, set against the backdrop of the abortive coup by Adonijah (ch 1). The dying David charges Solomon to obey the commandments of God (2:1-4) and also to take vengeance on his enemies (vv 5-9). After David’s death Solomon orders the deaths of Adonijah, Joab, and Shimei, and the banishment of Abiathar, the priest who had supported Adonijah in his bid for the throne (vv 13-46). Enemies eliminated, the kingdom was firmly established by Solomon (v 46).<\/p>\n<p>The remainder of Solomon’s reign is divided into two parts: Solomon the good, who follows in the ways of his father, David (chs 3–10); and Solomon the bad, whose heart is led astray (ch 11). While sacrificing at Gibeon, Solomon asks God to give him the gift of wisdom to rule—wisdom promptly demonstrated in the quarrel of two prostitutes about a child (ch 3). An account is given of the administrative organization of the kingdom and the incomparable wisdom of Solomon (ch 4). The compiler of Kings gives extensive coverage to the preparations (ch 5), building (chs 6–7), and dedication (ch 8) of the temple. God appeared to Solomon a second time, reminding him to keep his commandments as David had done (9:1-9). Details are given of the king’s building and commercial activities (vv 10-27). The account of the visit by the queen of Sheba is followed with elaboration of Solomon’s splendor (ch 10). But Solomon did not keep God’s commands; seduced to pagan worship by his foreign wives, he was not fully devoted to the Lord as David had been (11:4), and God determined to take away the northern tribes from the rule of his son (vv 11-13). As punishment from the hand of God, Solomon faced rebellion among conquered peoples (vv 14-25) and within Israel in the person of Jeroboam (vv 26-40).<\/p>\n<h5>History of the Divided Kingdom (1 Kgs 12—2 Kgs 17)<\/h5>\n\n<p>The united monarchy dissolved after the death of Solomon. The northern kingdom (Israel) would exist for about two centuries, would be ruled by 20 kings from nine different dynasties, and would show a history of internal weakness riddled with regicide and usurpation. In contrast, the southern kingdom would last for three and a half centuries and would be ruled by 19 kings of Davidic descent (apart from a short period under the dynastic interloper Athaliah).<\/p>\n<p>There had been a long history of independent action and even warfare between the northern and southern tribes prior to David and Solomon, so it is no surprise that the division would take place along the lines that it did. The immediate cause, however, was the unwise severity with which Rehoboam replied to the representatives of the northern tribes while negotiating for the kingship. Jeroboam, the popular hero of the earlier insurrection against Solomon, became king in the north. He immediately erected the rival sanctuaries at Dan and Bethel (1 Kgs 12); these rival altars became the measure by which the kings of Israel were condemned for following in the sins of Jeroboam.<\/p>\n<p>For two generations there would be warfare between Israel and Judah over the border areas in Benjamin claimed by both sides. Fifty years of sporadic fighting on their mutual frontier, interlaced with invasions from the Arameans in the north or the Egyptians in the south, would consume the reigns of Jeroboam, Nadab, Baasha, Elah, and Zimri in Israel and of Rehoboam, Abijam, and Asa in Judah (1 Kgs 13:1–16:20).<\/p>\n<p>The accession of Omri in Israel introduced a ruling house that would last for a total of four generations and end the dynastic instability of the northern kingdom. Though Kings gives Omri a scant eight verses (1 Kgs 16:21-28), he was among the greatest of the northern kings, forging alliances with the Phoenicians and Judah; for over a century, the Assyrians would call Israel “the house of Omri.”<\/p>\n<p>The reigns of Omri’s successors, Ahab, Ahaziah, and Jehoram, are treated at disproportionate length, taking almost a third of the total book, 16 of 47 chapters (1 Kgs 17—2 Kgs 10). This is due to the fact that the compiler of Kings incorporated extensive coverage of the lives of Elijah and Elisha, weaving a contrast between good and evil by paralleling the dynasty of Omri with these prophets. Ahab and Jezebel were used as foils for the account of Elijah, so that Ahab became a paradigm of the evil king (e.g., 2 Kgs 21:3).<\/p>\n<p>Because of this preoccupation with the dynasty of Omri and the lives of Elijah and Elisha, the equivalent period in Judah is not given as extensive coverage. During this period, the northern kingdom appears to have exercised some hegemony over Judah, as attested by the marriage of an Omride (Athaliah, 2 Kgs 8:18, 26) to Jehoram of Judah and the subservient role of Jehoshaphat to Ahab at the battle of Ramoth-gilead (1 Kgs 22). Judah’s fortunes declined in this period when Edom revolted against Jehoram (2 Kgs 8:20-22), costing Judah control over the port at Ezion-geber and consequent economic losses.<\/p>\n<p>In 842 <span>BC<\/span> Jehu, after being anointed king by a prophet (2 Kgs 9:1-13), led a coup ending the house of Omri and also killing Ahaziah of Judah (vv 14-29). Jehu’s purge also brought the death of Jezebel, Ahab’s family, members of the family of Ahaziah, and the ministers of Baal (9:30–10:36). The consequences were severe politically: the murder of the Phoenician princess Jezebel and the king of Judah cost Israel its allies to the north and south.<\/p>\n<p>Jehu’s dynasty had the longest succession of any in Israel, including Jehoahaz, Jehoash, Jeroboam II, and Zechariah, a period spanning 90 years. Jehu’s murder of Ahaziah of Judah set the stage for the one threat to the continuity of the Davidic dynasty. Queen Athaliah, herself an Omride, seized the throne and attempted a purge of Davidic pretenders. She ruled for six years, until the faithful priest Jehoiada staged a countercoup to place the child Joash on the throne of David (ch 11).<\/p>\n<p>Israel endured a half century of weakness as a result of Jehu’s coup, during which the Arameans had a free hand, reducing the forces of Jehu’s son Jehoahaz to a small army and bodyguard (2 Kgs 13:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>The reemergence of Assyria early in the ninth century <span>BC<\/span> gave relief to Israel and Judah. Assyrian armies conquered the Arameans; with that threat removed, Israel and Judah enjoyed a dramatic resurgence. Jehoash of Israel, grandson of Jehu, reconquered cities lost to the Arameans (2 Kgs 13:25); Elisha died during his reign (v 20). In the south Amaziah reconquered the Edomites (14:7). Amaziah and Jehoash renewed the warfare between the kingdoms, with the north again victorious (vv 8-14).<\/p>\n<p>Under Jeroboam II, Israel enjoyed a period of prosperity when the borders of the kingdom reached the same extent as they had under Solomon (2 Kgs 14:23-28). Uzziah (Azariah), his contemporary in Judah, also fortified Jerusalem and undertook a program of offensive operations extending Judah’s sway to the south (14:21-22; 15:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>Yet this resurgence was but a brilliant sunset in the history of the two kingdoms. After the death of Jeroboam II, the history is one of successive disasters, culminating in the fall of Israel and the subjugation of Judah to the might of Assyria. The next 30 years in Israel would see four dynasties, three represented by only one king, and repeated regicides as the northern kingdom hastened to its demise. A period of civil war and anarchy would see five kings in just over ten years (2 Kgs 15). Heavy tribute was paid to Tiglath-pileser III in both the north and south (15:19-20; 16:7-10). Israel and the Arameans forged a coalition to throw back the Assyrians and sought to press Ahaz of Judah into the fight; Ahaz appealed to Tiglath-pileser III for help. The coalition was destroyed, and Israel and Judah became vassals. Hoshea defected as soon as he felt safe, looking to Egypt for help, but it was suicide for the northern kingdom. Shalmaneser V retaliated, and the political history of the state of Israel came to an end (17:1-23). The area was resettled with other displaced populations (vv 24-41).<\/p>\n<p>Israel had faced the Arameans and survived, only to fall to Assyria. And now, similarly, Judah would outlast Assyria, only to fall to Babylon.<\/p>\n<h5>History of the Surviving Kingdom of Judah (2 Kgs 18–25)<\/h5>\n<p>Ahaz’s appeal for Assyrian aid cost him his liberty, and Judah became a vassal of the Assyrian Empire. Illegitimate worship flourished under his rule (2 Kgs 16:1-19). Ahaz was succeeded by the first of the outstanding reform kings of Judah: Hezekiah. Much of the account of his reign is given to his rebellion against Sennacherib of Assyria: the rebellion, the Assyrian envoys and threats, Isaiah’s assurances of deliverance, and the destruction of the Assyrian armies (18:9–19:37). Hezekiah’s illness was averted after a sign and oracle from Isaiah (20:1-11). As part of what appears to be negotiations toward an anti-Assyrian alliance, Hezekiah also entertained envoys from Babylon, a decision that the prophet announced would be costly (vv 12-21).<\/p>\n<p>Hezekiah was followed by Manasseh, who ruled longer than any other king of Judah (a total of 55 years). His reign was marked by great apostasy—apostasy so severe that the compiler of Kings regarded his reign as sufficient reason for the exile that was unavoidable (2 Kgs 21:1-18; cf. 23:26; 24:3-4; Jer 15:1-4). Manasseh was followed by his son Amon, a carbon copy of his father, who ruled only two years before he was deposed by the people (2 Kings 21:19-26).<\/p>\n<p>The second great reform king of Judah, Josiah, followed. In his reign the Book of the Law was found while the temple was being refurbished; he led the people in a renewal of the covenant and suppressed illegitimate worship (2 Kgs 22:1–23:14). The Assyrian Empire was in rapid decline, so Josiah extended his borders to the north, destroying the altar at Bethel and the high places throughout Samaria (23:15-20). A great Passover celebration was convened in Jerusalem, and further measures were taken to rectify worship (vv 21-25). Josiah tried to block Pharaoh Neco’s foray to assist Assyria, and he lost his life at Megiddo (vv 26-30).<\/p>\n<p>Josiah was the only king of Judah to have three of his sons succeed him. At his death the people put Jehoahaz on the throne, but Neco removed him three months later and took him to Egypt in chains (2 Kgs 23:31-33), replacing him with another son of Josiah, Eliakim, whose name was changed to Jehoiakim (vv 34-37). During his reign, Nebuchadnezzar conquered Judah, and Jehoiakim became his vassal. Late in his life Jehoiakim rebelled against Nebuchadnezzar. Jehoiakim died, leaving his son Jehoiachin to face retaliation from Babylon (24:1-10). Nebuchadnezzar besieged Jerusalem; when the city fell, Jehoiachin, the queen mother, the army, and the leaders of the land were carried away captive. Nebuchadnezzar put Mattaniah (uncle of Jehoiachin and third son of Josiah) on the throne, changing his name to Zedekiah (vv 11-17). Nine years later Zedekiah, too, would rebel against Babylon. Nebuchadnezzar besieged the city for two years and, when it fell, utterly destroyed it. Zedekiah’s sons were killed before his eyes, and then his own eyes were put out, and he was taken to Babylon (24:18–25:21). Nebuchadnezzar appointed Gedaliah to rule as governor from nearby Mizpah; he was assassinated, and the conspirators fled to Egypt (25:22-26).<\/p>\n<p>The book concludes by showing that God had not forgotten his promise to David, mentioning that in captivity Jehoiachin enjoyed favor from the hand of Evil-merodach, successor of Nebuchadnezzar (2 Kgs 25:27-30).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronicles, Books of First and Second.<\/p>","summary_ro":"KINGS, Books of First and Second Books continuing the history of the covenant people as recorded in Joshua, Judges, and the books of Samuel. The record in Kings begins with the events at the end of David’s reign (1 Kgs 1–2). It continues through the reign of Solomon (chs 3–11); the histories of the divided kingdoms (1 Kgs 12—2 Kgs 17); and the history of the surviving kingdom in the south, through its fall in 586 BC and the subsequent kindness shown Jehoiachin by Evil-merodach, king of Babylo...","summary_en":"KINGS, Books of First and Second Books continuing the history of the covenant people as recorded in Joshua, Judges, and the books of Samuel. The record in Kings begins with the events at the end of David’s reign (1 Kgs 1–2). It continues through the reign of Solomon (chs 3–11); the histories of the divided kingdoms (1 Kgs 12—2 Kgs 17); and the history of the surviving kingdom in the south, through its fall in 586 BC and the subsequent kindness shown Jehoiachin by Evil-merodach, king of Babylo...","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":61797,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Judgment of His People","title_en":"God’s Judgment of His People","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Judgment of His People<\/h3>\n<p>Although the kings of Israel and Judah had a major role in the history of the divided kingdom, the people also played a part in what occurred. As they followed their wicked rulers (2 Kgs 3:3; 17:22; 21:9, 11, 16), their own hearts strayed from God (12:3; 14:4; 15:4, 35; 17:9-11; 18:4; 22:17). They participated in the religious practices initiated by Jeroboam I (10:28-31; 17:21-22) and worshiped at pagan shrines (12:3; 14:4; 15:4, 35; 18:4).<\/p>\n<p>Sometimes during this period, God’s people are portrayed positively. The people of Judah rejoiced over the removal of Athaliah and the installation of Joash as king (11:12, 18-20). At times, the people were instrumental in the succession of kings (14:21; 23:30) or were responsive to godly leadership (11:17; 18:36; 23:1-3, 21-23).<\/p>\n<p>Yet despite God’s repeated warnings through his prophets (17:13), the people of both kingdoms became set in their apostasy (17:14-19, 22). So God’s righteous wrath burned against them and their leaders, and he brought his threatened judgment upon them (17:22-23; 21:10-15; 22:17; 23:26-27; 24:20; 25:21). God acted in accordance with the stipulations in his covenant with them (Lev 26:27-39), even though he loved his people and longed to restore them (see Hos 11:1-11).<\/p>\n<p>God never gave up caring for his people. He rescued them from Sennacherib (2 Kgs 18:17–19:37) and promised that a remnant would again thrive in the land (19:30-31). Even the good treatment Jehoiachin received in Babylon (25:27-30) no doubt renewed hope among the repentant of God’s people. God promised to one day restore his people from exile and give them fellowship with him in the land once again, ruling over them through his chosen king, the descendant of David (Jer 23:3-6; see also Isa 11; Rom 11:5-36).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Lev 26:27-39; 2 Kgs 17:7-23; 21:9-16; 23:26-27; 24:20–25:21; Ps 62:12; Prov 11:31; Isa 3:10-11; Jer 1:16; 17:10; 23:3-6; Ezek 7:1-9; 33:18-20; 34:17-24; 39:23-24; Hos 11:1-11; Amos 3:2; Matt 25:24-30; Luke 12:47-48; 13:6-9; John 5:45-47; Rom 11:5-36; Col 3:23-25; Heb 12:25; Jas 2:12-13; 1 Pet 1:17; Rev 2:1–3:22<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Judgment of His People<\/h3>\n<p>Although the kings of Israel and Judah had a major role in the history of the divided kingdom, the people also played a part in what occurred. As they followed their wicked rulers (2 Kgs 3:3; 17:22; 21:9, 11, 16), their own hearts strayed from God (12:3; 14:4; 15:4, 35; 17:9-11; 18:4; 22:17). They participated in the religious practices initiated by Jeroboam I (10:28-31; 17:21-22) and worshiped at pagan shrines (12:3; 14:4; 15:4, 35; 18:4).<\/p>\n<p>Sometimes during this period, God’s people are portrayed positively. The people of Judah rejoiced over the removal of Athaliah and the installation of Joash as king (11:12, 18-20). At times, the people were instrumental in the succession of kings (14:21; 23:30) or were responsive to godly leadership (11:17; 18:36; 23:1-3, 21-23).<\/p>\n<p>Yet despite God’s repeated warnings through his prophets (17:13), the people of both kingdoms became set in their apostasy (17:14-19, 22). So God’s righteous wrath burned against them and their leaders, and he brought his threatened judgment upon them (17:22-23; 21:10-15; 22:17; 23:26-27; 24:20; 25:21). God acted in accordance with the stipulations in his covenant with them (Lev 26:27-39), even though he loved his people and longed to restore them (see Hos 11:1-11).<\/p>\n<p>God never gave up caring for his people. He rescued them from Sennacherib (2 Kgs 18:17–19:37) and promised that a remnant would again thrive in the land (19:30-31). Even the good treatment Jehoiachin received in Babylon (25:27-30) no doubt renewed hope among the repentant of God’s people. God promised to one day restore his people from exile and give them fellowship with him in the land once again, ruling over them through his chosen king, the descendant of David (Jer 23:3-6; see also Isa 11; Rom 11:5-36).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Lev 26:27-39; 2 Kgs 17:7-23; 21:9-16; 23:26-27; 24:20–25:21; Ps 62:12; Prov 11:31; Isa 3:10-11; Jer 1:16; 17:10; 23:3-6; Ezek 7:1-9; 33:18-20; 34:17-24; 39:23-24; Hos 11:1-11; Amos 3:2; Matt 25:24-30; Luke 12:47-48; 13:6-9; John 5:45-47; Rom 11:5-36; Col 3:23-25; Heb 12:25; Jas 2:12-13; 1 Pet 1:17; Rev 2:1–3:22<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Judgment of His People Although the kings of Israel and Judah had a major role in the history of the divided kingdom, the people also played a part in what occurred. As they followed their wicked rulers (2 Kgs 3:3; 17:22; 21:9, 11, 16), their own hearts strayed from God (12:3; 14:4; 15:4, 35; 17:9-11; 18:4; 22:17). They participated in the religious practices initiated by Jeroboam I (10:28-31; 17:21-22) and worshiped at pagan shrines (12:3; 14:4; 15:4, 35; 18:4). Sometimes during this p...","summary_en":"God’s Judgment of His People Although the kings of Israel and Judah had a major role in the history of the divided kingdom, the people also played a part in what occurred. As they followed their wicked rulers (2 Kgs 3:3; 17:22; 21:9, 11, 16), their own hearts strayed from God (12:3; 14:4; 15:4, 35; 17:9-11; 18:4; 22:17). They participated in the religious practices initiated by Jeroboam I (10:28-31; 17:21-22) and worshiped at pagan shrines (12:3; 14:4; 15:4, 35; 18:4). Sometimes during this p...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":89423,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Judgment of His People","title_en":"God’s Judgment of His People","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Judgment of His People<\/h3>\n<p>Although the kings of Israel and Judah had a major role in the history of the divided kingdom, the people also played a part in what occurred. As they followed their wicked rulers (2 Kgs 3:3; 17:22; 21:9, 11, 16), their own hearts strayed from God (12:3; 14:4; 15:4, 35; 17:9-11; 18:4; 22:17). They participated in the religious practices initiated by Jeroboam I (10:28-31; 17:21-22) and worshiped at pagan shrines (12:3; 14:4; 15:4, 35; 18:4).<\/p>\n<p>Sometimes during this period, God’s people are portrayed positively. The people of Judah rejoiced over the removal of Athaliah and the installation of Joash as king (11:12, 18-20). At times, the people were instrumental in the succession of kings (14:21; 23:30) or were responsive to godly leadership (11:17; 18:36; 23:1-3, 21-23).<\/p>\n<p>Yet despite God’s repeated warnings through his prophets (17:13), the people of both kingdoms became set in their apostasy (17:14-19, 22). So God’s righteous wrath burned against them and their leaders, and he brought his threatened judgment upon them (17:22-23; 21:10-15; 22:17; 23:26-27; 24:20; 25:21). God acted in accordance with the stipulations in his covenant with them (Lev 26:27-39), even though he loved his people and longed to restore them (see Hos 11:1-11).<\/p>\n<p>God never gave up caring for his people. He rescued them from Sennacherib (2 Kgs 18:17–19:37) and promised that a remnant would again thrive in the land (19:30-31). Even the good treatment Jehoiachin received in Babylon (25:27-30) no doubt renewed hope among the repentant of God’s people. God promised to one day restore his people from exile and give them fellowship with him in the land once again, ruling over them through his chosen king, the descendant of David (Jer 23:3-6; see also Isa 11; Rom 11:5-36).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Lev 26:27-39; 2 Kgs 17:7-23; 21:9-16; 23:26-27; 24:20–25:21; Ps 62:12; Prov 11:31; Isa 3:10-11; Jer 1:16; 17:10; 23:3-6; Ezek 7:1-9; 33:18-20; 34:17-24; 39:23-24; Hos 11:1-11; Amos 3:2; Matt 25:24-30; Luke 12:47-48; 13:6-9; John 5:45-47; Rom 11:5-36; Col 3:23-25; Heb 12:25; Jas 2:12-13; 1 Pet 1:17; Rev 2:1–3:22<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Judgment of His People<\/h3>\n<p>Although the kings of Israel and Judah had a major role in the history of the divided kingdom, the people also played a part in what occurred. As they followed their wicked rulers (2 Kgs 3:3; 17:22; 21:9, 11, 16), their own hearts strayed from God (12:3; 14:4; 15:4, 35; 17:9-11; 18:4; 22:17). They participated in the religious practices initiated by Jeroboam I (10:28-31; 17:21-22) and worshiped at pagan shrines (12:3; 14:4; 15:4, 35; 18:4).<\/p>\n<p>Sometimes during this period, God’s people are portrayed positively. The people of Judah rejoiced over the removal of Athaliah and the installation of Joash as king (11:12, 18-20). At times, the people were instrumental in the succession of kings (14:21; 23:30) or were responsive to godly leadership (11:17; 18:36; 23:1-3, 21-23).<\/p>\n<p>Yet despite God’s repeated warnings through his prophets (17:13), the people of both kingdoms became set in their apostasy (17:14-19, 22). So God’s righteous wrath burned against them and their leaders, and he brought his threatened judgment upon them (17:22-23; 21:10-15; 22:17; 23:26-27; 24:20; 25:21). God acted in accordance with the stipulations in his covenant with them (Lev 26:27-39), even though he loved his people and longed to restore them (see Hos 11:1-11).<\/p>\n<p>God never gave up caring for his people. He rescued them from Sennacherib (2 Kgs 18:17–19:37) and promised that a remnant would again thrive in the land (19:30-31). Even the good treatment Jehoiachin received in Babylon (25:27-30) no doubt renewed hope among the repentant of God’s people. God promised to one day restore his people from exile and give them fellowship with him in the land once again, ruling over them through his chosen king, the descendant of David (Jer 23:3-6; see also Isa 11; Rom 11:5-36).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Lev 26:27-39; 2 Kgs 17:7-23; 21:9-16; 23:26-27; 24:20–25:21; Ps 62:12; Prov 11:31; Isa 3:10-11; Jer 1:16; 17:10; 23:3-6; Ezek 7:1-9; 33:18-20; 34:17-24; 39:23-24; Hos 11:1-11; Amos 3:2; Matt 25:24-30; Luke 12:47-48; 13:6-9; John 5:45-47; Rom 11:5-36; Col 3:23-25; Heb 12:25; Jas 2:12-13; 1 Pet 1:17; Rev 2:1–3:22<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Judgment of His People Although the kings of Israel and Judah had a major role in the history of the divided kingdom, the people also played a part in what occurred. As they followed their wicked rulers (2 Kgs 3:3; 17:22; 21:9, 11, 16), their own hearts strayed from God (12:3; 14:4; 15:4, 35; 17:9-11; 18:4; 22:17). They participated in the religious practices initiated by Jeroboam I (10:28-31; 17:21-22) and worshiped at pagan shrines (12:3; 14:4; 15:4, 35; 18:4). Sometimes during this p...","summary_en":"God’s Judgment of His People Although the kings of Israel and Judah had a major role in the history of the divided kingdom, the people also played a part in what occurred. As they followed their wicked rulers (2 Kgs 3:3; 17:22; 21:9, 11, 16), their own hearts strayed from God (12:3; 14:4; 15:4, 35; 17:9-11; 18:4; 22:17). They participated in the religious practices initiated by Jeroboam I (10:28-31; 17:21-22) and worshiped at pagan shrines (12:3; 14:4; 15:4, 35; 18:4). Sometimes during this p...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":117049,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Judgment of His People","title_en":"God’s Judgment of His People","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Judgment of His People<\/h3>\n<p>Although the kings of Israel and Judah had a major role in the history of the divided kingdom, the people also played a part in what occurred. As they followed their wicked rulers (2 Kgs 3:3; 17:22; 21:9, 11, 16), their own hearts strayed from God (12:3; 14:4; 15:4, 35; 17:9-11; 18:4; 22:17). They participated in the religious practices initiated by Jeroboam I (10:28-31; 17:21-22) and worshiped at pagan shrines (12:3; 14:4; 15:4, 35; 18:4).<\/p>\n<p>Sometimes during this period, God’s people are portrayed positively. The people of Judah rejoiced over the removal of Athaliah and the installation of Joash as king (11:12, 18-20). At times, the people were instrumental in the succession of kings (14:21; 23:30) or were responsive to godly leadership (11:17; 18:36; 23:1-3, 21-23).<\/p>\n<p>Yet despite God’s repeated warnings through his prophets (17:13), the people of both kingdoms became set in their apostasy (17:14-19, 22). So God’s righteous wrath burned against them and their leaders, and he brought his threatened judgment upon them (17:22-23; 21:10-15; 22:17; 23:26-27; 24:20; 25:21). God acted in accordance with the stipulations in his covenant with them (Lev 26:27-39), even though he loved his people and longed to restore them (see Hos 11:1-11).<\/p>\n<p>God never gave up caring for his people. He rescued them from Sennacherib (2 Kgs 18:17–19:37) and promised that a remnant would again thrive in the land (19:30-31). Even the good treatment Jehoiachin received in Babylon (25:27-30) no doubt renewed hope among the repentant of God’s people. God promised to one day restore his people from exile and give them fellowship with him in the land once again, ruling over them through his chosen king, the descendant of David (Jer 23:3-6; see also Isa 11; Rom 11:5-36).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Lev 26:27-39; 2 Kgs 17:7-23; 21:9-16; 23:26-27; 24:20–25:21; Ps 62:12; Prov 11:31; Isa 3:10-11; Jer 1:16; 17:10; 23:3-6; Ezek 7:1-9; 33:18-20; 34:17-24; 39:23-24; Hos 11:1-11; Amos 3:2; Matt 25:24-30; Luke 12:47-48; 13:6-9; John 5:45-47; Rom 11:5-36; Col 3:23-25; Heb 12:25; Jas 2:12-13; 1 Pet 1:17; Rev 2:1–3:22<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Judgment of His People<\/h3>\n<p>Although the kings of Israel and Judah had a major role in the history of the divided kingdom, the people also played a part in what occurred. As they followed their wicked rulers (2 Kgs 3:3; 17:22; 21:9, 11, 16), their own hearts strayed from God (12:3; 14:4; 15:4, 35; 17:9-11; 18:4; 22:17). They participated in the religious practices initiated by Jeroboam I (10:28-31; 17:21-22) and worshiped at pagan shrines (12:3; 14:4; 15:4, 35; 18:4).<\/p>\n<p>Sometimes during this period, God’s people are portrayed positively. The people of Judah rejoiced over the removal of Athaliah and the installation of Joash as king (11:12, 18-20). At times, the people were instrumental in the succession of kings (14:21; 23:30) or were responsive to godly leadership (11:17; 18:36; 23:1-3, 21-23).<\/p>\n<p>Yet despite God’s repeated warnings through his prophets (17:13), the people of both kingdoms became set in their apostasy (17:14-19, 22). So God’s righteous wrath burned against them and their leaders, and he brought his threatened judgment upon them (17:22-23; 21:10-15; 22:17; 23:26-27; 24:20; 25:21). God acted in accordance with the stipulations in his covenant with them (Lev 26:27-39), even though he loved his people and longed to restore them (see Hos 11:1-11).<\/p>\n<p>God never gave up caring for his people. He rescued them from Sennacherib (2 Kgs 18:17–19:37) and promised that a remnant would again thrive in the land (19:30-31). Even the good treatment Jehoiachin received in Babylon (25:27-30) no doubt renewed hope among the repentant of God’s people. God promised to one day restore his people from exile and give them fellowship with him in the land once again, ruling over them through his chosen king, the descendant of David (Jer 23:3-6; see also Isa 11; Rom 11:5-36).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Lev 26:27-39; 2 Kgs 17:7-23; 21:9-16; 23:26-27; 24:20–25:21; Ps 62:12; Prov 11:31; Isa 3:10-11; Jer 1:16; 17:10; 23:3-6; Ezek 7:1-9; 33:18-20; 34:17-24; 39:23-24; Hos 11:1-11; Amos 3:2; Matt 25:24-30; Luke 12:47-48; 13:6-9; John 5:45-47; Rom 11:5-36; Col 3:23-25; Heb 12:25; Jas 2:12-13; 1 Pet 1:17; Rev 2:1–3:22<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Judgment of His People Although the kings of Israel and Judah had a major role in the history of the divided kingdom, the people also played a part in what occurred. As they followed their wicked rulers (2 Kgs 3:3; 17:22; 21:9, 11, 16), their own hearts strayed from God (12:3; 14:4; 15:4, 35; 17:9-11; 18:4; 22:17). They participated in the religious practices initiated by Jeroboam I (10:28-31; 17:21-22) and worshiped at pagan shrines (12:3; 14:4; 15:4, 35; 18:4). Sometimes during this p...","summary_en":"God’s Judgment of His People Although the kings of Israel and Judah had a major role in the history of the divided kingdom, the people also played a part in what occurred. As they followed their wicked rulers (2 Kgs 3:3; 17:22; 21:9, 11, 16), their own hearts strayed from God (12:3; 14:4; 15:4, 35; 17:9-11; 18:4; 22:17). They participated in the religious practices initiated by Jeroboam I (10:28-31; 17:21-22) and worshiped at pagan shrines (12:3; 14:4; 15:4, 35; 18:4). Sometimes during this p...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":144675,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"God’s Judgment of His People","title_en":"God’s Judgment of His People","content_ro":"<h3>God’s Judgment of His People<\/h3>\n<p>Although the kings of Israel and Judah had a major role in the history of the divided kingdom, the people also played a part in what occurred. As they followed their wicked rulers (2 Kgs 3:3; 17:22; 21:9, 11, 16), their own hearts strayed from God (12:3; 14:4; 15:4, 35; 17:9-11; 18:4; 22:17). They participated in the religious practices initiated by Jeroboam I (10:28-31; 17:21-22) and worshiped at pagan shrines (12:3; 14:4; 15:4, 35; 18:4).<\/p>\n<p>Sometimes during this period, God’s people are portrayed positively. The people of Judah rejoiced over the removal of Athaliah and the installation of Joash as king (11:12, 18-20). At times, the people were instrumental in the succession of kings (14:21; 23:30) or were responsive to godly leadership (11:17; 18:36; 23:1-3, 21-23).<\/p>\n<p>Yet despite God’s repeated warnings through his prophets (17:13), the people of both kingdoms became set in their apostasy (17:14-19, 22). So God’s righteous wrath burned against them and their leaders, and he brought his threatened judgment upon them (17:22-23; 21:10-15; 22:17; 23:26-27; 24:20; 25:21). God acted in accordance with the stipulations in his covenant with them (Lev 26:27-39), even though he loved his people and longed to restore them (see Hos 11:1-11).<\/p>\n<p>God never gave up caring for his people. He rescued them from Sennacherib (2 Kgs 18:17–19:37) and promised that a remnant would again thrive in the land (19:30-31). Even the good treatment Jehoiachin received in Babylon (25:27-30) no doubt renewed hope among the repentant of God’s people. God promised to one day restore his people from exile and give them fellowship with him in the land once again, ruling over them through his chosen king, the descendant of David (Jer 23:3-6; see also Isa 11; Rom 11:5-36).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Lev 26:27-39; 2 Kgs 17:7-23; 21:9-16; 23:26-27; 24:20–25:21; Ps 62:12; Prov 11:31; Isa 3:10-11; Jer 1:16; 17:10; 23:3-6; Ezek 7:1-9; 33:18-20; 34:17-24; 39:23-24; Hos 11:1-11; Amos 3:2; Matt 25:24-30; Luke 12:47-48; 13:6-9; John 5:45-47; Rom 11:5-36; Col 3:23-25; Heb 12:25; Jas 2:12-13; 1 Pet 1:17; Rev 2:1–3:22<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>God’s Judgment of His People<\/h3>\n<p>Although the kings of Israel and Judah had a major role in the history of the divided kingdom, the people also played a part in what occurred. As they followed their wicked rulers (2 Kgs 3:3; 17:22; 21:9, 11, 16), their own hearts strayed from God (12:3; 14:4; 15:4, 35; 17:9-11; 18:4; 22:17). They participated in the religious practices initiated by Jeroboam I (10:28-31; 17:21-22) and worshiped at pagan shrines (12:3; 14:4; 15:4, 35; 18:4).<\/p>\n<p>Sometimes during this period, God’s people are portrayed positively. The people of Judah rejoiced over the removal of Athaliah and the installation of Joash as king (11:12, 18-20). At times, the people were instrumental in the succession of kings (14:21; 23:30) or were responsive to godly leadership (11:17; 18:36; 23:1-3, 21-23).<\/p>\n<p>Yet despite God’s repeated warnings through his prophets (17:13), the people of both kingdoms became set in their apostasy (17:14-19, 22). So God’s righteous wrath burned against them and their leaders, and he brought his threatened judgment upon them (17:22-23; 21:10-15; 22:17; 23:26-27; 24:20; 25:21). God acted in accordance with the stipulations in his covenant with them (Lev 26:27-39), even though he loved his people and longed to restore them (see Hos 11:1-11).<\/p>\n<p>God never gave up caring for his people. He rescued them from Sennacherib (2 Kgs 18:17–19:37) and promised that a remnant would again thrive in the land (19:30-31). Even the good treatment Jehoiachin received in Babylon (25:27-30) no doubt renewed hope among the repentant of God’s people. God promised to one day restore his people from exile and give them fellowship with him in the land once again, ruling over them through his chosen king, the descendant of David (Jer 23:3-6; see also Isa 11; Rom 11:5-36).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Lev 26:27-39; 2 Kgs 17:7-23; 21:9-16; 23:26-27; 24:20–25:21; Ps 62:12; Prov 11:31; Isa 3:10-11; Jer 1:16; 17:10; 23:3-6; Ezek 7:1-9; 33:18-20; 34:17-24; 39:23-24; Hos 11:1-11; Amos 3:2; Matt 25:24-30; Luke 12:47-48; 13:6-9; John 5:45-47; Rom 11:5-36; Col 3:23-25; Heb 12:25; Jas 2:12-13; 1 Pet 1:17; Rev 2:1–3:22<\/p>","summary_ro":"God’s Judgment of His People Although the kings of Israel and Judah had a major role in the history of the divided kingdom, the people also played a part in what occurred. As they followed their wicked rulers (2 Kgs 3:3; 17:22; 21:9, 11, 16), their own hearts strayed from God (12:3; 14:4; 15:4, 35; 17:9-11; 18:4; 22:17). They participated in the religious practices initiated by Jeroboam I (10:28-31; 17:21-22) and worshiped at pagan shrines (12:3; 14:4; 15:4, 35; 18:4). Sometimes during this p...","summary_en":"God’s Judgment of His People Although the kings of Israel and Judah had a major role in the history of the divided kingdom, the people also played a part in what occurred. As they followed their wicked rulers (2 Kgs 3:3; 17:22; 21:9, 11, 16), their own hearts strayed from God (12:3; 14:4; 15:4, 35; 17:9-11; 18:4; 22:17). They participated in the religious practices initiated by Jeroboam I (10:28-31; 17:21-22) and worshiped at pagan shrines (12:3; 14:4; 15:4, 35; 18:4). Sometimes during this p...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"4":[{"id":41619,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Elisha","title_en":"Elisha","content_ro":"<h3>Elisha<\/h3>\n<p>Elisha the prophet was Elijah’s follower and successor in the northern kingdom of Israel during the late 800s <span>BC<\/span>, a time when the leaders and people of the northern kingdom turned their backs on God and worshiped the Canaanite god Baal. Ahab and Jezebel were eager worshipers of this false god, as were their descendants who succeeded them on the throne. Elisha’s ministry (853–798 <span>BC<\/span>) began as King Ahab’s reign was ending; he was an important part of God’s strategy to bring down Israel’s idol-worshiping leaders.<\/p>\n<p>Elisha started his work as a disciple of Elijah and was the one God chose to take Elijah’s place (1 Kgs 19:15-21; 2 Kgs 2:1-18). After Elijah was taken into heaven, Elisha’s miracles demonstrated that God’s great power was with him.<\/p>\n<p>Elisha’s miracles often involved water. He purified the putrid water of a spring near Jericho (2 Kgs 2:19-22) and caused an ax head to float (2 Kgs 6:1-7). When King Joram’s water supply ran out in enemy territory, Elisha correctly predicted that an ample water supply would emerge (2 Kgs 3:4-20). Baal supposedly controlled water, so these signs showed that the Lord, and not Baal, was really in charge.<\/p>\n<p>Elisha displayed God’s power by helping people in tangible ways. He helped a poor woman by miraculously causing her jars to fill with olive oil (2 Kgs 4:1-7). He predicted to a woman from Shunem that she would have a son, and he brought the boy back to life when he died (2 Kgs 4:8-37). He cured an Aramean general named Naaman of leprosy (2 Kgs 5:1-19). And he provided food for people who needed it (2 Kgs 4:38-44).<\/p>\n<p>Elisha was part of God’s plan to bring judgment on the northern kingdom. He anointed both Jehu of Israel and Hazael of Aram (2 Kgs 8:7-15; 9:1-13), who brought a violent end to the leaders of Israel who encouraged the worship of Baal (see 1 Kgs 19:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Elisha’s miracles anticipated Jesus’ ministry. Jesus also cured lepers (Matt 8:1-4), raised the dead (Mark 5:21-43; Luke 7:11-17; John 11:1-44), and miraculously provided food (Matt 14:13-21; 15:32-38). Jesus mentioned the healing of Naaman as a precedent for his reaching out to Gentiles, to show that God’s mercy is not restricted to Israelites (Luke 4:27).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 19:15-21; 2 Kgs 2:1–9:13; 13:14-21; Luke 4:27<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Elisha<\/h3>\n<p>Elisha the prophet was Elijah’s follower and successor in the northern kingdom of Israel during the late 800s <span>BC<\/span>, a time when the leaders and people of the northern kingdom turned their backs on God and worshiped the Canaanite god Baal. Ahab and Jezebel were eager worshipers of this false god, as were their descendants who succeeded them on the throne. Elisha’s ministry (853–798 <span>BC<\/span>) began as King Ahab’s reign was ending; he was an important part of God’s strategy to bring down Israel’s idol-worshiping leaders.<\/p>\n<p>Elisha started his work as a disciple of Elijah and was the one God chose to take Elijah’s place (1 Kgs 19:15-21; 2 Kgs 2:1-18). After Elijah was taken into heaven, Elisha’s miracles demonstrated that God’s great power was with him.<\/p>\n<p>Elisha’s miracles often involved water. He purified the putrid water of a spring near Jericho (2 Kgs 2:19-22) and caused an ax head to float (2 Kgs 6:1-7). When King Joram’s water supply ran out in enemy territory, Elisha correctly predicted that an ample water supply would emerge (2 Kgs 3:4-20). Baal supposedly controlled water, so these signs showed that the Lord, and not Baal, was really in charge.<\/p>\n<p>Elisha displayed God’s power by helping people in tangible ways. He helped a poor woman by miraculously causing her jars to fill with olive oil (2 Kgs 4:1-7). He predicted to a woman from Shunem that she would have a son, and he brought the boy back to life when he died (2 Kgs 4:8-37). He cured an Aramean general named Naaman of leprosy (2 Kgs 5:1-19). And he provided food for people who needed it (2 Kgs 4:38-44).<\/p>\n<p>Elisha was part of God’s plan to bring judgment on the northern kingdom. He anointed both Jehu of Israel and Hazael of Aram (2 Kgs 8:7-15; 9:1-13), who brought a violent end to the leaders of Israel who encouraged the worship of Baal (see 1 Kgs 19:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Elisha’s miracles anticipated Jesus’ ministry. Jesus also cured lepers (Matt 8:1-4), raised the dead (Mark 5:21-43; Luke 7:11-17; John 11:1-44), and miraculously provided food (Matt 14:13-21; 15:32-38). Jesus mentioned the healing of Naaman as a precedent for his reaching out to Gentiles, to show that God’s mercy is not restricted to Israelites (Luke 4:27).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 19:15-21; 2 Kgs 2:1–9:13; 13:14-21; Luke 4:27<\/p>","summary_ro":"Elisha Elisha the prophet was Elijah’s follower and successor in the northern kingdom of Israel during the late 800s BC, a time when the leaders and people of the northern kingdom turned their backs on God and worshiped the Canaanite god Baal. Ahab and Jezebel were eager worshipers of this false god, as were their descendants who succeeded them on the throne. Elisha’s ministry (853–798 BC) began as King Ahab’s reign was ending; he was an important part of God’s strategy to bring down Israel’s...","summary_en":"Elisha Elisha the prophet was Elijah’s follower and successor in the northern kingdom of Israel during the late 800s BC, a time when the leaders and people of the northern kingdom turned their backs on God and worshiped the Canaanite god Baal. Ahab and Jezebel were eager worshipers of this false god, as were their descendants who succeeded them on the throne. Elisha’s ministry (853–798 BC) began as King Ahab’s reign was ending; he was an important part of God’s strategy to bring down Israel’s...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":41718,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jehoshaphat","title_en":"Jehoshaphat","content_ro":"<h3>Jehoshaphat<\/h3>\n<p>Jehoshaphat succeeded his father Asa to become the fourth king of Judah (872–848 <span>BC<\/span>). Like Hezekiah and Josiah after him, Jehoshaphat trusted the Lord throughout his life and worked to remove most forms of pagan worship from Israel (2 Chr 17:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jehoshaphat continued his father Asa’s religious reforms but reversed his foreign policy. Jehoshaphat discontinued Judah’s war with Israel over their boundaries (see 1 Kgs 22:2) and made an alliance with Ahab. To confirm this alliance, he arranged for his son Jehoram to marry Ahab’s daughter Athaliah (2 Chr 18:1-2; 2 Kgs 8:18) and supported the north in its wars against the Arameans and Moabites (2 Chr 18:3-34; 1 Kgs 22; 2 Kgs 3:4-27). The prophet Jehu rebuked Jehoshaphat for his unwise alliance with Israel (2 Chr 19:1-3), which resulted in his son Jehoram falling under the influence of Ahab and Jezebel. Jehoram and his son Ahaziah turned Judah toward idol worship.<\/p>\n<p>Yet during his reign, Jehoshaphat kept the worship of the Lord pure. He closed the temples of prostitution (1 Kgs 22:46) and sent teachers of God’s law throughout the land (2 Chr 17:7-9). He also established a system of judges and admonished them to function as the Lord’s representatives so that justice might prevail (19:4-7). He appointed Levites, priests, and family heads to handle cases pertaining to religious practice and to negotiate disputes among citizens (19:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>Before going to battle, Jehoshaphat would insist on hearing from a true prophet of the Lord. And in one of the most stirring descriptions of war in the Old Testament, Jehoshaphat preached to the army before entering a battle. As a result, God caused the armies from Ammon, Moab, and their allies to turn against each other (2 Chr 20).<\/p>\n<p>Jehoshaphat died when he was about sixty years old and was buried in Jerusalem. His son Jehoram became Judah’s next king (21:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 15:24; 22:1-50; 2 Kgs 3:1-27; 2 Chr 17:1–21:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jehoshaphat<\/h3>\n<p>Jehoshaphat succeeded his father Asa to become the fourth king of Judah (872–848 <span>BC<\/span>). Like Hezekiah and Josiah after him, Jehoshaphat trusted the Lord throughout his life and worked to remove most forms of pagan worship from Israel (2 Chr 17:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jehoshaphat continued his father Asa’s religious reforms but reversed his foreign policy. Jehoshaphat discontinued Judah’s war with Israel over their boundaries (see 1 Kgs 22:2) and made an alliance with Ahab. To confirm this alliance, he arranged for his son Jehoram to marry Ahab’s daughter Athaliah (2 Chr 18:1-2; 2 Kgs 8:18) and supported the north in its wars against the Arameans and Moabites (2 Chr 18:3-34; 1 Kgs 22; 2 Kgs 3:4-27). The prophet Jehu rebuked Jehoshaphat for his unwise alliance with Israel (2 Chr 19:1-3), which resulted in his son Jehoram falling under the influence of Ahab and Jezebel. Jehoram and his son Ahaziah turned Judah toward idol worship.<\/p>\n<p>Yet during his reign, Jehoshaphat kept the worship of the Lord pure. He closed the temples of prostitution (1 Kgs 22:46) and sent teachers of God’s law throughout the land (2 Chr 17:7-9). He also established a system of judges and admonished them to function as the Lord’s representatives so that justice might prevail (19:4-7). He appointed Levites, priests, and family heads to handle cases pertaining to religious practice and to negotiate disputes among citizens (19:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>Before going to battle, Jehoshaphat would insist on hearing from a true prophet of the Lord. And in one of the most stirring descriptions of war in the Old Testament, Jehoshaphat preached to the army before entering a battle. As a result, God caused the armies from Ammon, Moab, and their allies to turn against each other (2 Chr 20).<\/p>\n<p>Jehoshaphat died when he was about sixty years old and was buried in Jerusalem. His son Jehoram became Judah’s next king (21:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 15:24; 22:1-50; 2 Kgs 3:1-27; 2 Chr 17:1–21:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jehoshaphat Jehoshaphat succeeded his father Asa to become the fourth king of Judah (872–848 BC). Like Hezekiah and Josiah after him, Jehoshaphat trusted the Lord throughout his life and worked to remove most forms of pagan worship from Israel (2 Chr 17:6). Jehoshaphat continued his father Asa’s religious reforms but reversed his foreign policy. Jehoshaphat discontinued Judah’s war with Israel over their boundaries (see 1 Kgs 22:2) and made an alliance with Ahab. To confirm this alliance, he ...","summary_en":"Jehoshaphat Jehoshaphat succeeded his father Asa to become the fourth king of Judah (872–848 BC). Like Hezekiah and Josiah after him, Jehoshaphat trusted the Lord throughout his life and worked to remove most forms of pagan worship from Israel (2 Chr 17:6). Jehoshaphat continued his father Asa’s religious reforms but reversed his foreign policy. Jehoshaphat discontinued Judah’s war with Israel over their boundaries (see 1 Kgs 22:2) and made an alliance with Ahab. To confirm this alliance, he ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":69245,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Elisha","title_en":"Elisha","content_ro":"<h3>Elisha<\/h3>\n<p>Elisha the prophet was Elijah’s follower and successor in the northern kingdom of Israel during the late 800s <span>BC<\/span>, a time when the leaders and people of the northern kingdom turned their backs on God and worshiped the Canaanite god Baal. Ahab and Jezebel were eager worshipers of this false god, as were their descendants who succeeded them on the throne. Elisha’s ministry (853–798 <span>BC<\/span>) began as King Ahab’s reign was ending; he was an important part of God’s strategy to bring down Israel’s idol-worshiping leaders.<\/p>\n<p>Elisha started his work as a disciple of Elijah and was the one God chose to take Elijah’s place (1 Kgs 19:15-21; 2 Kgs 2:1-18). After Elijah was taken into heaven, Elisha’s miracles demonstrated that God’s great power was with him.<\/p>\n<p>Elisha’s miracles often involved water. He purified the putrid water of a spring near Jericho (2 Kgs 2:19-22) and caused an ax head to float (2 Kgs 6:1-7). When King Joram’s water supply ran out in enemy territory, Elisha correctly predicted that an ample water supply would emerge (2 Kgs 3:4-20). Baal supposedly controlled water, so these signs showed that the Lord, and not Baal, was really in charge.<\/p>\n<p>Elisha displayed God’s power by helping people in tangible ways. He helped a poor woman by miraculously causing her jars to fill with olive oil (2 Kgs 4:1-7). He predicted to a woman from Shunem that she would have a son, and he brought the boy back to life when he died (2 Kgs 4:8-37). He cured an Aramean general named Naaman of leprosy (2 Kgs 5:1-19). And he provided food for people who needed it (2 Kgs 4:38-44).<\/p>\n<p>Elisha was part of God’s plan to bring judgment on the northern kingdom. He anointed both Jehu of Israel and Hazael of Aram (2 Kgs 8:7-15; 9:1-13), who brought a violent end to the leaders of Israel who encouraged the worship of Baal (see 1 Kgs 19:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Elisha’s miracles anticipated Jesus’ ministry. Jesus also cured lepers (Matt 8:1-4), raised the dead (Mark 5:21-43; Luke 7:11-17; John 11:1-44), and miraculously provided food (Matt 14:13-21; 15:32-38). Jesus mentioned the healing of Naaman as a precedent for his reaching out to Gentiles, to show that God’s mercy is not restricted to Israelites (Luke 4:27).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 19:15-21; 2 Kgs 2:1–9:13; 13:14-21; Luke 4:27<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Elisha<\/h3>\n<p>Elisha the prophet was Elijah’s follower and successor in the northern kingdom of Israel during the late 800s <span>BC<\/span>, a time when the leaders and people of the northern kingdom turned their backs on God and worshiped the Canaanite god Baal. Ahab and Jezebel were eager worshipers of this false god, as were their descendants who succeeded them on the throne. Elisha’s ministry (853–798 <span>BC<\/span>) began as King Ahab’s reign was ending; he was an important part of God’s strategy to bring down Israel’s idol-worshiping leaders.<\/p>\n<p>Elisha started his work as a disciple of Elijah and was the one God chose to take Elijah’s place (1 Kgs 19:15-21; 2 Kgs 2:1-18). After Elijah was taken into heaven, Elisha’s miracles demonstrated that God’s great power was with him.<\/p>\n<p>Elisha’s miracles often involved water. He purified the putrid water of a spring near Jericho (2 Kgs 2:19-22) and caused an ax head to float (2 Kgs 6:1-7). When King Joram’s water supply ran out in enemy territory, Elisha correctly predicted that an ample water supply would emerge (2 Kgs 3:4-20). Baal supposedly controlled water, so these signs showed that the Lord, and not Baal, was really in charge.<\/p>\n<p>Elisha displayed God’s power by helping people in tangible ways. He helped a poor woman by miraculously causing her jars to fill with olive oil (2 Kgs 4:1-7). He predicted to a woman from Shunem that she would have a son, and he brought the boy back to life when he died (2 Kgs 4:8-37). He cured an Aramean general named Naaman of leprosy (2 Kgs 5:1-19). And he provided food for people who needed it (2 Kgs 4:38-44).<\/p>\n<p>Elisha was part of God’s plan to bring judgment on the northern kingdom. He anointed both Jehu of Israel and Hazael of Aram (2 Kgs 8:7-15; 9:1-13), who brought a violent end to the leaders of Israel who encouraged the worship of Baal (see 1 Kgs 19:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Elisha’s miracles anticipated Jesus’ ministry. Jesus also cured lepers (Matt 8:1-4), raised the dead (Mark 5:21-43; Luke 7:11-17; John 11:1-44), and miraculously provided food (Matt 14:13-21; 15:32-38). Jesus mentioned the healing of Naaman as a precedent for his reaching out to Gentiles, to show that God’s mercy is not restricted to Israelites (Luke 4:27).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 19:15-21; 2 Kgs 2:1–9:13; 13:14-21; Luke 4:27<\/p>","summary_ro":"Elisha Elisha the prophet was Elijah’s follower and successor in the northern kingdom of Israel during the late 800s BC, a time when the leaders and people of the northern kingdom turned their backs on God and worshiped the Canaanite god Baal. Ahab and Jezebel were eager worshipers of this false god, as were their descendants who succeeded them on the throne. Elisha’s ministry (853–798 BC) began as King Ahab’s reign was ending; he was an important part of God’s strategy to bring down Israel’s...","summary_en":"Elisha Elisha the prophet was Elijah’s follower and successor in the northern kingdom of Israel during the late 800s BC, a time when the leaders and people of the northern kingdom turned their backs on God and worshiped the Canaanite god Baal. Ahab and Jezebel were eager worshipers of this false god, as were their descendants who succeeded them on the throne. Elisha’s ministry (853–798 BC) began as King Ahab’s reign was ending; he was an important part of God’s strategy to bring down Israel’s...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":69344,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jehoshaphat","title_en":"Jehoshaphat","content_ro":"<h3>Jehoshaphat<\/h3>\n<p>Jehoshaphat succeeded his father Asa to become the fourth king of Judah (872–848 <span>BC<\/span>). Like Hezekiah and Josiah after him, Jehoshaphat trusted the Lord throughout his life and worked to remove most forms of pagan worship from Israel (2 Chr 17:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jehoshaphat continued his father Asa’s religious reforms but reversed his foreign policy. Jehoshaphat discontinued Judah’s war with Israel over their boundaries (see 1 Kgs 22:2) and made an alliance with Ahab. To confirm this alliance, he arranged for his son Jehoram to marry Ahab’s daughter Athaliah (2 Chr 18:1-2; 2 Kgs 8:18) and supported the north in its wars against the Arameans and Moabites (2 Chr 18:3-34; 1 Kgs 22; 2 Kgs 3:4-27). The prophet Jehu rebuked Jehoshaphat for his unwise alliance with Israel (2 Chr 19:1-3), which resulted in his son Jehoram falling under the influence of Ahab and Jezebel. Jehoram and his son Ahaziah turned Judah toward idol worship.<\/p>\n<p>Yet during his reign, Jehoshaphat kept the worship of the Lord pure. He closed the temples of prostitution (1 Kgs 22:46) and sent teachers of God’s law throughout the land (2 Chr 17:7-9). He also established a system of judges and admonished them to function as the Lord’s representatives so that justice might prevail (19:4-7). He appointed Levites, priests, and family heads to handle cases pertaining to religious practice and to negotiate disputes among citizens (19:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>Before going to battle, Jehoshaphat would insist on hearing from a true prophet of the Lord. And in one of the most stirring descriptions of war in the Old Testament, Jehoshaphat preached to the army before entering a battle. As a result, God caused the armies from Ammon, Moab, and their allies to turn against each other (2 Chr 20).<\/p>\n<p>Jehoshaphat died when he was about sixty years old and was buried in Jerusalem. His son Jehoram became Judah’s next king (21:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 15:24; 22:1-50; 2 Kgs 3:1-27; 2 Chr 17:1–21:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jehoshaphat<\/h3>\n<p>Jehoshaphat succeeded his father Asa to become the fourth king of Judah (872–848 <span>BC<\/span>). Like Hezekiah and Josiah after him, Jehoshaphat trusted the Lord throughout his life and worked to remove most forms of pagan worship from Israel (2 Chr 17:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jehoshaphat continued his father Asa’s religious reforms but reversed his foreign policy. Jehoshaphat discontinued Judah’s war with Israel over their boundaries (see 1 Kgs 22:2) and made an alliance with Ahab. To confirm this alliance, he arranged for his son Jehoram to marry Ahab’s daughter Athaliah (2 Chr 18:1-2; 2 Kgs 8:18) and supported the north in its wars against the Arameans and Moabites (2 Chr 18:3-34; 1 Kgs 22; 2 Kgs 3:4-27). The prophet Jehu rebuked Jehoshaphat for his unwise alliance with Israel (2 Chr 19:1-3), which resulted in his son Jehoram falling under the influence of Ahab and Jezebel. Jehoram and his son Ahaziah turned Judah toward idol worship.<\/p>\n<p>Yet during his reign, Jehoshaphat kept the worship of the Lord pure. He closed the temples of prostitution (1 Kgs 22:46) and sent teachers of God’s law throughout the land (2 Chr 17:7-9). He also established a system of judges and admonished them to function as the Lord’s representatives so that justice might prevail (19:4-7). He appointed Levites, priests, and family heads to handle cases pertaining to religious practice and to negotiate disputes among citizens (19:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>Before going to battle, Jehoshaphat would insist on hearing from a true prophet of the Lord. And in one of the most stirring descriptions of war in the Old Testament, Jehoshaphat preached to the army before entering a battle. As a result, God caused the armies from Ammon, Moab, and their allies to turn against each other (2 Chr 20).<\/p>\n<p>Jehoshaphat died when he was about sixty years old and was buried in Jerusalem. His son Jehoram became Judah’s next king (21:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 15:24; 22:1-50; 2 Kgs 3:1-27; 2 Chr 17:1–21:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jehoshaphat Jehoshaphat succeeded his father Asa to become the fourth king of Judah (872–848 BC). Like Hezekiah and Josiah after him, Jehoshaphat trusted the Lord throughout his life and worked to remove most forms of pagan worship from Israel (2 Chr 17:6). Jehoshaphat continued his father Asa’s religious reforms but reversed his foreign policy. Jehoshaphat discontinued Judah’s war with Israel over their boundaries (see 1 Kgs 22:2) and made an alliance with Ahab. To confirm this alliance, he ...","summary_en":"Jehoshaphat Jehoshaphat succeeded his father Asa to become the fourth king of Judah (872–848 BC). Like Hezekiah and Josiah after him, Jehoshaphat trusted the Lord throughout his life and worked to remove most forms of pagan worship from Israel (2 Chr 17:6). Jehoshaphat continued his father Asa’s religious reforms but reversed his foreign policy. Jehoshaphat discontinued Judah’s war with Israel over their boundaries (see 1 Kgs 22:2) and made an alliance with Ahab. To confirm this alliance, he ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96871,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Elisha","title_en":"Elisha","content_ro":"<h3>Elisha<\/h3>\n<p>Elisha the prophet was Elijah’s follower and successor in the northern kingdom of Israel during the late 800s <span>BC<\/span>, a time when the leaders and people of the northern kingdom turned their backs on God and worshiped the Canaanite god Baal. Ahab and Jezebel were eager worshipers of this false god, as were their descendants who succeeded them on the throne. Elisha’s ministry (853–798 <span>BC<\/span>) began as King Ahab’s reign was ending; he was an important part of God’s strategy to bring down Israel’s idol-worshiping leaders.<\/p>\n<p>Elisha started his work as a disciple of Elijah and was the one God chose to take Elijah’s place (1 Kgs 19:15-21; 2 Kgs 2:1-18). After Elijah was taken into heaven, Elisha’s miracles demonstrated that God’s great power was with him.<\/p>\n<p>Elisha’s miracles often involved water. He purified the putrid water of a spring near Jericho (2 Kgs 2:19-22) and caused an ax head to float (2 Kgs 6:1-7). When King Joram’s water supply ran out in enemy territory, Elisha correctly predicted that an ample water supply would emerge (2 Kgs 3:4-20). Baal supposedly controlled water, so these signs showed that the Lord, and not Baal, was really in charge.<\/p>\n<p>Elisha displayed God’s power by helping people in tangible ways. He helped a poor woman by miraculously causing her jars to fill with olive oil (2 Kgs 4:1-7). He predicted to a woman from Shunem that she would have a son, and he brought the boy back to life when he died (2 Kgs 4:8-37). He cured an Aramean general named Naaman of leprosy (2 Kgs 5:1-19). And he provided food for people who needed it (2 Kgs 4:38-44).<\/p>\n<p>Elisha was part of God’s plan to bring judgment on the northern kingdom. He anointed both Jehu of Israel and Hazael of Aram (2 Kgs 8:7-15; 9:1-13), who brought a violent end to the leaders of Israel who encouraged the worship of Baal (see 1 Kgs 19:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Elisha’s miracles anticipated Jesus’ ministry. Jesus also cured lepers (Matt 8:1-4), raised the dead (Mark 5:21-43; Luke 7:11-17; John 11:1-44), and miraculously provided food (Matt 14:13-21; 15:32-38). Jesus mentioned the healing of Naaman as a precedent for his reaching out to Gentiles, to show that God’s mercy is not restricted to Israelites (Luke 4:27).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 19:15-21; 2 Kgs 2:1–9:13; 13:14-21; Luke 4:27<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Elisha<\/h3>\n<p>Elisha the prophet was Elijah’s follower and successor in the northern kingdom of Israel during the late 800s <span>BC<\/span>, a time when the leaders and people of the northern kingdom turned their backs on God and worshiped the Canaanite god Baal. Ahab and Jezebel were eager worshipers of this false god, as were their descendants who succeeded them on the throne. Elisha’s ministry (853–798 <span>BC<\/span>) began as King Ahab’s reign was ending; he was an important part of God’s strategy to bring down Israel’s idol-worshiping leaders.<\/p>\n<p>Elisha started his work as a disciple of Elijah and was the one God chose to take Elijah’s place (1 Kgs 19:15-21; 2 Kgs 2:1-18). After Elijah was taken into heaven, Elisha’s miracles demonstrated that God’s great power was with him.<\/p>\n<p>Elisha’s miracles often involved water. He purified the putrid water of a spring near Jericho (2 Kgs 2:19-22) and caused an ax head to float (2 Kgs 6:1-7). When King Joram’s water supply ran out in enemy territory, Elisha correctly predicted that an ample water supply would emerge (2 Kgs 3:4-20). Baal supposedly controlled water, so these signs showed that the Lord, and not Baal, was really in charge.<\/p>\n<p>Elisha displayed God’s power by helping people in tangible ways. He helped a poor woman by miraculously causing her jars to fill with olive oil (2 Kgs 4:1-7). He predicted to a woman from Shunem that she would have a son, and he brought the boy back to life when he died (2 Kgs 4:8-37). He cured an Aramean general named Naaman of leprosy (2 Kgs 5:1-19). And he provided food for people who needed it (2 Kgs 4:38-44).<\/p>\n<p>Elisha was part of God’s plan to bring judgment on the northern kingdom. He anointed both Jehu of Israel and Hazael of Aram (2 Kgs 8:7-15; 9:1-13), who brought a violent end to the leaders of Israel who encouraged the worship of Baal (see 1 Kgs 19:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Elisha’s miracles anticipated Jesus’ ministry. Jesus also cured lepers (Matt 8:1-4), raised the dead (Mark 5:21-43; Luke 7:11-17; John 11:1-44), and miraculously provided food (Matt 14:13-21; 15:32-38). Jesus mentioned the healing of Naaman as a precedent for his reaching out to Gentiles, to show that God’s mercy is not restricted to Israelites (Luke 4:27).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 19:15-21; 2 Kgs 2:1–9:13; 13:14-21; Luke 4:27<\/p>","summary_ro":"Elisha Elisha the prophet was Elijah’s follower and successor in the northern kingdom of Israel during the late 800s BC, a time when the leaders and people of the northern kingdom turned their backs on God and worshiped the Canaanite god Baal. Ahab and Jezebel were eager worshipers of this false god, as were their descendants who succeeded them on the throne. Elisha’s ministry (853–798 BC) began as King Ahab’s reign was ending; he was an important part of God’s strategy to bring down Israel’s...","summary_en":"Elisha Elisha the prophet was Elijah’s follower and successor in the northern kingdom of Israel during the late 800s BC, a time when the leaders and people of the northern kingdom turned their backs on God and worshiped the Canaanite god Baal. Ahab and Jezebel were eager worshipers of this false god, as were their descendants who succeeded them on the throne. Elisha’s ministry (853–798 BC) began as King Ahab’s reign was ending; he was an important part of God’s strategy to bring down Israel’s...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96970,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jehoshaphat","title_en":"Jehoshaphat","content_ro":"<h3>Jehoshaphat<\/h3>\n<p>Jehoshaphat succeeded his father Asa to become the fourth king of Judah (872–848 <span>BC<\/span>). Like Hezekiah and Josiah after him, Jehoshaphat trusted the Lord throughout his life and worked to remove most forms of pagan worship from Israel (2 Chr 17:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jehoshaphat continued his father Asa’s religious reforms but reversed his foreign policy. Jehoshaphat discontinued Judah’s war with Israel over their boundaries (see 1 Kgs 22:2) and made an alliance with Ahab. To confirm this alliance, he arranged for his son Jehoram to marry Ahab’s daughter Athaliah (2 Chr 18:1-2; 2 Kgs 8:18) and supported the north in its wars against the Arameans and Moabites (2 Chr 18:3-34; 1 Kgs 22; 2 Kgs 3:4-27). The prophet Jehu rebuked Jehoshaphat for his unwise alliance with Israel (2 Chr 19:1-3), which resulted in his son Jehoram falling under the influence of Ahab and Jezebel. Jehoram and his son Ahaziah turned Judah toward idol worship.<\/p>\n<p>Yet during his reign, Jehoshaphat kept the worship of the Lord pure. He closed the temples of prostitution (1 Kgs 22:46) and sent teachers of God’s law throughout the land (2 Chr 17:7-9). He also established a system of judges and admonished them to function as the Lord’s representatives so that justice might prevail (19:4-7). He appointed Levites, priests, and family heads to handle cases pertaining to religious practice and to negotiate disputes among citizens (19:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>Before going to battle, Jehoshaphat would insist on hearing from a true prophet of the Lord. And in one of the most stirring descriptions of war in the Old Testament, Jehoshaphat preached to the army before entering a battle. As a result, God caused the armies from Ammon, Moab, and their allies to turn against each other (2 Chr 20).<\/p>\n<p>Jehoshaphat died when he was about sixty years old and was buried in Jerusalem. His son Jehoram became Judah’s next king (21:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 15:24; 22:1-50; 2 Kgs 3:1-27; 2 Chr 17:1–21:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jehoshaphat<\/h3>\n<p>Jehoshaphat succeeded his father Asa to become the fourth king of Judah (872–848 <span>BC<\/span>). Like Hezekiah and Josiah after him, Jehoshaphat trusted the Lord throughout his life and worked to remove most forms of pagan worship from Israel (2 Chr 17:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jehoshaphat continued his father Asa’s religious reforms but reversed his foreign policy. Jehoshaphat discontinued Judah’s war with Israel over their boundaries (see 1 Kgs 22:2) and made an alliance with Ahab. To confirm this alliance, he arranged for his son Jehoram to marry Ahab’s daughter Athaliah (2 Chr 18:1-2; 2 Kgs 8:18) and supported the north in its wars against the Arameans and Moabites (2 Chr 18:3-34; 1 Kgs 22; 2 Kgs 3:4-27). The prophet Jehu rebuked Jehoshaphat for his unwise alliance with Israel (2 Chr 19:1-3), which resulted in his son Jehoram falling under the influence of Ahab and Jezebel. Jehoram and his son Ahaziah turned Judah toward idol worship.<\/p>\n<p>Yet during his reign, Jehoshaphat kept the worship of the Lord pure. He closed the temples of prostitution (1 Kgs 22:46) and sent teachers of God’s law throughout the land (2 Chr 17:7-9). He also established a system of judges and admonished them to function as the Lord’s representatives so that justice might prevail (19:4-7). He appointed Levites, priests, and family heads to handle cases pertaining to religious practice and to negotiate disputes among citizens (19:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>Before going to battle, Jehoshaphat would insist on hearing from a true prophet of the Lord. And in one of the most stirring descriptions of war in the Old Testament, Jehoshaphat preached to the army before entering a battle. As a result, God caused the armies from Ammon, Moab, and their allies to turn against each other (2 Chr 20).<\/p>\n<p>Jehoshaphat died when he was about sixty years old and was buried in Jerusalem. His son Jehoram became Judah’s next king (21:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 15:24; 22:1-50; 2 Kgs 3:1-27; 2 Chr 17:1–21:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jehoshaphat Jehoshaphat succeeded his father Asa to become the fourth king of Judah (872–848 BC). Like Hezekiah and Josiah after him, Jehoshaphat trusted the Lord throughout his life and worked to remove most forms of pagan worship from Israel (2 Chr 17:6). Jehoshaphat continued his father Asa’s religious reforms but reversed his foreign policy. Jehoshaphat discontinued Judah’s war with Israel over their boundaries (see 1 Kgs 22:2) and made an alliance with Ahab. To confirm this alliance, he ...","summary_en":"Jehoshaphat Jehoshaphat succeeded his father Asa to become the fourth king of Judah (872–848 BC). Like Hezekiah and Josiah after him, Jehoshaphat trusted the Lord throughout his life and worked to remove most forms of pagan worship from Israel (2 Chr 17:6). Jehoshaphat continued his father Asa’s religious reforms but reversed his foreign policy. Jehoshaphat discontinued Judah’s war with Israel over their boundaries (see 1 Kgs 22:2) and made an alliance with Ahab. To confirm this alliance, he ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":124497,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Elisha","title_en":"Elisha","content_ro":"<h3>Elisha<\/h3>\n<p>Elisha the prophet was Elijah’s follower and successor in the northern kingdom of Israel during the late 800s <span>BC<\/span>, a time when the leaders and people of the northern kingdom turned their backs on God and worshiped the Canaanite god Baal. Ahab and Jezebel were eager worshipers of this false god, as were their descendants who succeeded them on the throne. Elisha’s ministry (853–798 <span>BC<\/span>) began as King Ahab’s reign was ending; he was an important part of God’s strategy to bring down Israel’s idol-worshiping leaders.<\/p>\n<p>Elisha started his work as a disciple of Elijah and was the one God chose to take Elijah’s place (1 Kgs 19:15-21; 2 Kgs 2:1-18). After Elijah was taken into heaven, Elisha’s miracles demonstrated that God’s great power was with him.<\/p>\n<p>Elisha’s miracles often involved water. He purified the putrid water of a spring near Jericho (2 Kgs 2:19-22) and caused an ax head to float (2 Kgs 6:1-7). When King Joram’s water supply ran out in enemy territory, Elisha correctly predicted that an ample water supply would emerge (2 Kgs 3:4-20). Baal supposedly controlled water, so these signs showed that the Lord, and not Baal, was really in charge.<\/p>\n<p>Elisha displayed God’s power by helping people in tangible ways. He helped a poor woman by miraculously causing her jars to fill with olive oil (2 Kgs 4:1-7). He predicted to a woman from Shunem that she would have a son, and he brought the boy back to life when he died (2 Kgs 4:8-37). He cured an Aramean general named Naaman of leprosy (2 Kgs 5:1-19). And he provided food for people who needed it (2 Kgs 4:38-44).<\/p>\n<p>Elisha was part of God’s plan to bring judgment on the northern kingdom. He anointed both Jehu of Israel and Hazael of Aram (2 Kgs 8:7-15; 9:1-13), who brought a violent end to the leaders of Israel who encouraged the worship of Baal (see 1 Kgs 19:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Elisha’s miracles anticipated Jesus’ ministry. Jesus also cured lepers (Matt 8:1-4), raised the dead (Mark 5:21-43; Luke 7:11-17; John 11:1-44), and miraculously provided food (Matt 14:13-21; 15:32-38). Jesus mentioned the healing of Naaman as a precedent for his reaching out to Gentiles, to show that God’s mercy is not restricted to Israelites (Luke 4:27).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 19:15-21; 2 Kgs 2:1–9:13; 13:14-21; Luke 4:27<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Elisha<\/h3>\n<p>Elisha the prophet was Elijah’s follower and successor in the northern kingdom of Israel during the late 800s <span>BC<\/span>, a time when the leaders and people of the northern kingdom turned their backs on God and worshiped the Canaanite god Baal. Ahab and Jezebel were eager worshipers of this false god, as were their descendants who succeeded them on the throne. Elisha’s ministry (853–798 <span>BC<\/span>) began as King Ahab’s reign was ending; he was an important part of God’s strategy to bring down Israel’s idol-worshiping leaders.<\/p>\n<p>Elisha started his work as a disciple of Elijah and was the one God chose to take Elijah’s place (1 Kgs 19:15-21; 2 Kgs 2:1-18). After Elijah was taken into heaven, Elisha’s miracles demonstrated that God’s great power was with him.<\/p>\n<p>Elisha’s miracles often involved water. He purified the putrid water of a spring near Jericho (2 Kgs 2:19-22) and caused an ax head to float (2 Kgs 6:1-7). When King Joram’s water supply ran out in enemy territory, Elisha correctly predicted that an ample water supply would emerge (2 Kgs 3:4-20). Baal supposedly controlled water, so these signs showed that the Lord, and not Baal, was really in charge.<\/p>\n<p>Elisha displayed God’s power by helping people in tangible ways. He helped a poor woman by miraculously causing her jars to fill with olive oil (2 Kgs 4:1-7). He predicted to a woman from Shunem that she would have a son, and he brought the boy back to life when he died (2 Kgs 4:8-37). He cured an Aramean general named Naaman of leprosy (2 Kgs 5:1-19). And he provided food for people who needed it (2 Kgs 4:38-44).<\/p>\n<p>Elisha was part of God’s plan to bring judgment on the northern kingdom. He anointed both Jehu of Israel and Hazael of Aram (2 Kgs 8:7-15; 9:1-13), who brought a violent end to the leaders of Israel who encouraged the worship of Baal (see 1 Kgs 19:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Elisha’s miracles anticipated Jesus’ ministry. Jesus also cured lepers (Matt 8:1-4), raised the dead (Mark 5:21-43; Luke 7:11-17; John 11:1-44), and miraculously provided food (Matt 14:13-21; 15:32-38). Jesus mentioned the healing of Naaman as a precedent for his reaching out to Gentiles, to show that God’s mercy is not restricted to Israelites (Luke 4:27).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 19:15-21; 2 Kgs 2:1–9:13; 13:14-21; Luke 4:27<\/p>","summary_ro":"Elisha Elisha the prophet was Elijah’s follower and successor in the northern kingdom of Israel during the late 800s BC, a time when the leaders and people of the northern kingdom turned their backs on God and worshiped the Canaanite god Baal. Ahab and Jezebel were eager worshipers of this false god, as were their descendants who succeeded them on the throne. Elisha’s ministry (853–798 BC) began as King Ahab’s reign was ending; he was an important part of God’s strategy to bring down Israel’s...","summary_en":"Elisha Elisha the prophet was Elijah’s follower and successor in the northern kingdom of Israel during the late 800s BC, a time when the leaders and people of the northern kingdom turned their backs on God and worshiped the Canaanite god Baal. Ahab and Jezebel were eager worshipers of this false god, as were their descendants who succeeded them on the throne. Elisha’s ministry (853–798 BC) began as King Ahab’s reign was ending; he was an important part of God’s strategy to bring down Israel’s...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":124596,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Jehoshaphat","title_en":"Jehoshaphat","content_ro":"<h3>Jehoshaphat<\/h3>\n<p>Jehoshaphat succeeded his father Asa to become the fourth king of Judah (872–848 <span>BC<\/span>). Like Hezekiah and Josiah after him, Jehoshaphat trusted the Lord throughout his life and worked to remove most forms of pagan worship from Israel (2 Chr 17:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jehoshaphat continued his father Asa’s religious reforms but reversed his foreign policy. Jehoshaphat discontinued Judah’s war with Israel over their boundaries (see 1 Kgs 22:2) and made an alliance with Ahab. To confirm this alliance, he arranged for his son Jehoram to marry Ahab’s daughter Athaliah (2 Chr 18:1-2; 2 Kgs 8:18) and supported the north in its wars against the Arameans and Moabites (2 Chr 18:3-34; 1 Kgs 22; 2 Kgs 3:4-27). The prophet Jehu rebuked Jehoshaphat for his unwise alliance with Israel (2 Chr 19:1-3), which resulted in his son Jehoram falling under the influence of Ahab and Jezebel. Jehoram and his son Ahaziah turned Judah toward idol worship.<\/p>\n<p>Yet during his reign, Jehoshaphat kept the worship of the Lord pure. He closed the temples of prostitution (1 Kgs 22:46) and sent teachers of God’s law throughout the land (2 Chr 17:7-9). He also established a system of judges and admonished them to function as the Lord’s representatives so that justice might prevail (19:4-7). He appointed Levites, priests, and family heads to handle cases pertaining to religious practice and to negotiate disputes among citizens (19:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>Before going to battle, Jehoshaphat would insist on hearing from a true prophet of the Lord. And in one of the most stirring descriptions of war in the Old Testament, Jehoshaphat preached to the army before entering a battle. As a result, God caused the armies from Ammon, Moab, and their allies to turn against each other (2 Chr 20).<\/p>\n<p>Jehoshaphat died when he was about sixty years old and was buried in Jerusalem. His son Jehoram became Judah’s next king (21:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 15:24; 22:1-50; 2 Kgs 3:1-27; 2 Chr 17:1–21:1<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Jehoshaphat<\/h3>\n<p>Jehoshaphat succeeded his father Asa to become the fourth king of Judah (872–848 <span>BC<\/span>). Like Hezekiah and Josiah after him, Jehoshaphat trusted the Lord throughout his life and worked to remove most forms of pagan worship from Israel (2 Chr 17:6).<\/p>\n<p>Jehoshaphat continued his father Asa’s religious reforms but reversed his foreign policy. Jehoshaphat discontinued Judah’s war with Israel over their boundaries (see 1 Kgs 22:2) and made an alliance with Ahab. To confirm this alliance, he arranged for his son Jehoram to marry Ahab’s daughter Athaliah (2 Chr 18:1-2; 2 Kgs 8:18) and supported the north in its wars against the Arameans and Moabites (2 Chr 18:3-34; 1 Kgs 22; 2 Kgs 3:4-27). The prophet Jehu rebuked Jehoshaphat for his unwise alliance with Israel (2 Chr 19:1-3), which resulted in his son Jehoram falling under the influence of Ahab and Jezebel. Jehoram and his son Ahaziah turned Judah toward idol worship.<\/p>\n<p>Yet during his reign, Jehoshaphat kept the worship of the Lord pure. He closed the temples of prostitution (1 Kgs 22:46) and sent teachers of God’s law throughout the land (2 Chr 17:7-9). He also established a system of judges and admonished them to function as the Lord’s representatives so that justice might prevail (19:4-7). He appointed Levites, priests, and family heads to handle cases pertaining to religious practice and to negotiate disputes among citizens (19:8-10).