2 Samuel 22
1 David a îndreptat către Domnul cuvintele acestei cântări, după ce Domnul l-a izbăvit din mâna tuturor vrăjmaşilor lui şi din mâna lui Saul.
2 El a zis: ,,Domnul este stânca mea, cetăţuia mea, Izbăvitorul meu.
3 Dumnezeu este stânca mea, la care găsesc un adăpost, scutul meu şi puterea... care mă mântuieşte, turnul...... meu cel înalt şi scăparea... mea. Mântuitorule! Tu mă scapi de sâlnicie.
4 Eu chem pe Domnul cel vrednic de laudă, şi sânt izbăvit de vrămaşii mei.
5 Căci valurile morţii mă înconjuraseră, şivoaiele nimicirii mă înspăimântaseră;
6 legăturile mormântului mă înconjuraseră, laţurile morţii mă prinseseră.
7 În strâmtoarea mea, am chemat pe Domnul, am chemat pe Dumnezeul meu; din locaşul Lui, El mi-a auzit glasul, şi strigătul meu a ajuns la urechile Lui.
8 Atunci pământul s-a cutremurat şi s-a clătinat, temeliile cerului s-au mişcat şi s-au zguduit, pentrucă El Se mâniase.
9 Fum se ridica din nările Lui, şi un foc mistuitor ieşea din gura Lui: cărbuni aprinşi ţîşneau din ea.
10 A plecat cerurile, şi S-a pogorât: un nor gros era subt picioarele Lui.
11 Călărea pe un heruvim, şi sbura, venea pe aripile vântului;
12 era înconjurat cu întunerecul ca şi cu un cort, era înconjurat cu grămezi de ape şi cu nori întunecoşi.
13 Din strălucirea care era înaintea Lui schinteiau cărbuni de foc.
14 Domnul a tunat din ceruri, Cel Prea Înalt a făcut să -I răsune glasul;
15 a aruncat săgeţi şi a risipit pe vrăjmaşii mei, a aruncat fulgerul, şi i-a pus pe fugă.
16 Fundul mării s-a văzut, temeliile lumii au fost descoperite, de mustrarea Domnului, de vuietul suflării nărilor Lui.
17 El şi-a întins mâna de sus din înălţime, m-a apucat, m-a scos din apele cele mari;
18 m-a izbăvit de protivnicul meu cel puternic, de vrăjmaşii mei cari erau mai tari decât mine.
19 Ei mă prinseseră în ziua strâmtorării mele, dar Domnul a fost sprijinitorul meu,
20 El m-a scos la loc larg. El m-a mântuit, pentrucă mă iubeşte.
21 Domnul mi-a răsplătit după nevinovăţia mea, mi-a făcut după curăţia mânilor mele;
22 căci am păzit căile Domnului, nu m-am făcut vinovat faţă de Dumnezeul meu.
23 Toate poruncile Lui au fost înaintea mea, şi nu m-am depărtat dela legile Lui.
24 Am fost fără vină înaintea Lui, m-am păzit de fărădelegea mea.
25 De aceea Domnul mi-a răsplătit nevinovăţia mea, după curăţia mea înainte Lui.
26 Cu cel bun Tu eşti bun, cu omul drept Te porţi după dreptate,
27 cu cel curat eşti curat, cu cel îndărătnic Te porţi după îndărătnicia lui.
28 Tu mântuieşti pe poporul care se smereşte, şi cu privirea Ta, scobori pe cei mândri.
29 Da, Tu eşti lumina mea, Doamne! Domnul luminează întunerecul meu.
30 Cu Tine mă năpustesc asupra unei oşti înarmate, cu Dumnezeul meu sar peste zid.
31 Căile lui Dumnezeu sânt desăvârşite, cuvântul Domnului este curăţit; El este un scut pentru toţi cei ce caută adăpost în El.
32 Căci cine este Dumnezeu, afară de Domnul? Şi cine este o stâncă, afară de Dumnezeul nostru?
33 Dumnezeu este cetăţuia mea cea tare, şi El mă călăuzeşte pe calea cea dreaptă....
34 El îmi face picioarele ca ale cerboaicelor, şi El mă aşează pe locurile mele cele înalte.
35 Îmi deprinde mânile la luptă, şi braţele mele întind arcul de aramă.
36 Tu îmi dai scutul mântuirii Tale, şi ajung mare prin bunătatea Ta.
37 Lărgeşti drumul supt paşii mei, şi picioarele mele nu se clatină.
38 Urmăresc pe vrăjmaşii mei, şi-i nimicesc, nu mă întorc până nu-i nimicesc.
39 Îi nimicesc, îi zdrobesc, de nu se mai scoală; cad subt picioarele mele.
40 Tu mă încingi cu putere pentru luptă, răpui subt mine pe protivnicii mei.
41 Faci pe vrăjmaşii mei să dea dosul înaintea mea, şi nimicesc pe ceice mă urăsc.
42 Se uită în jurul lor, şi nu-i cine să-i scape. Strigă către Domnul dar nu le răspunde!
43 Îi pisez ca pulberea pământului, îi zdrobesc, îi calc în picioare, ca noroiul de pe uliţe.
44 Mă scapi din neânţelegerile poporului meu; mă păstrezi drept căpetenie a neamurilor; un popor... pe care nu-l cunoşteam îmi este supus.
45 Fiii străinului mă linguşesc; mă ascultă la cea dintâi poruncă.
46 Fiii străinului leşină dela inimă, tremură când ies afară din cetăţuie.
47 Trăiască Domnul, şi binecuvântată să fie Stânca mea! Înălţat să fie Dumnezeu, Stânca mântuirii mele,
48 Dumnezeu, care este răzbunătorul meu, care-mi supune popoarele,
49 şi care mă face să scap de vrăjmaşii mei! Tu mă înalţi mai pesus de protivnicii mei, mă izbăveşti de omul asupritor.
50 De aceea Te voi lăuda printre neamuri, Doamne! Şi voi cânta spre slava Numelui Tău.
51 El dă mari izbăviri împăratului Său, şi arată milă unsului Său: lui David, şi seminţei... lui, pentru totdeauna.``
{"verseMap":{"1":[{"id":8736,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"David","title_en":"David","content_ro":"<h3>DAVID<\/h3>\n<p>Israel’s most important king. David’s kingdom represented the epitome of Israel’s power and influence during the nation’s OT history.<\/p>\n<p>The two books in the OT devoted to David’s reign are 2 Samuel and 1 Chronicles. His earlier years are recorded in 1 Samuel, beginning at chapter 16. Almost half of the biblical psalms are ascribed to David. His importance extends into the NT, where he is identified as an ancestor of Jesus Christ and forerunner of the messianic king.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Early Years<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Kingship<\/p>\n<p>• David as King<\/p>\n<p>David’s Lasting Influence<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"EarlyYears\">Early Years<\/p>\n<h5>Family<\/h5>\n<p>David was the youngest son in Jesse’s family, part of Judah’s tribe. The family lived in Bethlehem, about six miles (10 kilometers) south of Jerusalem. His great-grandmother was Ruth, from the land of Moab (Ru 4:18-22). Genealogies in both the OT and the NT trace David’s lineage back to Judah, son of the patriarch Jacob (1 Chr 2:3-15; Mt 1:3-6; Lk 3:31-33).<\/p>\n<h5>Training and Talents<\/h5>\n<p>Little is known about David’s early life. As a boy, he took care of his father’s sheep, risking his life to kill attacking bears and lions. Later, David publicly acknowledged God’s help and strength in protecting the flocks under his care (1 Sm 17:34-37).<\/p>\n<p>David was an accomplished musician. He had developed his ability as a harpist so well that, when a musician was needed at the royal court of King Saul, someone immediately recommended David.<\/p>\n<p>In Jesse’s family, David was regarded as unimportant. When the nationally known prophet Samuel visited Jesse’s home, all the older sons were on hand to meet him; David was tending the sheep. Samuel had been instructed by God to anoint a king from Jesse’s family, not knowing beforehand which son to anoint. Sensing divine restraint as seven brothers passed before him, he made further inquiry. When he learned that Jesse had one other son, David was immediately summoned. David was anointed by Samuel and endowed with the Spirit of the Lord (1 Sm 16:1-13). Whatever Jesse and his family understood by that anointing, it seems to have made no immediate change in David’s pattern of living. He continued to tend the sheep.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforKingship\">Preparation for Kingship<\/p>\n<p>During his youth, David was willing to serve others, even though he had been anointed king. It was his willingness to take supplies to three of his older brothers in the army that gave him his opportunity for national fame.<\/p>\n<p>As a young man, David was also sensitive toward God. While greeting his brothers on the battlefield, he was disturbed by the Philistine Goliath’s defiance of God’s armies. Although rebuked by his brothers, David accepted the challenge to take on Goliath. He had a reasonable confidence that God, who had helped him encounter a lion and a bear, would aid him against a champion warrior. So, with faith in God and using his ability to sling stones, David killed Goliath (1 Sm 17:12-58).<\/p>\n<h5>National Fame<\/h5>\n<p>Killing Goliath made David a hero to the nation of Israel. It also brought him into close relationship with the royal family of Saul. But success and national acclaim brought on the jealousy of Saul and ultimately resulted in David’s expulsion from the land of Israel.<\/p>\n<h5>In the Royal Court<\/h5>\n<p>Saul promised his oldest daughter, Merab, to David in marriage, but then Saul went back on the promise and offered David another daughter, Michal. The dowry of trophies from dead Philistines demanded by Saul was designed to bring about David’s death at Philistine hands. But again David was victorious. Women sang praises of his exploits, intensifying Saul’s jealousy and further endangering David’s life (1 Sm 18:6-30).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime, David and Saul’s son Jonathan developed a deep friendship. When they made a covenant, Jonathan gave David his choicest military equipment (sword, bow, and belt). Although Saul tried to turn Jonathan against David, the friendship deepened. Because Saul was trying to kill him, David had to flee from the court and live as a fugitive.<\/p>\n<p>After Jonathan had warned David of Saul’s continuing designs on his life, David went to Ramah to see the prophet Samuel. Together they went to Naioth, near Ramah. After sending several groups of men after David, Saul finally went with them himself. All his attempts to seize David were thwarted by the Spirit of God, who caused Saul and his men to prophesy all night in religious fervor (1 Sm 19).<\/p>\n<p>Conferring again with Jonathan, David realized that Saul’s jealousy had developed into hatred. Jonathan, aware that David would be the future king of Israel, requested assurance that his descendants would receive protection under David’s rule (1 Sm 20).<\/p>\n<h5>Life as a Fugitive<\/h5>\n<p>Fleeing from Saul, David stopped at Nob. By deceiving Ahimelech, who was officiating as priest there, David obtained food supplies and Goliath’s sword (kept as a trophy). An Edomite named Doeg, chief of Saul’s herdsmen, saw what happened at Nob. David continued his flight, taking refuge temporarily in Gath with King Achish (1 Sm 21), then finding shelter in the cave of Adullam, located 10 miles (16.1 kilometers) southwest of Bethlehem. There his relatives and about 400 fighting men joined him. He went to Mizpeh in Moab, appealing to the Moabite king for protection, especially for his parents. When the prophet Gad warned him not to stay there, David moved back to Judah to the Hereth woods (1 Sm 22:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>David’s freedom of movement enraged Saul, who charged his own people with conspiracy. When Doeg reported what he had witnessed at Nob, Saul executed Ahimelech and 84 other priests, then massacred all of Nob’s inhabitants. One priest named Abiathar escaped to report Saul’s atrocities to David, who assured him of protection (1 Sm 22:6-23).<\/p>\n<p>The Philistines were always ready to take advantage of any weakness in Israel. David’s reprisal after a Philistine raid on Keilah, 12 miles (19.3 kilometers) southwest of Bethlehem, gave Saul an opportunity to attack David, who escaped to the wilderness of Ziph, a desert area near Hebron. David and Jonathan met for the last time in that wilderness. Pursued by Saul’s army, David fled still farther south. He was almost encircled in uninhabited country near Maon when Saul had to march his army off to respond to a Philistine attack (1 Sm 23).<\/p>\n<p>At his next place of refuge, En-gedi, on the western shore of the Dead Sea, David was attacked by Saul with 3,000 soldiers. David had an opportunity to kill Saul but refused to harm the “Lord’s anointed” king of Israel. Learning of David’s loyalty, Saul confessed his sin in seeking David’s life (1 Sm 24).<\/p>\n<p>During the years they roamed the wilderness in the Maon\/Ziph\/En-gedi area, David’s band provided protection for Nabal, a rich man living in Maon with large flocks of sheep at Carmel. In exchange for that protection, David proposed that Nabal share some of his wealth. Nabal’s scorn angered David, but Nabal’s wife, Abigail, appealed to David not to take revenge. When Abigail told Nabal of his narrow escape, he was evidently so shocked that he had a heart seizure. He died ten days later, and Abigail later became David’s wife (1 Sm 25).<\/p>\n<p>Once more Saul came with an army of 3,000 men into the Ziph Desert to find David, and David again passed up an opportunity to harm the king. Finally realizing the folly of seeking David’s life, Saul abandoned pursuit (1 Sm 26).<\/p>\n<h5>Refuge in Philistia<\/h5>\n<p>David continued to feel unsafe in Saul’s kingdom. Returning to Gath in Philistine country, he was welcomed by King Achish. His followers were allotted the city of Ziklag, where they lived for about 16 months, attracting new recruits from Judah and the rest of Israel (1 Sm 27; 1 Chr 12:19-22).<\/p>\n<p>The Philistine army, marching up to the Megiddo Valley to fight Saul’s army, was uneasy with David’s guerrillas in their rear column, so the commanders put pressure on Achish to dismiss David. When he returned to Ziklag, David found that the city had just been raided by the Amalekites. He pursued the enemy, rescued his people and goods, and divided the spoils with those who had remained behind to guard the supplies (1 Sm 29–30). Meanwhile, the Philistines routed the Israelites at Mt Gilboa, killing Jonathan and two of Saul’s other sons in a fierce battle. Saul, badly wounded, killed himself with his own sword (ch 31).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DavidasKing\">David as King<\/p>\n<p>David ruled over Israel for about 40 years, although the accounts of his reign do not contain enough information for an exact chronology. He began his rule at Hebron and reigned over Judah’s territory for seven or eight years. With the death of Saul’s successor, Ishbosheth, David was recognized as king by all the tribes and made Jerusalem his capital. During the next decade, he unified Israel through military and economic expansion. Then came approximately 10 years of disruption in the royal family. The last years of David’s reign seem to have been devoted to plans for the Jerusalem temple, which was built in the reign of his son Solomon.<\/p>\n<h5>The Years in Hebron<\/h5>\n<p>David was subjected to an unusually rugged period of training for his kingship. Serving under Saul, he gained experience in military exploits against the Philistines. Then, during his fugitive wanderings in the desert area of southern Judah, he ingratiated himself with the landholders and sheep raisers by giving them protection. Being recognized as an outlaw of Israel even enabled him to negotiate diplomatic relations with Moab and Philistia.<\/p>\n<p>David was in Philistine country when news came to him that both Saul and Jonathan had been slain. In a beautiful elegy he paid tribute to his friend Jonathan as well as to King Saul (2 Sm 1).<\/p>\n<p>Sure of God’s guidance, David returned to his home, where the leaders of Judah anointed him king at Hebron. He sent a message of commendation to the men of Jabesh for providing a respectable burial for King Saul, probably also bidding for their support.<\/p>\n<p>Confusion probably swept through Israel when Saul was killed, because the Philistines occupied much of the land. Various leaders gathered whatever fighting men they could find, as old tribal loyalties reasserted themselves. David had most of Judah’s tribe firmly behind him.<\/p>\n<p>A kind of civil war broke out between the followers of David and those of Saul, with David gaining the allegiance of more and more people. Saul’s general, Abner, eventually negotiated peace with David, who requested the restoration of Michal as his wife, indicating that he held no animosity toward Saul’s dynasty. With the consent of Saul’s son Ishbosheth, whom Abner had enthroned as king, Abner went to Hebron and pledged Israel’s support for David. But Abner was killed by Joab, one of David’s captains, in a family vendetta, and soon afterward Ishbosheth was assassinated. David publicly mourned Abner’s death and had Ishbosheth’s two murderers executed. Thus, when Saul’s dynasty ended, David was seen by the people not so much as a challenger but as a logical successor. Hence, he was recognized as king by all Israel (2 Sm 2–4).<\/p>\n<h5>Consolidation in Jerusalem<\/h5>\n<p>When the Israelites turned to David as king, the Philistines became alarmed and attacked (2 Sm 5; 1 Chr 14:8-17). David was strong enough to defeat them and thus unify the people of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>In search of a more central location for his capital, David turned toward the city of Jerusalem, a Jebusite stronghold. Joab responded to his challenge to conquer the city and was rewarded by being made general of David’s army. Jerusalem became known as the “city of David” (1 Chr 11:4-9).<\/p>\n<p>In the same way that he had organized his earliest followers into an effective guerrilla band (1 Chr 11:1–12:22) at Hebron, David began organizing the whole nation (12:23-40). Once established in Jerusalem, he quickly gained recognition from the Phoenicians, contracting for their artisans to build him a magnificent palace in the new capital (14:1-2). He also made sure that Jerusalem would become Israel’s religious center (2 Sm 6; 1 Chr 13–16). His abortive attempt to move the ark of the covenant by oxcart (cf. Nm 4) reminded the powerful king that he still had to do things God’s way to be successful.<\/p>\n<p>With Jerusalem well established as the nation’s capital, David intended to build God a temple. He shared his plan with the prophet Nathan, whose immediate response was positive. That night, however, God sent a message via Nathan that David should not build the temple. David’s throne would be established eternally, the prophet said, and unlike Saul, King David would have a son to succeed him and perpetuate the kingdom; that son would build the temple (2 Sm 7; 1 Chr 17).<\/p>\n<h5>Prosperity and Supremacy<\/h5>\n<p>Little is recorded about the expansion of David’s rule from the tribal area of Judah to a vast empire stretching from the Nile River of Egypt to regions of the Tigris-Euphrates valley. Nothing in secular history negates the biblical perspective that David had the most powerful kingdom in the heart of that “Fertile Crescent” about 1000 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that skirmishes with the Philistines to the west were frequent until they finally became subservient to David and paid him tribute. In Saul’s day the Philistines had enjoyed a monopoly on the use of iron (1 Sm 13:19-21). The fact that David freely used iron near the end of his reign (1 Chr 22:3) hints at profound economic changes in Israel.<\/p>\n<p>David’s kingdom expanded southward as he built military garrisons in Edomite territory. Beyond Edom, he controlled the Moabites and Amalekites, who paid him tribute in silver and gold. To the northeast, Israelite domination was extended over the Ammonites and the Arameans, whose capital was Damascus. David’s treatment of both friends and enemies seemed to contribute to the strength of his kingdom (2 Sm 8–10). Although he was a brilliant military strategist who used all the means and resources available to bring Israel success, David was humble enough to glorify God (2 Sm 22; see Ps 18).<\/p>\n<h5>Sin in the Royal Family<\/h5>\n<p>A lengthy section of the book of 2 Samuel (chs 11–20) gives a remarkably frank account of sin, crime, and rebellion in David’s family. The king’s own imperfections are clearly portrayed; the king of Israel himself could not escape God’s judgement when he did wrong.<\/p>\n<p>Although polygamy was then a Near Eastern status symbol, it was forbidden for a king of Israel (Dt 17:17). David practiced polygamy, however; some of his marriages undoubtedly had political implications (such as his marriages to Saul’s daughter Michal and to princess Maacah of Geshur). Flagrant sins of incest, murder, and rebellion in his family brought David much suffering and almost cost him the throne.<\/p>\n<p>David’s sin of adultery with Bathsheba, committed at the height of his military success and territorial expansion, led him further into evil: he planned a strategy to have Bathsheba’s husband, Uriah, killed on the front line of battle. David seems to have excluded God from consideration in that segment of his personal life. Yet when the prophet Nathan confronted the king with his sins, David acknowledged his guilt. He confessed his sin and pleaded with God for forgiveness (as in Pss 32 and 51). God forgave him, but for nearly ten years David endured the consequences of his lack of self-restraint and his failure to exercise discipline in his family. Although unsurpassed in military and diplomatic strategy, David lacked strength of character in his domestic affairs. Evil fermented in his own house; the father’s self-indulgence was soon reflected in Amnon’s crime of incest, followed by Absalom’s murder of his brother.<\/p>\n<p>Having incurred his father’s disfavor, Absalom took refuge in Geshur with his mother’s people for three years. Joab, David’s general, was eventually able to reconcile David with his alienated son. Absalom, however, having taken advantage of his position in the royal family to gain a following, went to Hebron, staged a surprise rebellion, and proclaimed himself king throughout Israel. His strong following posed such a threat that David fled from Jerusalem. David, still a master strategist, gained time through a ruse to organize his forces and put down his son’s rebellion. Absalom was killed while trying to flee; his death plunged David into grief.<\/p>\n<p>On his return to Jerusalem, David had to work at undoing the damage caused by Absalom’s revolt. His own tribe of Judah, for example, had supported Absalom. Another rebellion, fomented by Sheba of Benjamin’s tribe, had to be suppressed by Joab before the nation could settle down.<\/p>\n<h5>David’s Last Years<\/h5>\n<p>Although David was not permitted to build the temple in Jerusalem, he made extensive preparations for that project during the last years of his reign. He stockpiled materials and organized the kingdom for efficient use of domestic and foreign labor. He also outlined details for religious worship in the new structure (1 Chr 21–29).<\/p>\n<p>The military and civic organization developed by David was probably patterned after Egyptian practice. The army, rigidly controlled by officers of proven loyalty to the king, included mercenaries. The king also appointed trusted supervisors over farms, livestock, and orchards in various parts of his empire (1 Chr 27:25-31).<\/p>\n<p>David took, or at least began, a census of Israel (2 Sm 24; 1 Chr 21). The incompleteness of the accounts leaves unanswered such questions as the reason for God’s punishment. The king overruled Joab’s objection and insisted that the census be taken. Since David later seemed keenly aware that he had sinned in taking the census, it may be that he was motivated by pride to ascertain his exact military strength (approx. 1.5 million men). God may also have been judging the people for their support of the rebellions of Absalom and Sheba.