<\/p>\n<p>Before going to battle, Jehoshaphat would insist on hearing from a true prophet of the Lord. And in one of the most stirring descriptions of war in the Old Testament, Jehoshaphat preached to the army before entering a battle. As a result, God caused the armies from Ammon, Moab, and their allies to turn against each other (2 Chr 20).<\/p>\n<p>Jehoshaphat died when he was about sixty years old and was buried in Jerusalem. His son Jehoram became Judah’s next king (21:1).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Kgs 15:24; 22:1-50; 2 Kgs 3:1-27; 2 Chr 17:1–21:1<\/p>","summary_ro":"Jehoshaphat Jehoshaphat succeeded his father Asa to become the fourth king of Judah (872–848 BC). Like Hezekiah and Josiah after him, Jehoshaphat trusted the Lord throughout his life and worked to remove most forms of pagan worship from Israel (2 Chr 17:6). Jehoshaphat continued his father Asa’s religious reforms but reversed his foreign policy. Jehoshaphat discontinued Judah’s war with Israel over their boundaries (see 1 Kgs 22:2) and made an alliance with Ahab. To confirm this alliance, he ...","summary_en":"Jehoshaphat Jehoshaphat succeeded his father Asa to become the fourth king of Judah (872–848 BC). Like Hezekiah and Josiah after him, Jehoshaphat trusted the Lord throughout his life and worked to remove most forms of pagan worship from Israel (2 Chr 17:6). Jehoshaphat continued his father Asa’s religious reforms but reversed his foreign policy. Jehoshaphat discontinued Judah’s war with Israel over their boundaries (see 1 Kgs 22:2) and made an alliance with Ahab. To confirm this alliance, he ...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":2058,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Animals","title_en":"Animals","content_ro":"<h3>ANIMALS<\/h3>\n<p>In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals as object lessons.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical approach to classification of animals is somewhat different from the system of classification used by biologists today. The present system of classification, which traces back to Carolus Linnaeus (an 18th-century Swedish botanist), is based on structure, both internal and external. The biblical basis of classification is habitat. Thus Genesis 1 speaks of aquatic organisms (v 20); aerial organisms (v 21); animals that crawl on the ground (v 24); cattle or domesticated animals (animals that live in association with humans) (v 24); and wild animals (v 24). The same system of classification is followed in Leviticus 11 and throughout Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Because of the divergence between systems of classification, the various animals of the Bible will be listed here in alphabetical order—including reptiles, fish, and even invertebrates such as insects, spiders, worms, and sponges. Birds are discussed in a separate article.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Adder<\/p>\n<p>• Ant<\/p>\n<p>• Antelope<\/p>\n<p>• Ape<\/p>\n<p>• Asp<\/p>\n<p>• Ass<\/p>\n<p>• Badger<\/p>\n<p>• Bat<\/p>\n<p>• Bear<\/p>\n<p>• Bee<\/p>\n<p>• Behemoth<\/p>\n<p>• Camel<\/p>\n<p>• Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>• Cattle<\/p>\n<p>• Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>• Coral<\/p>\n<p>• Cricket<\/p>\n<p>• Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>• Deer<\/p>\n<p>• Dog<\/p>\n<p>• Donkey<\/p>\n<p>• Dragon<\/p>\n<p>• Fish<\/p>\n<p>• Flea<\/p>\n<p>• Fly<\/p>\n<p>• Fox<\/p>\n<p>• Frog<\/p>\n<p>• Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>• Gecko<\/p>\n<p>• Gnat<\/p>\n<p>• Goat<\/p>\n<p>• Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>• Hare<\/p>\n<p>• Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>• Horse<\/p>\n<p>• Hyena<\/p>\n<p>• Jackal<\/p>\n<p>• Leech<\/p>\n<p>• Leopard<\/p>\n<p>• Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>• Lion<\/p>\n<p>• Lizard<\/p>\n<p>• Locust<\/p>\n<p>• Mole<\/p>\n<p>• Moth<\/p>\n<p>• Mouse<\/p>\n<p>• Mule<\/p>\n<p>• Pig<\/p>\n<p>• Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>• Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>• Sheep<\/p>\n<p>• Snail<\/p>\n<p>• Snake<\/p>\n<p>• Spider<\/p>\n<p>• Sponge<\/p>\n<p>• Unicorn<\/p>\n<p>• Wasp<\/p>\n<p>• Whale<\/p>\n<p>• Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>• Wolf<\/p>\n<p>• Worm<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Adder\">Adder<\/p>\n<p>One of the 20 poisonous snakes found in Israel and surrounding countries, also referred to as cockatrice and viper. True vipers (genus <em>Cerastes, Echis colorata,<\/em> and <em>Vipera palestina<\/em>) also exist there, poisonous snakes with curved fangs that spring into position when the snake strikes. The horned viper <em>(Cerastes hasselquistii)<\/em> may attack horses. It is 12 to 18 inches (30 to 46 centimeters) long and often lies in ambush in the sand with only its eyes and the hornlike protrusions on its head visible.<\/p>\n<p>Both Jesus and John the Baptist referred to the viper several times (Mt 3:7; 12:34; 23:33). The reference in Acts 28:3 is probably to a small viper <em>(Vipera aspis)<\/em> that strikes rapidly and is very pugnacious. It is found in southern Europe and hisses each time it inhales and exhales. The poison of vipers attacks the respiratory system and disintegrates red blood cells.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ant\">Ant<\/p>\n<p>Mentioned only twice in the Bible, both times in the book of Proverbs. For many years Solomon was charged with a biological error when he referred to the ant as providing her meat in the summer and gathering her food in the harvest (Prv 6:8). Critics of the Bible were quick to point out that, so far as was then known, ants do not store up food. They assumed that Solomon had probably kicked open an ant hill and mistaken the pupal cases (pods in which immature ants grow to maturity) for grain or had observed ants carrying bits of grain, leaves, and other matter to their nests.<\/p>\n<p>At least three species of grain-storing ants are now known—two occur in Israel and the other in Mediterranean countries. The particular species referred to by Solomon (Prv 6:6-8; 30:24-25) is probably the harvester ant <em>(Messor semirufus).<\/em> Its granaries are flat chambers connected by galleries irregularly scattered over an area about six feet (1.8 meters) in diameter and about a foot (.3 meter) deep in the ground. Seeds are collected from the ground or picked from plants. The head, or radicle, which is the softest part of the kernel, is bitten off to prevent germination, and the chaff and empty capsules are discarded on kitchen middens (refuse piles) outside the nest. Individual granaries may be 5 inches (12.7 centimeters) in diameter and a half inch (1.2 centimeters) high. Some nests are known to be 40 feet (12 meters) in diameter and 6 to 7 feet (approx. 2 meters) deep with several entrances.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Antelope\">Antelope<\/p>\n<p>Several antelope-like creatures are referred to in the Scriptures. One seems to be the white oryx <em>(Oryx leucoryx),<\/em> referred to in Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild ox”; <span>rsv<\/span> “antelope”) and Isaiah 51:20 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild bull”; <span>RSV <\/span>“antelope”). The oryx was probably the antelope, commonly used for food because its long horns made it relatively easy to catch.<\/p>\n<p>Another antelope mentioned in the Bible is the addax <em>(Addax nasomaculatus),<\/em> probably the “pygarg” of Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span>). It is a native of North Africa with grayish white hinder parts, a white patch on the forehead, and twisted and ringed horns. The word “pygarg” comes from a Greek word meaning “white rump.” The addax is about the size of a donkey. Its body is closely covered with short hair. It has a short mane on the underside of its neck that makes the head look somewhat like that of a goat. The hooves are broad and flat, and the tail resembles that of a donkey. It is common in Africa and in Arabia, where Arabs hunt it with falcons and dogs.<\/p>\n<p>Antelopes are very graceful and run with their heads held high. Both sexes have long, permanent, hollow horns. With the oryx the horns go straight back; addax horns are twisted and ringed. Antelope are alert, wary, and keen sighted. They are usually found in herds of from two to a dozen. If injured or brought to bay, an antelope attacks with its head lowered so that the sharp horns point forward. Antelopes feed on grasses and shrubs, drinking from streams and water holes. When water is scarce, they eat melons and succulent bulbs. Both addax and oryx were ceremonially clean in Jewish law.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ape\">Ape<\/p>\n<p>Primate not native to Palestine. The two references to apes in the OT (1 Kgs 10:22; 2 Chr 9:21) refer to their importation by King Solomon with other treasures on board the ships of his mercantile fleet. There is some question concerning the origin of those primates. Some believe that the mention of “ivory” in the same verses suggests they came from East Africa and that they were indeed apes, that is, tailless primates. Others, believing they came from India or Ceylon, suggest that they were actually monkeys. There the baboon (genus Papeio), a large monkey, was considered sacred to the god Thoth. Males of that genus were kept in temples, and the more docile females were often kept as house pets. Such baboons frequently had some of their teeth removed or ground down to lessen the danger of their biting. A number of mummified baboons have been found in Egypt, indicating the high regard in which they were held.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Asp\">Asp<\/p>\n<p>Poisonous snake. Most biblical references to the asp (Dt 32:33) seem to be to the Egyptian cobra <em>(Naja haje),<\/em> which conceals itself in holes, walls, and rocks and has the ability to expand its neck by raising its anterior ribs so as to enlarge the front of its breast into the shape of a flat disc. Its potent poison can cause death in 30 minutes. It attains a length of about 80 inches (2 meters). The fangs are permanently erect, not movable as in the vipers (the common poisonous snakes of North America; only the coral snake in America has permanently erect fangs). Cobra poison attacks the nervous system, causing muscular paralysis. The Egyptians looked upon it as a sacred creature; they regarded it as a protector since it fed on the rodents that ate their crops. The “fiery serpents” (Nm 21:6; Dt 8:15, both <span>rsv<\/span>) may have been cobras; “fiery” probably refers to the burning fever caused by their venom. Isaiah 14:29 and 30:6 (“flying serpent”) may refer to the hood of the cobra.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ass\">Ass<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Donkey (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Badger\">Badger<\/p>\n<p>Small hoofed mammal. What the <span>kjv<\/span> calls a “coney,” modern translations name “rock badger” (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7; Ps 104:18; Prv 30:26). The rock badger spoken of in the Bible is probably the Syrian rock hyrax <em>(Hyrax syriaca),<\/em> the only species of hyrax found outside Africa. This small ungulate (having hooflike toenails) lives among rocks from the Dead Sea valley to Mt Hermon. It is strictly a herbivorous (plant-eating) animal about the size of a rabbit. It resembles a guinea pig more than a rabbit, having quite inconspicuous ears and a very small tail. It has broad nails with four toes on its forelegs and three on its hind legs, the toes being connected with skin almost like a web. Pads acting as sucking discs under its feet enable it to keep its footing on slippery rocks. With its yellow and brown fur, it is sometimes called the bear rat because of its resemblance to a tailless rat. It is also equipped with black whiskers that may be seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p>These rock badgers, or hyraxes, live together in colonies of from 6 to 50 animals, often sunning themselves on rocks. They are difficult to catch. Guards are posted, and if approaching danger is sighted, the whole group will scurry for cover, warned by the sharp whistles of the guards. Thus they are commended for taking refuge in the rocks (Ps 104:18) and are called wise for making “their houses in the rocks” (Prv 30:24, 26, <span>kjv<\/span>). The badger is not a ruminant (does not chew its cud), but the motion of its jaws may suggest that it chews its cud. That is probably why it was included with other cud-chewing animals in the Jewish food laws (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7). It was forbidden to the Jews as food because it did not have cloven hooves. Some Arabs eat and even prize its meat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bat\">Bat<\/p>\n<p>Flying mammals according to modern classification. They have hair and provide milk for their young. The Bible classifies them with other aerial creatures. Bats take shelter in caves, crevices, tree cavities, buildings, and also in exposed places on trees. In colder areas they hibernate or migrate. The normal resting position for a bat is hanging head downward. Bats “swim” through the air rather than fly because they move with their legs as well as with their wings.<\/p>\n<p>The bat’s thumb is free and terminates in a single hook claw used for climbing and hanging. The hind feet have five toes, all pointing the same way. The large chest accommodates the powerful muscles needed for flying. Because they orient themselves by echo location, the sense of hearing is very well developed.<\/p>\n<p>Most bats are insect eaters, seizing insects in flight. Many insectivorous bats also eat some fruit. Other bats feed exclusively, usually in groups, on fruit and green vegetation. Fruit-eating bats generally live in the tropics where fruit is constantly ripening, although some have been found in the Holy Land. These bats tend to be larger than the insectivores, having a wingspread of up to five feet (1.5 meters).<\/p>\n<p>A third group includes flower-eating bats that feed on pollen and nectar. These small bats with long pointed heads and long tongues are found only in tropical and semitropical regions. Three species of vampire bats, which do not occur in the Holy Land, eat blood by making a small incision and lapping it up. Carnivorous (meat-eating) bats prey on birds, lizards, and frogs. Fish-eating bats catch fish at or near the water surface.<\/p>\n<p>Eight varieties of bats are known in the Holy Land. One of them, the little brown bat (genus <em>Myotis<\/em>), is worldwide in its distribution. It is insectivorous and probably has the widest distribution of any nonhuman terrestrial mammal. Brown bats are mostly cave dwellers. The females form maternity colonies that may number in the tens of thousands.<\/p>\n<p>Two species of mouse-tailed bats (genus <em>Rhinopoma<\/em>) are found in the Holy Land. Their tails are nearly as long as the head and body combined. They are colonial, roosting in caves, rock clefts, wells, pyramids, palaces, and houses. Like the brown bat, they are insectivorous. The slit-faced or hollow-faced bats (genus <em>Nycteris<\/em>) are also found in the Holy Land. They are insectivorous and roost in groups from 6 to 20.<\/p>\n<p>The bats found in the Holy Land vary in size from that of a mouse to the size of a rat; the largest species measures more than 20 inches (51 centimeters) across the wings. The bat was unclean to the Jews (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bear\">Bear<\/p>\n<p>Large, heavy, big-headed mammal with short, powerful limbs, a short tail, and small eyes and ears. Bears have a “plantigrade” walk: they walk on both the sole and heel as humans do. The Palestinian bear is a Syrian version of the brown bear <em>(Ursus arctos syriacus).<\/em> It can grow to a height of 6 feet (1.8 meters) and may weigh as much as 500 pounds (227 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>Bears have an excellent sense of smell but less developed senses of sight and hearing. They are omnivorous (eating any kind of food); they subsist largely on vegetation, fruits, insects, and fish.<\/p>\n<p>Bears are usually peaceful and inoffensive, but if they think they must defend themselves (Lam 3:10) or their young (2 Sm 17:8; Prv 17:12; Hos 13:8), they may be formidable and dangerous adversaries. David boasted of his role as a bear killer (1 Sm 17:34-37). Since a blow from a bear’s paw can be fatal, David’s courage and strength as a young shepherd in running after a bear and wrenching one of his father’s sheep from its jaws were noteworthy.<\/p>\n<p>Some biblical passages seem to imply that bears attacked for no apparent reason (e.g., Prv 28:15; Am 5:19). At other times they were God’s instruments of punishment, as in the story of Elisha and the two she-bears (2 Kgs 2:24). The bear and the lion, often mentioned together in the Bible (1 Sm 17:37), were the two largest and strongest beasts of prey in the Holy Land. Thus they symbolized both strength and terror (Am 5:19).<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times bears seem to have roamed all over Palestine. Today they are found only in the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Mountains, and even there they are rare.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bee\">Bee<\/p>\n<p>One of two domesticated insects <em>(Apis mellifica),<\/em> the other being the silkworm. Bees gather nectar from flowers, transferring pollen from one flower to another in the process. It is believed that they convey the location of sources of nectar to other bees through a bee “dance,” which may indicate both distance and direction. Bees are sensitive to four colors: blue-green, yellow-green, blue-violet, and ultra-violet (invisible to humans).<\/p>\n<p>The wild bees of the Holy Land are especially noted for their ferocity in attack. Only the female “worker” bees sting people and animals, the virulence of their venom increasing in warm weather. A number of biblical passages allude to the irritable, vindictive nature of bees and to the painful stings they inflict (Dt 1:44; Ps 118:12; Is 7:18).<\/p>\n<p>One reference calls attention to the fact that in semidesert regions a dead animal’s carcass, stripped to the bone by jackals or vultures and dried in the sun, can provide wild bees an excellent place to start a new colony (Jgs 14:5-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptians considered the bee sacred. In ancient Greece candles were made from beeswax. In the Holy Land, beekeeping was probably not practiced until the Hellenistic period (second century <span>BC<\/span>), although Ezekiel 27:17 suggests that it may have been practiced earlier. If domestic honey was not available to the Hebrews, wild honey certainly was, and travelers would be on the lookout for caches of honey in rocky clefts and other likely places. The Philistines and the Hittites practiced beekeeping in their cities.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible contains many references to bees and bee products. A bee swarm was a valuable asset, though the price of honey itself was low. Honey was sometimes eaten with the honeycomb (Sg 5:1). Honey also had uses other than food, e.g., in embalming.<\/p>\n<p>The land of Israel was described as a land flowing with milk and honey. Honey was a major source of sweetening in the ancient Near East—hence, its importance (cf. Jgs 14:8-9). Actually the Hebrew word for “honey” may include not only bee honey but also the sweet syrup extracted from such fruits as figs, dates, and grapes. Thus “a land flowing with milk and honey” (Ex 3:8, <span>rsv<\/span>) does not necessarily stand for a land of bees but for a land rich in sweetness.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Food and Food Preparation; Honey.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Behemoth\">Behemoth<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Hippopotamus (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Camel\">Camel<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of burden. Unintelligent, ill-natured, and quarrelsome, the camel <em>(Camelus dromedarius)<\/em> is nevertheless a blessing to people living in the desert and on its borders because it is especially adapted to that habitat. It has been called the ship of the desert. Having thick elastic pads of fibrous tissue on its feet, it can walk on hot desert sands. It can go without water for long periods and can subsist on vegetation growing on the saline soils. The camel’s nostrils are pinched together and can be closed at will to prevent penetration of sand during violent sandstorms.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are used for transporting both goods and people. A person riding a camel can cover from 60 to 75 miles (96.5 to 121 kilometers) in a day. A camel can carry a load weighing 600 pounds (272 kilograms) or more. Camels were used heavily in the spice trade (Gn 37:25) and traveled regularly in camel trains between Arabia, Egypt, and Assyria. They were also ridden in time of war (Jgs 6:5). A camel can even be hitched to a plow in areas where the land is cultivated.<\/p>\n<p>The hair shed by camels during the early spring is preserved and used in weaving cloth and making tents. As much as 10 pounds (4.5 kilograms) of hair can be obtained from one camel. A rough cloak of camel’s hair, as worn by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4), is still worn by Bedouins today. A camel’s hair garment was also the sign of the prophetic office (Zec 13:4).<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of camel occur within the one-humped species, the slow burden-bearing camel referred to in Genesis 37:25 and the fast dromedary of 1 Samuel 30:17. The dromedary can stand seven feet (2.1 meters) tall and measure as much as nine feet (2.7 meters) from the muzzle to the tip of the tail. With its three-chambered stomach, which can hold from 15 to 30 quarts (14.2 to 28.4 liters) of liquid, it can go for as long as 5 days during the summer or 25 days in winter without drinking. The camel’s hump is a reserve store of fat, making it possible for the animal to subsist on very little food during a desert journey.<\/p>\n<p>Another species of camel, the Bactrian camel <em>(Camelus bactrianus),<\/em> is also resident in the Holy Land. It has two humps. It is heavier, bigger, and has longer hair than the one-humped camel and is slower than the swift dromedary. Isaiah 21:7 may refer to the Bactrian camel; both kinds of camel are referred to in Esther 8:10 (<span>kjv<\/span>). Camels ranked in importance with sheep, cattle, and asses in OT times. A third of the 66 biblical references to the camel lists it with other animals.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are ruminants (cud-chewing mammals) but do not have cloven hooves. Thus, they were included in the list of unclean beasts, forbidden by the Israelites as food (Lv 11:4; Dt 14:7). They are eaten by Arabs, however, who also drink their milk (cf. Gn 32:15).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham had camels in Egypt (Gn 12:16). At first Job had 3,000 camels (Jb 1:3) and after his recovery, 6,000 (Jb 42:12). Although wide use of camels does not seem to have begun until shortly before 1000 <span>BC<\/span> (Jgs 6:5), Sumerian texts from the Old Babylonian period list camels and indicate that they had been domesticated. Camel bones and figurines have been found at various eastern archaeological sites dating from well before 1200 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Caterpillar\">Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>Larval stage of insects characterized by complete metamorphosis. Such insects pass through four stages: egg, larva or caterpillar, pupa, and adult. Bees, flies, moths, and butterflies all pass through a larval or caterpillar stage.<\/p>\n<p>The word “caterpillar” occurs three times in the <span>nlt<\/span> (1 Kgs 8:37; 2 Chr 6:28; Ps 78:46). In the book of Joel that same Hebrew word is translated “locust” (1:4; 2:25, <span>nlt<\/span>). The locust and grasshopper to which the Hebrew word refers have an incomplete type of metamorphosis with only three stages: egg, nymph, and adult. The nymph is a miniature adult in which the wings are not fully developed, though their outline may be present. There are several nymph stages known as instars. The reference is to one of the last instars, in which the wing structures are still folded together and enclosed in a sac but are nevertheless clearly recognizable. That form of the insect is about an inch (2.5 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cattle\">Cattle<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animals of the bovine species <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> The OT often emphasized the beauty of cattle. Egypt was rich in cattle, especially in the Nile River delta area (Goshen), where the Hebrews settled under Joseph.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars believe that milk rather than meat was the foremost consideration in the domestication of cattle and that in early civilizations meat supplies came chiefly from wild game. Cattle also supplied strong hides that supplanted wood in the manufacture of shields. Their dung was a source of fuel when wood was scarce (Ez 4:15). They were used as beasts of burden and for plowing. Development of wheeled transportation was associated more closely with cattle than with any other animal.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical term “cattle” often refers to all domesticated animals or livestock (Gn 1:24; 2:20; 7:23; 47:6, 16-17; Ex 9:3-7; Nm 3:41, 45). Occasionally, the term was used to refer to all large domestic animals (Nm 31:9; 32:26), although sometimes the word as used in the <span>kjv<\/span> refers only to sheep and goats (Gn 30:32, 39, 43; 31:8, 10; Is 7:25; 43:23).<\/p>\n<p>Probably several kinds of cattle were domesticated in the Holy Land. Small, short-legged, black or brown shorthorn cattle were found in the southern part of Judah; that type submitted easily to the yoke and was prominent in agricultural operations. Along the coast a larger variety was found, and the wild districts east of the Jordan River were populated with a breed of huge black cattle.<\/p>\n<p>Cattle breeding was widely practiced by the patriarchs (cf. Gn 32:15; Jb 21:10). Strict laws in Mesopotamia, as well as in Israel, penalized the owner of a bull that gored a man or other cattle (Ex 21:28-36). Bulls were sometimes employed figuratively as pictures of strength or violence (Dt 33:17; Pss 22:12; 68:30; Is 10:13). For breeding purposes one bull is normally adequate for about 30 cows, but many more were kept since bulls were widely used in Israel for sacrifices. They might be used as a general sacrifice (Lv 22:23; Nm 23:1) or for special sacrifices (Jgs 6:25; 1 Sm 1:24). Particular sacrifices were offered at the consecration of priests (Ex 29:1), consecration of an altar (Nm 7), purification of the Levites (Nm 8), sin offerings (Lv 16), day of the new moon (Nm 28:11-14), Passover (Nm 28:19), Feast of Weeks (Nm 28:27), Feast of Trumpets (Nm 29:1-2), Day of Atonement (Nm 29:7-9), and the Feast of Tabernacles (Nm 29:12-38). The Feast of Tabernacles required the largest number of bulls for burnt offerings of all the annual feasts, with a total of 71 being slaughtered during the course of eight days.<\/p>\n<p>Calves were sometimes referred to as “sons of the herd” in the original Hebrew (Gn 18:8; 1 Sm 6:7; 14:32). The calf, a symbol of peacefulness (Is 11:6), was also used figuratively to refer to the weak (Ps 68:30). A calf’s head decorated the back of Solomon’s throne (1 Kgs 10:19). Calves were sometimes fattened in stalls to keep them from running off weight in the field (Am 6:4; Mal 4:2; Lk 15:23) or were kept around the house; the witch of Endor kept a calf in her house that she killed and served to Saul and his men (1 Sm 28:24-25). Calves supplied veal (Gn 18:7), considered a delicacy by the wealthy; Amos referred to stall-fattened calves in a denunciation of luxurious and careless living (Am 6:4). Calves also supplied meat for all Saul’s armies at the great slaughter of the Philistines (1 Sm 14:32). The “fatted calf” served roasted or boiled was gourmet fare, suitable for the finest banquet (Gn 18:7; Mt 22:4; Lk 15:23).<\/p>\n<p>Cattle were subject to the law of firstlings (Ex 13:12). They were a mark of wealth (Gn 13:2) and were considered proper booty of war (Jos 8:2). Aaron, the first high priest, made a golden calf as a rival to the ark of the covenant (Ex 32; Dt 9:16, 21). Even though he represented the calf as an image of the invisible God, it was especially offensive because the calf was a fertility symbol related to Egyptian and Canaanite practices. Two calves were later made by Jeroboam I of Israel (930–909 <span>BC<\/span>) for his shrines at Bethel and Dan (1 Kgs 12:28-33). Hosea’s prophetic denunciations of calf worship were directed at those shrines (Hos 8:5-6; 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>An ox is an adult castrated bull. A steer is a young ox. Oxen were used to do work (Nm 7:3; Dt 22:10; 25:4), though for moving heavy objects, cows were typically favored over bulls because of their more docile nature. Oxen were also used as pack animals (1 Chr 12:40, although they did not have the endurance of the ass, camel, or mule. They usually fed on grass (Nm 22:4; Ps 106:20), but they also ate straw (Is 11:7) and salted fodder (Is 30:24) and could be kept in a stable (Lk 13:15). Oxen could not be offered as sacrifices because they had been castrated (Lv 22:24). They could be used for food but were rarely eaten. Possession of an ox and an ass was regarded as the bare minimum for existence in the ancient Palestinian agriculture economy (Jb 24:3; cf. Ex 20:17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Agriculture; Food and Food Preparation; Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chameleon\">Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>Lizard characterized by its ability to change color according to its surroundings <em>(Chameleon vulgaris).<\/em> To the Israelites the chameleon was ritually unclean (Lv 11:30). The Hebrew word for chameleon is derived from a word meaning “to pant.” A lizard’s lungs are very large, and in ancient times lizards were believed to live on air. A chameleon’s eyes move independently of each other; so at times one eye may be turned upward and the other downward. Chameleons live in trees and bushes, clinging to branches with their long tails.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Coral\">Coral<\/p>\n<p>Calcareous (lime-containing) skeletons of relatively simple marine organisms <em>(Corallium rubrum).<\/em> Red coral from the Mediterranean and Red Seas is widely used for jewelry and for medicinal purposes. While the animal is alive, the coral is green in color and shrublike in appearance, looking rather like an underwater plant since the coral animals are immobil. When the coral is removed from the water, it becomes hard and red in color.<\/p>\n<p>In ancient times coral was sometimes used as money, along with precious stones, pearls, and gold. Some believe the biblical reference in Lamentations 4:7 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is to pearls rather than to coral, but it is probable that the references in Job 28:18 and Ezekiel 27:16 are to the red coral (see <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cricket\">Cricket<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the order Orthptera related to grasshoppers and locusts. According to Leviticus 11:22, the cricket was edible. The reference may be to one of the growth stages of the locust.<\/p>\n<p>The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word as “beetle.” Beetles are insects with chewing mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the fore pair being hard and sheathlike and the hind pair being membranous and folded under the fore pair. Some beetles are carnivorous, others are chiefly herbivorous. Some are aquatic, some produce a secretion that blisters the skin, some damage fabrics, some damage crops, and some feed on other insects that are harmful to humans. In ancient Egypt the beetle, or sacred scarab, was a symbol of the sun god Ra. Scarab seals and amulets were extremely popular in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Crocodile\">Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all existing reptiles <em>(Crocodilus vulgaris),<\/em> attaining a length of well over 20 feet (6 meters). Crocodiles are characterized by large lizardlike bodies supported by short legs. The head terminates in a flattened snout armed with strong conical teeth, each of which is implanted in a distinct socket. New teeth growing from beneath continually replace those in use. The toes are webbed. The back and tail are protected by quadrangular horny shields of varying sizes arranged in regular rows and in contact with one another at the edges. The eyes are covered with movable lids that can be closed when the animal enters the water.<\/p>\n<p>The crocodile spends most of its time in the water where it feeds mainly on fish but also on aquatic birds and even small animals that come down to the water’s edge to drink. It is surprisingly fast and agile on dry land, even though its legs are so short that its belly and tail drag across the earth leaving a distinct path.<\/p>\n<p>Until the beginning of the 20th century, the crocodile was found in the marshes and small coastal rivers of western Palestine. A first-century Roman writer, Pliny, referred to a place in the Holy Land called Crocodeilopolis (“crocodile city”) to the south of Mt Carmel, and visitors to the Holy Land as late as the 19th century reported seeing crocodiles in that general region.<\/p>\n<p>The description of “Leviathan” in Job 41 seems to be based on the crocodile (thus the translation of the <span>nlt<\/span>). The “dragon” of Ezekiel 29:3, used figuratively of the Egyptian pharaoh, may be a reference to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Deer\">Deer<\/p>\n<p>Large ruminant (cud-chewing) animals. Only the males have antlers (branching horns). Deer antlers grow annually and are solid, in contrast to those of the antelope and the gazelle. Fully developed antlers are devoid of any covering of skin or horn and, for all practical purposes, may be regarded as a mass of dead bone carried for a certain time by the living animal.<\/p>\n<p>The end of the deer’s muzzle is naked in all species. The stomach is divided into a series of compartments, some of which are used to store partly chewed food. The food is later regurgitated, rechewed, and finally swallowed into a section of the stomach where true digestion takes place.<\/p>\n<p>Three species of deer were known in Palestine: the red deer <em>(Cervus elaphus),<\/em> the Persian fallow deer <em>(Dama mesopotamica),<\/em> and the roe deer <em>(Capreolus capreolus).<\/em> All are now extinct there. The last deer were hunted in the Holy Land in 1914. The red deer referred to in the Bible as “hart” (male), “stag” (male), or “hind” (female) stood about four feet (1.2 meters) high at the shoulder. It was gregarious (living in herds or flocks), each group remaining in a definite territory. Red deer grazed and browsed during the morning and late afternoon (Lam 1:6). The sexes remained in separate herds. The red deer was known for its leaping (Is 35:6) and sure-footedness in the mountains (Ps 18:33; Sg 2:8-9, 17; 8:14; Hb 3:19).<\/p>\n<p>The antlers of the Persian fallow deer (1 Kgs 4:23) were large, flattened, and palmated (shaped like an open palm with fingers extended), and its coat was a yellowbrown. It traveled in small groups, feeding mainly on grass in the morning and evening.<\/p>\n<p>The roe deer (Dt 14:5; 1 Kgs 4:23) was a small, graceful animal, dark reddish brown in summer and yellowish gray in winter. Its antlers were about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and had three points. The roe deer preferred sparsely wooded valleys and the lower slopes of mountains, grazing in open grasslands. It usually associated in family groups made up of the doe and her offspring. They were shy, yet very curious. The roe deer barked like a dog when disturbed, and they were excellent swimmers.<\/p>\n<p>There is some question as to whether the roe deer is actually referred to in such passages as 1 Kings 4:23; references may be to the fallow deer, although that animal does not seem to have lived in the southern part of Palestine around the Sinai Desert because of its need for ample amounts of food and water. Fallow deer were found in northern Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The hart (the male red deer) was listed among the clean beasts that Jewish law permitted as food (Dt 12:15, 22; 14:5), but deer were not listed among the animals appropriate for sacrifice. The hind (female red deer) normally gave birth to one calf at a time, though twins were born with some degree of regularity (Jb 39:1; Ps 29:9, <span>kjv<\/span>; Jer 14:5). The gestation period was about 40 weeks. When it was about to give birth, the hind looked for a secure hiding place, preferably in the dense undergrowth of the forest where it could find natural protection for the tiny calf. During the first few days after birth, the mother never went far from her young. The fawn was able to stand on its own legs a few hours after birth. The solicitous care by the hind for her calf during the first days of its life is hinted at in a touching way in Jeremiah 14:4-5, where only a severe drought is said to drive the hind from her calf. Job 39:1-4 describes the calving of the hinds. The hind illustrated grace and charm (Gn 49:21; Prv 5:19), and its dark, gentle eyes and graceful limbs were used to describe the beauty of a woman (Prv 5:18-19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dog\">Dog<\/p>\n<p>Probably the earliest domesticated animal <em>(Canis familiaris),<\/em> used very early in hunting. The modern dog is believed to have come from the Indian wolf <em>(Canis lupus pallipes).<\/em> The dogs of biblical times probably looked like a modern German shepherd, with short pointed ears, a pointed nose, and a long tail.<\/p>\n<p>The dog was generally looked down upon in biblical times (Prv 26:11; 2 Pt 2:22). The biblical writers did not share modern sentiments about dogs being man’s best friends. The dog was pictured as a scavenger, haunting streets and dumps (Ex 22:31; 1 Kgs 22:38; Mt 15:26; Lk 16:21). Human corpses could become the spoil of dogs (2 Kgs 9:35-36). In general, dogs served the same function as vultures and other birds of prey. Most of the 41 references in the Scriptures to dogs show strong disfavor. Dogs were considered cowardly, filthy creatures.<\/p>\n<p>Dogs used in hunting occur in paintings in Egyptian tombs, and there is a reference to dogs herding sheep in Job 30:1. One good quality of dogs highly esteemed by the Israelites was watchfulness (Is 56:10). In general, however, in biblical times “dog” was a term of contempt (1 Sm 17:43; 2 Sm 16:9) and was used of overly submissive persons (2 Sm 9:8; 2 Kgs 8:13) and of evil persons (Is 56:10-11; Mt 7:6; Phil 3:2; Rv 22:15).<\/p>\n<p>Dogs, like pigs, were voracious and omnivorous (eating any kind of food). In response to a Gentile woman’s request that he heal her daughter, Jesus used the metaphor of throwing household food scraps to dogs (Mt 15:22-28; Mk 7:25-30). At the time of Jesus, the word “dog” was a standard Jewish term of contempt for Gentiles who, like dogs, were considered unclean, although the diminutive form of the word, used by Jesus, softened this considerably. Seeing her faith, Jesus granted the woman’s request, giving a non-Jew some of “the children’s bread.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Donkey\">Donkey<\/p>\n<p>Beast of burden. The donkey of the Holy Land <em>(Equus asinus)<\/em> was quite different from the European donkey of today, which is usually a small, stubborn animal. In biblical times the donkey was a beautiful, stately, friendly animal. Its color was usually reddish brown. Three wild races have been described, all from Africa. The race from northwest Africa is extinct; the one from northeast Africa, if not extinct, is close to extinction; the Somalian race, which survives, did not play an important part in domestication. The northeast African race, the Nubian donkey, was evidently domesticated in the Nile River region in early historic times. The donkey was used as a mount from the time of domestication on. It is first mentioned in the Bible among the animals that Abraham acquired in Egypt (Gn 12:16). The donkey was primarily a beast of burden, driven but not bridled. From the time of the Middle Kingdom on (c. 2040 <span>BC<\/span>), it was used for riding in Egypt, but only the Jews and Nubians rode donkeys regularly. The donkey was also used for threshing grain and for pulling the plow. In Arab countries today peasants plow with a donkey and a cow or camel hitched together. In Israel the law forbade plowing with a donkey and an ox hitched together (Dt 22:10). Until the time of Solomon (960 <span>BC<\/span>), horses were not used in Palestine. From that time on, the horse was ridden by warriors; the donkey was used by those who were traveling peaceably.<\/p>\n<p>The donkey was held in high regard by the Jews and was considered an economic asset. An individual had to have a donkey for minimum existence (Jb 24:3), and wealth was frequently counted by the number of donkeys one possessed (Gn 12:16; 24:35). The donkey was considered an acceptable gift (Gn 32:13-15). It was allowed to rest on the Sabbath (Dt 5:14). Women in biblical times often used the donkey as a riding animal (Jos 15:18; 1 Sm 25:23; 2 Kgs 4:24); often a special driver would help a woman guide the animal, running along at its side. If a married couple possessed only one donkey, the husband usually walked alongside while the wife rode (Ex 4:20).<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel returning from Babylon had ten times as many donkeys as horses and camels (Ezr 2:66-67; Neh 7:68-69). Job’s wealth was indicated by the fact that he had 500 she-donkeys before catastrophe hit him (Jb 1:3); after his recovery he had 1,000 donkeys (Jb 42:12). Joseph’s brothers used donkeys to transport the grain they purchased in Egypt (Gn 42:26; 43:24). Abigail transported food on donkeys to David and his troops during their conflict with Saul (1 Sm 25:18). David assigned one of the 12 managers of his royal estates to look after his donkeys exclusively (1 Chr 27:30).<\/p>\n<p>The onager, or Syrian wild donkey <em>(Equus hemionus hemihippus)<\/em>, is an intermediate between the true horse and the true donkey. Its ears are longer than those of a horse but shorter than those of a donkey. The front hooves are narrow; there are chestnuts (callouslike spots on the inside of the knees) on the front legs only, and the tail is short haired for a long distance from its root so that it appears to be tufted.<\/p>\n<p>The Sumerians (ancient Mesopotamians) were able to domesticate the onager, which was eventually replaced by the horse. It was used to draw chariots in Ur; a number of onagers were buried with their vehicles in a royal grave that dates from about 2500 <span>BC<\/span>. Later the wild onager was a favorite hunter’s prize for Babylonian and Assyrian kings.<\/p>\n<p>The onager was very common in the steppe lands near Israel, where it was described as a freedom-loving desert animal (Jb 24:5; 39:5-8; Ps 104:11; Is 32:14; Jer 2:24; Hos 8:9). Ishmael was described as “free and untamed as a wild donkey” (Gn 16:12, <span>nlt<\/span>)—that is, one who could not adjust to domestic life. Drought seems to have been responsible for the population decline of the onager in biblical times (Jer 14:6). The modern onager <em>(Equus hemionus onager)<\/em> is slightly larger than the Syrian wild donkey that is extinct.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dragon\">Dragon<\/p>\n<p>Any one of a number of monstrous land and sea creatures. In biblical usage, “dragon” does not refer to the huge, fire-breathing, winged reptile of European folklore. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> used the term to translate two Hebrew words that are usually rendered more precisely in modern translations. One word referred to desert animals; most scholars agree with the <span>niv<\/span> that “jackals” is its proper meaning (Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; Jer 9:11; Mal 1:3). <em>See<\/em> Jackal (below).<\/p>\n<p>The other Hebrew word translated “dragon” is harder to define. It was frequently used in reference to serpents (so translated in the <span>rsv<\/span>: Ex 7:9-12; Dt 32:33; Ps 91:13). In other <span>rsv<\/span> passages it is translated “sea monster” (Gn 1:21; Jb 7:12; Ps 148:7). The exact identity of such sea monsters is not known. Several <span>rsv<\/span> passages retain the English “dragon.” In two of them (Ps 74:13; Is 27:1), the context indicates that sea monsters are meant. In three others (Is 51:9; Ez 29:3; 32:2) “dragon” seems to refer to the crocodile, a figurative reference to the Egyptian pharaoh at the time of the exodus. Jeremiah 51:34 (translated “monster” in the <span>rsv<\/span>) may also refer to a voracious creature such as a crocodile. <em>See<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p>Babylonian myths described monsters and dragons in primordial conflict with the god Marduk; they represented the principle of evil. In its figurative usages in Scripture, “dragon” has a similar significance, especially in the prophetic books. In the book of Revelation it is a symbol of Satan, the archenemy of God and his people (Rv 12:3-17; 13:2, 4, 11; 16:13; 20:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fish\">Fish<\/p>\n<p>Aquatic animals frequently mentioned in the Bible without names or descriptions that enable us to identify the particular species. Since time immemorial, fish have constituted one of the staple foods of humanity, and they still serve as the chief source of protein in many parts of the world. The trade in fish was highly developed in biblical times. For example, one of the gates in Jerusalem was called the Fish Gate (Neh 3:3; Zep 1:10). The law in Leviticus 11:9-12 permitted the Jews to eat fish, but only those having both fins and scales. Scaleless fish such as catfish were forbidden, even though they had fins.<\/p>\n<p>Egyptian paintings depict various methods of fishing, and the Philistines fished in the Mediterranean Sea. Since the people of Israel were not a seafaring nation, it is safe to assume that most of their fish came from freshwater lakes and rivers, especially the Sea of Galilee. Some 36 species of fish have been identified in that lake, including varieties of perch, carp, barbel, “sardine,” and catfish.<\/p>\n<p>The method of fishing characteristic of NT times was the dragnet. After a boat had put out into the deep (Lk 5:4), a large net would be thrown out from it and then dragged toward shore by the rowers in the boat, possibly with the help of a crew in another boat. The catch was sorted out on shore (Mt 13:47-48). Fishing was usually carried out at night when the coolness of the water brought fish closer to the surface and when they could not see the approaching nets.<\/p>\n<p>The Jews also fished by hook and line (Mt 17:27), a few by spear (Jb 41:7), and some by the throw net (Ez 47:10). Habakkuk refers to hook-and-line fishing, netting, and seining (1:15).<\/p>\n<p>Very early in the history of the Christian church the fish became a symbol for Christ and the faith. It was scratched on the walls of Roman catacombs and may be seen today decorating walls, altars, pews, and vestments. The symbol came into use because the Greek word for “fish” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ichthus<\/span><em>)<\/em> is composed of the first letter of each word in the Greek phrase “Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior.” <em>See<\/em> Whale (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Flea\">Flea<\/p>\n<p>Tiny, irritating insect (1 Sm 24:14; 26:20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Many species of fleas occur in Palestine, the most common being <em>Pulex irritans.<\/em> About a thousand species are known around the world. Fleas are wingless parasites that have sharp jaws and suck out blood from the bodies of humans and animals. The body is wedge shaped, enabling the flea to burrow into folds of skin and hide there. The eggs, laid by the female in dust heaps in the corners of rooms, hatch into small, white larvae that pupate (a nonfeeding stage) in a cocoon. Soon adult fleas appear that immediately attach themselves to the body of a host. The female requires blood for the development of her eggs.<\/p>\n<p>A flea bite is painful and causes some swelling and itching. Fleas are attracted by warmth. With favorable moisture and temperature, adult fleas can live a year or longer without food, but they are voracious feeders. The most dangerous fleas are those of the rat that transmit the organism responsible for bubonic plague. There were 41 recorded epidemics of bubonic plague before the Christian era.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fly\">Fly<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the order Diptera, which have one pair of wings. Many winged insects of other orders, however, are also called flies, such as the dragonfly or butterfly.<\/p>\n<p>As in almost all parts of the world, flies are abundant in Palestine. One of the most numerous is the common housefly <em>(Musca domestica),<\/em> found chiefly around dung heaps and garbage. The female lays her eggs, out of which emerge white maggots that feed on refuse. After a few days the maggot develops into a cocoon out of which emerges the adult housefly. In the summer the whole cycle lasts about 12 days, so that a fly can breed about 20 generations a year.<\/p>\n<p>Another fly common to Palestine is the botfly (family Oestridae). It causes much discomfort among livestock by irritating them and spreading diseases. Tabanid flies (family Tabanidae), including the horsefly (genus <em>Tabanus<\/em>) and related species, are also found in Palestine. Both the botfly and horsefly are known as gadflies because of the persistent distress they inflict. Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar is spoken of as a gadfly in view of his invasion of Egypt (Jer 46:20).<\/p>\n<p>The fourth plague in Egypt just before the exodus featured “swarms of flies” (Ex 8:21-31, <span>nlt<\/span>; cf. Pss 78:45; 105:31). Those swarms may have been made up of any or all the flies mentioned above. The maggots mentioned in Job 25:6 and Isaiah 14:11 and the worms in Exodus 16:24 and Job 7:5 and 17:14 were probably fly larvae.<\/p>\n<p>A proverb quoted in Ecclesiastes 10:1 probably refers to the housefly, which would be attracted to an open, perfumed ointment bottle. Once inside it would drown and eventually decay, causing the ointment to spoil and stink. The fly is also referred to in Isaiah 7:18 where it symbolizes Egypt. Isaiah may have had in mind a horsefly <em>(Tabanus arenivagus)<\/em> that attacks both humans and animals.<\/p>\n<p>Philistine inhabitants of the city of Ekron worshiped a god named Baal-zebul, meaning “Lord of the high places.” The Hebrews mockingly spoke of Baal-zebub, meaning “Lord of the flies” (2 Kgs 1:2). The NT form is Beelzebub (e.g., Mt 10:25; 12:24, 27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fox\">Fox<\/p>\n<p>Small, doglike carnivore with a bushy tail that is about half its body length. The red fox of the Holy Land <em>(Vulpes palaetinae)<\/em> is similar to the North American red fox; it is smaller than a wolf and is normally a nocturnal solitary animal. The omnivorous fox eats almost any kind of food—fruits, plants, mice, beetles, and birds—but seldom touches carrion. It loves the sweet juice of grapes, but it also burrows underground tunnels that can destroy the vines (Sg 2:15). The fox is intelligent and known for its slyness (Lk 13:32). It has considerable endurance and can run at speeds up to 30 miles (48 kilometers) per hour. The Jews rebuilding Jerusalem’s wall were taunted by the wisecrack that even a fox jumping on their wall would knock it over (Neh 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptian fox <em>(Vulpes niloticus)<\/em> is found in the central and southern parts of the Holy Land. It is somewhat smaller than the common red fox. Its back is rust colored and its belly light. The Syrian fox <em>(Vulpes flavescens)<\/em> that lives in the northern part of the Holy Land is shiny gold in color.<\/p>\n<p>Some OT references such as Psalm 63:10 and Lamentations 5:18 are translated “fox” in the <span>kjv<\/span> but probably refer to jackals. Jackals, not foxes, hunt in packs and tend to act as scavengers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Frog\">Frog<\/p>\n<p>Amphibian (genus <em>Rana<\/em>), living part of its life in the water and part on land.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs and toads are covered with soft, hairless skin and lack a tail in the adult stage. The hind legs are much longer and more powerfully developed than the forelegs so that the animals are able to jump large distances. It has been suggested that the frog referred to in Scripture is an edible one, <em>Rana ridibunda,<\/em> one of the aquatic frogs found in Egypt and in the stagnant waters of the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The female frog lays her eggs in the water; after about a week the eggs hatch into tadpoles. Gradually through metamorphosis the tail is lost and limbs are acquired. Frogs must maintain a moist skin since they take oxygen through the skin as well as through their lungs; thus they must always remain close to water. They feed on insects and worms.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs are found throughout the Palestinian lowlands, where their croaking is heard in the spring and on summer evenings. The Israelites seem to have associated frogs primarily with sliminess and foulness. They fell into the category of creeping or swarming creatures, which in general were ritually unclean (Lv 11:29-31). Since the frog was not specifically listed, however, rabbis did not consider it one of the animals that defiled human beings through contact.<\/p>\n<p>In Revelation 16:13 certain foul spirits are said to look like frogs. The ancient Egyptians made the frog a symbol of life and birth and an image of Heqet, the patron goddess of birth. She is depicted with a frog’s head giving life to the newborn. Thus that deity was discredited when the power of God afflicted Egypt in the second of the ten plagues on the Egyptians with the very animal that was her symbol (Ex 8:1-14; Pss 78:45; 105:30). The frog in question may have been the spotted frog of Egypt <em>(Rana punctata,<\/em> or <em>Rana ridibunda).<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gazelle\">Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>Small, dainty, graceful antelope with hollow recurved horns on both sexes. Two varieties exist in the Holy Land, the dorcas gazelle <em>(Gazella dorcas),<\/em> which is pale fawn in color and up to 22 inches (56 centimeters) tall, and the Arabian gazelle <em>(Gazella arabica),<\/em> which is a dark smoky color and up to 25 inches (63.5 centimeters) tall.<\/p>\n<p>Gazelles are still quite common throughout the desert and steppe areas of the Holy Land, especially in the Negev Desert. Herds usually consist of from 5 to 10 animals, but some varieties assemble in large migratory herds in the fall to relocate to lower elevations and new feeding grounds. Gazelles are herbivorous (plant eating). They are very shy and post guards to warn the herd of approaching danger.<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times the gazelle was probably the game animal most hunted by the Jews (Prv 6:5; Is 13:14). Pharaoh Tutankhamen hunted gazelles and ostriches. The gazelle is said to have graced Solomon’s table (1 Kgs 4:23). Gazelles were not easy to catch because of their great speed (2 Sm 2:18; 1 Chr 12:8; Prv 6:5); they surpass the deer in swiftness. They were trapped in various ways—encircled with nets, driven into enclosures with pitfalls, or forced into narrow valleys and shot with arrows. The Bedouin hunt gazelle with falcons and dogs; the falcon annoys the gazelle, striking it on the head and injuring it so that the dogs can overtake it.<\/p>\n<p>The gazelle is referred to in Song of Songs 2:9, 17; 4:5; 7:3; 8:14, where it is an image of feminine beauty.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gecko\">Gecko<\/p>\n<p>Reptile of the family Gekkonidae, referred to in Leviticus 11:30. In Jewish food law it was a ritually unclean lizard. There are seven species of geckos in the Holy Land (including <em>Hemidactylus turcicus<\/em> and <em>Ptyodactylus hasselquistii,<\/em> all insectivorous—insect eating). The gecko makes a low mourning sound by vibrating its tongue rapidly against the roof of its mouth. In legend the gecko was said to cause leprosy by crawling across a person’s body.<\/p>\n<p>Another name for the gecko is the wall lizard, so named because it can walk upside down on ceilings with the aid of the suction discs on its toes—but it often plops down into the middle of the home. Since it was considered unclean, such an intrusion would have been a disgusting nuisance to Jewish households (Lv 11:31-38).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gnat\">Gnat<\/p>\n<p>Any very small fly, in common and biblical usage. According to the <span>nlt<\/span>, the third plague in Egypt before the exodus consisted of gnats (Ex 8:16-18; Ps 105:31). The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word there as “lice,” but the breeding pattern described in Exodus 8—insects rising from the dust—seems to fit gnats better than lice. Since “gnat” is a general term, the small flies of that plague may have included several small species such as mosquitos, harvester gnats, midges, or sand flies.<\/p>\n<p>The sand fly inflicts a far more painful bite than the mosquito. Further, it does not betray itself by a buzzing noise in flight and is so small that it penetrates most mosquito netting.<\/p>\n<p>Gnats were drawn to wine while it was fermenting. The Pharisees in particular would strain their wine to avoid consuming unclean insects (Mt 23:24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Goat\">Goat<\/p>\n<p>Cloven-hooved mammals (genus <em>Capra<\/em>) with large eyes and big, floppy ears that constantly twitch. Both males and females have backward arching horns. The Palestinian goat is a ruminant (cud-chewing animal) of lighter build than the sheep.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was probably the earliest ruminant to be domesticated. Its wild ancestor seems to have been the Gezoar goat <em>(Capra aegagrus).<\/em> Wild goats are believed to have been domesticated very early in Palestine. The goat of Bible times was probably the Syrian or Mamber variety <em>(Capra hircus mambrica).<\/em> Domesticated goats may have as many as four kids in a litter, whereas wild goats bear only one or two.<\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian goat was commonly black. Speckled and spotted goats were a rarity, and for that reason Jacob’s request for those goats in Genesis 30:32 appeared very modest. There may also have been red goats (cf. 1 Sm 16:12; 19:13, where goat’s hair was used to imitate David’s hair, which was “ruddy” or auburn).<\/p>\n<p>Almost every part of the goat was used by the Israelites. The whole goat was used for sacrifice. Its flesh served as meat (Lv 7:23; Dt 14:4), and it was the principal source of milk (Prv 27:27). Goats were sheared in the late spring, and the goat hair was used for weaving tent cloth and for various domestic purposes (Ex 36:14; 1 Sm 19:13, 16). The tabernacle at Mt Sinai was made of goat’s hair blankets (Ex 26:7).<\/p>\n<p>Adult male goats were generally not eaten because of their strong flavor and toughness and also because they were necessary to insure the flock’s increase. Young kids, however, were usually the chief meat for a feast and were offered to visitors as a symbol of hospitality. Goat milk is richer than the milk of cows and sheep and evidently had broader uses. A good goat gives three quarts of milk a day, from which a rich butter and buttermilk can be made. The average Hebrew family could have lived almost entirely on a single goat’s production.<\/p>\n<p>Goatskin was tanned as leather, and the whole hide was turned into a skin bottle by sewing shut leg and neck apertures (Gn 21:14; Jos 9:4). Goatskin had many uses, including the construction of Hebrew musical instruments. The nebal, a large harp, was made with goatskin for its base sound. Drums had goatskin coverings.<\/p>\n<p>Goats were herded with sheep in biblical times, but each group remained separate following its own bell-laden leader. Jesus was evidently referring to their common herding in his description of the Last Judgment (Mt 25:31-46).<\/p>\n<p>Because of their wool, sheep are valued more than goats. However, where pasture and water are scarce and thorny shrubs dominate over grass, sheep are difficult to keep and goats become important. They can live under conditions that suit neither cows nor sheep, producing large quantities of milk. The goat does not supply fat as the sheep does, and since its hair is coarse its wool is rather scarce. Goat-hair cloth called cilicium was used to make tents.<\/p>\n<p>Goats have voracious appetites. They also were responsible for much damage done to the land of Palestine, breaking down terraces, destroying forests, and bringing about soil erosion by eating off all cover.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was recognized as a form of wealth, subject to the law of firstlings (Nm 18:17). It had to be eight days old before it could be offered as a sacrifice. A year-old male goat was one of the animals offered at the Passover (28:22), and two goats were offered on the Day of Atonement (Lv 16:7-10). The goat was also used for other specific sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p>The ibex, a type of wild goat <em>(Capra ibex nubiana),<\/em> still lives in small numbers on the cliffs close to the Dead Sea. That it was known in ancient times is evident from rock carvings. It is distinguished from the true wild goat by having a more compact rump and horns that are slender and curved back. Its slender legs and sharp cloven hooves enable it to cling to narrow rock ledges, to jump between them, and to climb steep cliffs.<\/p>\n<p>Usually the ibex is found in rugged mountain country among rocky crags and meadows just below the snow line (Ps 104:18). In Job 39:1 they are referred to as “mountain goats.” They frequently gather in herds of 5 to 20. They graze and browse, being active in the afternoon and sometimes feeding through the night. The large horn of the ibex was at one period made into the shofar that was blown in the second Jerusalem temple to announce the new year and the jubilee year.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was often used in a figurative and symbolic sense by the writers of the Bible: in Song of Songs 4:1 and 6:5 for the bride’s black hair; in Matthew 25:31-46 for the wicked; and in Ezekiel 34:17 and Daniel 8:5-8 for various human leaders.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Grasshopper\">Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>Large insects of the Orthoptera order. They have chewing or biting mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the front pair of which is narrow and somewhat thickened and the hind pair membranous and used for flying. When not in use the flight wings are folded beneath the protective front wings like a fan against the body. By rubbing their wings together, male grasshoppers produce sounds that both males and females can detect. Grasshoppers pass through a partial metamorphosis; the egg hatches into a juvenile nymph that looks like an adult except for its smaller size and undeveloped wings. After several months the nymph becomes a winged adult.<\/p>\n<p>The terms “grasshopper” and “locust” are often used interchangeably. Actually the locust is a kind of grasshopper. Also confusing is the fact that other insects such as cicadas are sometimes called locusts. The difference between grasshoppers and locusts depends more on behavior than appearance. Grasshoppers are individual insects that lead solitary lives and do not migrate. The same insects when migrating in a swarm are called migratory grasshoppers or locusts. Elimination of their food supply by drought, flood, or fire may lead to migration. Climatic factors such as a warm dry winter also stimulate migrations.<\/p>\n<p>Grasshoppers and locusts have been a staple food in the Middle East and also among the Indians of the American Southwest. To the Israelites the grasshopper was considered ritually clean and could be eaten (Lv 11:22).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hare\">Hare<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the genus and species <em>Lepus europaeus judaeus, Lepus capensis,<\/em> and <em>Lepus arabicus.<\/em> It is found in open country, often near or on cultivated lands, and in woods, usually deciduous rather than evergreen. It is an herbivorous rodent and is different from the rabbit, which is not found in Palestine. Although it is not a true ruminant according to modern classification (because it does not have a four-chambered stomach), the hare does rechew its food. It has a process of partial regurgitation of material too hard for the cells in the stomach to absorb initially; thus, the hare actually chews food previously swallowed.<\/p>\n<p>Near Eastern hares have very long ears and large hind feet; their feet are well furred. They are similar to American jackrabbits, which are true hares. Hares do not dig or occupy burrows the way rabbits do. Hares are mainly nocturnal and spend their inactive hours hiding in vegetation. They eat grasses and herbaceous matter as well as twigs and young bark of woody plants. Hares breed with great rapidity—the young attaining sexual maturity at six months after birth.<\/p>\n<p>The hare was ceremonially unclean (Lv 11:6; Dt 14:7), evidently because although it appeared to chew its cud, it did not have cloven hooves. Consumption of hares has also been forbidden among the Arabs, Chinese, and Lapps, but the hare was widely hunted by other people in ancient and modern times. Its great speed, prolific breeding, timidity, and caution have saved it from extermination by its many enemies.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hippopotamus\">Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of problematic interpretation. Some early interpreters thought it referred to the elephant, others to the wild ox, the mammoth, or any large animal. It was called “behemoth” by the <span>kjv<\/span> translators. Today it is generally agreed that the reference is to the hippopotamus <em>(Hippopotamus amphibius),<\/em> a large, thick-skinned, amphibious mammal, an ungulate (having hooflike toenails) with a large head, a bulky, hairless body, and short legs.<\/p>\n<p>The description in Job 40:15-24 fits closely the modern hippopotamus (see <span>nlt<\/span>), except for the depiction of the tail. At present the hippopotamus is found only in the rivers of Africa, but there is fossil evidence that it has existed in the Holy Land, perhaps in the swamps of northern Galilee and the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\n<p>The hippopotamus has highly developed sense organs, placed in such a way that it can see, hear, and smell almost without being seen; its eyes, ears, and nostrils can reach above water while the rest of the animal lies submerged. It has a large mouth, large tusks, and a short, heavy throat. The strong legs are so short that the belly almost reaches the ground when the animal is on the land. The hippopotamus lives on plants and herbs growing in rivers, but if food is scarce there, it forages on land, usually at night. In spite of its heavy body it is surprisingly agile on land.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Horse\">Horse<\/p>\n<p>Przewalski’s horse (<em>Equus przewalskii,<\/em> an eastern race that roamed about Mongolia until modern firearms destroyed most of them after World War I) and the tarpan (a western race of southern Russia that became extinct in the Ukraine in 1851). The domesticated horse <em>(Equus caballus)<\/em> seems to have been derived from the tarpan. The original site of domestication is believed to have been Turkestan, a region north of Afghanistan and India, now in Russia. The horse differs from the donkey in that it has shorter ears, a longer mane with a forelock, a long hairy tail, and a soft, sensitive muzzle.<\/p>\n<p>Horses were used in war not only for riding but also for pulling the heavy, springless war chariots. Two kinds of horses were needed for these different purposes, and the Hebrews distinguished between chariot horses and cavalry horses.<\/p>\n\n<p>The Lord warned the early Israelites against unnecessarily amassing military strength in the form of horses and thereby following the oppressive tactics of the powerful Egyptians (Dt 17:14-16), but the demands of war caused both David and Solomon to import horses from Egypt into their kingdoms and to breed them. Solomon greatly increased the number of horses in the Jewish kingdom and maintained large stables at various cities (1 Kgs 10:26) such as the regional defense centers of Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer (1 Kgs 9:15-19). Ahab’s horses are mentioned in 1 Kings 18:5, and records of Shalmaneser III state that Ahab furnished 2,000 chariots to a coalition against Assyria.<\/p>\n<p>In early Israel, the horse was opposed as a symbol of pagan luxury and of dependence on physical power for defense (Dt 17:16; 1 Sm 8:11; Ps 20:7; Is 31:1). Horse trading, mentioned as early as Genesis 47:17, was carried on by Solomon between Egypt and the Syro-Hittite principalities (1 Kgs 10:28-29). Most biblical references to horses refer to their use in war, but horses were also used for transportation. Riding seems to have been less popular than the use of chariots. Cavalry units were not introduced until the 12th century <span>BC<\/span> by the Medes. Joseph rode in Pharaoh’s second horse-drawn chariot (Gn 41:43), and Absalom made a display by riding a horse-drawn chariot (2 Sm 15:1). Naaman traveled by horse and chariot (2 Kgs 5:9). Later, horses were so common in Jerusalem that the royal palace had a special horse gate (2 Chr 23:15), and a gate of the city itself was known as the Horse Gate (Neh 3:28; Jer 31:40). Mordecai rode a royal horse of King Xerxes as a sign of honor (Est 6:8-11). Horses are often spoken of figuratively (Ps 32:9; “mare,” Sg 1:9; “stallions,” Jer 5:8; 12:5), especially in the context of judgment (Hb 3:8; Zec 1:8; 6:1-8; Rv 6:2-8; 9:17; 19:11-16).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Warfare; Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyena\">Hyena<\/p>\n<p>Stocky carnivore <em>(Hyaena hyaena)<\/em> with coarse hair, an erect mane, and long hairs along the neck and back. Hyenas live in holes among rocks and banks. They are mainly nocturnal but are ordinarily neither noisy nor aggressive. Their cry, however, is a disagreeable, unearthly sound. Hyenas usually feed on carrion, crushing bones with their powerful jaws. If the carrion supply is inadequate, they will kill sheep, goats, or other small animals. When threatened, hyenas growl and erect their mane, but they rarely fight. They are massively built with forelegs longer than the hind legs.<\/p>\n<p>Known as scavengers in Africa, hyenas eat domestic refuse in the villages. In Palestine the striped hyena is a common predator, preferring rocky territory and even rock tombs. Since hyenas were notorious for raiding the graves of the dead, all Israelites who could afford it arranged for burial in tombs protected by massive stone doors. Absalom, King David’s son who was killed by Joab in the wild, was buried under a huge pile of stones to protect his corpse from molestation by hyenas (2 Sm 18:17).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Jackal\">Jackal<\/p>\n<p>Carnivore <em>(Canis aureus)<\/em> smaller than the true wolf and with a shorter tail. It is similar to the fox but has a broader head, shorter ears, and longer legs. The fox is solitary; the jackal tends to be gregarious. Its tail can be drooping or erect, compared with the long horizontal tail of the fox. Jackals usually prowl at night, either singly, in pairs, or in packs through open savannah country. They eat small mammals, poultry, fruit, vegetables, and carrion. They spend their days in thickets and clumps of vegetation. Often they obtain scraps from kills by larger carnivores. Jackals can run at speeds of about 33 miles (53 kilometers) per hour.<\/p>\n<p>The jackal can reach a height of about 20 inches (51 centimeters), roughly the size of a German shepherd dog. Its back is pale yellow with dark, almost black, flanks. Its lips are black and its ears white on the inside. The howl of the jackal sounds like the crying of a child or the heartrending wail of the bereaved (Mi 1:8; cf. Jb 30:29). To other jackals the howl is merely an invitation calling the pack together for its nocturnal hunting.<\/p>\n<p>OT references are chiefly to jackals prowling around ruined cities and wilderness areas (Neh 2:13; Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; 34:13; 35:7; Jer 9:11; 14:6; 49:33; 51:37; Lam 4:3; 5:18; Mal 1:3). Many such references are translated “dragon” in the <span>kjv<\/span>, but “jackal” is more appropriate.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leech\">Leech<\/p>\n<p>Segmented worm (class Hirundinea) up to five inches (12.7 centimeters) long with a flat body equipped with suction pads at each end. The mouth, located at the bottom of the front suction pad, has three teeth that the leech uses to pierce the skin of its host. The leech feeds on blood, and its glands secrete an anticoagulant to prevent the blood from clotting. The ordinary medicinal leech (Hirudo medicinalis) is abundant in springs and ponds from the Negev Desert to Galilee. It adheres to the bodies of human beings and animals that submerge themselves in water, injects its anticoagulant, and sucks their blood.<\/p>\n<p>The reference in Proverbs 30:15 is uncertain (see <span>nlt<\/span>) but may be to the parasitic and greedy nature of the horse leech (genus <em>Haemopis<\/em>). The small horse leech enters its host’s mouth and nostrils from water while the animal is drinking. A leech weighing one-half ounce (14.2 grams) has been known to gorge itself with two and a half ounces (71 grams) of concentrated blood and then to exist for 15 months with no more to eat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leopard\">Leopard<\/p>\n<p>Called <em>Panthera pardus tulliana,<\/em> it is the most widespread of all the large wildcats. In rocky areas it lives in caves, but in forested regions it lives in thick vegetation. In OT times many lived in the vicinity of Mt Hermon (Sg 4:8).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is somewhat smaller than the tiger, measuring up to 5 feet (1.5 meters) in length with a tail of about 30 inches (.8 meter). Its body is better proportioned than that of the tiger. The leopard takes its victim by surprise from a silent ambush, often concealing itself near villages or watering places and waiting for its prey, remaining in one spot for long spans of time. The leopard is swift on the ground (Hb 1:8), agile in trees, and very graceful in its movements. Its color is yellowish speckled with black spots (Jer 13:23). Daniel and John saw visions in which leopards were symbols of world powers (Dn 7:6; Rv 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is a wary and cunning animal, formidable and ferocious (Jer 5:6; Hos 13:7; cf. Is 11:6). The leopard is dangerous not only to domestic animals but also to humans. With its natural camouflage it can hide on the forest floor, blending into the changing light and shadows. The Israelites were terrified of the leopard because it constantly ravaged their sheep and goats. Several biblical place names suggest that they were known for the leopards in their vicinity: Nimrah, Beth-nimrah, and Nimrim, a district northeast of the Dead Sea. It has survived in the Holy Land into the present century; a few leopards still exist in remote areas near Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leviathan\">Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>Sea monster mentioned several times in the Bible (Pss 74:14; 104:26; Is 27:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). It may refer to any of the larger marine animals such as large jellyfish, whales, or sharks, or to a large reptile like the crocodile. Some scholars think “Leviathan” may refer to animals now extinct, such as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs (marine reptiles similar to dinosaurs). The scriptural term might also refer to certain dinosaurs that spent part of their lives half-submerged in shallow lakes and oceans. Other scholars believe that most of the references are to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lion\">Lion<\/p>\n<p>Large, tawny-colored carnivore <em>(Panthera leo)<\/em> that preys chiefly on hoofed mammals and charges by a series of leaps and bounds. Within historic times the lion ranged in Africa, Europe, and the Holy Land. In ancient times the territories of the African and Persian lions met in the Middle East. The lion of the Holy Land was the Asiatic or Persian lion <em>(Panthera leo persica).<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The males have heavy manes that stop at the shoulders but cover much of the chest. The Persian lion cannot climb and is mainly nocturnal, returning to its lair or a thicket by day (Jer 4:7; 25:38; Na 2:11-12). This lion is about 5 feet (1.5 meters) long with a tasseled tail 30 inches (.8 meter) or so long; its shoulders may reach a height of 35 inches (.9 meter). It is one of the smallest of the lion breeds.<\/p>\n<p>Lions are usually found in pairs, though sometimes in larger numbers. A small group is known as a pride. They generally prefer open country but in Palestine evidently prowled the subtropical vegetation of the Jordan River valley. Lions, which usually hunt at dusk, kill smaller animals by a blow of the paw, larger ones by a bite in the throat. A lion does not remain in the same place for more than a few days. The animal is in its prime at about seven years of age, when it weighs from 400 to 600 pounds (181.6 to 272.4 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>The lion does not characteristically attack humans, though like other great cats it may become a man-eater (1 Kgs 13:24-28; 20:36; 2 Kgs 17:25-26; Ps 57:4; Dn 6:7-27). Ordinarily, it attacks only out of great hunger or in self-defense. A very young lion that attacks humans can become dangerous if it develops a taste for human flesh. A very old lion, expelled from the pride because it can no longer keep up in the pursuit of antelope or gazelles, may choose humans as a relatively slow-moving prey.<\/p>\n<p>A lion generally roars only on a full stomach—that is, after it has consumed its prey (Ps 22:13; Ez 22:25; Am 3:4). Nevertheless, its roaring arouses fear (Am 3:8; 1 Pt 5:8). The lion is a bold (2 Sm 17:10; Prv 28:1), destructive animal (Ps 7:2; Jer 2:30; Hos 5:14; Mi 5:8), and the enemy of flocks (Am 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>Lions were common in biblical times in all parts of the Holy Land. Hebrew has at least seven words for lion and young lion. The lion is referred to about 130 times in the OT—more than any other wild animal. Lions were evidently much less common in NT times. After gradually declining, they became extinct in Palestine shortly after <span>AD<\/span> 1300. The lion was present in Mesopotamia, however, until the end of the 19th century.<\/p>\n<p>Lions played an important part in the political and religious symbolism of the Near East (1 Kgs 10:19-20). In Assyria and Babylonia the lion was regarded as a royal beast (Dn 7:4). Oriental monarchs maintained artificial lion pits as places of execution (Ez 19:1-9; Dn 6:7-16). Animals for these were captured in camouflaged nets or pits. To the Jews, the lion was the mightiest of beasts (Prv 30:29-31). Thus, it symbolized leadership (Gn 49:9-10; Nm 24:9) and hence eventually became a title for Christ (Rv 5:5). It was also the ensign of Judah’s tribe and was used by King Solomon in the decoration of his house and the temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lizard\">Lizard<\/p>\n<p>Reptiles of the suborder Lacertilia. Their skin is covered with scales. The lizard is a useful creature because it captures harmful insects and worms. Like other reptiles, it lays eggs with shells softer than those of a bird and with no clear division between the yolk and the white. Lizards are “cold-blooded” organisms without a temperature-maintenance mechanism; hence, they become inactive in cold weather.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards can survive in barren parched countryside. In the Near East they are encountered in great numbers in the Arabian Desert, the Sinai Peninsula, and the Judean wilderness. There may be as many as 44 different species of lizards in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The Dabb lizard (genus <em>Uromastyx<\/em>), which attains a length of about 24 inches (61 centimeters), is found in the Negev Desert. It is omnivorous, an unusual trait since most lizards are insectivorous. It has a hard, rough skin, green with brown spots; a short, rounded head; and a powerful tail encircled with a row of strong spines that it uses as a weapon of defense.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards are listed as ceremonially unclean in Jewish law (Lv 11:29-31). The fact that lizards crawl on their bellies made them unclean. Contact with a lizard’s carcass defiled a law-abiding Jew (Lv 11:32-36). The <span>nlt<\/span> translates the “lizards” of Leviticus 11 as “great lizard,” “gecko,” “monitor lizard,” “sand lizard,” and “chameleon.” The monitor lizard is a large lizard that lives in the deserts of southern Palestine, Sinai, and Egypt. It is up to 55 inches (1.4 meters) long with a long snout and sharp teeth. Other translators and commentators render the original Hebrew in a wide variety of ways, including “tortoise,” “ferret,” “lizard,” “snail,” “mole,” and even “water hen.” The fact that most of the original Hebrew words occur only once in Scripture makes it very difficult to be certain about their appropriate translation.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Gecko (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Locust\">Locust<\/p>\n<p>An insect of the family <em>Acridiidae.<\/em> It is referred to by at least 12 different names in Scripture. The various Hebrew words may refer to different stages of its development from larva to adult or to the type of damage that it causes. Locusts are characterized by swarming and mass migration. In modern times they have caused extensive and disastrous destruction to vegetation. Grasshoppers do not swarm or migrate en masse, differentiating them from the true locusts.<\/p>\n<p>The OT mentions several different species of locusts. Leviticus 11:22 seems to refer to the slant-faced (bald) locust and also to the katydid, or long-horned grasshopper. The reference in Deuteronomy 28:42 may be to the mole cricket. In Joel 1:4 and 2:25 and in Nahum 3:16-17, successive stages of the insect’s development are described. The cutting locust (<span>kjv<\/span> “palmerworm”) of Joel is probably the first instar (stage of development), the swarming locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “locust”) are middle stages, and the hopping locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “cankerworm”) later instars but not yet fully matured insects. In the adult stage, called destroying locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “caterpillar”), the color of the locust is reddish brown, which turns to yellow with a brownish network on the wings.<\/p>\n<p>Only three of the hundreds of varieties of locusts found in Bible lands are capable of multiplying into great swarms, and only the desert locust <em>(Schistocerca gergaria)<\/em> can be considered widespread in all the Bible lands. The desert locust is native to the Sudan (Africa). It is a little over two inches (5 centimeters) long and has a wingspread of some five inches (12.7 centimeters). It shows two phases, a solitary phase and a gregarious phase, with a possible third phase known as transiens. There are differences in the immature and adult forms of the phases in color and physiology.<\/p>\n<p>The quantity and distribution of rains are important factors in the extent of swarming. Moist soil is needed for depositing the eggs and permitting them to develop. Each female deposits from one to six egg pods, containing 28 to 146 eggs each. The larvae emerge in 15 to 43 days.<\/p>\n<p>In the gregarious phase (from the second stage of metamorphosis onward), the locust is driven by a strong wandering instinct. Masses of them form a random procession of overflowing locust bodies that ignore any obstruction. They swarm over everything (Jl 2:4-9). The only regulator of their activities is temperature; they are immobilized by high or low temperatures. Taking to wing they may move 1,200 miles (1,930.8 kilometers) from their native home. They fly in compact formations large enough to blot out the light of the sun. Their movement seems to be controlled by hormones, but the direction is influenced by the wind. The swarms consume almost every plant in their path, sparing only the carob, sycamore, castor tree, and oleander bush.<\/p>\n<p>A locust plague was one of the most severe evils to come upon the ancient world (Dt 28:38). Joel 2:1-11 describes a locust plague in graphic terms, using it as a symbol of God’s destroying judgment. Special days of prayer, fasting, and trumpet blowing were prescribed to remove locust plagues (1 Kgs 8:37-38; 2 Chr 6:28-29; Jl 2:12-17). Locusts symbolized powerful and merciless enemies that completely destroyed the earnings of human toil (Jgs 6:5; Is 33:4; Jer 46:23; 51:27; Na 3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Bedouins eat locusts raw, roasted, or boiled, preserving them by drying and threading. They are also crushed and ground, and the grist used in cooking or eaten with bread, sometimes mixed with honey and dates. Such was the diet of John the Baptist (Mk 1:6). The Greeks ground locusts in stone mortars to make flour of them.<\/p>\n<p>The ancients considered the two large hind legs, or jumping legs, as separate limbs and had a special name for them. Hence locusts were described as having four legs, a reference to the four smaller walking legs. “Going on all fours” thus referred to creeping or walking as opposed to jumping and did not mean that the unclean insects had only four legs in all. Because of its two hind jumping legs, the locust was exempted from the prohibition against unclean insects (Lv 11:20-23).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mole\">Mole<\/p>\n<p>Rodent <em>(Spalax ehrenbergi)<\/em> from six to nine inches (15 to 23 centimeters) long, which burrows in any area where the soil is suitable for digging; it should be called a mole rat. Common in the Holy Land, large numbers are found in the vicinity of Jerusalem. Isaiah 2:20 refers to the mole, as does Leviticus 11:29-30 (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The mole rat has no tail and is molelike in appearance, but neither true moles nor shrews have ever been found in the Holy Land. The mole rat’s teeth are strong and protruding like those of a squirrel. The neck is short and thick with a plump body shaped like a sausage. The short legs have broad paws with claws adapted for burrowing. The fur is soft, thick, and ashen gray. Its ears and almost sightless eyes, which are no larger than poppyseeds, are hidden in the fur. Folklore taught that touching a mole rat would result in blindness.<\/p>\n<p>In the wet winter season the mole rat builds breeding mounds resembling those of pocket gophers. It builds less complex resting mounds in the summer, although both have rather elaborate tunnel systems. The mole rat feeds on roots, bulbs, tubers, and various other subterranean plant parts, often doing extensive damage to agriculture.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Moth\">Moth<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the genus <em>Tineola<\/em> that lays its eggs on wool or furs, its larvae feeding on those materials. The destructive qualities of moths are referred to in several biblical passages (Jb 13:28; Ps 39:11; Is 50:9; Hos 5:12; Mt 6:19-20; Lk 12:33; Jas 5:2). In Isaiah 51:8 “worm” (<span>nlt<\/span>) refers specifically to the larva of the clothes moth. The moth symbolizes disintegration, decay, and weakening. It is only the larvae that do the damage. The adult is quite harmless and feeds mainly on the nectar of flowers. It is easily crushed (Jb 4:19). The clothes moth reproduces in May or June. It enters human dwellings in the evening. A week after the eggs are laid the larvae appear and immediately begin their work of destruction, eating anything within reach made of animal fibers.<\/p>\n<p>The moth’s destructive activity is done in secret without any sound and without any dramatic appearance, such as a swarm that blots out the sun. In an age when wealth was counted more in possessions than in money, and when among those possessions wool clothing was highly valued, moths could literally cause economic disaster; hence the words of Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount (Mt 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p>There are hundreds of species of moths other than the clothes moth in the Holy Land; they are harmless to leaves, flowers, fruit, trees, and seeds. As with the clothes moth, the larvae inflict the damage.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mouse\">Mouse<\/p>\n<p>Rodent of the family Muridae, especially genus <em>Mus.<\/em> The mouse was regarded as unclean because, being short legged, it was considered one of the creeping creatures (Lv 11:29). Mice known as commensals live in dwellings and tend to have longer tails and to be darker in color than wild mice, which are active chiefly at night. Mice are good climbers and even good swimmers. Wild mice eat many kinds of vegetation, including seeds, fleshy roots, leaves, and stems. At times they store food.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word for “mouse” (Lv 11:29; 1 Sm 6:4-5; Is 66:17) is probably a general term for various rats and mice. The root meaning of the Hebrew word “mouse” is “destruction of corn,” a reference to the damage mice do to field crops. At least 23 varieties of mouselike rodents are known in the Holy Land. They cause food spoilage, damage household articles, and transport the host fleas that spread typhus, spotted fever, and bubonic plague. Plague bacteria may have caused the tumors or swellings among the Philistines (1 Sm 6:5). Isaiah 66:17 refers to a pre-exilic Canaanite cultic practice in which mice were eaten; the reference may actually be to the hamster. A number of rodents are eaten by Arabs of the Near East; the gerbil is considered a special delicacy. <em>See<\/em> Mole (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mule\">Mule<\/p>\n<p>Hybrid offspring of a male ass and a female horse <em>(Equus asinus mulus),<\/em> ordinarily sterile. The offspring of a female donkey and a stallion (male horse) is known as a hinny and is of little value because of its inferior size.<\/p>\n<p>Because crossbreeding was forbidden in the law (Lv 19:19), the Israelites procured mules from the Gentiles, perhaps from the Phoenicians, since Tyre (a Phoenician seaport in what is now southern Lebanon) imported horses and mules (Ez 27:14). Mules did not appear in Israel until David’s reign (2 Sm 13:29), possibly because of the rarity of horses among the Hebrews. Mules were used chiefly by members of the royal court and by other nobles. King David rode on a mule, and Solomon rode to his inaugaration on King David’s mule (1 Kgs 1:33). Absalom met his death riding on a mule (2 Sm 18:9). Mules were less common than horses, camels, and asses in the postexilic community (Ezr 2:66). In antiquity Asia Minor was especially noted for breeding fine mules.<\/p>\n<p>Mules have long enjoyed a reputation for obstinacy, but that trait is not mentioned in the Bible. The mule is prized for riding and for carrying heavy burdens, especially in warm mountainous regions. They are sure-footed and thrive best in hot, dry climates. The mule has the frugality, endurance, and steady gait of an ass along with the size, strength, swiftness, and courage of a horse. Mules are almost never sick. They live longer than horses. They can carry a load of up to 300 pounds (136 kilograms) as far as 30 miles (48.3 kilometers) a day.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pig\">Pig<\/p>\n<p>Most properly, newborn swine. “Swine” is technically the better name for the species, but it is rarely used in common speech today. The domestic pigs of the Middle East derived from the wild pig <em>(Sus scrofa).<\/em> The pig is the most prolific and abundant supplier of meat and fat for food. A thick layer of fat just under the skin is especially pronounced in domestic breeds. Pigs cannot be driven, so they are of value only to the settled farmer. The Hebrews were originally a nomadic people; therefore, they had little use for an animal closely associated with settled life. An Egyptian prince of about 1500 <span>BC<\/span>, however, is recorded as owning a herd of 1,500 swine.<\/p>\n<p>The pig is clumsily built, yet lively and able to move with agility and speed. The most conspicuous characteristic of the pig is a truncated, mobile snout terminating in a disc-shaped surface on which the nostrils are located. Most pigs have large tusks in both jaws which grow continuously in life. The tusks of the upper jaw are unique in that they curve upward instead of pointing downward as in most animals. The excrement of a pig has an almost unbearable odor, which clings not only to the pig itself but also to swineherds, who can be identified a long way off.<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were never raised in the Holy Land by Jews. The great herd into which Jesus drove the unclean spirits was encountered in the land of the Gadarenes, a non-Jewish area east of the Jordan. The Gadarene demons took refuge in a herd of pigs feeding on a bluff overlooking the Sea of Galilee (Mt 8:28-32).<\/p>\n<p>Wild pigs were found in the Holy Land as in many countries today. Psalm 80:13 refers to the destructiveness of a wild boar (the male, or hog) attacking growing crops. A party of wild boars can destroy an entire vineyard or a field of crops in a single night. They devour, trample, and ravage everything within reach.<\/p>\n<p>Boar hunts were common in ancient Mesopotamia. Wild boars do not attack unless molested, but they are dangerous when aroused. They travel in bands of from 6 to 50 and are most active in the evening and early morning hours. The body is covered with stiff bristles and usually some finer hair, but the body covering is often quite scanty. Wild pigs are mainly vegetarian, feeding on roots, nuts, grains, and plant stems. Wild boars were particularly abundant in the mountainous regions of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, in the Jordan River valley, and in wooded sections such as Mt Tabor.<\/p>\n<p>Strict Jews would not even mention swine by name but would always substitute the term “the abomination.” Israelites considered themselves polluted if they were even touched by a swine’s bristle. To the Jews, the pig symbolized filth and ugliness. Pigs will eat fecal material, vermin, rodents, carrion, and the like (2 Pt 2:22). Proverbs 11:22 refers to the incongruity of a golden ring in the nose of an animal showing such characteristics. A similar metaphor occurs in Jesus’ statement about casting pearls before swine (Mt 7:6). The prodigal son’s degeneration was shown by his being forced in his poverty to feed pigs and eat their food (Lk 15:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>Eating the flesh of pigs was forbidden to the Jews (Lv 11:7; Dt 14:8). The Canaanites in the Holy Land killed and ate pigs freely. In intertestamental times Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), a Syrian king whose territories included Israel, used the pig to “Hellenize” the Jews. He first tested their loyalty to the Jewish faith by requiring the consumption of pork, considered a delicacy by the Greeks (2 Macc 6:18). The act of desecration that drove the Jews to rebellion, however, was the sprinkling of pig blood on the temple altar in a sacrifice to Zeus (1 Macc 1:47).<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were frequently used in pagan worship (Is 65:4; 66:3, 17), which may account for their being forbidden to the Jews as food. Evidence in the Holy Land shows that pigs were sacrificed long before Hellenistic times. Pig bones were found in a grotto below the rock-cut place of sacrifice at Gezer. A similar underground chamber with vessels containing piglet bones at Tirzah dates to the middle Bronze Age (about 2000 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Alabaster fragments of a statuette of a pig ready to be sacrificed have been unearthed. Swine were sacrificed to Aphrodite (Venus) in Greece and Asia Minor. In addition, pigs were sacrificed in connection with oaths and treaties; in the <em>Iliad,<\/em> Agamemnon sacrificed a boar to Zeus and Helios. So it is not surprising that among the Jews the pig became a symbol of filthiness and paganism.<\/p>\n<p>It is possible that eating pork was forbidden primarily because the pig may carry many worm parasites such as trichina, though that is also true of some “clean” animals. Another reason for forbidding their consumption may have been that pigs eat carrion. Some people are allergic to pork in hot weather—another suggested reason behind the Jewish taboo. The same taboo exists among the Muslims and existed in certain social strata in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Porcupine\">Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>Rodent, <em>Hystrix cristata,<\/em> which lives in forested areas, rocky hills, ravines, and valleys. The porcupine is still found in the Holy Land today. It has long quills that can be raised to give the appearance of a crest. It is almost entirely nocturnal. It burrows by day into a natural cavity or crevice. The Old World porcupine rarely climbed trees, although the New World porcupine frequently does. A porcupine may weigh as much as 60 pounds (27.2 kilograms). It eats fruit, bark, roots, and other vegetation, and carrion as well. Although its flesh is edible, the porcupine was not classed among the clean animals for the Israelites. The reference in Isaiah 34:11 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is probably to the porcupine, as is Isaiah 14:23 in the <span>nlt<\/span>. <em>See<\/em> Hedgehog.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Scorpion\">Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>Arthropod of the same group as spiders (arachnids). A dozen species of scorpions (order Scorpionida) are found in the Holy Land, but 90 percent of the scorpions are yellow scorpions, usually three to five inches (7.6 to 12.7 centimeters) long. The rock scorpion, also common to the Holy Land, is as thick as a man’s finger and from five to seven inches (12.7 to 17.8 centimeters) in length. Scorpions are slow, nocturnal invertebrates that rest beneath stones by day and prey on insects and other arachnids by night. At the end of its long tail the scorpion carries a poisonous sting that is fatal to most prey and extremely painful to humans (Rv 9:3, 5, 10; cf. 1 Kgs 12:11, 14). Scorpions symbolize Ezekiel’s evil countrymen (Ez 2:6) and the demonic forces of Satan (Lk 10:19). The scorpion is referred to as frequenting the Sinai Desert (Dt 8:15).<\/p>\n<p>A scorpion has from six to eight eyes. It has eight legs like a spider and two lobsterlike claws with which it catches and holds its prey. It feeds particularly on locusts and beetles. In many species the female scorpion eats the male after mating. Scorpions lay eggs that hatch very shortly after laying. Scorpions prefer warmer climates, and because of their desire for warmth, enter houses, especially at night, hiding in beds, blankets, footwear, and clothing.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sheep\">Sheep<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animal, <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> referred to directly or by some term such as ewe, lamb, ram, or by some fact concerning them over 700 times in Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Sheep represented the chief wealth and total livelihood of pastoral peoples, providing food to eat, milk to drink, wool for the making of cloth, and hides and bones for other uses. In addition, the sheep was a medium of exchange and a sacrificial animal. The number of sheep raised in ancient times was prodigious. Mesha, king of Moab, paid a tribute annually of 100,000 lambs and the wool of 100,000 rams (2 Kgs 3:4). The Israelites took 250,000 sheep from the Hagrites (1 Chr 5:21).<\/p>\n<p>Sheep shearing was often done for festivals (2 Sm 13:23). The sheep was held down on its side and its legs were tied together; then it lay docilely while its wool was clipped (Is 53:7). Sheep reserved for burnt offerings were not shorn; nothing could be held back from a sacrifice to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Wool had to be processed before it could be used for clothing. First it was washed, sometimes while still on the sheep, then carded and perhaps weighed for the market. The spinning of wool was regarded as a woman’s work (Prv 31:19), but weaving the spun thread into cloth on a loom was primarily a man’s occupation.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible reports that Abel kept sheep (Gn 4:2). The first sheep to be domesticated was probably the argali <em>(Ovis ammon),<\/em> a variety of the urial <em>(Ovis vignei),<\/em> a mountainous species still existing in Turkestan and Mongolia. Five breeds had reached Mesopotamia by 2000 <span>BC<\/span>; all were of the urial stock.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep known in Israel was the broad-tailed sheep <em>(Ovis orientalis vignei<\/em> or <em>laticaudata),<\/em> of which the tail weighs from 10 to 15 pounds (4.5 to 6.8 kilograms) and has always been considered a delicacy. Thus the Lord asked for this choice part as a sacrifice (Ex 29:22-25).<\/p>\n<p>Only the ram of the broad-tailed sheep has horns, but in other varieties of sheep in the Holy Land the ewe also has horns. The horns, two to three inches (5 to 8 centimeters) in diameter, can be potent weapons. Rams’ horns could be used as trumpets (Jos 6:4) or as oil containers (1 Sm 16:1).<\/p>\n<p>Although the sheep is very similar to the goat, it is differentiated by a lower forehead, its angulated spiral horns marked with transverse wrinkles and curved slightly outward, its covering of wool, and its lack of a “goatee.” Most sheep are white (Ps 147:16; Is 1:18; Dn 7:9; Rv 1:14).<\/p>\n<p>The flesh of sheep was a luxury in the biblical culture. King Solomon required a daily provision of 100 sheep for his table (1 Kgs 4:23), but the common people ate lamb or mutton only on festive occasions. A young ram was usually chosen because the ewes were more important to the future prospects of the herd. The meat was boiled in large caldrons. The milk of the sheep is extremely rich; in biblical times it was usually allowed to curdle before drinking. Possibly some Israelites kept lambs in their houses as pets (2 Sm 12:3-4).<\/p>\n<p>To protect the flock at night against predatory attacks, the shepherd tried to provide a fold. In meadows near villages, folds were built and watchmen were hired to relieve the shepherds. The shepherds of the nativity story were out in the field (Lk 2:8); they had no fold but probably had set up a tent for shelter, consisting simply of goat-hair blankets spread across sapling supports. The scarcity of springs in the Holy Land made the watering of the flock a crucial problem for the shepherd (Gn 13:8-11).<\/p>\n<p>Wild mountain sheep, varieties of <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> are known in the Mediterranean area (Dt 14:5). The Deuteronomy passage (<span>kjv<\/span> “chamois”) might also refer to <em>Ovis traelaphus,<\/em> a sheep about five feet high (1.5 meters) with long, curved horns. Another possibility is the Barbary sheep that lives in small flocks in rugged mountain areas in Barbary, Egypt, and Mt Sinai. The true chamois is unknown in Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep is also used figuratively in Scripture. The ram represented great strength and fittingly symbolized Medo-Persia in Daniel’s vision (Dn 8:3). It is the nature of sheep to be gentle and submissive (Is 53:7; Jer 11:19), defenseless (Mi 5:8; Mt 10:16), and in constant need of guidance and care (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36). Such qualities are regarded as desirable in the lives of believers in Christ; hence the many figurative references to sheep in the NT and to Jesus as shepherd (Mk 6:34; Jn 10:1-30; Rom 8:35-37; Heb 13:20-21; 1 Pt 2:25). The resurrected Christ told the apostle Peter to “feed my lambs” and “tend my sheep” (Jn 21:15-17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snail\">Snail<\/p>\n<p>Invertebrate gastropods (mollusks). Land snails are very numerous in the Near East. Some freshwater forms serve as hosts for the schistosome worm, the fluke parasite causing the dread disease bilharzia (schistosomiasis).<\/p>\n<p>Purple dyes of all shades were highly valued in the ancient world. A royal purple dye was obtained from secretions of a sea snail <em>(Murex trunculus<\/em> and <em>Murex brandaris).<\/em> Evidently, that process was developed by Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Assyrians as early as 1500 <span>BC<\/span>. The “purple” fishermen had their own guild during the time of the Roman Empire. The snails were harvested during the fall and winter seasons; in the spring, when egg laying took place, little dye was available. The snails tended to remain concealed in the summer. They inhabited the waters off Crete and Phoenicia. Tyrian purple, produced in the Phoenician city of Tyre, the center of the purple-dye industry, was obtained by a double dyeing. Large deposits of murex shells from dyeing operations have been found along the Mediterranean shoreline. The Israelites had to import purple goods (Ez 27:16). Lydia was a “seller of purple” or of cloth so dyed (Acts 16:14). Purple was a sign of distinction, royalty, and wealth (cf. Ex 25:4; 28:5-6, 15; Nm 15:38; 2 Chr 2:7; Est 8:15; Prv 31:22; Sg 3:10; Ez 27:7; Dn 5:7).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 30:34-35 refers to “onycha,” which was an important ingredient of incense. Onycha is the horny, clawlike operculum (the plate that closes off the opening of its shell when a snail is retracted) of a Near Eastern member of the molluskan family Strombidae. The operculum is sometimes used for offense or locomotion as well as for defense. When burned, the operculum gives off a sharp, strong scent, and when mixed with more fragrant but less powerful substances is even more potent. The name “onycha” is derived from a Greek word <em>(onyx)<\/em> for a fingernail or a claw.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snake\">Snake<\/p>\n<p>Various species of snake, suborder Ophidia (Serpentes). In the Bible nine Hebrew words and four Greek ones refer to snakes. The most common Hebrew word is onomatopoeic—that is, it is an imitation of a snake hissing or of the sound it produces as it scrapes its scales along the ground (cf. Jer 46:22). Many types of snakes lay eggs (Is 59:5), although some retain the eggs in the body until ready to hatch.<\/p>\n<p>Snakes are among the most widespread reptiles and are found on all continents except Antarctica; they decrease in numbers and species toward the poles but increase as one approaches the equator. Thirty-three species of snakes are known in Palestine and neighboring countries, 20 of which are poisonous. Two dangerous characteristics of the snake noted by biblical writers are its inconspicuous way of moving and the ease with which it hides itself.<\/p>\n<p>Many snakes are able to swallow animals several times their own diameter because of their unusually flexible jaw mechanism. They lack not only legs but also movable eyelids. Snakes periodically shed their skins. The tongue is actually a hearing apparatus sensitive to airborne vibrations and probably to heat waves.<\/p>\n<p>The venom of poisonous species is a clear, thin secretion, transmitted to the victim’s bloodstream by means of fangs. Two types of venom are known: that of the vipers, which affects respiration and disintegrates red blood cells, and that of the cobras, which paralyzes the nervous system.<\/p>\n<p>The “asp” referred to in the Bible is probably the cobra; the “adder” is the viper. The “cockatrice” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is probably the adder. Serpents were associated with worship in Canaanite religion and symbolized evil deities among many other peoples. Steles (upright stones bearing inscriptions) have been unearthed at several sites in the Holy Land and Syria depicting a god or worshiper with a snake winding about the legs or body. Because the Israelites were burning incense in pagan worship of Moses’ bronze serpent (Nm 21:8-9), King Hezekiah destroyed it in his religious reform (2 Kgs 18:4).<\/p>\n<p>Although snakes have been an object of veneration in some religions, in the Judeo-Christian tradition snakes represent evil and, more specifically, the devil. That association began in the Garden of Eden (Gn 3:1-15) and is also found in the book of Revelation (12:9; 20:2-3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adder (above); Asp (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Spider\">Spider<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the order Araneida. Between 600 and 700 different species inhabit the Holy Land. Spiders are different from insects in that, like scorpions, they have four pairs of legs instead of three. Spiders are equipped with poison glands—the effectiveness varying from species to species. A few can kill only insects, but others can also kill birds and mice.<\/p>\n<p>Most spiders have a pair of spinnerets attached to silk glands on the underside of the abdomen; from them a web is extruded. In the Bible the spider’s web is referred to as a symbol of frailty and insecurity (Jb 8:14; Is 59:5-6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sponge\">Sponge<\/p>\n<p>Simple marine animals, phylum Porifera. The term “sponge” also refers to those animals’ skeletal remains. The sponge has a porous body composed of tubules and cells.<\/p>\n<p>Sponge fishing was well known in the Mediterranean area in ancient times. It was practiced particularly along the Anatolian and Syrian coasts. Sponges were harvested by divers. The use of sponges in absorbing liquids is referred to in the Bible (Mt 27:48; Mk 15:36).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Unicorn\">Unicorn<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Wild Ox (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wasp\">Wasp<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the family Vespidae. Hornets are social wasps that build large aerial apartment houses in which 1,000 or more individuals may live. In the Bible the hornet is used as a metaphor for God’s use of military forces (Ex 23:28; Dt 7:20; Jos 24:12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Whale\">Whale<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all living creatures, including those that have become extinct. Whales are air-breathing mammals of the order Cetacea.<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of whales visit the shores of the Holy Land at times. The finback whale <em>(Balaenoptera physalus)<\/em> weighs about 200 tons (181 metric tons) and lives mainly in the Arctic region but sometimes passes through the Straits of Gibraltar to reach the eastern Mediterranean Sea. It feeds on small marine organisms that it strains through its whale bone; it does not have teeth. The finback whale’s esophagus is narrow.<\/p>\n<p>The sperm whale <em>(Physeter catodon),<\/em> about 60 feet (18.3 meters) long, has a curiously shaped head that looks like a battering ram. The teeth in the lower jaw of the male sperm whale are about seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long. It feeds on big fish, even on sharks. It has a large throat opening.<\/p>\n<p>Whales are referred to in Genesis 1:21 and Job 7:12 (<span>kjv<\/span> only). The “great fish” of Jonah 2:1 need not have been a whale but could have been a large shark, such as the whale shark <em>(Rhineodon),<\/em> which grows 70 feet (21.3 meters) long and lacks the terrible teeth of other sharks. Whatever the actual marine organism, Jonah’s deliverance was miraculous. The Greek word for “whale” is sometimes used as a general term for “sea monster” or huge fish and may be used in that sense in Matthew 12:40.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WildOx\">Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>Large, fierce, fleet, intractable animal <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> It had a long, lean rump with a straight back and a long, narrow head. The animal described in Job 39:9-12 is clearly the wild ox. The two horns (Dt 33:17), its outstanding characteristic, were straight and as long as the head (Nm 23:22; 24:8; Ps 22:21). Kings often symbolized their dominion by wearing a helmet with two wild ox horns (cf. Pss 92:10; 132:17-18). The horns were often used as drinking vessels by the Israelites; some were large enough to hold four gallons (15 liters).<\/p>\n<p>Hunting the wild ox was a favorite sport of Assyrian kings. Tiglath-pileser I hunted it in the Lebanon Mountains about 1100 <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Ps 29:6). At one time the animal referred to in Job 39:9-12 was thought to be the oryx or antelope because of the similarity between the Hebrew word in Job and the Arabian name for oryx. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> called the wild ox a “unicorn” because of representations found on Babylonian mosaics and Egyptian drawings. Those representations showed it in strict profile, showing only one horn—hence, “unicorn.” Jerome’s Vulgate, a Latin Bible translation (fourth century <span>AD<\/span>) and Martin Luther’s German version translated it similarly.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wolf\">Wolf<\/p>\n<p>Large doglike mammal <em>(Canis lupus)<\/em> that travels in bands of up to 30 animals. From the nose to the rump, the wolf measures about 3 feet (.9 meter); its drooping tail is about 18 inches (.5 meter) long. It looks much like a skinny German shepherd dog. The grayish yellow pelt is coarse and short haired.<\/p>\n<p>Wolves hunt singly or in relays, usually at night (Jer 5:6). Wolves have acute hearing and sight but rely chiefly on scent and usually catch their prey in a swift, open chase. The wolf has a reputation for boldness, fierceness, and voracity (Gn 49:27; Hb 1:8). It commonly kills more than it can eat or drag away and thus is known for its greediness.<\/p>\n<p>The wolf is a restless animal, always on the move; hunger drives it from one place to another in constant search of new hunting grounds. During spring and fall, wolves usually roam singly or in pairs, whereas in summer they may travel in family groups. In winter, several such groups may join to form a large pack. Wolves are intelligent, social creatures, faithful to their own kind. They mate for life. Individually, the wolf is a rather timid animal; it would much rather avoid human beings. But collectively wolves can be among the most dangerous animals alive.<\/p>\n<p>In Egypt, Rome, and Greece the wolf was considered sacred. Wolves were well known in the Holy Land and are still found there and also in many places in Asia Minor. Shepherds continually battled with wolves that plundered their flocks (Jn 10:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible refers to wolves in a literal sense in only three places (Is 11:6; 65:25; Jn 10:12), all other references being figurative. Usually the wolf is a symbol of enemies or the wicked (e.g., Ez 22:27; Zep 3:3; Acts 20:29). Both the wolf’s courage and its cruelty were probably in the mind of the patriarch Jacob when he predicted the fate of Benjamin’s tribe (Gn 49:27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Worm\">Worm<\/p>\n<p>Actually insect larvae in most biblical references, usually maggots, the larvae of flies (see Fly, above). For example, maggots are evidently referred to in accounts of worms feeding on spoiled manna (Ex 16:19-20), corpses (Jb 21:26; Is 14:11), or open wounds (Jb 7:5). Mark 9:48 refers to a maggot that eats dead flesh. In Acts 12:23 a fatal, worm-induced abdominal disease of King Herod is mentioned. In other cases, the reference is to the larvae of other insects (Is 51:8). In Deuteronomy 28:39 and Jonah 4:7 the vine weevil <em>(Cochylis ambiguella)<\/em> is probably referred to; it destroys vines by boring into their stems. Comparing a man to a worm is a metaphor for abasement (Jb 25:6; Ps 22:6).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ANIMALS<\/h3>\n<p>In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals as object lessons.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical approach to classification of animals is somewhat different from the system of classification used by biologists today. The present system of classification, which traces back to Carolus Linnaeus (an 18th-century Swedish botanist), is based on structure, both internal and external. The biblical basis of classification is habitat. Thus Genesis 1 speaks of aquatic organisms (v 20); aerial organisms (v 21); animals that crawl on the ground (v 24); cattle or domesticated animals (animals that live in association with humans) (v 24); and wild animals (v 24). The same system of classification is followed in Leviticus 11 and throughout Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Because of the divergence between systems of classification, the various animals of the Bible will be listed here in alphabetical order—including reptiles, fish, and even invertebrates such as insects, spiders, worms, and sponges. Birds are discussed in a separate article.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Adder<\/p>\n<p>• Ant<\/p>\n<p>• Antelope<\/p>\n<p>• Ape<\/p>\n<p>• Asp<\/p>\n<p>• Ass<\/p>\n<p>• Badger<\/p>\n<p>• Bat<\/p>\n<p>• Bear<\/p>\n<p>• Bee<\/p>\n<p>• Behemoth<\/p>\n<p>• Camel<\/p>\n<p>• Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>• Cattle<\/p>\n<p>• Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>• Coral<\/p>\n<p>• Cricket<\/p>\n<p>• Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>• Deer<\/p>\n<p>• Dog<\/p>\n<p>• Donkey<\/p>\n<p>• Dragon<\/p>\n<p>• Fish<\/p>\n<p>• Flea<\/p>\n<p>• Fly<\/p>\n<p>• Fox<\/p>\n<p>• Frog<\/p>\n<p>• Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>• Gecko<\/p>\n<p>• Gnat<\/p>\n<p>• Goat<\/p>\n<p>• Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>• Hare<\/p>\n<p>• Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>• Horse<\/p>\n<p>• Hyena<\/p>\n<p>• Jackal<\/p>\n<p>• Leech<\/p>\n<p>• Leopard<\/p>\n<p>• Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>• Lion<\/p>\n<p>• Lizard<\/p>\n<p>• Locust<\/p>\n<p>• Mole<\/p>\n<p>• Moth<\/p>\n<p>• Mouse<\/p>\n<p>• Mule<\/p>\n<p>• Pig<\/p>\n<p>• Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>• Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>• Sheep<\/p>\n<p>• Snail<\/p>\n<p>• Snake<\/p>\n<p>• Spider<\/p>\n<p>• Sponge<\/p>\n<p>• Unicorn<\/p>\n<p>• Wasp<\/p>\n<p>• Whale<\/p>\n<p>• Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>• Wolf<\/p>\n<p>• Worm<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Adder\">Adder<\/p>\n<p>One of the 20 poisonous snakes found in Israel and surrounding countries, also referred to as cockatrice and viper. True vipers (genus <em>Cerastes, Echis colorata,<\/em> and <em>Vipera palestina<\/em>) also exist there, poisonous snakes with curved fangs that spring into position when the snake strikes. The horned viper <em>(Cerastes hasselquistii)<\/em> may attack horses. It is 12 to 18 inches (30 to 46 centimeters) long and often lies in ambush in the sand with only its eyes and the hornlike protrusions on its head visible.<\/p>\n<p>Both Jesus and John the Baptist referred to the viper several times (Mt 3:7; 12:34; 23:33). The reference in Acts 28:3 is probably to a small viper <em>(Vipera aspis)<\/em> that strikes rapidly and is very pugnacious. It is found in southern Europe and hisses each time it inhales and exhales. The poison of vipers attacks the respiratory system and disintegrates red blood cells.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ant\">Ant<\/p>\n<p>Mentioned only twice in the Bible, both times in the book of Proverbs. For many years Solomon was charged with a biological error when he referred to the ant as providing her meat in the summer and gathering her food in the harvest (Prv 6:8). Critics of the Bible were quick to point out that, so far as was then known, ants do not store up food. They assumed that Solomon had probably kicked open an ant hill and mistaken the pupal cases (pods in which immature ants grow to maturity) for grain or had observed ants carrying bits of grain, leaves, and other matter to their nests.<\/p>\n<p>At least three species of grain-storing ants are now known—two occur in Israel and the other in Mediterranean countries. The particular species referred to by Solomon (Prv 6:6-8; 30:24-25) is probably the harvester ant <em>(Messor semirufus).<\/em> Its granaries are flat chambers connected by galleries irregularly scattered over an area about six feet (1.8 meters) in diameter and about a foot (.3 meter) deep in the ground. Seeds are collected from the ground or picked from plants. The head, or radicle, which is the softest part of the kernel, is bitten off to prevent germination, and the chaff and empty capsules are discarded on kitchen middens (refuse piles) outside the nest. Individual granaries may be 5 inches (12.7 centimeters) in diameter and a half inch (1.2 centimeters) high. Some nests are known to be 40 feet (12 meters) in diameter and 6 to 7 feet (approx. 2 meters) deep with several entrances.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Antelope\">Antelope<\/p>\n<p>Several antelope-like creatures are referred to in the Scriptures. One seems to be the white oryx <em>(Oryx leucoryx),<\/em> referred to in Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild ox”; <span>rsv<\/span> “antelope”) and Isaiah 51:20 (<span>kjv<\/span> “wild bull”; <span>RSV <\/span>“antelope”). The oryx was probably the antelope, commonly used for food because its long horns made it relatively easy to catch.<\/p>\n<p>Another antelope mentioned in the Bible is the addax <em>(Addax nasomaculatus),<\/em> probably the “pygarg” of Deuteronomy 14:5 (<span>kjv<\/span>). It is a native of North Africa with grayish white hinder parts, a white patch on the forehead, and twisted and ringed horns. The word “pygarg” comes from a Greek word meaning “white rump.” The addax is about the size of a donkey. Its body is closely covered with short hair. It has a short mane on the underside of its neck that makes the head look somewhat like that of a goat. The hooves are broad and flat, and the tail resembles that of a donkey. It is common in Africa and in Arabia, where Arabs hunt it with falcons and dogs.<\/p>\n<p>Antelopes are very graceful and run with their heads held high. Both sexes have long, permanent, hollow horns. With the oryx the horns go straight back; addax horns are twisted and ringed. Antelope are alert, wary, and keen sighted. They are usually found in herds of from two to a dozen. If injured or brought to bay, an antelope attacks with its head lowered so that the sharp horns point forward. Antelopes feed on grasses and shrubs, drinking from streams and water holes. When water is scarce, they eat melons and succulent bulbs. Both addax and oryx were ceremonially clean in Jewish law.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ape\">Ape<\/p>\n<p>Primate not native to Palestine. The two references to apes in the OT (1 Kgs 10:22; 2 Chr 9:21) refer to their importation by King Solomon with other treasures on board the ships of his mercantile fleet. There is some question concerning the origin of those primates. Some believe that the mention of “ivory” in the same verses suggests they came from East Africa and that they were indeed apes, that is, tailless primates. Others, believing they came from India or Ceylon, suggest that they were actually monkeys. There the baboon (genus Papeio), a large monkey, was considered sacred to the god Thoth. Males of that genus were kept in temples, and the more docile females were often kept as house pets. Such baboons frequently had some of their teeth removed or ground down to lessen the danger of their biting. A number of mummified baboons have been found in Egypt, indicating the high regard in which they were held.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Asp\">Asp<\/p>\n<p>Poisonous snake. Most biblical references to the asp (Dt 32:33) seem to be to the Egyptian cobra <em>(Naja haje),<\/em> which conceals itself in holes, walls, and rocks and has the ability to expand its neck by raising its anterior ribs so as to enlarge the front of its breast into the shape of a flat disc. Its potent poison can cause death in 30 minutes. It attains a length of about 80 inches (2 meters). The fangs are permanently erect, not movable as in the vipers (the common poisonous snakes of North America; only the coral snake in America has permanently erect fangs). Cobra poison attacks the nervous system, causing muscular paralysis. The Egyptians looked upon it as a sacred creature; they regarded it as a protector since it fed on the rodents that ate their crops. The “fiery serpents” (Nm 21:6; Dt 8:15, both <span>rsv<\/span>) may have been cobras; “fiery” probably refers to the burning fever caused by their venom. Isaiah 14:29 and 30:6 (“flying serpent”) may refer to the hood of the cobra.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Snake (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ass\">Ass<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Donkey (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Badger\">Badger<\/p>\n<p>Small hoofed mammal. What the <span>kjv<\/span> calls a “coney,” modern translations name “rock badger” (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7; Ps 104:18; Prv 30:26). The rock badger spoken of in the Bible is probably the Syrian rock hyrax <em>(Hyrax syriaca),<\/em> the only species of hyrax found outside Africa. This small ungulate (having hooflike toenails) lives among rocks from the Dead Sea valley to Mt Hermon. It is strictly a herbivorous (plant-eating) animal about the size of a rabbit. It resembles a guinea pig more than a rabbit, having quite inconspicuous ears and a very small tail. It has broad nails with four toes on its forelegs and three on its hind legs, the toes being connected with skin almost like a web. Pads acting as sucking discs under its feet enable it to keep its footing on slippery rocks. With its yellow and brown fur, it is sometimes called the bear rat because of its resemblance to a tailless rat. It is also equipped with black whiskers that may be seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p>These rock badgers, or hyraxes, live together in colonies of from 6 to 50 animals, often sunning themselves on rocks. They are difficult to catch. Guards are posted, and if approaching danger is sighted, the whole group will scurry for cover, warned by the sharp whistles of the guards. Thus they are commended for taking refuge in the rocks (Ps 104:18) and are called wise for making “their houses in the rocks” (Prv 30:24, 26, <span>kjv<\/span>). The badger is not a ruminant (does not chew its cud), but the motion of its jaws may suggest that it chews its cud. That is probably why it was included with other cud-chewing animals in the Jewish food laws (Lv 11:5; Dt 14:7). It was forbidden to the Jews as food because it did not have cloven hooves. Some Arabs eat and even prize its meat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bat\">Bat<\/p>\n<p>Flying mammals according to modern classification. They have hair and provide milk for their young. The Bible classifies them with other aerial creatures. Bats take shelter in caves, crevices, tree cavities, buildings, and also in exposed places on trees. In colder areas they hibernate or migrate. The normal resting position for a bat is hanging head downward. Bats “swim” through the air rather than fly because they move with their legs as well as with their wings.<\/p>\n<p>The bat’s thumb is free and terminates in a single hook claw used for climbing and hanging. The hind feet have five toes, all pointing the same way. The large chest accommodates the powerful muscles needed for flying. Because they orient themselves by echo location, the sense of hearing is very well developed.<\/p>\n<p>Most bats are insect eaters, seizing insects in flight. Many insectivorous bats also eat some fruit. Other bats feed exclusively, usually in groups, on fruit and green vegetation. Fruit-eating bats generally live in the tropics where fruit is constantly ripening, although some have been found in the Holy Land. These bats tend to be larger than the insectivores, having a wingspread of up to five feet (1.5 meters).<\/p>\n<p>A third group includes flower-eating bats that feed on pollen and nectar. These small bats with long pointed heads and long tongues are found only in tropical and semitropical regions. Three species of vampire bats, which do not occur in the Holy Land, eat blood by making a small incision and lapping it up. Carnivorous (meat-eating) bats prey on birds, lizards, and frogs. Fish-eating bats catch fish at or near the water surface.<\/p>\n<p>Eight varieties of bats are known in the Holy Land. One of them, the little brown bat (genus <em>Myotis<\/em>), is worldwide in its distribution. It is insectivorous and probably has the widest distribution of any nonhuman terrestrial mammal. Brown bats are mostly cave dwellers. The females form maternity colonies that may number in the tens of thousands.<\/p>\n<p>Two species of mouse-tailed bats (genus <em>Rhinopoma<\/em>) are found in the Holy Land. Their tails are nearly as long as the head and body combined. They are colonial, roosting in caves, rock clefts, wells, pyramids, palaces, and houses. Like the brown bat, they are insectivorous. The slit-faced or hollow-faced bats (genus <em>Nycteris<\/em>) are also found in the Holy Land. They are insectivorous and roost in groups from 6 to 20.<\/p>\n<p>The bats found in the Holy Land vary in size from that of a mouse to the size of a rat; the largest species measures more than 20 inches (51 centimeters) across the wings. The bat was unclean to the Jews (Lv 11:19; Dt 14:18).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bear\">Bear<\/p>\n<p>Large, heavy, big-headed mammal with short, powerful limbs, a short tail, and small eyes and ears. Bears have a “plantigrade” walk: they walk on both the sole and heel as humans do. The Palestinian bear is a Syrian version of the brown bear <em>(Ursus arctos syriacus).<\/em> It can grow to a height of 6 feet (1.8 meters) and may weigh as much as 500 pounds (227 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>Bears have an excellent sense of smell but less developed senses of sight and hearing. They are omnivorous (eating any kind of food); they subsist largely on vegetation, fruits, insects, and fish.<\/p>\n<p>Bears are usually peaceful and inoffensive, but if they think they must defend themselves (Lam 3:10) or their young (2 Sm 17:8; Prv 17:12; Hos 13:8), they may be formidable and dangerous adversaries. David boasted of his role as a bear killer (1 Sm 17:34-37). Since a blow from a bear’s paw can be fatal, David’s courage and strength as a young shepherd in running after a bear and wrenching one of his father’s sheep from its jaws were noteworthy.<\/p>\n<p>Some biblical passages seem to imply that bears attacked for no apparent reason (e.g., Prv 28:15; Am 5:19). At other times they were God’s instruments of punishment, as in the story of Elisha and the two she-bears (2 Kgs 2:24). The bear and the lion, often mentioned together in the Bible (1 Sm 17:37), were the two largest and strongest beasts of prey in the Holy Land. Thus they symbolized both strength and terror (Am 5:19).<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times bears seem to have roamed all over Palestine. Today they are found only in the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Mountains, and even there they are rare.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bee\">Bee<\/p>\n<p>One of two domesticated insects <em>(Apis mellifica),<\/em> the other being the silkworm. Bees gather nectar from flowers, transferring pollen from one flower to another in the process. It is believed that they convey the location of sources of nectar to other bees through a bee “dance,” which may indicate both distance and direction. Bees are sensitive to four colors: blue-green, yellow-green, blue-violet, and ultra-violet (invisible to humans).<\/p>\n<p>The wild bees of the Holy Land are especially noted for their ferocity in attack. Only the female “worker” bees sting people and animals, the virulence of their venom increasing in warm weather. A number of biblical passages allude to the irritable, vindictive nature of bees and to the painful stings they inflict (Dt 1:44; Ps 118:12; Is 7:18).<\/p>\n<p>One reference calls attention to the fact that in semidesert regions a dead animal’s carcass, stripped to the bone by jackals or vultures and dried in the sun, can provide wild bees an excellent place to start a new colony (Jgs 14:5-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptians considered the bee sacred. In ancient Greece candles were made from beeswax. In the Holy Land, beekeeping was probably not practiced until the Hellenistic period (second century <span>BC<\/span>), although Ezekiel 27:17 suggests that it may have been practiced earlier. If domestic honey was not available to the Hebrews, wild honey certainly was, and travelers would be on the lookout for caches of honey in rocky clefts and other likely places. The Philistines and the Hittites practiced beekeeping in their cities.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible contains many references to bees and bee products. A bee swarm was a valuable asset, though the price of honey itself was low. Honey was sometimes eaten with the honeycomb (Sg 5:1). Honey also had uses other than food, e.g., in embalming.<\/p>\n<p>The land of Israel was described as a land flowing with milk and honey. Honey was a major source of sweetening in the ancient Near East—hence, its importance (cf. Jgs 14:8-9). Actually the Hebrew word for “honey” may include not only bee honey but also the sweet syrup extracted from such fruits as figs, dates, and grapes. Thus “a land flowing with milk and honey” (Ex 3:8, <span>rsv<\/span>) does not necessarily stand for a land of bees but for a land rich in sweetness.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Food and Food Preparation; Honey.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Behemoth\">Behemoth<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Hippopotamus (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Camel\">Camel<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of burden. Unintelligent, ill-natured, and quarrelsome, the camel <em>(Camelus dromedarius)<\/em> is nevertheless a blessing to people living in the desert and on its borders because it is especially adapted to that habitat. It has been called the ship of the desert. Having thick elastic pads of fibrous tissue on its feet, it can walk on hot desert sands. It can go without water for long periods and can subsist on vegetation growing on the saline soils. The camel’s nostrils are pinched together and can be closed at will to prevent penetration of sand during violent sandstorms.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are used for transporting both goods and people. A person riding a camel can cover from 60 to 75 miles (96.5 to 121 kilometers) in a day. A camel can carry a load weighing 600 pounds (272 kilograms) or more. Camels were used heavily in the spice trade (Gn 37:25) and traveled regularly in camel trains between Arabia, Egypt, and Assyria. They were also ridden in time of war (Jgs 6:5). A camel can even be hitched to a plow in areas where the land is cultivated.<\/p>\n<p>The hair shed by camels during the early spring is preserved and used in weaving cloth and making tents. As much as 10 pounds (4.5 kilograms) of hair can be obtained from one camel. A rough cloak of camel’s hair, as worn by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4), is still worn by Bedouins today. A camel’s hair garment was also the sign of the prophetic office (Zec 13:4).<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of camel occur within the one-humped species, the slow burden-bearing camel referred to in Genesis 37:25 and the fast dromedary of 1 Samuel 30:17. The dromedary can stand seven feet (2.1 meters) tall and measure as much as nine feet (2.7 meters) from the muzzle to the tip of the tail. With its three-chambered stomach, which can hold from 15 to 30 quarts (14.2 to 28.4 liters) of liquid, it can go for as long as 5 days during the summer or 25 days in winter without drinking. The camel’s hump is a reserve store of fat, making it possible for the animal to subsist on very little food during a desert journey.<\/p>\n<p>Another species of camel, the Bactrian camel <em>(Camelus bactrianus),<\/em> is also resident in the Holy Land. It has two humps. It is heavier, bigger, and has longer hair than the one-humped camel and is slower than the swift dromedary. Isaiah 21:7 may refer to the Bactrian camel; both kinds of camel are referred to in Esther 8:10 (<span>kjv<\/span>). Camels ranked in importance with sheep, cattle, and asses in OT times. A third of the 66 biblical references to the camel lists it with other animals.<\/p>\n<p>Camels are ruminants (cud-chewing mammals) but do not have cloven hooves. Thus, they were included in the list of unclean beasts, forbidden by the Israelites as food (Lv 11:4; Dt 14:7). They are eaten by Arabs, however, who also drink their milk (cf. Gn 32:15).<\/p>\n<p>Abraham had camels in Egypt (Gn 12:16). At first Job had 3,000 camels (Jb 1:3) and after his recovery, 6,000 (Jb 42:12). Although wide use of camels does not seem to have begun until shortly before 1000 <span>BC<\/span> (Jgs 6:5), Sumerian texts from the Old Babylonian period list camels and indicate that they had been domesticated. Camel bones and figurines have been found at various eastern archaeological sites dating from well before 1200 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Caterpillar\">Caterpillar<\/p>\n<p>Larval stage of insects characterized by complete metamorphosis. Such insects pass through four stages: egg, larva or caterpillar, pupa, and adult. Bees, flies, moths, and butterflies all pass through a larval or caterpillar stage.<\/p>\n<p>The word “caterpillar” occurs three times in the <span>nlt<\/span> (1 Kgs 8:37; 2 Chr 6:28; Ps 78:46). In the book of Joel that same Hebrew word is translated “locust” (1:4; 2:25, <span>nlt<\/span>). The locust and grasshopper to which the Hebrew word refers have an incomplete type of metamorphosis with only three stages: egg, nymph, and adult. The nymph is a miniature adult in which the wings are not fully developed, though their outline may be present. There are several nymph stages known as instars. The reference is to one of the last instars, in which the wing structures are still folded together and enclosed in a sac but are nevertheless clearly recognizable. That form of the insect is about an inch (2.5 centimeters) long.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cattle\">Cattle<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animals of the bovine species <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> The OT often emphasized the beauty of cattle. Egypt was rich in cattle, especially in the Nile River delta area (Goshen), where the Hebrews settled under Joseph.<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars believe that milk rather than meat was the foremost consideration in the domestication of cattle and that in early civilizations meat supplies came chiefly from wild game. Cattle also supplied strong hides that supplanted wood in the manufacture of shields. Their dung was a source of fuel when wood was scarce (Ez 4:15). They were used as beasts of burden and for plowing. Development of wheeled transportation was associated more closely with cattle than with any other animal.<\/p>\n<p>The biblical term “cattle” often refers to all domesticated animals or livestock (Gn 1:24; 2:20; 7:23; 47:6, 16-17; Ex 9:3-7; Nm 3:41, 45). Occasionally, the term was used to refer to all large domestic animals (Nm 31:9; 32:26), although sometimes the word as used in the <span>kjv<\/span> refers only to sheep and goats (Gn 30:32, 39, 43; 31:8, 10; Is 7:25; 43:23).<\/p>\n<p>Probably several kinds of cattle were domesticated in the Holy Land. Small, short-legged, black or brown shorthorn cattle were found in the southern part of Judah; that type submitted easily to the yoke and was prominent in agricultural operations. Along the coast a larger variety was found, and the wild districts east of the Jordan River were populated with a breed of huge black cattle.<\/p>\n<p>Cattle breeding was widely practiced by the patriarchs (cf. Gn 32:15; Jb 21:10). Strict laws in Mesopotamia, as well as in Israel, penalized the owner of a bull that gored a man or other cattle (Ex 21:28-36). Bulls were sometimes employed figuratively as pictures of strength or violence (Dt 33:17; Pss 22:12; 68:30; Is 10:13). For breeding purposes one bull is normally adequate for about 30 cows, but many more were kept since bulls were widely used in Israel for sacrifices. They might be used as a general sacrifice (Lv 22:23; Nm 23:1) or for special sacrifices (Jgs 6:25; 1 Sm 1:24). Particular sacrifices were offered at the consecration of priests (Ex 29:1), consecration of an altar (Nm 7), purification of the Levites (Nm 8), sin offerings (Lv 16), day of the new moon (Nm 28:11-14), Passover (Nm 28:19), Feast of Weeks (Nm 28:27), Feast of Trumpets (Nm 29:1-2), Day of Atonement (Nm 29:7-9), and the Feast of Tabernacles (Nm 29:12-38). The Feast of Tabernacles required the largest number of bulls for burnt offerings of all the annual feasts, with a total of 71 being slaughtered during the course of eight days.<\/p>\n<p>Calves were sometimes referred to as “sons of the herd” in the original Hebrew (Gn 18:8; 1 Sm 6:7; 14:32). The calf, a symbol of peacefulness (Is 11:6), was also used figuratively to refer to the weak (Ps 68:30). A calf’s head decorated the back of Solomon’s throne (1 Kgs 10:19). Calves were sometimes fattened in stalls to keep them from running off weight in the field (Am 6:4; Mal 4:2; Lk 15:23) or were kept around the house; the witch of Endor kept a calf in her house that she killed and served to Saul and his men (1 Sm 28:24-25). Calves supplied veal (Gn 18:7), considered a delicacy by the wealthy; Amos referred to stall-fattened calves in a denunciation of luxurious and careless living (Am 6:4). Calves also supplied meat for all Saul’s armies at the great slaughter of the Philistines (1 Sm 14:32). The “fatted calf” served roasted or boiled was gourmet fare, suitable for the finest banquet (Gn 18:7; Mt 22:4; Lk 15:23).<\/p>\n<p>Cattle were subject to the law of firstlings (Ex 13:12). They were a mark of wealth (Gn 13:2) and were considered proper booty of war (Jos 8:2). Aaron, the first high priest, made a golden calf as a rival to the ark of the covenant (Ex 32; Dt 9:16, 21). Even though he represented the calf as an image of the invisible God, it was especially offensive because the calf was a fertility symbol related to Egyptian and Canaanite practices. Two calves were later made by Jeroboam I of Israel (930–909 <span>BC<\/span>) for his shrines at Bethel and Dan (1 Kgs 12:28-33). Hosea’s prophetic denunciations of calf worship were directed at those shrines (Hos 8:5-6; 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>An ox is an adult castrated bull. A steer is a young ox. Oxen were used to do work (Nm 7:3; Dt 22:10; 25:4), though for moving heavy objects, cows were typically favored over bulls because of their more docile nature. Oxen were also used as pack animals (1 Chr 12:40, although they did not have the endurance of the ass, camel, or mule. They usually fed on grass (Nm 22:4; Ps 106:20), but they also ate straw (Is 11:7) and salted fodder (Is 30:24) and could be kept in a stable (Lk 13:15). Oxen could not be offered as sacrifices because they had been castrated (Lv 22:24). They could be used for food but were rarely eaten. Possession of an ox and an ass was regarded as the bare minimum for existence in the ancient Palestinian agriculture economy (Jb 24:3; cf. Ex 20:17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Agriculture; Food and Food Preparation; Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chameleon\">Chameleon<\/p>\n<p>Lizard characterized by its ability to change color according to its surroundings <em>(Chameleon vulgaris).<\/em> To the Israelites the chameleon was ritually unclean (Lv 11:30). The Hebrew word for chameleon is derived from a word meaning “to pant.” A lizard’s lungs are very large, and in ancient times lizards were believed to live on air. A chameleon’s eyes move independently of each other; so at times one eye may be turned upward and the other downward. Chameleons live in trees and bushes, clinging to branches with their long tails.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Coral\">Coral<\/p>\n<p>Calcareous (lime-containing) skeletons of relatively simple marine organisms <em>(Corallium rubrum).<\/em> Red coral from the Mediterranean and Red Seas is widely used for jewelry and for medicinal purposes. While the animal is alive, the coral is green in color and shrublike in appearance, looking rather like an underwater plant since the coral animals are immobil. When the coral is removed from the water, it becomes hard and red in color.<\/p>\n<p>In ancient times coral was sometimes used as money, along with precious stones, pearls, and gold. Some believe the biblical reference in Lamentations 4:7 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is to pearls rather than to coral, but it is probable that the references in Job 28:18 and Ezekiel 27:16 are to the red coral (see <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cricket\">Cricket<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the order Orthptera related to grasshoppers and locusts. According to Leviticus 11:22, the cricket was edible. The reference may be to one of the growth stages of the locust.<\/p>\n<p>The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word as “beetle.” Beetles are insects with chewing mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the fore pair being hard and sheathlike and the hind pair being membranous and folded under the fore pair. Some beetles are carnivorous, others are chiefly herbivorous. Some are aquatic, some produce a secretion that blisters the skin, some damage fabrics, some damage crops, and some feed on other insects that are harmful to humans. In ancient Egypt the beetle, or sacred scarab, was a symbol of the sun god Ra. Scarab seals and amulets were extremely popular in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Crocodile\">Crocodile<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all existing reptiles <em>(Crocodilus vulgaris),<\/em> attaining a length of well over 20 feet (6 meters). Crocodiles are characterized by large lizardlike bodies supported by short legs. The head terminates in a flattened snout armed with strong conical teeth, each of which is implanted in a distinct socket. New teeth growing from beneath continually replace those in use. The toes are webbed. The back and tail are protected by quadrangular horny shields of varying sizes arranged in regular rows and in contact with one another at the edges. The eyes are covered with movable lids that can be closed when the animal enters the water.<\/p>\n<p>The crocodile spends most of its time in the water where it feeds mainly on fish but also on aquatic birds and even small animals that come down to the water’s edge to drink. It is surprisingly fast and agile on dry land, even though its legs are so short that its belly and tail drag across the earth leaving a distinct path.<\/p>\n<p>Until the beginning of the 20th century, the crocodile was found in the marshes and small coastal rivers of western Palestine. A first-century Roman writer, Pliny, referred to a place in the Holy Land called Crocodeilopolis (“crocodile city”) to the south of Mt Carmel, and visitors to the Holy Land as late as the 19th century reported seeing crocodiles in that general region.<\/p>\n<p>The description of “Leviathan” in Job 41 seems to be based on the crocodile (thus the translation of the <span>nlt<\/span>). The “dragon” of Ezekiel 29:3, used figuratively of the Egyptian pharaoh, may be a reference to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Deer\">Deer<\/p>\n<p>Large ruminant (cud-chewing) animals. Only the males have antlers (branching horns). Deer antlers grow annually and are solid, in contrast to those of the antelope and the gazelle. Fully developed antlers are devoid of any covering of skin or horn and, for all practical purposes, may be regarded as a mass of dead bone carried for a certain time by the living animal.<\/p>\n<p>The end of the deer’s muzzle is naked in all species. The stomach is divided into a series of compartments, some of which are used to store partly chewed food. The food is later regurgitated, rechewed, and finally swallowed into a section of the stomach where true digestion takes place.<\/p>\n<p>Three species of deer were known in Palestine: the red deer <em>(Cervus elaphus),<\/em> the Persian fallow deer <em>(Dama mesopotamica),<\/em> and the roe deer <em>(Capreolus capreolus).<\/em> All are now extinct there. The last deer were hunted in the Holy Land in 1914. The red deer referred to in the Bible as “hart” (male), “stag” (male), or “hind” (female) stood about four feet (1.2 meters) high at the shoulder. It was gregarious (living in herds or flocks), each group remaining in a definite territory. Red deer grazed and browsed during the morning and late afternoon (Lam 1:6). The sexes remained in separate herds. The red deer was known for its leaping (Is 35:6) and sure-footedness in the mountains (Ps 18:33; Sg 2:8-9, 17; 8:14; Hb 3:19).<\/p>\n<p>The antlers of the Persian fallow deer (1 Kgs 4:23) were large, flattened, and palmated (shaped like an open palm with fingers extended), and its coat was a yellowbrown. It traveled in small groups, feeding mainly on grass in the morning and evening.<\/p>\n<p>The roe deer (Dt 14:5; 1 Kgs 4:23) was a small, graceful animal, dark reddish brown in summer and yellowish gray in winter. Its antlers were about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and had three points. The roe deer preferred sparsely wooded valleys and the lower slopes of mountains, grazing in open grasslands. It usually associated in family groups made up of the doe and her offspring. They were shy, yet very curious. The roe deer barked like a dog when disturbed, and they were excellent swimmers.<\/p>\n<p>There is some question as to whether the roe deer is actually referred to in such passages as 1 Kings 4:23; references may be to the fallow deer, although that animal does not seem to have lived in the southern part of Palestine around the Sinai Desert because of its need for ample amounts of food and water. Fallow deer were found in northern Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The hart (the male red deer) was listed among the clean beasts that Jewish law permitted as food (Dt 12:15, 22; 14:5), but deer were not listed among the animals appropriate for sacrifice. The hind (female red deer) normally gave birth to one calf at a time, though twins were born with some degree of regularity (Jb 39:1; Ps 29:9, <span>kjv<\/span>; Jer 14:5). The gestation period was about 40 weeks. When it was about to give birth, the hind looked for a secure hiding place, preferably in the dense undergrowth of the forest where it could find natural protection for the tiny calf. During the first few days after birth, the mother never went far from her young. The fawn was able to stand on its own legs a few hours after birth. The solicitous care by the hind for her calf during the first days of its life is hinted at in a touching way in Jeremiah 14:4-5, where only a severe drought is said to drive the hind from her calf. Job 39:1-4 describes the calving of the hinds. The hind illustrated grace and charm (Gn 49:21; Prv 5:19), and its dark, gentle eyes and graceful limbs were used to describe the beauty of a woman (Prv 5:18-19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dog\">Dog<\/p>\n<p>Probably the earliest domesticated animal <em>(Canis familiaris),<\/em> used very early in hunting. The modern dog is believed to have come from the Indian wolf <em>(Canis lupus pallipes).<\/em> The dogs of biblical times probably looked like a modern German shepherd, with short pointed ears, a pointed nose, and a long tail.<\/p>\n<p>The dog was generally looked down upon in biblical times (Prv 26:11; 2 Pt 2:22). The biblical writers did not share modern sentiments about dogs being man’s best friends. The dog was pictured as a scavenger, haunting streets and dumps (Ex 22:31; 1 Kgs 22:38; Mt 15:26; Lk 16:21). Human corpses could become the spoil of dogs (2 Kgs 9:35-36). In general, dogs served the same function as vultures and other birds of prey. Most of the 41 references in the Scriptures to dogs show strong disfavor. Dogs were considered cowardly, filthy creatures.<\/p>\n<p>Dogs used in hunting occur in paintings in Egyptian tombs, and there is a reference to dogs herding sheep in Job 30:1. One good quality of dogs highly esteemed by the Israelites was watchfulness (Is 56:10). In general, however, in biblical times “dog” was a term of contempt (1 Sm 17:43; 2 Sm 16:9) and was used of overly submissive persons (2 Sm 9:8; 2 Kgs 8:13) and of evil persons (Is 56:10-11; Mt 7:6; Phil 3:2; Rv 22:15).<\/p>\n<p>Dogs, like pigs, were voracious and omnivorous (eating any kind of food). In response to a Gentile woman’s request that he heal her daughter, Jesus used the metaphor of throwing household food scraps to dogs (Mt 15:22-28; Mk 7:25-30). At the time of Jesus, the word “dog” was a standard Jewish term of contempt for Gentiles who, like dogs, were considered unclean, although the diminutive form of the word, used by Jesus, softened this considerably. Seeing her faith, Jesus granted the woman’s request, giving a non-Jew some of “the children’s bread.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Donkey\">Donkey<\/p>\n<p>Beast of burden. The donkey of the Holy Land <em>(Equus asinus)<\/em> was quite different from the European donkey of today, which is usually a small, stubborn animal. In biblical times the donkey was a beautiful, stately, friendly animal. Its color was usually reddish brown. Three wild races have been described, all from Africa. The race from northwest Africa is extinct; the one from northeast Africa, if not extinct, is close to extinction; the Somalian race, which survives, did not play an important part in domestication. The northeast African race, the Nubian donkey, was evidently domesticated in the Nile River region in early historic times. The donkey was used as a mount from the time of domestication on. It is first mentioned in the Bible among the animals that Abraham acquired in Egypt (Gn 12:16). The donkey was primarily a beast of burden, driven but not bridled. From the time of the Middle Kingdom on (c. 2040 <span>BC<\/span>), it was used for riding in Egypt, but only the Jews and Nubians rode donkeys regularly. The donkey was also used for threshing grain and for pulling the plow. In Arab countries today peasants plow with a donkey and a cow or camel hitched together. In Israel the law forbade plowing with a donkey and an ox hitched together (Dt 22:10). Until the time of Solomon (960 <span>BC<\/span>), horses were not used in Palestine. From that time on, the horse was ridden by warriors; the donkey was used by those who were traveling peaceably.<\/p>\n<p>The donkey was held in high regard by the Jews and was considered an economic asset. An individual had to have a donkey for minimum existence (Jb 24:3), and wealth was frequently counted by the number of donkeys one possessed (Gn 12:16; 24:35). The donkey was considered an acceptable gift (Gn 32:13-15). It was allowed to rest on the Sabbath (Dt 5:14). Women in biblical times often used the donkey as a riding animal (Jos 15:18; 1 Sm 25:23; 2 Kgs 4:24); often a special driver would help a woman guide the animal, running along at its side. If a married couple possessed only one donkey, the husband usually walked alongside while the wife rode (Ex 4:20).<\/p>\n<p>The people of Israel returning from Babylon had ten times as many donkeys as horses and camels (Ezr 2:66-67; Neh 7:68-69). Job’s wealth was indicated by the fact that he had 500 she-donkeys before catastrophe hit him (Jb 1:3); after his recovery he had 1,000 donkeys (Jb 42:12). Joseph’s brothers used donkeys to transport the grain they purchased in Egypt (Gn 42:26; 43:24). Abigail transported food on donkeys to David and his troops during their conflict with Saul (1 Sm 25:18). David assigned one of the 12 managers of his royal estates to look after his donkeys exclusively (1 Chr 27:30).<\/p>\n<p>The onager, or Syrian wild donkey <em>(Equus hemionus hemihippus)<\/em>, is an intermediate between the true horse and the true donkey. Its ears are longer than those of a horse but shorter than those of a donkey. The front hooves are narrow; there are chestnuts (callouslike spots on the inside of the knees) on the front legs only, and the tail is short haired for a long distance from its root so that it appears to be tufted.