<\/p>\n<p>Through the prophet Gad, David was given a choice of punishments for his sin. He chose a three-day pestilence. As David and the elders repented, they saw an angel on the threshing floor of the Jebusite Ornan (Araunah). David offered sacrifice there and prayed for his people. Later he purchased the threshing floor, located just outside the city of Jerusalem, concluding that it should be the site for the temple to be built by his son Solomon (1 Chr 21:28–22:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DavidsLastingInfluence\">David’s Lasting Influence<\/p>\n<h5>The Writer of Psalms<\/h5>\n<p>The OT book of Psalms became one of the most popular books in ancient Israel, and has remained so among countless millions of people throughout the centuries. These words of praise prepared by David were intended for use in the temple worship (2 Chr 29:30). The 73 psalms ascribed to David generally grew out of his own relationship to God and to other persons.<\/p>\n\n<p>David probably compiled Book I of the book of Psalms (1–41) and Book IV (90–106), since most of those psalms were written by David himself. Other psalms of his (Pss 51–71) are in Book II (42–72), which was probably compiled by Solomon. As those psalms were used for worship in later generations, various people added others until the time of Ezra.<\/p>\n<p>David’s psalms provided much of the poetry that was set to music for Israel’s worship. His organization of the priests and Levites and his provision of instruments for worship (2 Chr 7:6; 8:14) set the pattern for generations to come in the religious life of Israel.<\/p>\n<h5>David in the Writings of the Prophets<\/h5>\n<p>David, recognized as the greatest Israelite king, is often mentioned as a standard of comparison in the writings of the OT prophets. Isaiah (as in Is 7:2, 13; 22:22) and Jeremiah often referred to their contemporary kings as belonging to the “house” or “throne” of David. Contrasting David with some of his descendants who did not honor God, both Isaiah and Jeremiah predicted a messianic ruler who would establish justice and righteousness on the throne of David forever (Is 9:7; Jer 33:15). When Isaiah described the coming ruler, he identified him as being from the lineage of Jesse, David’s father (Is 11:1-10). Predicting a period of universal peace, Isaiah saw the capital in “Zion,” identified with the city of David (2:1-4).<\/p>\n<p>Ezekiel promised the restoration of David as king in an eschatological and messianic sense (Ez 37:24-25), and of “my servant David” as Israel’s shepherd (34:23). Hosea likewise identified the future ruler as King David (Hos 3:5). Amos assured the people that God would restore the “tabernacle” of David (Am 9:11) so that they could again dwell in safety. Zechariah referred five times to the “house of David” (in Zec 12–13, <span>rsv<\/span>), encouraging the hope of a restoration of David’s glorious dynasty. The concept of the eternal throne promised to David during his reign was delineated in the message of the prophets even while they were announcing judgments to come on the rulers and people of their time.<\/p>\n<h5>David in the New Testament<\/h5>\n<p>David is frequently mentioned by the Gospel writers, who established Jesus’ identity as the “son of David.” The covenant God made with David was that an eternal king would come from David’s family (Mt 1:1; 9:27; 12:23; Mk 10:48; 12:35; Lk 18:38-39; 20:41). According to Mark 11:10 and John 7:42, the Jews of Jesus’ day expected the Messiah (Christ) to be a descendant of David. While stating that Jesus came from the lineage of David, the Gospels also clearly teach that Jesus was the Son of God (Mt 22:41-45; Mk 12:35-37; Lk 20:41-44).<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Acts, David is recognized as the recipient of God’s promises that were fulfilled in Jesus Christ. David is also seen as a prophet whom the Holy Spirit inspired to write the psalms (Acts 1:16; 2:22-36; 4:25; 13:26-39).<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Revelation, Jesus is designated as having the “key of David” (Rv 3:7), and as being “the Lion of the tribe of Judah, the Root of David” (5:5). Jesus is quoted as asserting that “I am the root and the offspring of David, the bright morning star” (22:16).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Christology; Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Israel, History of; King; Kingdom of God, Kingdom of Heaven; Messiah.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DAVID<\/h3>\n<p>Israel’s most important king. David’s kingdom represented the epitome of Israel’s power and influence during the nation’s OT history.<\/p>\n<p>The two books in the OT devoted to David’s reign are 2 Samuel and 1 Chronicles. His earlier years are recorded in 1 Samuel, beginning at chapter 16. Almost half of the biblical psalms are ascribed to David. His importance extends into the NT, where he is identified as an ancestor of Jesus Christ and forerunner of the messianic king.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Early Years<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Kingship<\/p>\n<p>• David as King<\/p>\n<p>David’s Lasting Influence<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"EarlyYears\">Early Years<\/p>\n<h5>Family<\/h5>\n<p>David was the youngest son in Jesse’s family, part of Judah’s tribe. The family lived in Bethlehem, about six miles (10 kilometers) south of Jerusalem. His great-grandmother was Ruth, from the land of Moab (Ru 4:18-22). Genealogies in both the OT and the NT trace David’s lineage back to Judah, son of the patriarch Jacob (1 Chr 2:3-15; Mt 1:3-6; Lk 3:31-33).<\/p>\n<h5>Training and Talents<\/h5>\n<p>Little is known about David’s early life. As a boy, he took care of his father’s sheep, risking his life to kill attacking bears and lions. Later, David publicly acknowledged God’s help and strength in protecting the flocks under his care (1 Sm 17:34-37).<\/p>\n<p>David was an accomplished musician. He had developed his ability as a harpist so well that, when a musician was needed at the royal court of King Saul, someone immediately recommended David.<\/p>\n<p>In Jesse’s family, David was regarded as unimportant. When the nationally known prophet Samuel visited Jesse’s home, all the older sons were on hand to meet him; David was tending the sheep. Samuel had been instructed by God to anoint a king from Jesse’s family, not knowing beforehand which son to anoint. Sensing divine restraint as seven brothers passed before him, he made further inquiry. When he learned that Jesse had one other son, David was immediately summoned. David was anointed by Samuel and endowed with the Spirit of the Lord (1 Sm 16:1-13). Whatever Jesse and his family understood by that anointing, it seems to have made no immediate change in David’s pattern of living. He continued to tend the sheep.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforKingship\">Preparation for Kingship<\/p>\n<p>During his youth, David was willing to serve others, even though he had been anointed king. It was his willingness to take supplies to three of his older brothers in the army that gave him his opportunity for national fame.<\/p>\n<p>As a young man, David was also sensitive toward God. While greeting his brothers on the battlefield, he was disturbed by the Philistine Goliath’s defiance of God’s armies. Although rebuked by his brothers, David accepted the challenge to take on Goliath. He had a reasonable confidence that God, who had helped him encounter a lion and a bear, would aid him against a champion warrior. So, with faith in God and using his ability to sling stones, David killed Goliath (1 Sm 17:12-58).<\/p>\n<h5>National Fame<\/h5>\n<p>Killing Goliath made David a hero to the nation of Israel. It also brought him into close relationship with the royal family of Saul. But success and national acclaim brought on the jealousy of Saul and ultimately resulted in David’s expulsion from the land of Israel.<\/p>\n<h5>In the Royal Court<\/h5>\n<p>Saul promised his oldest daughter, Merab, to David in marriage, but then Saul went back on the promise and offered David another daughter, Michal. The dowry of trophies from dead Philistines demanded by Saul was designed to bring about David’s death at Philistine hands. But again David was victorious. Women sang praises of his exploits, intensifying Saul’s jealousy and further endangering David’s life (1 Sm 18:6-30).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime, David and Saul’s son Jonathan developed a deep friendship. When they made a covenant, Jonathan gave David his choicest military equipment (sword, bow, and belt). Although Saul tried to turn Jonathan against David, the friendship deepened. Because Saul was trying to kill him, David had to flee from the court and live as a fugitive.<\/p>\n<p>After Jonathan had warned David of Saul’s continuing designs on his life, David went to Ramah to see the prophet Samuel. Together they went to Naioth, near Ramah. After sending several groups of men after David, Saul finally went with them himself. All his attempts to seize David were thwarted by the Spirit of God, who caused Saul and his men to prophesy all night in religious fervor (1 Sm 19).<\/p>\n<p>Conferring again with Jonathan, David realized that Saul’s jealousy had developed into hatred. Jonathan, aware that David would be the future king of Israel, requested assurance that his descendants would receive protection under David’s rule (1 Sm 20).<\/p>\n<h5>Life as a Fugitive<\/h5>\n<p>Fleeing from Saul, David stopped at Nob. By deceiving Ahimelech, who was officiating as priest there, David obtained food supplies and Goliath’s sword (kept as a trophy). An Edomite named Doeg, chief of Saul’s herdsmen, saw what happened at Nob. David continued his flight, taking refuge temporarily in Gath with King Achish (1 Sm 21), then finding shelter in the cave of Adullam, located 10 miles (16.1 kilometers) southwest of Bethlehem. There his relatives and about 400 fighting men joined him. He went to Mizpeh in Moab, appealing to the Moabite king for protection, especially for his parents. When the prophet Gad warned him not to stay there, David moved back to Judah to the Hereth woods (1 Sm 22:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>David’s freedom of movement enraged Saul, who charged his own people with conspiracy. When Doeg reported what he had witnessed at Nob, Saul executed Ahimelech and 84 other priests, then massacred all of Nob’s inhabitants. One priest named Abiathar escaped to report Saul’s atrocities to David, who assured him of protection (1 Sm 22:6-23).<\/p>\n<p>The Philistines were always ready to take advantage of any weakness in Israel. David’s reprisal after a Philistine raid on Keilah, 12 miles (19.3 kilometers) southwest of Bethlehem, gave Saul an opportunity to attack David, who escaped to the wilderness of Ziph, a desert area near Hebron. David and Jonathan met for the last time in that wilderness. Pursued by Saul’s army, David fled still farther south. He was almost encircled in uninhabited country near Maon when Saul had to march his army off to respond to a Philistine attack (1 Sm 23).<\/p>\n<p>At his next place of refuge, En-gedi, on the western shore of the Dead Sea, David was attacked by Saul with 3,000 soldiers. David had an opportunity to kill Saul but refused to harm the “Lord’s anointed” king of Israel. Learning of David’s loyalty, Saul confessed his sin in seeking David’s life (1 Sm 24).<\/p>\n<p>During the years they roamed the wilderness in the Maon\/Ziph\/En-gedi area, David’s band provided protection for Nabal, a rich man living in Maon with large flocks of sheep at Carmel. In exchange for that protection, David proposed that Nabal share some of his wealth. Nabal’s scorn angered David, but Nabal’s wife, Abigail, appealed to David not to take revenge. When Abigail told Nabal of his narrow escape, he was evidently so shocked that he had a heart seizure. He died ten days later, and Abigail later became David’s wife (1 Sm 25).<\/p>\n<p>Once more Saul came with an army of 3,000 men into the Ziph Desert to find David, and David again passed up an opportunity to harm the king. Finally realizing the folly of seeking David’s life, Saul abandoned pursuit (1 Sm 26).<\/p>\n<h5>Refuge in Philistia<\/h5>\n<p>David continued to feel unsafe in Saul’s kingdom. Returning to Gath in Philistine country, he was welcomed by King Achish. His followers were allotted the city of Ziklag, where they lived for about 16 months, attracting new recruits from Judah and the rest of Israel (1 Sm 27; 1 Chr 12:19-22).<\/p>\n<p>The Philistine army, marching up to the Megiddo Valley to fight Saul’s army, was uneasy with David’s guerrillas in their rear column, so the commanders put pressure on Achish to dismiss David. When he returned to Ziklag, David found that the city had just been raided by the Amalekites. He pursued the enemy, rescued his people and goods, and divided the spoils with those who had remained behind to guard the supplies (1 Sm 29–30). Meanwhile, the Philistines routed the Israelites at Mt Gilboa, killing Jonathan and two of Saul’s other sons in a fierce battle. Saul, badly wounded, killed himself with his own sword (ch 31).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DavidasKing\">David as King<\/p>\n<p>David ruled over Israel for about 40 years, although the accounts of his reign do not contain enough information for an exact chronology. He began his rule at Hebron and reigned over Judah’s territory for seven or eight years. With the death of Saul’s successor, Ishbosheth, David was recognized as king by all the tribes and made Jerusalem his capital. During the next decade, he unified Israel through military and economic expansion. Then came approximately 10 years of disruption in the royal family. The last years of David’s reign seem to have been devoted to plans for the Jerusalem temple, which was built in the reign of his son Solomon.<\/p>\n<h5>The Years in Hebron<\/h5>\n<p>David was subjected to an unusually rugged period of training for his kingship. Serving under Saul, he gained experience in military exploits against the Philistines. Then, during his fugitive wanderings in the desert area of southern Judah, he ingratiated himself with the landholders and sheep raisers by giving them protection. Being recognized as an outlaw of Israel even enabled him to negotiate diplomatic relations with Moab and Philistia.<\/p>\n<p>David was in Philistine country when news came to him that both Saul and Jonathan had been slain. In a beautiful elegy he paid tribute to his friend Jonathan as well as to King Saul (2 Sm 1).<\/p>\n<p>Sure of God’s guidance, David returned to his home, where the leaders of Judah anointed him king at Hebron. He sent a message of commendation to the men of Jabesh for providing a respectable burial for King Saul, probably also bidding for their support.<\/p>\n<p>Confusion probably swept through Israel when Saul was killed, because the Philistines occupied much of the land. Various leaders gathered whatever fighting men they could find, as old tribal loyalties reasserted themselves. David had most of Judah’s tribe firmly behind him.<\/p>\n<p>A kind of civil war broke out between the followers of David and those of Saul, with David gaining the allegiance of more and more people. Saul’s general, Abner, eventually negotiated peace with David, who requested the restoration of Michal as his wife, indicating that he held no animosity toward Saul’s dynasty. With the consent of Saul’s son Ishbosheth, whom Abner had enthroned as king, Abner went to Hebron and pledged Israel’s support for David. But Abner was killed by Joab, one of David’s captains, in a family vendetta, and soon afterward Ishbosheth was assassinated. David publicly mourned Abner’s death and had Ishbosheth’s two murderers executed. Thus, when Saul’s dynasty ended, David was seen by the people not so much as a challenger but as a logical successor. Hence, he was recognized as king by all Israel (2 Sm 2–4).<\/p>\n<h5>Consolidation in Jerusalem<\/h5>\n<p>When the Israelites turned to David as king, the Philistines became alarmed and attacked (2 Sm 5; 1 Chr 14:8-17). David was strong enough to defeat them and thus unify the people of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>In search of a more central location for his capital, David turned toward the city of Jerusalem, a Jebusite stronghold. Joab responded to his challenge to conquer the city and was rewarded by being made general of David’s army. Jerusalem became known as the “city of David” (1 Chr 11:4-9).<\/p>\n<p>In the same way that he had organized his earliest followers into an effective guerrilla band (1 Chr 11:1–12:22) at Hebron, David began organizing the whole nation (12:23-40). Once established in Jerusalem, he quickly gained recognition from the Phoenicians, contracting for their artisans to build him a magnificent palace in the new capital (14:1-2). He also made sure that Jerusalem would become Israel’s religious center (2 Sm 6; 1 Chr 13–16). His abortive attempt to move the ark of the covenant by oxcart (cf. Nm 4) reminded the powerful king that he still had to do things God’s way to be successful.<\/p>\n<p>With Jerusalem well established as the nation’s capital, David intended to build God a temple. He shared his plan with the prophet Nathan, whose immediate response was positive. That night, however, God sent a message via Nathan that David should not build the temple. David’s throne would be established eternally, the prophet said, and unlike Saul, King David would have a son to succeed him and perpetuate the kingdom; that son would build the temple (2 Sm 7; 1 Chr 17).<\/p>\n<h5>Prosperity and Supremacy<\/h5>\n<p>Little is recorded about the expansion of David’s rule from the tribal area of Judah to a vast empire stretching from the Nile River of Egypt to regions of the Tigris-Euphrates valley. Nothing in secular history negates the biblical perspective that David had the most powerful kingdom in the heart of that “Fertile Crescent” about 1000 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that skirmishes with the Philistines to the west were frequent until they finally became subservient to David and paid him tribute. In Saul’s day the Philistines had enjoyed a monopoly on the use of iron (1 Sm 13:19-21). The fact that David freely used iron near the end of his reign (1 Chr 22:3) hints at profound economic changes in Israel.<\/p>\n<p>David’s kingdom expanded southward as he built military garrisons in Edomite territory. Beyond Edom, he controlled the Moabites and Amalekites, who paid him tribute in silver and gold. To the northeast, Israelite domination was extended over the Ammonites and the Arameans, whose capital was Damascus. David’s treatment of both friends and enemies seemed to contribute to the strength of his kingdom (2 Sm 8–10). Although he was a brilliant military strategist who used all the means and resources available to bring Israel success, David was humble enough to glorify God (2 Sm 22; see Ps 18).<\/p>\n<h5>Sin in the Royal Family<\/h5>\n<p>A lengthy section of the book of 2 Samuel (chs 11–20) gives a remarkably frank account of sin, crime, and rebellion in David’s family. The king’s own imperfections are clearly portrayed; the king of Israel himself could not escape God’s judgement when he did wrong.<\/p>\n<p>Although polygamy was then a Near Eastern status symbol, it was forbidden for a king of Israel (Dt 17:17). David practiced polygamy, however; some of his marriages undoubtedly had political implications (such as his marriages to Saul’s daughter Michal and to princess Maacah of Geshur). Flagrant sins of incest, murder, and rebellion in his family brought David much suffering and almost cost him the throne.<\/p>\n<p>David’s sin of adultery with Bathsheba, committed at the height of his military success and territorial expansion, led him further into evil: he planned a strategy to have Bathsheba’s husband, Uriah, killed on the front line of battle. David seems to have excluded God from consideration in that segment of his personal life. Yet when the prophet Nathan confronted the king with his sins, David acknowledged his guilt. He confessed his sin and pleaded with God for forgiveness (as in Pss 32 and 51). God forgave him, but for nearly ten years David endured the consequences of his lack of self-restraint and his failure to exercise discipline in his family. Although unsurpassed in military and diplomatic strategy, David lacked strength of character in his domestic affairs. Evil fermented in his own house; the father’s self-indulgence was soon reflected in Amnon’s crime of incest, followed by Absalom’s murder of his brother.<\/p>\n<p>Having incurred his father’s disfavor, Absalom took refuge in Geshur with his mother’s people for three years. Joab, David’s general, was eventually able to reconcile David with his alienated son. Absalom, however, having taken advantage of his position in the royal family to gain a following, went to Hebron, staged a surprise rebellion, and proclaimed himself king throughout Israel. His strong following posed such a threat that David fled from Jerusalem. David, still a master strategist, gained time through a ruse to organize his forces and put down his son’s rebellion. Absalom was killed while trying to flee; his death plunged David into grief.<\/p>\n<p>On his return to Jerusalem, David had to work at undoing the damage caused by Absalom’s revolt. His own tribe of Judah, for example, had supported Absalom. Another rebellion, fomented by Sheba of Benjamin’s tribe, had to be suppressed by Joab before the nation could settle down.<\/p>\n<h5>David’s Last Years<\/h5>\n<p>Although David was not permitted to build the temple in Jerusalem, he made extensive preparations for that project during the last years of his reign. He stockpiled materials and organized the kingdom for efficient use of domestic and foreign labor. He also outlined details for religious worship in the new structure (1 Chr 21–29).<\/p>\n<p>The military and civic organization developed by David was probably patterned after Egyptian practice. The army, rigidly controlled by officers of proven loyalty to the king, included mercenaries. The king also appointed trusted supervisors over farms, livestock, and orchards in various parts of his empire (1 Chr 27:25-31).<\/p>\n<p>David took, or at least began, a census of Israel (2 Sm 24; 1 Chr 21). The incompleteness of the accounts leaves unanswered such questions as the reason for God’s punishment. The king overruled Joab’s objection and insisted that the census be taken. Since David later seemed keenly aware that he had sinned in taking the census, it may be that he was motivated by pride to ascertain his exact military strength (approx. 1.5 million men). God may also have been judging the people for their support of the rebellions of Absalom and Sheba.<\/p>\n<p>Through the prophet Gad, David was given a choice of punishments for his sin. He chose a three-day pestilence. As David and the elders repented, they saw an angel on the threshing floor of the Jebusite Ornan (Araunah). David offered sacrifice there and prayed for his people. Later he purchased the threshing floor, located just outside the city of Jerusalem, concluding that it should be the site for the temple to be built by his son Solomon (1 Chr 21:28–22:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DavidsLastingInfluence\">David’s Lasting Influence<\/p>\n<h5>The Writer of Psalms<\/h5>\n<p>The OT book of Psalms became one of the most popular books in ancient Israel, and has remained so among countless millions of people throughout the centuries. These words of praise prepared by David were intended for use in the temple worship (2 Chr 29:30). The 73 psalms ascribed to David generally grew out of his own relationship to God and to other persons.