<\/p>\n<p>The Sumerians (ancient Mesopotamians) were able to domesticate the onager, which was eventually replaced by the horse. It was used to draw chariots in Ur; a number of onagers were buried with their vehicles in a royal grave that dates from about 2500 <span>BC<\/span>. Later the wild onager was a favorite hunter’s prize for Babylonian and Assyrian kings.<\/p>\n<p>The onager was very common in the steppe lands near Israel, where it was described as a freedom-loving desert animal (Jb 24:5; 39:5-8; Ps 104:11; Is 32:14; Jer 2:24; Hos 8:9). Ishmael was described as “free and untamed as a wild donkey” (Gn 16:12, <span>nlt<\/span>)—that is, one who could not adjust to domestic life. Drought seems to have been responsible for the population decline of the onager in biblical times (Jer 14:6). The modern onager <em>(Equus hemionus onager)<\/em> is slightly larger than the Syrian wild donkey that is extinct.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dragon\">Dragon<\/p>\n<p>Any one of a number of monstrous land and sea creatures. In biblical usage, “dragon” does not refer to the huge, fire-breathing, winged reptile of European folklore. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> used the term to translate two Hebrew words that are usually rendered more precisely in modern translations. One word referred to desert animals; most scholars agree with the <span>niv<\/span> that “jackals” is its proper meaning (Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; Jer 9:11; Mal 1:3). <em>See<\/em> Jackal (below).<\/p>\n<p>The other Hebrew word translated “dragon” is harder to define. It was frequently used in reference to serpents (so translated in the <span>rsv<\/span>: Ex 7:9-12; Dt 32:33; Ps 91:13). In other <span>rsv<\/span> passages it is translated “sea monster” (Gn 1:21; Jb 7:12; Ps 148:7). The exact identity of such sea monsters is not known. Several <span>rsv<\/span> passages retain the English “dragon.” In two of them (Ps 74:13; Is 27:1), the context indicates that sea monsters are meant. In three others (Is 51:9; Ez 29:3; 32:2) “dragon” seems to refer to the crocodile, a figurative reference to the Egyptian pharaoh at the time of the exodus. Jeremiah 51:34 (translated “monster” in the <span>rsv<\/span>) may also refer to a voracious creature such as a crocodile. <em>See<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p>Babylonian myths described monsters and dragons in primordial conflict with the god Marduk; they represented the principle of evil. In its figurative usages in Scripture, “dragon” has a similar significance, especially in the prophetic books. In the book of Revelation it is a symbol of Satan, the archenemy of God and his people (Rv 12:3-17; 13:2, 4, 11; 16:13; 20:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fish\">Fish<\/p>\n<p>Aquatic animals frequently mentioned in the Bible without names or descriptions that enable us to identify the particular species. Since time immemorial, fish have constituted one of the staple foods of humanity, and they still serve as the chief source of protein in many parts of the world. The trade in fish was highly developed in biblical times. For example, one of the gates in Jerusalem was called the Fish Gate (Neh 3:3; Zep 1:10). The law in Leviticus 11:9-12 permitted the Jews to eat fish, but only those having both fins and scales. Scaleless fish such as catfish were forbidden, even though they had fins.<\/p>\n<p>Egyptian paintings depict various methods of fishing, and the Philistines fished in the Mediterranean Sea. Since the people of Israel were not a seafaring nation, it is safe to assume that most of their fish came from freshwater lakes and rivers, especially the Sea of Galilee. Some 36 species of fish have been identified in that lake, including varieties of perch, carp, barbel, “sardine,” and catfish.<\/p>\n<p>The method of fishing characteristic of NT times was the dragnet. After a boat had put out into the deep (Lk 5:4), a large net would be thrown out from it and then dragged toward shore by the rowers in the boat, possibly with the help of a crew in another boat. The catch was sorted out on shore (Mt 13:47-48). Fishing was usually carried out at night when the coolness of the water brought fish closer to the surface and when they could not see the approaching nets.<\/p>\n<p>The Jews also fished by hook and line (Mt 17:27), a few by spear (Jb 41:7), and some by the throw net (Ez 47:10). Habakkuk refers to hook-and-line fishing, netting, and seining (1:15).<\/p>\n<p>Very early in the history of the Christian church the fish became a symbol for Christ and the faith. It was scratched on the walls of Roman catacombs and may be seen today decorating walls, altars, pews, and vestments. The symbol came into use because the Greek word for “fish” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">ichthus<\/span><em>)<\/em> is composed of the first letter of each word in the Greek phrase “Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior.” <em>See<\/em> Whale (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Flea\">Flea<\/p>\n<p>Tiny, irritating insect (1 Sm 24:14; 26:20, <span>nlt<\/span>). Many species of fleas occur in Palestine, the most common being <em>Pulex irritans.<\/em> About a thousand species are known around the world. Fleas are wingless parasites that have sharp jaws and suck out blood from the bodies of humans and animals. The body is wedge shaped, enabling the flea to burrow into folds of skin and hide there. The eggs, laid by the female in dust heaps in the corners of rooms, hatch into small, white larvae that pupate (a nonfeeding stage) in a cocoon. Soon adult fleas appear that immediately attach themselves to the body of a host. The female requires blood for the development of her eggs.<\/p>\n<p>A flea bite is painful and causes some swelling and itching. Fleas are attracted by warmth. With favorable moisture and temperature, adult fleas can live a year or longer without food, but they are voracious feeders. The most dangerous fleas are those of the rat that transmit the organism responsible for bubonic plague. There were 41 recorded epidemics of bubonic plague before the Christian era.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fly\">Fly<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the order Diptera, which have one pair of wings. Many winged insects of other orders, however, are also called flies, such as the dragonfly or butterfly.<\/p>\n<p>As in almost all parts of the world, flies are abundant in Palestine. One of the most numerous is the common housefly <em>(Musca domestica),<\/em> found chiefly around dung heaps and garbage. The female lays her eggs, out of which emerge white maggots that feed on refuse. After a few days the maggot develops into a cocoon out of which emerges the adult housefly. In the summer the whole cycle lasts about 12 days, so that a fly can breed about 20 generations a year.<\/p>\n<p>Another fly common to Palestine is the botfly (family Oestridae). It causes much discomfort among livestock by irritating them and spreading diseases. Tabanid flies (family Tabanidae), including the horsefly (genus <em>Tabanus<\/em>) and related species, are also found in Palestine. Both the botfly and horsefly are known as gadflies because of the persistent distress they inflict. Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar is spoken of as a gadfly in view of his invasion of Egypt (Jer 46:20).<\/p>\n<p>The fourth plague in Egypt just before the exodus featured “swarms of flies” (Ex 8:21-31, <span>nlt<\/span>; cf. Pss 78:45; 105:31). Those swarms may have been made up of any or all the flies mentioned above. The maggots mentioned in Job 25:6 and Isaiah 14:11 and the worms in Exodus 16:24 and Job 7:5 and 17:14 were probably fly larvae.<\/p>\n<p>A proverb quoted in Ecclesiastes 10:1 probably refers to the housefly, which would be attracted to an open, perfumed ointment bottle. Once inside it would drown and eventually decay, causing the ointment to spoil and stink. The fly is also referred to in Isaiah 7:18 where it symbolizes Egypt. Isaiah may have had in mind a horsefly <em>(Tabanus arenivagus)<\/em> that attacks both humans and animals.<\/p>\n<p>Philistine inhabitants of the city of Ekron worshiped a god named Baal-zebul, meaning “Lord of the high places.” The Hebrews mockingly spoke of Baal-zebub, meaning “Lord of the flies” (2 Kgs 1:2). The NT form is Beelzebub (e.g., Mt 10:25; 12:24, 27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Fox\">Fox<\/p>\n<p>Small, doglike carnivore with a bushy tail that is about half its body length. The red fox of the Holy Land <em>(Vulpes palaetinae)<\/em> is similar to the North American red fox; it is smaller than a wolf and is normally a nocturnal solitary animal. The omnivorous fox eats almost any kind of food—fruits, plants, mice, beetles, and birds—but seldom touches carrion. It loves the sweet juice of grapes, but it also burrows underground tunnels that can destroy the vines (Sg 2:15). The fox is intelligent and known for its slyness (Lk 13:32). It has considerable endurance and can run at speeds up to 30 miles (48 kilometers) per hour. The Jews rebuilding Jerusalem’s wall were taunted by the wisecrack that even a fox jumping on their wall would knock it over (Neh 4:3).<\/p>\n<p>The Egyptian fox <em>(Vulpes niloticus)<\/em> is found in the central and southern parts of the Holy Land. It is somewhat smaller than the common red fox. Its back is rust colored and its belly light. The Syrian fox <em>(Vulpes flavescens)<\/em> that lives in the northern part of the Holy Land is shiny gold in color.<\/p>\n<p>Some OT references such as Psalm 63:10 and Lamentations 5:18 are translated “fox” in the <span>kjv<\/span> but probably refer to jackals. Jackals, not foxes, hunt in packs and tend to act as scavengers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Frog\">Frog<\/p>\n<p>Amphibian (genus <em>Rana<\/em>), living part of its life in the water and part on land.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs and toads are covered with soft, hairless skin and lack a tail in the adult stage. The hind legs are much longer and more powerfully developed than the forelegs so that the animals are able to jump large distances. It has been suggested that the frog referred to in Scripture is an edible one, <em>Rana ridibunda,<\/em> one of the aquatic frogs found in Egypt and in the stagnant waters of the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The female frog lays her eggs in the water; after about a week the eggs hatch into tadpoles. Gradually through metamorphosis the tail is lost and limbs are acquired. Frogs must maintain a moist skin since they take oxygen through the skin as well as through their lungs; thus they must always remain close to water. They feed on insects and worms.<\/p>\n<p>Frogs are found throughout the Palestinian lowlands, where their croaking is heard in the spring and on summer evenings. The Israelites seem to have associated frogs primarily with sliminess and foulness. They fell into the category of creeping or swarming creatures, which in general were ritually unclean (Lv 11:29-31). Since the frog was not specifically listed, however, rabbis did not consider it one of the animals that defiled human beings through contact.<\/p>\n<p>In Revelation 16:13 certain foul spirits are said to look like frogs. The ancient Egyptians made the frog a symbol of life and birth and an image of Heqet, the patron goddess of birth. She is depicted with a frog’s head giving life to the newborn. Thus that deity was discredited when the power of God afflicted Egypt in the second of the ten plagues on the Egyptians with the very animal that was her symbol (Ex 8:1-14; Pss 78:45; 105:30). The frog in question may have been the spotted frog of Egypt <em>(Rana punctata,<\/em> or <em>Rana ridibunda).<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gazelle\">Gazelle<\/p>\n<p>Small, dainty, graceful antelope with hollow recurved horns on both sexes. Two varieties exist in the Holy Land, the dorcas gazelle <em>(Gazella dorcas),<\/em> which is pale fawn in color and up to 22 inches (56 centimeters) tall, and the Arabian gazelle <em>(Gazella arabica),<\/em> which is a dark smoky color and up to 25 inches (63.5 centimeters) tall.<\/p>\n<p>Gazelles are still quite common throughout the desert and steppe areas of the Holy Land, especially in the Negev Desert. Herds usually consist of from 5 to 10 animals, but some varieties assemble in large migratory herds in the fall to relocate to lower elevations and new feeding grounds. Gazelles are herbivorous (plant eating). They are very shy and post guards to warn the herd of approaching danger.<\/p>\n<p>In biblical times the gazelle was probably the game animal most hunted by the Jews (Prv 6:5; Is 13:14). Pharaoh Tutankhamen hunted gazelles and ostriches. The gazelle is said to have graced Solomon’s table (1 Kgs 4:23). Gazelles were not easy to catch because of their great speed (2 Sm 2:18; 1 Chr 12:8; Prv 6:5); they surpass the deer in swiftness. They were trapped in various ways—encircled with nets, driven into enclosures with pitfalls, or forced into narrow valleys and shot with arrows. The Bedouin hunt gazelle with falcons and dogs; the falcon annoys the gazelle, striking it on the head and injuring it so that the dogs can overtake it.<\/p>\n<p>The gazelle is referred to in Song of Songs 2:9, 17; 4:5; 7:3; 8:14, where it is an image of feminine beauty.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gecko\">Gecko<\/p>\n<p>Reptile of the family Gekkonidae, referred to in Leviticus 11:30. In Jewish food law it was a ritually unclean lizard. There are seven species of geckos in the Holy Land (including <em>Hemidactylus turcicus<\/em> and <em>Ptyodactylus hasselquistii,<\/em> all insectivorous—insect eating). The gecko makes a low mourning sound by vibrating its tongue rapidly against the roof of its mouth. In legend the gecko was said to cause leprosy by crawling across a person’s body.<\/p>\n<p>Another name for the gecko is the wall lizard, so named because it can walk upside down on ceilings with the aid of the suction discs on its toes—but it often plops down into the middle of the home. Since it was considered unclean, such an intrusion would have been a disgusting nuisance to Jewish households (Lv 11:31-38).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lizard (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Gnat\">Gnat<\/p>\n<p>Any very small fly, in common and biblical usage. According to the <span>nlt<\/span>, the third plague in Egypt before the exodus consisted of gnats (Ex 8:16-18; Ps 105:31). The <span>kjv<\/span> translates the Hebrew word there as “lice,” but the breeding pattern described in Exodus 8—insects rising from the dust—seems to fit gnats better than lice. Since “gnat” is a general term, the small flies of that plague may have included several small species such as mosquitos, harvester gnats, midges, or sand flies.<\/p>\n<p>The sand fly inflicts a far more painful bite than the mosquito. Further, it does not betray itself by a buzzing noise in flight and is so small that it penetrates most mosquito netting.<\/p>\n<p>Gnats were drawn to wine while it was fermenting. The Pharisees in particular would strain their wine to avoid consuming unclean insects (Mt 23:24).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Goat\">Goat<\/p>\n<p>Cloven-hooved mammals (genus <em>Capra<\/em>) with large eyes and big, floppy ears that constantly twitch. Both males and females have backward arching horns. The Palestinian goat is a ruminant (cud-chewing animal) of lighter build than the sheep.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was probably the earliest ruminant to be domesticated. Its wild ancestor seems to have been the Gezoar goat <em>(Capra aegagrus).<\/em> Wild goats are believed to have been domesticated very early in Palestine. The goat of Bible times was probably the Syrian or Mamber variety <em>(Capra hircus mambrica).<\/em> Domesticated goats may have as many as four kids in a litter, whereas wild goats bear only one or two.<\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian goat was commonly black. Speckled and spotted goats were a rarity, and for that reason Jacob’s request for those goats in Genesis 30:32 appeared very modest. There may also have been red goats (cf. 1 Sm 16:12; 19:13, where goat’s hair was used to imitate David’s hair, which was “ruddy” or auburn).<\/p>\n<p>Almost every part of the goat was used by the Israelites. The whole goat was used for sacrifice. Its flesh served as meat (Lv 7:23; Dt 14:4), and it was the principal source of milk (Prv 27:27). Goats were sheared in the late spring, and the goat hair was used for weaving tent cloth and for various domestic purposes (Ex 36:14; 1 Sm 19:13, 16). The tabernacle at Mt Sinai was made of goat’s hair blankets (Ex 26:7).<\/p>\n<p>Adult male goats were generally not eaten because of their strong flavor and toughness and also because they were necessary to insure the flock’s increase. Young kids, however, were usually the chief meat for a feast and were offered to visitors as a symbol of hospitality. Goat milk is richer than the milk of cows and sheep and evidently had broader uses. A good goat gives three quarts of milk a day, from which a rich butter and buttermilk can be made. The average Hebrew family could have lived almost entirely on a single goat’s production.<\/p>\n<p>Goatskin was tanned as leather, and the whole hide was turned into a skin bottle by sewing shut leg and neck apertures (Gn 21:14; Jos 9:4). Goatskin had many uses, including the construction of Hebrew musical instruments. The nebal, a large harp, was made with goatskin for its base sound. Drums had goatskin coverings.<\/p>\n<p>Goats were herded with sheep in biblical times, but each group remained separate following its own bell-laden leader. Jesus was evidently referring to their common herding in his description of the Last Judgment (Mt 25:31-46).<\/p>\n<p>Because of their wool, sheep are valued more than goats. However, where pasture and water are scarce and thorny shrubs dominate over grass, sheep are difficult to keep and goats become important. They can live under conditions that suit neither cows nor sheep, producing large quantities of milk. The goat does not supply fat as the sheep does, and since its hair is coarse its wool is rather scarce. Goat-hair cloth called cilicium was used to make tents.<\/p>\n<p>Goats have voracious appetites. They also were responsible for much damage done to the land of Palestine, breaking down terraces, destroying forests, and bringing about soil erosion by eating off all cover.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was recognized as a form of wealth, subject to the law of firstlings (Nm 18:17). It had to be eight days old before it could be offered as a sacrifice. A year-old male goat was one of the animals offered at the Passover (28:22), and two goats were offered on the Day of Atonement (Lv 16:7-10). The goat was also used for other specific sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p>The ibex, a type of wild goat <em>(Capra ibex nubiana),<\/em> still lives in small numbers on the cliffs close to the Dead Sea. That it was known in ancient times is evident from rock carvings. It is distinguished from the true wild goat by having a more compact rump and horns that are slender and curved back. Its slender legs and sharp cloven hooves enable it to cling to narrow rock ledges, to jump between them, and to climb steep cliffs.<\/p>\n<p>Usually the ibex is found in rugged mountain country among rocky crags and meadows just below the snow line (Ps 104:18). In Job 39:1 they are referred to as “mountain goats.” They frequently gather in herds of 5 to 20. They graze and browse, being active in the afternoon and sometimes feeding through the night. The large horn of the ibex was at one period made into the shofar that was blown in the second Jerusalem temple to announce the new year and the jubilee year.<\/p>\n<p>The goat was often used in a figurative and symbolic sense by the writers of the Bible: in Song of Songs 4:1 and 6:5 for the bride’s black hair; in Matthew 25:31-46 for the wicked; and in Ezekiel 34:17 and Daniel 8:5-8 for various human leaders.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Grasshopper\">Grasshopper<\/p>\n<p>Large insects of the Orthoptera order. They have chewing or biting mouth parts and two pairs of wings, the front pair of which is narrow and somewhat thickened and the hind pair membranous and used for flying. When not in use the flight wings are folded beneath the protective front wings like a fan against the body. By rubbing their wings together, male grasshoppers produce sounds that both males and females can detect. Grasshoppers pass through a partial metamorphosis; the egg hatches into a juvenile nymph that looks like an adult except for its smaller size and undeveloped wings. After several months the nymph becomes a winged adult.<\/p>\n<p>The terms “grasshopper” and “locust” are often used interchangeably. Actually the locust is a kind of grasshopper. Also confusing is the fact that other insects such as cicadas are sometimes called locusts. The difference between grasshoppers and locusts depends more on behavior than appearance. Grasshoppers are individual insects that lead solitary lives and do not migrate. The same insects when migrating in a swarm are called migratory grasshoppers or locusts. Elimination of their food supply by drought, flood, or fire may lead to migration. Climatic factors such as a warm dry winter also stimulate migrations.<\/p>\n<p>Grasshoppers and locusts have been a staple food in the Middle East and also among the Indians of the American Southwest. To the Israelites the grasshopper was considered ritually clean and could be eaten (Lv 11:22).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Locust (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hare\">Hare<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the genus and species <em>Lepus europaeus judaeus, Lepus capensis,<\/em> and <em>Lepus arabicus.<\/em> It is found in open country, often near or on cultivated lands, and in woods, usually deciduous rather than evergreen. It is an herbivorous rodent and is different from the rabbit, which is not found in Palestine. Although it is not a true ruminant according to modern classification (because it does not have a four-chambered stomach), the hare does rechew its food. It has a process of partial regurgitation of material too hard for the cells in the stomach to absorb initially; thus, the hare actually chews food previously swallowed.<\/p>\n<p>Near Eastern hares have very long ears and large hind feet; their feet are well furred. They are similar to American jackrabbits, which are true hares. Hares do not dig or occupy burrows the way rabbits do. Hares are mainly nocturnal and spend their inactive hours hiding in vegetation. They eat grasses and herbaceous matter as well as twigs and young bark of woody plants. Hares breed with great rapidity—the young attaining sexual maturity at six months after birth.<\/p>\n<p>The hare was ceremonially unclean (Lv 11:6; Dt 14:7), evidently because although it appeared to chew its cud, it did not have cloven hooves. Consumption of hares has also been forbidden among the Arabs, Chinese, and Lapps, but the hare was widely hunted by other people in ancient and modern times. Its great speed, prolific breeding, timidity, and caution have saved it from extermination by its many enemies.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hippopotamus\">Hippopotamus<\/p>\n<p>Large beast of problematic interpretation. Some early interpreters thought it referred to the elephant, others to the wild ox, the mammoth, or any large animal. It was called “behemoth” by the <span>kjv<\/span> translators. Today it is generally agreed that the reference is to the hippopotamus <em>(Hippopotamus amphibius),<\/em> a large, thick-skinned, amphibious mammal, an ungulate (having hooflike toenails) with a large head, a bulky, hairless body, and short legs.<\/p>\n<p>The description in Job 40:15-24 fits closely the modern hippopotamus (see <span>nlt<\/span>), except for the depiction of the tail. At present the hippopotamus is found only in the rivers of Africa, but there is fossil evidence that it has existed in the Holy Land, perhaps in the swamps of northern Galilee and the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\n<p>The hippopotamus has highly developed sense organs, placed in such a way that it can see, hear, and smell almost without being seen; its eyes, ears, and nostrils can reach above water while the rest of the animal lies submerged. It has a large mouth, large tusks, and a short, heavy throat. The strong legs are so short that the belly almost reaches the ground when the animal is on the land. The hippopotamus lives on plants and herbs growing in rivers, but if food is scarce there, it forages on land, usually at night. In spite of its heavy body it is surprisingly agile on land.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Horse\">Horse<\/p>\n<p>Przewalski’s horse (<em>Equus przewalskii,<\/em> an eastern race that roamed about Mongolia until modern firearms destroyed most of them after World War I) and the tarpan (a western race of southern Russia that became extinct in the Ukraine in 1851). The domesticated horse <em>(Equus caballus)<\/em> seems to have been derived from the tarpan. The original site of domestication is believed to have been Turkestan, a region north of Afghanistan and India, now in Russia. The horse differs from the donkey in that it has shorter ears, a longer mane with a forelock, a long hairy tail, and a soft, sensitive muzzle.<\/p>\n<p>Horses were used in war not only for riding but also for pulling the heavy, springless war chariots. Two kinds of horses were needed for these different purposes, and the Hebrews distinguished between chariot horses and cavalry horses.<\/p>\n\n<p>The Lord warned the early Israelites against unnecessarily amassing military strength in the form of horses and thereby following the oppressive tactics of the powerful Egyptians (Dt 17:14-16), but the demands of war caused both David and Solomon to import horses from Egypt into their kingdoms and to breed them. Solomon greatly increased the number of horses in the Jewish kingdom and maintained large stables at various cities (1 Kgs 10:26) such as the regional defense centers of Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer (1 Kgs 9:15-19). Ahab’s horses are mentioned in 1 Kings 18:5, and records of Shalmaneser III state that Ahab furnished 2,000 chariots to a coalition against Assyria.<\/p>\n<p>In early Israel, the horse was opposed as a symbol of pagan luxury and of dependence on physical power for defense (Dt 17:16; 1 Sm 8:11; Ps 20:7; Is 31:1). Horse trading, mentioned as early as Genesis 47:17, was carried on by Solomon between Egypt and the Syro-Hittite principalities (1 Kgs 10:28-29). Most biblical references to horses refer to their use in war, but horses were also used for transportation. Riding seems to have been less popular than the use of chariots. Cavalry units were not introduced until the 12th century <span>BC<\/span> by the Medes. Joseph rode in Pharaoh’s second horse-drawn chariot (Gn 41:43), and Absalom made a display by riding a horse-drawn chariot (2 Sm 15:1). Naaman traveled by horse and chariot (2 Kgs 5:9). Later, horses were so common in Jerusalem that the royal palace had a special horse gate (2 Chr 23:15), and a gate of the city itself was known as the Horse Gate (Neh 3:28; Jer 31:40). Mordecai rode a royal horse of King Xerxes as a sign of honor (Est 6:8-11). Horses are often spoken of figuratively (Ps 32:9; “mare,” Sg 1:9; “stallions,” Jer 5:8; 12:5), especially in the context of judgment (Hb 3:8; Zec 1:8; 6:1-8; Rv 6:2-8; 9:17; 19:11-16).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Warfare; Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyena\">Hyena<\/p>\n<p>Stocky carnivore <em>(Hyaena hyaena)<\/em> with coarse hair, an erect mane, and long hairs along the neck and back. Hyenas live in holes among rocks and banks. They are mainly nocturnal but are ordinarily neither noisy nor aggressive. Their cry, however, is a disagreeable, unearthly sound. Hyenas usually feed on carrion, crushing bones with their powerful jaws. If the carrion supply is inadequate, they will kill sheep, goats, or other small animals. When threatened, hyenas growl and erect their mane, but they rarely fight. They are massively built with forelegs longer than the hind legs.<\/p>\n<p>Known as scavengers in Africa, hyenas eat domestic refuse in the villages. In Palestine the striped hyena is a common predator, preferring rocky territory and even rock tombs. Since hyenas were notorious for raiding the graves of the dead, all Israelites who could afford it arranged for burial in tombs protected by massive stone doors. Absalom, King David’s son who was killed by Joab in the wild, was buried under a huge pile of stones to protect his corpse from molestation by hyenas (2 Sm 18:17).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Jackal\">Jackal<\/p>\n<p>Carnivore <em>(Canis aureus)<\/em> smaller than the true wolf and with a shorter tail. It is similar to the fox but has a broader head, shorter ears, and longer legs. The fox is solitary; the jackal tends to be gregarious. Its tail can be drooping or erect, compared with the long horizontal tail of the fox. Jackals usually prowl at night, either singly, in pairs, or in packs through open savannah country. They eat small mammals, poultry, fruit, vegetables, and carrion. They spend their days in thickets and clumps of vegetation. Often they obtain scraps from kills by larger carnivores. Jackals can run at speeds of about 33 miles (53 kilometers) per hour.<\/p>\n<p>The jackal can reach a height of about 20 inches (51 centimeters), roughly the size of a German shepherd dog. Its back is pale yellow with dark, almost black, flanks. Its lips are black and its ears white on the inside. The howl of the jackal sounds like the crying of a child or the heartrending wail of the bereaved (Mi 1:8; cf. Jb 30:29). To other jackals the howl is merely an invitation calling the pack together for its nocturnal hunting.<\/p>\n<p>OT references are chiefly to jackals prowling around ruined cities and wilderness areas (Neh 2:13; Ps 44:19; Is 13:22; 34:13; 35:7; Jer 9:11; 14:6; 49:33; 51:37; Lam 4:3; 5:18; Mal 1:3). Many such references are translated “dragon” in the <span>kjv<\/span>, but “jackal” is more appropriate.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leech\">Leech<\/p>\n<p>Segmented worm (class Hirundinea) up to five inches (12.7 centimeters) long with a flat body equipped with suction pads at each end. The mouth, located at the bottom of the front suction pad, has three teeth that the leech uses to pierce the skin of its host. The leech feeds on blood, and its glands secrete an anticoagulant to prevent the blood from clotting. The ordinary medicinal leech (Hirudo medicinalis) is abundant in springs and ponds from the Negev Desert to Galilee. It adheres to the bodies of human beings and animals that submerge themselves in water, injects its anticoagulant, and sucks their blood.<\/p>\n<p>The reference in Proverbs 30:15 is uncertain (see <span>nlt<\/span>) but may be to the parasitic and greedy nature of the horse leech (genus <em>Haemopis<\/em>). The small horse leech enters its host’s mouth and nostrils from water while the animal is drinking. A leech weighing one-half ounce (14.2 grams) has been known to gorge itself with two and a half ounces (71 grams) of concentrated blood and then to exist for 15 months with no more to eat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leopard\">Leopard<\/p>\n<p>Called <em>Panthera pardus tulliana,<\/em> it is the most widespread of all the large wildcats. In rocky areas it lives in caves, but in forested regions it lives in thick vegetation. In OT times many lived in the vicinity of Mt Hermon (Sg 4:8).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is somewhat smaller than the tiger, measuring up to 5 feet (1.5 meters) in length with a tail of about 30 inches (.8 meter). Its body is better proportioned than that of the tiger. The leopard takes its victim by surprise from a silent ambush, often concealing itself near villages or watering places and waiting for its prey, remaining in one spot for long spans of time. The leopard is swift on the ground (Hb 1:8), agile in trees, and very graceful in its movements. Its color is yellowish speckled with black spots (Jer 13:23). Daniel and John saw visions in which leopards were symbols of world powers (Dn 7:6; Rv 13:2).<\/p>\n<p>The leopard is a wary and cunning animal, formidable and ferocious (Jer 5:6; Hos 13:7; cf. Is 11:6). The leopard is dangerous not only to domestic animals but also to humans. With its natural camouflage it can hide on the forest floor, blending into the changing light and shadows. The Israelites were terrified of the leopard because it constantly ravaged their sheep and goats. Several biblical place names suggest that they were known for the leopards in their vicinity: Nimrah, Beth-nimrah, and Nimrim, a district northeast of the Dead Sea. It has survived in the Holy Land into the present century; a few leopards still exist in remote areas near Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leviathan\">Leviathan<\/p>\n<p>Sea monster mentioned several times in the Bible (Pss 74:14; 104:26; Is 27:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). It may refer to any of the larger marine animals such as large jellyfish, whales, or sharks, or to a large reptile like the crocodile. Some scholars think “Leviathan” may refer to animals now extinct, such as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs (marine reptiles similar to dinosaurs). The scriptural term might also refer to certain dinosaurs that spent part of their lives half-submerged in shallow lakes and oceans. Other scholars believe that most of the references are to the crocodile.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Crocodile (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lion\">Lion<\/p>\n<p>Large, tawny-colored carnivore <em>(Panthera leo)<\/em> that preys chiefly on hoofed mammals and charges by a series of leaps and bounds. Within historic times the lion ranged in Africa, Europe, and the Holy Land. In ancient times the territories of the African and Persian lions met in the Middle East. The lion of the Holy Land was the Asiatic or Persian lion <em>(Panthera leo persica).<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The males have heavy manes that stop at the shoulders but cover much of the chest. The Persian lion cannot climb and is mainly nocturnal, returning to its lair or a thicket by day (Jer 4:7; 25:38; Na 2:11-12). This lion is about 5 feet (1.5 meters) long with a tasseled tail 30 inches (.8 meter) or so long; its shoulders may reach a height of 35 inches (.9 meter). It is one of the smallest of the lion breeds.<\/p>\n<p>Lions are usually found in pairs, though sometimes in larger numbers. A small group is known as a pride. They generally prefer open country but in Palestine evidently prowled the subtropical vegetation of the Jordan River valley. Lions, which usually hunt at dusk, kill smaller animals by a blow of the paw, larger ones by a bite in the throat. A lion does not remain in the same place for more than a few days. The animal is in its prime at about seven years of age, when it weighs from 400 to 600 pounds (181.6 to 272.4 kilograms).<\/p>\n<p>The lion does not characteristically attack humans, though like other great cats it may become a man-eater (1 Kgs 13:24-28; 20:36; 2 Kgs 17:25-26; Ps 57:4; Dn 6:7-27). Ordinarily, it attacks only out of great hunger or in self-defense. A very young lion that attacks humans can become dangerous if it develops a taste for human flesh. A very old lion, expelled from the pride because it can no longer keep up in the pursuit of antelope or gazelles, may choose humans as a relatively slow-moving prey.<\/p>\n<p>A lion generally roars only on a full stomach—that is, after it has consumed its prey (Ps 22:13; Ez 22:25; Am 3:4). Nevertheless, its roaring arouses fear (Am 3:8; 1 Pt 5:8). The lion is a bold (2 Sm 17:10; Prv 28:1), destructive animal (Ps 7:2; Jer 2:30; Hos 5:14; Mi 5:8), and the enemy of flocks (Am 3:12).<\/p>\n<p>Lions were common in biblical times in all parts of the Holy Land. Hebrew has at least seven words for lion and young lion. The lion is referred to about 130 times in the OT—more than any other wild animal. Lions were evidently much less common in NT times. After gradually declining, they became extinct in Palestine shortly after <span>AD<\/span> 1300. The lion was present in Mesopotamia, however, until the end of the 19th century.<\/p>\n<p>Lions played an important part in the political and religious symbolism of the Near East (1 Kgs 10:19-20). In Assyria and Babylonia the lion was regarded as a royal beast (Dn 7:4). Oriental monarchs maintained artificial lion pits as places of execution (Ez 19:1-9; Dn 6:7-16). Animals for these were captured in camouflaged nets or pits. To the Jews, the lion was the mightiest of beasts (Prv 30:29-31). Thus, it symbolized leadership (Gn 49:9-10; Nm 24:9) and hence eventually became a title for Christ (Rv 5:5). It was also the ensign of Judah’s tribe and was used by King Solomon in the decoration of his house and the temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lizard\">Lizard<\/p>\n<p>Reptiles of the suborder Lacertilia. Their skin is covered with scales. The lizard is a useful creature because it captures harmful insects and worms. Like other reptiles, it lays eggs with shells softer than those of a bird and with no clear division between the yolk and the white. Lizards are “cold-blooded” organisms without a temperature-maintenance mechanism; hence, they become inactive in cold weather.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards can survive in barren parched countryside. In the Near East they are encountered in great numbers in the Arabian Desert, the Sinai Peninsula, and the Judean wilderness. There may be as many as 44 different species of lizards in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The Dabb lizard (genus <em>Uromastyx<\/em>), which attains a length of about 24 inches (61 centimeters), is found in the Negev Desert. It is omnivorous, an unusual trait since most lizards are insectivorous. It has a hard, rough skin, green with brown spots; a short, rounded head; and a powerful tail encircled with a row of strong spines that it uses as a weapon of defense.<\/p>\n<p>Lizards are listed as ceremonially unclean in Jewish law (Lv 11:29-31). The fact that lizards crawl on their bellies made them unclean. Contact with a lizard’s carcass defiled a law-abiding Jew (Lv 11:32-36). The <span>nlt<\/span> translates the “lizards” of Leviticus 11 as “great lizard,” “gecko,” “monitor lizard,” “sand lizard,” and “chameleon.” The monitor lizard is a large lizard that lives in the deserts of southern Palestine, Sinai, and Egypt. It is up to 55 inches (1.4 meters) long with a long snout and sharp teeth. Other translators and commentators render the original Hebrew in a wide variety of ways, including “tortoise,” “ferret,” “lizard,” “snail,” “mole,” and even “water hen.” The fact that most of the original Hebrew words occur only once in Scripture makes it very difficult to be certain about their appropriate translation.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Gecko (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Locust\">Locust<\/p>\n<p>An insect of the family <em>Acridiidae.<\/em> It is referred to by at least 12 different names in Scripture. The various Hebrew words may refer to different stages of its development from larva to adult or to the type of damage that it causes. Locusts are characterized by swarming and mass migration. In modern times they have caused extensive and disastrous destruction to vegetation. Grasshoppers do not swarm or migrate en masse, differentiating them from the true locusts.<\/p>\n<p>The OT mentions several different species of locusts. Leviticus 11:22 seems to refer to the slant-faced (bald) locust and also to the katydid, or long-horned grasshopper. The reference in Deuteronomy 28:42 may be to the mole cricket. In Joel 1:4 and 2:25 and in Nahum 3:16-17, successive stages of the insect’s development are described. The cutting locust (<span>kjv<\/span> “palmerworm”) of Joel is probably the first instar (stage of development), the swarming locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “locust”) are middle stages, and the hopping locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “cankerworm”) later instars but not yet fully matured insects. In the adult stage, called destroying locusts (<span>kjv<\/span> “caterpillar”), the color of the locust is reddish brown, which turns to yellow with a brownish network on the wings.<\/p>\n<p>Only three of the hundreds of varieties of locusts found in Bible lands are capable of multiplying into great swarms, and only the desert locust <em>(Schistocerca gergaria)<\/em> can be considered widespread in all the Bible lands. The desert locust is native to the Sudan (Africa). It is a little over two inches (5 centimeters) long and has a wingspread of some five inches (12.7 centimeters). It shows two phases, a solitary phase and a gregarious phase, with a possible third phase known as transiens. There are differences in the immature and adult forms of the phases in color and physiology.<\/p>\n<p>The quantity and distribution of rains are important factors in the extent of swarming. Moist soil is needed for depositing the eggs and permitting them to develop. Each female deposits from one to six egg pods, containing 28 to 146 eggs each. The larvae emerge in 15 to 43 days.<\/p>\n<p>In the gregarious phase (from the second stage of metamorphosis onward), the locust is driven by a strong wandering instinct. Masses of them form a random procession of overflowing locust bodies that ignore any obstruction. They swarm over everything (Jl 2:4-9). The only regulator of their activities is temperature; they are immobilized by high or low temperatures. Taking to wing they may move 1,200 miles (1,930.8 kilometers) from their native home. They fly in compact formations large enough to blot out the light of the sun. Their movement seems to be controlled by hormones, but the direction is influenced by the wind. The swarms consume almost every plant in their path, sparing only the carob, sycamore, castor tree, and oleander bush.<\/p>\n<p>A locust plague was one of the most severe evils to come upon the ancient world (Dt 28:38). Joel 2:1-11 describes a locust plague in graphic terms, using it as a symbol of God’s destroying judgment. Special days of prayer, fasting, and trumpet blowing were prescribed to remove locust plagues (1 Kgs 8:37-38; 2 Chr 6:28-29; Jl 2:12-17). Locusts symbolized powerful and merciless enemies that completely destroyed the earnings of human toil (Jgs 6:5; Is 33:4; Jer 46:23; 51:27; Na 3:15).<\/p>\n<p>Bedouins eat locusts raw, roasted, or boiled, preserving them by drying and threading. They are also crushed and ground, and the grist used in cooking or eaten with bread, sometimes mixed with honey and dates. Such was the diet of John the Baptist (Mk 1:6). The Greeks ground locusts in stone mortars to make flour of them.<\/p>\n<p>The ancients considered the two large hind legs, or jumping legs, as separate limbs and had a special name for them. Hence locusts were described as having four legs, a reference to the four smaller walking legs. “Going on all fours” thus referred to creeping or walking as opposed to jumping and did not mean that the unclean insects had only four legs in all. Because of its two hind jumping legs, the locust was exempted from the prohibition against unclean insects (Lv 11:20-23).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mole\">Mole<\/p>\n<p>Rodent <em>(Spalax ehrenbergi)<\/em> from six to nine inches (15 to 23 centimeters) long, which burrows in any area where the soil is suitable for digging; it should be called a mole rat. Common in the Holy Land, large numbers are found in the vicinity of Jerusalem. Isaiah 2:20 refers to the mole, as does Leviticus 11:29-30 (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>The mole rat has no tail and is molelike in appearance, but neither true moles nor shrews have ever been found in the Holy Land. The mole rat’s teeth are strong and protruding like those of a squirrel. The neck is short and thick with a plump body shaped like a sausage. The short legs have broad paws with claws adapted for burrowing. The fur is soft, thick, and ashen gray. Its ears and almost sightless eyes, which are no larger than poppyseeds, are hidden in the fur. Folklore taught that touching a mole rat would result in blindness.<\/p>\n<p>In the wet winter season the mole rat builds breeding mounds resembling those of pocket gophers. It builds less complex resting mounds in the summer, although both have rather elaborate tunnel systems. The mole rat feeds on roots, bulbs, tubers, and various other subterranean plant parts, often doing extensive damage to agriculture.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Moth\">Moth<\/p>\n<p>Insect of the genus <em>Tineola<\/em> that lays its eggs on wool or furs, its larvae feeding on those materials. The destructive qualities of moths are referred to in several biblical passages (Jb 13:28; Ps 39:11; Is 50:9; Hos 5:12; Mt 6:19-20; Lk 12:33; Jas 5:2). In Isaiah 51:8 “worm” (<span>nlt<\/span>) refers specifically to the larva of the clothes moth. The moth symbolizes disintegration, decay, and weakening. It is only the larvae that do the damage. The adult is quite harmless and feeds mainly on the nectar of flowers. It is easily crushed (Jb 4:19). The clothes moth reproduces in May or June. It enters human dwellings in the evening. A week after the eggs are laid the larvae appear and immediately begin their work of destruction, eating anything within reach made of animal fibers.<\/p>\n<p>The moth’s destructive activity is done in secret without any sound and without any dramatic appearance, such as a swarm that blots out the sun. In an age when wealth was counted more in possessions than in money, and when among those possessions wool clothing was highly valued, moths could literally cause economic disaster; hence the words of Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount (Mt 6:19-20).<\/p>\n<p>There are hundreds of species of moths other than the clothes moth in the Holy Land; they are harmless to leaves, flowers, fruit, trees, and seeds. As with the clothes moth, the larvae inflict the damage.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mouse\">Mouse<\/p>\n<p>Rodent of the family Muridae, especially genus <em>Mus.<\/em> The mouse was regarded as unclean because, being short legged, it was considered one of the creeping creatures (Lv 11:29). Mice known as commensals live in dwellings and tend to have longer tails and to be darker in color than wild mice, which are active chiefly at night. Mice are good climbers and even good swimmers. Wild mice eat many kinds of vegetation, including seeds, fleshy roots, leaves, and stems. At times they store food.<\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word for “mouse” (Lv 11:29; 1 Sm 6:4-5; Is 66:17) is probably a general term for various rats and mice. The root meaning of the Hebrew word “mouse” is “destruction of corn,” a reference to the damage mice do to field crops. At least 23 varieties of mouselike rodents are known in the Holy Land. They cause food spoilage, damage household articles, and transport the host fleas that spread typhus, spotted fever, and bubonic plague. Plague bacteria may have caused the tumors or swellings among the Philistines (1 Sm 6:5). Isaiah 66:17 refers to a pre-exilic Canaanite cultic practice in which mice were eaten; the reference may actually be to the hamster. A number of rodents are eaten by Arabs of the Near East; the gerbil is considered a special delicacy. <em>See<\/em> Mole (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mule\">Mule<\/p>\n<p>Hybrid offspring of a male ass and a female horse <em>(Equus asinus mulus),<\/em> ordinarily sterile. The offspring of a female donkey and a stallion (male horse) is known as a hinny and is of little value because of its inferior size.<\/p>\n<p>Because crossbreeding was forbidden in the law (Lv 19:19), the Israelites procured mules from the Gentiles, perhaps from the Phoenicians, since Tyre (a Phoenician seaport in what is now southern Lebanon) imported horses and mules (Ez 27:14). Mules did not appear in Israel until David’s reign (2 Sm 13:29), possibly because of the rarity of horses among the Hebrews. Mules were used chiefly by members of the royal court and by other nobles. King David rode on a mule, and Solomon rode to his inaugaration on King David’s mule (1 Kgs 1:33). Absalom met his death riding on a mule (2 Sm 18:9). Mules were less common than horses, camels, and asses in the postexilic community (Ezr 2:66). In antiquity Asia Minor was especially noted for breeding fine mules.<\/p>\n<p>Mules have long enjoyed a reputation for obstinacy, but that trait is not mentioned in the Bible. The mule is prized for riding and for carrying heavy burdens, especially in warm mountainous regions. They are sure-footed and thrive best in hot, dry climates. The mule has the frugality, endurance, and steady gait of an ass along with the size, strength, swiftness, and courage of a horse. Mules are almost never sick. They live longer than horses. They can carry a load of up to 300 pounds (136 kilograms) as far as 30 miles (48.3 kilometers) a day.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Travel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pig\">Pig<\/p>\n<p>Most properly, newborn swine. “Swine” is technically the better name for the species, but it is rarely used in common speech today. The domestic pigs of the Middle East derived from the wild pig <em>(Sus scrofa).<\/em> The pig is the most prolific and abundant supplier of meat and fat for food. A thick layer of fat just under the skin is especially pronounced in domestic breeds. Pigs cannot be driven, so they are of value only to the settled farmer. The Hebrews were originally a nomadic people; therefore, they had little use for an animal closely associated with settled life. An Egyptian prince of about 1500 <span>BC<\/span>, however, is recorded as owning a herd of 1,500 swine.<\/p>\n<p>The pig is clumsily built, yet lively and able to move with agility and speed. The most conspicuous characteristic of the pig is a truncated, mobile snout terminating in a disc-shaped surface on which the nostrils are located. Most pigs have large tusks in both jaws which grow continuously in life. The tusks of the upper jaw are unique in that they curve upward instead of pointing downward as in most animals. The excrement of a pig has an almost unbearable odor, which clings not only to the pig itself but also to swineherds, who can be identified a long way off.<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were never raised in the Holy Land by Jews. The great herd into which Jesus drove the unclean spirits was encountered in the land of the Gadarenes, a non-Jewish area east of the Jordan. The Gadarene demons took refuge in a herd of pigs feeding on a bluff overlooking the Sea of Galilee (Mt 8:28-32).<\/p>\n<p>Wild pigs were found in the Holy Land as in many countries today. Psalm 80:13 refers to the destructiveness of a wild boar (the male, or hog) attacking growing crops. A party of wild boars can destroy an entire vineyard or a field of crops in a single night. They devour, trample, and ravage everything within reach.<\/p>\n<p>Boar hunts were common in ancient Mesopotamia. Wild boars do not attack unless molested, but they are dangerous when aroused. They travel in bands of from 6 to 50 and are most active in the evening and early morning hours. The body is covered with stiff bristles and usually some finer hair, but the body covering is often quite scanty. Wild pigs are mainly vegetarian, feeding on roots, nuts, grains, and plant stems. Wild boars were particularly abundant in the mountainous regions of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, in the Jordan River valley, and in wooded sections such as Mt Tabor.<\/p>\n<p>Strict Jews would not even mention swine by name but would always substitute the term “the abomination.” Israelites considered themselves polluted if they were even touched by a swine’s bristle. To the Jews, the pig symbolized filth and ugliness. Pigs will eat fecal material, vermin, rodents, carrion, and the like (2 Pt 2:22). Proverbs 11:22 refers to the incongruity of a golden ring in the nose of an animal showing such characteristics. A similar metaphor occurs in Jesus’ statement about casting pearls before swine (Mt 7:6). The prodigal son’s degeneration was shown by his being forced in his poverty to feed pigs and eat their food (Lk 15:15-16).<\/p>\n<p>Eating the flesh of pigs was forbidden to the Jews (Lv 11:7; Dt 14:8). The Canaanites in the Holy Land killed and ate pigs freely. In intertestamental times Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), a Syrian king whose territories included Israel, used the pig to “Hellenize” the Jews. He first tested their loyalty to the Jewish faith by requiring the consumption of pork, considered a delicacy by the Greeks (2 Macc 6:18). The act of desecration that drove the Jews to rebellion, however, was the sprinkling of pig blood on the temple altar in a sacrifice to Zeus (1 Macc 1:47).<\/p>\n<p>Pigs were frequently used in pagan worship (Is 65:4; 66:3, 17), which may account for their being forbidden to the Jews as food. Evidence in the Holy Land shows that pigs were sacrificed long before Hellenistic times. Pig bones were found in a grotto below the rock-cut place of sacrifice at Gezer. A similar underground chamber with vessels containing piglet bones at Tirzah dates to the middle Bronze Age (about 2000 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Alabaster fragments of a statuette of a pig ready to be sacrificed have been unearthed. Swine were sacrificed to Aphrodite (Venus) in Greece and Asia Minor. In addition, pigs were sacrificed in connection with oaths and treaties; in the <em>Iliad,<\/em> Agamemnon sacrificed a boar to Zeus and Helios. So it is not surprising that among the Jews the pig became a symbol of filthiness and paganism.<\/p>\n<p>It is possible that eating pork was forbidden primarily because the pig may carry many worm parasites such as trichina, though that is also true of some “clean” animals. Another reason for forbidding their consumption may have been that pigs eat carrion. Some people are allergic to pork in hot weather—another suggested reason behind the Jewish taboo. The same taboo exists among the Muslims and existed in certain social strata in Egypt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Porcupine\">Porcupine<\/p>\n<p>Rodent, <em>Hystrix cristata,<\/em> which lives in forested areas, rocky hills, ravines, and valleys. The porcupine is still found in the Holy Land today. It has long quills that can be raised to give the appearance of a crest. It is almost entirely nocturnal. It burrows by day into a natural cavity or crevice. The Old World porcupine rarely climbed trees, although the New World porcupine frequently does. A porcupine may weigh as much as 60 pounds (27.2 kilograms). It eats fruit, bark, roots, and other vegetation, and carrion as well. Although its flesh is edible, the porcupine was not classed among the clean animals for the Israelites. The reference in Isaiah 34:11 (<span>rsv<\/span>) is probably to the porcupine, as is Isaiah 14:23 in the <span>nlt<\/span>. <em>See<\/em> Hedgehog.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Scorpion\">Scorpion<\/p>\n<p>Arthropod of the same group as spiders (arachnids). A dozen species of scorpions (order Scorpionida) are found in the Holy Land, but 90 percent of the scorpions are yellow scorpions, usually three to five inches (7.6 to 12.7 centimeters) long. The rock scorpion, also common to the Holy Land, is as thick as a man’s finger and from five to seven inches (12.7 to 17.8 centimeters) in length. Scorpions are slow, nocturnal invertebrates that rest beneath stones by day and prey on insects and other arachnids by night. At the end of its long tail the scorpion carries a poisonous sting that is fatal to most prey and extremely painful to humans (Rv 9:3, 5, 10; cf. 1 Kgs 12:11, 14). Scorpions symbolize Ezekiel’s evil countrymen (Ez 2:6) and the demonic forces of Satan (Lk 10:19). The scorpion is referred to as frequenting the Sinai Desert (Dt 8:15).<\/p>\n<p>A scorpion has from six to eight eyes. It has eight legs like a spider and two lobsterlike claws with which it catches and holds its prey. It feeds particularly on locusts and beetles. In many species the female scorpion eats the male after mating. Scorpions lay eggs that hatch very shortly after laying. Scorpions prefer warmer climates, and because of their desire for warmth, enter houses, especially at night, hiding in beds, blankets, footwear, and clothing.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sheep\">Sheep<\/p>\n<p>Domestic animal, <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> referred to directly or by some term such as ewe, lamb, ram, or by some fact concerning them over 700 times in Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Sheep represented the chief wealth and total livelihood of pastoral peoples, providing food to eat, milk to drink, wool for the making of cloth, and hides and bones for other uses. In addition, the sheep was a medium of exchange and a sacrificial animal. The number of sheep raised in ancient times was prodigious. Mesha, king of Moab, paid a tribute annually of 100,000 lambs and the wool of 100,000 rams (2 Kgs 3:4). The Israelites took 250,000 sheep from the Hagrites (1 Chr 5:21).<\/p>\n<p>Sheep shearing was often done for festivals (2 Sm 13:23). The sheep was held down on its side and its legs were tied together; then it lay docilely while its wool was clipped (Is 53:7). Sheep reserved for burnt offerings were not shorn; nothing could be held back from a sacrifice to the Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Wool had to be processed before it could be used for clothing. First it was washed, sometimes while still on the sheep, then carded and perhaps weighed for the market. The spinning of wool was regarded as a woman’s work (Prv 31:19), but weaving the spun thread into cloth on a loom was primarily a man’s occupation.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible reports that Abel kept sheep (Gn 4:2). The first sheep to be domesticated was probably the argali <em>(Ovis ammon),<\/em> a variety of the urial <em>(Ovis vignei),<\/em> a mountainous species still existing in Turkestan and Mongolia. Five breeds had reached Mesopotamia by 2000 <span>BC<\/span>; all were of the urial stock.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep known in Israel was the broad-tailed sheep <em>(Ovis orientalis vignei<\/em> or <em>laticaudata),<\/em> of which the tail weighs from 10 to 15 pounds (4.5 to 6.8 kilograms) and has always been considered a delicacy. Thus the Lord asked for this choice part as a sacrifice (Ex 29:22-25).<\/p>\n<p>Only the ram of the broad-tailed sheep has horns, but in other varieties of sheep in the Holy Land the ewe also has horns. The horns, two to three inches (5 to 8 centimeters) in diameter, can be potent weapons. Rams’ horns could be used as trumpets (Jos 6:4) or as oil containers (1 Sm 16:1).<\/p>\n<p>Although the sheep is very similar to the goat, it is differentiated by a lower forehead, its angulated spiral horns marked with transverse wrinkles and curved slightly outward, its covering of wool, and its lack of a “goatee.” Most sheep are white (Ps 147:16; Is 1:18; Dn 7:9; Rv 1:14).<\/p>\n<p>The flesh of sheep was a luxury in the biblical culture. King Solomon required a daily provision of 100 sheep for his table (1 Kgs 4:23), but the common people ate lamb or mutton only on festive occasions. A young ram was usually chosen because the ewes were more important to the future prospects of the herd. The meat was boiled in large caldrons. The milk of the sheep is extremely rich; in biblical times it was usually allowed to curdle before drinking. Possibly some Israelites kept lambs in their houses as pets (2 Sm 12:3-4).<\/p>\n<p>To protect the flock at night against predatory attacks, the shepherd tried to provide a fold. In meadows near villages, folds were built and watchmen were hired to relieve the shepherds. The shepherds of the nativity story were out in the field (Lk 2:8); they had no fold but probably had set up a tent for shelter, consisting simply of goat-hair blankets spread across sapling supports. The scarcity of springs in the Holy Land made the watering of the flock a crucial problem for the shepherd (Gn 13:8-11).<\/p>\n<p>Wild mountain sheep, varieties of <em>Ovis orientalis,<\/em> are known in the Mediterranean area (Dt 14:5). The Deuteronomy passage (<span>kjv<\/span> “chamois”) might also refer to <em>Ovis traelaphus,<\/em> a sheep about five feet high (1.5 meters) with long, curved horns. Another possibility is the Barbary sheep that lives in small flocks in rugged mountain areas in Barbary, Egypt, and Mt Sinai. The true chamois is unknown in Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>The sheep is also used figuratively in Scripture. The ram represented great strength and fittingly symbolized Medo-Persia in Daniel’s vision (Dn 8:3). It is the nature of sheep to be gentle and submissive (Is 53:7; Jer 11:19), defenseless (Mi 5:8; Mt 10:16), and in constant need of guidance and care (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36). Such qualities are regarded as desirable in the lives of believers in Christ; hence the many figurative references to sheep in the NT and to Jesus as shepherd (Mk 6:34; Jn 10:1-30; Rom 8:35-37; Heb 13:20-21; 1 Pt 2:25). The resurrected Christ told the apostle Peter to “feed my lambs” and “tend my sheep” (Jn 21:15-17).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Offerings and Sacrifices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snail\">Snail<\/p>\n<p>Invertebrate gastropods (mollusks). Land snails are very numerous in the Near East. Some freshwater forms serve as hosts for the schistosome worm, the fluke parasite causing the dread disease bilharzia (schistosomiasis).<\/p>\n<p>Purple dyes of all shades were highly valued in the ancient world. A royal purple dye was obtained from secretions of a sea snail <em>(Murex trunculus<\/em> and <em>Murex brandaris).<\/em> Evidently, that process was developed by Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Assyrians as early as 1500 <span>BC<\/span>. The “purple” fishermen had their own guild during the time of the Roman Empire. The snails were harvested during the fall and winter seasons; in the spring, when egg laying took place, little dye was available. The snails tended to remain concealed in the summer. They inhabited the waters off Crete and Phoenicia. Tyrian purple, produced in the Phoenician city of Tyre, the center of the purple-dye industry, was obtained by a double dyeing. Large deposits of murex shells from dyeing operations have been found along the Mediterranean shoreline. The Israelites had to import purple goods (Ez 27:16). Lydia was a “seller of purple” or of cloth so dyed (Acts 16:14). Purple was a sign of distinction, royalty, and wealth (cf. Ex 25:4; 28:5-6, 15; Nm 15:38; 2 Chr 2:7; Est 8:15; Prv 31:22; Sg 3:10; Ez 27:7; Dn 5:7).<\/p>\n<p>Exodus 30:34-35 refers to “onycha,” which was an important ingredient of incense. Onycha is the horny, clawlike operculum (the plate that closes off the opening of its shell when a snail is retracted) of a Near Eastern member of the molluskan family Strombidae. The operculum is sometimes used for offense or locomotion as well as for defense. When burned, the operculum gives off a sharp, strong scent, and when mixed with more fragrant but less powerful substances is even more potent. The name “onycha” is derived from a Greek word <em>(onyx)<\/em> for a fingernail or a claw.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Snake\">Snake<\/p>\n<p>Various species of snake, suborder Ophidia (Serpentes). In the Bible nine Hebrew words and four Greek ones refer to snakes. The most common Hebrew word is onomatopoeic—that is, it is an imitation of a snake hissing or of the sound it produces as it scrapes its scales along the ground (cf. Jer 46:22). Many types of snakes lay eggs (Is 59:5), although some retain the eggs in the body until ready to hatch.<\/p>\n<p>Snakes are among the most widespread reptiles and are found on all continents except Antarctica; they decrease in numbers and species toward the poles but increase as one approaches the equator. Thirty-three species of snakes are known in Palestine and neighboring countries, 20 of which are poisonous. Two dangerous characteristics of the snake noted by biblical writers are its inconspicuous way of moving and the ease with which it hides itself.<\/p>\n<p>Many snakes are able to swallow animals several times their own diameter because of their unusually flexible jaw mechanism. They lack not only legs but also movable eyelids. Snakes periodically shed their skins. The tongue is actually a hearing apparatus sensitive to airborne vibrations and probably to heat waves.<\/p>\n<p>The venom of poisonous species is a clear, thin secretion, transmitted to the victim’s bloodstream by means of fangs. Two types of venom are known: that of the vipers, which affects respiration and disintegrates red blood cells, and that of the cobras, which paralyzes the nervous system.<\/p>\n<p>The “asp” referred to in the Bible is probably the cobra; the “adder” is the viper. The “cockatrice” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is probably the adder. Serpents were associated with worship in Canaanite religion and symbolized evil deities among many other peoples. Steles (upright stones bearing inscriptions) have been unearthed at several sites in the Holy Land and Syria depicting a god or worshiper with a snake winding about the legs or body. Because the Israelites were burning incense in pagan worship of Moses’ bronze serpent (Nm 21:8-9), King Hezekiah destroyed it in his religious reform (2 Kgs 18:4).<\/p>\n<p>Although snakes have been an object of veneration in some religions, in the Judeo-Christian tradition snakes represent evil and, more specifically, the devil. That association began in the Garden of Eden (Gn 3:1-15) and is also found in the book of Revelation (12:9; 20:2-3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Adder (above); Asp (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Spider\">Spider<\/p>\n<p>Animal of the order Araneida. Between 600 and 700 different species inhabit the Holy Land. Spiders are different from insects in that, like scorpions, they have four pairs of legs instead of three. Spiders are equipped with poison glands—the effectiveness varying from species to species. A few can kill only insects, but others can also kill birds and mice.<\/p>\n<p>Most spiders have a pair of spinnerets attached to silk glands on the underside of the abdomen; from them a web is extruded. In the Bible the spider’s web is referred to as a symbol of frailty and insecurity (Jb 8:14; Is 59:5-6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sponge\">Sponge<\/p>\n<p>Simple marine animals, phylum Porifera. The term “sponge” also refers to those animals’ skeletal remains. The sponge has a porous body composed of tubules and cells.<\/p>\n<p>Sponge fishing was well known in the Mediterranean area in ancient times. It was practiced particularly along the Anatolian and Syrian coasts. Sponges were harvested by divers. The use of sponges in absorbing liquids is referred to in the Bible (Mt 27:48; Mk 15:36).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Unicorn\">Unicorn<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Wild Ox (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wasp\">Wasp<\/p>\n<p>Insects of the family Vespidae. Hornets are social wasps that build large aerial apartment houses in which 1,000 or more individuals may live. In the Bible the hornet is used as a metaphor for God’s use of military forces (Ex 23:28; Dt 7:20; Jos 24:12).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Whale\">Whale<\/p>\n<p>Largest of all living creatures, including those that have become extinct. Whales are air-breathing mammals of the order Cetacea.<\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of whales visit the shores of the Holy Land at times. The finback whale <em>(Balaenoptera physalus)<\/em> weighs about 200 tons (181 metric tons) and lives mainly in the Arctic region but sometimes passes through the Straits of Gibraltar to reach the eastern Mediterranean Sea. It feeds on small marine organisms that it strains through its whale bone; it does not have teeth. The finback whale’s esophagus is narrow.<\/p>\n<p>The sperm whale <em>(Physeter catodon),<\/em> about 60 feet (18.3 meters) long, has a curiously shaped head that looks like a battering ram. The teeth in the lower jaw of the male sperm whale are about seven inches (17.8 centimeters) long. It feeds on big fish, even on sharks. It has a large throat opening.<\/p>\n<p>Whales are referred to in Genesis 1:21 and Job 7:12 (<span>kjv<\/span> only). The “great fish” of Jonah 2:1 need not have been a whale but could have been a large shark, such as the whale shark <em>(Rhineodon),<\/em> which grows 70 feet (21.3 meters) long and lacks the terrible teeth of other sharks. Whatever the actual marine organism, Jonah’s deliverance was miraculous. The Greek word for “whale” is sometimes used as a general term for “sea monster” or huge fish and may be used in that sense in Matthew 12:40.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WildOx\">Wild Ox<\/p>\n<p>Large, fierce, fleet, intractable animal <em>(Bos primigenius).<\/em> It had a long, lean rump with a straight back and a long, narrow head. The animal described in Job 39:9-12 is clearly the wild ox. The two horns (Dt 33:17), its outstanding characteristic, were straight and as long as the head (Nm 23:22; 24:8; Ps 22:21). Kings often symbolized their dominion by wearing a helmet with two wild ox horns (cf. Pss 92:10; 132:17-18). The horns were often used as drinking vessels by the Israelites; some were large enough to hold four gallons (15 liters).<\/p>\n<p>Hunting the wild ox was a favorite sport of Assyrian kings. Tiglath-pileser I hunted it in the Lebanon Mountains about 1100 <span>BC<\/span> (cf. Ps 29:6). At one time the animal referred to in Job 39:9-12 was thought to be the oryx or antelope because of the similarity between the Hebrew word in Job and the Arabian name for oryx. The translators of the <span>kjv<\/span> called the wild ox a “unicorn” because of representations found on Babylonian mosaics and Egyptian drawings. Those representations showed it in strict profile, showing only one horn—hence, “unicorn.” Jerome’s Vulgate, a Latin Bible translation (fourth century <span>AD<\/span>) and Martin Luther’s German version translated it similarly.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wolf\">Wolf<\/p>\n<p>Large doglike mammal <em>(Canis lupus)<\/em> that travels in bands of up to 30 animals. From the nose to the rump, the wolf measures about 3 feet (.9 meter); its drooping tail is about 18 inches (.5 meter) long. It looks much like a skinny German shepherd dog. The grayish yellow pelt is coarse and short haired.<\/p>\n<p>Wolves hunt singly or in relays, usually at night (Jer 5:6). Wolves have acute hearing and sight but rely chiefly on scent and usually catch their prey in a swift, open chase. The wolf has a reputation for boldness, fierceness, and voracity (Gn 49:27; Hb 1:8). It commonly kills more than it can eat or drag away and thus is known for its greediness.<\/p>\n<p>The wolf is a restless animal, always on the move; hunger drives it from one place to another in constant search of new hunting grounds. During spring and fall, wolves usually roam singly or in pairs, whereas in summer they may travel in family groups. In winter, several such groups may join to form a large pack. Wolves are intelligent, social creatures, faithful to their own kind. They mate for life. Individually, the wolf is a rather timid animal; it would much rather avoid human beings. But collectively wolves can be among the most dangerous animals alive.<\/p>\n<p>In Egypt, Rome, and Greece the wolf was considered sacred. Wolves were well known in the Holy Land and are still found there and also in many places in Asia Minor. Shepherds continually battled with wolves that plundered their flocks (Jn 10:12).<\/p>\n<p>The Bible refers to wolves in a literal sense in only three places (Is 11:6; 65:25; Jn 10:12), all other references being figurative. Usually the wolf is a symbol of enemies or the wicked (e.g., Ez 22:27; Zep 3:3; Acts 20:29). Both the wolf’s courage and its cruelty were probably in the mind of the patriarch Jacob when he predicted the fate of Benjamin’s tribe (Gn 49:27).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Worm\">Worm<\/p>\n<p>Actually insect larvae in most biblical references, usually maggots, the larvae of flies (see Fly, above). For example, maggots are evidently referred to in accounts of worms feeding on spoiled manna (Ex 16:19-20), corpses (Jb 21:26; Is 14:11), or open wounds (Jb 7:5). Mark 9:48 refers to a maggot that eats dead flesh. In Acts 12:23 a fatal, worm-induced abdominal disease of King Herod is mentioned. In other cases, the reference is to the larvae of other insects (Is 51:8). In Deuteronomy 28:39 and Jonah 4:7 the vine weevil <em>(Cochylis ambiguella)<\/em> is probably referred to; it destroys vines by boring into their stems. Comparing a man to a worm is a metaphor for abasement (Jb 25:6; Ps 22:6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ANIMALS In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals ...","summary_en":"ANIMALS In biblical usage, all members of the animal kingdom. Animals are mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. Animals figured in many important biblical events, including the Creation, the fall of man, the Flood, the ten plagues in Egypt, the Hebrew worship system, and the life of Jesus Christ. The people of both OT and NT times lived close to the land and were well acquainted with various animals so that the scriptural writers and Jesus himself frequently used animals ...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":10109,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Edomites Edom","title_en":"Edomites Edom","content_ro":"<h3>EDOM, EDOMITES<\/h3>\n<p>Land and its inhabitants found on the high plateau to the south and southeast of the Dead Sea. The biblical term Edom, meaning “red,” denotes either the name of the land or the name of Esau, in remembrance of the red pottage or stew for which he exchanged his birthright (Gn 25:30; 36:1, 8, 19). The country of Edom was also known as Seir (Gn 32:3; 36:30; Nm 24:18).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Geography\">Geography<\/p>\n<p>The northern boundary of Edom was the Wadi Zered, the “Brook of the Willows” (Is 15:7). In ancient geological times the area was thrust up to a considerable height, and dark-red sandstone cliffs were exposed along the western side where the land falls steeply into the Arabah, the southern extension of the deep depression in which the Dead Sea and the Jordan Valley lie. The Edom Plateau rises to over 5,000 feet (1,523.9 meters), reaching over 5,600 feet (1,706.8 meters) in places. The area divides into two unequal parts. The region of Punon forms something of a valley between the smaller northern part and the longer southern part. The northern section is not quite so high, though in a limited area near Radhadiyeh it reaches 5,300 feet (1,615.4 meters). The southern section is longer and generally higher, being over 5,000 feet (1,523.9 meters) throughout the central ridge and touching 5,687 feet (1,733.3 meters) at one point. To the east, the escarpment does not fall below 4,000 feet (1,219.1 meters), except in the north. The desert lies beyond and limits expansion eastward. To the west, the land falls away rather steeply into the Arabah. The extent of Edom to the west varied from time to time. It was comparatively easy to gain access to the Negev of southern Judah in this area, and Edomite encroachments were made from time to time. The southern frontier was marked by an extensive limestone scarp at the southern edge of the plateau. This ran eastward from Ain Gharandal in the Arabah. Beyond this barrier to the south lay rocky, uninhabitable desert, through which merchants must have journeyed to the port at Ezion-geber for trade.<\/p>\n<p>The land of Edom was, on the whole, inhospitable, though there were areas where farming could be undertaken, particularly to the northeast. Here herds of animals could be grazed. Edom’s wealth, however, came largely from the caravan trade that came up from the south and brought goods from India and South Arabia to the Mediterranean coast and Egypt. The important King’s Highway (Nm 21:22) passed through Edom on its way north.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"History\">History<\/p>\n<p>Biblically, the name Edom does not appear in the genealogy in Genesis 10. It first appears in the story of Esau in Genesis 25:30. Esau was called Edom from the red color of the pottage for which he sold his birthright to his brother, Jacob. In Genesis 36 there is reference to an Edomite kingdom at a time well before the appearance of an Israelite kingdom, though it is possible that the “chiefs” of Edom were tribal chieftains or non-dynastic leaders like the Israelite judges.<\/p>\n<p>The earliest nonbiblical references come from Egypt and seem to confirm this. Amarna Letter 288 (early 14th century <span>BC<\/span>) refers to the “lands of Seir,” and the crossing of the Shashu tribes of Edom into Egypt is mentioned by Seti II (1214–1208 <span>BC<\/span>) and Ramses III (1198–1166 <span>BC<\/span>). There are no Egyptian references to towns or rulers, only to tribal Bedouin from Seir-Edom. There is some evidence that Ramses II was in Transjordan about 1280–1270 <span>BC<\/span>, but there is no clear evidence that there was a centralized government before the 13th century <span>BC<\/span>. Rather, the land was occupied mainly by seminomadic people. From then on, permanent settlements began to appear, a fact that has relevance for the date of the exodus. The Song of Moses in Exodus 15 refers to the “chiefs of Edom.” By the time of the exodus, there appears to have been a kingdom of Edom (Nm 20:14, 18, 20-23; 33:37; 34:3). The Israelites skirted Edom on their journey to the Promised Land (Jgs 5:4; 11:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At the time of the rise of the Israelite monarchy, Saul fought successfully against Edom (1 Sm 14:47). Doeg the Edomite was the chief of Saul’s herdsmen (21:7; 22:9, 18-22). At the beginning of the 10th century <span>BC<\/span>, David defeated Edom in the Valley of Salt and killed many Edomites (2 Sm 8:13; 1 Chr 18:12). Thereafter, David placed garrisons in Edom, and the Edomites became his subjects (2 Sm 8:14). It is not clear whether David saw in these people a military threat or whether he was interested in the supply of copper from their land and the potential wealth that would flow from the caravan traffic passing through Edom. David’s successes resulted in the flight of a certain Hadad, who was “of the royal house of Edom” to Egypt (1 Kgs 11:14-17), where he married a member of the Egyptian royal family (vv 18-20). On David’s death, Hadad returned to Edom, where he became king. It would seem that a monarchical form of government had developed by David’s time. Solomon continued to exert influence in Edom. He had access to the port of Ezion-geber (9:26).<\/p>\n<p>The biblical records provide no information about Edom from the end of Solomon’s reign until the days of Jehoshaphat of Judah (872–848 <span>BC<\/span>). Jehoshaphat was able to occupy the port of Ezion-geber, although his ships were wrecked there, possibly by the Edomites (1 Kgs 22:48; 2 Chr 20:36-37). Israel combined with Judah and Edom in an unsuccessful campaign against King Mesha of Moab (2 Kgs 3:4-27). Edom was able to throw off Judah’s authority under King Jehoram (853–841 <span>BC<\/span>) and set up a king of its own (8:20-22). It remained independent until the days of King Amaziah of Judah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>), who conquered Edom as far south as Sela, defeating a large army of the Edomites in the Valley of Salt (2 Kgs 14:7; 2 Chr 25:11-13). This gave Judah control of the copper mines in the Punon area. King Uzziah of Judah (792–740 <span>BC<\/span>) was able to push his control south to Elath (near Ezion-geber; 2 Kgs 14:22; 2 Chr 26:1-2). Before the end of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, in the days of Ahaz (735–715 <span>BC<\/span>), Edom defeated Judah and recovered Elath (2 Kgs 16:6). Thereafter, Judah lost control over Edom.<\/p>\n<p>During the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, the Assyrians began to move into Transjordan. About 800 <span>BC<\/span> Adad-nirari III (810–782 <span>BC<\/span>) claimed to have conquered several of these western states and to have imposed the payment of tribute. Then Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>) received tribute from Qaus-malaku of Edom. Sargon II (722–705 <span>BC<\/span>) spoke of an unnamed ruler of Edom who was involved in the rebellion of Ashdod in 713 <span>BC<\/span>. Sennacherib (705–681 <span>BC<\/span>) spoke of a certain Aiarammu, who brought gifts from Edom. Esarhaddon (681–669 <span>BC<\/span>) referred to Qaus-gabri, king of Edom, who came to Nineveh with 22 vassals to swear allegiance. Under Ashurbanipal (669–627 <span>BC<\/span>), Edom appears on Assyrian records. Thereafter, Assyria itself was defeated by the Babylonians. Under the Babylonians, Edom seems to have remained a subservient vassal, although in 594 it joined other small nations in discussing rebellion (Jer 27). When Nebuchadnezzar attacked these, however, Moab and Edom were not involved. In the overthrow of Jerusalem in 586, Edom remained neutral and even allowed some refugees from Judah to shelter there for a time (40:11). The prophet Obadiah castigated Edom for not assisting Judah at the time of the Babylonian invasion (Ob 1:11). Instead, they raided Judah, handed over captives to Babylon, and possessed lands in the Negev area to the south (Ez 35).<\/p>\n<p>A long history of enmity existed between Judah and Edom, and several prophets spoke unfavorably about Edom (Is 11:14; 34:5-17; Ez 32:29; Jl 3:19; Am 1:11-12; Mal 1:2-4). In the sixth century <span>BC<\/span>, Edom entered a period of decline. Several cities were abandoned. At the same time Edomite colonies west of the Arabah in the southern hill country of Judah emerged, and by Roman times there was a province of Idumea, which was the descendant of the Persian province of Edom, with its administrative center at Lachish. In the old Edomite homeland, Arab groups began to move in. Finally, ancient Edom became the home of the Nabateans.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EDOM, EDOMITES<\/h3>\n<p>Land and its inhabitants found on the high plateau to the south and southeast of the Dead Sea. The biblical term Edom, meaning “red,” denotes either the name of the land or the name of Esau, in remembrance of the red pottage or stew for which he exchanged his birthright (Gn 25:30; 36:1, 8, 19). The country of Edom was also known as Seir (Gn 32:3; 36:30; Nm 24:18).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Geography\">Geography<\/p>\n<p>The northern boundary of Edom was the Wadi Zered, the “Brook of the Willows” (Is 15:7). In ancient geological times the area was thrust up to a considerable height, and dark-red sandstone cliffs were exposed along the western side where the land falls steeply into the Arabah, the southern extension of the deep depression in which the Dead Sea and the Jordan Valley lie. The Edom Plateau rises to over 5,000 feet (1,523.9 meters), reaching over 5,600 feet (1,706.8 meters) in places. The area divides into two unequal parts. The region of Punon forms something of a valley between the smaller northern part and the longer southern part. The northern section is not quite so high, though in a limited area near Radhadiyeh it reaches 5,300 feet (1,615.4 meters). The southern section is longer and generally higher, being over 5,000 feet (1,523.9 meters) throughout the central ridge and touching 5,687 feet (1,733.3 meters) at one point. To the east, the escarpment does not fall below 4,000 feet (1,219.1 meters), except in the north. The desert lies beyond and limits expansion eastward. To the west, the land falls away rather steeply into the Arabah. The extent of Edom to the west varied from time to time. It was comparatively easy to gain access to the Negev of southern Judah in this area, and Edomite encroachments were made from time to time. The southern frontier was marked by an extensive limestone scarp at the southern edge of the plateau. This ran eastward from Ain Gharandal in the Arabah. Beyond this barrier to the south lay rocky, uninhabitable desert, through which merchants must have journeyed to the port at Ezion-geber for trade.<\/p>\n<p>The land of Edom was, on the whole, inhospitable, though there were areas where farming could be undertaken, particularly to the northeast. Here herds of animals could be grazed. Edom’s wealth, however, came largely from the caravan trade that came up from the south and brought goods from India and South Arabia to the Mediterranean coast and Egypt. The important King’s Highway (Nm 21:22) passed through Edom on its way north.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"History\">History<\/p>\n<p>Biblically, the name Edom does not appear in the genealogy in Genesis 10. It first appears in the story of Esau in Genesis 25:30. Esau was called Edom from the red color of the pottage for which he sold his birthright to his brother, Jacob. In Genesis 36 there is reference to an Edomite kingdom at a time well before the appearance of an Israelite kingdom, though it is possible that the “chiefs” of Edom were tribal chieftains or non-dynastic leaders like the Israelite judges.<\/p>\n<p>The earliest nonbiblical references come from Egypt and seem to confirm this. Amarna Letter 288 (early 14th century <span>BC<\/span>) refers to the “lands of Seir,” and the crossing of the Shashu tribes of Edom into Egypt is mentioned by Seti II (1214–1208 <span>BC<\/span>) and Ramses III (1198–1166 <span>BC<\/span>). There are no Egyptian references to towns or rulers, only to tribal Bedouin from Seir-Edom. There is some evidence that Ramses II was in Transjordan about 1280–1270 <span>BC<\/span>, but there is no clear evidence that there was a centralized government before the 13th century <span>BC<\/span>. Rather, the land was occupied mainly by seminomadic people. From then on, permanent settlements began to appear, a fact that has relevance for the date of the exodus. The Song of Moses in Exodus 15 refers to the “chiefs of Edom.” By the time of the exodus, there appears to have been a kingdom of Edom (Nm 20:14, 18, 20-23; 33:37; 34:3). The Israelites skirted Edom on their journey to the Promised Land (Jgs 5:4; 11:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>At the time of the rise of the Israelite monarchy, Saul fought successfully against Edom (1 Sm 14:47). Doeg the Edomite was the chief of Saul’s herdsmen (21:7; 22:9, 18-22). At the beginning of the 10th century <span>BC<\/span>, David defeated Edom in the Valley of Salt and killed many Edomites (2 Sm 8:13; 1 Chr 18:12). Thereafter, David placed garrisons in Edom, and the Edomites became his subjects (2 Sm 8:14). It is not clear whether David saw in these people a military threat or whether he was interested in the supply of copper from their land and the potential wealth that would flow from the caravan traffic passing through Edom. David’s successes resulted in the flight of a certain Hadad, who was “of the royal house of Edom” to Egypt (1 Kgs 11:14-17), where he married a member of the Egyptian royal family (vv 18-20). On David’s death, Hadad returned to Edom, where he became king. It would seem that a monarchical form of government had developed by David’s time. Solomon continued to exert influence in Edom. He had access to the port of Ezion-geber (9:26).<\/p>\n<p>The biblical records provide no information about Edom from the end of Solomon’s reign until the days of Jehoshaphat of Judah (872–848 <span>BC<\/span>). Jehoshaphat was able to occupy the port of Ezion-geber, although his ships were wrecked there, possibly by the Edomites (1 Kgs 22:48; 2 Chr 20:36-37). Israel combined with Judah and Edom in an unsuccessful campaign against King Mesha of Moab (2 Kgs 3:4-27). Edom was able to throw off Judah’s authority under King Jehoram (853–841 <span>BC<\/span>) and set up a king of its own (8:20-22). It remained independent until the days of King Amaziah of Judah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>), who conquered Edom as far south as Sela, defeating a large army of the Edomites in the Valley of Salt (2 Kgs 14:7; 2 Chr 25:11-13). This gave Judah control of the copper mines in the Punon area. King Uzziah of Judah (792–740 <span>BC<\/span>) was able to push his control south to Elath (near Ezion-geber; 2 Kgs 14:22; 2 Chr 26:1-2). Before the end of the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, in the days of Ahaz (735–715 <span>BC<\/span>), Edom defeated Judah and recovered Elath (2 Kgs 16:6). Thereafter, Judah lost control over Edom.<\/p>\n<p>During the eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, the Assyrians began to move into Transjordan. About 800 <span>BC<\/span> Adad-nirari III (810–782 <span>BC<\/span>) claimed to have conquered several of these western states and to have imposed the payment of tribute. Then Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 <span>BC<\/span>) received tribute from Qaus-malaku of Edom. Sargon II (722–705 <span>BC<\/span>) spoke of an unnamed ruler of Edom who was involved in the rebellion of Ashdod in 713 <span>BC<\/span>. Sennacherib (705–681 <span>BC<\/span>) spoke of a certain Aiarammu, who brought gifts from Edom. Esarhaddon (681–669 <span>BC<\/span>) referred to Qaus-gabri, king of Edom, who came to Nineveh with 22 vassals to swear allegiance. Under Ashurbanipal (669–627 <span>BC<\/span>), Edom appears on Assyrian records. Thereafter, Assyria itself was defeated by the Babylonians. Under the Babylonians, Edom seems to have remained a subservient vassal, although in 594 it joined other small nations in discussing rebellion (Jer 27). When Nebuchadnezzar attacked these, however, Moab and Edom were not involved. In the overthrow of Jerusalem in 586, Edom remained neutral and even allowed some refugees from Judah to shelter there for a time (40:11). The prophet Obadiah castigated Edom for not assisting Judah at the time of the Babylonian invasion (Ob 1:11). Instead, they raided Judah, handed over captives to Babylon, and possessed lands in the Negev area to the south (Ez 35).<\/p>\n<p>A long history of enmity existed between Judah and Edom, and several prophets spoke unfavorably about Edom (Is 11:14; 34:5-17; Ez 32:29; Jl 3:19; Am 1:11-12; Mal 1:2-4). In the sixth century <span>BC<\/span>, Edom entered a period of decline. Several cities were abandoned. At the same time Edomite colonies west of the Arabah in the southern hill country of Judah emerged, and by Roman times there was a province of Idumea, which was the descendant of the Persian province of Edom, with its administrative center at Lachish. In the old Edomite homeland, Arab groups began to move in. Finally, ancient Edom became the home of the Nabateans.<\/p>","summary_ro":"EDOM, EDOMITES Land and its inhabitants found on the high plateau to the south and southeast of the Dead Sea. The biblical term Edom, meaning “red,” denotes either the name of the land or the name of Esau, in remembrance of the red pottage or stew for which he exchanged his birthright (Gn 25:30; 36:1, 8, 19). The country of Edom was also known as Seir (Gn 32:3; 36:30; Nm 24:18). Geography The northern boundary of Edom was the Wadi Zered, the “Brook of the Willows” (Is 15:7). In ancient geolog...","summary_en":"EDOM, EDOMITES Land and its inhabitants found on the high plateau to the south and southeast of the Dead Sea. The biblical term Edom, meaning “red,” denotes either the name of the land or the name of Esau, in remembrance of the red pottage or stew for which he exchanged his birthright (Gn 25:30; 36:1, 8, 19). The country of Edom was also known as Seir (Gn 32:3; 36:30; Nm 24:18). Geography The northern boundary of Edom was the Wadi Zered, the “Brook of the Willows” (Is 15:7). In ancient geolog...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":18794,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jehoram","title_en":"Jehoram","content_ro":"<h3>JEHORAM<\/h3>\n<li>1. Jehoshaphat’s son and Judah’s fifth king (853–841 <span>BC<\/span>; also called Joram). Prior to the rule of the Omride dynasty in the northern kingdom of Israel (885–841 <span>BC<\/span>), the relationship between Judah and Israel had been strained. The political influence and economic stability of the united monarchy had long since vanished. Power and wealth had been diminished by Egyptian overlordship under Shishak (2 Chr 12) and by civil war: the unsuccessful Shechem conference (ch 10); Rehoboam of Judah versus Jeroboam of Israel (12:15); Abijah of Judah versus Jeroboam of Israel (13:1-22); and Asa of Judah versus Baasha of Israel (16:1-4). The Omride dynasty in the mid-ninth century <span>BC<\/span>, however, cast aside familial rivalry and sought to forge a new alliance between the two nations.<\/li>\n<p>The two kingdoms of Judah and Israel were increasingly threatened by the surrounding peoples—the Ammonites, Moabites, Edomites, Syrians, Philistines, Arabs, and Assyrians. In response to this threat Ahab, the second king of the Omride dynasty, secured diplomatic relations with Phoenicia (1 Kgs 16:31) and Judah (22:4). During this time, joint military expeditions by Israel and Judah were not infrequent (1 Kgs 22; 2 Kgs 3; 8:28), though these political alliances were not without their liabilities. The intrusion of the worship of Baal and Asherah led to religious apostasy in Judah and Israel (1 Kgs 16:31-33; 2 Kgs 3:2; 2 Chr 21:11). It was within this political-religious context that Jehoram reigned over Judah.<\/p>\n<p>Though he may have served as co-regent as early as 853 <span>BC<\/span>, Jehoram was the sole ruler for eight years (848–841 <span>BC<\/span>). His reign was marked by unnecessary internecine fighting and religious apostasy. His father had generously provided for his six brothers, a decision that Jehoram quickly reversed once he had secured the throne (2 Chr 21:2-3). He executed not only his brothers but also several Israelite princes, thereby removing any political threat to himself (v 4). In addition, he reverted to the idolatrous practices that his father had tried to eliminate by restoring forbidden worship sites, “the high places” (v 11). Jehoram had apparently fallen under the influence of his wife, Athaliah, the daughter of Jezebel (2 Kgs 8:18). As her mother had done in Israel, Athaliah imported Baal worship into Judah. As a result, Elijah the prophet pronounced judgment on Jehoram and the people of Judah—a curse that brought a great plague upon Jehoram’s people, children, wives, and possessions, and a gross intestinal disorder upon the king himself. In spite of this pervasive wickedness in Judah, the Lord did not destroy the southern kingdom, because of his promise to David (2 Kgs 8:19; cf. 2 Sm 7:12-16).<\/p>\n<p>Politically, Judah was vulnerable, having lost its control of Edom (2 Chr 21:9) and having sustained attacks by the Philistines and the Arabs. Jehoram was left bereft of possessions, wives, and sons except for Jehoahaz (Ahaziah), his youngest (vv 16-17). At his death Jehoram was not honored and was deprived of burial in the tomb of the kings within the city of David (vv 19-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Israel, History of.<\/p>\n<li>2. Ahab and Jezebel’s son, and Israel’s tenth king (852–841 <span>BC<\/span>; also called Joram). He succeeded his brother Ahaziah, whose premature death led to Jehoram’s ascension to the throne in Samaria (2 Kgs 1:2, 17); he was a contemporary of the Judean kings Jehoshaphat, Jehoram, and Ahaziah.<\/li>\n<p>Jehoram was preoccupied with the political resurgence of the two neighboring kingdoms of Moab and Syria. When Moab withheld its annual tribute to Israel, he sought assistance from both Jehoshaphat and Judah’s vassal kingdom, Edom. Jehoram and Jehoshaphat joined forces with the king of Edom but were halted in their attack on Moab when they encountered a serious lack of water. Hesitant to advance with their troops, they summoned Elisha the prophet and asked him to inquire of the Lord’s will regarding the expedition. Because of the high regard that Elisha held for Jehoshaphat, the prophet sought the Lord on their behalf, gaining both the Lord’s blessing and an abundance of water. The account of the battle records the slaughter of the Moabites as well as the horrible incident of a human sacrifice by the Moabite king. Having won the battle, Israel withdrew (2 Kgs 3:4-27).<\/p>\n<p>Jehoram’s conflict with Syria was less successful because the Israelite king sustained a battle wound. Retreating from Ramoth-gilead in Transjordan to his palace in Jezreel (2 Kgs 8:29), he found his problems compounded when one of his generals, Jehu, led an insurrection against him. Commissioned by the Lord and declared to be king of Israel, Jehu confronted Jehoram and his nephew, Ahaziah, king of Judah. The incident culminated in the death of the two reigning monarchs of Israel and Judah (2 Kgs 9:14-24, 27). While Ahaziah was buried in the tomb of the kings in Jerusalem (v 28), Jehoram’s corpse was cast into Naboth’s field outside the city of Jezreel. His end was the appropriate judgment against the last king of the wicked Omride dynasty (vv 25-26).<\/p>\n<li>3. Levite member of a traveling group of scholars who taught the people from the Book of the Law during the reign of Jehoshaphat (2 Chr 17:7-9).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Israel, History of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JEHORAM<\/h3>\n<li>1. Jehoshaphat’s son and Judah’s fifth king (853–841 <span>BC<\/span>; also called Joram). Prior to the rule of the Omride dynasty in the northern kingdom of Israel (885–841 <span>BC<\/span>), the relationship between Judah and Israel had been strained. The political influence and economic stability of the united monarchy had long since vanished. Power and wealth had been diminished by Egyptian overlordship under Shishak (2 Chr 12) and by civil war: the unsuccessful Shechem conference (ch 10); Rehoboam of Judah versus Jeroboam of Israel (12:15); Abijah of Judah versus Jeroboam of Israel (13:1-22); and Asa of Judah versus Baasha of Israel (16:1-4). The Omride dynasty in the mid-ninth century <span>BC<\/span>, however, cast aside familial rivalry and sought to forge a new alliance between the two nations.<\/li>\n<p>The two kingdoms of Judah and Israel were increasingly threatened by the surrounding peoples—the Ammonites, Moabites, Edomites, Syrians, Philistines, Arabs, and Assyrians. In response to this threat Ahab, the second king of the Omride dynasty, secured diplomatic relations with Phoenicia (1 Kgs 16:31) and Judah (22:4). During this time, joint military expeditions by Israel and Judah were not infrequent (1 Kgs 22; 2 Kgs 3; 8:28), though these political alliances were not without their liabilities. The intrusion of the worship of Baal and Asherah led to religious apostasy in Judah and Israel (1 Kgs 16:31-33; 2 Kgs 3:2; 2 Chr 21:11). It was within this political-religious context that Jehoram reigned over Judah.<\/p>\n<p>Though he may have served as co-regent as early as 853 <span>BC<\/span>, Jehoram was the sole ruler for eight years (848–841 <span>BC<\/span>). His reign was marked by unnecessary internecine fighting and religious apostasy. His father had generously provided for his six brothers, a decision that Jehoram quickly reversed once he had secured the throne (2 Chr 21:2-3). He executed not only his brothers but also several Israelite princes, thereby removing any political threat to himself (v 4). In addition, he reverted to the idolatrous practices that his father had tried to eliminate by restoring forbidden worship sites, “the high places” (v 11). Jehoram had apparently fallen under the influence of his wife, Athaliah, the daughter of Jezebel (2 Kgs 8:18). As her mother had done in Israel, Athaliah imported Baal worship into Judah. As a result, Elijah the prophet pronounced judgment on Jehoram and the people of Judah—a curse that brought a great plague upon Jehoram’s people, children, wives, and possessions, and a gross intestinal disorder upon the king himself. In spite of this pervasive wickedness in Judah, the Lord did not destroy the southern kingdom, because of his promise to David (2 Kgs 8:19; cf. 2 Sm 7:12-16).<\/p>\n<p>Politically, Judah was vulnerable, having lost its control of Edom (2 Chr 21:9) and having sustained attacks by the Philistines and the Arabs. Jehoram was left bereft of possessions, wives, and sons except for Jehoahaz (Ahaziah), his youngest (vv 16-17). At his death Jehoram was not honored and was deprived of burial in the tomb of the kings within the city of David (vv 19-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Israel, History of.<\/p>\n<li>2. Ahab and Jezebel’s son, and Israel’s tenth king (852–841 <span>BC<\/span>; also called Joram). He succeeded his brother Ahaziah, whose premature death led to Jehoram’s ascension to the throne in Samaria (2 Kgs 1:2, 17); he was a contemporary of the Judean kings Jehoshaphat, Jehoram, and Ahaziah.<\/li>\n<p>Jehoram was preoccupied with the political resurgence of the two neighboring kingdoms of Moab and Syria. When Moab withheld its annual tribute to Israel, he sought assistance from both Jehoshaphat and Judah’s vassal kingdom, Edom. Jehoram and Jehoshaphat joined forces with the king of Edom but were halted in their attack on Moab when they encountered a serious lack of water. Hesitant to advance with their troops, they summoned Elisha the prophet and asked him to inquire of the Lord’s will regarding the expedition. Because of the high regard that Elisha held for Jehoshaphat, the prophet sought the Lord on their behalf, gaining both the Lord’s blessing and an abundance of water. The account of the battle records the slaughter of the Moabites as well as the horrible incident of a human sacrifice by the Moabite king. Having won the battle, Israel withdrew (2 Kgs 3:4-27).<\/p>\n<p>Jehoram’s conflict with Syria was less successful because the Israelite king sustained a battle wound. Retreating from Ramoth-gilead in Transjordan to his palace in Jezreel (2 Kgs 8:29), he found his problems compounded when one of his generals, Jehu, led an insurrection against him. Commissioned by the Lord and declared to be king of Israel, Jehu confronted Jehoram and his nephew, Ahaziah, king of Judah. The incident culminated in the death of the two reigning monarchs of Israel and Judah (2 Kgs 9:14-24, 27). While Ahaziah was buried in the tomb of the kings in Jerusalem (v 28), Jehoram’s corpse was cast into Naboth’s field outside the city of Jezreel. His end was the appropriate judgment against the last king of the wicked Omride dynasty (vv 25-26).<\/p>\n<li>3. Levite member of a traveling group of scholars who taught the people from the Book of the Law during the reign of Jehoshaphat (2 Chr 17:7-9).<\/li>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Israel, History of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JEHORAM 1. Jehoshaphat’s son and Judah’s fifth king (853–841 BC; also called Joram). Prior to the rule of the Omride dynasty in the northern kingdom of Israel (885–841 BC), the relationship between Judah and Israel had been strained. The political influence and economic stability of the united monarchy had long since vanished. Power and wealth had been diminished by Egyptian overlordship under Shishak (2 Chr 12) and by civil war: the unsuccessful Shechem conference (ch 10); Rehoboam of Judah ...","summary_en":"JEHORAM 1. Jehoshaphat’s son and Judah’s fifth king (853–841 BC; also called Joram). Prior to the rule of the Omride dynasty in the northern kingdom of Israel (885–841 BC), the relationship between Judah and Israel had been strained. The political influence and economic stability of the united monarchy had long since vanished. Power and wealth had been diminished by Egyptian overlordship under Shishak (2 Chr 12) and by civil war: the unsuccessful Shechem conference (ch 10); Rehoboam of Judah ...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":18810,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jehoshaphat (Person)","title_en":"Jehoshaphat (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>JEHOSHAPHAT (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. The fourth king of Judah (872–848 <span>BC<\/span>), son and successor of Asa (910–869 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/li>\n<p>Jehoshaphat was 35 years of age when he began his reign; he ruled 25 years, during which time he maintained the stability of the Davidic dynasty (1 Kgs 22:41-42). He was contemporary with King Ahab of Israel (874–853 <span>BC<\/span>), since his first year on the throne corresponds with the fourth year of the reign of Ahab (v 41). He was also contemporary with Ahaziah (853– 852 <span>BC<\/span>), son of Ahab, and his brother Jehoram (852–841 <span>BC<\/span>), who succeeded Ahaziah when he died childless (2 Kgs 1:17).<\/p>\n<p>Jehoshaphat is held in high esteem by the Chronicler, along with Hezekiah and Josiah. His successful rule was due to his religious policy. He continued the religious reformation initiated by his father; therefore, the Lord firmly established the kingdom under his control. Everyone in Judah brought tribute to Jehoshaphat, so that he had great riches and honor (2 Chr 17:1-5). The Chronicler praised Jehoshaphat’s courageous heart, evidenced in his removing the high places and the Asherim from Judah (v 6). Jehoshaphat is also reported to have closed all the temples of prostitution (1 Kgs 22:46).<\/p>\n<p>The biblical record informs us that Jehoshaphat reversed his father’s foreign policy. During his reign, Asa warred against Baasha of Israel (908–886 <span>BC<\/span>), who exterminated the house of Jeroboam I (930–909 <span>BC<\/span>) and usurped the throne for himself, keeping it for nearly a quarter of a century. The two kingdoms engaged in warfare over the boundaries between the kingdoms. Jehoshaphat, however, discontinued this war and made peace with the king of Israel (1 Kgs 22:2). To confirm this state of peace, he made an alliance with Ahab and married his son and successor, Jehoram, to Ahab’s daughter Athaliah (2 Kgs 8:18; 2 Chr 18:1-2). In accordance with this alliance Jehoshaphat fought on the side of Ahab in his battle against Aram, which took place at Ramoth-gilead (1 Kgs 22; 2 Chr 18). He also was an ally of Jehoram, the younger son of Ahab, against Mesha the king of Moab (2 Kgs 3:4-27).<\/p>\n<p>In his domestic reforms Jehoshaphat sent Ben-hail, Obadiah, Zechariah, Nethanel, and Micaiah to teach the law in the cities of Judah (2 Chr 17:7-9). He is also reported to have organized the use of tribute paid to Judah. The surrounding nations, observing the strength of Jehoshaphat and recognizing the presence of the Lord with him, not only refrained from attacking Judah but even brought tribute to him. He used this tribute to fortify the cities of Judah (vv 10-13). Jehoshaphat also reorganized the army and made arrangements for the defense of the kingdom. He had a standing army in the capital as well as garrisons in the fortified cities. It is evident that the organization centered about the tribal association of Judah and Benjamin (vv 14-19).<\/p>\n<p>A prophet by the name of Jehu rebuked Jehoshaphat for his alliances with Ahab (2 Chr 19:1-3). Evidently, Jehoshaphat took this rebuke to heart and ruled Judah wisely. He swept most of the Asherim from the land and determined in his mind to seek God. He is reported to have gone regularly among the people from Beersheba to Mt Ephraim to convert them to the Lord. He appointed judges in each of the fortified cities of Judah and admonished them to judge as the Lord’s representatives. He also appointed Levites, priests, and family heads to handle cases pertaining to the worship of the Lord and to make decisions in disputes arising among citizens (vv 4-11).<\/p>\n<p>In addition to the fortified cities in Judah, Jehoshaphat placed military forces in the cities of Ephraim that his father, Asa, had taken (2 Chr 17:1-2). Though his alliances with Phoenicia and Israel were not approved by the prophets and proved dangerous in the long run, they still brought relative peace and temporary prosperity to his realm. He was held in high esteem by the neighboring Philistines and the Arabs (vv 10-13), and it is also evident that Edom submitted to him. He won victory over the Moabites, Ammonites, and Meunites at En-gedi (20:1-30). Wishing to emulate Solomon, he constructed ships at Ezion-geber to go to Tarshish, but this did not prove a successful venture (vv 35-37).<\/p>\n<p>Jehoshaphat died when he was about 60 years of age and was buried with his fathers in the city of David. His son Jehoram became king in his place (2 Chr 21:1). His name is listed in Matthew’s genealogy of Jesus Christ (Mt 1:8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of.<\/p>\n<li>2. Son of Ahilud who held the position of “recorder” (the Hebrew word may imply an official historian or a spokesman for the king) in the days of David and Solomon (2 Sm 8:16; 20:24; 1 Kgs 4:3; 1 Chr 18:15).<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of Paruah and one of Solomon’s 12 administrative officials who requisitioned food from the people for the king’s household. Each of them arranged provisions for one month of the year. Jehoshaphat was the officer assigned for the tribe of Issachar (1 Kgs 4:7, 17).<\/li>\n<li>4. Son of Nimshi and the father of Jehu, who exterminated the dynasty of Omri and became king of Samaria around 842–815 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 9:2, 14).<\/li>\n<li>5. KJV spelling of Joshaphat in 1 Chronicles 15:24, a priest during David’s reign. <em>See<\/em> #2 (above).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>JEHOSHAPHAT (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. The fourth king of Judah (872–848 <span>BC<\/span>), son and successor of Asa (910–869 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/li>\n<p>Jehoshaphat was 35 years of age when he began his reign; he ruled 25 years, during which time he maintained the stability of the Davidic dynasty (1 Kgs 22:41-42). He was contemporary with King Ahab of Israel (874–853 <span>BC<\/span>), since his first year on the throne corresponds with the fourth year of the reign of Ahab (v 41). He was also contemporary with Ahaziah (853– 852 <span>BC<\/span>), son of Ahab, and his brother Jehoram (852–841 <span>BC<\/span>), who succeeded Ahaziah when he died childless (2 Kgs 1:17).<\/p>\n<p>Jehoshaphat is held in high esteem by the Chronicler, along with Hezekiah and Josiah. His successful rule was due to his religious policy. He continued the religious reformation initiated by his father; therefore, the Lord firmly established the kingdom under his control. Everyone in Judah brought tribute to Jehoshaphat, so that he had great riches and honor (2 Chr 17:1-5). The Chronicler praised Jehoshaphat’s courageous heart, evidenced in his removing the high places and the Asherim from Judah (v 6). Jehoshaphat is also reported to have closed all the temples of prostitution (1 Kgs 22:46).<\/p>\n<p>The biblical record informs us that Jehoshaphat reversed his father’s foreign policy. During his reign, Asa warred against Baasha of Israel (908–886 <span>BC<\/span>), who exterminated the house of Jeroboam I (930–909 <span>BC<\/span>) and usurped the throne for himself, keeping it for nearly a quarter of a century. The two kingdoms engaged in warfare over the boundaries between the kingdoms. Jehoshaphat, however, discontinued this war and made peace with the king of Israel (1 Kgs 22:2). To confirm this state of peace, he made an alliance with Ahab and married his son and successor, Jehoram, to Ahab’s daughter Athaliah (2 Kgs 8:18; 2 Chr 18:1-2). In accordance with this alliance Jehoshaphat fought on the side of Ahab in his battle against Aram, which took place at Ramoth-gilead (1 Kgs 22; 2 Chr 18). He also was an ally of Jehoram, the younger son of Ahab, against Mesha the king of Moab (2 Kgs 3:4-27).<\/p>\n<p>In his domestic reforms Jehoshaphat sent Ben-hail, Obadiah, Zechariah, Nethanel, and Micaiah to teach the law in the cities of Judah (2 Chr 17:7-9). He is also reported to have organized the use of tribute paid to Judah. The surrounding nations, observing the strength of Jehoshaphat and recognizing the presence of the Lord with him, not only refrained from attacking Judah but even brought tribute to him. He used this tribute to fortify the cities of Judah (vv 10-13). Jehoshaphat also reorganized the army and made arrangements for the defense of the kingdom. He had a standing army in the capital as well as garrisons in the fortified cities. It is evident that the organization centered about the tribal association of Judah and Benjamin (vv 14-19).<\/p>\n<p>A prophet by the name of Jehu rebuked Jehoshaphat for his alliances with Ahab (2 Chr 19:1-3). Evidently, Jehoshaphat took this rebuke to heart and ruled Judah wisely. He swept most of the Asherim from the land and determined in his mind to seek God. He is reported to have gone regularly among the people from Beersheba to Mt Ephraim to convert them to the Lord. He appointed judges in each of the fortified cities of Judah and admonished them to judge as the Lord’s representatives. He also appointed Levites, priests, and family heads to handle cases pertaining to the worship of the Lord and to make decisions in disputes arising among citizens (vv 4-11).<\/p>\n<p>In addition to the fortified cities in Judah, Jehoshaphat placed military forces in the cities of Ephraim that his father, Asa, had taken (2 Chr 17:1-2). Though his alliances with Phoenicia and Israel were not approved by the prophets and proved dangerous in the long run, they still brought relative peace and temporary prosperity to his realm. He was held in high esteem by the neighboring Philistines and the Arabs (vv 10-13), and it is also evident that Edom submitted to him. He won victory over the Moabites, Ammonites, and Meunites at En-gedi (20:1-30). Wishing to emulate Solomon, he constructed ships at Ezion-geber to go to Tarshish, but this did not prove a successful venture (vv 35-37).<\/p>\n<p>Jehoshaphat died when he was about 60 years of age and was buried with his fathers in the city of David. His son Jehoram became king in his place (2 Chr 21:1). His name is listed in Matthew’s genealogy of Jesus Christ (Mt 1:8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of.<\/p>\n<li>2. Son of Ahilud who held the position of “recorder” (the Hebrew word may imply an official historian or a spokesman for the king) in the days of David and Solomon (2 Sm 8:16; 20:24; 1 Kgs 4:3; 1 Chr 18:15).<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of Paruah and one of Solomon’s 12 administrative officials who requisitioned food from the people for the king’s household. Each of them arranged provisions for one month of the year. Jehoshaphat was the officer assigned for the tribe of Issachar (1 Kgs 4:7, 17).<\/li>\n<li>4. Son of Nimshi and the father of Jehu, who exterminated the dynasty of Omri and became king of Samaria around 842–815 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 9:2, 14).<\/li>\n<li>5. KJV spelling of Joshaphat in 1 Chronicles 15:24, a priest during David’s reign. <em>See<\/em> #2 (above).<\/li>","summary_ro":"JEHOSHAPHAT (Person) 1. The fourth king of Judah (872–848 BC), son and successor of Asa (910–869 BC). Jehoshaphat was 35 years of age when he began his reign; he ruled 25 years, during which time he maintained the stability of the Davidic dynasty (1 Kgs 22:41-42). He was contemporary with King Ahab of Israel (874–853 BC), since his first year on the throne corresponds with the fourth year of the reign of Ahab (v 41). He was also contemporary with Ahaziah (853– 852 BC), son of Ahab, and his br...","summary_en":"JEHOSHAPHAT (Person) 1. The fourth king of Judah (872–848 BC), son and successor of Asa (910–869 BC). Jehoshaphat was 35 years of age when he began his reign; he ruled 25 years, during which time he maintained the stability of the Davidic dynasty (1 Kgs 22:41-42). He was contemporary with King Ahab of Israel (874–853 BC), since his first year on the throne corresponds with the fourth year of the reign of Ahab (v 41). He was also contemporary with Ahaziah (853– 852 BC), son of Ahab, and his br...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":25282,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Mesha (Person)","title_en":"Mesha (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>MESHA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. King of Moab in the ninth century <span>BC<\/span> whose name is derived from a root meaning “to save or deliver.” According to 2 Kings 3:4-5, Mesha was a sheep breeder who paid heavy tribute to Israel during the time of Ahab but rebelled after Ahab’s death (2 Kgs 1:1). Later, Jehoram the son of Ahab joined with Jehoshaphat of Judah and the king of Edom in an attempt to reestablish hegemony over Moab. When the battle went against the Moabites, Mesha took his eldest son and offered him as a human sacrifice upon the wall of the city to the Moabite god Chemosh (3:27).<\/li>\n<li>2. Caleb’s son and the father of Ziph (1 Chr 2:42). In the Greek text the latter part of this verse appears to say that Mesha was the father of Hebron, though the Hebrew text here substitutes the name Mareshah for Mesha. The <span>rsv<\/span> (following the Septuagint) reads Mareshah in both places. <em>See<\/em> Mareshah (Person) #1.<\/li>\n<li>3. Benjamite and one of the sons of Shaharaim born by Hodesh in the land of Moab (1 Chr 8:9).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>MESHA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. King of Moab in the ninth century <span>BC<\/span> whose name is derived from a root meaning “to save or deliver.” According to 2 Kings 3:4-5, Mesha was a sheep breeder who paid heavy tribute to Israel during the time of Ahab but rebelled after Ahab’s death (2 Kgs 1:1). Later, Jehoram the son of Ahab joined with Jehoshaphat of Judah and the king of Edom in an attempt to reestablish hegemony over Moab. When the battle went against the Moabites, Mesha took his eldest son and offered him as a human sacrifice upon the wall of the city to the Moabite god Chemosh (3:27).<\/li>\n<li>2. Caleb’s son and the father of Ziph (1 Chr 2:42). In the Greek text the latter part of this verse appears to say that Mesha was the father of Hebron, though the Hebrew text here substitutes the name Mareshah for Mesha. The <span>rsv<\/span> (following the Septuagint) reads Mareshah in both places. <em>See<\/em> Mareshah (Person) #1.<\/li>\n<li>3. Benjamite and one of the sons of Shaharaim born by Hodesh in the land of Moab (1 Chr 8:9).<\/li>","summary_ro":"MESHA (Person) 1. King of Moab in the ninth century BC whose name is derived from a root meaning “to save or deliver.” According to 2 Kings 3:4-5, Mesha was a sheep breeder who paid heavy tribute to Israel during the time of Ahab but rebelled after Ahab’s death (2 Kgs 1:1). Later, Jehoram the son of Ahab joined with Jehoshaphat of Judah and the king of Edom in an attempt to reestablish hegemony over Moab. When the battle went against the Moabites, Mesha took his eldest son and offered him as ...","summary_en":"MESHA (Person) 1. King of Moab in the ninth century BC whose name is derived from a root meaning “to save or deliver.” According to 2 Kings 3:4-5, Mesha was a sheep breeder who paid heavy tribute to Israel during the time of Ahab but rebelled after Ahab’s death (2 Kgs 1:1). Later, Jehoram the son of Ahab joined with Jehoshaphat of Judah and the king of Edom in an attempt to reestablish hegemony over Moab. When the battle went against the Moabites, Mesha took his eldest son and offered him as ...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26138,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Moabites Moab","title_en":"Moabites Moab","content_ro":"<h3>MOAB, MOABITES<\/h3>\n<p>Name of a small kingdom in central Transjordan and also its inhabitants. The land of Moab was situated on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea; the escarpment of the Jordan Rift formed an effective boundary between Moab and Judah. Moab’s northern boundary shifted in accordance with the kingdom’s military might, with the Heshbon vicinity forming the northern limit of Moab in periods of strength, and the Arnon River (modern Wadi el-Mojib) functioning as the northern border in times of weakness. The kingdom’s eastern boundary was formed by the fringe of the Syrian desert, since the latter demarcated Moab’s agricultural zone. On the south, Moab was separated from Edom by the Zered River (modern Wadi el-Hesa). Thus, even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, measuring only about 60 miles (96.5 kilometers) north-south by about 20 miles (32.2 kilometers) east-west.<\/p>\n<p>Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland that is divided by numerous ravines. Running through the heart of Moab is the King’s Highway, a route that probably had military and commercial importance throughout this region’s history (Nm 21:21-22; Jgs 11:17). The plateau has always been famous for its abundant pasturage (2 Kgs 3:4), and Moab’s soil and climate are quite suitable for growing wheat and barley.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OriginandHistory\">Origin and History<\/p>\n<p>According to Genesis 19:37, the Moabites descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter. Deuteronomy 2:10-11, a passage whose context relates to the Moabites at the time of the Hebrew invasion, says that the pre-Moabite inhabitants of this region were the Emim, but the connection between Lot’s descendants, the Emim, and the occupants of Moab at the time of the Hebrew invasion is not identified. There is thus far no specific information concerning the establishing of the Moabite kingdom proper, which existed from around 1300 <span>BC<\/span> to 600 <span>BC<\/span>. Knowledge of this period of Moabite history and culture is derived from archaeological and textual sources, including Egyptian, Assyrian, and OT texts.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the Israelites’ passage through Transjordan, the Moabites had lost control of the land north of the Arnon and were dominated by Sihon, the Amorite king who ruled at Heshbon (Nm 21:13, 26). Having been refused permission to travel through Edom and Moab along the King’s Highway, the Hebrews defeated Sihon in one of their most celebrated military campaigns. Fearing that Israel might conquer his land, King Balak of Moab waged war against the Hebrews (Nm 22:6; Jos 24:9) and hired the Mesopotamian diviner, Balaam, to pronounce a curse upon his enemies (Nm 22–24). The tribes of Reuben and Gad settled in Sihon’s territory, and the Arnon formed the border between Israel and Moab (ch 32). From the time of the Israelites’ apostasy at Shittim onward (ch 25), the Moabite tableland north of the Arnon was a source of contention between Moab and Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Until his assassination by Ehud, the Moabite king Eglon oppressed the Hebrew tribes on both sides of the Jordan (Jgs 3:12-30). By Jephthah’s day, northern Moab was once again under Israelite control (11:26). Obviously, as the book of Ruth indicates, there were also periods in which Moab and Israel lived in peace.<\/p>\n<p>During the reigns of Saul and David, from the late-11th until the mid-10th centuries <span>BC<\/span>, Moab and Israel were at war, with the latter usually holding the upper hand (1 Sm 14:47; 2 Sm 8:2). Solomon’s harem included Moabite women, and he also built a high place for Chemosh, the chief god of the Moabites (1 Kgs 11:1, 7). Following the division of the Israelite monarchy in 930 <span>BC<\/span>, Moab experienced a brief period of independence, but this ended when Omri and Ahab dominated the Moabites and their king, Mesha, during the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>. (The famous Moabite Stone, which describes Mesha’s conflict with the Omride dynasty, and several shorter texts demonstrate that the language of Moab was closely related to OT Hebrew.) Conflict between Moab and her neighbors (e.g., Israel, Judah, Edom, and most importantly, Assyria) continued until the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar destroyed the Moabite kingdom early in the sixth century <span>BC<\/span> (Ez 25:8-11). This conflict is documented in the Assyrian literature, which indicates that Moab became an Assyrian vassal in the late eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, and in the OT (2 Kgs 3; 10:32-33; 13:20; 24:2). Indeed, the enmity between Moab, Israel, and Judah is especially evident in a series of prophetic oracles leveled against the Moabites (Is 15–16; Jer 9:25-26; 48; Am 2:1-3; Zep 2:8-11). These passages call attention to some of the major towns in ancient Moab (Nebo, Medeba, Heshbon, Dibon, Ar, Kir, and Horonaim).<\/p>\n<p>Following the Babylonian conquest, the region of Moab fell under Persian control and was occupied by various Arab peoples, most notably the Nabateans. Although a Moabite state was never reestablished, people of Moabite ancestry were recognized in late OT times (Ezr 9:1; Neh 13:1, 23), since the postexilic Jewish community was concerned about observing the law recorded in Deuteronomy 23:3-6. In <span>AD<\/span> 106 the region of Moab became part of the Roman province of Arabia. Archaeological research has added much to the body of information that relates to Moabite history and culture from the prehistoric through Ottoman periods.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Religion\">Religion<\/p>\n<p>During the third and second millennia <span>BC<\/span>, Moabite religion was probably similar to that practiced by the Canaanites, though the religion of Moab eventually developed into a relatively distinct system. Although other deities were worshiped by the Moabites, Chemosh was their national god. The OT refers to the Moabites as “people of Chemosh” (Nm 21:29; Jer 48:46), and the frequent appearance of “Chemosh” in Moabite personal names points to this god’s elevated status. In general, the Moabite Stone’s dozen references to Chemosh portray him as a god of war who leads his people against their enemies.<\/p>\n<p>Divine guidance and favor were sought, and diviners and oracles were respected (Nm 22–24). A priesthood (Jer 48:7) and sacrificial system (Nm 22:40–23:30; 25:1-5; 2 Kgs 3:27; Jer 48:35) were important aspects of Moabite religion. No Moabite sanctuary has been discovered, but their existence is mentioned in the Moabite Stone and the OT (1 Kgs 11:7; 2 Kgs 23:13). Elaborately furnished tombs, like those found at Dibon, point to the Moabites’ belief in the afterlife.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Canaanite Deities and Religion; Moabite Stone.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MOAB, MOABITES<\/h3>\n<p>Name of a small kingdom in central Transjordan and also its inhabitants. The land of Moab was situated on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea; the escarpment of the Jordan Rift formed an effective boundary between Moab and Judah. Moab’s northern boundary shifted in accordance with the kingdom’s military might, with the Heshbon vicinity forming the northern limit of Moab in periods of strength, and the Arnon River (modern Wadi el-Mojib) functioning as the northern border in times of weakness. The kingdom’s eastern boundary was formed by the fringe of the Syrian desert, since the latter demarcated Moab’s agricultural zone. On the south, Moab was separated from Edom by the Zered River (modern Wadi el-Hesa). Thus, even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, measuring only about 60 miles (96.5 kilometers) north-south by about 20 miles (32.2 kilometers) east-west.<\/p>\n<p>Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland that is divided by numerous ravines. Running through the heart of Moab is the King’s Highway, a route that probably had military and commercial importance throughout this region’s history (Nm 21:21-22; Jgs 11:17). The plateau has always been famous for its abundant pasturage (2 Kgs 3:4), and Moab’s soil and climate are quite suitable for growing wheat and barley.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OriginandHistory\">Origin and History<\/p>\n<p>According to Genesis 19:37, the Moabites descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter. Deuteronomy 2:10-11, a passage whose context relates to the Moabites at the time of the Hebrew invasion, says that the pre-Moabite inhabitants of this region were the Emim, but the connection between Lot’s descendants, the Emim, and the occupants of Moab at the time of the Hebrew invasion is not identified. There is thus far no specific information concerning the establishing of the Moabite kingdom proper, which existed from around 1300 <span>BC<\/span> to 600 <span>BC<\/span>. Knowledge of this period of Moabite history and culture is derived from archaeological and textual sources, including Egyptian, Assyrian, and OT texts.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the Israelites’ passage through Transjordan, the Moabites had lost control of the land north of the Arnon and were dominated by Sihon, the Amorite king who ruled at Heshbon (Nm 21:13, 26). Having been refused permission to travel through Edom and Moab along the King’s Highway, the Hebrews defeated Sihon in one of their most celebrated military campaigns. Fearing that Israel might conquer his land, King Balak of Moab waged war against the Hebrews (Nm 22:6; Jos 24:9) and hired the Mesopotamian diviner, Balaam, to pronounce a curse upon his enemies (Nm 22–24). The tribes of Reuben and Gad settled in Sihon’s territory, and the Arnon formed the border between Israel and Moab (ch 32). From the time of the Israelites’ apostasy at Shittim onward (ch 25), the Moabite tableland north of the Arnon was a source of contention between Moab and Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Until his assassination by Ehud, the Moabite king Eglon oppressed the Hebrew tribes on both sides of the Jordan (Jgs 3:12-30). By Jephthah’s day, northern Moab was once again under Israelite control (11:26). Obviously, as the book of Ruth indicates, there were also periods in which Moab and Israel lived in peace.<\/p>\n<p>During the reigns of Saul and David, from the late-11th until the mid-10th centuries <span>BC<\/span>, Moab and Israel were at war, with the latter usually holding the upper hand (1 Sm 14:47; 2 Sm 8:2). Solomon’s harem included Moabite women, and he also built a high place for Chemosh, the chief god of the Moabites (1 Kgs 11:1, 7). Following the division of the Israelite monarchy in 930 <span>BC<\/span>, Moab experienced a brief period of independence, but this ended when Omri and Ahab dominated the Moabites and their king, Mesha, during the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>. (The famous Moabite Stone, which describes Mesha’s conflict with the Omride dynasty, and several shorter texts demonstrate that the language of Moab was closely related to OT Hebrew.) Conflict between Moab and her neighbors (e.g., Israel, Judah, Edom, and most importantly, Assyria) continued until the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar destroyed the Moabite kingdom early in the sixth century <span>BC<\/span> (Ez 25:8-11). This conflict is documented in the Assyrian literature, which indicates that Moab became an Assyrian vassal in the late eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, and in the OT (2 Kgs 3; 10:32-33; 13:20; 24:2). Indeed, the enmity between Moab, Israel, and Judah is especially evident in a series of prophetic oracles leveled against the Moabites (Is 15–16; Jer 9:25-26; 48; Am 2:1-3; Zep 2:8-11). These passages call attention to some of the major towns in ancient Moab (Nebo, Medeba, Heshbon, Dibon, Ar, Kir, and Horonaim).<\/p>\n<p>Following the Babylonian conquest, the region of Moab fell under Persian control and was occupied by various Arab peoples, most notably the Nabateans. Although a Moabite state was never reestablished, people of Moabite ancestry were recognized in late OT times (Ezr 9:1; Neh 13:1, 23), since the postexilic Jewish community was concerned about observing the law recorded in Deuteronomy 23:3-6. In <span>AD<\/span> 106 the region of Moab became part of the Roman province of Arabia. Archaeological research has added much to the body of information that relates to Moabite history and culture from the prehistoric through Ottoman periods.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Religion\">Religion<\/p>\n<p>During the third and second millennia <span>BC<\/span>, Moabite religion was probably similar to that practiced by the Canaanites, though the religion of Moab eventually developed into a relatively distinct system. Although other deities were worshiped by the Moabites, Chemosh was their national god. The OT refers to the Moabites as “people of Chemosh” (Nm 21:29; Jer 48:46), and the frequent appearance of “Chemosh” in Moabite personal names points to this god’s elevated status. In general, the Moabite Stone’s dozen references to Chemosh portray him as a god of war who leads his people against their enemies.<\/p>\n<p>Divine guidance and favor were sought, and diviners and oracles were respected (Nm 22–24). A priesthood (Jer 48:7) and sacrificial system (Nm 22:40–23:30; 25:1-5; 2 Kgs 3:27; Jer 48:35) were important aspects of Moabite religion. No Moabite sanctuary has been discovered, but their existence is mentioned in the Moabite Stone and the OT (1 Kgs 11:7; 2 Kgs 23:13). Elaborately furnished tombs, like those found at Dibon, point to the Moabites’ belief in the afterlife.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Canaanite Deities and Religion; Moabite Stone.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MOAB, MOABITES Name of a small kingdom in central Transjordan and also its inhabitants. The land of Moab was situated on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea; the escarpment of the Jordan Rift formed an effective boundary between Moab and Judah. Moab’s northern boundary shifted in accordance with the kingdom’s military might, with the Heshbon vicinity forming the northern limit of Moab in periods of strength, and the Arnon River (modern Wadi el-Mojib) functioning as the northern ...","summary_en":"MOAB, MOABITES Name of a small kingdom in central Transjordan and also its inhabitants. The land of Moab was situated on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea; the escarpment of the Jordan Rift formed an effective boundary between Moab and Judah. Moab’s northern boundary shifted in accordance with the kingdom’s military might, with the Heshbon vicinity forming the northern limit of Moab in periods of strength, and the Arnon River (modern Wadi el-Mojib) functioning as the northern ...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26174,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Moabite Stone*","title_en":"Moabite Stone*","content_ro":"<h3>MOABITE STONE*<\/h3>\n\n<p>Longest literary source outside the OT dealing with the history of the region of Palestine and Transjordan during the period of 1300–600 <span>BC<\/span>. It is a particularly important source for the history of the Moabites, a people who lived in an area east of the Dead Sea. The stone was discovered in the 1860s and has a fairly complete narrative of the reign of Mesha, a Moabite king in the middle of the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>. When found, the stone was a hard slab with rounded top and 39 lines of Hebrewlike writing three feet, ten inches (1.2 meters) high by two feet (.6 meter) wide by two and a half inches (6.4 centimeters) thick.<\/p>\n<p>On August 19, 1868, F. Klein, a German employed by the Church Missionary Society, saw the stele and reported its existence. When the German and French consuls showed an interest in the stone, the Arabs who had discovered it wanted to get the best price they could from the two governments. The Arabs then began to quarrel among themselves over how much to charge the foreigners, and the dispute became so bitter that one group heated the stone over a fire and then poured water on it, causing the stone to break into pieces. The Arabs then distributed the various pieces among the granaries of the countryside. There they were to act as a blessing or offering for a good harvest. Fortunately, a messenger from the French Consulate had obtained an impression of the writing on the stone. But the impression began to break apart as the messenger returned to the consulate on horseback. Impressions were also taken of the larger sections when they could be gathered at a later date. Finally, many of the other, smaller pieces were located, and the whole stone was put back together as closely as possible. Although parts were missing, the stone did contain a clear description of the history of the Moabites.<\/p>\n<p>The text begins with a dedication to Chemosh, the god of the Moabites. Mesha, the king of the Moabites for 30 years, states that in gratitude for being delivered “from all the kings and letting” him see his “desire over all . . . enemies” he had erected a high place for the god. The place where the stele was found may also have been the location of the high place.<\/p>\n<p>As the text continues, a short sketch of the history of the Moabites appears that can be related to the OT narrative. “Omri, king of Israel,” had oppressed Moab for many days because Chemosh was angry with his land [Moab]. Omri’s son “succeeded him and he too said, ‘I will oppress Moab.’ In my [Mesha’s] time he said [this] but I triumphed over him and over his house, while Israel has perished for ever.” The 40-year domination of Israel over Moab must involve the reigns of Omri (885–874 <span>BC<\/span>; 1 Kgs 16), his son Ahab (874–853 <span>BC<\/span>), Ahaziah (853–852), and the first half of Jehoram’s reign (852–841). Thus the son mentioned in the text would be Omri’s grandson. That would be more consistent with Scripture, which states that Jehoram (<span>nlt<\/span>, <span>niv<\/span> “Joram”) had tried to destroy Moabite rebels (2 Kgs 3:4-27). The rest of the text describes the victories over the Israelites, Mesha’s public works, and the call of the god Chemosh for Mesha to fight the Hauranites.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Inscriptions; Moab, Moabites.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MOABITE STONE*<\/h3>\n\n<p>Longest literary source outside the OT dealing with the history of the region of Palestine and Transjordan during the period of 1300–600 <span>BC<\/span>. It is a particularly important source for the history of the Moabites, a people who lived in an area east of the Dead Sea. The stone was discovered in the 1860s and has a fairly complete narrative of the reign of Mesha, a Moabite king in the middle of the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>. When found, the stone was a hard slab with rounded top and 39 lines of Hebrewlike writing three feet, ten inches (1.2 meters) high by two feet (.6 meter) wide by two and a half inches (6.4 centimeters) thick.<\/p>\n<p>On August 19, 1868, F. Klein, a German employed by the Church Missionary Society, saw the stele and reported its existence. When the German and French consuls showed an interest in the stone, the Arabs who had discovered it wanted to get the best price they could from the two governments. The Arabs then began to quarrel among themselves over how much to charge the foreigners, and the dispute became so bitter that one group heated the stone over a fire and then poured water on it, causing the stone to break into pieces. The Arabs then distributed the various pieces among the granaries of the countryside. There they were to act as a blessing or offering for a good harvest. Fortunately, a messenger from the French Consulate had obtained an impression of the writing on the stone. But the impression began to break apart as the messenger returned to the consulate on horseback. Impressions were also taken of the larger sections when they could be gathered at a later date. Finally, many of the other, smaller pieces were located, and the whole stone was put back together as closely as possible. Although parts were missing, the stone did contain a clear description of the history of the Moabites.<\/p>\n<p>The text begins with a dedication to Chemosh, the god of the Moabites. Mesha, the king of the Moabites for 30 years, states that in gratitude for being delivered “from all the kings and letting” him see his “desire over all . . . enemies” he had erected a high place for the god. The place where the stele was found may also have been the location of the high place.<\/p>\n<p>As the text continues, a short sketch of the history of the Moabites appears that can be related to the OT narrative. “Omri, king of Israel,” had oppressed Moab for many days because Chemosh was angry with his land [Moab]. Omri’s son “succeeded him and he too said, ‘I will oppress Moab.’ In my [Mesha’s] time he said [this] but I triumphed over him and over his house, while Israel has perished for ever.” The 40-year domination of Israel over Moab must involve the reigns of Omri (885–874 <span>BC<\/span>; 1 Kgs 16), his son Ahab (874–853 <span>BC<\/span>), Ahaziah (853–852), and the first half of Jehoram’s reign (852–841). Thus the son mentioned in the text would be Omri’s grandson. That would be more consistent with Scripture, which states that Jehoram (<span>nlt<\/span>, <span>niv<\/span> “Joram”) had tried to destroy Moabite rebels (2 Kgs 3:4-27). The rest of the text describes the victories over the Israelites, Mesha’s public works, and the call of the god Chemosh for Mesha to fight the Hauranites.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Inscriptions; Moab, Moabites.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MOABITE STONE* Longest literary source outside the OT dealing with the history of the region of Palestine and Transjordan during the period of 1300–600 BC. It is a particularly important source for the history of the Moabites, a people who lived in an area east of the Dead Sea. The stone was discovered in the 1860s and has a fairly complete narrative of the reign of Mesha, a Moabite king in the middle of the ninth century BC. When found, the stone was a hard slab with rounded top and 39 lines...","summary_en":"MOABITE STONE* Longest literary source outside the OT dealing with the history of the region of Palestine and Transjordan during the period of 1300–600 BC. It is a particularly important source for the history of the Moabites, a people who lived in an area east of the Dead Sea. The stone was discovered in the 1860s and has a fairly complete narrative of the reign of Mesha, a Moabite king in the middle of the ninth century BC. When found, the stone was a hard slab with rounded top and 39 lines...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26189,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Money","title_en":"Money","content_ro":"<h3>MONEY<\/h3>\n<p>Medium of exchange, measurement of value, means of payment.<\/p>\n<p>Money was developed as a convenient medium of exchange to supplement and later to replace bartering, although the two systems operated concurrently for many centuries. From the patriarchal period to the present day, wealth has been measured in terms of goods and precious metals, particularly gold and silver, which remain universally acceptable mediums of exchange. Genesis 13:2 describes Abraham as “very rich in cattle, in silver, and in gold.”<\/p>\n<p>Wealth in a nomadic or seminomadic society was frequently measured by the number of cattle a person possessed, and because of this, cattle were a readily acceptable and easily valued, if rather large, medium of exchange. The degree to which cattle were commonly recognized as the standard for value, wealth, and exchange is reflected in the Latin form for money, <em>pecunia,<\/em> which is derived directly from <em>pecus,<\/em> meaning “cattle.” For religious purposes, taxes or donations paid in cattle were most acceptable, and this not only increased the general recognition for this medium but also made the temple a repository for large herds of cattle, as well as smaller animals and produce, which, if they could not be used directly in the temple rituals, could be bartered for whatever commodities were required. Perishable foods were less popular for purposes of exchange than animals such as sheep and asses, although timber, wine, and honey were regularly used as a form of currency (1 Sm 8:15; 2 Kgs 3:4; Ez 45:13-16). Both public and private taxes, tribute, and debts of all kinds were settled by this means. Solomon paid Hiram, king of Tyre, in wheat and olive oil for his assistance in the construction of the temple (1 Kgs 5:11), and in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> taxes were commonly paid in jars of wine or olive oil. Tribute in the form of sheep and wool is recorded in 2 Kings 3:4.<\/p>\n<p>All the means of exchange mentioned represented goods that could be measured or counted, and attempts were made to establish a standard rate of exchange for them in relation to each other.<\/p>\n<p>Silver was the precious metal most readily available in the ancient Near East and was therefore the one most frequently mentioned in connection with purchases by weight, and at a later period by coin. The first recorded instance in the Bible of silver being used as a medium of exchange occurs in Genesis 20:14-16, where Abraham received a payment of 1,000 shekels by weight of silver, as well as animals and slaves. Abraham also purchased the field and cave of Machpelah for 400 shekels of silver (Gn 23:15-16), which according to the custom of the day had to be weighed out in front of the vendor and checked by witnesses (cf. Jer 32:9-10).<\/p>\n<p>As these events occurred about the beginning of the second millennium <span>BC<\/span>, the term “shekel” would not represent the coin familiar from later periods but rather a certain weight of silver. At a later time the brothers of Joseph sold him to traveling merchants for 20 shekels of silver (Gn 37:28). Genesis 33:19 mentions another unit of weight for metal, <em>the kesitah<\/em> (<span>nlt<\/span> mg), in connection with the purchase of a field by Jacob; the term occurs again in Joshua 24:32 and Job 42:11. This unit may have represented an amount equivalent to the currency value for a lamb.<\/p>\n<p>In time large animals and material objects came to be considered extremely cumbersome as a means of exchange, and metal became increasingly popular. Transportation of large quantities of precious metal remained a problem, however, and a method had to be devised for easy recognition, accessibility, and storage of particular metals of value.<\/p>\n<p>Over the years, fairly uniform shapes were designed for metals used in transactions. Silver could be piled or tied in bundles, as shown in Egyptian bas-reliefs, and the sons of Jacob took advantage of a similar method in transporting the purchase price of the grain they were buying from Egypt (Gn 42:35). About 1500 <span>BC<\/span>, pieces of metal shaped in the form of ingots, bars, tongues, or heads of animals were in use, as well as gold discs and rings of gold wire. Perhaps the most popular pieces acceptable as currency were those that had also been designed as jewelry. The valuables listed among the spoil of the Midianites included gold chains, bracelets, signet rings, and earrings (Nm 31:50). The bracelets and rings in particular probably represented a standardized weight, and could therefore be used easily as currency. Rebekah received gifts from her fiancé that were in the form of jewelry of specific weight: a gold ring weighing half a shekel and two bracelets weighing ten gold shekels (Gn 24:22). Job was given a fine ring of gold by a number of relatives, and it is unlikely that they would all have given him the same gift if it did not in fact represent a certain monetary value (Jb 42:11).<\/p>\n<p>The requirement in Deuteronomy 14:25 to “bind up your money” would again imply either thin strips of silver that could be bundled together or rings that could be strung. In either event, transportation would be facilitated.<\/p>\n<p>The value for weights of silver mentioned in Mosaic times can best be understood in terms of purchasing power. A ram could be bought for two shekels, while fifty shekels was the price of about four bushels of barley (Lv 27:16). In the time of Elisha, during a good year, one and one-half pecks of fine flour or three pecks of barley could be bought for one shekel (2 Kgs 7:16). Needless to say, monetary valuations of this kind would be affected by such economic considerations as supply and demand.<\/p>\n<p>Estimation by eye was an inaccurate means of judging the value of currency, and there is no doubt that cheating was prevalent in the weighing and examination of metal. The weighing, an essential part of every major transaction, was also very time-consuming. In order to ensure the correct value of the weights, which were usually pieces of bronze, iron, or dressed stones, they carried some sort of stamp. Once this practice was generally established, it was a short step to the stamping of the individual pieces of metal, whether tongues, bars, or bracelets, being used as currency. The next logical development was stamping a piece of silver to authenticate its value for purposes of currency. This was the precursor of the coin, which was not known in the ancient Near East prior to the exilic period. Therefore, any reference to money before that time indicates bars, bracelets, rings, or other metal objects, stamped or unstamped.<\/p>\n<p>The earliest minted coins came from the kingdom of Lydia in Asia Minor, being credited traditionally to Croesus (560–546 <span>BC<\/span>), the fabulously wealthy ruler of that land. The coins from Lydia were made of electrum, a natural alloy of silver and gold, and they depicted a lion and a bull. Like most of the early coins, the reverse simply contained a punch mark.<\/p>\n<p>Originally a coin not only represented a value, but also its weight was worth the amount of silver or gold of its face value. Thus many of the early coins were slashed heavily by some ancient skeptics, who wished to be sure that the coin was of pure silver and not a less valuable metal coated with silver.<\/p>\n<p>The purity of silver or gold was also a factor in the popularity and acceptance of particular coins. Thus in Greek and Roman times the tetradrachma from Tyre was one of the most widely accepted silver coins because of the purity of its metal content.<\/p>\n<p>The use of coins did not eliminate the necessity for weighing, because the fraudulent clipping of the edges of coins was prevalent from their introduction in the sixth century <span>BC<\/span>. This particular problem plagued all subsequent issues of coinage, and it was only in the late 18th century in Britain that it was surmounted by a process involving the milling, or reeding, of the edges of the more valuable coins.<\/p>\n<p>In the sixth century <span>BC<\/span>, when the Jews returned from exile in Babylonia, coins were donated for the rebuilding of the temple in Jerusalem, as well as silver and gold in other forms. The gold coin mentioned is a “daric.” The term, apparently derived from the name of the great Persian king Darius I (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>), was in wide current use and even appears in biblical passages written at a later date but referring to a period before the reign of Darius (cf. 1 Chr 29:7).<\/p>\n<p>Few craftsmen with the skills required for the manufacture of coins would have been available before the sixth century <span>BC<\/span>, so the earliest gold darics were probably minted at Sardis. The mint itself was taken over by the Persians when they occupied the territory, with production continuing as before.<\/p>\n<p>Western sections of the Persian Empire probably used silver coins more frequently than gold. According to some traditions, coinage developed in Greece at Aegina about the time that the Lydians first adopted the concept. The earliest of these silver coins to be excavated so far dates from the sixth century <span>BC<\/span> and was minted in northern Greece.<\/p>\n<p>Also in current use were the popular fifth-century <span>BC<\/span> tetradrachmas from Athens, which had dies on both sides of the coin. These depicted the head of the goddess Athena and the sacred owl.<\/p>\n<p>Although the silver content of many coins in contemporary use was lowered, that of the Athenian tetradrachma remained consistently at its original high standard of purity. This circumstance naturally increased its acceptability, especially in areas caught up in political turmoil where the purity of the local currency was particularly questionable. Because of the stability of the silver content of the coin and the rapidity with which the Greek Empire was expanding, the Athenian tetradrachma was minted and used almost unchanged over a period of 200 years. Many of these coins have been found in hoards all over the eastern Mediterranean.<\/p>\n<p>There is no doubt that by the fourth century <span>BC<\/span> there was a local mint in Judea, for silver coins imitating the Athenian tetradrachma, but also bearing the legend “Jehud,” have been excavated there.<\/p>\n<p>Because of the extent of trade in Greek and Roman times, the coins from the larger centers had a general acceptance in all the Mediterranean coastal areas. They were also favored in the inland areas, especially in those traversed by trading routes or those that were part of a larger empire.<\/p>\n<p>Mints in Gaza, Joppa, and Tyre were established about the end of the fourth century <span>BC<\/span> to produce local currency. At this period Sidon continued to be an important supplier of silver coins, as it had been since the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>As the Seleucids gained control of Judea in 198 <span>BC<\/span>, a period of political turmoil commenced when the Syrians tried to Hellenize the Jewish people. Resentment toward Greek culture and resistance to all tampering with the traditional Jewish faith increased steadily until it found an outlet in the leadership of Mattathias, father of the Maccabees, who began a guerrilla uprising in 167 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>When the fortunes of war shifted temporarily to the Maccabeans, King Antiochus of Syria granted Simon Maccabeus the right to mint his own coins (1 Macc 15:6), but before he could take advantage of this prime symbol of independence, the balance of power changed once more. Judea returned to its status as a tributary, and the permission to mint coinage was hastily withdrawn.<\/p>\n<p>Simon’s son, John Hyrcanus, succeeded in overcoming the weakened Syrians and declared independence in 129 <span>BC<\/span>. The small bronze coins minted about 110 <span>BC<\/span> showed a wreath on the obverse bearing the inscription “Johanan the high priest and the community of the Jews.” The reverse displayed a double cornucopia with a poppy head, both of which were Greek symbols of plenty. These were the first genuinely Jewish coins.<\/p>\n<p>With the lack of skilled craftsmen and of a good mint it is hardly surprising that the resulting coins were simple and unpretentious. In consequence they were quite unlike the elaborate, and often delicate, designs of many contemporary coins.<\/p>\n<p>Meanwhile, silver coins continued to be struck in the Phoenician cities of Tyre and Sidon on the orders of the Seleucids, and they remained the most popular silver coins in everyday use in Palestine until Roman times. Even then they continued to circulate side by side with the Roman coinage.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Banker, Banking; Coins; Money Changer.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MONEY<\/h3>\n<p>Medium of exchange, measurement of value, means of payment.<\/p>\n<p>Money was developed as a convenient medium of exchange to supplement and later to replace bartering, although the two systems operated concurrently for many centuries. From the patriarchal period to the present day, wealth has been measured in terms of goods and precious metals, particularly gold and silver, which remain universally acceptable mediums of exchange. Genesis 13:2 describes Abraham as “very rich in cattle, in silver, and in gold.”<\/p>\n<p>Wealth in a nomadic or seminomadic society was frequently measured by the number of cattle a person possessed, and because of this, cattle were a readily acceptable and easily valued, if rather large, medium of exchange. The degree to which cattle were commonly recognized as the standard for value, wealth, and exchange is reflected in the Latin form for money, <em>pecunia,<\/em> which is derived directly from <em>pecus,<\/em> meaning “cattle.” For religious purposes, taxes or donations paid in cattle were most acceptable, and this not only increased the general recognition for this medium but also made the temple a repository for large herds of cattle, as well as smaller animals and produce, which, if they could not be used directly in the temple rituals, could be bartered for whatever commodities were required. Perishable foods were less popular for purposes of exchange than animals such as sheep and asses, although timber, wine, and honey were regularly used as a form of currency (1 Sm 8:15; 2 Kgs 3:4; Ez 45:13-16). Both public and private taxes, tribute, and debts of all kinds were settled by this means. Solomon paid Hiram, king of Tyre, in wheat and olive oil for his assistance in the construction of the temple (1 Kgs 5:11), and in the eighth century <span>BC<\/span> taxes were commonly paid in jars of wine or olive oil. Tribute in the form of sheep and wool is recorded in 2 Kings 3:4.