<\/p>\n\n<p>David probably compiled Book I of the book of Psalms (1–41) and Book IV (90–106), since most of those psalms were written by David himself. Other psalms of his (Pss 51–71) are in Book II (42–72), which was probably compiled by Solomon. As those psalms were used for worship in later generations, various people added others until the time of Ezra.<\/p>\n<p>David’s psalms provided much of the poetry that was set to music for Israel’s worship. His organization of the priests and Levites and his provision of instruments for worship (2 Chr 7:6; 8:14) set the pattern for generations to come in the religious life of Israel.<\/p>\n<h5>David in the Writings of the Prophets<\/h5>\n<p>David, recognized as the greatest Israelite king, is often mentioned as a standard of comparison in the writings of the OT prophets. Isaiah (as in Is 7:2, 13; 22:22) and Jeremiah often referred to their contemporary kings as belonging to the “house” or “throne” of David. Contrasting David with some of his descendants who did not honor God, both Isaiah and Jeremiah predicted a messianic ruler who would establish justice and righteousness on the throne of David forever (Is 9:7; Jer 33:15). When Isaiah described the coming ruler, he identified him as being from the lineage of Jesse, David’s father (Is 11:1-10). Predicting a period of universal peace, Isaiah saw the capital in “Zion,” identified with the city of David (2:1-4).<\/p>\n<p>Ezekiel promised the restoration of David as king in an eschatological and messianic sense (Ez 37:24-25), and of “my servant David” as Israel’s shepherd (34:23). Hosea likewise identified the future ruler as King David (Hos 3:5). Amos assured the people that God would restore the “tabernacle” of David (Am 9:11) so that they could again dwell in safety. Zechariah referred five times to the “house of David” (in Zec 12–13, <span>rsv<\/span>), encouraging the hope of a restoration of David’s glorious dynasty. The concept of the eternal throne promised to David during his reign was delineated in the message of the prophets even while they were announcing judgments to come on the rulers and people of their time.<\/p>\n<h5>David in the New Testament<\/h5>\n<p>David is frequently mentioned by the Gospel writers, who established Jesus’ identity as the “son of David.” The covenant God made with David was that an eternal king would come from David’s family (Mt 1:1; 9:27; 12:23; Mk 10:48; 12:35; Lk 18:38-39; 20:41). According to Mark 11:10 and John 7:42, the Jews of Jesus’ day expected the Messiah (Christ) to be a descendant of David. While stating that Jesus came from the lineage of David, the Gospels also clearly teach that Jesus was the Son of God (Mt 22:41-45; Mk 12:35-37; Lk 20:41-44).<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Acts, David is recognized as the recipient of God’s promises that were fulfilled in Jesus Christ. David is also seen as a prophet whom the Holy Spirit inspired to write the psalms (Acts 1:16; 2:22-36; 4:25; 13:26-39).<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Revelation, Jesus is designated as having the “key of David” (Rv 3:7), and as being “the Lion of the tribe of Judah, the Root of David” (5:5). Jesus is quoted as asserting that “I am the root and the offspring of David, the bright morning star” (22:16).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Christology; Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Israel, History of; King; Kingdom of God, Kingdom of Heaven; Messiah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DAVID Israel’s most important king. David’s kingdom represented the epitome of Israel’s power and influence during the nation’s OT history. The two books in the OT devoted to David’s reign are 2 Samuel and 1 Chronicles. His earlier years are recorded in 1 Samuel, beginning at chapter 16. Almost half of the biblical psalms are ascribed to David. His importance extends into the NT, where he is identified as an ancestor of Jesus Christ and forerunner of the messianic king. Preview • Early Years ...","summary_en":"DAVID Israel’s most important king. David’s kingdom represented the epitome of Israel’s power and influence during the nation’s OT history. The two books in the OT devoted to David’s reign are 2 Samuel and 1 Chronicles. His earlier years are recorded in 1 Samuel, beginning at chapter 16. Almost half of the biblical psalms are ascribed to David. His importance extends into the NT, where he is identified as an ancestor of Jesus Christ and forerunner of the messianic king. Preview • Early Years ...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21158,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Letter of Jude","title_en":"Letter of Jude","content_ro":"<h3>JUDE, Letter of<\/h3>\n<p>Short, hard-hitting letter to a church being infiltrated by teachers who practiced all types of moral evil. Jude reveals the inner situation of a Jewish-Christian community and also presents some great difficulties for the Christian interpreter.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The Letter of Jude states that it was written by “Jude . . . [the] brother of James” (1:1). Many scholars understand this nomenclature to designate Jude (Greek “Judas”), Jesus’ brother, whose brother James became the leader of the Jerusalem church. But other scholars think that perhaps another Jude wrote it, or some later author wrote it in the spirit of the leader whom he revered. The hypothesis that another Jude wrote it seems unlikely, for the apostle Jude (Lk 6:16; Acts 1:13) is the son of a certain James, not a brother of James; besides, Jude 1:17 appears to distinguish Jude from the apostles. And since there was only one James who was prominent in the early church, James the Lord’s brother, it would be hard to believe that some other Jude would have a brother named James and would use such an identification in the title; it would have been too confusing. The title “brother of James” most likely means that Jude was James of Jerusalem’s brother and therefore Jesus’ brother; he did not use the title “brother of our Lord,” perhaps, as Clement of Alexandria said, out of modesty.<\/p>\n<p>The idea that a later author wrote using Jude’s name presents a major problem: Why would he pick such an obscure name, instead of Paul or Peter or James, and why would he not use a more exalted and authoritative title? We must conclude that, despite the difficulties of date and background, Judas the Lord’s brother wrote this letter.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>About date, origin, and destination, the letter says nothing directly. Since the content of the faith is clearly fixed (Jude 1:3) and the recipients have personally heard the apostles (who may have died already, v 17), the date is probably between <span>AD<\/span> 60 and 100.<\/p>\n<p>Presumably, Jude traveled (with his wife and family) to promote the faith (1 Cor 9:5). Throughout his travels, he may have established some churches—or, at least, he probably taught at various local churches. It may be that he heard of false teachers infiltrating these churches and was prompted to write them this epistle.<\/p>\n<p>Jude may have written from Galilee in his old age, or perhaps he had returned to Jerusalem. The best guess we can make about the recipients would be that they were members of Jewish-Christian churches in Syria. Still, these locations remain little more than guesses.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Three facts about the Letter of Jude make its background difficult to reconstruct. First, it is hard to be sure what type of heresy it was combating. Some scholars believe that this was early Gnosticism, and others that it was simply teaching infiltrated with ethical error. If the heretics were Gnostics, they believed in a hierarchy of angels or demigods. In this case they probably saw Jesus as a lower rung on the way to salvation. Perhaps they also considered God to be the lower creator (the demiurge) and spoke of wanting to serve the true God (Jude 1:4). This might explain the interest in angels and demons (v 8) and the stress on the unity of God (v 25). But probably these were simply people who had found a way to rationalize immoral behavior and were unwisely mocking the evil powers. There is no clear evidence that they were Gnostic, while there is plenty of evidence that people turned the freedom of the gospel into an excuse for sin (e.g., Rom 6; 1 Cor 5–6). These teachers probably denied Christ by failing to follow his ethical teaching, and their blasphemy of angels (while they themselves were deep in sin) was another ethical sin. Such depravity is enough to explain the letter; however, knowing that doctrinal and ethical error often go hand in hand, we must not discount the possibility that some doctrinal error was also involved.<\/p>\n<p>Second, Jude surprises us by quoting from two apocryphal books, the Assumption of Moses (Jude 1:4) and 1 Enoch (Jude 1:14-15 quotes 1 Enoch 1:9). This fact and other allusions in the book reveal that Jude and probably his readers were well read in Jewish apocryphal literature. Moreover, it also shows that Jude regarded books outside the canon of the OT as transmitting true traditions and authoritative prophecy. That Jude accepted these books is not surprising, since many apocryphal books were used by Jews of that period, alongside the OT, as a type of devotional literature. Early Christians often included apocryphal literature along with canonical books as part of their Bibles (sometimes they would also omit NT books that were not yet considered authentic). The canon of NT Scripture was not firmly established until the third century, long after Jude’s epistle was written.<\/p>\n<p>It is important to realize that while Jude probably believed in the historicity of these citations, the teaching of the letter does not depend on that historicity. Jude wrote about neither Moses nor Enoch but about how one should behave toward authorities (Jude 1:8) and what God will do to ungodly people (v 13). The citations illustrate Jude’s teaching and probably carried weight with his first readers, but the fact that they are apocryphal should bother us no more than Paul’s quotations from pagan writers or the writer of Hebrews’ allusions to 2 Maccabees (Acts 17; Ti 1:12; Heb 11:35). The authority of Scripture rests in the point the author is making.<\/p>\n<p>Third, Jude shows such a close relationship to 2 Peter 2 that either Jude is an expansion of 2 Peter 2 or else 2 Peter 2 is an abbreviation of Jude. Words, phrases, and illustrations are essentially identical in the two works. While it is hard to determine who borrowed from whom, probably the author of 2 Peter has adapted the strong denunciations of Jude to the more instructive tone of his work. It would be hard to imagine anyone writing Jude if 2 Peter already existed. Christians should have no problem with this borrowing, for no writer of Scripture believed himself so original that he could not borrow from other Scriptures, from hymns, or from noncanonical literature. It is no more a problem for God to inspire a quotation or adaptation from another writing than for him to inspire a new composition. Indeed, some passages in Scripture are total repetitions of others (e.g., Ps 18 and 2 Sm 22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Jude describes his work in terms of exhortation or encouragement (Jude 1:3). Obviously he wanted to strengthen the churches against false teachers who were perverting the gospel. Thus, he repeatedly urged the believers to hold fast or guard their purity and the gospel (vv 3, 20-21, 24). Yet he did not want the teachers simply kicked out, for he had hopes that the believers would be able to rescue some from this danger, although the rescue itself would be dangerous work (v 23).<\/p>\n<p>In framing his exhortation the author did not produce any new doctrines; rather, he underlined some old ones: (1) He stressed the ethical nature of the gospel and the need to maintain purity in life and speech. (2) He showed a high regard for salvation through Christ and a strong belief in one God. (3) He demanded respect for authority, both temporal and spiritual (vv 8-11). (4) He had a clear apocalyptic belief, stressing the coming last judgment (vv 14-15) and affirming that the last days had already come (v 18). (5) He warned of the necessity to persevere in the faith both doctrinally and ethically (vv 19-21). (6) He demonstrated zeal to reclaim those who had erred, for they were outside the grace of God (v 23).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Salutation (1:1-2)<\/h5>\n<p>The author identifies himself humbly as a servant of Jesus Christ and addresses his letter to the faithful in the church—those who are loved, guarded, and called by God and Christ.<\/p>\n<h5>Called to Hold to the Faith (1:3-4)<\/h5>\n<p>Jude had been planning to write these Christians about “the salvation we all share” (v 3). We will never know what instruction he had planned to give, for in the middle of his preparations he heard news that forced him to change his plans. Instead, he penned an epistle in defense of “the faith”—that is, the true apostolic teachings concerning Jesus Christ that all genuine believers embrace. Some people had joined the church, perhaps with ulterior motives, who were dangerous to the church. The Christians must fight hard to keep pure the body of doctrine (meaning ethics as well as theology) that they had received from Jude and the apostles. Jude makes two charges against these false believers: (1) they had perverted God’s grace into licentiousness, perhaps openly flaunting sexual sins as a sign of freedom they had in Christ (cf. Rom 6; 1 Cor 5–6); and (2) they denied the Lord Jesus (by failing to follow his teachings).<\/p>\n<h5>Reminder of God’s Judgment (1:5-7)<\/h5>\n<p>Since the recipients were probably Jewish Christians, they had learned the OT and Jewish tradition well. The author chose three illustrations of the results of apostasy: (1) Judgment can come to those once considered as God’s people (as it did to those “saved” from Egypt, Ex 32:28; Nm 11:33-34; 14:29-35). (2) The consequence of apostasy is eternal damnation (as in the case of the fallen angels of 1 Enoch 6–16—these ideas appear in other Jewish traditions as well). (3) Ethical corruption is in fact a type of apostasy and thus merits damnation (as in the case of Sodom—Gn 19; 2 Pt 2:4-6). The author stressed the homosexuality of Sodom rather than its injustice, which Ezekiel 16:49 condemns, so perhaps sexual misbehavior was a problem with the false teachers. These three illustrations drive home the seriousness of the problems that the church was facing.<\/p>\n<h5>Denunciation of the False Teachers (1:8-16; cf. 2 Pt 2:10-17)<\/h5>\n<p>The false teachers claimed to have received revelations in dreams as the basis of their evil behavior. Their sins were (1) sexual impurity (including, but not limited to, homosexuality); (2) rejection of Christ’s authority (as embodied in his ethical teaching); and (3) evil speech about angels (whether good ones, which is probably the case, or evil). This latter practice is shown to be sin by an example from the Assumption of Moses: even an archangel rebuking the devil himself would not use the language these teachers used about angels. But since these people were unspiritual, they were totally ignorant of what they insulted (cf. 1 Cor 2:7-16), yet they were experts in bodily sin—like savage animals. Their sin was destroying them.<\/p>\n<p>Therefore, the teachers were just like Cain (the embodiment of violence, lust, greed, and rebellion against God in Jewish tradition), Balaam (who tried to make money by leading people into sin—Nm 31:16; Dt 23:4), and Korah (who rebelled against God’s authority in Moses—Nm 16). They were also dangerous to the believers, for they were turning the meal, which was part of the love feast and Lord’s Table (Eucharist), into an orgy (cf. 1 Cor 11:20-22), and would thereby corrupt the practice of the rest of the church. They cared only for themselves and were devoid of real spiritual gifts from God (like waterless clouds or the dead trees of winter, cf. Lk 13:6-9), being ready for the second death (their fate was so sure that it is seen as having already happened). They produced only evil deeds; in this they are like the fallen angels (stars are considered angels in Jewish tradition—1 Enoch 18:13-16; 21:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>The prophecy of Enoch in 1 Enoch 1:9 shows the certainty of their doom. Originally, the prophecy spoke of God coming in judgment, but Jude made it refer to Christ, who for Christians is the coming judge (Mt 25:31). Christ will come with the angelic hosts and execute justice on sinners for their sins (both evil deeds and evil words). That prophecy pertains to people who grumble or accuse God, as Israel did (Ex 16:7-12; 17:3); it also applies to people who do whatever they desire, are loud-mouthed, yet flatter when it is to their advantage.<\/p>\n<h5>Instructions for the Faithful (1:17-23)<\/h5>\n<p>Faithful Christians must remember that the apostles (here meaning the Twelve, not the wider circle of apostles that included Paul, Barnabas, and others) had predicted just such a situation when they were alive: in the last days there would be scoffers, who would do any ungodly act they desired (2 Pt 3:3). These false teachers are such people. They divide the church, and although they claim to be spiritual and receive dreams, they are totally worldly, for they do not possess the Holy Spirit. The faithful must watch out that they remain in the love of God and do not drift into rebellion as these heretics have. This is done by (1) building themselves up (as opposed to causing divisions) on the basis of the faith, the apostolic teaching, and example; (2) praying in the Holy Spirit (Eph 6:18), which sets them off from those not having the Spirit; and (3) waiting expectantly for the mercy Jesus would show them in the soon-coming Last Judgment (1 Enoch 27:3-4).<\/p>\n<p>Yet the Christians must still deal with those influenced by the false teaching. While the Greek text here is very uncertain (it is not clear whether Jude had two or three groups in mind), Jude probably intended that the church should act mercifully toward those who were wavering over whether to follow the false teaching, restore those it could from the followers of the false teaching as if snatching them from hell, and while keeping a merciful attitude (a readiness to accept them back quickly if they repented), strictly avoid any social contact with the unrepentant out of fear of God’s judgment.<\/p>\n<h5>Benediction (1:24-25)<\/h5>\n<p>Jude closes with a doxology very much like that found in Romans 16:25-27. In the midst of many who have fallen from the faith, God is praised as the one who is able to keep the believers from falling and to bring them safely into his very presence. It is to this one who is alone God our Savior through Jesus Christ (meaning God saves us by means of Jesus) that the four attributes—glory, majesty, dominion, and authority—belong, now and forever.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apostasy; Brothers of Jesus.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JUDE, Letter of<\/h3>\n<p>Short, hard-hitting letter to a church being infiltrated by teachers who practiced all types of moral evil. Jude reveals the inner situation of a Jewish-Christian community and also presents some great difficulties for the Christian interpreter.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Author<\/p>\n<p>• Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Author\">Author<\/p>\n<p>The Letter of Jude states that it was written by “Jude . . . [the] brother of James” (1:1). Many scholars understand this nomenclature to designate Jude (Greek “Judas”), Jesus’ brother, whose brother James became the leader of the Jerusalem church. But other scholars think that perhaps another Jude wrote it, or some later author wrote it in the spirit of the leader whom he revered. The hypothesis that another Jude wrote it seems unlikely, for the apostle Jude (Lk 6:16; Acts 1:13) is the son of a certain James, not a brother of James; besides, Jude 1:17 appears to distinguish Jude from the apostles. And since there was only one James who was prominent in the early church, James the Lord’s brother, it would be hard to believe that some other Jude would have a brother named James and would use such an identification in the title; it would have been too confusing. The title “brother of James” most likely means that Jude was James of Jerusalem’s brother and therefore Jesus’ brother; he did not use the title “brother of our Lord,” perhaps, as Clement of Alexandria said, out of modesty.<\/p>\n<p>The idea that a later author wrote using Jude’s name presents a major problem: Why would he pick such an obscure name, instead of Paul or Peter or James, and why would he not use a more exalted and authoritative title? We must conclude that, despite the difficulties of date and background, Judas the Lord’s brother wrote this letter.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DateOriginandDestination\">Date, Origin, and Destination<\/p>\n<p>About date, origin, and destination, the letter says nothing directly. Since the content of the faith is clearly fixed (Jude 1:3) and the recipients have personally heard the apostles (who may have died already, v 17), the date is probably between <span>AD<\/span> 60 and 100.<\/p>\n<p>Presumably, Jude traveled (with his wife and family) to promote the faith (1 Cor 9:5). Throughout his travels, he may have established some churches—or, at least, he probably taught at various local churches. It may be that he heard of false teachers infiltrating these churches and was prompted to write them this epistle.<\/p>\n<p>Jude may have written from Galilee in his old age, or perhaps he had returned to Jerusalem. The best guess we can make about the recipients would be that they were members of Jewish-Christian churches in Syria. Still, these locations remain little more than guesses.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>Three facts about the Letter of Jude make its background difficult to reconstruct. First, it is hard to be sure what type of heresy it was combating. Some scholars believe that this was early Gnosticism, and others that it was simply teaching infiltrated with ethical error. If the heretics were Gnostics, they believed in a hierarchy of angels or demigods. In this case they probably saw Jesus as a lower rung on the way to salvation. Perhaps they also considered God to be the lower creator (the demiurge) and spoke of wanting to serve the true God (Jude 1:4). This might explain the interest in angels and demons (v 8) and the stress on the unity of God (v 25). But probably these were simply people who had found a way to rationalize immoral behavior and were unwisely mocking the evil powers. There is no clear evidence that they were Gnostic, while there is plenty of evidence that people turned the freedom of the gospel into an excuse for sin (e.g., Rom 6; 1 Cor 5–6). These teachers probably denied Christ by failing to follow his ethical teaching, and their blasphemy of angels (while they themselves were deep in sin) was another ethical sin. Such depravity is enough to explain the letter; however, knowing that doctrinal and ethical error often go hand in hand, we must not discount the possibility that some doctrinal error was also involved.<\/p>\n<p>Second, Jude surprises us by quoting from two apocryphal books, the Assumption of Moses (Jude 1:4) and 1 Enoch (Jude 1:14-15 quotes 1 Enoch 1:9). This fact and other allusions in the book reveal that Jude and probably his readers were well read in Jewish apocryphal literature. Moreover, it also shows that Jude regarded books outside the canon of the OT as transmitting true traditions and authoritative prophecy. That Jude accepted these books is not surprising, since many apocryphal books were used by Jews of that period, alongside the OT, as a type of devotional literature. Early Christians often included apocryphal literature along with canonical books as part of their Bibles (sometimes they would also omit NT books that were not yet considered authentic). The canon of NT Scripture was not firmly established until the third century, long after Jude’s epistle was written.<\/p>\n<p>It is important to realize that while Jude probably believed in the historicity of these citations, the teaching of the letter does not depend on that historicity. Jude wrote about neither Moses nor Enoch but about how one should behave toward authorities (Jude 1:8) and what God will do to ungodly people (v 13). The citations illustrate Jude’s teaching and probably carried weight with his first readers, but the fact that they are apocryphal should bother us no more than Paul’s quotations from pagan writers or the writer of Hebrews’ allusions to 2 Maccabees (Acts 17; Ti 1:12; Heb 11:35). The authority of Scripture rests in the point the author is making.<\/p>\n<p>Third, Jude shows such a close relationship to 2 Peter 2 that either Jude is an expansion of 2 Peter 2 or else 2 Peter 2 is an abbreviation of Jude. Words, phrases, and illustrations are essentially identical in the two works. While it is hard to determine who borrowed from whom, probably the author of 2 Peter has adapted the strong denunciations of Jude to the more instructive tone of his work. It would be hard to imagine anyone writing Jude if 2 Peter already existed. Christians should have no problem with this borrowing, for no writer of Scripture believed himself so original that he could not borrow from other Scriptures, from hymns, or from noncanonical literature. It is no more a problem for God to inspire a quotation or adaptation from another writing than for him to inspire a new composition. Indeed, some passages in Scripture are total repetitions of others (e.g., Ps 18 and 2 Sm 22).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>Jude describes his work in terms of exhortation or encouragement (Jude 1:3). Obviously he wanted to strengthen the churches against false teachers who were perverting the gospel. Thus, he repeatedly urged the believers to hold fast or guard their purity and the gospel (vv 3, 20-21, 24). Yet he did not want the teachers simply kicked out, for he had hopes that the believers would be able to rescue some from this danger, although the rescue itself would be dangerous work (v 23).<\/p>\n<p>In framing his exhortation the author did not produce any new doctrines; rather, he underlined some old ones: (1) He stressed the ethical nature of the gospel and the need to maintain purity in life and speech. (2) He showed a high regard for salvation through Christ and a strong belief in one God. (3) He demanded respect for authority, both temporal and spiritual (vv 8-11). (4) He had a clear apocalyptic belief, stressing the coming last judgment (vv 14-15) and affirming that the last days had already come (v 18). (5) He warned of the necessity to persevere in the faith both doctrinally and ethically (vv 19-21). (6) He demonstrated zeal to reclaim those who had erred, for they were outside the grace of God (v 23).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Salutation (1:1-2)<\/h5>\n<p>The author identifies himself humbly as a servant of Jesus Christ and addresses his letter to the faithful in the church—those who are loved, guarded, and called by God and Christ.<\/p>\n<h5>Called to Hold to the Faith (1:3-4)<\/h5>\n<p>Jude had been planning to write these Christians about “the salvation we all share” (v 3). We will never know what instruction he had planned to give, for in the middle of his preparations he heard news that forced him to change his plans. Instead, he penned an epistle in defense of “the faith”—that is, the true apostolic teachings concerning Jesus Christ that all genuine believers embrace. Some people had joined the church, perhaps with ulterior motives, who were dangerous to the church. The Christians must fight hard to keep pure the body of doctrine (meaning ethics as well as theology) that they had received from Jude and the apostles. Jude makes two charges against these false believers: (1) they had perverted God’s grace into licentiousness, perhaps openly flaunting sexual sins as a sign of freedom they had in Christ (cf. Rom 6; 1 Cor 5–6); and (2) they denied the Lord Jesus (by failing to follow his teachings).<\/p>\n<h5>Reminder of God’s Judgment (1:5-7)<\/h5>\n<p>Since the recipients were probably Jewish Christians, they had learned the OT and Jewish tradition well. The author chose three illustrations of the results of apostasy: (1) Judgment can come to those once considered as God’s people (as it did to those “saved” from Egypt, Ex 32:28; Nm 11:33-34; 14:29-35). (2) The consequence of apostasy is eternal damnation (as in the case of the fallen angels of 1 Enoch 6–16—these ideas appear in other Jewish traditions as well). (3) Ethical corruption is in fact a type of apostasy and thus merits damnation (as in the case of Sodom—Gn 19; 2 Pt 2:4-6). The author stressed the homosexuality of Sodom rather than its injustice, which Ezekiel 16:49 condemns, so perhaps sexual misbehavior was a problem with the false teachers. These three illustrations drive home the seriousness of the problems that the church was facing.<\/p>\n<h5>Denunciation of the False Teachers (1:8-16; cf. 2 Pt 2:10-17)<\/h5>\n<p>The false teachers claimed to have received revelations in dreams as the basis of their evil behavior. Their sins were (1) sexual impurity (including, but not limited to, homosexuality); (2) rejection of Christ’s authority (as embodied in his ethical teaching); and (3) evil speech about angels (whether good ones, which is probably the case, or evil). This latter practice is shown to be sin by an example from the Assumption of Moses: even an archangel rebuking the devil himself would not use the language these teachers used about angels. But since these people were unspiritual, they were totally ignorant of what they insulted (cf. 1 Cor 2:7-16), yet they were experts in bodily sin—like savage animals. Their sin was destroying them.<\/p>\n<p>Therefore, the teachers were just like Cain (the embodiment of violence, lust, greed, and rebellion against God in Jewish tradition), Balaam (who tried to make money by leading people into sin—Nm 31:16; Dt 23:4), and Korah (who rebelled against God’s authority in Moses—Nm 16). They were also dangerous to the believers, for they were turning the meal, which was part of the love feast and Lord’s Table (Eucharist), into an orgy (cf. 1 Cor 11:20-22), and would thereby corrupt the practice of the rest of the church. They cared only for themselves and were devoid of real spiritual gifts from God (like waterless clouds or the dead trees of winter, cf. Lk 13:6-9), being ready for the second death (their fate was so sure that it is seen as having already happened). They produced only evil deeds; in this they are like the fallen angels (stars are considered angels in Jewish tradition—1 Enoch 18:13-16; 21:1-10).<\/p>\n<p>The prophecy of Enoch in 1 Enoch 1:9 shows the certainty of their doom. Originally, the prophecy spoke of God coming in judgment, but Jude made it refer to Christ, who for Christians is the coming judge (Mt 25:31). Christ will come with the angelic hosts and execute justice on sinners for their sins (both evil deeds and evil words). That prophecy pertains to people who grumble or accuse God, as Israel did (Ex 16:7-12; 17:3); it also applies to people who do whatever they desire, are loud-mouthed, yet flatter when it is to their advantage.<\/p>\n<h5>Instructions for the Faithful (1:17-23)<\/h5>\n<p>Faithful Christians must remember that the apostles (here meaning the Twelve, not the wider circle of apostles that included Paul, Barnabas, and others) had predicted just such a situation when they were alive: in the last days there would be scoffers, who would do any ungodly act they desired (2 Pt 3:3). These false teachers are such people. They divide the church, and although they claim to be spiritual and receive dreams, they are totally worldly, for they do not possess the Holy Spirit. The faithful must watch out that they remain in the love of God and do not drift into rebellion as these heretics have. This is done by (1) building themselves up (as opposed to causing divisions) on the basis of the faith, the apostolic teaching, and example; (2) praying in the Holy Spirit (Eph 6:18), which sets them off from those not having the Spirit; and (3) waiting expectantly for the mercy Jesus would show them in the soon-coming Last Judgment (1 Enoch 27:3-4).<\/p>\n<p>Yet the Christians must still deal with those influenced by the false teaching. While the Greek text here is very uncertain (it is not clear whether Jude had two or three groups in mind), Jude probably intended that the church should act mercifully toward those who were wavering over whether to follow the false teaching, restore those it could from the followers of the false teaching as if snatching them from hell, and while keeping a merciful attitude (a readiness to accept them back quickly if they repented), strictly avoid any social contact with the unrepentant out of fear of God’s judgment.<\/p>\n<h5>Benediction (1:24-25)<\/h5>\n<p>Jude closes with a doxology very much like that found in Romans 16:25-27. In the midst of many who have fallen from the faith, God is praised as the one who is able to keep the believers from falling and to bring them safely into his very presence. It is to this one who is alone God our Savior through Jesus Christ (meaning God saves us by means of Jesus) that the four attributes—glory, majesty, dominion, and authority—belong, now and forever.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apostasy; Brothers of Jesus.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JUDE, Letter of Short, hard-hitting letter to a church being infiltrated by teachers who practiced all types of moral evil. Jude reveals the inner situation of a Jewish-Christian community and also presents some great difficulties for the Christian interpreter. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Background • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Author The Letter of Jude states that it was written by “Jude . . . [the] brother of James” (1:1). Many scholars understand this...","summary_en":"JUDE, Letter of Short, hard-hitting letter to a church being infiltrated by teachers who practiced all types of moral evil. Jude reveals the inner situation of a Jewish-Christian community and also presents some great difficulties for the Christian interpreter. Preview • Author • Date, Origin, and Destination • Background • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Author The Letter of Jude states that it was written by “Jude . . . [the] brother of James” (1:1). Many scholars understand this...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":33846,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Books of First and Second Samuel","title_en":"Books of First and Second Samuel","content_ro":"<h3>SAMUEL, Books of First and Second<\/h3>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Name<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Name\">Name<\/p>\n<p>First and Second Samuel derive their names from the individual whom God used to establish kingship in Israel. Samuel is the most prominent figure in the early narratives of 1 Samuel. His key role in leading the nation of Israel through the transition from the period of the judges to that of the monarchy warrants the use of his name as the title for the book.<\/p>\n<p>These books, however, have not always been so designated, nor was the material originally divided into two books. As far as is known, the Septuagint (the Greek translation of the OT dating from the third century <span>BC<\/span>) translators were the first to separate the material of Samuel into two books (they made a similar division in the material of Kings). The Hebrew original of these books was written, as is characteristic of Hebrew, with symbols only for consonants and none for vowels. When translated into Greek, it was necessary to use symbols for both vowels and consonants, thus greatly lengthening the manuscript. Presumably the practical consideration of the length of the scroll was the cause for dividing the material of both Samuel and Kings into two books (scrolls) instead of retaining just one. The Septuagint translators, recognizing the continuity of content and emphasis in Samuel and Kings, designated what is now known as 1 and 2 Samuel as “The First and Second Books of Kingdoms” and then designated what now is known as 1 and 2 Kings as “The Third and Fourth Books of Kingdoms.” The Latin Vulgate (the Latin translation of the Bible prepared by Jerome in the late fourth century <span>AD<\/span>) slightly modified the Septuagint titles to “First, Second, Third, and Fourth Kings.” These titles were utilized all through the Middle Ages and were modified into our present titles by the Protestant Reformers in the 16th century <span>AD<\/span> in agreement with Jewish rabbinic tradition. The Reformers, however, retained the division into two books, and this has been followed in modern English versions.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>Even though Samuel is prominent in the early part of the book, and the book bears his name in our English versions, it is clear that he is not the author of the entirety of 1 and 2 Samuel. Samuel’s death is recorded in 1 Samuel 25:1, prior to the time of the accession of David to the throne in place of Saul. Who wrote the material of 1 and 2 Samuel if it was not Samuel? On the basis of the statement in 1 Chronicles 29:29, it has been suggested by some that Samuel composed the early narratives of the book and that his work was later supplemented by the writings of the prophets Nathan and Gad. Others have suggested one of David’s contemporaries, such as Ahimaaz (2 Sm 15:27, 36; 17:17), Hushai (2 Sm 15:32; 16:16), or Zabud (1 Kgs 4:5). Presumably, these men would have had access to the writings of Samuel, Nathan, and Gad, as well as to other sources (see 2 Sm 1:18) pertaining to the life and reigns of Saul and David. Who the real author was, however, cannot be determined from available evidence. Whoever it was, it is clear that he lived after the death of Solomon and the division of the kingdom in 930 <span>BC<\/span> (see references to “Israel in Judah” in 1 Sm 11:8; 17:52; 18:16; 2 Sm 5:5; 24:1-9; and “kings of Judah” in 1 Sm 27:6). Thus, 1 and 2 Samuel was published in its final form sometime after 930 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The theme binding together the narratives of 1 and 2 Samuel pertains to the relationship between kingship and the covenant. Kingship as requested by the people was a denial of the covenant; kingship as instituted by Samuel was compatible with the covenant; kingship as practiced by Saul failed to correspond to the covenantal idea; and kingship as practiced by David was an imperfect but true representation of the ideal of the covenantal king.<\/p>\n<p>It has often been pointed out that there is ambivalence in the description of the establishment of kingship in Israel (1 Sm 8–12), because in some places it seems to be suggested that kingship is improper for Israel, while in other places it seems to be suggested that kingship was God’s will for his people. Resolution to this tension is provided in 1 Samuel 12, when Samuel inaugurates Saul as Israel’s first king in the context of a covenant renewal ceremony by which Israel renews its allegiance to the Lord. Here it becomes clear that kingship in itself was not wrong for Israel; God desired Israel to have a king. But kingship of the type Israel desired (“like the other nations”) and for the reasons she wanted a king (to give a sense of national security and lead her to victory in battle) involved a denial of the Lord as her ultimate sovereign. Samuel defined the role of the king in Israel and presented Saul to the people in a ceremony in which they renewed their allegiance to the Lord. The monarchy in Israel was first established in a form that was compatible with the covenant. The king in Israel, as every other citizen of the nation, was to be subject to the law of the Lord and to the word of the prophet. From this perspective, the author depicts the reign of Saul as failing to correspond to the covenantal requirements, while the reign of David, although imperfect, reflected the covenantal ideal.<\/p>\n<p>There are at least two other important themes recorded in 1 and 2 Samuel. The first of these is that David conquers and acquires the land promised to Abraham. It is in the time of David that Israel’s borders are extended from Egypt to the Euphrates, as had been promised. A second event of major significance for the remainder of the Bible is David’s selection of Jerusalem to be the political and religious center of Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Samuel (1 Sm 1–7)<\/h5>\n<h6>Samuel’s Youth (1 Sm 1–3)<\/h6>\n<p>God granted the request of Hannah for a son after a long period of barrenness. She named her son Samuel (a wordplay on the Hebrew expression “heard of God”) and dedicated him to the service of the Lord—with Eli the priest at the tabernacle in Shiloh. Hannah’s beautiful song of praise to God, who hears and answers prayer (2:1-10), exalts the sovereignty of God and prophetically anticipates not only the establishment of kingship in Israel but ultimately the highest fulfillment of the royal office in Christ himself (v 10). The evil practices of the sons of the priest Eli are described in verses 11-26. These men not only used their office for personal gain (vv 12-17) but also committed immoral acts with the women serving at the entrance to the tabernacle (v 22). Although Eli rebuked his sons (vv 22-25), his warnings were too little too late. It was in this lax environment that Samuel grew up (vv 18-21, 26).<\/p>\n<p>In 1 Samuel 2:27-36, an unnamed prophet pronounced judgment on Eli and his priestly line. The prediction of the imminent death of Hophni and Phinehas, Eli’s sons, was fulfilled when the Philistines took the ark and destroyed the tabernacle at Shiloh (4:11; Jer 7:14). In 1 Samuel 3:1–4:1, Samuel is called to be a prophet, and he too is given a message of judgment for the house of Eli (3:11-14). As the reliability of Samuel’s words are attested, it is recognized by the people that he was a true prophet of the Lord (3:19–4:1).<\/p>\n\n<h6>The Loss and Return of the Ark (1 Sm 4–6)<\/h6>\n<p>In a battle with the Philistines, the prophecy of 2:27-36 and 3:11-14 was partially fulfilled. The Israelites were defeated, the ark was taken, and Hophni and Phinehas were killed. Upon hearing the report of these calamities, Eli also died (4:17-18). The Philistines placed the ark of the Lord in the temple of their god Dagon in Ashdod (5:1-2). However, when the idol of Dagon broke in pieces and fell before the ark and a plague broke out in Ashdod, the ark was moved to Gath. When the plague broke out in Gath, it was moved to Ekron. When the plague erupted in Ekron, the Philistines were compelled to return the ark to Israel—as a test, it was placed on a cart pulled by two nursing cows. These cows, going against their motherly instincts, left their penned-up calves and headed for the Israelite border and the town of Beth-shemesh (6:1-21). By this the Lord demonstrated that the victory over the Israelites and the capture of the ark could not be attributed to the Philistines’ god Dagon.<\/p>\n<h6>The Defeat of the Philistines (1 Sm 7)<\/h6>\n<p>Twenty years went by. Samuel assured the people of deliverance from Philistine oppression if they would confess their sin and turn from the worship of Baals and Ashtaroths. He called for a national assembly at Mizpah to renew allegiance to the Lord. While the Israelites were assembled, the Philistines attacked and the Lord gave the Israelites a miraculous victory, thereby demonstrating that obedience to covenant obligations would ensure national security (see Ex 23:22; Dt 20:1-4).<\/p>\n<h5>Kingship Established in Israel (1 Sm 8–12)<\/h5>\n<h6>The People Request a King (1 Sm 8:1-22)<\/h6>\n<p>When Samuel was an old man, the elders of the nation approached him and requested that he give them a king. Samuel immediately perceived that their request was tantamount to a rejection of the Lord, who was their King, for the people desired a king “like the other nations”—as a symbol of national unity and military security. Nevertheless, the Lord told Samuel to give the people a king. At the same time, however, he told Samuel to warn the people concerning what having a king “like the nations” would mean. The warning, descriptive of the practices of contemporary Canaanite kings, fell on deaf ears; the people persisted in their desire for a king.<\/p>\n<h6>Samuel Privately Anoints Saul (1 Sm 9:1–10:16)<\/h6>\n<p>The narrative of Saul’s search for the lost donkeys of his father and his encounter with Samuel in the process of his search is given to explain how Samuel and Saul first met, and how the Lord indicated to Samuel who the person was that he was to anoint as Israel’s first king (9:16-17). After Samuel privately anointed Saul (10:1), he was given three signs to confirm that his new calling came from the Lord.<\/p>\n<h6>Saul Publicly Chosen by Lot at Mizpah (1 Sm 10:17-27)<\/h6>\n<p>After the private designation and anointing of Saul to be king (9:1–10:16), Samuel convened a national assembly at Mizpah to make the Lord’s choice known to the people (10:20-24) and to define the king’s task (v 25). Again, at this assembly, Samuel emphasized that the people had rejected the Lord in requesting a king because they sought a king for the wrong reasons and failed to recognize the Lord’s past faithfulness in delivering them from their enemies. But again it was clear that the time for kingship in Israel had come and it was the Lord’s desire to give the people a king. Samuel’s explanation of the “regulations of the kingship” was an important step in resolving the tension between, on the one hand, Israel’s sin in desiring a king, and on the other, the Lord’s intent to give them a king. This document, which was preserved at the tabernacle, probably contained an enlarged version of the “law of the king” in Deuteronomy 17:14-20 and spelled out regulations governing the role of the king in Israel for the benefit of both the king and the people. This document undoubtedly distinguished Israelite kingship from that of the kings of the surrounding nations.