<\/p>\n<p>All the means of exchange mentioned represented goods that could be measured or counted, and attempts were made to establish a standard rate of exchange for them in relation to each other.<\/p>\n<p>Silver was the precious metal most readily available in the ancient Near East and was therefore the one most frequently mentioned in connection with purchases by weight, and at a later period by coin. The first recorded instance in the Bible of silver being used as a medium of exchange occurs in Genesis 20:14-16, where Abraham received a payment of 1,000 shekels by weight of silver, as well as animals and slaves. Abraham also purchased the field and cave of Machpelah for 400 shekels of silver (Gn 23:15-16), which according to the custom of the day had to be weighed out in front of the vendor and checked by witnesses (cf. Jer 32:9-10).<\/p>\n<p>As these events occurred about the beginning of the second millennium <span>BC<\/span>, the term “shekel” would not represent the coin familiar from later periods but rather a certain weight of silver. At a later time the brothers of Joseph sold him to traveling merchants for 20 shekels of silver (Gn 37:28). Genesis 33:19 mentions another unit of weight for metal, <em>the kesitah<\/em> (<span>nlt<\/span> mg), in connection with the purchase of a field by Jacob; the term occurs again in Joshua 24:32 and Job 42:11. This unit may have represented an amount equivalent to the currency value for a lamb.<\/p>\n<p>In time large animals and material objects came to be considered extremely cumbersome as a means of exchange, and metal became increasingly popular. Transportation of large quantities of precious metal remained a problem, however, and a method had to be devised for easy recognition, accessibility, and storage of particular metals of value.<\/p>\n<p>Over the years, fairly uniform shapes were designed for metals used in transactions. Silver could be piled or tied in bundles, as shown in Egyptian bas-reliefs, and the sons of Jacob took advantage of a similar method in transporting the purchase price of the grain they were buying from Egypt (Gn 42:35). About 1500 <span>BC<\/span>, pieces of metal shaped in the form of ingots, bars, tongues, or heads of animals were in use, as well as gold discs and rings of gold wire. Perhaps the most popular pieces acceptable as currency were those that had also been designed as jewelry. The valuables listed among the spoil of the Midianites included gold chains, bracelets, signet rings, and earrings (Nm 31:50). The bracelets and rings in particular probably represented a standardized weight, and could therefore be used easily as currency. Rebekah received gifts from her fiancé that were in the form of jewelry of specific weight: a gold ring weighing half a shekel and two bracelets weighing ten gold shekels (Gn 24:22). Job was given a fine ring of gold by a number of relatives, and it is unlikely that they would all have given him the same gift if it did not in fact represent a certain monetary value (Jb 42:11).<\/p>\n<p>The requirement in Deuteronomy 14:25 to “bind up your money” would again imply either thin strips of silver that could be bundled together or rings that could be strung. In either event, transportation would be facilitated.<\/p>\n<p>The value for weights of silver mentioned in Mosaic times can best be understood in terms of purchasing power. A ram could be bought for two shekels, while fifty shekels was the price of about four bushels of barley (Lv 27:16). In the time of Elisha, during a good year, one and one-half pecks of fine flour or three pecks of barley could be bought for one shekel (2 Kgs 7:16). Needless to say, monetary valuations of this kind would be affected by such economic considerations as supply and demand.<\/p>\n<p>Estimation by eye was an inaccurate means of judging the value of currency, and there is no doubt that cheating was prevalent in the weighing and examination of metal. The weighing, an essential part of every major transaction, was also very time-consuming. In order to ensure the correct value of the weights, which were usually pieces of bronze, iron, or dressed stones, they carried some sort of stamp. Once this practice was generally established, it was a short step to the stamping of the individual pieces of metal, whether tongues, bars, or bracelets, being used as currency. The next logical development was stamping a piece of silver to authenticate its value for purposes of currency. This was the precursor of the coin, which was not known in the ancient Near East prior to the exilic period. Therefore, any reference to money before that time indicates bars, bracelets, rings, or other metal objects, stamped or unstamped.<\/p>\n<p>The earliest minted coins came from the kingdom of Lydia in Asia Minor, being credited traditionally to Croesus (560–546 <span>BC<\/span>), the fabulously wealthy ruler of that land. The coins from Lydia were made of electrum, a natural alloy of silver and gold, and they depicted a lion and a bull. Like most of the early coins, the reverse simply contained a punch mark.<\/p>\n<p>Originally a coin not only represented a value, but also its weight was worth the amount of silver or gold of its face value. Thus many of the early coins were slashed heavily by some ancient skeptics, who wished to be sure that the coin was of pure silver and not a less valuable metal coated with silver.<\/p>\n<p>The purity of silver or gold was also a factor in the popularity and acceptance of particular coins. Thus in Greek and Roman times the tetradrachma from Tyre was one of the most widely accepted silver coins because of the purity of its metal content.<\/p>\n<p>The use of coins did not eliminate the necessity for weighing, because the fraudulent clipping of the edges of coins was prevalent from their introduction in the sixth century <span>BC<\/span>. This particular problem plagued all subsequent issues of coinage, and it was only in the late 18th century in Britain that it was surmounted by a process involving the milling, or reeding, of the edges of the more valuable coins.<\/p>\n<p>In the sixth century <span>BC<\/span>, when the Jews returned from exile in Babylonia, coins were donated for the rebuilding of the temple in Jerusalem, as well as silver and gold in other forms. The gold coin mentioned is a “daric.” The term, apparently derived from the name of the great Persian king Darius I (521–486 <span>BC<\/span>), was in wide current use and even appears in biblical passages written at a later date but referring to a period before the reign of Darius (cf. 1 Chr 29:7).<\/p>\n<p>Few craftsmen with the skills required for the manufacture of coins would have been available before the sixth century <span>BC<\/span>, so the earliest gold darics were probably minted at Sardis. The mint itself was taken over by the Persians when they occupied the territory, with production continuing as before.<\/p>\n<p>Western sections of the Persian Empire probably used silver coins more frequently than gold. According to some traditions, coinage developed in Greece at Aegina about the time that the Lydians first adopted the concept. The earliest of these silver coins to be excavated so far dates from the sixth century <span>BC<\/span> and was minted in northern Greece.<\/p>\n<p>Also in current use were the popular fifth-century <span>BC<\/span> tetradrachmas from Athens, which had dies on both sides of the coin. These depicted the head of the goddess Athena and the sacred owl.<\/p>\n<p>Although the silver content of many coins in contemporary use was lowered, that of the Athenian tetradrachma remained consistently at its original high standard of purity. This circumstance naturally increased its acceptability, especially in areas caught up in political turmoil where the purity of the local currency was particularly questionable. Because of the stability of the silver content of the coin and the rapidity with which the Greek Empire was expanding, the Athenian tetradrachma was minted and used almost unchanged over a period of 200 years. Many of these coins have been found in hoards all over the eastern Mediterranean.<\/p>\n<p>There is no doubt that by the fourth century <span>BC<\/span> there was a local mint in Judea, for silver coins imitating the Athenian tetradrachma, but also bearing the legend “Jehud,” have been excavated there.<\/p>\n<p>Because of the extent of trade in Greek and Roman times, the coins from the larger centers had a general acceptance in all the Mediterranean coastal areas. They were also favored in the inland areas, especially in those traversed by trading routes or those that were part of a larger empire.<\/p>\n<p>Mints in Gaza, Joppa, and Tyre were established about the end of the fourth century <span>BC<\/span> to produce local currency. At this period Sidon continued to be an important supplier of silver coins, as it had been since the fifth century <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>As the Seleucids gained control of Judea in 198 <span>BC<\/span>, a period of political turmoil commenced when the Syrians tried to Hellenize the Jewish people. Resentment toward Greek culture and resistance to all tampering with the traditional Jewish faith increased steadily until it found an outlet in the leadership of Mattathias, father of the Maccabees, who began a guerrilla uprising in 167 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>When the fortunes of war shifted temporarily to the Maccabeans, King Antiochus of Syria granted Simon Maccabeus the right to mint his own coins (1 Macc 15:6), but before he could take advantage of this prime symbol of independence, the balance of power changed once more. Judea returned to its status as a tributary, and the permission to mint coinage was hastily withdrawn.<\/p>\n<p>Simon’s son, John Hyrcanus, succeeded in overcoming the weakened Syrians and declared independence in 129 <span>BC<\/span>. The small bronze coins minted about 110 <span>BC<\/span> showed a wreath on the obverse bearing the inscription “Johanan the high priest and the community of the Jews.” The reverse displayed a double cornucopia with a poppy head, both of which were Greek symbols of plenty. These were the first genuinely Jewish coins.<\/p>\n<p>With the lack of skilled craftsmen and of a good mint it is hardly surprising that the resulting coins were simple and unpretentious. In consequence they were quite unlike the elaborate, and often delicate, designs of many contemporary coins.<\/p>\n<p>Meanwhile, silver coins continued to be struck in the Phoenician cities of Tyre and Sidon on the orders of the Seleucids, and they remained the most popular silver coins in everyday use in Palestine until Roman times. Even then they continued to circulate side by side with the Roman coinage.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Banker, Banking; Coins; Money Changer.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MONEY Medium of exchange, measurement of value, means of payment. Money was developed as a convenient medium of exchange to supplement and later to replace bartering, although the two systems operated concurrently for many centuries. From the patriarchal period to the present day, wealth has been measured in terms of goods and precious metals, particularly gold and silver, which remain universally acceptable mediums of exchange. Genesis 13:2 describes Abraham as “very rich in cattle, in silve...","summary_en":"MONEY Medium of exchange, measurement of value, means of payment. Money was developed as a convenient medium of exchange to supplement and later to replace bartering, although the two systems operated concurrently for many centuries. From the patriarchal period to the present day, wealth has been measured in terms of goods and precious metals, particularly gold and silver, which remain universally acceptable mediums of exchange. Genesis 13:2 describes Abraham as “very rich in cattle, in silve...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":28447,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Omri","title_en":"Omri","content_ro":"<h3>OMRI<\/h3>\n<li>1. King of Israel who first appears in Scripture as general of the army during the reign of Elah, king of Israel. In 885 <span>BC<\/span> Elah sent Omri to besiege the Philistine fortress of Gibbethon. During the siege, Zimri, another military leader, launched a coup against Elah, killed him, and immediately wiped out all of Elah’s male relatives. When Omri heard of the assassination, he had the army declare him king and marched to the capital at Tirzah to deal with Zimri. When Zimri saw that the siege of Tirzah was going to be successful, he set fire to the king’s palace and died in the flames after only seven days on the throne.<\/li>\n<p>But Omri’s rule over Israel was not yet established. Tibni seized control of part of the state and held it for about four years. Finally, Omri was able to crush Tibni and extend his power over all Israel. He established Israel’s fourth ruling dynasty, which was destined to continue through three more generations after his own. His reign lasted a total of 12 years (885–874 <span>BC<\/span>), including the years of sovereignty disputed with Tibni.<\/p>\n<p>International Developments<\/p>\n<p>To the northeast of Israel, the Arameans of Syria were building a strong state with its capital at Damascus. A few years before Omri took the throne, Asa of Judah had sought the help of Syria against Baasha of Israel. Soon Syria would become a threat to both Hebrew kingdoms.<\/p>\n<p>Farther east, Assyria was growing in strength under the leadership of Ashurnasirpal II (883–859 <span>BC<\/span>), the founder of the empire. He marched into Phoenicia, but Israel was spared Assyrian attack until the days of Omri’s son Ahab.<\/p>\n<p>Omri’s Reign<\/p>\n<p>Since the purpose of Scripture is not to provide a political, military, or even social history of Israel or the countries surrounding it, administrations of the kings of Israel and Judah are often very briefly treated. For a fuller picture, it is necessary to turn to nonbiblical sources. From Assyrian records, it is evident that Omri must have been an impressive ruler. Generations later, Assyrians still spoke of Israel as the “land of Omri.”<\/p>\n<p>Perceptive leader that he was, Omri recognized that the nations needed a capital that was centrally located and militarily defensible. He settled on the site of Samaria, the third and most significant capital of the realm (Shechem and Tirzah had previously served as capitals). Located seven miles (11.3 kilometers) northwest of Shechem on the main road leading to Galilee and Phoenicia, it perched on a free-standing hill that rose some 300 to 400 feet (91.4–121.9 meters) above the surrounding plain. Thus it could be quite easily defended; it had a prosperous hinterland to supply it with food and taxes; and it was conveniently located on a main road. Omri bought the hill from Shemer and named the city after its owner. Then he leveled the top of the hill and built the palace compound. He also built a 33-foot- (10.1-meter-) thick wall around the summit of the hill.<\/p>\n<p>Omri’s expansionist activities are not mentioned in 1 Kings, but Scripture is supplemented by discovery of the Moabite Stone in 1868 at Dibon, east of the Jordan River. On this stela, Mesha, king of Moab, tells that Omri conquered Moab. Israel had continued to subjugate the land in the days of Ahab, but during his days, Mesha successfully rebelled against Israel (2 Kgs 3:4). That Omri could mount a successful war against Moab soon after becoming king shows that he was a capable ruler, because previously the kingdom of Israel had been greatly weakened by insurrection and political instability.<\/p>\n<p>Omri also reestablished the friendly relations with Phoenicia that had been initiated in the days of David and Solomon. Presumably, he made a full alliance with King Ethbaal of Tyre and then sealed it with the marriage of his son Ahab to the Phoenician princess Jezebel. Such an alliance would have been mutually beneficial, for it would have brought cedar, beautifully crafted goods, and Phoenician architectural and technical expertise to Israel, and it would have provided Israelite grain and olive oil to Phoenicia. Moreover, it would have linked their forces against the threat of the rising power of Assyria.<\/p>\n<p>This pact was destined to corrupt Israel, however, for it brought Baal worship into the land. Probably this is what the writer of Kings had in mind when he said that Omri “did worse” than the other kings of Israel before him (1 Kgs 16:25) because he practiced the idolatrous ways of Jeroboam. Baal worship was regarded as more degrading than the calf worship Jeroboam had introduced. Omri, and his son Ahab after him, subscribed to both.<\/p>\n<p>Omri was one of the most powerful kings of Israel, building its new capital, winning for the state a reputation for prowess, and setting a course for future kings to follow. But unfortunately that course was morally corrupt; the introduction of Baal worship was one of the terrible results of Omri’s alliance with Tyre.<\/p>\n<li>2. One of Beker’s sons from Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 7:8).<\/li>\n<li>3. Descendant of Perez, son of Judah (1 Chr 9:4).<\/li>\n<li>4. Son of Michael, prince of the tribe of Issachar during David’s reign (1 Chr 27:18).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>OMRI<\/h3>\n<li>1. King of Israel who first appears in Scripture as general of the army during the reign of Elah, king of Israel. In 885 <span>BC<\/span> Elah sent Omri to besiege the Philistine fortress of Gibbethon. During the siege, Zimri, another military leader, launched a coup against Elah, killed him, and immediately wiped out all of Elah’s male relatives. When Omri heard of the assassination, he had the army declare him king and marched to the capital at Tirzah to deal with Zimri. When Zimri saw that the siege of Tirzah was going to be successful, he set fire to the king’s palace and died in the flames after only seven days on the throne.<\/li>\n<p>But Omri’s rule over Israel was not yet established. Tibni seized control of part of the state and held it for about four years. Finally, Omri was able to crush Tibni and extend his power over all Israel. He established Israel’s fourth ruling dynasty, which was destined to continue through three more generations after his own. His reign lasted a total of 12 years (885–874 <span>BC<\/span>), including the years of sovereignty disputed with Tibni.<\/p>\n<p>International Developments<\/p>\n<p>To the northeast of Israel, the Arameans of Syria were building a strong state with its capital at Damascus. A few years before Omri took the throne, Asa of Judah had sought the help of Syria against Baasha of Israel. Soon Syria would become a threat to both Hebrew kingdoms.<\/p>\n<p>Farther east, Assyria was growing in strength under the leadership of Ashurnasirpal II (883–859 <span>BC<\/span>), the founder of the empire. He marched into Phoenicia, but Israel was spared Assyrian attack until the days of Omri’s son Ahab.<\/p>\n<p>Omri’s Reign<\/p>\n<p>Since the purpose of Scripture is not to provide a political, military, or even social history of Israel or the countries surrounding it, administrations of the kings of Israel and Judah are often very briefly treated. For a fuller picture, it is necessary to turn to nonbiblical sources. From Assyrian records, it is evident that Omri must have been an impressive ruler. Generations later, Assyrians still spoke of Israel as the “land of Omri.”<\/p>\n<p>Perceptive leader that he was, Omri recognized that the nations needed a capital that was centrally located and militarily defensible. He settled on the site of Samaria, the third and most significant capital of the realm (Shechem and Tirzah had previously served as capitals). Located seven miles (11.3 kilometers) northwest of Shechem on the main road leading to Galilee and Phoenicia, it perched on a free-standing hill that rose some 300 to 400 feet (91.4–121.9 meters) above the surrounding plain. Thus it could be quite easily defended; it had a prosperous hinterland to supply it with food and taxes; and it was conveniently located on a main road. Omri bought the hill from Shemer and named the city after its owner. Then he leveled the top of the hill and built the palace compound. He also built a 33-foot- (10.1-meter-) thick wall around the summit of the hill.<\/p>\n<p>Omri’s expansionist activities are not mentioned in 1 Kings, but Scripture is supplemented by discovery of the Moabite Stone in 1868 at Dibon, east of the Jordan River. On this stela, Mesha, king of Moab, tells that Omri conquered Moab. Israel had continued to subjugate the land in the days of Ahab, but during his days, Mesha successfully rebelled against Israel (2 Kgs 3:4). That Omri could mount a successful war against Moab soon after becoming king shows that he was a capable ruler, because previously the kingdom of Israel had been greatly weakened by insurrection and political instability.<\/p>\n<p>Omri also reestablished the friendly relations with Phoenicia that had been initiated in the days of David and Solomon. Presumably, he made a full alliance with King Ethbaal of Tyre and then sealed it with the marriage of his son Ahab to the Phoenician princess Jezebel. Such an alliance would have been mutually beneficial, for it would have brought cedar, beautifully crafted goods, and Phoenician architectural and technical expertise to Israel, and it would have provided Israelite grain and olive oil to Phoenicia. Moreover, it would have linked their forces against the threat of the rising power of Assyria.<\/p>\n<p>This pact was destined to corrupt Israel, however, for it brought Baal worship into the land. Probably this is what the writer of Kings had in mind when he said that Omri “did worse” than the other kings of Israel before him (1 Kgs 16:25) because he practiced the idolatrous ways of Jeroboam. Baal worship was regarded as more degrading than the calf worship Jeroboam had introduced. Omri, and his son Ahab after him, subscribed to both.<\/p>\n<p>Omri was one of the most powerful kings of Israel, building its new capital, winning for the state a reputation for prowess, and setting a course for future kings to follow. But unfortunately that course was morally corrupt; the introduction of Baal worship was one of the terrible results of Omri’s alliance with Tyre.<\/p>\n<li>2. One of Beker’s sons from Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 7:8).<\/li>\n<li>3. Descendant of Perez, son of Judah (1 Chr 9:4).<\/li>\n<li>4. Son of Michael, prince of the tribe of Issachar during David’s reign (1 Chr 27:18).<\/li>","summary_ro":"OMRI 1. King of Israel who first appears in Scripture as general of the army during the reign of Elah, king of Israel. In 885 BC Elah sent Omri to besiege the Philistine fortress of Gibbethon. During the siege, Zimri, another military leader, launched a coup against Elah, killed him, and immediately wiped out all of Elah’s male relatives. When Omri heard of the assassination, he had the army declare him king and marched to the capital at Tirzah to deal with Zimri. When Zimri saw that the sieg...","summary_en":"OMRI 1. King of Israel who first appears in Scripture as general of the army during the reign of Elah, king of Israel. In 885 BC Elah sent Omri to besiege the Philistine fortress of Gibbethon. During the siege, Zimri, another military leader, launched a coup against Elah, killed him, and immediately wiped out all of Elah’s male relatives. When Omri heard of the assassination, he had the army declare him king and marched to the capital at Tirzah to deal with Zimri. When Zimri saw that the sieg...","source":"Articles\/O.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":38391,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Wilderness","title_en":"Wilderness","content_ro":"<h3>WILDERNESS<\/h3>\n<p>Land that is basically wild and sparsely inhabited or unfit for permanent human settlement. It may be desert, mountains, forest, or marsh.<\/p>\n<p>In the Near East the wilderness is characteristically dry, desolate, and mostly rock and sand. It is rough, uneven, and interlaced with dry watercourses. The wilderness is not completely barren but provides seasonal pasture for flocks, depending on the rainfall.<\/p>\n<p>Joel 2:22 declares that “the pastures of the wilderness are green,” and Psalm 65:12 states that the pastures of the wilderness drip with richness. But Jeremiah says that “the pastures of the wilderness are dried up” (Jer 23:10; cf. Jl 1:20). And Job refers to the wilderness as a land where no human can live (Jb 38:26); it is a place for various animals and birds, such as wild asses, jackals, vultures, and owls (Ps 102:6; Jer 2:24; Is 13:22; 34:13-15).<\/p>\n<p>Certain wilderness tracts are identified by name and are related to definite cities, persons, or events. Hagar wandered in the wilderness of Beersheba (Gn 21:14). In the exodus from Egypt, the Israelites traversed the following wildernesses: Shur (Ex 15:22), Etham (Nm 33:8), Sin (Ex 16:1), Sinai (19:1-2), Zin (Nm 13:21; 20:1), Paran (13:26), Kadesh (Ps 29:8), Moab (Dt 2:8), and Kedemoth (v 26). When David was fleeing from Saul, David hid in the hill country of the wilderness of Ziph (1 Sm 23:14-15), in the wilderness of Maon (vv 24-25), and in the wilderness of En-gedi (24:1).<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the comparative desolation of the wilderness, villages or towns are sometimes associated with a wilderness setting. Joshua 15:61-62 lists the names of six cities and their villages “in the wilderness.” The future joy of the towns of the desert is proclaimed by Isaiah (Is 42:11).<\/p>\n<p>The wilderness is associated with both austerity and temptation. Elijah, by his way of life and his dress, is often thought of in connection with the wilderness. His successor, Elisha, had occasion to minister in the wilderness of Edom (2 Kgs 3:4-27).<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah prophesied of the message of John the Baptist, who preached in the wilderness of Judea (Is 40:3; Mt 3:1-3; Mk 1:2-4; Lk 3:1-6; Jn 1:23). Jesus, full of the Holy Spirit, was led by the Spirit into the wilderness for 40 days. There he was tempted by the devil (cf. Lk 4:1-2), but there also angels ministered to him (Mk 1:13). The anchorites (hermits) of Egypt and the Qumran community near the Dead Sea used the wilderness as an escape from the evils of urban life. Jesus, however, used the wilderness as a place of prayer and communion with the Father (Lk 5:16).<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Desert; Wilderness Wanderings.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>WILDERNESS<\/h3>\n<p>Land that is basically wild and sparsely inhabited or unfit for permanent human settlement. It may be desert, mountains, forest, or marsh.<\/p>\n<p>In the Near East the wilderness is characteristically dry, desolate, and mostly rock and sand. It is rough, uneven, and interlaced with dry watercourses. The wilderness is not completely barren but provides seasonal pasture for flocks, depending on the rainfall.<\/p>\n<p>Joel 2:22 declares that “the pastures of the wilderness are green,” and Psalm 65:12 states that the pastures of the wilderness drip with richness. But Jeremiah says that “the pastures of the wilderness are dried up” (Jer 23:10; cf. Jl 1:20). And Job refers to the wilderness as a land where no human can live (Jb 38:26); it is a place for various animals and birds, such as wild asses, jackals, vultures, and owls (Ps 102:6; Jer 2:24; Is 13:22; 34:13-15).<\/p>\n<p>Certain wilderness tracts are identified by name and are related to definite cities, persons, or events. Hagar wandered in the wilderness of Beersheba (Gn 21:14). In the exodus from Egypt, the Israelites traversed the following wildernesses: Shur (Ex 15:22), Etham (Nm 33:8), Sin (Ex 16:1), Sinai (19:1-2), Zin (Nm 13:21; 20:1), Paran (13:26), Kadesh (Ps 29:8), Moab (Dt 2:8), and Kedemoth (v 26). When David was fleeing from Saul, David hid in the hill country of the wilderness of Ziph (1 Sm 23:14-15), in the wilderness of Maon (vv 24-25), and in the wilderness of En-gedi (24:1).<\/p>\n<p>In spite of the comparative desolation of the wilderness, villages or towns are sometimes associated with a wilderness setting. Joshua 15:61-62 lists the names of six cities and their villages “in the wilderness.” The future joy of the towns of the desert is proclaimed by Isaiah (Is 42:11).<\/p>\n<p>The wilderness is associated with both austerity and temptation. Elijah, by his way of life and his dress, is often thought of in connection with the wilderness. His successor, Elisha, had occasion to minister in the wilderness of Edom (2 Kgs 3:4-27).<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah prophesied of the message of John the Baptist, who preached in the wilderness of Judea (Is 40:3; Mt 3:1-3; Mk 1:2-4; Lk 3:1-6; Jn 1:23). Jesus, full of the Holy Spirit, was led by the Spirit into the wilderness for 40 days. There he was tempted by the devil (cf. Lk 4:1-2), but there also angels ministered to him (Mk 1:13). The anchorites (hermits) of Egypt and the Qumran community near the Dead Sea used the wilderness as an escape from the evils of urban life. Jesus, however, used the wilderness as a place of prayer and communion with the Father (Lk 5:16).<\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Desert; Wilderness Wanderings.<\/p>","summary_ro":"WILDERNESS Land that is basically wild and sparsely inhabited or unfit for permanent human settlement. It may be desert, mountains, forest, or marsh. In the Near East the wilderness is characteristically dry, desolate, and mostly rock and sand. It is rough, uneven, and interlaced with dry watercourses. The wilderness is not completely barren but provides seasonal pasture for flocks, depending on the rainfall. Joel 2:22 declares that “the pastures of the wilderness are green,” and Psalm 65:12 ...","summary_en":"WILDERNESS Land that is basically wild and sparsely inhabited or unfit for permanent human settlement. It may be desert, mountains, forest, or marsh. In the Near East the wilderness is characteristically dry, desolate, and mostly rock and sand. It is rough, uneven, and interlaced with dry watercourses. The wilderness is not completely barren but provides seasonal pasture for flocks, depending on the rainfall. Joel 2:22 declares that “the pastures of the wilderness are green,” and Psalm 65:12 ...","source":"Articles\/W.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":38564,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Wool","title_en":"Wool","content_ro":"<h3>WOOL<\/h3>\n<p>Important commodity of the ancient Near East. King Mesha of Moab, a sheep breeder, annually sent the wool of 100,000 rams as tribute to King Ahab of Israel (2 Kgs 3:4), and the people of Damascus traded wool with Tyre’s merchants (Ez 27:18). Woolen garments were commonly worn by the Israelites (Lv 13:47-59; Is 51:8; Hos 2:5, 9), though woolen garments mingled with linen fabric were forbidden (Dt 22:11). In fact, wearing wool was prohibited entirely for Israelite priests serving in the sanctuary’s inner court (Ez 44:17).<\/p>\n<p>Wool is sometimes a biblical symbol for whiteness and purity, it is a simile for redemption (Is 1:18), for the hair of the Ancient of Days (Dn 7:9), and for the hair and head of the Son of Man (Rv 1:14).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cloth and Cloth Manufacturing.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>WOOL<\/h3>\n<p>Important commodity of the ancient Near East. King Mesha of Moab, a sheep breeder, annually sent the wool of 100,000 rams as tribute to King Ahab of Israel (2 Kgs 3:4), and the people of Damascus traded wool with Tyre’s merchants (Ez 27:18). Woolen garments were commonly worn by the Israelites (Lv 13:47-59; Is 51:8; Hos 2:5, 9), though woolen garments mingled with linen fabric were forbidden (Dt 22:11). In fact, wearing wool was prohibited entirely for Israelite priests serving in the sanctuary’s inner court (Ez 44:17).<\/p>\n<p>Wool is sometimes a biblical symbol for whiteness and purity, it is a simile for redemption (Is 1:18), for the hair of the Ancient of Days (Dn 7:9), and for the hair and head of the Son of Man (Rv 1:14).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cloth and Cloth Manufacturing.<\/p>","summary_ro":"WOOL Important commodity of the ancient Near East. King Mesha of Moab, a sheep breeder, annually sent the wool of 100,000 rams as tribute to King Ahab of Israel (2 Kgs 3:4), and the people of Damascus traded wool with Tyre’s merchants (Ez 27:18). Woolen garments were commonly worn by the Israelites (Lv 13:47-59; Is 51:8; Hos 2:5, 9), though woolen garments mingled with linen fabric were forbidden (Dt 22:11). In fact, wearing wool was prohibited entirely for Israelite priests serving in the sa...","summary_en":"WOOL Important commodity of the ancient Near East. King Mesha of Moab, a sheep breeder, annually sent the wool of 100,000 rams as tribute to King Ahab of Israel (2 Kgs 3:4), and the people of Damascus traded wool with Tyre’s merchants (Ez 27:18). Woolen garments were commonly worn by the Israelites (Lv 13:47-59; Is 51:8; Hos 2:5, 9), though woolen garments mingled with linen fabric were forbidden (Dt 22:11). In fact, wearing wool was prohibited entirely for Israelite priests serving in the sa...","source":"Articles\/W.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":47208,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Împărați 3:4","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Împărați 3:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:4-27<\/strong> The joint war of Israel and Judah against Moab was the setting for one of Elisha’s miracles.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:4-27<\/strong> The joint war of Israel and Judah against Moab was the setting for one of Elisha’s miracles.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:4-27 The joint war of Israel and Judah against Moab was the setting for one of Elisha’s miracles.","summary_en":"3:4-27 The joint war of Israel and Judah against Moab was the setting for one of Elisha’s miracles.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":47209,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Împărați 3:4","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Împărați 3:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:4-5<\/strong> The Moabite rebellion (see 1:1) began with the withholding of the <em>annual tribute.<\/em> The Moabite Stone (Mesha Stela) records details of Israel’s domination of northern Moab in the days of Omri and Ahab, a subservience that continued into the reigns of Ahaziah and Joram.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:4-5<\/strong> The Moabite rebellion (see 1:1) began with the withholding of the <em>annual tribute.<\/em> The Moabite Stone (Mesha Stela) records details of Israel’s domination of northern Moab in the days of Omri and Ahab, a subservience that continued into the reigns of Ahaziah and Joram.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:4-5 The Moabite rebellion (see 1:1) began with the withholding of the annual tribute. The Moabite Stone (Mesha Stela) records details of Israel’s domination of northern Moab in the days of Omri and Ahab, a subservience that continued into the reigns of Ahaziah and Joram.","summary_en":"3:4-5 The Moabite rebellion (see 1:1) began with the withholding of the annual tribute. The Moabite Stone (Mesha Stela) records details of Israel’s domination of northern Moab in the days of Omri and Ahab, a subservience that continued into the reigns of Ahaziah and Joram.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":74834,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Împărați 3:4","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Împărați 3:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:4-27<\/strong> The joint war of Israel and Judah against Moab was the setting for one of Elisha’s miracles.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:4-27<\/strong> The joint war of Israel and Judah against Moab was the setting for one of Elisha’s miracles.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:4-27 The joint war of Israel and Judah against Moab was the setting for one of Elisha’s miracles.","summary_en":"3:4-27 The joint war of Israel and Judah against Moab was the setting for one of Elisha’s miracles.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":74835,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Împărați 3:4","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Împărați 3:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:4-5<\/strong> The Moabite rebellion (see 1:1) began with the withholding of the <em>annual tribute.<\/em> The Moabite Stone (Mesha Stela) records details of Israel’s domination of northern Moab in the days of Omri and Ahab, a subservience that continued into the reigns of Ahaziah and Joram.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:4-5<\/strong> The Moabite rebellion (see 1:1) began with the withholding of the <em>annual tribute.<\/em> The Moabite Stone (Mesha Stela) records details of Israel’s domination of northern Moab in the days of Omri and Ahab, a subservience that continued into the reigns of Ahaziah and Joram.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:4-5 The Moabite rebellion (see 1:1) began with the withholding of the annual tribute. The Moabite Stone (Mesha Stela) records details of Israel’s domination of northern Moab in the days of Omri and Ahab, a subservience that continued into the reigns of Ahaziah and Joram.","summary_en":"3:4-5 The Moabite rebellion (see 1:1) began with the withholding of the annual tribute. The Moabite Stone (Mesha Stela) records details of Israel’s domination of northern Moab in the days of Omri and Ahab, a subservience that continued into the reigns of Ahaziah and Joram.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":102460,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Împărați 3:4","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Împărați 3:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:4-27<\/strong> The joint war of Israel and Judah against Moab was the setting for one of Elisha’s miracles.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:4-27<\/strong> The joint war of Israel and Judah against Moab was the setting for one of Elisha’s miracles.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:4-27 The joint war of Israel and Judah against Moab was the setting for one of Elisha’s miracles.","summary_en":"3:4-27 The joint war of Israel and Judah against Moab was the setting for one of Elisha’s miracles.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":102461,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Împărați 3:4","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Împărați 3:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:4-5<\/strong> The Moabite rebellion (see 1:1) began with the withholding of the <em>annual tribute.<\/em> The Moabite Stone (Mesha Stela) records details of Israel’s domination of northern Moab in the days of Omri and Ahab, a subservience that continued into the reigns of Ahaziah and Joram.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:4-5<\/strong> The Moabite rebellion (see 1:1) began with the withholding of the <em>annual tribute.<\/em> The Moabite Stone (Mesha Stela) records details of Israel’s domination of northern Moab in the days of Omri and Ahab, a subservience that continued into the reigns of Ahaziah and Joram.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:4-5 The Moabite rebellion (see 1:1) began with the withholding of the annual tribute. The Moabite Stone (Mesha Stela) records details of Israel’s domination of northern Moab in the days of Omri and Ahab, a subservience that continued into the reigns of Ahaziah and Joram.","summary_en":"3:4-5 The Moabite rebellion (see 1:1) began with the withholding of the annual tribute. The Moabite Stone (Mesha Stela) records details of Israel’s domination of northern Moab in the days of Omri and Ahab, a subservience that continued into the reigns of Ahaziah and Joram.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":130086,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Împărați 3:4","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Împărați 3:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:4-27<\/strong> The joint war of Israel and Judah against Moab was the setting for one of Elisha’s miracles.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:4-27<\/strong> The joint war of Israel and Judah against Moab was the setting for one of Elisha’s miracles.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:4-27 The joint war of Israel and Judah against Moab was the setting for one of Elisha’s miracles.","summary_en":"3:4-27 The joint war of Israel and Judah against Moab was the setting for one of Elisha’s miracles.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":130087,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Împărați 3:4","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Împărați 3:4","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:4-5<\/strong> The Moabite rebellion (see 1:1) began with the withholding of the <em>annual tribute.<\/em> The Moabite Stone (Mesha Stela) records details of Israel’s domination of northern Moab in the days of Omri and Ahab, a subservience that continued into the reigns of Ahaziah and Joram.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:4-5<\/strong> The Moabite rebellion (see 1:1) began with the withholding of the <em>annual tribute.<\/em> The Moabite Stone (Mesha Stela) records details of Israel’s domination of northern Moab in the days of Omri and Ahab, a subservience that continued into the reigns of Ahaziah and Joram.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:4-5 The Moabite rebellion (see 1:1) began with the withholding of the annual tribute. The Moabite Stone (Mesha Stela) records details of Israel’s domination of northern Moab in the days of Omri and Ahab, a subservience that continued into the reigns of Ahaziah and Joram.","summary_en":"3:4-5 The Moabite rebellion (see 1:1) began with the withholding of the annual tribute. The Moabite Stone (Mesha Stela) records details of Israel’s domination of northern Moab in the days of Omri and Ahab, a subservience that continued into the reigns of Ahaziah and Joram.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"6":[{"id":47210,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Împărați 3:6","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Împărați 3:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:6-7<\/strong> <em>Jehoshaphat<\/em><em>’<\/em>s ready compliance with <em>Joram<\/em><em>’<\/em>s appeal was typical of his participation in the undertakings of the northern kings (1 Kgs 22:4; 2 Chr 20:35-37). The marriage of Jehoshaphat’s son Jehoram to Ahab’s daughter Athaliah (2 Chr 18:1; 21:6) heightened Jehoshaphat’s entanglement with Israel.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:6-7<\/strong> <em>Jehoshaphat<\/em><em>’<\/em>s ready compliance with <em>Joram<\/em><em>’<\/em>s appeal was typical of his participation in the undertakings of the northern kings (1 Kgs 22:4; 2 Chr 20:35-37). The marriage of Jehoshaphat’s son Jehoram to Ahab’s daughter Athaliah (2 Chr 18:1; 21:6) heightened Jehoshaphat’s entanglement with Israel.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:6-7 Jehoshaphat’s ready compliance with Joram’s appeal was typical of his participation in the undertakings of the northern kings (1 Kgs 22:4; 2 Chr 20:35-37). The marriage of Jehoshaphat’s son Jehoram to Ahab’s daughter Athaliah (2 Chr 18:1; 21:6) heightened Jehoshaphat’s entanglement with Israel.","summary_en":"3:6-7 Jehoshaphat’s ready compliance with Joram’s appeal was typical of his participation in the undertakings of the northern kings (1 Kgs 22:4; 2 Chr 20:35-37). The marriage of Jehoshaphat’s son Jehoram to Ahab’s daughter Athaliah (2 Chr 18:1; 21:6) heightened Jehoshaphat’s entanglement with Israel.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":74836,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Împărați 3:6","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Împărați 3:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:6-7<\/strong> <em>Jehoshaphat<\/em><em>’<\/em>s ready compliance with <em>Joram<\/em><em>’<\/em>s appeal was typical of his participation in the undertakings of the northern kings (1 Kgs 22:4; 2 Chr 20:35-37). The marriage of Jehoshaphat’s son Jehoram to Ahab’s daughter Athaliah (2 Chr 18:1; 21:6) heightened Jehoshaphat’s entanglement with Israel.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:6-7<\/strong> <em>Jehoshaphat<\/em><em>’<\/em>s ready compliance with <em>Joram<\/em><em>’<\/em>s appeal was typical of his participation in the undertakings of the northern kings (1 Kgs 22:4; 2 Chr 20:35-37). The marriage of Jehoshaphat’s son Jehoram to Ahab’s daughter Athaliah (2 Chr 18:1; 21:6) heightened Jehoshaphat’s entanglement with Israel.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:6-7 Jehoshaphat’s ready compliance with Joram’s appeal was typical of his participation in the undertakings of the northern kings (1 Kgs 22:4; 2 Chr 20:35-37). The marriage of Jehoshaphat’s son Jehoram to Ahab’s daughter Athaliah (2 Chr 18:1; 21:6) heightened Jehoshaphat’s entanglement with Israel.","summary_en":"3:6-7 Jehoshaphat’s ready compliance with Joram’s appeal was typical of his participation in the undertakings of the northern kings (1 Kgs 22:4; 2 Chr 20:35-37). The marriage of Jehoshaphat’s son Jehoram to Ahab’s daughter Athaliah (2 Chr 18:1; 21:6) heightened Jehoshaphat’s entanglement with Israel.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":102462,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Împărați 3:6","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Împărați 3:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:6-7<\/strong> <em>Jehoshaphat<\/em><em>’<\/em>s ready compliance with <em>Joram<\/em><em>’<\/em>s appeal was typical of his participation in the undertakings of the northern kings (1 Kgs 22:4; 2 Chr 20:35-37). The marriage of Jehoshaphat’s son Jehoram to Ahab’s daughter Athaliah (2 Chr 18:1; 21:6) heightened Jehoshaphat’s entanglement with Israel.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:6-7<\/strong> <em>Jehoshaphat<\/em><em>’<\/em>s ready compliance with <em>Joram<\/em><em>’<\/em>s appeal was typical of his participation in the undertakings of the northern kings (1 Kgs 22:4; 2 Chr 20:35-37). The marriage of Jehoshaphat’s son Jehoram to Ahab’s daughter Athaliah (2 Chr 18:1; 21:6) heightened Jehoshaphat’s entanglement with Israel.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:6-7 Jehoshaphat’s ready compliance with Joram’s appeal was typical of his participation in the undertakings of the northern kings (1 Kgs 22:4; 2 Chr 20:35-37). The marriage of Jehoshaphat’s son Jehoram to Ahab’s daughter Athaliah (2 Chr 18:1; 21:6) heightened Jehoshaphat’s entanglement with Israel.","summary_en":"3:6-7 Jehoshaphat’s ready compliance with Joram’s appeal was typical of his participation in the undertakings of the northern kings (1 Kgs 22:4; 2 Chr 20:35-37). The marriage of Jehoshaphat’s son Jehoram to Ahab’s daughter Athaliah (2 Chr 18:1; 21:6) heightened Jehoshaphat’s entanglement with Israel.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":130088,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Împărați 3:6","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Împărați 3:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:6-7<\/strong> <em>Jehoshaphat<\/em><em>’<\/em>s ready compliance with <em>Joram<\/em><em>’<\/em>s appeal was typical of his participation in the undertakings of the northern kings (1 Kgs 22:4; 2 Chr 20:35-37). The marriage of Jehoshaphat’s son Jehoram to Ahab’s daughter Athaliah (2 Chr 18:1; 21:6) heightened Jehoshaphat’s entanglement with Israel.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:6-7<\/strong> <em>Jehoshaphat<\/em><em>’<\/em>s ready compliance with <em>Joram<\/em><em>’<\/em>s appeal was typical of his participation in the undertakings of the northern kings (1 Kgs 22:4; 2 Chr 20:35-37). The marriage of Jehoshaphat’s son Jehoram to Ahab’s daughter Athaliah (2 Chr 18:1; 21:6) heightened Jehoshaphat’s entanglement with Israel.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:6-7 Jehoshaphat’s ready compliance with Joram’s appeal was typical of his participation in the undertakings of the northern kings (1 Kgs 22:4; 2 Chr 20:35-37). The marriage of Jehoshaphat’s son Jehoram to Ahab’s daughter Athaliah (2 Chr 18:1; 21:6) heightened Jehoshaphat’s entanglement with Israel.","summary_en":"3:6-7 Jehoshaphat’s ready compliance with Joram’s appeal was typical of his participation in the undertakings of the northern kings (1 Kgs 22:4; 2 Chr 20:35-37). The marriage of Jehoshaphat’s son Jehoram to Ahab’s daughter Athaliah (2 Chr 18:1; 21:6) heightened Jehoshaphat’s entanglement with Israel.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"8":[{"id":47211,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Împărați 3:8","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Împărați 3:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:8-9<\/strong> <em>The king of Edom . . . joined them:<\/em> Edom was apparently a vassal kingdom to Judah at this time. Later, in the days of Jehoshaphat’s son Jehoram, Edom successfully rebelled against Judah (8:20-22). The southern route through Edom avoided strong Moabite fortifications, but it was dangerous because <em>water<\/em> was scarce.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:8-9<\/strong> <em>The king of Edom . . . joined them:<\/em> Edom was apparently a vassal kingdom to Judah at this time. Later, in the days of Jehoshaphat’s son Jehoram, Edom successfully rebelled against Judah (8:20-22). The southern route through Edom avoided strong Moabite fortifications, but it was dangerous because <em>water<\/em> was scarce.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:8-9 The king of Edom . . . joined them: Edom was apparently a vassal kingdom to Judah at this time. Later, in the days of Jehoshaphat’s son Jehoram, Edom successfully rebelled against Judah (8:20-22). The southern route through Edom avoided strong Moabite fortifications, but it was dangerous because water was scarce.","summary_en":"3:8-9 The king of Edom . . . joined them: Edom was apparently a vassal kingdom to Judah at this time. Later, in the days of Jehoshaphat’s son Jehoram, Edom successfully rebelled against Judah (8:20-22). The southern route through Edom avoided strong Moabite fortifications, but it was dangerous because water was scarce.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":74837,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Împărați 3:8","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Împărați 3:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:8-9<\/strong> <em>The king of Edom . . . joined them:<\/em> Edom was apparently a vassal kingdom to Judah at this time. Later, in the days of Jehoshaphat’s son Jehoram, Edom successfully rebelled against Judah (8:20-22). The southern route through Edom avoided strong Moabite fortifications, but it was dangerous because <em>water<\/em> was scarce.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:8-9<\/strong> <em>The king of Edom . . . joined them:<\/em> Edom was apparently a vassal kingdom to Judah at this time. Later, in the days of Jehoshaphat’s son Jehoram, Edom successfully rebelled against Judah (8:20-22). The southern route through Edom avoided strong Moabite fortifications, but it was dangerous because <em>water<\/em> was scarce.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:8-9 The king of Edom . . . joined them: Edom was apparently a vassal kingdom to Judah at this time. Later, in the days of Jehoshaphat’s son Jehoram, Edom successfully rebelled against Judah (8:20-22). The southern route through Edom avoided strong Moabite fortifications, but it was dangerous because water was scarce.","summary_en":"3:8-9 The king of Edom . . . joined them: Edom was apparently a vassal kingdom to Judah at this time. Later, in the days of Jehoshaphat’s son Jehoram, Edom successfully rebelled against Judah (8:20-22). The southern route through Edom avoided strong Moabite fortifications, but it was dangerous because water was scarce.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":102463,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Împărați 3:8","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Împărați 3:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:8-9<\/strong> <em>The king of Edom . . . joined them:<\/em> Edom was apparently a vassal kingdom to Judah at this time. Later, in the days of Jehoshaphat’s son Jehoram, Edom successfully rebelled against Judah (8:20-22). The southern route through Edom avoided strong Moabite fortifications, but it was dangerous because <em>water<\/em> was scarce.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:8-9<\/strong> <em>The king of Edom . . . joined them:<\/em> Edom was apparently a vassal kingdom to Judah at this time. Later, in the days of Jehoshaphat’s son Jehoram, Edom successfully rebelled against Judah (8:20-22). The southern route through Edom avoided strong Moabite fortifications, but it was dangerous because <em>water<\/em> was scarce.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:8-9 The king of Edom . . . joined them: Edom was apparently a vassal kingdom to Judah at this time. Later, in the days of Jehoshaphat’s son Jehoram, Edom successfully rebelled against Judah (8:20-22). The southern route through Edom avoided strong Moabite fortifications, but it was dangerous because water was scarce.","summary_en":"3:8-9 The king of Edom . . . joined them: Edom was apparently a vassal kingdom to Judah at this time. Later, in the days of Jehoshaphat’s son Jehoram, Edom successfully rebelled against Judah (8:20-22). The southern route through Edom avoided strong Moabite fortifications, but it was dangerous because water was scarce.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":130089,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Împărați 3:8","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Împărați 3:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:8-9<\/strong> <em>The king of Edom . . . joined them:<\/em> Edom was apparently a vassal kingdom to Judah at this time. Later, in the days of Jehoshaphat’s son Jehoram, Edom successfully rebelled against Judah (8:20-22). The southern route through Edom avoided strong Moabite fortifications, but it was dangerous because <em>water<\/em> was scarce.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:8-9<\/strong> <em>The king of Edom . . . joined them:<\/em> Edom was apparently a vassal kingdom to Judah at this time. Later, in the days of Jehoshaphat’s son Jehoram, Edom successfully rebelled against Judah (8:20-22). The southern route through Edom avoided strong Moabite fortifications, but it was dangerous because <em>water<\/em> was scarce.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:8-9 The king of Edom . . . joined them: Edom was apparently a vassal kingdom to Judah at this time. Later, in the days of Jehoshaphat’s son Jehoram, Edom successfully rebelled against Judah (8:20-22). The southern route through Edom avoided strong Moabite fortifications, but it was dangerous because water was scarce.","summary_en":"3:8-9 The king of Edom . . . joined them: Edom was apparently a vassal kingdom to Judah at this time. Later, in the days of Jehoshaphat’s son Jehoram, Edom successfully rebelled against Judah (8:20-22). The southern route through Edom avoided strong Moabite fortifications, but it was dangerous because water was scarce.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"11":[{"id":34660,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Shaphat","title_en":"Shaphat","content_ro":"<h3>SHAPHAT<\/h3>\n<li>1. Simeonite, Hori’s son and one of the 12 spies sent by Moses to search out the land of Canaan (Nm 13:5).<\/li>\n<li>2. Father of the prophet Elisha from the town of Abel-meholah (1 Kgs 19:16, 19; 2 Kgs 3:11; 6:31).<\/li>\n<li>3. Youngest of Shemaiah’s six sons from Judah’s tribe and a descendant of David (1 Chr 3:22).<\/li>\n<li>4. Gadite chief in Bashan, a region west of the Jordan River (1 Chr 5:12).<\/li>\n<li>5. Adlai’s son and a member of King David’s staff. Shaphat had charge of David’s cattle in the valleys (1 Chr 27:29).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>SHAPHAT<\/h3>\n<li>1. Simeonite, Hori’s son and one of the 12 spies sent by Moses to search out the land of Canaan (Nm 13:5).<\/li>\n<li>2. Father of the prophet Elisha from the town of Abel-meholah (1 Kgs 19:16, 19; 2 Kgs 3:11; 6:31).<\/li>\n<li>3. Youngest of Shemaiah’s six sons from Judah’s tribe and a descendant of David (1 Chr 3:22).<\/li>\n<li>4. Gadite chief in Bashan, a region west of the Jordan River (1 Chr 5:12).<\/li>\n<li>5. Adlai’s son and a member of King David’s staff. Shaphat had charge of David’s cattle in the valleys (1 Chr 27:29).<\/li>","summary_ro":"SHAPHAT 1. Simeonite, Hori’s son and one of the 12 spies sent by Moses to search out the land of Canaan (Nm 13:5). 2. Father of the prophet Elisha from the town of Abel-meholah (1 Kgs 19:16, 19; 2 Kgs 3:11; 6:31). 3. Youngest of Shemaiah’s six sons from Judah’s tribe and a descendant of David (1 Chr 3:22). 4. Gadite chief in Bashan, a region west of the Jordan River (1 Chr 5:12). 5. Adlai’s son and a member of King David’s staff. Shaphat had charge of David’s cattle in the valleys (1 Chr 27:29).","summary_en":"SHAPHAT 1. Simeonite, Hori’s son and one of the 12 spies sent by Moses to search out the land of Canaan (Nm 13:5). 2. Father of the prophet Elisha from the town of Abel-meholah (1 Kgs 19:16, 19; 2 Kgs 3:11; 6:31). 3. Youngest of Shemaiah’s six sons from Judah’s tribe and a descendant of David (1 Chr 3:22). 4. Gadite chief in Bashan, a region west of the Jordan River (1 Chr 5:12). 5. Adlai’s son and a member of King David’s staff. Shaphat had charge of David’s cattle in the valleys (1 Chr 27:29).","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":47212,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Împărați 3:11","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Împărați 3:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:11-12<\/strong> <em>Is there no prophet of the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> with us?<\/em> Diviners or prophets often traveled with armies to perceive the divine will. <em>Jehoshaphat<\/em> again desired an oracle from a true prophet to learn the Lord’s intentions for the battle (cp. 1 Kgs 22:7). However, this time he waited until the campaign had begun before inquiring of the Lord.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:11-12<\/strong> <em>Is there no prophet of the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> with us?<\/em> Diviners or prophets often traveled with armies to perceive the divine will. <em>Jehoshaphat<\/em> again desired an oracle from a true prophet to learn the Lord’s intentions for the battle (cp. 1 Kgs 22:7). However, this time he waited until the campaign had begun before inquiring of the Lord.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:11-12 Is there no prophet of the Lord with us? Diviners or prophets often traveled with armies to perceive the divine will. Jehoshaphat again desired an oracle from a true prophet to learn the Lord’s intentions for the battle (cp. 1 Kgs 22:7). However, this time he waited until the campaign had begun before inquiring of the Lord.","summary_en":"3:11-12 Is there no prophet of the Lord with us? Diviners or prophets often traveled with armies to perceive the divine will. Jehoshaphat again desired an oracle from a true prophet to learn the Lord’s intentions for the battle (cp. 1 Kgs 22:7). However, this time he waited until the campaign had begun before inquiring of the Lord.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":74838,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Împărați 3:11","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Împărați 3:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:11-12<\/strong> <em>Is there no prophet of the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> with us?<\/em> Diviners or prophets often traveled with armies to perceive the divine will. <em>Jehoshaphat<\/em> again desired an oracle from a true prophet to learn the Lord’s intentions for the battle (cp. 1 Kgs 22:7). However, this time he waited until the campaign had begun before inquiring of the Lord.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:11-12<\/strong> <em>Is there no prophet of the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> with us?<\/em> Diviners or prophets often traveled with armies to perceive the divine will. <em>Jehoshaphat<\/em> again desired an oracle from a true prophet to learn the Lord’s intentions for the battle (cp. 1 Kgs 22:7). However, this time he waited until the campaign had begun before inquiring of the Lord.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:11-12 Is there no prophet of the Lord with us? Diviners or prophets often traveled with armies to perceive the divine will. Jehoshaphat again desired an oracle from a true prophet to learn the Lord’s intentions for the battle (cp. 1 Kgs 22:7). However, this time he waited until the campaign had begun before inquiring of the Lord.","summary_en":"3:11-12 Is there no prophet of the Lord with us? Diviners or prophets often traveled with armies to perceive the divine will. Jehoshaphat again desired an oracle from a true prophet to learn the Lord’s intentions for the battle (cp. 1 Kgs 22:7). However, this time he waited until the campaign had begun before inquiring of the Lord.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":102464,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Împărați 3:11","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Împărați 3:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:11-12<\/strong> <em>Is there no prophet of the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> with us?<\/em> Diviners or prophets often traveled with armies to perceive the divine will. <em>Jehoshaphat<\/em> again desired an oracle from a true prophet to learn the Lord’s intentions for the battle (cp. 1 Kgs 22:7). However, this time he waited until the campaign had begun before inquiring of the Lord.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:11-12<\/strong> <em>Is there no prophet of the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> with us?<\/em> Diviners or prophets often traveled with armies to perceive the divine will. <em>Jehoshaphat<\/em> again desired an oracle from a true prophet to learn the Lord’s intentions for the battle (cp. 1 Kgs 22:7). However, this time he waited until the campaign had begun before inquiring of the Lord.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:11-12 Is there no prophet of the Lord with us? Diviners or prophets often traveled with armies to perceive the divine will. Jehoshaphat again desired an oracle from a true prophet to learn the Lord’s intentions for the battle (cp. 1 Kgs 22:7). However, this time he waited until the campaign had begun before inquiring of the Lord.","summary_en":"3:11-12 Is there no prophet of the Lord with us? Diviners or prophets often traveled with armies to perceive the divine will. Jehoshaphat again desired an oracle from a true prophet to learn the Lord’s intentions for the battle (cp. 1 Kgs 22:7). However, this time he waited until the campaign had begun before inquiring of the Lord.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":130090,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Împărați 3:11","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Împărați 3:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:11-12<\/strong> <em>Is there no prophet of the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> with us?<\/em> Diviners or prophets often traveled with armies to perceive the divine will. <em>Jehoshaphat<\/em> again desired an oracle from a true prophet to learn the Lord’s intentions for the battle (cp. 1 Kgs 22:7). However, this time he waited until the campaign had begun before inquiring of the Lord.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:11-12<\/strong> <em>Is there no prophet of the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> with us?<\/em> Diviners or prophets often traveled with armies to perceive the divine will. <em>Jehoshaphat<\/em> again desired an oracle from a true prophet to learn the Lord’s intentions for the battle (cp. 1 Kgs 22:7). However, this time he waited until the campaign had begun before inquiring of the Lord.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:11-12 Is there no prophet of the Lord with us? Diviners or prophets often traveled with armies to perceive the divine will. Jehoshaphat again desired an oracle from a true prophet to learn the Lord’s intentions for the battle (cp. 1 Kgs 22:7). However, this time he waited until the campaign had begun before inquiring of the Lord.","summary_en":"3:11-12 Is there no prophet of the Lord with us? Diviners or prophets often traveled with armies to perceive the divine will. Jehoshaphat again desired an oracle from a true prophet to learn the Lord’s intentions for the battle (cp. 1 Kgs 22:7). However, this time he waited until the campaign had begun before inquiring of the Lord.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"13":[{"id":47213,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Împărați 3:13","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Împărați 3:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:13-14<\/strong> Elisha participated because of Jehoshaphat’s presence, despite his entanglement with the <em>pagan<\/em> Joram.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:13-14<\/strong> Elisha participated because of Jehoshaphat’s presence, despite his entanglement with the <em>pagan<\/em> Joram.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:13-14 Elisha participated because of Jehoshaphat’s presence, despite his entanglement with the pagan Joram.","summary_en":"3:13-14 Elisha participated because of Jehoshaphat’s presence, despite his entanglement with the pagan Joram.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":74839,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Împărați 3:13","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Împărați 3:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:13-14<\/strong> Elisha participated because of Jehoshaphat’s presence, despite his entanglement with the <em>pagan<\/em> Joram.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:13-14<\/strong> Elisha participated because of Jehoshaphat’s presence, despite his entanglement with the <em>pagan<\/em> Joram.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:13-14 Elisha participated because of Jehoshaphat’s presence, despite his entanglement with the pagan Joram.","summary_en":"3:13-14 Elisha participated because of Jehoshaphat’s presence, despite his entanglement with the pagan Joram.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":102465,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Împărați 3:13","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Împărați 3:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:13-14<\/strong> Elisha participated because of Jehoshaphat’s presence, despite his entanglement with the <em>pagan<\/em> Joram.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:13-14<\/strong> Elisha participated because of Jehoshaphat’s presence, despite his entanglement with the <em>pagan<\/em> Joram.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:13-14 Elisha participated because of Jehoshaphat’s presence, despite his entanglement with the pagan Joram.","summary_en":"3:13-14 Elisha participated because of Jehoshaphat’s presence, despite his entanglement with the pagan Joram.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":130091,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Împărați 3:13","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Împărați 3:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:13-14<\/strong> Elisha participated because of Jehoshaphat’s presence, despite his entanglement with the <em>pagan<\/em> Joram.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:13-14<\/strong> Elisha participated because of Jehoshaphat’s presence, despite his entanglement with the <em>pagan<\/em> Joram.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:13-14 Elisha participated because of Jehoshaphat’s presence, despite his entanglement with the pagan Joram.","summary_en":"3:13-14 Elisha participated because of Jehoshaphat’s presence, despite his entanglement with the pagan Joram.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"15":[{"id":25941,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Minstrel*","title_en":"Minstrel*","content_ro":"<h3>MINSTREL*<\/h3>\n<p>Archaic term for musician (2 Kgs 3:15; Ps 68:25; Mt 9:23; Rv 18:22).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MINSTREL*<\/h3>\n<p>Archaic term for musician (2 Kgs 3:15; Ps 68:25; Mt 9:23; Rv 18:22).<\/p>","summary_ro":"MINSTREL* Archaic term for musician (2 Kgs 3:15; Ps 68:25; Mt 9:23; Rv 18:22).","summary_en":"MINSTREL* Archaic term for musician (2 Kgs 3:15; Ps 68:25; Mt 9:23; Rv 18:22).","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":31504,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Prophecy","title_en":"Prophecy","content_ro":"<h3>PROPHECY<\/h3>\n<p>Term, along with its English cognates (“prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”), derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Prophecy in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Types of Old Testament Prophets<\/p>\n<p>• The Message of the Prophets<\/p>\n<p>• Prophecy in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>• The Role of the Christian Prophet<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProphecyintheOldTestament\">Prophecy in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>One of the clearest and most significant statements on the nature of prophetic inspiration in the OT is found in Numbers 12:6-8: “The <span>Lord<\/span> said to them, ‘Now listen to me! Even with prophets, I the <span>Lord<\/span> communicate by visions and dreams. But that is not how I communicate with my servant Moses. He is entrusted with my entire house. I speak to him face to face, directly and not in riddles! He sees the <span>Lord<\/span> as he is’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Several important insights into the nature of prophetic inspiration are found in this passage: (1) The prophetic gift of Moses was unique in that he alone received revelations directly from God. (2) Ordinarily, prophetic revelation was received through the medium of a dream or a vision. (3) The meaning of prophetic revelation is not always completely clear; prophecy is sometimes ambiguous.<\/p>\n<p>Further insight into the nature of prophetic revelation is found in Deuteronomy 18:18: “I [God] will raise up for them a prophet like you [Moses] from among their brethren; and I will put my words in his mouth, and he shall speak to them all that I command him” (<span>rsv<\/span>). While this passage is of interest because Jesus was identified as “the prophet like Moses” who came in fulfillment of this prediction (Acts 3:22; 7:37), the more immediate historical reference is to the succession of prophets that guided Israel from Joshua to Malachi. The phrase “I will put my words in his mouth” refers to the process of divine inspiration and is reminiscent of the common OT prophetic formula “the word of the Lord came to [such and such a prophet]” (for examples, see 1 Sm 15:10; 2 Sm 24:11; 1 Kgs 19:9; Jon 1:1; Hg 1:1; 2:1, 20; Zec 7:1, 8; 8:1). A true prophet is one who speaks (or repeats) all that God has told him.<\/p>\n<h5>Modes of Prophetic Inspiration<\/h5>\n<p>Dreams were a commonly recognized mode of inspiration throughout the ancient world, though they were more highly regarded in Greece than in ancient Israel. Revelatory dreams in the Bible fall into two major categories: (1) dreams whose meaning is self-evident, and (2) symbolic dreams that usually require the expertise of an interpreter of dreams. Both types normally involve both visual and auditory elements. In those dreams whose meaning is self-evident, normally a supernatural being (God or an angel) appears to the dreamer and speaks to him or her in a straightforward manner.<\/p>\n<p>More frequently, revelatory dreams have symbolic elements that require interpretation. The two great dream interpreters of the OT are Joseph and Daniel; the latter is clearly a prophet. The two symbolic dreams that Joseph himself dreamed (Gn 37:5-11) had sufficiently self-evident meaning so that his brothers and father were able to interpret them immediately. More complex were the dreams of the butler and baker (40:1-19) and of Pharaoh (41:1-36), which Joseph was able to interpret with the help of God. Similarly, Daniel was enabled to interpret the dreams of Nebuchadnezzar (Dn 2:25-45; 4:4-27). The skill in interpreting such dreams was attributed by both Joseph and Daniel to God (Gn 40:8; 41:16, 25; Dn 2:27-30; cf. 4:9). While dreams are used almost interchangeably with visions in referring to modes of prophetic inspiration (Jl 2:28), dreams do not occupy a significant part in the prophetic revelations of any of the OT prophets, with the exception of Daniel.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most characteristic modes of prophetic inspiration was the vision (Nm 12:6; 24:4, 16; Hos 12:10). The revelatory visions experienced by the prophets were not limited to visual phenomena alone but also included the auditory dimension as well. In Isaiah 1:1, the author describes his entire prophetic book as a “vision”: “These visions concerning Judah and Jerusalem came to Isaiah son of Amoz during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah—all kings of Judah” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Yet in the very next verse, Isaiah says, “Hear, O heavens! Listen, O earth! This is what the <span>Lord<\/span> says.” Again, in Amos 1:1, “The <em>words<\/em> of Amos, who was among the shepherds of Tekoa, which he <em>saw<\/em> concerning Israel” (<span>rsv<\/span>, emphasis added).<\/p>\n<h5>Manifestations of Prophetic Inspiration<\/h5>\n<p>All prophecy, whether biblical or not, presupposes that the prophet either possessed or was possessed by a personal supernatural power. The external behavioral manifestations of this possession can exhibit great variety.<\/p>\n<p>The prophetic phenomenon generally designated “ecstatic” prophecy appears to have existed in Canaan prior to the arrival of the Hebrew tribes in the 13th century <span>BC<\/span>. The first reference to ecstatic prophecy in Israel occurs in 1 Samuel 10:5-13 (11th century <span>BC<\/span>), and it persisted at least till the sixth century <span>BC<\/span> (Jer 29:26).<\/p>\n<p>The ecstatic prophet achieves a trancelike state by self-induced means. The most common devices used to achieve a state of ecstasy were musical instruments, such as the harp, tambourine, flute, and lyre (1 Sm 10:5). Among the prophets of Baal, self-flagellation was another means of inducing ecstasy (1 Kgs 18:28-29).<\/p>\n<p>This kind of prophetic ecstasy was usually practiced by groups of prophets (1 Sm 10:5), and such ecstasy was contagious. When Saul met a band of such prophets, the Spirit of God came upon him and he, too, began to prophesy (vv 10-13), a phenomenon that occurred repeatedly to various messengers sent by Saul on a later occasion (19:20-22). At that time Saul again prophesied, and his ecstatic behavior is described in 1 Samuel 19:24. When Elisha was asked to prophesy for King Jehoram of Israel, he first requested a minstrel. When the minstrel played, the power of the Lord came upon him (2 Kgs 3:15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TypesofOldTestamentProphets\">Types of Old Testament Prophets<\/p>\n<p>There are two basic types of prophetic commission in the OT. One type is that of a narrative call by God to a particular individual whose objections to the call are gradually overcome in a dialogue between himself and God. The classic example of this type of prophetic commission is found in Jeremiah 1:4-8:<\/p>\n<p>The <span>Lord<\/span> gave me a message. He said, “I knew you before I formed you in your mother’s womb. Before you were born I set you apart and appointed you as my spokesman to the world.”<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>“O Sovereign <span>Lord<\/span>,” I said, “I can’t speak for you! I’m too young!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>“Don’t say that,” the <span>Lord<\/span> replied, “for you must go wherever I send you and say whatever I tell you. And don’t be afraid of the people, for I will be with you and take care of you. I, the <span>Lord<\/span>, have spoken!” (<span>nlt<\/span>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Similar prophetic commissions including such dialogues are associated with the calls of Moses (Ex 3:1–4:17) and Gideon (Jgs 6:11-17).<\/p>\n<p>The second major form of prophetic commission is the “throne vision.” An outstanding example is Isaiah 6:1-8:<\/p>\n<p>In the year King Uzziah died, I saw the Lord. He was sitting on a lofty throne, and the train of his robe filled the Temple. . . .<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>Then I said, “My destruction is sealed, for I am a sinful man and a member of a sinful race. Yet I have seen the King, the <span>Lord<\/span> Almighty!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>Then one of the seraphim flew over to the altar, and he picked up a burning coal with a pair of tongs. He touched my lips with it and said, “See, this coal has touched your lips. Now your guilt is removed, and your sins are forgiven.”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>Then I heard the Lord asking, “Whom should I send as a messenger to my people? Who will go for us?”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>And I said, “Lord, I’ll go! Send me.” (<span>nlt<\/span>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Here we have an account of the visionary presence of a prophet in the heavenly council; in this case, however, the prophet participates in the deliberations and thereby receives a prophetic commission. Though few prophets have left accounts of their divine commissions, most of them appear to have been conscious of having been “sent” by God (Is 48:16; Hos 8:1; Am 7:14-15). According to Jeremiah, false prophets did not receive such divine commissions (Jer 23:21, 32; 28:15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheMessageoftheProphets\">The Message of the Prophets<\/p>\n<h5>The Form of the Message<\/h5>\n<p>The most common introductory formula for prophetic oracles in the OT is the phrase “Thus says the Lord,” which occurs hundreds of times in prophetic contexts. This formula clearly implies that the pronouncement so introduced is not the word of the prophet who utters the oracle but of the God of Israel who delivered his word to his prophet. The use of this formula also reiterates the prophet’s sense of divine commission. In oracles introduced in this manner, God speaks in the first person. In fact, virtually all Israelite prophetic utterance is formulated as the direct speech of the God of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets used many literary forms in which to express their oracles. Two of the more widely used forms of prophetic speech are the judgment speech and the oracle of salvation. The judgment speech is composed of at least two central elements: the speech of rebuke or invective, and the pronouncement of judgment (see 2 Kgs 1:3-4). The second common prophetic speech form is the oracle of salvation (see Is 41:8-13). Other fixed forms of prophetic speech include the prophecy of salvation (43:14-21), the proclamation of salvation (41:17-20; 42:14-17; 43:16-21; 49:7-12), and the woe oracle (Is 5:8-10; 10:1-4; Am 5:18-24; 6:1-7; Mi 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<h5>The Content of the Message<\/h5>\n<p>The common adage that OT prophets were not “foretellers” but “forthtellers” is not strictly correct. All of the prophets predict the future. Such prediction, however, is based not on human curiosity of what the future will hold but rather is rooted in the future consequences of past or present violations of the covenant, or on a future act of deliverance that will provide hope for a discouraged people. Most of the prophetic speeches that have been preserved in the OT were originally delivered as public proclamations or sermons. Most of these prophetic proclamations were evoked by the iniquity and apostasy of Israel. Hosea and Jeremiah condemned Israel because she had broken the covenant (Jer 11:2-3; Hos 8:1).