<\/p>\n<h6>Saul Leads Israel to Victory over the Ammonites (1 Sm 11:1-13)<\/h6>\n<p>When Nahash, king of the Ammonites, attacked Jabesh-gilead, a town east of the Jordan in the territory of Manasseh, Saul left his farmwork to lead a volunteer army in support of the inhabitants of Jabesh-gilead. The victory over the Ammonites under Saul’s leadership placed another seal of divine approval on his selection to be king. Saul attributed the victory to the Lord rather than to his own military strategies.<\/p>\n<h6>Saul Inaugurated as King (1 Sm 11:14–12:25)<\/h6>\n<p>The victory at Jabesh-gilead prompted Samuel to call for a national assembly at Gilgal to renew the kingdom and make Saul king (11:14-15). At the Gilgal assembly, Samuel led the people in confessing the sin of their initial request for a king and in renewing their allegiance to the Lord. In the context of this covenant renewal ceremony, Saul was formally inaugurated in his office as king. By inaugurating Saul in this manner, Samuel effectively provided for covenantal continuity in the transition from the period of the judges to that of the monarchy.<\/p>\n<h5>Saul Rejected as King (1 Sm 13–15)<\/h5>\n<h6>Saul’s Disobedience (1 Sm 13:1-22)<\/h6>\n<p>When Saul was threatened with an imminent attack from the Philistines, he gathered troops at Gilgal and awaited Samuel, as he had been instructed (10:8; 13:8). When it appeared that Samuel would not come within the prearranged time, Saul became impatient and offered a sacrifice himself (13:9). Just as the sacrifice was completed, Samuel appeared and rebuked Saul for not keeping the commandment of the Lord. In disobeying Samuel’s previous instructions, Saul had violated a fundamental requirement of his office. He was seriously mistaken in thinking he could strengthen Israel’s hand against the Philistines by sacrifice to the Lord when this was done in violation of the Lord’s specific command. Samuel told Saul that because of his disobedience his dynasty would not endure (v 14).<\/p>\n<h6>Jonathan’s Victory (1 Sm 13:23–14:52)<\/h6>\n<p>Saul’s son Jonathan and Jonathan’s armor bearer skillfully and courageously attacked a Philistine outpost, killing about 20 men (14:8-14). The Lord used this defeat, along with an earthquake, to bring panic to the entire Philistine force. In the meantime, Saul sought divine guidance on whether to join the fray with his own forces. When the Lord’s answer did not come immediately, Saul concluded that waiting for the Lord’s word might jeopardize his military advantage. Here again he demonstrated that he trusted more in his own insight than in waiting upon the Lord. Saul further damaged his own stature in the eyes of his troops by pronouncing a foolish curse on any who would eat food before the battle was won. This nearly cost Jonathan his life; he was spared only because of the intervention of the troops in his defense.<\/p>\n<h6>Saul Rejected as King (1 Sm 15:1-35)<\/h6>\n<p>Saul was commanded by the Lord through Samuel to attack the Amalekites and totally destroy them, sparing neither human nor animal life. The Amalekites had previously attempted to destroy Israel shortly after their exodus from Egypt while journeying to Sinai (Ex 17:8-16). Saul disobeyed the Lord in sparing the best of the animals for sacrifice and in sparing Agag, the Amalekite king. The Lord sent Samuel again to rebuke Saul for his disobedience. Samuel charged Saul with rebellion against the Lord and told him that, because he had rejected the word of the Lord, the Lord had rejected him as king.<\/p>\n<h5>Saul and David (1 Sm 16:1—2 Sm 1:27)<\/h5>\n<h6>Samuel Anoints David (1 Sm 16:1-13)<\/h6>\n<p>The Lord instructed Samuel to go to the house of Jesse in Bethlehem to anoint one of his sons to be king in place of Saul. By divine leading, Jesse’s youngest son, David, was shown to be the one whom the Lord had chosen. When Samuel anointed him as king, the Spirit of the Lord came upon him with power.<\/p>\n<h6>David in the Service of Saul (1 Sm 16:14–17:58)<\/h6>\n<p>When Saul became plagued by an evil spirit, his attendants sought a harpist whose music would soothe him. David was the one chosen for this purpose. The position at the court, however, was not permanent, and David divided his time between the court and his home duties. In due time, the Philistines, led by the giant Goliath, encamped against the Israelites. Goliath challenged any Israelite who dared to meet him in individual combat. No Israelite ventured to accept his challenge until David, who was visiting the camp of the Israelite forces to bring food to his brothers, heard the challenge and responded in the strength and power of the Lord. The Lord gave David a great victory because he acknowledged that “the battle is the <span>Lord<\/span>’s” (17:47, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h6>Saul’s Hatred toward David (1 Sm 18:1–19:24)<\/h6>\n<p>In the aftermath of David’s victory over Goliath, Saul’s son Jonathan pledged loyalty to David in a covenant of friendship. As David achieved further successes in leading Israel’s armies, and as his public acclaim grew, Saul began to fear that David was a threat to his throne (18:14-16, 28-30). Saul, hating David, made several attempts to kill him (18:17, 25; 19:1, 10). David was finally forced to flee and sought refuge with Samuel at Ramah. When Saul and three of his messengers went to Ramah to arrest David, they were so overcome by the Spirit of God that they were incapable of fulfilling their mission.<\/p>\n<h6>David and Jonathan (1 Sm 20:1-42)<\/h6>\n<p>David’s absence from the royal table at the new moon festival provoked Saul to again threaten David’s life. Jonathan met with David at a prearranged place to inform him of the danger and say good-bye. Jonathan and David again pledged themselves to mutual loyalty and kindness. In the encounter it is clear that both men knew that David, not Jonathan, would be the successor to Saul on the throne of Israel.<\/p>\n<h6>David at Nob (1 Sm 21:1-9)<\/h6>\n<p>David went to the priest Ahimelech at Nob and, indicating he was on a secret mission for Saul, asked for bread and for the sword of Goliath, both of which were given to him. One of Saul’s servants, Doeg the Edomite, who was at Nob, observed the transaction.<\/p>\n<h6>David at Gath (1 Sm 21:10-15)<\/h6>\n<p>David then went into Philistine territory to King Achish at Gath. When his identity was discovered, he feigned insanity in order to escape.<\/p>\n<h6>David at Adullam (1 Sm 22:1-5)<\/h6>\n<p>From Gath David went to the cave of Adullam where he was joined by about 400 supporters. He took his parents to Moab for their own protection and then returned to the Forest of Hereth in Judah.<\/p>\n<h6>Saul Kills the Priests at Nob (1 Sm 22:6-23)<\/h6>\n<p>Doeg the Edomite reported to Saul that Ahimelech the priest had given assistance to David. At Saul’s command Doeg massacred all the priests at Nob except Abiathar, who escaped with the ephod and joined David.<\/p>\n<h6>David at Keilah (1 Sm 23:1-13)<\/h6>\n<p>David and his men delivered the citizens of Keilah from Philistine raiders but were forced to leave the city when it was apparent that its unthankful inhabitants were prepared to hand David over to Saul.<\/p>\n<h6>David in the Desert of Ziph (1 Sm 23:14-29)<\/h6>\n<p>While David was in the desert of Ziph, he was encouraged by a visit from Jonathan, who again pledged to him his loyalty. Although the Ziphites promised to aid Saul in capturing David, a Philistine attack forced Saul to abandon his attempt to apprehend him.<\/p>\n<h6>David Spares Saul’s Life (1 Sm 24:1-22)<\/h6>\n<p>While hiding deep in a cave at En-gedi, David was unexpectedly provided the opportunity to take Saul’s life when Saul relieved himself at the entrance to the cave. Nevertheless, because Saul was “the anointed of the Lord,” David spared his life and shamed him into confessing his own wickedness. David did this by showing Saul a piece of his robe that he had cut off while Saul was in the entrance to the cave.<\/p>\n<h6>David, Nabal, and Abigail (1 Sm 25:1-44)<\/h6>\n<p>David was badly mistreated by a sheepherder named Nabal. David was deterred, however, from foolishly taking the man’s life by the discerning words of Nabal’s wife, Abigail. Shortly after this incident, Nabal died and David took Abigail as his wife.<\/p>\n<h6>David Spares Saul’s Life a Second Time (1 Sm 26:1-25)<\/h6>\n<p>For a second time, the Ziphites joined Saul in attempting to capture David. While Saul and his men were sleeping, David and Abishai crept into their camp and took Saul’s spear and water jug. On the next day, David was again able to demonstrate to Saul that he did not seek to steal the kingship from his hands.<\/p>\n<h6>David among the Philistines (1 Sm 27:1-12)<\/h6>\n<p>David eventually became weary of hiding from Saul in Israelite territory; in a time of discouragement, he went again to Philistia to seek refuge beyond Saul’s reach. Ingratiating himself with Achish, a Philistine ruler, he was given the town of Ziklag as a place for himself and his men to reside. From Ziklag, David raided various tribes inhabiting the area south of Philistia, but deceived Achish into thinking he was raiding the territory of Judah.<\/p>\n<h6>Saul and the Medium of Endor (1 Sm 28:1-25)<\/h6>\n<p>The Philistines again gathered an army to fight Israel, and Saul, terrified and seemingly anticipating an imminent defeat, vainly sought for some word from the Lord concerning the outcome of the battle. When this was denied, he went in disguise to a medium at Endor and requested her to bring up to him the spirit of Samuel. Saul was told by this spirit that Israel would be defeated and that he and his sons would die in the upcoming battle.<\/p>\n<h6>The Philistines Mistrust David (1 Sm 29:1-11)<\/h6>\n<p>Although Achish desired David to join the Philistine army in its battle with Israel, the other Philistine commanders mistrusted him and forced Achish to send David and his men back to Ziklag. This turn of events rescued David from a serious dilemma created by his apparent friendship with Achish.<\/p>\n<h6>David Defeats the Amalekites (1 Sm 30:1-31)<\/h6>\n<p>Upon returning to Ziklag, David discovered that in his absence the city had been raided and burned by the Amalekites and that their wives, children, and cattle had been taken captive. After inquiring of the Lord through Abiathar the priest, David and his men went in pursuit of the Amalekites and recovered all they had taken and more. He divided the plunder among his troops and sent gifts from it to various towns in Judah.<\/p>\n<h6>The Death of Saul and His Sons (1 Sm 31:1—2 Sm 1:27)<\/h6>\n<p>As had been predicted, the battle with the Philistines ended in a disastrous defeat for Israel, in which Saul took his own life after being seriously wounded. Jonathan and two other sons of Saul were killed. David mourned for Saul and Jonathan and exalted their memory in his tribute to them recorded in 2 Samuel 1:19-27.<\/p>\n<h5>David (2 Sm 2–24)<\/h5>\n\n<h6>David Anointed King over Judah (2 Sm 2:1-7)<\/h6>\n<p>Subsequent to Saul’s death, the Lord instructed David to go to Hebron, where the tribe of Judah anointed him as their king.<\/p>\n<h6>David, Ishbosheth, and Abner (2 Sm 2:8–4:12)<\/h6>\n<p>Although David became king over Judah, the remaining tribes—under the influence of Abner, commander of Saul’s army—recognized Ishbosheth as Saul’s successor (2:8-10). Ishbosheth was a son of Saul who had survived the battle with the Philistines. Conflict quickly broke out between the men of David, led by Joab, and the men of Ishbosheth, led by Abner. In this conflict Asahel, Joab’s brother, was slain by Abner. As David grew stronger and Ishbosheth weaker, Abner shifted his allegiance from Ishbosheth to David (3:1-21). Joab, however, avenged the blood of his brother Asahel by murdering Abner under the pretense of negotiating with him. Although David detested this act, mourned for Abner, and cursed Joab, the crime was not punished until early in the reign of Solomon (see 1 Kgs 2:5-6, 29-34). Shortly afterward, Ishbosheth was killed by two soldiers, who brought his head to David at Hebron, expecting to be rewarded (2 Sm 4:1-8). David, however, had them both put to death. The only male survivor of Saul’s line was the crippled son of Jonathan named Mephibosheth.<\/p>\n<h6>David King over All Israel (2 Sm 5)<\/h6>\n<p>After Ishbosheth’s death, David was made king over all the tribes at Hebron. One of David’s first acts as king was to capture the fortress of Zion from the Jebusites. David established Zion as his capital and built a palace there for his residence.<\/p>\n<h6>The Ark Brought to Jerusalem (2 Sm 6)<\/h6>\n<p>Recognizing the importance of the ark as a symbol of God’s presence with his people, David determined that it should be brought to Jerusalem from the obscurity of the house of Abinadab in Kiriath-jearim, where it had remained throughout the entirety of Saul’s reign. Violation of prescriptions for handling the ark led to the death of Uzzah, one of Abinadab’s sons, and delayed the ark’s conveyance to Jerusalem for three months. In a second attempt David led a joyful procession into the city of Jerusalem, where the ark was placed in a tent that had been prepared for it.<\/p>\n<h6>David, Nathan, and the Temple (2 Sm 7)<\/h6>\n<p>It soon became David’s desire to build a temple to house the ark and provide a center for Israel’s worship of the Lord. The Lord told David through Nathan the prophet that he was not to build the Lord a house (temple) but that the Lord would build him a house (a dynasty) that would endure forever. Here the line of the promised seed is narrowed to the house of David within the tribe of Judah. This promise finds its fulfillment in the birth of Jesus, who was the “son of David, the son of Abraham” (see Mt 1:1). It would be the task of Solomon, David’s son, to construct the temple (2 Sm 7:13).<\/p>\n<h6>David’s Victories (2 Sm 8)<\/h6>\n<p>David was able to defeat numerous surrounding peoples, to extend Israel’s borders, and to establish a time of prosperity and rest for the nation.<\/p>\n<h6>David and Mephibosheth (2 Sm 9)<\/h6>\n<p>Remembering his covenant with Jonathan (see 1 Sm 18:1-3; 20:13-16, 42), David inquired concerning survivors of the house of Saul to whom he could show kindness. When Mephibosheth was sought out, David brought him to the court to enjoy the honor of eating at the king’s table.<\/p>\n<h6>David and Bathsheba (2 Sm 10–12)<\/h6>\n<p>During a war with the Ammonites, David committed adultery with the wife of one of his soldiers, Uriah the Hittite. When Bathsheba became pregnant, David attempted to get Uriah to sleep with her. When this failed, David arranged for Uriah’s certain death in battle. These sinful acts provoked God’s wrath (2 Sm 12:10-12) and David experienced the bitter fruits of his misconduct during the remainder of his life.<\/p>\n<h6>Amnon, Absalom, and Tamar (2 Sm 13)<\/h6>\n<p>David’s oldest son, Amnon, feigned sickness in order to arrange for his half sister, Tamar, to care for him. When Tamar refused Amnon’s sexual advances to her, he raped her. This incident enraged Tamar’s full brother Absalom, who determined to avenge his sister by killing Amnon. Absalom waited two years and then arranged for the murder of Amnon during the festivities of the time of sheepshearing. He then fled to Geshur, a small city-state in Syria, where his maternal grandfather was king.<\/p>\n<h6>David and Absalom (2 Sm 14–19)<\/h6>\n<p>Absalom remained in exile for three years until Joab arranged for his return by securing a renunciation of blood revenge from David (14:1-27). Upon Absalom’s return, however, David refused to see him for two years, until they were finally reconciled. In this whole episode David sidestepped the issues of repentance and justice and took no effective disciplinary action. In the meantime Absalom conspired to take the throne from David his father by attempting to discredit his administration of justice, and by seeking to win the favor of the people and members of David’s court. After four years, Absalom proclaimed himself king in Hebron and gathered sufficient military strength to force his father to flee from Jerusalem (ch 15). Failure to immediately pursue David led to the defeat of Absalom’s forces and to Absalom’s own death at the hand of Joab, David’s commander. David mourned for his son Absalom (19:1-8), but he was able to return to Jerusalem and to reestablish his government. David disciplined Joab for killing Absalom by replacing him as commander of his troops with Amasa.<\/p>\n<h6>Rebellion of Sheba (2 Sm 20)<\/h6>\n<p>In the unsettled conditions immediately after David’s return to Jerusalem, another abortive revolt was attempted by Sheba of the tribe of Benjamin. Joab, in defiance of David’s disciplinary action, killed Amasa, pursued Sheba, and crushed his revolt.<\/p>\n<h6>David and the Gibeonites (2 Sm 21:1-14)<\/h6>\n<p>At some unspecified time during David’s reign, the land suffered a three-year famine. It was revealed to David by the Lord that the famine was due to Saul’s violation of an Israelite treaty with the Gibeonites (see Jos 9:15, 18-27). This offense was atoned for by giving seven descendants of Saul to the Gibeonites for execution.<\/p>\n<h6>David and the Philistines (2 Sm 21:15-22)<\/h6>\n<p>In this pericope four episodes of heroic accomplishments by David’s mighty men against the Philistines are recounted.<\/p>\n<h6>David’s Song of Praise (2 Sm 22)<\/h6>\n<p>In a beautiful song of praise, David described his deliverance from his enemies and the help with which the Lord sustained him. The same song occurs with minor variations in Psalm 18.<\/p>\n<h6>David’s Last Words (2 Sm 23:1-7)<\/h6>\n<p>In a brief statement, David acknowledges the work of God’s Spirit in enabling him to speak God’s word, and proclaims his confidence in the realization of the Lord’s promise to him and his dynasty.<\/p>\n<h6>David’s Mighty Men (2 Sm 23:8-39)<\/h6>\n<p>This pericope contains a list of 37 of David’s warriors and a description of some of their accomplishments.<\/p>\n<h6>The Census and David’s Punishment (2 Sm 24:1-25)<\/h6>\n<p>David’s decision to take a census of his fighting men reflected an improper trust in military-political organization and power. The Lord judged him by sending a plague on the land that killed many people. At the word of the Lord through Gad the prophet, David built an altar on the threshing floor of Araunah, which was later to become the site of the temple (see 2 Chr 3:1). The Lord responded to David’s sacrifices and prayers on behalf of the people; the plague was stopped.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> David; Samuel (Person); Saul #2.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SAMUEL, Books of First and Second<\/h3>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Name<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Name\">Name<\/p>\n<p>First and Second Samuel derive their names from the individual whom God used to establish kingship in Israel. Samuel is the most prominent figure in the early narratives of 1 Samuel. His key role in leading the nation of Israel through the transition from the period of the judges to that of the monarchy warrants the use of his name as the title for the book.<\/p>\n<p>These books, however, have not always been so designated, nor was the material originally divided into two books. As far as is known, the Septuagint (the Greek translation of the OT dating from the third century <span>BC<\/span>) translators were the first to separate the material of Samuel into two books (they made a similar division in the material of Kings). The Hebrew original of these books was written, as is characteristic of Hebrew, with symbols only for consonants and none for vowels. When translated into Greek, it was necessary to use symbols for both vowels and consonants, thus greatly lengthening the manuscript. Presumably the practical consideration of the length of the scroll was the cause for dividing the material of both Samuel and Kings into two books (scrolls) instead of retaining just one. The Septuagint translators, recognizing the continuity of content and emphasis in Samuel and Kings, designated what is now known as 1 and 2 Samuel as “The First and Second Books of Kingdoms” and then designated what now is known as 1 and 2 Kings as “The Third and Fourth Books of Kingdoms.” The Latin Vulgate (the Latin translation of the Bible prepared by Jerome in the late fourth century <span>AD<\/span>) slightly modified the Septuagint titles to “First, Second, Third, and Fourth Kings.” These titles were utilized all through the Middle Ages and were modified into our present titles by the Protestant Reformers in the 16th century <span>AD<\/span> in agreement with Jewish rabbinic tradition. The Reformers, however, retained the division into two books, and this has been followed in modern English versions.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>Even though Samuel is prominent in the early part of the book, and the book bears his name in our English versions, it is clear that he is not the author of the entirety of 1 and 2 Samuel. Samuel’s death is recorded in 1 Samuel 25:1, prior to the time of the accession of David to the throne in place of Saul. Who wrote the material of 1 and 2 Samuel if it was not Samuel? On the basis of the statement in 1 Chronicles 29:29, it has been suggested by some that Samuel composed the early narratives of the book and that his work was later supplemented by the writings of the prophets Nathan and Gad. Others have suggested one of David’s contemporaries, such as Ahimaaz (2 Sm 15:27, 36; 17:17), Hushai (2 Sm 15:32; 16:16), or Zabud (1 Kgs 4:5). Presumably, these men would have had access to the writings of Samuel, Nathan, and Gad, as well as to other sources (see 2 Sm 1:18) pertaining to the life and reigns of Saul and David. Who the real author was, however, cannot be determined from available evidence. Whoever it was, it is clear that he lived after the death of Solomon and the division of the kingdom in 930 <span>BC<\/span> (see references to “Israel in Judah” in 1 Sm 11:8; 17:52; 18:16; 2 Sm 5:5; 24:1-9; and “kings of Judah” in 1 Sm 27:6). Thus, 1 and 2 Samuel was published in its final form sometime after 930 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The theme binding together the narratives of 1 and 2 Samuel pertains to the relationship between kingship and the covenant. Kingship as requested by the people was a denial of the covenant; kingship as instituted by Samuel was compatible with the covenant; kingship as practiced by Saul failed to correspond to the covenantal idea; and kingship as practiced by David was an imperfect but true representation of the ideal of the covenantal king.<\/p>\n<p>It has often been pointed out that there is ambivalence in the description of the establishment of kingship in Israel (1 Sm 8–12), because in some places it seems to be suggested that kingship is improper for Israel, while in other places it seems to be suggested that kingship was God’s will for his people. Resolution to this tension is provided in 1 Samuel 12, when Samuel inaugurates Saul as Israel’s first king in the context of a covenant renewal ceremony by which Israel renews its allegiance to the Lord. Here it becomes clear that kingship in itself was not wrong for Israel; God desired Israel to have a king. But kingship of the type Israel desired (“like the other nations”) and for the reasons she wanted a king (to give a sense of national security and lead her to victory in battle) involved a denial of the Lord as her ultimate sovereign. Samuel defined the role of the king in Israel and presented Saul to the people in a ceremony in which they renewed their allegiance to the Lord. The monarchy in Israel was first established in a form that was compatible with the covenant. The king in Israel, as every other citizen of the nation, was to be subject to the law of the Lord and to the word of the prophet. From this perspective, the author depicts the reign of Saul as failing to correspond to the covenantal requirements, while the reign of David, although imperfect, reflected the covenantal ideal.<\/p>\n<p>There are at least two other important themes recorded in 1 and 2 Samuel. The first of these is that David conquers and acquires the land promised to Abraham. It is in the time of David that Israel’s borders are extended from Egypt to the Euphrates, as had been promised. A second event of major significance for the remainder of the Bible is David’s selection of Jerusalem to be the political and religious center of Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Samuel (1 Sm 1–7)<\/h5>\n<h6>Samuel’s Youth (1 Sm 1–3)<\/h6>\n<p>God granted the request of Hannah for a son after a long period of barrenness. She named her son Samuel (a wordplay on the Hebrew expression “heard of God”) and dedicated him to the service of the Lord—with Eli the priest at the tabernacle in Shiloh. Hannah’s beautiful song of praise to God, who hears and answers prayer (2:1-10), exalts the sovereignty of God and prophetically anticipates not only the establishment of kingship in Israel but ultimately the highest fulfillment of the royal office in Christ himself (v 10). The evil practices of the sons of the priest Eli are described in verses 11-26. These men not only used their office for personal gain (vv 12-17) but also committed immoral acts with the women serving at the entrance to the tabernacle (v 22). Although Eli rebuked his sons (vv 22-25), his warnings were too little too late. It was in this lax environment that Samuel grew up (vv 18-21, 26).<\/p>\n<p>In 1 Samuel 2:27-36, an unnamed prophet pronounced judgment on Eli and his priestly line. The prediction of the imminent death of Hophni and Phinehas, Eli’s sons, was fulfilled when the Philistines took the ark and destroyed the tabernacle at Shiloh (4:11; Jer 7:14). In 1 Samuel 3:1–4:1, Samuel is called to be a prophet, and he too is given a message of judgment for the house of Eli (3:11-14). As the reliability of Samuel’s words are attested, it is recognized by the people that he was a true prophet of the Lord (3:19–4:1).<\/p>\n\n<h6>The Loss and Return of the Ark (1 Sm 4–6)<\/h6>\n<p>In a battle with the Philistines, the prophecy of 2:27-36 and 3:11-14 was partially fulfilled. The Israelites were defeated, the ark was taken, and Hophni and Phinehas were killed. Upon hearing the report of these calamities, Eli also died (4:17-18). The Philistines placed the ark of the Lord in the temple of their god Dagon in Ashdod (5:1-2). However, when the idol of Dagon broke in pieces and fell before the ark and a plague broke out in Ashdod, the ark was moved to Gath. When the plague broke out in Gath, it was moved to Ekron. When the plague erupted in Ekron, the Philistines were compelled to return the ark to Israel—as a test, it was placed on a cart pulled by two nursing cows. These cows, going against their motherly instincts, left their penned-up calves and headed for the Israelite border and the town of Beth-shemesh (6:1-21). By this the Lord demonstrated that the victory over the Israelites and the capture of the ark could not be attributed to the Philistines’ god Dagon.<\/p>\n<h6>The Defeat of the Philistines (1 Sm 7)<\/h6>\n<p>Twenty years went by. Samuel assured the people of deliverance from Philistine oppression if they would confess their sin and turn from the worship of Baals and Ashtaroths. He called for a national assembly at Mizpah to renew allegiance to the Lord. While the Israelites were assembled, the Philistines attacked and the Lord gave the Israelites a miraculous victory, thereby demonstrating that obedience to covenant obligations would ensure national security (see Ex 23:22; Dt 20:1-4).<\/p>\n<h5>Kingship Established in Israel (1 Sm 8–12)<\/h5>\n<h6>The People Request a King (1 Sm 8:1-22)<\/h6>\n<p>When Samuel was an old man, the elders of the nation approached him and requested that he give them a king. Samuel immediately perceived that their request was tantamount to a rejection of the Lord, who was their King, for the people desired a king “like the other nations”—as a symbol of national unity and military security. Nevertheless, the Lord told Samuel to give the people a king. At the same time, however, he told Samuel to warn the people concerning what having a king “like the nations” would mean. The warning, descriptive of the practices of contemporary Canaanite kings, fell on deaf ears; the people persisted in their desire for a king.<\/p>\n<h6>Samuel Privately Anoints Saul (1 Sm 9:1–10:16)<\/h6>\n<p>The narrative of Saul’s search for the lost donkeys of his father and his encounter with Samuel in the process of his search is given to explain how Samuel and Saul first met, and how the Lord indicated to Samuel who the person was that he was to anoint as Israel’s first king (9:16-17). After Samuel privately anointed Saul (10:1), he was given three signs to confirm that his new calling came from the Lord.<\/p>\n<h6>Saul Publicly Chosen by Lot at Mizpah (1 Sm 10:17-27)<\/h6>\n<p>After the private designation and anointing of Saul to be king (9:1–10:16), Samuel convened a national assembly at Mizpah to make the Lord’s choice known to the people (10:20-24) and to define the king’s task (v 25). Again, at this assembly, Samuel emphasized that the people had rejected the Lord in requesting a king because they sought a king for the wrong reasons and failed to recognize the Lord’s past faithfulness in delivering them from their enemies. But again it was clear that the time for kingship in Israel had come and it was the Lord’s desire to give the people a king. Samuel’s explanation of the “regulations of the kingship” was an important step in resolving the tension between, on the one hand, Israel’s sin in desiring a king, and on the other, the Lord’s intent to give them a king. This document, which was preserved at the tabernacle, probably contained an enlarged version of the “law of the king” in Deuteronomy 17:14-20 and spelled out regulations governing the role of the king in Israel for the benefit of both the king and the people. This document undoubtedly distinguished Israelite kingship from that of the kings of the surrounding nations.<\/p>\n<h6>Saul Leads Israel to Victory over the Ammonites (1 Sm 11:1-13)<\/h6>\n<p>When Nahash, king of the Ammonites, attacked Jabesh-gilead, a town east of the Jordan in the territory of Manasseh, Saul left his farmwork to lead a volunteer army in support of the inhabitants of Jabesh-gilead. The victory over the Ammonites under Saul’s leadership placed another seal of divine approval on his selection to be king. Saul attributed the victory to the Lord rather than to his own military strategies.<\/p>\n<h6>Saul Inaugurated as King (1 Sm 11:14–12:25)<\/h6>\n<p>The victory at Jabesh-gilead prompted Samuel to call for a national assembly at Gilgal to renew the kingdom and make Saul king (11:14-15). At the Gilgal assembly, Samuel led the people in confessing the sin of their initial request for a king and in renewing their allegiance to the Lord. In the context of this covenant renewal ceremony, Saul was formally inaugurated in his office as king. By inaugurating Saul in this manner, Samuel effectively provided for covenantal continuity in the transition from the period of the judges to that of the monarchy.<\/p>\n<h5>Saul Rejected as King (1 Sm 13–15)<\/h5>\n<h6>Saul’s Disobedience (1 Sm 13:1-22)<\/h6>\n<p>When Saul was threatened with an imminent attack from the Philistines, he gathered troops at Gilgal and awaited Samuel, as he had been instructed (10:8; 13:8). When it appeared that Samuel would not come within the prearranged time, Saul became impatient and offered a sacrifice himself (13:9). Just as the sacrifice was completed, Samuel appeared and rebuked Saul for not keeping the commandment of the Lord. In disobeying Samuel’s previous instructions, Saul had violated a fundamental requirement of his office. He was seriously mistaken in thinking he could strengthen Israel’s hand against the Philistines by sacrifice to the Lord when this was done in violation of the Lord’s specific command. Samuel told Saul that because of his disobedience his dynasty would not endure (v 14).<\/p>\n<h6>Jonathan’s Victory (1 Sm 13:23–14:52)<\/h6>\n<p>Saul’s son Jonathan and Jonathan’s armor bearer skillfully and courageously attacked a Philistine outpost, killing about 20 men (14:8-14). The Lord used this defeat, along with an earthquake, to bring panic to the entire Philistine force. In the meantime, Saul sought divine guidance on whether to join the fray with his own forces. When the Lord’s answer did not come immediately, Saul concluded that waiting for the Lord’s word might jeopardize his military advantage. Here again he demonstrated that he trusted more in his own insight than in waiting upon the Lord. Saul further damaged his own stature in the eyes of his troops by pronouncing a foolish curse on any who would eat food before the battle was won. This nearly cost Jonathan his life; he was spared only because of the intervention of the troops in his defense.<\/p>\n<h6>Saul Rejected as King (1 Sm 15:1-35)<\/h6>\n<p>Saul was commanded by the Lord through Samuel to attack the Amalekites and totally destroy them, sparing neither human nor animal life. The Amalekites had previously attempted to destroy Israel shortly after their exodus from Egypt while journeying to Sinai (Ex 17:8-16). Saul disobeyed the Lord in sparing the best of the animals for sacrifice and in sparing Agag, the Amalekite king. The Lord sent Samuel again to rebuke Saul for his disobedience. Samuel charged Saul with rebellion against the Lord and told him that, because he had rejected the word of the Lord, the Lord had rejected him as king.<\/p>\n<h5>Saul and David (1 Sm 16:1—2 Sm 1:27)<\/h5>\n<h6>Samuel Anoints David (1 Sm 16:1-13)<\/h6>\n<p>The Lord instructed Samuel to go to the house of Jesse in Bethlehem to anoint one of his sons to be king in place of Saul. By divine leading, Jesse’s youngest son, David, was shown to be the one whom the Lord had chosen. When Samuel anointed him as king, the Spirit of the Lord came upon him with power.<\/p>\n<h6>David in the Service of Saul (1 Sm 16:14–17:58)<\/h6>\n<p>When Saul became plagued by an evil spirit, his attendants sought a harpist whose music would soothe him. David was the one chosen for this purpose. The position at the court, however, was not permanent, and David divided his time between the court and his home duties. In due time, the Philistines, led by the giant Goliath, encamped against the Israelites. Goliath challenged any Israelite who dared to meet him in individual combat. No Israelite ventured to accept his challenge until David, who was visiting the camp of the Israelite forces to bring food to his brothers, heard the challenge and responded in the strength and power of the Lord. The Lord gave David a great victory because he acknowledged that “the battle is the <span>Lord<\/span>’s” (17:47, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h6>Saul’s Hatred toward David (1 Sm 18:1–19:24)<\/h6>\n<p>In the aftermath of David’s victory over Goliath, Saul’s son Jonathan pledged loyalty to David in a covenant of friendship. As David achieved further successes in leading Israel’s armies, and as his public acclaim grew, Saul began to fear that David was a threat to his throne (18:14-16, 28-30). Saul, hating David, made several attempts to kill him (18:17, 25; 19:1, 10). David was finally forced to flee and sought refuge with Samuel at Ramah. When Saul and three of his messengers went to Ramah to arrest David, they were so overcome by the Spirit of God that they were incapable of fulfilling their mission.<\/p>\n<h6>David and Jonathan (1 Sm 20:1-42)<\/h6>\n<p>David’s absence from the royal table at the new moon festival provoked Saul to again threaten David’s life. Jonathan met with David at a prearranged place to inform him of the danger and say good-bye. Jonathan and David again pledged themselves to mutual loyalty and kindness. In the encounter it is clear that both men knew that David, not Jonathan, would be the successor to Saul on the throne of Israel.<\/p>\n<h6>David at Nob (1 Sm 21:1-9)<\/h6>\n<p>David went to the priest Ahimelech at Nob and, indicating he was on a secret mission for Saul, asked for bread and for the sword of Goliath, both of which were given to him. One of Saul’s servants, Doeg the Edomite, who was at Nob, observed the transaction.<\/p>\n<h6>David at Gath (1 Sm 21:10-15)<\/h6>\n<p>David then went into Philistine territory to King Achish at Gath. When his identity was discovered, he feigned insanity in order to escape.<\/p>\n<h6>David at Adullam (1 Sm 22:1-5)<\/h6>\n<p>From Gath David went to the cave of Adullam where he was joined by about 400 supporters. He took his parents to Moab for their own protection and then returned to the Forest of Hereth in Judah.<\/p>\n<h6>Saul Kills the Priests at Nob (1 Sm 22:6-23)<\/h6>\n<p>Doeg the Edomite reported to Saul that Ahimelech the priest had given assistance to David. At Saul’s command Doeg massacred all the priests at Nob except Abiathar, who escaped with the ephod and joined David.<\/p>\n<h6>David at Keilah (1 Sm 23:1-13)<\/h6>\n<p>David and his men delivered the citizens of Keilah from Philistine raiders but were forced to leave the city when it was apparent that its unthankful inhabitants were prepared to hand David over to Saul.<\/p>\n<h6>David in the Desert of Ziph (1 Sm 23:14-29)<\/h6>\n<p>While David was in the desert of Ziph, he was encouraged by a visit from Jonathan, who again pledged to him his loyalty. Although the Ziphites promised to aid Saul in capturing David, a Philistine attack forced Saul to abandon his attempt to apprehend him.<\/p>\n<h6>David Spares Saul’s Life (1 Sm 24:1-22)<\/h6>\n<p>While hiding deep in a cave at En-gedi, David was unexpectedly provided the opportunity to take Saul’s life when Saul relieved himself at the entrance to the cave. Nevertheless, because Saul was “the anointed of the Lord,” David spared his life and shamed him into confessing his own wickedness. David did this by showing Saul a piece of his robe that he had cut off while Saul was in the entrance to the cave.<\/p>\n<h6>David, Nabal, and Abigail (1 Sm 25:1-44)<\/h6>\n<p>David was badly mistreated by a sheepherder named Nabal. David was deterred, however, from foolishly taking the man’s life by the discerning words of Nabal’s wife, Abigail. Shortly after this incident, Nabal died and David took Abigail as his wife.<\/p>\n<h6>David Spares Saul’s Life a Second Time (1 Sm 26:1-25)<\/h6>\n<p>For a second time, the Ziphites joined Saul in attempting to capture David. While Saul and his men were sleeping, David and Abishai crept into their camp and took Saul’s spear and water jug. On the next day, David was again able to demonstrate to Saul that he did not seek to steal the kingship from his hands.<\/p>\n<h6>David among the Philistines (1 Sm 27:1-12)<\/h6>\n<p>David eventually became weary of hiding from Saul in Israelite territory; in a time of discouragement, he went again to Philistia to seek refuge beyond Saul’s reach. Ingratiating himself with Achish, a Philistine ruler, he was given the town of Ziklag as a place for himself and his men to reside. From Ziklag, David raided various tribes inhabiting the area south of Philistia, but deceived Achish into thinking he was raiding the territory of Judah.<\/p>\n<h6>Saul and the Medium of Endor (1 Sm 28:1-25)<\/h6>\n<p>The Philistines again gathered an army to fight Israel, and Saul, terrified and seemingly anticipating an imminent defeat, vainly sought for some word from the Lord concerning the outcome of the battle. When this was denied, he went in disguise to a medium at Endor and requested her to bring up to him the spirit of Samuel. Saul was told by this spirit that Israel would be defeated and that he and his sons would die in the upcoming battle.<\/p>\n<h6>The Philistines Mistrust David (1 Sm 29:1-11)<\/h6>\n<p>Although Achish desired David to join the Philistine army in its battle with Israel, the other Philistine commanders mistrusted him and forced Achish to send David and his men back to Ziklag. This turn of events rescued David from a serious dilemma created by his apparent friendship with Achish.<\/p>\n<h6>David Defeats the Amalekites (1 Sm 30:1-31)<\/h6>\n<p>Upon returning to Ziklag, David discovered that in his absence the city had been raided and burned by the Amalekites and that their wives, children, and cattle had been taken captive. After inquiring of the Lord through Abiathar the priest, David and his men went in pursuit of the Amalekites and recovered all they had taken and more. He divided the plunder among his troops and sent gifts from it to various towns in Judah.<\/p>\n<h6>The Death of Saul and His Sons (1 Sm 31:1—2 Sm 1:27)<\/h6>\n<p>As had been predicted, the battle with the Philistines ended in a disastrous defeat for Israel, in which Saul took his own life after being seriously wounded. Jonathan and two other sons of Saul were killed. David mourned for Saul and Jonathan and exalted their memory in his tribute to them recorded in 2 Samuel 1:19-27.<\/p>\n<h5>David (2 Sm 2–24)<\/h5>\n\n<h6>David Anointed King over Judah (2 Sm 2:1-7)<\/h6>\n<p>Subsequent to Saul’s death, the Lord instructed David to go to Hebron, where the tribe of Judah anointed him as their king.<\/p>\n<h6>David, Ishbosheth, and Abner (2 Sm 2:8–4:12)<\/h6>\n<p>Although David became king over Judah, the remaining tribes—under the influence of Abner, commander of Saul’s army—recognized Ishbosheth as Saul’s successor (2:8-10). Ishbosheth was a son of Saul who had survived the battle with the Philistines. Conflict quickly broke out between the men of David, led by Joab, and the men of Ishbosheth, led by Abner. In this conflict Asahel, Joab’s brother, was slain by Abner. As David grew stronger and Ishbosheth weaker, Abner shifted his allegiance from Ishbosheth to David (3:1-21). Joab, however, avenged the blood of his brother Asahel by murdering Abner under the pretense of negotiating with him. Although David detested this act, mourned for Abner, and cursed Joab, the crime was not punished until early in the reign of Solomon (see 1 Kgs 2:5-6, 29-34). Shortly afterward, Ishbosheth was killed by two soldiers, who brought his head to David at Hebron, expecting to be rewarded (2 Sm 4:1-8). David, however, had them both put to death. The only male survivor of Saul’s line was the crippled son of Jonathan named Mephibosheth.<\/p>\n<h6>David King over All Israel (2 Sm 5)<\/h6>\n<p>After Ishbosheth’s death, David was made king over all the tribes at Hebron. One of David’s first acts as king was to capture the fortress of Zion from the Jebusites. David established Zion as his capital and built a palace there for his residence.<\/p>\n<h6>The Ark Brought to Jerusalem (2 Sm 6)<\/h6>\n<p>Recognizing the importance of the ark as a symbol of God’s presence with his people, David determined that it should be brought to Jerusalem from the obscurity of the house of Abinadab in Kiriath-jearim, where it had remained throughout the entirety of Saul’s reign. Violation of prescriptions for handling the ark led to the death of Uzzah, one of Abinadab’s sons, and delayed the ark’s conveyance to Jerusalem for three months. In a second attempt David led a joyful procession into the city of Jerusalem, where the ark was placed in a tent that had been prepared for it.<\/p>\n<h6>David, Nathan, and the Temple (2 Sm 7)<\/h6>\n<p>It soon became David’s desire to build a temple to house the ark and provide a center for Israel’s worship of the Lord. The Lord told David through Nathan the prophet that he was not to build the Lord a house (temple) but that the Lord would build him a house (a dynasty) that would endure forever. Here the line of the promised seed is narrowed to the house of David within the tribe of Judah. This promise finds its fulfillment in the birth of Jesus, who was the “son of David, the son of Abraham” (see Mt 1:1). It would be the task of Solomon, David’s son, to construct the temple (2 Sm 7:13).<\/p>\n<h6>David’s Victories (2 Sm 8)<\/h6>\n<p>David was able to defeat numerous surrounding peoples, to extend Israel’s borders, and to establish a time of prosperity and rest for the nation.<\/p>\n<h6>David and Mephibosheth (2 Sm 9)<\/h6>\n<p>Remembering his covenant with Jonathan (see 1 Sm 18:1-3; 20:13-16, 42), David inquired concerning survivors of the house of Saul to whom he could show kindness. When Mephibosheth was sought out, David brought him to the court to enjoy the honor of eating at the king’s table.<\/p>\n<h6>David and Bathsheba (2 Sm 10–12)<\/h6>\n<p>During a war with the Ammonites, David committed adultery with the wife of one of his soldiers, Uriah the Hittite. When Bathsheba became pregnant, David attempted to get Uriah to sleep with her. When this failed, David arranged for Uriah’s certain death in battle. These sinful acts provoked God’s wrath (2 Sm 12:10-12) and David experienced the bitter fruits of his misconduct during the remainder of his life.<\/p>\n<h6>Amnon, Absalom, and Tamar (2 Sm 13)<\/h6>\n<p>David’s oldest son, Amnon, feigned sickness in order to arrange for his half sister, Tamar, to care for him. When Tamar refused Amnon’s sexual advances to her, he raped her. This incident enraged Tamar’s full brother Absalom, who determined to avenge his sister by killing Amnon. Absalom waited two years and then arranged for the murder of Amnon during the festivities of the time of sheepshearing. He then fled to Geshur, a small city-state in Syria, where his maternal grandfather was king.<\/p>\n<h6>David and Absalom (2 Sm 14–19)<\/h6>\n<p>Absalom remained in exile for three years until Joab arranged for his return by securing a renunciation of blood revenge from David (14:1-27). Upon Absalom’s return, however, David refused to see him for two years, until they were finally reconciled. In this whole episode David sidestepped the issues of repentance and justice and took no effective disciplinary action. In the meantime Absalom conspired to take the throne from David his father by attempting to discredit his administration of justice, and by seeking to win the favor of the people and members of David’s court. After four years, Absalom proclaimed himself king in Hebron and gathered sufficient military strength to force his father to flee from Jerusalem (ch 15). Failure to immediately pursue David led to the defeat of Absalom’s forces and to Absalom’s own death at the hand of Joab, David’s commander. David mourned for his son Absalom (19:1-8), but he was able to return to Jerusalem and to reestablish his government. David disciplined Joab for killing Absalom by replacing him as commander of his troops with Amasa.