<\/p>\n<p>The prophets are frequently associated with social justice and social reform, and these elements were unquestionably an important dimension of their message. Amos denounced the rich who afflicted the poor (Am 2:6-8; 4:1; 5:11; 8:4-6). He railed against sexual immorality (2:6-8) and against those who take bribes (5:12). Hosea provided a list of prevalent vices, including lying, killing, stealing, adultery, and idolatry (Hos 4:2). Idolatry was a particular target for his denunciations (8:5; 11:2). The background for such heated denunciations of Israel’s behavior is God’s unquenchable love for Israel (Is 43:4; Jer 31:3; Hos 3:1; 11:1-4; 14:4; Mal 1:2), which is inseparable from his election of Israel (Is 43:1; Jer 33:24; Ez 20:5; Hos 3).<\/p>\n<p>The prophets were concerned not only with the transgressions of Israel and the historical judgment that would inevitably follow but also with the achievement of a final future time of bliss. The message of many of the prophets is thoroughly eschatological (i.e., pertaining to the end times). One such eschatological concept is that of the Day of the Lord. The concept of the Day of the Lord first appears in Amos, where the emphasis lies on the disaster that will befall Israel on that day. Amos’s emphasis on disaster notwithstanding, the Day of the Lord is a conception that had both salvific as well as judgmental overtones for Israel. While the disaster that will occur in the Day of the Lord can be viewed in terms of a literal historical fulfillment in the tragic events of 722 <span>BC<\/span> (the fall of Samaria) and 586 <span>BC<\/span> (the fall of Judah), there are nevertheless features of these predictions that transcend historical fulfillment and reach toward eschatological fulfillment.<\/p>\n<p>Since the Israelite conception of “salvation” was largely temporal in its dimensions, it included such blessings as length of life, fruitfulness of the womb and field, peace and victory over one’s enemies, the abundance of water, and so on. In harmony with this conception of salvation, the future age is conceived in precisely those terms, as in Amos 9:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets pictured a time when David himself, or someone very much like him, would return and inaugurate a golden era reminiscent of the great Davidic and Solomonic period. The covenant of God with David was not a conditional covenant but rather one that was absolutely inviolable (2 Sm 7:4-17; Ps 89; Jer 33:19-22), and it was with this knowledge that the prophets could look forward confidently to a restoration of David’s throne (Jer 17:24-26; 23:5-6; 33:14-15).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProphecyintheNewTestament\">Prophecy in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>In contrast to the few self-proclaimed prophets of the intertestamental period, early Christianity began with a flurry of prophetic activity that lasted well into the second century <span>AD<\/span>. Jesus, his disciples and followers, and the early Christians were convinced that the times in which they lived were times in which OT prophecy was being fulfilled (Mk 1:14-15; Acts 2:16-21; Rom 16:25-27; 1 Cor 10:11). Yet this era was not only one of fulfillment but also one of the renewal of the prophetic gift.<\/p>\n<h5>John the Baptist<\/h5>\n<p>John the Baptist is remembered in the NT primarily as the forerunner of Jesus whose coming was predicted by Malachi (Mal 4:5-6). Yet, in his own right, John proclaimed the imminent judgment of God with a flair of denunciation and rebuke reminiscent of the OT prophets. John’s costume, consisting of a hairy cloak and a leather girdle (Mk 1:6), was reminiscent of the typical garb of OT prophets (1 Kgs 19:19; 2 Kgs 1:8; 2:13-14; Zec 13:4). John was regarded as a prophet by people everywhere (Mt 14:5; 17:10-13; Mk 9:11-13; 11:32; Lk 1:76; 7:26). Luke reports, in a style similar to the OT prophetic narratives, that “the word of God came to John” (Lk 3:2). Two short prophetic speeches have been preserved in Matthew 3:7-10 (cf. Lk 3:7-9) and Mark 1:7-8 (cf. Mt 3:11-12; Lk 3:15-18). In the first speech, John denounced those of his generation who had transgressed the covenant law and exhorted them to change their manner of life. In the second speech, John predicted the coming of the Mighty One, Jesus (Mt 3:11; Mk 1:7; Lk 3:16; Jn 1:15, 27, 30; Acts 13:25). John’s style, however, was not precisely that of the OT prophets. His pronouncements were made on his own authority; never did he use formulas such as “thus says the Lord,” or present his prophetic utterances as if they were speeches made by God. Yet, in spite of these differences, John is appropriately regarded as the last representative of the OT prophetic tradition (Mt 11:13; Lk 16:16).<\/p>\n<h5>Jesus of Nazareth<\/h5>\n<p>Jesus was popularly regarded as a prophet (Mt 16:14; 21:10-11; Mk 6:14-15; 8:28; Lk 7:16, 39; 9:8, 19; Jn 6:14; 7:40, 52). This assessment was based as much on the mighty deeds Jesus performed as on his prophetic speeches and predictions. Though Jesus nowhere claimed prophetic status directly, that claim is implicit in Mark 6:4: “A prophet is honored everywhere except in his own hometown” (cf. Mt 13:57; Lk 4:24). It is implicit as well in Luke 13:33: “Yes, today, tomorrow, and the next day I must proceed on my way. For it wouldn’t do for a prophet of God to be killed except in Jerusalem!” (<span>nlt<\/span>). In Acts, Jesus is regarded as “the prophet like Moses” predicted in Deuteronomy 18:18 (Acts 3:22; 7:37). Matthew presents Jesus as the New Moses, but he does not particularly emphasize his prophetic role. John, however, like Luke, emphasizes Jesus’ role as the prophet (Jn 4:19; 6:14-15; 7:40).<\/p>\n<p>While the Gospels and Acts reflect the notion that Jesus was a prophet, they also emphasize the fact that he was much more than a prophet. Nevertheless, the notion of prophetism was sufficiently important in early Judaism that Jesus’ recognition as a prophet is very significant. There are 12 solid reasons for regarding Jesus as a prophet in the OT tradition: (1) The sovereign authority of Jesus’ teaching (Mk 1:27), a feature underlined by his use of the introductory formula “(Amen) I say to you,” which is reminiscent of the formula “thus says the Lord” used by the OT prophets. (2) The poetic character of many of Jesus’ sayings is unlike contemporary rabbinic teaching but is similar to the poetic rhetoric of the OT prophets. (3) Jesus experienced visions (Lk 10:18) like the ancient prophets. (4) Jesus, like the prophets, made many predictions (Mt 23:38; Mk 13:2; 14:58; Lk 13:35; etc.). (5) Like the OT prophets, Jesus performed symbolic acts (such as the cleansing of the temple, the entry into Jerusalem, and the Last Supper). (6) Jesus, like the prophets, when necessary, rejected the formal observance of religious ritual and emphasized the moral and spiritual dimensions of obedience to God. (7) Jesus announced the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God—an eschatological proclamation similar to those made by the prophets. (8) Like the OT prophets, Jesus functioned as a preacher of repentance. (9) Jesus, like many of the prophets, was conscious of a special calling of God (Mt 15:24; Mk 8:31; 9:37; 14:36; Lk 4:18-26). (10) Jesus, like the prophets, received divine revelation through intimate communion with God (Mt 11:27; Lk 10:22). (11) Like the prophets, Jesus represented God; to obey him was to obey God, to reject him was to reject God (Mk 9:37; cf. Ez 33:30-33). (12) Like the prophets, Jesus was conscious of a mission to all Israel (Mt 15:24; 19:28; Lk 22:30).<\/p>\n<p>Among the many prophetic predictions of Jesus are the following:<\/p>\n<p>1. Predictions of the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God (Mt 10:7-8, 23; 23:39; Mk 1:15; 9:1; 13:28-29)<\/p>\n<li>2. Predictions of the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple (Mt 23:37-39; 24:2; 26:61; 27:40; Mk 13:2; 14:58; 15:29; Lk 13:34-35; 21:6; Jn 2:19-21)<\/li>\n<li>3. Predictions of the coming of the Son of Man (Mt 10:23, 32-33; 12:40; 13:40-41; 16:27; 24:27, 37-39; Mk 8:38; 13:26-27; 14:62; Lk 9:26; 11:30; 12:8-9; 17:24, 26)<\/li>\n<li>4. Predictions of the end of the age. The longest prophetic section in the Gospels is the eschatological discourse of Jesus in Mark 13:1-32 (cf. Mt 24:1-36; Lk 21:5-33), in which a number of predictions concerning the destruction of Jerusalem and the end of the age are woven into a lengthy discourse to the disciples.<\/li>\n<h5>Prophecy as a Gift for the Believers<\/h5>\n<p>The beginning of prophetic activity in early Christianity, according to Acts, coincided with the outpouring of the Holy Spirit upon the earliest Christians on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:1-21). Peter’s sermon on the Day of Pentecost indicates that the outpouring of the Spirit fulfilled Joel’s prophecy (Acts 2:4, 17-21; cf. Jl 2:28-32). Further, since the Spirit had been poured out upon all early Christians (that Spirit being a Spirit of prophecy), all are actual or potential prophets.<\/p>\n<p>According to 1 Corinthians 12:28 (see also Rom 12:6; Eph 4:11), God has appointed in the church first apostles, second prophets, and third teachers. The names of several early Christian prophets have been preserved. These include Agabus (Acts 11:27-28; 21:10-11); Judas and Silas (15:32); Barnabas, Simeon Niger, Lucius of Cyrene, Manaen, and Paul (13:1); and the four virgin daughters of Philip the evangelist (21:8-9). John, the author of Revelation, was certainly a prophet (Rv 1:3; 22:9, 18), though he never directly assumed that title.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRoleoftheChristianProphet\">The Role of the Christian Prophet<\/p>\n<p>Christian prophets were leaders in early Christian communities (1 Cor 12:28; Eph 4:11), who exercised their gift in church gatherings (Acts 13:1-3; 11:27-28; 1 Cor 12–14; Rv 1:10). Since the Spirit of God was particularly active in Christian worship, prophecy was a major means whereby God communicated with his people. Prophets, like apostles and teachers, did not hold offices in local communities like bishops, elders, and deacons. Rather, they were chosen, not by individual congregations, but by divine commission and so were honored and accepted in all local communities.<\/p>\n<p>Early Christian prophets were both itinerant and settled, though itinerant prophets seem to have been more prevalent in Syria-Palestine and Asia Minor than in the European churches.<\/p>\n<h5>The Function of Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>According to Paul, the central purpose of prophecy (as of all other spiritual gifts) is that of building up or edifying the church. According to 1 Corinthians 14:3, “one who prophesies is helping others grow in the Lord, encouraging and comforting them” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Again, in 1 Corinthians 14:4, Paul states that the “one who speaks a word of prophecy strengthens the entire church.” Paul discussed the subject of spiritual gifts, particularly tongues speaking and prophecy, because the Corinthians had placed an excessive emphasis on speaking in tongues. Paul did not object to speaking in tongues (1 Cor 14:18, 39), but he did point out that, since it was generally incomprehensible, the church could not be edified by it. Prophecy, which consisted of comprehensible speech inspired by the Spirit, contributed to the mutual edification, encouragement, and consolation of all present (1 Cor 14:20-25, 39).<\/p>\n<h5>The Content of Christian Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>We know only a little about the content of prophecies uttered in the first-century church. Prophetic utterance occasionally provided divine guidance in making important decisions in early Christianity. Through a prophetic utterance, Paul and Barnabas were selected for a particular mission (Acts 13:1-3; cf. 1 Tm 1:18; 4:14). Probably through prophetic utterance, Paul and Timothy were forbidden to preach the gospel in Asia (Acts 16:6), and they were similarly forbidden by the Spirit of Jesus to go into Bithynia (v 7). Perhaps the most frequent use of prophecy is the prediction of the future. Agabus predicted a universal famine (11:28) and the imminent arrest of Paul (21:11). Other prophets had also predicted his impending imprisonment (20:23). The prophecies contained in the Revelation of John are all oriented toward the future events that will gradually unfold in the last days. Yet the purpose of John’s elaborate prophecy is not to satisfy the curiosity of his audience but rather to comfort and encourage them in the midst of persecution.<\/p>\n<h5>The Form of Christian Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>Unlike the prophets of the OT, Christian prophets did not always present their message in the form of a direct speech from God or Jesus. There are few, if any, formal indicators of the presence of prophetic speech in early Christian literature. The book of Revelation is one notable exception.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dreams; Oracle; Promise; Prophet, Prophetess; Prophets, False; Visions.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PROPHECY<\/h3>\n<p>Term, along with its English cognates (“prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”), derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Prophecy in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Types of Old Testament Prophets<\/p>\n<p>• The Message of the Prophets<\/p>\n<p>• Prophecy in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>• The Role of the Christian Prophet<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProphecyintheOldTestament\">Prophecy in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>One of the clearest and most significant statements on the nature of prophetic inspiration in the OT is found in Numbers 12:6-8: “The <span>Lord<\/span> said to them, ‘Now listen to me! Even with prophets, I the <span>Lord<\/span> communicate by visions and dreams. But that is not how I communicate with my servant Moses. He is entrusted with my entire house. I speak to him face to face, directly and not in riddles! He sees the <span>Lord<\/span> as he is’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Several important insights into the nature of prophetic inspiration are found in this passage: (1) The prophetic gift of Moses was unique in that he alone received revelations directly from God. (2) Ordinarily, prophetic revelation was received through the medium of a dream or a vision. (3) The meaning of prophetic revelation is not always completely clear; prophecy is sometimes ambiguous.<\/p>\n<p>Further insight into the nature of prophetic revelation is found in Deuteronomy 18:18: “I [God] will raise up for them a prophet like you [Moses] from among their brethren; and I will put my words in his mouth, and he shall speak to them all that I command him” (<span>rsv<\/span>). While this passage is of interest because Jesus was identified as “the prophet like Moses” who came in fulfillment of this prediction (Acts 3:22; 7:37), the more immediate historical reference is to the succession of prophets that guided Israel from Joshua to Malachi. The phrase “I will put my words in his mouth” refers to the process of divine inspiration and is reminiscent of the common OT prophetic formula “the word of the Lord came to [such and such a prophet]” (for examples, see 1 Sm 15:10; 2 Sm 24:11; 1 Kgs 19:9; Jon 1:1; Hg 1:1; 2:1, 20; Zec 7:1, 8; 8:1). A true prophet is one who speaks (or repeats) all that God has told him.<\/p>\n<h5>Modes of Prophetic Inspiration<\/h5>\n<p>Dreams were a commonly recognized mode of inspiration throughout the ancient world, though they were more highly regarded in Greece than in ancient Israel. Revelatory dreams in the Bible fall into two major categories: (1) dreams whose meaning is self-evident, and (2) symbolic dreams that usually require the expertise of an interpreter of dreams. Both types normally involve both visual and auditory elements. In those dreams whose meaning is self-evident, normally a supernatural being (God or an angel) appears to the dreamer and speaks to him or her in a straightforward manner.<\/p>\n<p>More frequently, revelatory dreams have symbolic elements that require interpretation. The two great dream interpreters of the OT are Joseph and Daniel; the latter is clearly a prophet. The two symbolic dreams that Joseph himself dreamed (Gn 37:5-11) had sufficiently self-evident meaning so that his brothers and father were able to interpret them immediately. More complex were the dreams of the butler and baker (40:1-19) and of Pharaoh (41:1-36), which Joseph was able to interpret with the help of God. Similarly, Daniel was enabled to interpret the dreams of Nebuchadnezzar (Dn 2:25-45; 4:4-27). The skill in interpreting such dreams was attributed by both Joseph and Daniel to God (Gn 40:8; 41:16, 25; Dn 2:27-30; cf. 4:9). While dreams are used almost interchangeably with visions in referring to modes of prophetic inspiration (Jl 2:28), dreams do not occupy a significant part in the prophetic revelations of any of the OT prophets, with the exception of Daniel.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most characteristic modes of prophetic inspiration was the vision (Nm 12:6; 24:4, 16; Hos 12:10). The revelatory visions experienced by the prophets were not limited to visual phenomena alone but also included the auditory dimension as well. In Isaiah 1:1, the author describes his entire prophetic book as a “vision”: “These visions concerning Judah and Jerusalem came to Isaiah son of Amoz during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah—all kings of Judah” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Yet in the very next verse, Isaiah says, “Hear, O heavens! Listen, O earth! This is what the <span>Lord<\/span> says.” Again, in Amos 1:1, “The <em>words<\/em> of Amos, who was among the shepherds of Tekoa, which he <em>saw<\/em> concerning Israel” (<span>rsv<\/span>, emphasis added).<\/p>\n<h5>Manifestations of Prophetic Inspiration<\/h5>\n<p>All prophecy, whether biblical or not, presupposes that the prophet either possessed or was possessed by a personal supernatural power. The external behavioral manifestations of this possession can exhibit great variety.<\/p>\n<p>The prophetic phenomenon generally designated “ecstatic” prophecy appears to have existed in Canaan prior to the arrival of the Hebrew tribes in the 13th century <span>BC<\/span>. The first reference to ecstatic prophecy in Israel occurs in 1 Samuel 10:5-13 (11th century <span>BC<\/span>), and it persisted at least till the sixth century <span>BC<\/span> (Jer 29:26).<\/p>\n<p>The ecstatic prophet achieves a trancelike state by self-induced means. The most common devices used to achieve a state of ecstasy were musical instruments, such as the harp, tambourine, flute, and lyre (1 Sm 10:5). Among the prophets of Baal, self-flagellation was another means of inducing ecstasy (1 Kgs 18:28-29).<\/p>\n<p>This kind of prophetic ecstasy was usually practiced by groups of prophets (1 Sm 10:5), and such ecstasy was contagious. When Saul met a band of such prophets, the Spirit of God came upon him and he, too, began to prophesy (vv 10-13), a phenomenon that occurred repeatedly to various messengers sent by Saul on a later occasion (19:20-22). At that time Saul again prophesied, and his ecstatic behavior is described in 1 Samuel 19:24. When Elisha was asked to prophesy for King Jehoram of Israel, he first requested a minstrel. When the minstrel played, the power of the Lord came upon him (2 Kgs 3:15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TypesofOldTestamentProphets\">Types of Old Testament Prophets<\/p>\n<p>There are two basic types of prophetic commission in the OT. One type is that of a narrative call by God to a particular individual whose objections to the call are gradually overcome in a dialogue between himself and God. The classic example of this type of prophetic commission is found in Jeremiah 1:4-8:<\/p>\n<p>The <span>Lord<\/span> gave me a message. He said, “I knew you before I formed you in your mother’s womb. Before you were born I set you apart and appointed you as my spokesman to the world.”<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>“O Sovereign <span>Lord<\/span>,” I said, “I can’t speak for you! I’m too young!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>“Don’t say that,” the <span>Lord<\/span> replied, “for you must go wherever I send you and say whatever I tell you. And don’t be afraid of the people, for I will be with you and take care of you. I, the <span>Lord<\/span>, have spoken!” (<span>nlt<\/span>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Similar prophetic commissions including such dialogues are associated with the calls of Moses (Ex 3:1–4:17) and Gideon (Jgs 6:11-17).<\/p>\n<p>The second major form of prophetic commission is the “throne vision.” An outstanding example is Isaiah 6:1-8:<\/p>\n<p>In the year King Uzziah died, I saw the Lord. He was sitting on a lofty throne, and the train of his robe filled the Temple. . . .<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>Then I said, “My destruction is sealed, for I am a sinful man and a member of a sinful race. Yet I have seen the King, the <span>Lord<\/span> Almighty!”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>Then one of the seraphim flew over to the altar, and he picked up a burning coal with a pair of tongs. He touched my lips with it and said, “See, this coal has touched your lips. Now your guilt is removed, and your sins are forgiven.”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>Then I heard the Lord asking, “Whom should I send as a messenger to my people? Who will go for us?”<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<blockquote><p>And I said, “Lord, I’ll go! Send me.” (<span>nlt<\/span>)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Here we have an account of the visionary presence of a prophet in the heavenly council; in this case, however, the prophet participates in the deliberations and thereby receives a prophetic commission. Though few prophets have left accounts of their divine commissions, most of them appear to have been conscious of having been “sent” by God (Is 48:16; Hos 8:1; Am 7:14-15). According to Jeremiah, false prophets did not receive such divine commissions (Jer 23:21, 32; 28:15).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheMessageoftheProphets\">The Message of the Prophets<\/p>\n<h5>The Form of the Message<\/h5>\n<p>The most common introductory formula for prophetic oracles in the OT is the phrase “Thus says the Lord,” which occurs hundreds of times in prophetic contexts. This formula clearly implies that the pronouncement so introduced is not the word of the prophet who utters the oracle but of the God of Israel who delivered his word to his prophet. The use of this formula also reiterates the prophet’s sense of divine commission. In oracles introduced in this manner, God speaks in the first person. In fact, virtually all Israelite prophetic utterance is formulated as the direct speech of the God of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets used many literary forms in which to express their oracles. Two of the more widely used forms of prophetic speech are the judgment speech and the oracle of salvation. The judgment speech is composed of at least two central elements: the speech of rebuke or invective, and the pronouncement of judgment (see 2 Kgs 1:3-4). The second common prophetic speech form is the oracle of salvation (see Is 41:8-13). Other fixed forms of prophetic speech include the prophecy of salvation (43:14-21), the proclamation of salvation (41:17-20; 42:14-17; 43:16-21; 49:7-12), and the woe oracle (Is 5:8-10; 10:1-4; Am 5:18-24; 6:1-7; Mi 2:1-5).<\/p>\n<h5>The Content of the Message<\/h5>\n<p>The common adage that OT prophets were not “foretellers” but “forthtellers” is not strictly correct. All of the prophets predict the future. Such prediction, however, is based not on human curiosity of what the future will hold but rather is rooted in the future consequences of past or present violations of the covenant, or on a future act of deliverance that will provide hope for a discouraged people. Most of the prophetic speeches that have been preserved in the OT were originally delivered as public proclamations or sermons. Most of these prophetic proclamations were evoked by the iniquity and apostasy of Israel. Hosea and Jeremiah condemned Israel because she had broken the covenant (Jer 11:2-3; Hos 8:1).<\/p>\n<p>The prophets are frequently associated with social justice and social reform, and these elements were unquestionably an important dimension of their message. Amos denounced the rich who afflicted the poor (Am 2:6-8; 4:1; 5:11; 8:4-6). He railed against sexual immorality (2:6-8) and against those who take bribes (5:12). Hosea provided a list of prevalent vices, including lying, killing, stealing, adultery, and idolatry (Hos 4:2). Idolatry was a particular target for his denunciations (8:5; 11:2). The background for such heated denunciations of Israel’s behavior is God’s unquenchable love for Israel (Is 43:4; Jer 31:3; Hos 3:1; 11:1-4; 14:4; Mal 1:2), which is inseparable from his election of Israel (Is 43:1; Jer 33:24; Ez 20:5; Hos 3).<\/p>\n<p>The prophets were concerned not only with the transgressions of Israel and the historical judgment that would inevitably follow but also with the achievement of a final future time of bliss. The message of many of the prophets is thoroughly eschatological (i.e., pertaining to the end times). One such eschatological concept is that of the Day of the Lord. The concept of the Day of the Lord first appears in Amos, where the emphasis lies on the disaster that will befall Israel on that day. Amos’s emphasis on disaster notwithstanding, the Day of the Lord is a conception that had both salvific as well as judgmental overtones for Israel. While the disaster that will occur in the Day of the Lord can be viewed in terms of a literal historical fulfillment in the tragic events of 722 <span>BC<\/span> (the fall of Samaria) and 586 <span>BC<\/span> (the fall of Judah), there are nevertheless features of these predictions that transcend historical fulfillment and reach toward eschatological fulfillment.<\/p>\n<p>Since the Israelite conception of “salvation” was largely temporal in its dimensions, it included such blessings as length of life, fruitfulness of the womb and field, peace and victory over one’s enemies, the abundance of water, and so on. In harmony with this conception of salvation, the future age is conceived in precisely those terms, as in Amos 9:13-15.<\/p>\n<p>The prophets pictured a time when David himself, or someone very much like him, would return and inaugurate a golden era reminiscent of the great Davidic and Solomonic period. The covenant of God with David was not a conditional covenant but rather one that was absolutely inviolable (2 Sm 7:4-17; Ps 89; Jer 33:19-22), and it was with this knowledge that the prophets could look forward confidently to a restoration of David’s throne (Jer 17:24-26; 23:5-6; 33:14-15).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ProphecyintheNewTestament\">Prophecy in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>In contrast to the few self-proclaimed prophets of the intertestamental period, early Christianity began with a flurry of prophetic activity that lasted well into the second century <span>AD<\/span>. Jesus, his disciples and followers, and the early Christians were convinced that the times in which they lived were times in which OT prophecy was being fulfilled (Mk 1:14-15; Acts 2:16-21; Rom 16:25-27; 1 Cor 10:11). Yet this era was not only one of fulfillment but also one of the renewal of the prophetic gift.<\/p>\n<h5>John the Baptist<\/h5>\n<p>John the Baptist is remembered in the NT primarily as the forerunner of Jesus whose coming was predicted by Malachi (Mal 4:5-6). Yet, in his own right, John proclaimed the imminent judgment of God with a flair of denunciation and rebuke reminiscent of the OT prophets. John’s costume, consisting of a hairy cloak and a leather girdle (Mk 1:6), was reminiscent of the typical garb of OT prophets (1 Kgs 19:19; 2 Kgs 1:8; 2:13-14; Zec 13:4). John was regarded as a prophet by people everywhere (Mt 14:5; 17:10-13; Mk 9:11-13; 11:32; Lk 1:76; 7:26). Luke reports, in a style similar to the OT prophetic narratives, that “the word of God came to John” (Lk 3:2). Two short prophetic speeches have been preserved in Matthew 3:7-10 (cf. Lk 3:7-9) and Mark 1:7-8 (cf. Mt 3:11-12; Lk 3:15-18). In the first speech, John denounced those of his generation who had transgressed the covenant law and exhorted them to change their manner of life. In the second speech, John predicted the coming of the Mighty One, Jesus (Mt 3:11; Mk 1:7; Lk 3:16; Jn 1:15, 27, 30; Acts 13:25). John’s style, however, was not precisely that of the OT prophets. His pronouncements were made on his own authority; never did he use formulas such as “thus says the Lord,” or present his prophetic utterances as if they were speeches made by God. Yet, in spite of these differences, John is appropriately regarded as the last representative of the OT prophetic tradition (Mt 11:13; Lk 16:16).<\/p>\n<h5>Jesus of Nazareth<\/h5>\n<p>Jesus was popularly regarded as a prophet (Mt 16:14; 21:10-11; Mk 6:14-15; 8:28; Lk 7:16, 39; 9:8, 19; Jn 6:14; 7:40, 52). This assessment was based as much on the mighty deeds Jesus performed as on his prophetic speeches and predictions. Though Jesus nowhere claimed prophetic status directly, that claim is implicit in Mark 6:4: “A prophet is honored everywhere except in his own hometown” (cf. Mt 13:57; Lk 4:24). It is implicit as well in Luke 13:33: “Yes, today, tomorrow, and the next day I must proceed on my way. For it wouldn’t do for a prophet of God to be killed except in Jerusalem!” (<span>nlt<\/span>). In Acts, Jesus is regarded as “the prophet like Moses” predicted in Deuteronomy 18:18 (Acts 3:22; 7:37). Matthew presents Jesus as the New Moses, but he does not particularly emphasize his prophetic role. John, however, like Luke, emphasizes Jesus’ role as the prophet (Jn 4:19; 6:14-15; 7:40).<\/p>\n<p>While the Gospels and Acts reflect the notion that Jesus was a prophet, they also emphasize the fact that he was much more than a prophet. Nevertheless, the notion of prophetism was sufficiently important in early Judaism that Jesus’ recognition as a prophet is very significant. There are 12 solid reasons for regarding Jesus as a prophet in the OT tradition: (1) The sovereign authority of Jesus’ teaching (Mk 1:27), a feature underlined by his use of the introductory formula “(Amen) I say to you,” which is reminiscent of the formula “thus says the Lord” used by the OT prophets. (2) The poetic character of many of Jesus’ sayings is unlike contemporary rabbinic teaching but is similar to the poetic rhetoric of the OT prophets. (3) Jesus experienced visions (Lk 10:18) like the ancient prophets. (4) Jesus, like the prophets, made many predictions (Mt 23:38; Mk 13:2; 14:58; Lk 13:35; etc.). (5) Like the OT prophets, Jesus performed symbolic acts (such as the cleansing of the temple, the entry into Jerusalem, and the Last Supper). (6) Jesus, like the prophets, when necessary, rejected the formal observance of religious ritual and emphasized the moral and spiritual dimensions of obedience to God. (7) Jesus announced the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God—an eschatological proclamation similar to those made by the prophets. (8) Like the OT prophets, Jesus functioned as a preacher of repentance. (9) Jesus, like many of the prophets, was conscious of a special calling of God (Mt 15:24; Mk 8:31; 9:37; 14:36; Lk 4:18-26). (10) Jesus, like the prophets, received divine revelation through intimate communion with God (Mt 11:27; Lk 10:22). (11) Like the prophets, Jesus represented God; to obey him was to obey God, to reject him was to reject God (Mk 9:37; cf. Ez 33:30-33). (12) Like the prophets, Jesus was conscious of a mission to all Israel (Mt 15:24; 19:28; Lk 22:30).<\/p>\n<p>Among the many prophetic predictions of Jesus are the following:<\/p>\n<p>1. Predictions of the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God (Mt 10:7-8, 23; 23:39; Mk 1:15; 9:1; 13:28-29)<\/p>\n<li>2. Predictions of the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple (Mt 23:37-39; 24:2; 26:61; 27:40; Mk 13:2; 14:58; 15:29; Lk 13:34-35; 21:6; Jn 2:19-21)<\/li>\n<li>3. Predictions of the coming of the Son of Man (Mt 10:23, 32-33; 12:40; 13:40-41; 16:27; 24:27, 37-39; Mk 8:38; 13:26-27; 14:62; Lk 9:26; 11:30; 12:8-9; 17:24, 26)<\/li>\n<li>4. Predictions of the end of the age. The longest prophetic section in the Gospels is the eschatological discourse of Jesus in Mark 13:1-32 (cf. Mt 24:1-36; Lk 21:5-33), in which a number of predictions concerning the destruction of Jerusalem and the end of the age are woven into a lengthy discourse to the disciples.<\/li>\n<h5>Prophecy as a Gift for the Believers<\/h5>\n<p>The beginning of prophetic activity in early Christianity, according to Acts, coincided with the outpouring of the Holy Spirit upon the earliest Christians on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:1-21). Peter’s sermon on the Day of Pentecost indicates that the outpouring of the Spirit fulfilled Joel’s prophecy (Acts 2:4, 17-21; cf. Jl 2:28-32). Further, since the Spirit had been poured out upon all early Christians (that Spirit being a Spirit of prophecy), all are actual or potential prophets.<\/p>\n<p>According to 1 Corinthians 12:28 (see also Rom 12:6; Eph 4:11), God has appointed in the church first apostles, second prophets, and third teachers. The names of several early Christian prophets have been preserved. These include Agabus (Acts 11:27-28; 21:10-11); Judas and Silas (15:32); Barnabas, Simeon Niger, Lucius of Cyrene, Manaen, and Paul (13:1); and the four virgin daughters of Philip the evangelist (21:8-9). John, the author of Revelation, was certainly a prophet (Rv 1:3; 22:9, 18), though he never directly assumed that title.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheRoleoftheChristianProphet\">The Role of the Christian Prophet<\/p>\n<p>Christian prophets were leaders in early Christian communities (1 Cor 12:28; Eph 4:11), who exercised their gift in church gatherings (Acts 13:1-3; 11:27-28; 1 Cor 12–14; Rv 1:10). Since the Spirit of God was particularly active in Christian worship, prophecy was a major means whereby God communicated with his people. Prophets, like apostles and teachers, did not hold offices in local communities like bishops, elders, and deacons. Rather, they were chosen, not by individual congregations, but by divine commission and so were honored and accepted in all local communities.<\/p>\n<p>Early Christian prophets were both itinerant and settled, though itinerant prophets seem to have been more prevalent in Syria-Palestine and Asia Minor than in the European churches.<\/p>\n<h5>The Function of Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>According to Paul, the central purpose of prophecy (as of all other spiritual gifts) is that of building up or edifying the church. According to 1 Corinthians 14:3, “one who prophesies is helping others grow in the Lord, encouraging and comforting them” (<span>nlt<\/span>). Again, in 1 Corinthians 14:4, Paul states that the “one who speaks a word of prophecy strengthens the entire church.” Paul discussed the subject of spiritual gifts, particularly tongues speaking and prophecy, because the Corinthians had placed an excessive emphasis on speaking in tongues. Paul did not object to speaking in tongues (1 Cor 14:18, 39), but he did point out that, since it was generally incomprehensible, the church could not be edified by it. Prophecy, which consisted of comprehensible speech inspired by the Spirit, contributed to the mutual edification, encouragement, and consolation of all present (1 Cor 14:20-25, 39).<\/p>\n<h5>The Content of Christian Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>We know only a little about the content of prophecies uttered in the first-century church. Prophetic utterance occasionally provided divine guidance in making important decisions in early Christianity. Through a prophetic utterance, Paul and Barnabas were selected for a particular mission (Acts 13:1-3; cf. 1 Tm 1:18; 4:14). Probably through prophetic utterance, Paul and Timothy were forbidden to preach the gospel in Asia (Acts 16:6), and they were similarly forbidden by the Spirit of Jesus to go into Bithynia (v 7). Perhaps the most frequent use of prophecy is the prediction of the future. Agabus predicted a universal famine (11:28) and the imminent arrest of Paul (21:11). Other prophets had also predicted his impending imprisonment (20:23). The prophecies contained in the Revelation of John are all oriented toward the future events that will gradually unfold in the last days. Yet the purpose of John’s elaborate prophecy is not to satisfy the curiosity of his audience but rather to comfort and encourage them in the midst of persecution.<\/p>\n<h5>The Form of Christian Prophecy<\/h5>\n<p>Unlike the prophets of the OT, Christian prophets did not always present their message in the form of a direct speech from God or Jesus. There are few, if any, formal indicators of the presence of prophetic speech in early Christian literature. The book of Revelation is one notable exception.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Dreams; Oracle; Promise; Prophet, Prophetess; Prophets, False; Visions.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PROPHECY Term, along with its English cognates (“prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”), derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration. Preview • Prophecy in the Old Testament • Types of Old Testament Prophets • The Message of the Prophets • Prophecy in the ...","summary_en":"PROPHECY Term, along with its English cognates (“prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”), derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration. Preview • Prophecy in the Old Testament • Types of Old Testament Prophets • The Message of the Prophets • Prophecy in the ...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":47214,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Împărați 3:15","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Împărați 3:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:15<\/strong> <em>bring me someone who can play the harp:<\/em> Music stimulated the prophetic spirit (cp. Ps 49:4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:15<\/strong> <em>bring me someone who can play the harp:<\/em> Music stimulated the prophetic spirit (cp. Ps 49:4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:15 bring me someone who can play the harp: Music stimulated the prophetic spirit (cp. Ps 49:4).","summary_en":"3:15 bring me someone who can play the harp: Music stimulated the prophetic spirit (cp. Ps 49:4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":74840,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Împărați 3:15","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Împărați 3:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:15<\/strong> <em>bring me someone who can play the harp:<\/em> Music stimulated the prophetic spirit (cp. Ps 49:4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:15<\/strong> <em>bring me someone who can play the harp:<\/em> Music stimulated the prophetic spirit (cp. Ps 49:4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:15 bring me someone who can play the harp: Music stimulated the prophetic spirit (cp. Ps 49:4).","summary_en":"3:15 bring me someone who can play the harp: Music stimulated the prophetic spirit (cp. Ps 49:4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":102466,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Împărați 3:15","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Împărați 3:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:15<\/strong> <em>bring me someone who can play the harp:<\/em> Music stimulated the prophetic spirit (cp. Ps 49:4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:15<\/strong> <em>bring me someone who can play the harp:<\/em> Music stimulated the prophetic spirit (cp. Ps 49:4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:15 bring me someone who can play the harp: Music stimulated the prophetic spirit (cp. Ps 49:4).","summary_en":"3:15 bring me someone who can play the harp: Music stimulated the prophetic spirit (cp. Ps 49:4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":130092,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Împărați 3:15","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Împărați 3:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:15<\/strong> <em>bring me someone who can play the harp:<\/em> Music stimulated the prophetic spirit (cp. Ps 49:4).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:15<\/strong> <em>bring me someone who can play the harp:<\/em> Music stimulated the prophetic spirit (cp. Ps 49:4).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:15 bring me someone who can play the harp: Music stimulated the prophetic spirit (cp. Ps 49:4).","summary_en":"3:15 bring me someone who can play the harp: Music stimulated the prophetic spirit (cp. Ps 49:4).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"18":[{"id":47215,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Împărați 3:18","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Împărați 3:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:18-20<\/strong> The supply of <em>water<\/em>—<em>a simple thing for the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span>—was a harbinger of God’s enabling the allies to defeat the <em>army of Moab.<\/em><\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:18-20<\/strong> The supply of <em>water<\/em>—<em>a simple thing for the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span>—was a harbinger of God’s enabling the allies to defeat the <em>army of Moab.<\/em><\/p>","summary_ro":"3:18-20 The supply of water—a simple thing for the Lord—was a harbinger of God’s enabling the allies to defeat the army of Moab.","summary_en":"3:18-20 The supply of water—a simple thing for the Lord—was a harbinger of God’s enabling the allies to defeat the army of Moab.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":74841,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Împărați 3:18","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Împărați 3:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:18-20<\/strong> The supply of <em>water<\/em>—<em>a simple thing for the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span>—was a harbinger of God’s enabling the allies to defeat the <em>army of Moab.<\/em><\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:18-20<\/strong> The supply of <em>water<\/em>—<em>a simple thing for the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span>—was a harbinger of God’s enabling the allies to defeat the <em>army of Moab.<\/em><\/p>","summary_ro":"3:18-20 The supply of water—a simple thing for the Lord—was a harbinger of God’s enabling the allies to defeat the army of Moab.","summary_en":"3:18-20 The supply of water—a simple thing for the Lord—was a harbinger of God’s enabling the allies to defeat the army of Moab.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":102467,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Împărați 3:18","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Împărați 3:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:18-20<\/strong> The supply of <em>water<\/em>—<em>a simple thing for the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span>—was a harbinger of God’s enabling the allies to defeat the <em>army of Moab.<\/em><\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:18-20<\/strong> The supply of <em>water<\/em>—<em>a simple thing for the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span>—was a harbinger of God’s enabling the allies to defeat the <em>army of Moab.<\/em><\/p>","summary_ro":"3:18-20 The supply of water—a simple thing for the Lord—was a harbinger of God’s enabling the allies to defeat the army of Moab.","summary_en":"3:18-20 The supply of water—a simple thing for the Lord—was a harbinger of God’s enabling the allies to defeat the army of Moab.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":130093,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Împărați 3:18","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Împărați 3:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:18-20<\/strong> The supply of <em>water<\/em>—<em>a simple thing for the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span>—was a harbinger of God’s enabling the allies to defeat the <em>army of Moab.<\/em><\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:18-20<\/strong> The supply of <em>water<\/em>—<em>a simple thing for the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span>—was a harbinger of God’s enabling the allies to defeat the <em>army of Moab.<\/em><\/p>","summary_ro":"3:18-20 The supply of water—a simple thing for the Lord—was a harbinger of God’s enabling the allies to defeat the army of Moab.","summary_en":"3:18-20 The supply of water—a simple thing for the Lord—was a harbinger of God’s enabling the allies to defeat the army of Moab.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"19":[{"id":38328,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Well","title_en":"Well","content_ro":"<h3>WELL<\/h3>\n<p>Man-made reservoir fed either by subterranean springs or by rainwater. Because the majority of the biblical world ranges from arid to semiarid, wells were a critical source of water for humans, livestock, and the irrigation of crops. Unfortunately, most wells did not offer a reliable source of water, being dependent on the scarce rainfall or intermittent springs (Prv 25:26). The discovery of a reliable source of water was therefore the cause of much rejoicing (Nm 21:17-18) and frequent conflict (Gn 21:25-30; 26:19-22; 2 Kgs 3:19). Successfully digging a well and defending one’s water rights often served as an important determinant of property rights (Gn 21:25-30; 29:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>Good wells were generally considered signs of God’s providence (Gn 16:14; 21:19; Nm 21:16-18). Biblical writers therefore compared the water of spring-fed wells to God’s provision of salvation for his people (Is 12:3; Jn 4:14). The distinction between the relatively poor quality of water in cisterns that captured rainwater and the high quality of those wells that tapped springs of “living” (i.e., flowing) water helps clarify the dialogue between Jesus and the Samaritan woman when Jesus offered her “living water” (Jn 4:10-15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cistern; Jacob’s Well.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>WELL<\/h3>\n<p>Man-made reservoir fed either by subterranean springs or by rainwater. Because the majority of the biblical world ranges from arid to semiarid, wells were a critical source of water for humans, livestock, and the irrigation of crops. Unfortunately, most wells did not offer a reliable source of water, being dependent on the scarce rainfall or intermittent springs (Prv 25:26). The discovery of a reliable source of water was therefore the cause of much rejoicing (Nm 21:17-18) and frequent conflict (Gn 21:25-30; 26:19-22; 2 Kgs 3:19). Successfully digging a well and defending one’s water rights often served as an important determinant of property rights (Gn 21:25-30; 29:2-3).<\/p>\n<p>Good wells were generally considered signs of God’s providence (Gn 16:14; 21:19; Nm 21:16-18). Biblical writers therefore compared the water of spring-fed wells to God’s provision of salvation for his people (Is 12:3; Jn 4:14). The distinction between the relatively poor quality of water in cisterns that captured rainwater and the high quality of those wells that tapped springs of “living” (i.e., flowing) water helps clarify the dialogue between Jesus and the Samaritan woman when Jesus offered her “living water” (Jn 4:10-15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cistern; Jacob’s Well.<\/p>","summary_ro":"WELL Man-made reservoir fed either by subterranean springs or by rainwater. Because the majority of the biblical world ranges from arid to semiarid, wells were a critical source of water for humans, livestock, and the irrigation of crops. Unfortunately, most wells did not offer a reliable source of water, being dependent on the scarce rainfall or intermittent springs (Prv 25:26). The discovery of a reliable source of water was therefore the cause of much rejoicing (Nm 21:17-18) and frequent c...","summary_en":"WELL Man-made reservoir fed either by subterranean springs or by rainwater. Because the majority of the biblical world ranges from arid to semiarid, wells were a critical source of water for humans, livestock, and the irrigation of crops. Unfortunately, most wells did not offer a reliable source of water, being dependent on the scarce rainfall or intermittent springs (Prv 25:26). The discovery of a reliable source of water was therefore the cause of much rejoicing (Nm 21:17-18) and frequent c...","source":"Articles\/W.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"22":[{"id":7112,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Color","title_en":"Color","content_ro":"<h3>COLOR<\/h3>\n<p>The OT and NT have no exact word for “color,” although the word appears several times in our English Bibles. The words translated “color” have quite different meanings in the original languages.<\/p>\n<p>The word most frequently translated “colour” in the <span>kjv<\/span> literally means “eye” and suggests “appearance” (Lv 13:55; Nm 11:7; Prv 23:31; Ez 1:4, 7, 16, 22, 27; 8:2; 10:9; Dn 10:6). Only Leviticus 13:55 retains the translation “color” in the <span>rsv<\/span>. Other words translated as “color” in the <span>rsv<\/span> refer to facial appearance (Dn 5:6-10; 7:28), fabrics of variegated colors (Prv 7:16; Ez 17:3; 27:24), stones (1 Chr 29:2), and breastplates (Rv 9:17). Joseph’s “coat of many colours” (Gn 37:3, <span>kjv<\/span>) and Tamar’s “garment of divers colours” (2 Sm 13:18-19, <span>kjv<\/span>) were either long-sleeved robes or richly ornamented tunics that served as a mark of preferred status.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, a word that means “pretense” is used archaically in Acts 27:30 and was interpreted as “colour” by the <span>kjv<\/span> translators. They also added the word “colour” to Revelation 17:4, evidently to clarify the meaning.<\/p>\n<p>Though many colors are mentioned in the Bible, colors are not particularly singled out for emphasis. Natural colors are seldom mentioned in descriptions. Colors that appear frequently and that are most carefully differentiated are manufactured colors, especially dyes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ColorsMentionedintheBible\">Colors Mentioned in the Bible<\/p>\n<p>Because the Hebrews perceived color differently than we do in Western culture, it is sometimes difficult to translate precisely the various Hebrew words denoting colors. Thus there is often a wide variation in translations of such words in English Bibles. To provide a base for comparison, this article will follow the <span>rsv<\/span> except as noted.<\/p>\n<p>Colors mentioned most often in the OT and NT are the following:<\/p>\n<p>“Black” is the translation of five words in the OT and one in the NT, expressing varying degrees of darkness. The words describe the color of lambs (Gn 30:32-33, 35, 40), hair (Lv 13:31, 37; Sg 5:11; Mt 5:36), skin (Jb 30:30), horses (Zec 6:2, 6; Rv 6:5), the sky (1 Kgs 18:45; Is 50:3; Jer 4:28), the day (Jb 3:5; Mi 3:6), the darkened sun (Rv 6:12), and an invading army (Jl 2:2). Job’s “blackness” (Jb 30:28) has been understood as disease or sadness.<\/p>\n<p>“Blue” probably refers to a blue-purple dye obtained from Mediterranean mollusks. A popular color, it was considered less desirable in antiquity than “royal” purple. Both dyes were produced in Tyre, which at one time had a monopoly on the manufacture of blue and purple dye (2 Chr 2:7, 14; Ez 27:24). Ships of Tyre had awnings of blue and purple (Ez 27:7). Blue was used in the tabernacle fabrics (Ex 26:1; Nm 4:6-9), the priests’ garments (Ex 28:5-6), in Solomon’s temple (2 Chr 2:7, 14), and in the Persian court (Est 1:6; 8:15). Blue is not mentioned in the NT.<\/p>\n<p>“Crimson” is the English translation of three different Hebrew words. This red color of varying shades was derived from certain insects. The word describes certain fabrics in Solomon’s temple (2 Chr 2:7, 14; 3:14) and was used figuratively to describe sin (Is 1:18). The word translated “crimsoned” to describe garments from Bozrah (63:1) probably means “vivid colors” rather than a specific hue.<\/p>\n<p>“Gray,” a color found only in the OT, is used exclusively to describe old age—as in gray hair or gray-headed (Gn 42:38; 44:29-31; Dt 32:25; 1 Sm 12:2; 1 Kgs 2:6, 9; Jb 15:10; Ps 71:18; Prv 20:29; Is 46:4; Hos 7:9). A different word used to describe dappled gray horses (Zec 6:3) probably means “spotted” or “speckled.”<\/p>\n<p>“Green” translates seven words in the OT and two in the NT. Most of the words refer to vegetation and are descriptive of the fresh or moist condition of plants rather than their color. The following are described as “green”: plants (Gn 1:30), trees (1 Kgs 14:23), branches (Jb 15:32), pastures (Ps 23:2; Jl 2:22), herbs (Ps 37:2), olive trees (Ps 52:8; Jer 11:16), thorns (Ps 58:9), leaves (Jer 17:8), grass (Mk 6:39; Rv 8:7), and wood (Lk 23:31). In addition to various plants, a dove’s wing (Ps 68:13), a couch (Sg 1:16), and a righteous person (Ps 92:14) are also described as “green.” Idolatrous worship practices took place under “every green tree” (Dt 12:2; 2 Kgs 16:4; Is 57:5; Jer 2:20; Ez 6:13), although the word actually describes the luxurious growth of the leaves rather than their color.<\/p>\n<p>Another word, “greenish,” is derived from one of the OT words for “green” and refers to disease (Lv 13:49) and fungus that forms on the walls of houses (14:37).<\/p>\n<p>“Purple” was the most highly valued dye in the ancient world. Encompassing shades varying from actual purple to red, it was obtained from mollusks of the Gastropoda class. The first people to use the dye were perhaps the ancient Phoenicians, whose name may come from a Greek word meaning “bloodred.” At any rate, the Phoenicians monopolized the purple industry for many years. Some fabrics were described as being purple: those used in the tabernacle (Ex 25:4; 26:1), in the garments of the priests (28:5-8, 15, 33), in Solomon’s temple (2 Chr 2:7), in the upholstery of Solomon’s chariot (Sg 3:10), and in decorations of the Persian court (Est 1:6). Purple was customarily worn by wealthy people and royalty (Jgs 8:26; Prv 31:22; Dn 5:7). Mordecai was rewarded with a garment of purple (Est 8:15). Daniel was given a similar garment (Dn 5:29). It was worn by Assyrian soldiers (Ez 23:6). Jeremiah described idols that were robed in blue and purple garments (Jer 10:9). Ships of Tyre had awnings of blue and purple (Ez 27:7), and purple dye was an item of trade between Tyre and the people of Aram (v 16). It is used once to describe the color of hair (Sg 7:5).<\/p>\n<p>References to purple in the NT are fewer than in the OT but affirm the continued economic importance of the dye. Purple clothing denoted wealth (Lk 16:19). Jesus was robed in purple by Roman soldiers (Mk 15:17, 20; Jn 19:2, 5; cf. Mt 27:28, “scarlet”). The purple and scarlet garment of the harlot Babylon symbolized royal rank (Rv 17:4). Lydia of Thyatira was a seller of purple fabrics (Acts 16:14).<\/p>\n<p>“Red” frequently refers to the natural color of certain objects mentioned in the Bible: skin (Gn 25:25), pottage (v 30), the eye (49:12, though the word used here may mean “sparkling” or “dark”), a sacrificial heifer (Nm 19:2), water (2 Kgs 3:22), the face of a weeping person (Jb 16:16), wine (Prv 23:31), the eyes of one drinking wine (v 29), clothing (Is 63:2), a shield (Na 2:3), and horses (Zec 1:8; 6:2). It is used figuratively to describe sin (Is 1:18). A leprous disease (Lv 13:49), a spot on the skin (vv 19, 24, 42-43), and fungus on the wall of a house (14:37) were discolored with a reddish hue. The Red Sea is mentioned frequently in the OT (Ex 10:19; 15:4), but the Hebrew words thus translated actually mean “Sea of Reeds.” However, in the NT the Greek word is actually the word “red” (Acts 7:36; Heb 11:29). In the NT, red is used to describe the color of the sky (Mt 16:2-3), a horse (Rv 6:4), and a dragon (12:3).<\/p>\n<p>“Scarlet,” a brilliant red hue derived from certain insects, was used for fabrics and yarns and was highly valued in the ancient world (Rv 18:12). It is difficult to distinguish between “scarlet” and “crimson” in the Bible. A scarlet thread was bound to the hand of Zerah at birth (Gn 38:28, 30). The word describes certain fabrics in the tabernacle (Ex 25:4; 26:1, 31, 36; 27:16), the priests’ garments (28:5-8, 15, 33), rope (Jos 2:18, 21), clothing (2 Sm 1:24; Prv 31:21; Jer 4:30), lips (Sg 4:3), and soldiers’ uniforms (Na 2:3). Some kind of scarlet material was used during the ratification of the covenant at Sinai (Heb 9:19), for the cleansing of a leper (Lv 14:4-6) and of a house (vv 49-52), for covering the articles on the table of the bread of the Presence (Nm 4:8), and for the ritual of the red heifer (19:6). Matthew described Jesus’ robe at his trial as scarlet (Mt 27:28). The woman of Revelation 17:3-4 was dressed in purple and scarlet and seated upon a scarlet beast. The luxury associated with Rome is suggested by the description of clothing of purple and scarlet (Rv 18:16). Scarlet, like crimson and red, is also used figuratively of sins (Is 1:18).<\/p>\n<p> “White” translates a number of words found in the Bible. It is generally the color of natural objects such as goats (Gn 30:35), hair (Lv 13:10; Mt 5:36; Rv 1:14), diseased skin (Ex 4:6; Lv 13:4, 17), manna (Ex 16:31), snow (2 Kgs 5:27), milk and teeth (Gn 49:12), horses (Zec 1:8; 6:3; Rv 6:2; 19:11), a donkey (Jgs 5:10, <span>kjv<\/span>; <span>rsv<\/span> “tawny”), wool (Ez 27:18), special stones (Rv 2:17), light (Mt 17:2), clouds (Rv 14:14), and fields ready for harvest (Jn 4:35). It is used to describe the color of curtains (Est 1:6), clothing (Est 8:15; Eccl 9:8; Dn 7:9; Mk 16:5; Rv 3:5, 18; 4:4), the garments of angels (Jn 20:12; Acts 1:10), and a throne (Rv 20:11). It is used figuratively to describe cleansing from sin (Ps 51:7; Is 1:18; Dn 12:10) and the appearance of princes (Lam 4:7).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cloth and Cloth Manufacturing; Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>COLOR<\/h3>\n<p>The OT and NT have no exact word for “color,” although the word appears several times in our English Bibles. The words translated “color” have quite different meanings in the original languages.<\/p>\n<p>The word most frequently translated “colour” in the <span>kjv<\/span> literally means “eye” and suggests “appearance” (Lv 13:55; Nm 11:7; Prv 23:31; Ez 1:4, 7, 16, 22, 27; 8:2; 10:9; Dn 10:6). Only Leviticus 13:55 retains the translation “color” in the <span>rsv<\/span>. Other words translated as “color” in the <span>rsv<\/span> refer to facial appearance (Dn 5:6-10; 7:28), fabrics of variegated colors (Prv 7:16; Ez 17:3; 27:24), stones (1 Chr 29:2), and breastplates (Rv 9:17). Joseph’s “coat of many colours” (Gn 37:3, <span>kjv<\/span>) and Tamar’s “garment of divers colours” (2 Sm 13:18-19, <span>kjv<\/span>) were either long-sleeved robes or richly ornamented tunics that served as a mark of preferred status.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, a word that means “pretense” is used archaically in Acts 27:30 and was interpreted as “colour” by the <span>kjv<\/span> translators. They also added the word “colour” to Revelation 17:4, evidently to clarify the meaning.<\/p>\n<p>Though many colors are mentioned in the Bible, colors are not particularly singled out for emphasis. Natural colors are seldom mentioned in descriptions. Colors that appear frequently and that are most carefully differentiated are manufactured colors, especially dyes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ColorsMentionedintheBible\">Colors Mentioned in the Bible<\/p>\n<p>Because the Hebrews perceived color differently than we do in Western culture, it is sometimes difficult to translate precisely the various Hebrew words denoting colors. Thus there is often a wide variation in translations of such words in English Bibles. To provide a base for comparison, this article will follow the <span>rsv<\/span> except as noted.<\/p>\n<p>Colors mentioned most often in the OT and NT are the following:<\/p>\n<p>“Black” is the translation of five words in the OT and one in the NT, expressing varying degrees of darkness. The words describe the color of lambs (Gn 30:32-33, 35, 40), hair (Lv 13:31, 37; Sg 5:11; Mt 5:36), skin (Jb 30:30), horses (Zec 6:2, 6; Rv 6:5), the sky (1 Kgs 18:45; Is 50:3; Jer 4:28), the day (Jb 3:5; Mi 3:6), the darkened sun (Rv 6:12), and an invading army (Jl 2:2). Job’s “blackness” (Jb 30:28) has been understood as disease or sadness.<\/p>\n<p>“Blue” probably refers to a blue-purple dye obtained from Mediterranean mollusks. A popular color, it was considered less desirable in antiquity than “royal” purple. Both dyes were produced in Tyre, which at one time had a monopoly on the manufacture of blue and purple dye (2 Chr 2:7, 14; Ez 27:24). Ships of Tyre had awnings of blue and purple (Ez 27:7). Blue was used in the tabernacle fabrics (Ex 26:1; Nm 4:6-9), the priests’ garments (Ex 28:5-6), in Solomon’s temple (2 Chr 2:7, 14), and in the Persian court (Est 1:6; 8:15). Blue is not mentioned in the NT.<\/p>\n<p>“Crimson” is the English translation of three different Hebrew words. This red color of varying shades was derived from certain insects. The word describes certain fabrics in Solomon’s temple (2 Chr 2:7, 14; 3:14) and was used figuratively to describe sin (Is 1:18). The word translated “crimsoned” to describe garments from Bozrah (63:1) probably means “vivid colors” rather than a specific hue.<\/p>\n<p>“Gray,” a color found only in the OT, is used exclusively to describe old age—as in gray hair or gray-headed (Gn 42:38; 44:29-31; Dt 32:25; 1 Sm 12:2; 1 Kgs 2:6, 9; Jb 15:10; Ps 71:18; Prv 20:29; Is 46:4; Hos 7:9). A different word used to describe dappled gray horses (Zec 6:3) probably means “spotted” or “speckled.”<\/p>\n<p>“Green” translates seven words in the OT and two in the NT. Most of the words refer to vegetation and are descriptive of the fresh or moist condition of plants rather than their color. The following are described as “green”: plants (Gn 1:30), trees (1 Kgs 14:23), branches (Jb 15:32), pastures (Ps 23:2; Jl 2:22), herbs (Ps 37:2), olive trees (Ps 52:8; Jer 11:16), thorns (Ps 58:9), leaves (Jer 17:8), grass (Mk 6:39; Rv 8:7), and wood (Lk 23:31). In addition to various plants, a dove’s wing (Ps 68:13), a couch (Sg 1:16), and a righteous person (Ps 92:14) are also described as “green.” Idolatrous worship practices took place under “every green tree” (Dt 12:2; 2 Kgs 16:4; Is 57:5; Jer 2:20; Ez 6:13), although the word actually describes the luxurious growth of the leaves rather than their color.<\/p>\n<p>Another word, “greenish,” is derived from one of the OT words for “green” and refers to disease (Lv 13:49) and fungus that forms on the walls of houses (14:37).<\/p>\n<p>“Purple” was the most highly valued dye in the ancient world. Encompassing shades varying from actual purple to red, it was obtained from mollusks of the Gastropoda class. The first people to use the dye were perhaps the ancient Phoenicians, whose name may come from a Greek word meaning “bloodred.” At any rate, the Phoenicians monopolized the purple industry for many years. Some fabrics were described as being purple: those used in the tabernacle (Ex 25:4; 26:1), in the garments of the priests (28:5-8, 15, 33), in Solomon’s temple (2 Chr 2:7), in the upholstery of Solomon’s chariot (Sg 3:10), and in decorations of the Persian court (Est 1:6). Purple was customarily worn by wealthy people and royalty (Jgs 8:26; Prv 31:22; Dn 5:7). Mordecai was rewarded with a garment of purple (Est 8:15). Daniel was given a similar garment (Dn 5:29). It was worn by Assyrian soldiers (Ez 23:6). Jeremiah described idols that were robed in blue and purple garments (Jer 10:9). Ships of Tyre had awnings of blue and purple (Ez 27:7), and purple dye was an item of trade between Tyre and the people of Aram (v 16). It is used once to describe the color of hair (Sg 7:5).<\/p>\n<p>References to purple in the NT are fewer than in the OT but affirm the continued economic importance of the dye. Purple clothing denoted wealth (Lk 16:19). Jesus was robed in purple by Roman soldiers (Mk 15:17, 20; Jn 19:2, 5; cf. Mt 27:28, “scarlet”). The purple and scarlet garment of the harlot Babylon symbolized royal rank (Rv 17:4). Lydia of Thyatira was a seller of purple fabrics (Acts 16:14).<\/p>\n<p>“Red” frequently refers to the natural color of certain objects mentioned in the Bible: skin (Gn 25:25), pottage (v 30), the eye (49:12, though the word used here may mean “sparkling” or “dark”), a sacrificial heifer (Nm 19:2), water (2 Kgs 3:22), the face of a weeping person (Jb 16:16), wine (Prv 23:31), the eyes of one drinking wine (v 29), clothing (Is 63:2), a shield (Na 2:3), and horses (Zec 1:8; 6:2). It is used figuratively to describe sin (Is 1:18). A leprous disease (Lv 13:49), a spot on the skin (vv 19, 24, 42-43), and fungus on the wall of a house (14:37) were discolored with a reddish hue. The Red Sea is mentioned frequently in the OT (Ex 10:19; 15:4), but the Hebrew words thus translated actually mean “Sea of Reeds.” However, in the NT the Greek word is actually the word “red” (Acts 7:36; Heb 11:29). In the NT, red is used to describe the color of the sky (Mt 16:2-3), a horse (Rv 6:4), and a dragon (12:3).<\/p>\n<p>“Scarlet,” a brilliant red hue derived from certain insects, was used for fabrics and yarns and was highly valued in the ancient world (Rv 18:12). It is difficult to distinguish between “scarlet” and “crimson” in the Bible. A scarlet thread was bound to the hand of Zerah at birth (Gn 38:28, 30). The word describes certain fabrics in the tabernacle (Ex 25:4; 26:1, 31, 36; 27:16), the priests’ garments (28:5-8, 15, 33), rope (Jos 2:18, 21), clothing (2 Sm 1:24; Prv 31:21; Jer 4:30), lips (Sg 4:3), and soldiers’ uniforms (Na 2:3). Some kind of scarlet material was used during the ratification of the covenant at Sinai (Heb 9:19), for the cleansing of a leper (Lv 14:4-6) and of a house (vv 49-52), for covering the articles on the table of the bread of the Presence (Nm 4:8), and for the ritual of the red heifer (19:6). Matthew described Jesus’ robe at his trial as scarlet (Mt 27:28). The woman of Revelation 17:3-4 was dressed in purple and scarlet and seated upon a scarlet beast. The luxury associated with Rome is suggested by the description of clothing of purple and scarlet (Rv 18:16). Scarlet, like crimson and red, is also used figuratively of sins (Is 1:18).<\/p>\n<p> “White” translates a number of words found in the Bible. It is generally the color of natural objects such as goats (Gn 30:35), hair (Lv 13:10; Mt 5:36; Rv 1:14), diseased skin (Ex 4:6; Lv 13:4, 17), manna (Ex 16:31), snow (2 Kgs 5:27), milk and teeth (Gn 49:12), horses (Zec 1:8; 6:3; Rv 6:2; 19:11), a donkey (Jgs 5:10, <span>kjv<\/span>; <span>rsv<\/span> “tawny”), wool (Ez 27:18), special stones (Rv 2:17), light (Mt 17:2), clouds (Rv 14:14), and fields ready for harvest (Jn 4:35). It is used to describe the color of curtains (Est 1:6), clothing (Est 8:15; Eccl 9:8; Dn 7:9; Mk 16:5; Rv 3:5, 18; 4:4), the garments of angels (Jn 20:12; Acts 1:10), and a throne (Rv 20:11). It is used figuratively to describe cleansing from sin (Ps 51:7; Is 1:18; Dn 12:10) and the appearance of princes (Lam 4:7).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Cloth and Cloth Manufacturing; Dye, Dyeing, Dyer.<\/p>","summary_ro":"COLOR The OT and NT have no exact word for “color,” although the word appears several times in our English Bibles. The words translated “color” have quite different meanings in the original languages. The word most frequently translated “colour” in the kjv literally means “eye” and suggests “appearance” (Lv 13:55; Nm 11:7; Prv 23:31; Ez 1:4, 7, 16, 22, 27; 8:2; 10:9; Dn 10:6). Only Leviticus 13:55 retains the translation “color” in the rsv. Other words translated as “color” in the rsv refer t...","summary_en":"COLOR The OT and NT have no exact word for “color,” although the word appears several times in our English Bibles. The words translated “color” have quite different meanings in the original languages. The word most frequently translated “colour” in the kjv literally means “eye” and suggests “appearance” (Lv 13:55; Nm 11:7; Prv 23:31; Ez 1:4, 7, 16, 22, 27; 8:2; 10:9; Dn 10:6). Only Leviticus 13:55 retains the translation “color” in the rsv. Other words translated as “color” in the rsv refer t...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":40205,"type":"textbox","type_label":"Notă explicativă","type_icon":"💡","type_color":"#8b5cf6","title_ro":"Symbolic Uses of Colors","title_en":"Symbolic Uses of Colors","content_ro":"<h3>Symbolic Uses of Colors<\/h3>\n<blockquote><p>It is difficult to determine what the different colors symbolized in the ancient world. Some interpreters find no significance at all in the colors found in the Bible, whereas others do. According to Philo, a Greek-speaking Jewish writer who lived at the time of Christ, white represented the earth; purple, the sea; blue, the air; and scarlet, fire—reminiscent of the four basic elements of earthly matter in Aristotle’s philosophy. Ancient rabbis thought they could identify nations with the colors of Zechariah’s horses (e.g., red stood for Babylon because that empire had shed much blood). The Scofield Reference Bible (1909) interprets the colors in the tabernacle symbolically: gold represented death; silver, redemption; bronze, judgment; blue, heaven; purple, royalty; and scarlet, sacrifice.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>It is probably unwise to insist that each color in the tabernacle hangings symbolized something. Only a few colors are given explicit significance in the Bible; further, no rule says that a color given symbolic meaning in one usage will always retain that meaning. The following colors frequently have symbolic meaning in the Bible: red, war and bloodshed (2 Kgs 3:22); black, gloom or mourning (Is 50:3); white, purity or righteousness (Is 1:18); green, prosperity and health (Ps 92:14); purple, royalty or honor (Mk 15:17). Those colors have maintained similar symbolic associations to the present day.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Symbolic Uses of Colors<\/h3>\n<blockquote><p>It is difficult to determine what the different colors symbolized in the ancient world. Some interpreters find no significance at all in the colors found in the Bible, whereas others do. According to Philo, a Greek-speaking Jewish writer who lived at the time of Christ, white represented the earth; purple, the sea; blue, the air; and scarlet, fire—reminiscent of the four basic elements of earthly matter in Aristotle’s philosophy. Ancient rabbis thought they could identify nations with the colors of Zechariah’s horses (e.g., red stood for Babylon because that empire had shed much blood). The Scofield Reference Bible (1909) interprets the colors in the tabernacle symbolically: gold represented death; silver, redemption; bronze, judgment; blue, heaven; purple, royalty; and scarlet, sacrifice.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>It is probably unwise to insist that each color in the tabernacle hangings symbolized something. Only a few colors are given explicit significance in the Bible; further, no rule says that a color given symbolic meaning in one usage will always retain that meaning. The following colors frequently have symbolic meaning in the Bible: red, war and bloodshed (2 Kgs 3:22); black, gloom or mourning (Is 50:3); white, purity or righteousness (Is 1:18); green, prosperity and health (Ps 92:14); purple, royalty or honor (Mk 15:17). Those colors have maintained similar symbolic associations to the present day.<\/p>","summary_ro":"Symbolic Uses of Colors It is difficult to determine what the different colors symbolized in the ancient world. Some interpreters find no significance at all in the colors found in the Bible, whereas others do. According to Philo, a Greek-speaking Jewish writer who lived at the time of Christ, white represented the earth; purple, the sea; blue, the air; and scarlet, fire—reminiscent of the four basic elements of earthly matter in Aristotle’s philosophy. Ancient rabbis thought they could ident...","summary_en":"Symbolic Uses of Colors It is difficult to determine what the different colors symbolized in the ancient world. Some interpreters find no significance at all in the colors found in the Bible, whereas others do. According to Philo, a Greek-speaking Jewish writer who lived at the time of Christ, white represented the earth; purple, the sea; blue, the air; and scarlet, fire—reminiscent of the four basic elements of earthly matter in Aristotle’s philosophy. Ancient rabbis thought they could ident...","source":"Textboxes\/Textboxes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"24":[{"id":47216,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Împărați 3:24","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Împărați 3:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:24-25<\/strong> <em>The army of Israel . . . destroyed the towns.<\/em> Elisha’s prophecy was fulfilled, although <em>Kir-hareseth<\/em> escaped total destruction.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:24-25<\/strong> <em>The army of Israel . . . destroyed the towns.<\/em> Elisha’s prophecy was fulfilled, although <em>Kir-hareseth<\/em> escaped total destruction.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:24-25 The army of Israel . . . destroyed the towns. Elisha’s prophecy was fulfilled, although Kir-hareseth escaped total destruction.","summary_en":"3:24-25 The army of Israel . . . destroyed the towns. Elisha’s prophecy was fulfilled, although Kir-hareseth escaped total destruction.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":74842,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Împărați 3:24","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Împărați 3:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:24-25<\/strong> <em>The army of Israel . . . destroyed the towns.<\/em> Elisha’s prophecy was fulfilled, although <em>Kir-hareseth<\/em> escaped total destruction.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:24-25<\/strong> <em>The army of Israel . . . destroyed the towns.<\/em> Elisha’s prophecy was fulfilled, although <em>Kir-hareseth<\/em> escaped total destruction.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:24-25 The army of Israel . . . destroyed the towns. Elisha’s prophecy was fulfilled, although Kir-hareseth escaped total destruction.","summary_en":"3:24-25 The army of Israel . . . destroyed the towns. Elisha’s prophecy was fulfilled, although Kir-hareseth escaped total destruction.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":102468,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Împărați 3:24","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Împărați 3:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:24-25<\/strong> <em>The army of Israel . . . destroyed the towns.<\/em> Elisha’s prophecy was fulfilled, although <em>Kir-hareseth<\/em> escaped total destruction.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:24-25<\/strong> <em>The army of Israel . . . destroyed the towns.<\/em> Elisha’s prophecy was fulfilled, although <em>Kir-hareseth<\/em> escaped total destruction.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:24-25 The army of Israel . . . destroyed the towns. Elisha’s prophecy was fulfilled, although Kir-hareseth escaped total destruction.","summary_en":"3:24-25 The army of Israel . . . destroyed the towns. Elisha’s prophecy was fulfilled, although Kir-hareseth escaped total destruction.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":130094,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Împărați 3:24","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Împărați 3:24","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:24-25<\/strong> <em>The army of Israel . . . destroyed the towns.<\/em> Elisha’s prophecy was fulfilled, although <em>Kir-hareseth<\/em> escaped total destruction.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:24-25<\/strong> <em>The army of Israel . . . destroyed the towns.<\/em> Elisha’s prophecy was fulfilled, although <em>Kir-hareseth<\/em> escaped total destruction.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:24-25 The army of Israel . . . destroyed the towns. Elisha’s prophecy was fulfilled, although Kir-hareseth escaped total destruction.","summary_en":"3:24-25 The army of Israel . . . destroyed the towns. Elisha’s prophecy was fulfilled, although Kir-hareseth escaped total destruction.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"25":[{"id":22144,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Kir","title_en":"Kir","content_ro":"<h3>KIR<\/h3>\n<li>1. Mesopotamian city from which the Syrians migrated to Damascus and back to which they were later exiled by the Assyrians (Am 1:5; 9:7). Escape from Kir to Aram paralleled the exodus of the Israelites. It must have been a terribly bitter experience to have been deported (by Tiglath-pileser) back to Kir (2 Kgs 16:9). Whether the city actually existed or not is debatable. It could have become a metaphor for enslavement and exile.<\/li>\n<li>2. Fortress usually identified with the ancient capital of Moab. Soldiers from Kir were associated with those from Elam (Is 22:6). Likewise, Kir was paralleled with Ar in Isaiah’s lament over Moab (15:1). Kir of Moab, therefore, is probably the same as Kir-hareseth (2 Kgs 3:25; Is 16:7), located at Kerak, 11 miles (17.7 kilometers) east of the southern end of the Dead Sea.