<\/p>\n<h6>Rebellion of Sheba (2 Sm 20)<\/h6>\n<p>In the unsettled conditions immediately after David’s return to Jerusalem, another abortive revolt was attempted by Sheba of the tribe of Benjamin. Joab, in defiance of David’s disciplinary action, killed Amasa, pursued Sheba, and crushed his revolt.<\/p>\n<h6>David and the Gibeonites (2 Sm 21:1-14)<\/h6>\n<p>At some unspecified time during David’s reign, the land suffered a three-year famine. It was revealed to David by the Lord that the famine was due to Saul’s violation of an Israelite treaty with the Gibeonites (see Jos 9:15, 18-27). This offense was atoned for by giving seven descendants of Saul to the Gibeonites for execution.<\/p>\n<h6>David and the Philistines (2 Sm 21:15-22)<\/h6>\n<p>In this pericope four episodes of heroic accomplishments by David’s mighty men against the Philistines are recounted.<\/p>\n<h6>David’s Song of Praise (2 Sm 22)<\/h6>\n<p>In a beautiful song of praise, David described his deliverance from his enemies and the help with which the Lord sustained him. The same song occurs with minor variations in Psalm 18.<\/p>\n<h6>David’s Last Words (2 Sm 23:1-7)<\/h6>\n<p>In a brief statement, David acknowledges the work of God’s Spirit in enabling him to speak God’s word, and proclaims his confidence in the realization of the Lord’s promise to him and his dynasty.<\/p>\n<h6>David’s Mighty Men (2 Sm 23:8-39)<\/h6>\n<p>This pericope contains a list of 37 of David’s warriors and a description of some of their accomplishments.<\/p>\n<h6>The Census and David’s Punishment (2 Sm 24:1-25)<\/h6>\n<p>David’s decision to take a census of his fighting men reflected an improper trust in military-political organization and power. The Lord judged him by sending a plague on the land that killed many people. At the word of the Lord through Gad the prophet, David built an altar on the threshing floor of Araunah, which was later to become the site of the temple (see 2 Chr 3:1). The Lord responded to David’s sacrifices and prayers on behalf of the people; the plague was stopped.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> David; Samuel (Person); Saul #2.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SAMUEL, Books of First and Second Preview • Name • Author and Date • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Name First and Second Samuel derive their names from the individual whom God used to establish kingship in Israel. Samuel is the most prominent figure in the early narratives of 1 Samuel. His key role in leading the nation of Israel through the transition from the period of the judges to that of the monarchy warrants the use of his name as the title for the book. These books, howeve...","summary_en":"SAMUEL, Books of First and Second Preview • Name • Author and Date • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Name First and Second Samuel derive their names from the individual whom God used to establish kingship in Israel. Samuel is the most prominent figure in the early narratives of 1 Samuel. His key role in leading the nation of Israel through the transition from the period of the judges to that of the monarchy warrants the use of his name as the title for the book. These books, howeve...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":40005,"type":"textbox","type_label":"Notă explicativă","type_icon":"💡","type_color":"#8b5cf6","title_ro":"A Man of God David","title_en":"A Man of God David","content_ro":"<h3>David, A Man of God<\/h3>\n<blockquote><p>David, one of the most gifted and versatile individuals in the OT, is second only to Moses in Israel’s history. He was keenly conscious that God had enabled him to establish a kingdom (Ps 18; cf. 2 Sm 22); it was in that context that he was given the messianic promise of an eternal kingdom.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>From David’s own suffering, persecution, and nearness to death came prophetic psalms that portrayed the suffering and death of the Messiah (e.g., Pss 2; 22; 110; 118). Even the hope of the resurrection is expressed in Psalm 16, as the apostle Peter noted on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2:25-28).<\/p>\n<p>Awareness of a vital personal relationship with God is expressed more consistently by David than by any of the faithful men and women who preceded him. He knew that it was not legalistic observance of rules or rituals that made him acceptable to God. Offering and sacrifice could not atone for sin if one had no accompanying contrition and humility. Many of David’s prayers are as appropriate for Christians as they were for God-fearing people in the OT. David’s writings show that “knowing God” was as real in OT times as it was for the apostle Paul, even though the full revelation of God in Jesus Christ was still in the future.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>David, A Man of God<\/h3>\n<blockquote><p>David, one of the most gifted and versatile individuals in the OT, is second only to Moses in Israel’s history. He was keenly conscious that God had enabled him to establish a kingdom (Ps 18; cf. 2 Sm 22); it was in that context that he was given the messianic promise of an eternal kingdom.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>From David’s own suffering, persecution, and nearness to death came prophetic psalms that portrayed the suffering and death of the Messiah (e.g., Pss 2; 22; 110; 118). Even the hope of the resurrection is expressed in Psalm 16, as the apostle Peter noted on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2:25-28).<\/p>\n<p>Awareness of a vital personal relationship with God is expressed more consistently by David than by any of the faithful men and women who preceded him. He knew that it was not legalistic observance of rules or rituals that made him acceptable to God. Offering and sacrifice could not atone for sin if one had no accompanying contrition and humility. Many of David’s prayers are as appropriate for Christians as they were for God-fearing people in the OT. David’s writings show that “knowing God” was as real in OT times as it was for the apostle Paul, even though the full revelation of God in Jesus Christ was still in the future.<\/p>","summary_ro":"David, A Man of God David, one of the most gifted and versatile individuals in the OT, is second only to Moses in Israel’s history. He was keenly conscious that God had enabled him to establish a kingdom (Ps 18; cf. 2 Sm 22); it was in that context that he was given the messianic promise of an eternal kingdom. From David’s own suffering, persecution, and nearness to death came prophetic psalms that portrayed the suffering and death of the Messiah (e.g., Pss 2; 22; 110; 118). Even the hope of ...","summary_en":"David, A Man of God David, one of the most gifted and versatile individuals in the OT, is second only to Moses in Israel’s history. He was keenly conscious that God had enabled him to establish a kingdom (Ps 18; cf. 2 Sm 22); it was in that context that he was given the messianic promise of an eternal kingdom. From David’s own suffering, persecution, and nearness to death came prophetic psalms that portrayed the suffering and death of the Messiah (e.g., Pss 2; 22; 110; 118). Even the hope of ...","source":"Textboxes\/Textboxes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":39794,"type":"chart","type_label":"Diagramă","type_icon":"📊","type_color":"#3b82f6","title_ro":"Some Psalms from David’s Experiences","title_en":"Psalms from David’s Experiences, Some","content_ro":"<table>\n <tr>\n <td><p><em>Psalm<\/em><\/p><\/td>\n <td><p><em>Historical Reference<\/em><\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>59<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>1 Sm 19:11<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>56<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>1 Sm 21:10<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>34<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>1 Sm 21:13<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>142<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>1 Sm 22:1<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>52<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>1 Sm 22:9<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>54<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>1 Sm 23:19<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>57<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>1 Sm 24:1<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>7<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>1 Sm 24:11-12<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>18<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>2 Sm 7:1; 22<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>32<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>2 Sm 12:13-14<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>51<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>2 Sm 12:13-14<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>3<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>2 Sm 15:16<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>63<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>2 Sm 16:2<\/p><\/td><\/tr><\/table>","content_en":"<table>\n <tr>\n <td><p><em>Psalm<\/em><\/p><\/td>\n <td><p><em>Historical Reference<\/em><\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>59<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>1 Sm 19:11<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>56<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>1 Sm 21:10<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>34<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>1 Sm 21:13<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>142<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>1 Sm 22:1<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>52<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>1 Sm 22:9<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>54<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>1 Sm 23:19<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>57<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>1 Sm 24:1<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>7<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>1 Sm 24:11-12<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>18<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>2 Sm 7:1; 22<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>32<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>2 Sm 12:13-14<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>51<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>2 Sm 12:13-14<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>3<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>2 Sm 15:16<\/p><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td><p>63<\/p><\/td>\n <td><p>2 Sm 16:2<\/p><\/td><\/tr><\/table>","summary_ro":"Psalm Historical Reference 59 1 Sm 19:11 56 1 Sm 21:10 34 1 Sm 21:13 142 1 Sm 22:1 52 1 Sm 22:9 54 1 Sm 23:19 57 1 Sm 24:1 7 1 Sm 24:11-12 18 2 Sm 7:1; 22 32 2 Sm 12:13-14 51 2 Sm 12:13-14 3 2 Sm 15:16 63 2 Sm 16:2","summary_en":"Psalm Historical Reference 59 1 Sm 19:11 56 1 Sm 21:10 34 1 Sm 21:13 142 1 Sm 22:1 52 1 Sm 22:9 54 1 Sm 23:19 57 1 Sm 24:1 7 1 Sm 24:11-12 18 2 Sm 7:1; 22 32 2 Sm 12:13-14 51 2 Sm 12:13-14 3 2 Sm 15:16 63 2 Sm 16:2","source":"Charts\/Charts.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":46810,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:1","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:1-51<\/strong> Although this prayer of thanksgiving (also recorded in Ps 18) is placed near the end of David’s story, David probably offered it to God much earlier in his life. This prayer and Hannah’s (1 Sam 2:1-10) together enclose the book of Samuel with an <em>inclusio<\/em> (literary bookends). Hannah was saved from barrenness; David was saved from his enemies. The placement of this hymn also provides a parallel to Moses. The stories of both Moses and David end with a song or hymn giving lavish praise to God (see also Deut 31:30–32:43). Both highlight God as a “Rock” (Deut 32:4, 15, 18, 30, 31; 2 Sam 22:2, 3, 32, 47). Both are followed by second and shorter poetic pieces—Moses’ final blessing to the Israelite tribes (Deut 33), and David’s last words (2 Sam 23:1-7).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:1-51<\/strong> Although this prayer of thanksgiving (also recorded in Ps 18) is placed near the end of David’s story, David probably offered it to God much earlier in his life. This prayer and Hannah’s (1 Sam 2:1-10) together enclose the book of Samuel with an <em>inclusio<\/em> (literary bookends). Hannah was saved from barrenness; David was saved from his enemies. The placement of this hymn also provides a parallel to Moses. The stories of both Moses and David end with a song or hymn giving lavish praise to God (see also Deut 31:30–32:43). Both highlight God as a “Rock” (Deut 32:4, 15, 18, 30, 31; 2 Sam 22:2, 3, 32, 47). Both are followed by second and shorter poetic pieces—Moses’ final blessing to the Israelite tribes (Deut 33), and David’s last words (2 Sam 23:1-7).<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:1-51 Although this prayer of thanksgiving (also recorded in Ps 18) is placed near the end of David’s story, David probably offered it to God much earlier in his life. This prayer and Hannah’s (1 Sam 2:1-10) together enclose the book of Samuel with an inclusio (literary bookends). Hannah was saved from barrenness; David was saved from his enemies. The placement of this hymn also provides a parallel to Moses. The stories of both Moses and David end with a song or hymn giving lavish praise to...","summary_en":"22:1-51 Although this prayer of thanksgiving (also recorded in Ps 18) is placed near the end of David’s story, David probably offered it to God much earlier in his life. This prayer and Hannah’s (1 Sam 2:1-10) together enclose the book of Samuel with an inclusio (literary bookends). Hannah was saved from barrenness; David was saved from his enemies. The placement of this hymn also provides a parallel to Moses. The stories of both Moses and David end with a song or hymn giving lavish praise to...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":74436,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:1","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:1-51<\/strong> Although this prayer of thanksgiving (also recorded in Ps 18) is placed near the end of David’s story, David probably offered it to God much earlier in his life. This prayer and Hannah’s (1 Sam 2:1-10) together enclose the book of Samuel with an <em>inclusio<\/em> (literary bookends). Hannah was saved from barrenness; David was saved from his enemies. The placement of this hymn also provides a parallel to Moses. The stories of both Moses and David end with a song or hymn giving lavish praise to God (see also Deut 31:30–32:43). Both highlight God as a “Rock” (Deut 32:4, 15, 18, 30, 31; 2 Sam 22:2, 3, 32, 47). Both are followed by second and shorter poetic pieces—Moses’ final blessing to the Israelite tribes (Deut 33), and David’s last words (2 Sam 23:1-7).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:1-51<\/strong> Although this prayer of thanksgiving (also recorded in Ps 18) is placed near the end of David’s story, David probably offered it to God much earlier in his life. This prayer and Hannah’s (1 Sam 2:1-10) together enclose the book of Samuel with an <em>inclusio<\/em> (literary bookends). Hannah was saved from barrenness; David was saved from his enemies. The placement of this hymn also provides a parallel to Moses. The stories of both Moses and David end with a song or hymn giving lavish praise to God (see also Deut 31:30–32:43). Both highlight God as a “Rock” (Deut 32:4, 15, 18, 30, 31; 2 Sam 22:2, 3, 32, 47). Both are followed by second and shorter poetic pieces—Moses’ final blessing to the Israelite tribes (Deut 33), and David’s last words (2 Sam 23:1-7).<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:1-51 Although this prayer of thanksgiving (also recorded in Ps 18) is placed near the end of David’s story, David probably offered it to God much earlier in his life. This prayer and Hannah’s (1 Sam 2:1-10) together enclose the book of Samuel with an inclusio (literary bookends). Hannah was saved from barrenness; David was saved from his enemies. The placement of this hymn also provides a parallel to Moses. The stories of both Moses and David end with a song or hymn giving lavish praise to...","summary_en":"22:1-51 Although this prayer of thanksgiving (also recorded in Ps 18) is placed near the end of David’s story, David probably offered it to God much earlier in his life. This prayer and Hannah’s (1 Sam 2:1-10) together enclose the book of Samuel with an inclusio (literary bookends). Hannah was saved from barrenness; David was saved from his enemies. The placement of this hymn also provides a parallel to Moses. The stories of both Moses and David end with a song or hymn giving lavish praise to...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":102062,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:1","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:1-51<\/strong> Although this prayer of thanksgiving (also recorded in Ps 18) is placed near the end of David’s story, David probably offered it to God much earlier in his life. This prayer and Hannah’s (1 Sam 2:1-10) together enclose the book of Samuel with an <em>inclusio<\/em> (literary bookends). Hannah was saved from barrenness; David was saved from his enemies. The placement of this hymn also provides a parallel to Moses. The stories of both Moses and David end with a song or hymn giving lavish praise to God (see also Deut 31:30–32:43). Both highlight God as a “Rock” (Deut 32:4, 15, 18, 30, 31; 2 Sam 22:2, 3, 32, 47). Both are followed by second and shorter poetic pieces—Moses’ final blessing to the Israelite tribes (Deut 33), and David’s last words (2 Sam 23:1-7).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:1-51<\/strong> Although this prayer of thanksgiving (also recorded in Ps 18) is placed near the end of David’s story, David probably offered it to God much earlier in his life. This prayer and Hannah’s (1 Sam 2:1-10) together enclose the book of Samuel with an <em>inclusio<\/em> (literary bookends). Hannah was saved from barrenness; David was saved from his enemies. The placement of this hymn also provides a parallel to Moses. The stories of both Moses and David end with a song or hymn giving lavish praise to God (see also Deut 31:30–32:43). Both highlight God as a “Rock” (Deut 32:4, 15, 18, 30, 31; 2 Sam 22:2, 3, 32, 47). Both are followed by second and shorter poetic pieces—Moses’ final blessing to the Israelite tribes (Deut 33), and David’s last words (2 Sam 23:1-7).<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:1-51 Although this prayer of thanksgiving (also recorded in Ps 18) is placed near the end of David’s story, David probably offered it to God much earlier in his life. This prayer and Hannah’s (1 Sam 2:1-10) together enclose the book of Samuel with an inclusio (literary bookends). Hannah was saved from barrenness; David was saved from his enemies. The placement of this hymn also provides a parallel to Moses. The stories of both Moses and David end with a song or hymn giving lavish praise to...","summary_en":"22:1-51 Although this prayer of thanksgiving (also recorded in Ps 18) is placed near the end of David’s story, David probably offered it to God much earlier in his life. This prayer and Hannah’s (1 Sam 2:1-10) together enclose the book of Samuel with an inclusio (literary bookends). Hannah was saved from barrenness; David was saved from his enemies. The placement of this hymn also provides a parallel to Moses. The stories of both Moses and David end with a song or hymn giving lavish praise to...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":129688,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:1","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:1-51<\/strong> Although this prayer of thanksgiving (also recorded in Ps 18) is placed near the end of David’s story, David probably offered it to God much earlier in his life. This prayer and Hannah’s (1 Sam 2:1-10) together enclose the book of Samuel with an <em>inclusio<\/em> (literary bookends). Hannah was saved from barrenness; David was saved from his enemies. The placement of this hymn also provides a parallel to Moses. The stories of both Moses and David end with a song or hymn giving lavish praise to God (see also Deut 31:30–32:43). Both highlight God as a “Rock” (Deut 32:4, 15, 18, 30, 31; 2 Sam 22:2, 3, 32, 47). Both are followed by second and shorter poetic pieces—Moses’ final blessing to the Israelite tribes (Deut 33), and David’s last words (2 Sam 23:1-7).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:1-51<\/strong> Although this prayer of thanksgiving (also recorded in Ps 18) is placed near the end of David’s story, David probably offered it to God much earlier in his life. This prayer and Hannah’s (1 Sam 2:1-10) together enclose the book of Samuel with an <em>inclusio<\/em> (literary bookends). Hannah was saved from barrenness; David was saved from his enemies. The placement of this hymn also provides a parallel to Moses. The stories of both Moses and David end with a song or hymn giving lavish praise to God (see also Deut 31:30–32:43). Both highlight God as a “Rock” (Deut 32:4, 15, 18, 30, 31; 2 Sam 22:2, 3, 32, 47). Both are followed by second and shorter poetic pieces—Moses’ final blessing to the Israelite tribes (Deut 33), and David’s last words (2 Sam 23:1-7).<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:1-51 Although this prayer of thanksgiving (also recorded in Ps 18) is placed near the end of David’s story, David probably offered it to God much earlier in his life. This prayer and Hannah’s (1 Sam 2:1-10) together enclose the book of Samuel with an inclusio (literary bookends). Hannah was saved from barrenness; David was saved from his enemies. The placement of this hymn also provides a parallel to Moses. The stories of both Moses and David end with a song or hymn giving lavish praise to...","summary_en":"22:1-51 Although this prayer of thanksgiving (also recorded in Ps 18) is placed near the end of David’s story, David probably offered it to God much earlier in his life. This prayer and Hannah’s (1 Sam 2:1-10) together enclose the book of Samuel with an inclusio (literary bookends). Hannah was saved from barrenness; David was saved from his enemies. The placement of this hymn also provides a parallel to Moses. The stories of both Moses and David end with a song or hymn giving lavish praise to...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"2":[{"id":9231,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Deliverer Deliverance","title_en":"Deliverer Deliverance","content_ro":"<h3>DELIVERANCE, DELIVERER<\/h3>\n<p>Rescue or redemption and the agent of such a rescue. Scripture teaches that God’s ultimate goal in history is to rescue people from the curse of sin, death, Satan, and hell. The OT depicts God as delivering his chosen people from Egyptian slavery, from Babylonian captivity, and from oppression at the hands of various Palestinian tribes. To Christians those deliverances foreshadow the coming of Jesus Christ as supreme deliverer.