<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>KIR<\/h3>\n<li>1. Mesopotamian city from which the Syrians migrated to Damascus and back to which they were later exiled by the Assyrians (Am 1:5; 9:7). Escape from Kir to Aram paralleled the exodus of the Israelites. It must have been a terribly bitter experience to have been deported (by Tiglath-pileser) back to Kir (2 Kgs 16:9). Whether the city actually existed or not is debatable. It could have become a metaphor for enslavement and exile.<\/li>\n<li>2. Fortress usually identified with the ancient capital of Moab. Soldiers from Kir were associated with those from Elam (Is 22:6). Likewise, Kir was paralleled with Ar in Isaiah’s lament over Moab (15:1). Kir of Moab, therefore, is probably the same as Kir-hareseth (2 Kgs 3:25; Is 16:7), located at Kerak, 11 miles (17.7 kilometers) east of the southern end of the Dead Sea.<\/li>","summary_ro":"KIR 1. Mesopotamian city from which the Syrians migrated to Damascus and back to which they were later exiled by the Assyrians (Am 1:5; 9:7). Escape from Kir to Aram paralleled the exodus of the Israelites. It must have been a terribly bitter experience to have been deported (by Tiglath-pileser) back to Kir (2 Kgs 16:9). Whether the city actually existed or not is debatable. It could have become a metaphor for enslavement and exile. 2. Fortress usually identified with the ancient capital of M...","summary_en":"KIR 1. Mesopotamian city from which the Syrians migrated to Damascus and back to which they were later exiled by the Assyrians (Am 1:5; 9:7). Escape from Kir to Aram paralleled the exodus of the Israelites. It must have been a terribly bitter experience to have been deported (by Tiglath-pileser) back to Kir (2 Kgs 16:9). Whether the city actually existed or not is debatable. It could have become a metaphor for enslavement and exile. 2. Fortress usually identified with the ancient capital of M...","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"26":[{"id":47217,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Împărați 3:26","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Împărați 3:26","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:26<\/strong> The reason for the Moabite king’s <em>attempt to break through the enemy lines<\/em> might have been to avenge himself against the Edomite king or to escape through a perceived weakness in the allied lines.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:26<\/strong> The reason for the Moabite king’s <em>attempt to break through the enemy lines<\/em> might have been to avenge himself against the Edomite king or to escape through a perceived weakness in the allied lines.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:26 The reason for the Moabite king’s attempt to break through the enemy lines might have been to avenge himself against the Edomite king or to escape through a perceived weakness in the allied lines.","summary_en":"3:26 The reason for the Moabite king’s attempt to break through the enemy lines might have been to avenge himself against the Edomite king or to escape through a perceived weakness in the allied lines.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":74843,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Împărați 3:26","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Împărați 3:26","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:26<\/strong> The reason for the Moabite king’s <em>attempt to break through the enemy lines<\/em> might have been to avenge himself against the Edomite king or to escape through a perceived weakness in the allied lines.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:26<\/strong> The reason for the Moabite king’s <em>attempt to break through the enemy lines<\/em> might have been to avenge himself against the Edomite king or to escape through a perceived weakness in the allied lines.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:26 The reason for the Moabite king’s attempt to break through the enemy lines might have been to avenge himself against the Edomite king or to escape through a perceived weakness in the allied lines.","summary_en":"3:26 The reason for the Moabite king’s attempt to break through the enemy lines might have been to avenge himself against the Edomite king or to escape through a perceived weakness in the allied lines.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":102469,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Împărați 3:26","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Împărați 3:26","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:26<\/strong> The reason for the Moabite king’s <em>attempt to break through the enemy lines<\/em> might have been to avenge himself against the Edomite king or to escape through a perceived weakness in the allied lines.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:26<\/strong> The reason for the Moabite king’s <em>attempt to break through the enemy lines<\/em> might have been to avenge himself against the Edomite king or to escape through a perceived weakness in the allied lines.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:26 The reason for the Moabite king’s attempt to break through the enemy lines might have been to avenge himself against the Edomite king or to escape through a perceived weakness in the allied lines.","summary_en":"3:26 The reason for the Moabite king’s attempt to break through the enemy lines might have been to avenge himself against the Edomite king or to escape through a perceived weakness in the allied lines.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":130095,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Împărați 3:26","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Împărați 3:26","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:26<\/strong> The reason for the Moabite king’s <em>attempt to break through the enemy lines<\/em> might have been to avenge himself against the Edomite king or to escape through a perceived weakness in the allied lines.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:26<\/strong> The reason for the Moabite king’s <em>attempt to break through the enemy lines<\/em> might have been to avenge himself against the Edomite king or to escape through a perceived weakness in the allied lines.<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:26 The reason for the Moabite king’s attempt to break through the enemy lines might have been to avenge himself against the Edomite king or to escape through a perceived weakness in the allied lines.","summary_en":"3:26 The reason for the Moabite king’s attempt to break through the enemy lines might have been to avenge himself against the Edomite king or to escape through a perceived weakness in the allied lines.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":61258,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Canaanite Religion","title_en":"Canaanite Religion","content_ro":"<h3>Canaanite Religion<\/h3>\n<p>The Canaanites explained nature by reference to their gods. Each god represented some force of nature. The moon, sun, important stars, and visible planets each were considered a god or goddess. Canaanite deities had two striking features: an extraordinary fluidity of personality, and names whose meanings were related to their function. A few of these gods were particularly influential in the interaction of the Israelites with the Canaanite peoples:<\/p>\n<li><strong>El:<\/strong> “the powerful one,” the head of the Canaanite pantheon. El was distant, living far away from Canaan “at the source of the two rivers” (a lingering memory of Eden, perhaps). He presided over a divine council of gods who were his children. In the Old Testament, <em>El<\/em> (pl. <em>Elohim<\/em>) is used to speak of God, though the Lord is not identical with the Canaanite deity.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Baal:<\/strong> “lord,” the great storm god and king of the gods. Baal acted as El’s prime minister and was functionally far more important than El. He was the giver of all fertility. When he died, all vegetation and procreation temporarily ceased. He was the god of justice, the terror of evildoers.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Dagon:<\/strong> “fish” or “grain,” sometimes referred to as the father of Baal. Dagon was the chief god of the Philistine city of Ashdod (1 Sam 5:1-7).<\/li>\n<li><strong>Ashtoreth, Anath, Asherah:<\/strong> the three main goddesses of the Canaanite pantheon, concerned mainly with sex and war. Their primary function was to have sexual relations with Baal on a continual yearly cycle, maintaining Baal’s virility and thus the fertility of the earth.<\/li>\n<p>The Canaanites’ personification of the forces of nature accounted for the succession of the seasons. The dry period from April to the end of October represented the duration of Baal’s death after an unsuccessful battle each spring. Commencement of the autumn rains signaled Baal’s revival as the rain and vegetation god, continuing until the following April. The Canaanites believed that the land regained its fertility because of the annual mating of Baal and his female consort, and their own religious activities included imitation of their gods’ behavior.<\/p>\n<p>The Canaanites thus worshiped things they felt would benefit them materially. If the gods and goddesses were pleased by the worship, the result would be a plentiful harvest. If a god became angry, animal or human sacrifice might appease the god (see 2 Kgs 3:26-27). Canaanite worship was therefore fundamentally based on fear and manipulation.<\/p>\n<p>Contact among the many religions of the ancient Near East produced not only social tension but also religious borrowing. The Arameans and Philistines who settled in Canaan adopted the practices of the Canaanites; the Amorites similarly incorporated Sumerian religion when they moved into Mesopotamia.<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s God, Yahweh, by contrast, demanded exclusive allegiance, and he insisted on worship based on faith rather than manipulative fear. Unfortunately, the Israelites failed to maintain their exclusive monotheism. They adopted pagan thinking and practices, worshiping the Canaanite gods in the Canaanite way, leading to the corruption of their culture and rousing God’s anger. As a result, God brought judgment upon his people, sending them into exile (see 2 Kgs 17:5-23; 24:18–25:21).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 5:1-12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Canaanite Religion<\/h3>\n<p>The Canaanites explained nature by reference to their gods. Each god represented some force of nature. The moon, sun, important stars, and visible planets each were considered a god or goddess. Canaanite deities had two striking features: an extraordinary fluidity of personality, and names whose meanings were related to their function. A few of these gods were particularly influential in the interaction of the Israelites with the Canaanite peoples:<\/p>\n<li><strong>El:<\/strong> “the powerful one,” the head of the Canaanite pantheon. El was distant, living far away from Canaan “at the source of the two rivers” (a lingering memory of Eden, perhaps). He presided over a divine council of gods who were his children. In the Old Testament, <em>El<\/em> (pl. <em>Elohim<\/em>) is used to speak of God, though the Lord is not identical with the Canaanite deity.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Baal:<\/strong> “lord,” the great storm god and king of the gods. Baal acted as El’s prime minister and was functionally far more important than El. He was the giver of all fertility. When he died, all vegetation and procreation temporarily ceased. He was the god of justice, the terror of evildoers.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Dagon:<\/strong> “fish” or “grain,” sometimes referred to as the father of Baal. Dagon was the chief god of the Philistine city of Ashdod (1 Sam 5:1-7).<\/li>\n<li><strong>Ashtoreth, Anath, Asherah:<\/strong> the three main goddesses of the Canaanite pantheon, concerned mainly with sex and war. Their primary function was to have sexual relations with Baal on a continual yearly cycle, maintaining Baal’s virility and thus the fertility of the earth.<\/li>\n<p>The Canaanites’ personification of the forces of nature accounted for the succession of the seasons. The dry period from April to the end of October represented the duration of Baal’s death after an unsuccessful battle each spring. Commencement of the autumn rains signaled Baal’s revival as the rain and vegetation god, continuing until the following April. The Canaanites believed that the land regained its fertility because of the annual mating of Baal and his female consort, and their own religious activities included imitation of their gods’ behavior.<\/p>\n<p>The Canaanites thus worshiped things they felt would benefit them materially. If the gods and goddesses were pleased by the worship, the result would be a plentiful harvest. If a god became angry, animal or human sacrifice might appease the god (see 2 Kgs 3:26-27). Canaanite worship was therefore fundamentally based on fear and manipulation.<\/p>\n<p>Contact among the many religions of the ancient Near East produced not only social tension but also religious borrowing. The Arameans and Philistines who settled in Canaan adopted the practices of the Canaanites; the Amorites similarly incorporated Sumerian religion when they moved into Mesopotamia.<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s God, Yahweh, by contrast, demanded exclusive allegiance, and he insisted on worship based on faith rather than manipulative fear. Unfortunately, the Israelites failed to maintain their exclusive monotheism. They adopted pagan thinking and practices, worshiping the Canaanite gods in the Canaanite way, leading to the corruption of their culture and rousing God’s anger. As a result, God brought judgment upon his people, sending them into exile (see 2 Kgs 17:5-23; 24:18–25:21).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 5:1-12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Canaanite Religion The Canaanites explained nature by reference to their gods. Each god represented some force of nature. The moon, sun, important stars, and visible planets each were considered a god or goddess. Canaanite deities had two striking features: an extraordinary fluidity of personality, and names whose meanings were related to their function. A few of these gods were particularly influential in the interaction of the Israelites with the Canaanite peoples: El: “the powerful one,” t...","summary_en":"Canaanite Religion The Canaanites explained nature by reference to their gods. Each god represented some force of nature. The moon, sun, important stars, and visible planets each were considered a god or goddess. Canaanite deities had two striking features: an extraordinary fluidity of personality, and names whose meanings were related to their function. A few of these gods were particularly influential in the interaction of the Israelites with the Canaanite peoples: El: “the powerful one,” t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":88884,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Canaanite Religion","title_en":"Canaanite Religion","content_ro":"<h3>Canaanite Religion<\/h3>\n<p>The Canaanites explained nature by reference to their gods. Each god represented some force of nature. The moon, sun, important stars, and visible planets each were considered a god or goddess. Canaanite deities had two striking features: an extraordinary fluidity of personality, and names whose meanings were related to their function. A few of these gods were particularly influential in the interaction of the Israelites with the Canaanite peoples:<\/p>\n<li><strong>El:<\/strong> “the powerful one,” the head of the Canaanite pantheon. El was distant, living far away from Canaan “at the source of the two rivers” (a lingering memory of Eden, perhaps). He presided over a divine council of gods who were his children. In the Old Testament, <em>El<\/em> (pl. <em>Elohim<\/em>) is used to speak of God, though the Lord is not identical with the Canaanite deity.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Baal:<\/strong> “lord,” the great storm god and king of the gods. Baal acted as El’s prime minister and was functionally far more important than El. He was the giver of all fertility. When he died, all vegetation and procreation temporarily ceased. He was the god of justice, the terror of evildoers.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Dagon:<\/strong> “fish” or “grain,” sometimes referred to as the father of Baal. Dagon was the chief god of the Philistine city of Ashdod (1 Sam 5:1-7).<\/li>\n<li><strong>Ashtoreth, Anath, Asherah:<\/strong> the three main goddesses of the Canaanite pantheon, concerned mainly with sex and war. Their primary function was to have sexual relations with Baal on a continual yearly cycle, maintaining Baal’s virility and thus the fertility of the earth.<\/li>\n<p>The Canaanites’ personification of the forces of nature accounted for the succession of the seasons. The dry period from April to the end of October represented the duration of Baal’s death after an unsuccessful battle each spring. Commencement of the autumn rains signaled Baal’s revival as the rain and vegetation god, continuing until the following April. The Canaanites believed that the land regained its fertility because of the annual mating of Baal and his female consort, and their own religious activities included imitation of their gods’ behavior.<\/p>\n<p>The Canaanites thus worshiped things they felt would benefit them materially. If the gods and goddesses were pleased by the worship, the result would be a plentiful harvest. If a god became angry, animal or human sacrifice might appease the god (see 2 Kgs 3:26-27). Canaanite worship was therefore fundamentally based on fear and manipulation.<\/p>\n<p>Contact among the many religions of the ancient Near East produced not only social tension but also religious borrowing. The Arameans and Philistines who settled in Canaan adopted the practices of the Canaanites; the Amorites similarly incorporated Sumerian religion when they moved into Mesopotamia.<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s God, Yahweh, by contrast, demanded exclusive allegiance, and he insisted on worship based on faith rather than manipulative fear. Unfortunately, the Israelites failed to maintain their exclusive monotheism. They adopted pagan thinking and practices, worshiping the Canaanite gods in the Canaanite way, leading to the corruption of their culture and rousing God’s anger. As a result, God brought judgment upon his people, sending them into exile (see 2 Kgs 17:5-23; 24:18–25:21).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 5:1-12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Canaanite Religion<\/h3>\n<p>The Canaanites explained nature by reference to their gods. Each god represented some force of nature. The moon, sun, important stars, and visible planets each were considered a god or goddess. Canaanite deities had two striking features: an extraordinary fluidity of personality, and names whose meanings were related to their function. A few of these gods were particularly influential in the interaction of the Israelites with the Canaanite peoples:<\/p>\n<li><strong>El:<\/strong> “the powerful one,” the head of the Canaanite pantheon. El was distant, living far away from Canaan “at the source of the two rivers” (a lingering memory of Eden, perhaps). He presided over a divine council of gods who were his children. In the Old Testament, <em>El<\/em> (pl. <em>Elohim<\/em>) is used to speak of God, though the Lord is not identical with the Canaanite deity.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Baal:<\/strong> “lord,” the great storm god and king of the gods. Baal acted as El’s prime minister and was functionally far more important than El. He was the giver of all fertility. When he died, all vegetation and procreation temporarily ceased. He was the god of justice, the terror of evildoers.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Dagon:<\/strong> “fish” or “grain,” sometimes referred to as the father of Baal. Dagon was the chief god of the Philistine city of Ashdod (1 Sam 5:1-7).<\/li>\n<li><strong>Ashtoreth, Anath, Asherah:<\/strong> the three main goddesses of the Canaanite pantheon, concerned mainly with sex and war. Their primary function was to have sexual relations with Baal on a continual yearly cycle, maintaining Baal’s virility and thus the fertility of the earth.<\/li>\n<p>The Canaanites’ personification of the forces of nature accounted for the succession of the seasons. The dry period from April to the end of October represented the duration of Baal’s death after an unsuccessful battle each spring. Commencement of the autumn rains signaled Baal’s revival as the rain and vegetation god, continuing until the following April. The Canaanites believed that the land regained its fertility because of the annual mating of Baal and his female consort, and their own religious activities included imitation of their gods’ behavior.<\/p>\n<p>The Canaanites thus worshiped things they felt would benefit them materially. If the gods and goddesses were pleased by the worship, the result would be a plentiful harvest. If a god became angry, animal or human sacrifice might appease the god (see 2 Kgs 3:26-27). Canaanite worship was therefore fundamentally based on fear and manipulation.<\/p>\n<p>Contact among the many religions of the ancient Near East produced not only social tension but also religious borrowing. The Arameans and Philistines who settled in Canaan adopted the practices of the Canaanites; the Amorites similarly incorporated Sumerian religion when they moved into Mesopotamia.<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s God, Yahweh, by contrast, demanded exclusive allegiance, and he insisted on worship based on faith rather than manipulative fear. Unfortunately, the Israelites failed to maintain their exclusive monotheism. They adopted pagan thinking and practices, worshiping the Canaanite gods in the Canaanite way, leading to the corruption of their culture and rousing God’s anger. As a result, God brought judgment upon his people, sending them into exile (see 2 Kgs 17:5-23; 24:18–25:21).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 5:1-12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Canaanite Religion The Canaanites explained nature by reference to their gods. Each god represented some force of nature. The moon, sun, important stars, and visible planets each were considered a god or goddess. Canaanite deities had two striking features: an extraordinary fluidity of personality, and names whose meanings were related to their function. A few of these gods were particularly influential in the interaction of the Israelites with the Canaanite peoples: El: “the powerful one,” t...","summary_en":"Canaanite Religion The Canaanites explained nature by reference to their gods. Each god represented some force of nature. The moon, sun, important stars, and visible planets each were considered a god or goddess. Canaanite deities had two striking features: an extraordinary fluidity of personality, and names whose meanings were related to their function. A few of these gods were particularly influential in the interaction of the Israelites with the Canaanite peoples: El: “the powerful one,” t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":116510,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Canaanite Religion","title_en":"Canaanite Religion","content_ro":"<h3>Canaanite Religion<\/h3>\n<p>The Canaanites explained nature by reference to their gods. Each god represented some force of nature. The moon, sun, important stars, and visible planets each were considered a god or goddess. Canaanite deities had two striking features: an extraordinary fluidity of personality, and names whose meanings were related to their function. A few of these gods were particularly influential in the interaction of the Israelites with the Canaanite peoples:<\/p>\n<li><strong>El:<\/strong> “the powerful one,” the head of the Canaanite pantheon. El was distant, living far away from Canaan “at the source of the two rivers” (a lingering memory of Eden, perhaps). He presided over a divine council of gods who were his children. In the Old Testament, <em>El<\/em> (pl. <em>Elohim<\/em>) is used to speak of God, though the Lord is not identical with the Canaanite deity.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Baal:<\/strong> “lord,” the great storm god and king of the gods. Baal acted as El’s prime minister and was functionally far more important than El. He was the giver of all fertility. When he died, all vegetation and procreation temporarily ceased. He was the god of justice, the terror of evildoers.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Dagon:<\/strong> “fish” or “grain,” sometimes referred to as the father of Baal. Dagon was the chief god of the Philistine city of Ashdod (1 Sam 5:1-7).<\/li>\n<li><strong>Ashtoreth, Anath, Asherah:<\/strong> the three main goddesses of the Canaanite pantheon, concerned mainly with sex and war. Their primary function was to have sexual relations with Baal on a continual yearly cycle, maintaining Baal’s virility and thus the fertility of the earth.<\/li>\n<p>The Canaanites’ personification of the forces of nature accounted for the succession of the seasons. The dry period from April to the end of October represented the duration of Baal’s death after an unsuccessful battle each spring. Commencement of the autumn rains signaled Baal’s revival as the rain and vegetation god, continuing until the following April. The Canaanites believed that the land regained its fertility because of the annual mating of Baal and his female consort, and their own religious activities included imitation of their gods’ behavior.<\/p>\n<p>The Canaanites thus worshiped things they felt would benefit them materially. If the gods and goddesses were pleased by the worship, the result would be a plentiful harvest. If a god became angry, animal or human sacrifice might appease the god (see 2 Kgs 3:26-27). Canaanite worship was therefore fundamentally based on fear and manipulation.<\/p>\n<p>Contact among the many religions of the ancient Near East produced not only social tension but also religious borrowing. The Arameans and Philistines who settled in Canaan adopted the practices of the Canaanites; the Amorites similarly incorporated Sumerian religion when they moved into Mesopotamia.<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s God, Yahweh, by contrast, demanded exclusive allegiance, and he insisted on worship based on faith rather than manipulative fear. Unfortunately, the Israelites failed to maintain their exclusive monotheism. They adopted pagan thinking and practices, worshiping the Canaanite gods in the Canaanite way, leading to the corruption of their culture and rousing God’s anger. As a result, God brought judgment upon his people, sending them into exile (see 2 Kgs 17:5-23; 24:18–25:21).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 5:1-12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Canaanite Religion<\/h3>\n<p>The Canaanites explained nature by reference to their gods. Each god represented some force of nature. The moon, sun, important stars, and visible planets each were considered a god or goddess. Canaanite deities had two striking features: an extraordinary fluidity of personality, and names whose meanings were related to their function. A few of these gods were particularly influential in the interaction of the Israelites with the Canaanite peoples:<\/p>\n<li><strong>El:<\/strong> “the powerful one,” the head of the Canaanite pantheon. El was distant, living far away from Canaan “at the source of the two rivers” (a lingering memory of Eden, perhaps). He presided over a divine council of gods who were his children. In the Old Testament, <em>El<\/em> (pl. <em>Elohim<\/em>) is used to speak of God, though the Lord is not identical with the Canaanite deity.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Baal:<\/strong> “lord,” the great storm god and king of the gods. Baal acted as El’s prime minister and was functionally far more important than El. He was the giver of all fertility. When he died, all vegetation and procreation temporarily ceased. He was the god of justice, the terror of evildoers.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Dagon:<\/strong> “fish” or “grain,” sometimes referred to as the father of Baal. Dagon was the chief god of the Philistine city of Ashdod (1 Sam 5:1-7).<\/li>\n<li><strong>Ashtoreth, Anath, Asherah:<\/strong> the three main goddesses of the Canaanite pantheon, concerned mainly with sex and war. Their primary function was to have sexual relations with Baal on a continual yearly cycle, maintaining Baal’s virility and thus the fertility of the earth.<\/li>\n<p>The Canaanites’ personification of the forces of nature accounted for the succession of the seasons. The dry period from April to the end of October represented the duration of Baal’s death after an unsuccessful battle each spring. Commencement of the autumn rains signaled Baal’s revival as the rain and vegetation god, continuing until the following April. The Canaanites believed that the land regained its fertility because of the annual mating of Baal and his female consort, and their own religious activities included imitation of their gods’ behavior.<\/p>\n<p>The Canaanites thus worshiped things they felt would benefit them materially. If the gods and goddesses were pleased by the worship, the result would be a plentiful harvest. If a god became angry, animal or human sacrifice might appease the god (see 2 Kgs 3:26-27). Canaanite worship was therefore fundamentally based on fear and manipulation.<\/p>\n<p>Contact among the many religions of the ancient Near East produced not only social tension but also religious borrowing. The Arameans and Philistines who settled in Canaan adopted the practices of the Canaanites; the Amorites similarly incorporated Sumerian religion when they moved into Mesopotamia.<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s God, Yahweh, by contrast, demanded exclusive allegiance, and he insisted on worship based on faith rather than manipulative fear. Unfortunately, the Israelites failed to maintain their exclusive monotheism. They adopted pagan thinking and practices, worshiping the Canaanite gods in the Canaanite way, leading to the corruption of their culture and rousing God’s anger. As a result, God brought judgment upon his people, sending them into exile (see 2 Kgs 17:5-23; 24:18–25:21).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 5:1-12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Canaanite Religion The Canaanites explained nature by reference to their gods. Each god represented some force of nature. The moon, sun, important stars, and visible planets each were considered a god or goddess. Canaanite deities had two striking features: an extraordinary fluidity of personality, and names whose meanings were related to their function. A few of these gods were particularly influential in the interaction of the Israelites with the Canaanite peoples: El: “the powerful one,” t...","summary_en":"Canaanite Religion The Canaanites explained nature by reference to their gods. Each god represented some force of nature. The moon, sun, important stars, and visible planets each were considered a god or goddess. Canaanite deities had two striking features: an extraordinary fluidity of personality, and names whose meanings were related to their function. A few of these gods were particularly influential in the interaction of the Israelites with the Canaanite peoples: El: “the powerful one,” t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":144136,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Canaanite Religion","title_en":"Canaanite Religion","content_ro":"<h3>Canaanite Religion<\/h3>\n<p>The Canaanites explained nature by reference to their gods. Each god represented some force of nature. The moon, sun, important stars, and visible planets each were considered a god or goddess. Canaanite deities had two striking features: an extraordinary fluidity of personality, and names whose meanings were related to their function. A few of these gods were particularly influential in the interaction of the Israelites with the Canaanite peoples:<\/p>\n<li><strong>El:<\/strong> “the powerful one,” the head of the Canaanite pantheon. El was distant, living far away from Canaan “at the source of the two rivers” (a lingering memory of Eden, perhaps). He presided over a divine council of gods who were his children. In the Old Testament, <em>El<\/em> (pl. <em>Elohim<\/em>) is used to speak of God, though the Lord is not identical with the Canaanite deity.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Baal:<\/strong> “lord,” the great storm god and king of the gods. Baal acted as El’s prime minister and was functionally far more important than El. He was the giver of all fertility. When he died, all vegetation and procreation temporarily ceased. He was the god of justice, the terror of evildoers.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Dagon:<\/strong> “fish” or “grain,” sometimes referred to as the father of Baal. Dagon was the chief god of the Philistine city of Ashdod (1 Sam 5:1-7).<\/li>\n<li><strong>Ashtoreth, Anath, Asherah:<\/strong> the three main goddesses of the Canaanite pantheon, concerned mainly with sex and war. Their primary function was to have sexual relations with Baal on a continual yearly cycle, maintaining Baal’s virility and thus the fertility of the earth.<\/li>\n<p>The Canaanites’ personification of the forces of nature accounted for the succession of the seasons. The dry period from April to the end of October represented the duration of Baal’s death after an unsuccessful battle each spring. Commencement of the autumn rains signaled Baal’s revival as the rain and vegetation god, continuing until the following April. The Canaanites believed that the land regained its fertility because of the annual mating of Baal and his female consort, and their own religious activities included imitation of their gods’ behavior.<\/p>\n<p>The Canaanites thus worshiped things they felt would benefit them materially. If the gods and goddesses were pleased by the worship, the result would be a plentiful harvest. If a god became angry, animal or human sacrifice might appease the god (see 2 Kgs 3:26-27). Canaanite worship was therefore fundamentally based on fear and manipulation.<\/p>\n<p>Contact among the many religions of the ancient Near East produced not only social tension but also religious borrowing. The Arameans and Philistines who settled in Canaan adopted the practices of the Canaanites; the Amorites similarly incorporated Sumerian religion when they moved into Mesopotamia.<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s God, Yahweh, by contrast, demanded exclusive allegiance, and he insisted on worship based on faith rather than manipulative fear. Unfortunately, the Israelites failed to maintain their exclusive monotheism. They adopted pagan thinking and practices, worshiping the Canaanite gods in the Canaanite way, leading to the corruption of their culture and rousing God’s anger. As a result, God brought judgment upon his people, sending them into exile (see 2 Kgs 17:5-23; 24:18–25:21).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 5:1-12<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Canaanite Religion<\/h3>\n<p>The Canaanites explained nature by reference to their gods. Each god represented some force of nature. The moon, sun, important stars, and visible planets each were considered a god or goddess. Canaanite deities had two striking features: an extraordinary fluidity of personality, and names whose meanings were related to their function. A few of these gods were particularly influential in the interaction of the Israelites with the Canaanite peoples:<\/p>\n<li><strong>El:<\/strong> “the powerful one,” the head of the Canaanite pantheon. El was distant, living far away from Canaan “at the source of the two rivers” (a lingering memory of Eden, perhaps). He presided over a divine council of gods who were his children. In the Old Testament, <em>El<\/em> (pl. <em>Elohim<\/em>) is used to speak of God, though the Lord is not identical with the Canaanite deity.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Baal:<\/strong> “lord,” the great storm god and king of the gods. Baal acted as El’s prime minister and was functionally far more important than El. He was the giver of all fertility. When he died, all vegetation and procreation temporarily ceased. He was the god of justice, the terror of evildoers.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Dagon:<\/strong> “fish” or “grain,” sometimes referred to as the father of Baal. Dagon was the chief god of the Philistine city of Ashdod (1 Sam 5:1-7).<\/li>\n<li><strong>Ashtoreth, Anath, Asherah:<\/strong> the three main goddesses of the Canaanite pantheon, concerned mainly with sex and war. Their primary function was to have sexual relations with Baal on a continual yearly cycle, maintaining Baal’s virility and thus the fertility of the earth.<\/li>\n<p>The Canaanites’ personification of the forces of nature accounted for the succession of the seasons. The dry period from April to the end of October represented the duration of Baal’s death after an unsuccessful battle each spring. Commencement of the autumn rains signaled Baal’s revival as the rain and vegetation god, continuing until the following April. The Canaanites believed that the land regained its fertility because of the annual mating of Baal and his female consort, and their own religious activities included imitation of their gods’ behavior.<\/p>\n<p>The Canaanites thus worshiped things they felt would benefit them materially. If the gods and goddesses were pleased by the worship, the result would be a plentiful harvest. If a god became angry, animal or human sacrifice might appease the god (see 2 Kgs 3:26-27). Canaanite worship was therefore fundamentally based on fear and manipulation.<\/p>\n<p>Contact among the many religions of the ancient Near East produced not only social tension but also religious borrowing. The Arameans and Philistines who settled in Canaan adopted the practices of the Canaanites; the Amorites similarly incorporated Sumerian religion when they moved into Mesopotamia.<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s God, Yahweh, by contrast, demanded exclusive allegiance, and he insisted on worship based on faith rather than manipulative fear. Unfortunately, the Israelites failed to maintain their exclusive monotheism. They adopted pagan thinking and practices, worshiping the Canaanite gods in the Canaanite way, leading to the corruption of their culture and rousing God’s anger. As a result, God brought judgment upon his people, sending them into exile (see 2 Kgs 17:5-23; 24:18–25:21).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 5:1-12<\/p>","summary_ro":"Canaanite Religion The Canaanites explained nature by reference to their gods. Each god represented some force of nature. The moon, sun, important stars, and visible planets each were considered a god or goddess. Canaanite deities had two striking features: an extraordinary fluidity of personality, and names whose meanings were related to their function. A few of these gods were particularly influential in the interaction of the Israelites with the Canaanite peoples: El: “the powerful one,” t...","summary_en":"Canaanite Religion The Canaanites explained nature by reference to their gods. Each god represented some force of nature. The moon, sun, important stars, and visible planets each were considered a god or goddess. Canaanite deities had two striking features: an extraordinary fluidity of personality, and names whose meanings were related to their function. A few of these gods were particularly influential in the interaction of the Israelites with the Canaanite peoples: El: “the powerful one,” t...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"27":[{"id":6043,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Canaanite Deities and Religion","title_en":"Canaanite Deities and Religion","content_ro":"<h3>CANAANITE DEITIES AND RELIGION<\/h3>\n<p>Study of the polytheistic religion of the Canaanites has contributed much to our understanding of the religion of ancient Israel. The Hebrew theological and religious structures were given by God to a people who were influenced and affected by other religions. To appreciate the Israelites’ monotheistic faith fully, one must understand the polytheistic setting that challenged their life and unity as a nation.<\/p>\n<p>Contact among the many religions of the ancient Near East produced not only tension but also much syncretism or borrowing of concepts and practices. The Arameans and Philistines who settled in Canaan adopted the practices of the Canaanites; similarly the Amorites accepted much of the Sumerian religion as their own when they moved into Mesopotamia. Among all those peoples, however, the Hebrews took an independent course. Their God was the unique and cosmic deity who demanded exclusive allegiance. Such a concept ran against the grain of all the religions of the day.<\/p>\n<p>Until the early part of the 20th century, most of what was known about Canaanite religion came from the Bible. In 1928 many clay tablets were found at a site called Ras Shamra, which was the ancient Syrian city of Ugarit. They contained abundant new information about the religious life of Canaan. Most of them were in a cuneiform alphabet and written in a previously unknown Northwest Semitic language quite similar to Hebrew, Aramaic, and Arabic. The documents are often called the Ugaritic texts or the Ras Shamra tablets.<\/p>\n<p>Discovery of these texts opened doors of understanding that had long been closed. The texts provided scholars with an important mythological literature that gave not only the names and functions of the gods but also much information on Canaanite society.<\/p>\n<p>Canaanite deities had two striking features: an extraordinary fluidity of personality and function, and names whose meanings and sources could be easily traced. These facts, coupled with the nature of the mythology, mark Canaanite religion as relatively primitive.<\/p>\n\n<p>The general Canaanite word for “god” probably meant “the strong, powerful one.” The head of the pantheon, or array of gods, was called El (“the mighty one”). El, a remote and shadowy figure, lived far away from Canaan “at the source of the two rivers,” hence in paradise. He apparently had three wives who were also his sisters: Astarte, Athirat (Asherah, also called Elat), and Anath. He presided over a divine council of gods who were his children. Although he was brutal enough to slay his own son, he was called Lutpan (“the kindly one”) and was described as an old man with white hair and a beard.<\/p>\n<p>Baal, the great storm god, king of the gods, was the central figure in the pantheon and was functionally far more important than El. Baal acted as El’s prime minister and eventually dethroned him. “Baal” means simply “lord” and could be applied to different gods. Soon, however, the ancient Semitic storm god Hadad became the “Baal” par excellence. Hadad was considered to be the “lord of heaven,” the “one who prevails,” the “exalted, lord of the earth.” He alone reigned over all else. His kingdom was “eternal to all generations.” He was the giver of all fertility. When he died, all vegetation and procreation ceased. He was the god of justice, the terror of evildoers. Baal was called the “son of Dagon.” Dagon, meaning “fish,” was the chief god of Ashdod (cf. 1 Sm 5:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>The Canaanites explained nature by reference to their gods. Each god represented some force of nature. The moon, sun, important stars, and visible planets were each considered a god or goddess. Baal, seen as god of the thunderstorm, personified the power of all nature.<\/p>\n<p>The Canaanites’ personification of the forces of nature accounted for the succession of the seasons. The dry period from April to the end of October represented the duration of Baal’s death after his unsuccessful battle each spring with Mot (or with “the devourers,” who at Ras Shamra performed the same general function as Mot). Revival of the rain-and-vegetation deity Baal toward the end of October signaled commencement of the autumn rains, which continued intermittently until the following April. The Canaanites believed that the land regained its fertility because of the annual mating of Baal and Anath. What better form could their own religious activities take than that of imitating the sexual behavior of their chief deities? Hence there was always a pronounced orgiastic element in Canaanite religion.<\/p>\n<p>The three goddesses—Athtarat (Astarte or Ashtaroth in the OT, Dt 1:4, <span>kjv<\/span> “Astaroth”; Jgs 2:13), Anath (appearing in the OT in the name of the town Anathoth and as Shamgar’s progenitor), and Athirat (Asherah in the OT)—presented an intricate set of relationships. Astarte was the same as Ashtar or Venus, the evening star. Anath’s original character is uncertain. Athirat was primarily goddess of the sea and the wife of El. She was also called Elat, the feminine form of El. All three goddesses were concerned mainly with sex and war. Their primary function was to have sexual relations with Baal on a continual yearly cycle, yet they never lost their “virginity”; they were “the great goddesses who conceive but do not bear.”<\/p>\n<p>Ironically, the goddesses were considered sacred prostitutes and as such were called the “holy ones.” Idols representing the goddesses were often nude and sometimes had exaggerated sexual features. In what circumstances early cultic prostitution was practiced is a matter of some debate, but there is no doubt that both male and female temple prostitutes were used in the cult of Canaanite religion.<\/p>\n<p>The fertility deities were also goddesses of war. In the Baal Epic of Ugarit, Anath has a gory thirst for blood. In New Kingdom Egyptian sources, Astarte appears as a nude and ferocious cavalry warrior, sporting shield and lance.<\/p>\n<p>In the <span>kjv<\/span> the name Asherah was translated “grove,” following the Septuagint (third-century <span>BC<\/span> Greek translation of the OT). She seems to have been represented by some kind of wooden cult object set up in “high places” beside incense altars and stone pillars.<\/p>\n<p>Continual struggle for survival no doubt led the Canaanites to worship things that they felt would benefit them materially. If the gods and goddesses were pleased by the worship, the result would be a plentiful harvest. Canaanite worship centered on a cultic shrine or “high place” where sacrifices were offered. Archaeological evidence indicates that animals of all sizes were offered at great temple-shrines such as Beth-shan. The city received its name from the temple located there: <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">beth<\/span> means “temple,” and Shan was patron deity of the city.<\/p>\n<p>As noted, human sacrifice became a part of religious practice in Canaan. Second Kings 3:27 mentions Mesha, king of Moab, who, after defeat at the hands of a confederation of kings, offered up his son as a burnt offering to his god Chemosh.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Canaan, Canaanite; Gods and Goddesses; Idols, Idolatry.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CANAANITE DEITIES AND RELIGION<\/h3>\n<p>Study of the polytheistic religion of the Canaanites has contributed much to our understanding of the religion of ancient Israel. The Hebrew theological and religious structures were given by God to a people who were influenced and affected by other religions. To appreciate the Israelites’ monotheistic faith fully, one must understand the polytheistic setting that challenged their life and unity as a nation.<\/p>\n<p>Contact among the many religions of the ancient Near East produced not only tension but also much syncretism or borrowing of concepts and practices. The Arameans and Philistines who settled in Canaan adopted the practices of the Canaanites; similarly the Amorites accepted much of the Sumerian religion as their own when they moved into Mesopotamia. Among all those peoples, however, the Hebrews took an independent course. Their God was the unique and cosmic deity who demanded exclusive allegiance. Such a concept ran against the grain of all the religions of the day.<\/p>\n<p>Until the early part of the 20th century, most of what was known about Canaanite religion came from the Bible. In 1928 many clay tablets were found at a site called Ras Shamra, which was the ancient Syrian city of Ugarit. They contained abundant new information about the religious life of Canaan. Most of them were in a cuneiform alphabet and written in a previously unknown Northwest Semitic language quite similar to Hebrew, Aramaic, and Arabic. The documents are often called the Ugaritic texts or the Ras Shamra tablets.<\/p>\n<p>Discovery of these texts opened doors of understanding that had long been closed. The texts provided scholars with an important mythological literature that gave not only the names and functions of the gods but also much information on Canaanite society.<\/p>\n<p>Canaanite deities had two striking features: an extraordinary fluidity of personality and function, and names whose meanings and sources could be easily traced. These facts, coupled with the nature of the mythology, mark Canaanite religion as relatively primitive.<\/p>\n\n<p>The general Canaanite word for “god” probably meant “the strong, powerful one.” The head of the pantheon, or array of gods, was called El (“the mighty one”). El, a remote and shadowy figure, lived far away from Canaan “at the source of the two rivers,” hence in paradise. He apparently had three wives who were also his sisters: Astarte, Athirat (Asherah, also called Elat), and Anath. He presided over a divine council of gods who were his children. Although he was brutal enough to slay his own son, he was called Lutpan (“the kindly one”) and was described as an old man with white hair and a beard.<\/p>\n<p>Baal, the great storm god, king of the gods, was the central figure in the pantheon and was functionally far more important than El. Baal acted as El’s prime minister and eventually dethroned him. “Baal” means simply “lord” and could be applied to different gods. Soon, however, the ancient Semitic storm god Hadad became the “Baal” par excellence. Hadad was considered to be the “lord of heaven,” the “one who prevails,” the “exalted, lord of the earth.” He alone reigned over all else. His kingdom was “eternal to all generations.” He was the giver of all fertility. When he died, all vegetation and procreation ceased. He was the god of justice, the terror of evildoers. Baal was called the “son of Dagon.” Dagon, meaning “fish,” was the chief god of Ashdod (cf. 1 Sm 5:1-7).<\/p>\n<p>The Canaanites explained nature by reference to their gods. Each god represented some force of nature. The moon, sun, important stars, and visible planets were each considered a god or goddess. Baal, seen as god of the thunderstorm, personified the power of all nature.<\/p>\n<p>The Canaanites’ personification of the forces of nature accounted for the succession of the seasons. The dry period from April to the end of October represented the duration of Baal’s death after his unsuccessful battle each spring with Mot (or with “the devourers,” who at Ras Shamra performed the same general function as Mot). Revival of the rain-and-vegetation deity Baal toward the end of October signaled commencement of the autumn rains, which continued intermittently until the following April. The Canaanites believed that the land regained its fertility because of the annual mating of Baal and Anath. What better form could their own religious activities take than that of imitating the sexual behavior of their chief deities? Hence there was always a pronounced orgiastic element in Canaanite religion.<\/p>\n<p>The three goddesses—Athtarat (Astarte or Ashtaroth in the OT, Dt 1:4, <span>kjv<\/span> “Astaroth”; Jgs 2:13), Anath (appearing in the OT in the name of the town Anathoth and as Shamgar’s progenitor), and Athirat (Asherah in the OT)—presented an intricate set of relationships. Astarte was the same as Ashtar or Venus, the evening star. Anath’s original character is uncertain. Athirat was primarily goddess of the sea and the wife of El. She was also called Elat, the feminine form of El. All three goddesses were concerned mainly with sex and war. Their primary function was to have sexual relations with Baal on a continual yearly cycle, yet they never lost their “virginity”; they were “the great goddesses who conceive but do not bear.”<\/p>\n<p>Ironically, the goddesses were considered sacred prostitutes and as such were called the “holy ones.” Idols representing the goddesses were often nude and sometimes had exaggerated sexual features. In what circumstances early cultic prostitution was practiced is a matter of some debate, but there is no doubt that both male and female temple prostitutes were used in the cult of Canaanite religion.<\/p>\n<p>The fertility deities were also goddesses of war. In the Baal Epic of Ugarit, Anath has a gory thirst for blood. In New Kingdom Egyptian sources, Astarte appears as a nude and ferocious cavalry warrior, sporting shield and lance.<\/p>\n<p>In the <span>kjv<\/span> the name Asherah was translated “grove,” following the Septuagint (third-century <span>BC<\/span> Greek translation of the OT). She seems to have been represented by some kind of wooden cult object set up in “high places” beside incense altars and stone pillars.<\/p>\n<p>Continual struggle for survival no doubt led the Canaanites to worship things that they felt would benefit them materially. If the gods and goddesses were pleased by the worship, the result would be a plentiful harvest. Canaanite worship centered on a cultic shrine or “high place” where sacrifices were offered. Archaeological evidence indicates that animals of all sizes were offered at great temple-shrines such as Beth-shan. The city received its name from the temple located there: <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">beth<\/span> means “temple,” and Shan was patron deity of the city.<\/p>\n<p>As noted, human sacrifice became a part of religious practice in Canaan. Second Kings 3:27 mentions Mesha, king of Moab, who, after defeat at the hands of a confederation of kings, offered up his son as a burnt offering to his god Chemosh.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Canaan, Canaanite; Gods and Goddesses; Idols, Idolatry.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CANAANITE DEITIES AND RELIGION Study of the polytheistic religion of the Canaanites has contributed much to our understanding of the religion of ancient Israel. The Hebrew theological and religious structures were given by God to a people who were influenced and affected by other religions. To appreciate the Israelites’ monotheistic faith fully, one must understand the polytheistic setting that challenged their life and unity as a nation. Contact among the many religions of the ancient Near E...","summary_en":"CANAANITE DEITIES AND RELIGION Study of the polytheistic religion of the Canaanites has contributed much to our understanding of the religion of ancient Israel. The Hebrew theological and religious structures were given by God to a people who were influenced and affected by other religions. To appreciate the Israelites’ monotheistic faith fully, one must understand the polytheistic setting that challenged their life and unity as a nation. Contact among the many religions of the ancient Near E...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":25284,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Mesha (Person)","title_en":"Mesha (Person)","content_ro":"<h3>MESHA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. King of Moab in the ninth century <span>BC<\/span> whose name is derived from a root meaning “to save or deliver.” According to 2 Kings 3:4-5, Mesha was a sheep breeder who paid heavy tribute to Israel during the time of Ahab but rebelled after Ahab’s death (2 Kgs 1:1). Later, Jehoram the son of Ahab joined with Jehoshaphat of Judah and the king of Edom in an attempt to reestablish hegemony over Moab. When the battle went against the Moabites, Mesha took his eldest son and offered him as a human sacrifice upon the wall of the city to the Moabite god Chemosh (3:27).<\/li>\n<li>2. Caleb’s son and the father of Ziph (1 Chr 2:42). In the Greek text the latter part of this verse appears to say that Mesha was the father of Hebron, though the Hebrew text here substitutes the name Mareshah for Mesha. The <span>rsv<\/span> (following the Septuagint) reads Mareshah in both places. <em>See<\/em> Mareshah (Person) #1.<\/li>\n<li>3. Benjamite and one of the sons of Shaharaim born by Hodesh in the land of Moab (1 Chr 8:9).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>MESHA (P<span>erson<\/span>)<\/h3>\n<li>1. King of Moab in the ninth century <span>BC<\/span> whose name is derived from a root meaning “to save or deliver.” According to 2 Kings 3:4-5, Mesha was a sheep breeder who paid heavy tribute to Israel during the time of Ahab but rebelled after Ahab’s death (2 Kgs 1:1). Later, Jehoram the son of Ahab joined with Jehoshaphat of Judah and the king of Edom in an attempt to reestablish hegemony over Moab. When the battle went against the Moabites, Mesha took his eldest son and offered him as a human sacrifice upon the wall of the city to the Moabite god Chemosh (3:27).<\/li>\n<li>2. Caleb’s son and the father of Ziph (1 Chr 2:42). In the Greek text the latter part of this verse appears to say that Mesha was the father of Hebron, though the Hebrew text here substitutes the name Mareshah for Mesha. The <span>rsv<\/span> (following the Septuagint) reads Mareshah in both places. <em>See<\/em> Mareshah (Person) #1.<\/li>\n<li>3. Benjamite and one of the sons of Shaharaim born by Hodesh in the land of Moab (1 Chr 8:9).<\/li>","summary_ro":"MESHA (Person) 1. King of Moab in the ninth century BC whose name is derived from a root meaning “to save or deliver.” According to 2 Kings 3:4-5, Mesha was a sheep breeder who paid heavy tribute to Israel during the time of Ahab but rebelled after Ahab’s death (2 Kgs 1:1). Later, Jehoram the son of Ahab joined with Jehoshaphat of Judah and the king of Edom in an attempt to reestablish hegemony over Moab. When the battle went against the Moabites, Mesha took his eldest son and offered him as ...","summary_en":"MESHA (Person) 1. King of Moab in the ninth century BC whose name is derived from a root meaning “to save or deliver.” According to 2 Kings 3:4-5, Mesha was a sheep breeder who paid heavy tribute to Israel during the time of Ahab but rebelled after Ahab’s death (2 Kgs 1:1). Later, Jehoram the son of Ahab joined with Jehoshaphat of Judah and the king of Edom in an attempt to reestablish hegemony over Moab. When the battle went against the Moabites, Mesha took his eldest son and offered him as ...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26169,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Moabites Moab","title_en":"Moabites Moab","content_ro":"<h3>MOAB, MOABITES<\/h3>\n<p>Name of a small kingdom in central Transjordan and also its inhabitants. The land of Moab was situated on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea; the escarpment of the Jordan Rift formed an effective boundary between Moab and Judah. Moab’s northern boundary shifted in accordance with the kingdom’s military might, with the Heshbon vicinity forming the northern limit of Moab in periods of strength, and the Arnon River (modern Wadi el-Mojib) functioning as the northern border in times of weakness. The kingdom’s eastern boundary was formed by the fringe of the Syrian desert, since the latter demarcated Moab’s agricultural zone. On the south, Moab was separated from Edom by the Zered River (modern Wadi el-Hesa). Thus, even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, measuring only about 60 miles (96.5 kilometers) north-south by about 20 miles (32.2 kilometers) east-west.<\/p>\n<p>Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland that is divided by numerous ravines. Running through the heart of Moab is the King’s Highway, a route that probably had military and commercial importance throughout this region’s history (Nm 21:21-22; Jgs 11:17). The plateau has always been famous for its abundant pasturage (2 Kgs 3:4), and Moab’s soil and climate are quite suitable for growing wheat and barley.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OriginandHistory\">Origin and History<\/p>\n<p>According to Genesis 19:37, the Moabites descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter. Deuteronomy 2:10-11, a passage whose context relates to the Moabites at the time of the Hebrew invasion, says that the pre-Moabite inhabitants of this region were the Emim, but the connection between Lot’s descendants, the Emim, and the occupants of Moab at the time of the Hebrew invasion is not identified. There is thus far no specific information concerning the establishing of the Moabite kingdom proper, which existed from around 1300 <span>BC<\/span> to 600 <span>BC<\/span>. Knowledge of this period of Moabite history and culture is derived from archaeological and textual sources, including Egyptian, Assyrian, and OT texts.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the Israelites’ passage through Transjordan, the Moabites had lost control of the land north of the Arnon and were dominated by Sihon, the Amorite king who ruled at Heshbon (Nm 21:13, 26). Having been refused permission to travel through Edom and Moab along the King’s Highway, the Hebrews defeated Sihon in one of their most celebrated military campaigns. Fearing that Israel might conquer his land, King Balak of Moab waged war against the Hebrews (Nm 22:6; Jos 24:9) and hired the Mesopotamian diviner, Balaam, to pronounce a curse upon his enemies (Nm 22–24). The tribes of Reuben and Gad settled in Sihon’s territory, and the Arnon formed the border between Israel and Moab (ch 32). From the time of the Israelites’ apostasy at Shittim onward (ch 25), the Moabite tableland north of the Arnon was a source of contention between Moab and Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Until his assassination by Ehud, the Moabite king Eglon oppressed the Hebrew tribes on both sides of the Jordan (Jgs 3:12-30). By Jephthah’s day, northern Moab was once again under Israelite control (11:26). Obviously, as the book of Ruth indicates, there were also periods in which Moab and Israel lived in peace.<\/p>\n<p>During the reigns of Saul and David, from the late-11th until the mid-10th centuries <span>BC<\/span>, Moab and Israel were at war, with the latter usually holding the upper hand (1 Sm 14:47; 2 Sm 8:2). Solomon’s harem included Moabite women, and he also built a high place for Chemosh, the chief god of the Moabites (1 Kgs 11:1, 7). Following the division of the Israelite monarchy in 930 <span>BC<\/span>, Moab experienced a brief period of independence, but this ended when Omri and Ahab dominated the Moabites and their king, Mesha, during the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>. (The famous Moabite Stone, which describes Mesha’s conflict with the Omride dynasty, and several shorter texts demonstrate that the language of Moab was closely related to OT Hebrew.) Conflict between Moab and her neighbors (e.g., Israel, Judah, Edom, and most importantly, Assyria) continued until the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar destroyed the Moabite kingdom early in the sixth century <span>BC<\/span> (Ez 25:8-11). This conflict is documented in the Assyrian literature, which indicates that Moab became an Assyrian vassal in the late eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, and in the OT (2 Kgs 3; 10:32-33; 13:20; 24:2). Indeed, the enmity between Moab, Israel, and Judah is especially evident in a series of prophetic oracles leveled against the Moabites (Is 15–16; Jer 9:25-26; 48; Am 2:1-3; Zep 2:8-11). These passages call attention to some of the major towns in ancient Moab (Nebo, Medeba, Heshbon, Dibon, Ar, Kir, and Horonaim).<\/p>\n<p>Following the Babylonian conquest, the region of Moab fell under Persian control and was occupied by various Arab peoples, most notably the Nabateans. Although a Moabite state was never reestablished, people of Moabite ancestry were recognized in late OT times (Ezr 9:1; Neh 13:1, 23), since the postexilic Jewish community was concerned about observing the law recorded in Deuteronomy 23:3-6. In <span>AD<\/span> 106 the region of Moab became part of the Roman province of Arabia. Archaeological research has added much to the body of information that relates to Moabite history and culture from the prehistoric through Ottoman periods.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Religion\">Religion<\/p>\n<p>During the third and second millennia <span>BC<\/span>, Moabite religion was probably similar to that practiced by the Canaanites, though the religion of Moab eventually developed into a relatively distinct system. Although other deities were worshiped by the Moabites, Chemosh was their national god. The OT refers to the Moabites as “people of Chemosh” (Nm 21:29; Jer 48:46), and the frequent appearance of “Chemosh” in Moabite personal names points to this god’s elevated status. In general, the Moabite Stone’s dozen references to Chemosh portray him as a god of war who leads his people against their enemies.<\/p>\n<p>Divine guidance and favor were sought, and diviners and oracles were respected (Nm 22–24). A priesthood (Jer 48:7) and sacrificial system (Nm 22:40–23:30; 25:1-5; 2 Kgs 3:27; Jer 48:35) were important aspects of Moabite religion. No Moabite sanctuary has been discovered, but their existence is mentioned in the Moabite Stone and the OT (1 Kgs 11:7; 2 Kgs 23:13). Elaborately furnished tombs, like those found at Dibon, point to the Moabites’ belief in the afterlife.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Canaanite Deities and Religion; Moabite Stone.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MOAB, MOABITES<\/h3>\n<p>Name of a small kingdom in central Transjordan and also its inhabitants. The land of Moab was situated on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea; the escarpment of the Jordan Rift formed an effective boundary between Moab and Judah. Moab’s northern boundary shifted in accordance with the kingdom’s military might, with the Heshbon vicinity forming the northern limit of Moab in periods of strength, and the Arnon River (modern Wadi el-Mojib) functioning as the northern border in times of weakness. The kingdom’s eastern boundary was formed by the fringe of the Syrian desert, since the latter demarcated Moab’s agricultural zone. On the south, Moab was separated from Edom by the Zered River (modern Wadi el-Hesa). Thus, even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, measuring only about 60 miles (96.5 kilometers) north-south by about 20 miles (32.2 kilometers) east-west.<\/p>\n<p>Most of Moab is gently rolling tableland that is divided by numerous ravines. Running through the heart of Moab is the King’s Highway, a route that probably had military and commercial importance throughout this region’s history (Nm 21:21-22; Jgs 11:17). The plateau has always been famous for its abundant pasturage (2 Kgs 3:4), and Moab’s soil and climate are quite suitable for growing wheat and barley.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OriginandHistory\">Origin and History<\/p>\n<p>According to Genesis 19:37, the Moabites descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter. Deuteronomy 2:10-11, a passage whose context relates to the Moabites at the time of the Hebrew invasion, says that the pre-Moabite inhabitants of this region were the Emim, but the connection between Lot’s descendants, the Emim, and the occupants of Moab at the time of the Hebrew invasion is not identified. There is thus far no specific information concerning the establishing of the Moabite kingdom proper, which existed from around 1300 <span>BC<\/span> to 600 <span>BC<\/span>. Knowledge of this period of Moabite history and culture is derived from archaeological and textual sources, including Egyptian, Assyrian, and OT texts.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the Israelites’ passage through Transjordan, the Moabites had lost control of the land north of the Arnon and were dominated by Sihon, the Amorite king who ruled at Heshbon (Nm 21:13, 26). Having been refused permission to travel through Edom and Moab along the King’s Highway, the Hebrews defeated Sihon in one of their most celebrated military campaigns. Fearing that Israel might conquer his land, King Balak of Moab waged war against the Hebrews (Nm 22:6; Jos 24:9) and hired the Mesopotamian diviner, Balaam, to pronounce a curse upon his enemies (Nm 22–24). The tribes of Reuben and Gad settled in Sihon’s territory, and the Arnon formed the border between Israel and Moab (ch 32). From the time of the Israelites’ apostasy at Shittim onward (ch 25), the Moabite tableland north of the Arnon was a source of contention between Moab and Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Until his assassination by Ehud, the Moabite king Eglon oppressed the Hebrew tribes on both sides of the Jordan (Jgs 3:12-30). By Jephthah’s day, northern Moab was once again under Israelite control (11:26). Obviously, as the book of Ruth indicates, there were also periods in which Moab and Israel lived in peace.<\/p>\n<p>During the reigns of Saul and David, from the late-11th until the mid-10th centuries <span>BC<\/span>, Moab and Israel were at war, with the latter usually holding the upper hand (1 Sm 14:47; 2 Sm 8:2). Solomon’s harem included Moabite women, and he also built a high place for Chemosh, the chief god of the Moabites (1 Kgs 11:1, 7). Following the division of the Israelite monarchy in 930 <span>BC<\/span>, Moab experienced a brief period of independence, but this ended when Omri and Ahab dominated the Moabites and their king, Mesha, during the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>. (The famous Moabite Stone, which describes Mesha’s conflict with the Omride dynasty, and several shorter texts demonstrate that the language of Moab was closely related to OT Hebrew.) Conflict between Moab and her neighbors (e.g., Israel, Judah, Edom, and most importantly, Assyria) continued until the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar destroyed the Moabite kingdom early in the sixth century <span>BC<\/span> (Ez 25:8-11). This conflict is documented in the Assyrian literature, which indicates that Moab became an Assyrian vassal in the late eighth century <span>BC<\/span>, and in the OT (2 Kgs 3; 10:32-33; 13:20; 24:2). Indeed, the enmity between Moab, Israel, and Judah is especially evident in a series of prophetic oracles leveled against the Moabites (Is 15–16; Jer 9:25-26; 48; Am 2:1-3; Zep 2:8-11). These passages call attention to some of the major towns in ancient Moab (Nebo, Medeba, Heshbon, Dibon, Ar, Kir, and Horonaim).<\/p>\n<p>Following the Babylonian conquest, the region of Moab fell under Persian control and was occupied by various Arab peoples, most notably the Nabateans. Although a Moabite state was never reestablished, people of Moabite ancestry were recognized in late OT times (Ezr 9:1; Neh 13:1, 23), since the postexilic Jewish community was concerned about observing the law recorded in Deuteronomy 23:3-6. In <span>AD<\/span> 106 the region of Moab became part of the Roman province of Arabia. Archaeological research has added much to the body of information that relates to Moabite history and culture from the prehistoric through Ottoman periods.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Religion\">Religion<\/p>\n<p>During the third and second millennia <span>BC<\/span>, Moabite religion was probably similar to that practiced by the Canaanites, though the religion of Moab eventually developed into a relatively distinct system. Although other deities were worshiped by the Moabites, Chemosh was their national god. The OT refers to the Moabites as “people of Chemosh” (Nm 21:29; Jer 48:46), and the frequent appearance of “Chemosh” in Moabite personal names points to this god’s elevated status. In general, the Moabite Stone’s dozen references to Chemosh portray him as a god of war who leads his people against their enemies.<\/p>\n<p>Divine guidance and favor were sought, and diviners and oracles were respected (Nm 22–24). A priesthood (Jer 48:7) and sacrificial system (Nm 22:40–23:30; 25:1-5; 2 Kgs 3:27; Jer 48:35) were important aspects of Moabite religion. No Moabite sanctuary has been discovered, but their existence is mentioned in the Moabite Stone and the OT (1 Kgs 11:7; 2 Kgs 23:13). Elaborately furnished tombs, like those found at Dibon, point to the Moabites’ belief in the afterlife.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Canaanite Deities and Religion; Moabite Stone.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MOAB, MOABITES Name of a small kingdom in central Transjordan and also its inhabitants. The land of Moab was situated on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea; the escarpment of the Jordan Rift formed an effective boundary between Moab and Judah. Moab’s northern boundary shifted in accordance with the kingdom’s military might, with the Heshbon vicinity forming the northern limit of Moab in periods of strength, and the Arnon River (modern Wadi el-Mojib) functioning as the northern ...","summary_en":"MOAB, MOABITES Name of a small kingdom in central Transjordan and also its inhabitants. The land of Moab was situated on the high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea; the escarpment of the Jordan Rift formed an effective boundary between Moab and Judah. Moab’s northern boundary shifted in accordance with the kingdom’s military might, with the Heshbon vicinity forming the northern limit of Moab in periods of strength, and the Arnon River (modern Wadi el-Mojib) functioning as the northern ...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":47218,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Împărați 3:27","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Împărați 3:27","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:27<\/strong> <em>So there was great anger against Israel:<\/em> The Hebrew phrase translated <em>great anger<\/em> occurs elsewhere to describe the Lord’s fury against Israel for covenant violations (Jer 21:5; 32:37; Zech 7:12).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:27<\/strong> <em>So there was great anger against Israel:<\/em> The Hebrew phrase translated <em>great anger<\/em> occurs elsewhere to describe the Lord’s fury against Israel for covenant violations (Jer 21:5; 32:37; Zech 7:12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:27 So there was great anger against Israel: The Hebrew phrase translated great anger occurs elsewhere to describe the Lord’s fury against Israel for covenant violations (Jer 21:5; 32:37; Zech 7:12).","summary_en":"3:27 So there was great anger against Israel: The Hebrew phrase translated great anger occurs elsewhere to describe the Lord’s fury against Israel for covenant violations (Jer 21:5; 32:37; Zech 7:12).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":74844,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Împărați 3:27","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Împărați 3:27","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:27<\/strong> <em>So there was great anger against Israel:<\/em> The Hebrew phrase translated <em>great anger<\/em> occurs elsewhere to describe the Lord’s fury against Israel for covenant violations (Jer 21:5; 32:37; Zech 7:12).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:27<\/strong> <em>So there was great anger against Israel:<\/em> The Hebrew phrase translated <em>great anger<\/em> occurs elsewhere to describe the Lord’s fury against Israel for covenant violations (Jer 21:5; 32:37; Zech 7:12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:27 So there was great anger against Israel: The Hebrew phrase translated great anger occurs elsewhere to describe the Lord’s fury against Israel for covenant violations (Jer 21:5; 32:37; Zech 7:12).","summary_en":"3:27 So there was great anger against Israel: The Hebrew phrase translated great anger occurs elsewhere to describe the Lord’s fury against Israel for covenant violations (Jer 21:5; 32:37; Zech 7:12).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":102470,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Împărați 3:27","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Împărați 3:27","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:27<\/strong> <em>So there was great anger against Israel:<\/em> The Hebrew phrase translated <em>great anger<\/em> occurs elsewhere to describe the Lord’s fury against Israel for covenant violations (Jer 21:5; 32:37; Zech 7:12).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:27<\/strong> <em>So there was great anger against Israel:<\/em> The Hebrew phrase translated <em>great anger<\/em> occurs elsewhere to describe the Lord’s fury against Israel for covenant violations (Jer 21:5; 32:37; Zech 7:12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:27 So there was great anger against Israel: The Hebrew phrase translated great anger occurs elsewhere to describe the Lord’s fury against Israel for covenant violations (Jer 21:5; 32:37; Zech 7:12).","summary_en":"3:27 So there was great anger against Israel: The Hebrew phrase translated great anger occurs elsewhere to describe the Lord’s fury against Israel for covenant violations (Jer 21:5; 32:37; Zech 7:12).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":130096,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Împărați 3:27","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Împărați 3:27","content_ro":"<p><strong>3:27<\/strong> <em>So there was great anger against Israel:<\/em> The Hebrew phrase translated <em>great anger<\/em> occurs elsewhere to describe the Lord’s fury against Israel for covenant violations (Jer 21:5; 32:37; Zech 7:12).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>3:27<\/strong> <em>So there was great anger against Israel:<\/em> The Hebrew phrase translated <em>great anger<\/em> occurs elsewhere to describe the Lord’s fury against Israel for covenant violations (Jer 21:5; 32:37; Zech 7:12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"3:27 So there was great anger against Israel: The Hebrew phrase translated great anger occurs elsewhere to describe the Lord’s fury against Israel for covenant violations (Jer 21:5; 32:37; Zech 7:12).","summary_en":"3:27 So there was great anger against Israel: The Hebrew phrase translated great anger occurs elsewhere to describe the Lord’s fury against Israel for covenant violations (Jer 21:5; 32:37; Zech 7:12).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}
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