<\/p>\n<p>The noun “deliverer” occurs a number of times in the OT. Three times the word refers to a human being. Othniel delivered Israel from subjugation to Cushan-rishathaim, king of Mesopotamia (Jgs 3:8-10). Ehud delivered Israel from Eglon, king of Moab (vv 15, 30). Judges 18:27-29 states that “there was no deliverer” to protect Laish from conquest by Dan’s tribe. Other uses of “deliverer” refer to God himself as personal deliverer of his people (2 Sm 22:2; Pss 18:2; 40:17; 70:5; 144:2).<\/p>\n<p>The basic OT concept of deliverer is expressed in a Hebrew word for “next of kin.” A close relative was responsible to aid an individual in distress and to redeem him or her from slavery. God sent deliverance when his people were in danger, or God himself acted as deliverer, uniquely and forcefully in the exodus from Egypt (Ex 3:7-8).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Jesus quoted a messianic passage (Is 61:1-2) as describing his own mission to proclaim release (or, deliverance) to the captives (Lk 4:18). In Acts 7:35 Moses is called a “deliverer” of Israel. In Romans 11:26 the apostle Paul paraphrased Isaiah 59:20, saying “A Deliverer will come from Jerusalem”—referring to Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Messiah; Redeemer, Redemption.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DELIVERANCE, DELIVERER<\/h3>\n<p>Rescue or redemption and the agent of such a rescue. Scripture teaches that God’s ultimate goal in history is to rescue people from the curse of sin, death, Satan, and hell. The OT depicts God as delivering his chosen people from Egyptian slavery, from Babylonian captivity, and from oppression at the hands of various Palestinian tribes. To Christians those deliverances foreshadow the coming of Jesus Christ as supreme deliverer.<\/p>\n<p>The noun “deliverer” occurs a number of times in the OT. Three times the word refers to a human being. Othniel delivered Israel from subjugation to Cushan-rishathaim, king of Mesopotamia (Jgs 3:8-10). Ehud delivered Israel from Eglon, king of Moab (vv 15, 30). Judges 18:27-29 states that “there was no deliverer” to protect Laish from conquest by Dan’s tribe. Other uses of “deliverer” refer to God himself as personal deliverer of his people (2 Sm 22:2; Pss 18:2; 40:17; 70:5; 144:2).<\/p>\n<p>The basic OT concept of deliverer is expressed in a Hebrew word for “next of kin.” A close relative was responsible to aid an individual in distress and to redeem him or her from slavery. God sent deliverance when his people were in danger, or God himself acted as deliverer, uniquely and forcefully in the exodus from Egypt (Ex 3:7-8).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT, Jesus quoted a messianic passage (Is 61:1-2) as describing his own mission to proclaim release (or, deliverance) to the captives (Lk 4:18). In Acts 7:35 Moses is called a “deliverer” of Israel. In Romans 11:26 the apostle Paul paraphrased Isaiah 59:20, saying “A Deliverer will come from Jerusalem”—referring to Jesus Christ.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Messiah; Redeemer, Redemption.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DELIVERANCE, DELIVERER Rescue or redemption and the agent of such a rescue. Scripture teaches that God’s ultimate goal in history is to rescue people from the curse of sin, death, Satan, and hell. The OT depicts God as delivering his chosen people from Egyptian slavery, from Babylonian captivity, and from oppression at the hands of various Palestinian tribes. To Christians those deliverances foreshadow the coming of Jesus Christ as supreme deliverer. The noun “deliverer” occurs a number of ti...","summary_en":"DELIVERANCE, DELIVERER Rescue or redemption and the agent of such a rescue. Scripture teaches that God’s ultimate goal in history is to rescue people from the curse of sin, death, Satan, and hell. The OT depicts God as delivering his chosen people from Egyptian slavery, from Babylonian captivity, and from oppression at the hands of various Palestinian tribes. To Christians those deliverances foreshadow the coming of Jesus Christ as supreme deliverer. The noun “deliverer” occurs a number of ti...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":12781,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Fortification Fort","title_en":"Fortification Fort","content_ro":"<h3>FORT, FORTIFICATION<\/h3>\n<p>Walls, citadels, and sometimes moats protecting most cities in the ancient world. Fortifications followed the natural contour of the area encircling a city. Early city defenses consisted of simple banks of earth tossed against the walls and outer structures to make it difficult for hostile forces to approach and enter the city. Wherever possible, the site chosen for the location of a city would be a naturally favorable topographical situation, such as a steep elevation in an isolated place or a hill that afforded natural protection. Some sites were chosen because of their ample water supply, good navigation, or central location at a crossroads of traveled highways, even if they had no natural defenses. The difficulty and cost of fortifications were then obviously much more serious.<\/p>\n<p>In general, whatever materials were available were used for construction of fortifications, including debris, rubble, and beaten earth. Those materials were faced with hard-packed clay or lime plaster to prevent an enemy from knowing the quality of the underlying filling. Commonly a ditch or moat was dug or cut out of solid rock in front of the walls. This hindered an enemy’s advance and made any attempt to tunnel under the walls and into the city more difficult.<\/p>\n<p>Towers were built for added strength and protection at potentially weak spots, such as corners, gateways, or openings for water supplies. Towers had inner access stairways and chambers for use by soldiers who manned the structures and for use by watchmen who announced the approach of danger. Gateways were provided with massive piers and bronze or iron bars and bolts. Gates were hung on pivots driven into the pavement below and into the lintel above and had to be strongly fortified and carefully protected. Often they consisted of a series of entrances, one inside the other, with guardrooms between them.<\/p>\n<p>Excavations of ancient forts reveal the development of fortifications from primitive beginnings to NT times. Earliest strongholds were constructed with crude brick and rough stone work. Masonry was irregular, and large stones of various sizes and shapes were roughly trimmed and crudely placed into the wall structures. Stone facings and wall joints were packed with pebbles or limestone chippings. During later times, carefully prepared mortar was used to cover the walls to give greater strength and support to the fortifications. Not until late in the Hebrew period were stones with ornamentation and skilled drafting used.<\/p>\n<p>Scripture uses the imagery of a fortress or high tower to picture the confidence that believers can have in God’s strength and protection. The prophets realized that the strength and defense of the nation lay not in fortifications of brick and stone but in God, and they urged the people to put their trust in him as a secure refuge (2 Sm 22:2-3, 33; Prv 10:29; Is 25:4; Jer 16:19; Hos 8:14; Jl 3:16; Na 1:7).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Warfare; City; Watchtower.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>FORT, FORTIFICATION<\/h3>\n<p>Walls, citadels, and sometimes moats protecting most cities in the ancient world. Fortifications followed the natural contour of the area encircling a city. Early city defenses consisted of simple banks of earth tossed against the walls and outer structures to make it difficult for hostile forces to approach and enter the city. Wherever possible, the site chosen for the location of a city would be a naturally favorable topographical situation, such as a steep elevation in an isolated place or a hill that afforded natural protection. Some sites were chosen because of their ample water supply, good navigation, or central location at a crossroads of traveled highways, even if they had no natural defenses. The difficulty and cost of fortifications were then obviously much more serious.<\/p>\n<p>In general, whatever materials were available were used for construction of fortifications, including debris, rubble, and beaten earth. Those materials were faced with hard-packed clay or lime plaster to prevent an enemy from knowing the quality of the underlying filling. Commonly a ditch or moat was dug or cut out of solid rock in front of the walls. This hindered an enemy’s advance and made any attempt to tunnel under the walls and into the city more difficult.<\/p>\n<p>Towers were built for added strength and protection at potentially weak spots, such as corners, gateways, or openings for water supplies. Towers had inner access stairways and chambers for use by soldiers who manned the structures and for use by watchmen who announced the approach of danger. Gateways were provided with massive piers and bronze or iron bars and bolts. Gates were hung on pivots driven into the pavement below and into the lintel above and had to be strongly fortified and carefully protected. Often they consisted of a series of entrances, one inside the other, with guardrooms between them.<\/p>\n<p>Excavations of ancient forts reveal the development of fortifications from primitive beginnings to NT times. Earliest strongholds were constructed with crude brick and rough stone work. Masonry was irregular, and large stones of various sizes and shapes were roughly trimmed and crudely placed into the wall structures. Stone facings and wall joints were packed with pebbles or limestone chippings. During later times, carefully prepared mortar was used to cover the walls to give greater strength and support to the fortifications. Not until late in the Hebrew period were stones with ornamentation and skilled drafting used.<\/p>\n<p>Scripture uses the imagery of a fortress or high tower to picture the confidence that believers can have in God’s strength and protection. The prophets realized that the strength and defense of the nation lay not in fortifications of brick and stone but in God, and they urged the people to put their trust in him as a secure refuge (2 Sm 22:2-3, 33; Prv 10:29; Is 25:4; Jer 16:19; Hos 8:14; Jl 3:16; Na 1:7).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Warfare; City; Watchtower.<\/p>","summary_ro":"FORT, FORTIFICATION Walls, citadels, and sometimes moats protecting most cities in the ancient world. Fortifications followed the natural contour of the area encircling a city. Early city defenses consisted of simple banks of earth tossed against the walls and outer structures to make it difficult for hostile forces to approach and enter the city. Wherever possible, the site chosen for the location of a city would be a naturally favorable topographical situation, such as a steep elevation in ...","summary_en":"FORT, FORTIFICATION Walls, citadels, and sometimes moats protecting most cities in the ancient world. Fortifications followed the natural contour of the area encircling a city. Early city defenses consisted of simple banks of earth tossed against the walls and outer structures to make it difficult for hostile forces to approach and enter the city. Wherever possible, the site chosen for the location of a city would be a naturally favorable topographical situation, such as a steep elevation in ...","source":"Articles\/F.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":46811,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:2","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:2<\/strong> Hannah had said, “there is no Rock like our God” (1 Sam 2:2), while David said, <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> is my rock<\/em>, which recalls God’s rescue of David from Saul at the Rock of Escape (1 Sam 23:28). The Hebrew word translated “rock” in 22:3 (different from 22:2) refers in 1 Sam 24:2 to “the rocks of the wild goats,” where Saul suspected that David was hiding. • <em>fortress:<\/em> The same word referred to David’s physical “stronghold” (1 Sam 22:4), where David and his men sought refuge from Saul.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:2<\/strong> Hannah had said, “there is no Rock like our God” (1 Sam 2:2), while David said, <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> is my rock<\/em>, which recalls God’s rescue of David from Saul at the Rock of Escape (1 Sam 23:28). The Hebrew word translated “rock” in 22:3 (different from 22:2) refers in 1 Sam 24:2 to “the rocks of the wild goats,” where Saul suspected that David was hiding. • <em>fortress:<\/em> The same word referred to David’s physical “stronghold” (1 Sam 22:4), where David and his men sought refuge from Saul.<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:2 Hannah had said, “there is no Rock like our God” (1 Sam 2:2), while David said, the Lord is my rock, which recalls God’s rescue of David from Saul at the Rock of Escape (1 Sam 23:28). The Hebrew word translated “rock” in 22:3 (different from 22:2) refers in 1 Sam 24:2 to “the rocks of the wild goats,” where Saul suspected that David was hiding. • fortress: The same word referred to David’s physical “stronghold” (1 Sam 22:4), where David and his men sought refuge from Saul.","summary_en":"22:2 Hannah had said, “there is no Rock like our God” (1 Sam 2:2), while David said, the Lord is my rock, which recalls God’s rescue of David from Saul at the Rock of Escape (1 Sam 23:28). The Hebrew word translated “rock” in 22:3 (different from 22:2) refers in 1 Sam 24:2 to “the rocks of the wild goats,” where Saul suspected that David was hiding. • fortress: The same word referred to David’s physical “stronghold” (1 Sam 22:4), where David and his men sought refuge from Saul.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":74437,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:2","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:2<\/strong> Hannah had said, “there is no Rock like our God” (1 Sam 2:2), while David said, <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> is my rock<\/em>, which recalls God’s rescue of David from Saul at the Rock of Escape (1 Sam 23:28). The Hebrew word translated “rock” in 22:3 (different from 22:2) refers in 1 Sam 24:2 to “the rocks of the wild goats,” where Saul suspected that David was hiding. • <em>fortress:<\/em> The same word referred to David’s physical “stronghold” (1 Sam 22:4), where David and his men sought refuge from Saul.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:2<\/strong> Hannah had said, “there is no Rock like our God” (1 Sam 2:2), while David said, <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> is my rock<\/em>, which recalls God’s rescue of David from Saul at the Rock of Escape (1 Sam 23:28). The Hebrew word translated “rock” in 22:3 (different from 22:2) refers in 1 Sam 24:2 to “the rocks of the wild goats,” where Saul suspected that David was hiding. • <em>fortress:<\/em> The same word referred to David’s physical “stronghold” (1 Sam 22:4), where David and his men sought refuge from Saul.<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:2 Hannah had said, “there is no Rock like our God” (1 Sam 2:2), while David said, the Lord is my rock, which recalls God’s rescue of David from Saul at the Rock of Escape (1 Sam 23:28). The Hebrew word translated “rock” in 22:3 (different from 22:2) refers in 1 Sam 24:2 to “the rocks of the wild goats,” where Saul suspected that David was hiding. • fortress: The same word referred to David’s physical “stronghold” (1 Sam 22:4), where David and his men sought refuge from Saul.","summary_en":"22:2 Hannah had said, “there is no Rock like our God” (1 Sam 2:2), while David said, the Lord is my rock, which recalls God’s rescue of David from Saul at the Rock of Escape (1 Sam 23:28). The Hebrew word translated “rock” in 22:3 (different from 22:2) refers in 1 Sam 24:2 to “the rocks of the wild goats,” where Saul suspected that David was hiding. • fortress: The same word referred to David’s physical “stronghold” (1 Sam 22:4), where David and his men sought refuge from Saul.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":102063,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:2","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:2<\/strong> Hannah had said, “there is no Rock like our God” (1 Sam 2:2), while David said, <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> is my rock<\/em>, which recalls God’s rescue of David from Saul at the Rock of Escape (1 Sam 23:28). The Hebrew word translated “rock” in 22:3 (different from 22:2) refers in 1 Sam 24:2 to “the rocks of the wild goats,” where Saul suspected that David was hiding. • <em>fortress:<\/em> The same word referred to David’s physical “stronghold” (1 Sam 22:4), where David and his men sought refuge from Saul.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:2<\/strong> Hannah had said, “there is no Rock like our God” (1 Sam 2:2), while David said, <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> is my rock<\/em>, which recalls God’s rescue of David from Saul at the Rock of Escape (1 Sam 23:28). The Hebrew word translated “rock” in 22:3 (different from 22:2) refers in 1 Sam 24:2 to “the rocks of the wild goats,” where Saul suspected that David was hiding. • <em>fortress:<\/em> The same word referred to David’s physical “stronghold” (1 Sam 22:4), where David and his men sought refuge from Saul.<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:2 Hannah had said, “there is no Rock like our God” (1 Sam 2:2), while David said, the Lord is my rock, which recalls God’s rescue of David from Saul at the Rock of Escape (1 Sam 23:28). The Hebrew word translated “rock” in 22:3 (different from 22:2) refers in 1 Sam 24:2 to “the rocks of the wild goats,” where Saul suspected that David was hiding. • fortress: The same word referred to David’s physical “stronghold” (1 Sam 22:4), where David and his men sought refuge from Saul.","summary_en":"22:2 Hannah had said, “there is no Rock like our God” (1 Sam 2:2), while David said, the Lord is my rock, which recalls God’s rescue of David from Saul at the Rock of Escape (1 Sam 23:28). The Hebrew word translated “rock” in 22:3 (different from 22:2) refers in 1 Sam 24:2 to “the rocks of the wild goats,” where Saul suspected that David was hiding. • fortress: The same word referred to David’s physical “stronghold” (1 Sam 22:4), where David and his men sought refuge from Saul.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":129689,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:2","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:2<\/strong> Hannah had said, “there is no Rock like our God” (1 Sam 2:2), while David said, <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> is my rock<\/em>, which recalls God’s rescue of David from Saul at the Rock of Escape (1 Sam 23:28). The Hebrew word translated “rock” in 22:3 (different from 22:2) refers in 1 Sam 24:2 to “the rocks of the wild goats,” where Saul suspected that David was hiding. • <em>fortress:<\/em> The same word referred to David’s physical “stronghold” (1 Sam 22:4), where David and his men sought refuge from Saul.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:2<\/strong> Hannah had said, “there is no Rock like our God” (1 Sam 2:2), while David said, <em>the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> is my rock<\/em>, which recalls God’s rescue of David from Saul at the Rock of Escape (1 Sam 23:28). The Hebrew word translated “rock” in 22:3 (different from 22:2) refers in 1 Sam 24:2 to “the rocks of the wild goats,” where Saul suspected that David was hiding. • <em>fortress:<\/em> The same word referred to David’s physical “stronghold” (1 Sam 22:4), where David and his men sought refuge from Saul.<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:2 Hannah had said, “there is no Rock like our God” (1 Sam 2:2), while David said, the Lord is my rock, which recalls God’s rescue of David from Saul at the Rock of Escape (1 Sam 23:28). The Hebrew word translated “rock” in 22:3 (different from 22:2) refers in 1 Sam 24:2 to “the rocks of the wild goats,” where Saul suspected that David was hiding. • fortress: The same word referred to David’s physical “stronghold” (1 Sam 22:4), where David and his men sought refuge from Saul.","summary_en":"22:2 Hannah had said, “there is no Rock like our God” (1 Sam 2:2), while David said, the Lord is my rock, which recalls God’s rescue of David from Saul at the Rock of Escape (1 Sam 23:28). The Hebrew word translated “rock” in 22:3 (different from 22:2) refers in 1 Sam 24:2 to “the rocks of the wild goats,” where Saul suspected that David was hiding. • fortress: The same word referred to David’s physical “stronghold” (1 Sam 22:4), where David and his men sought refuge from Saul.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"3":[{"id":16683,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Horn","title_en":"Horn","content_ro":"<h3>HORN<\/h3>\n<li>1. Musical instrument frequently made from a ram’s horn. <em>See<\/em> Musical Instruments (Hatzotzrot).<\/li>\n<li>2. Figuratively, a symbol of power (1 Kgs 22:11) expressing dominance over the weak (Ez 34:21), forces of destruction (Zec 1:18-21), and deliverance from oppression (1 Kgs 22:11; 2 Chr 18:10). Thus, the horn has two connotations: rescue and force (2 Sm 22:3; Ps 18:2). The sprouting of the horn referred to in Psalm 132:17 could mean the continuation of the kingly line. Psalm 75:10 declares that the horns of the wicked shall be cut off but those of the righteous exalted. The symbolic imagery in Daniel and Revelation reinforces the use of the horn to represent power and authority (Dn 7–8; Rv 13, 17).<\/li>\n<li>3. A container. The ram’s horn, goat’s horn, and horn of a wild ox were used as containers for liquid. They were also ceremonial receptacles for oil (1 Sm 16:1, 13; 1 Kgs 1:39). Cows’ horns were forbidden for any religious or ceremonial use.<\/li>\n<li>4. Four horn-shaped projections jutting from the four corners of the tabernacle and temple altars (Ex 27:2; 30:2-3). These altar horns were coated with sacrificial blood and denoted an area of sanctuary (Ex 29:12; Lv 4:7, 18; 1 Kgs 1:50-51).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>HORN<\/h3>\n<li>1. Musical instrument frequently made from a ram’s horn. <em>See<\/em> Musical Instruments (Hatzotzrot).<\/li>\n<li>2. Figuratively, a symbol of power (1 Kgs 22:11) expressing dominance over the weak (Ez 34:21), forces of destruction (Zec 1:18-21), and deliverance from oppression (1 Kgs 22:11; 2 Chr 18:10). Thus, the horn has two connotations: rescue and force (2 Sm 22:3; Ps 18:2). The sprouting of the horn referred to in Psalm 132:17 could mean the continuation of the kingly line. Psalm 75:10 declares that the horns of the wicked shall be cut off but those of the righteous exalted. The symbolic imagery in Daniel and Revelation reinforces the use of the horn to represent power and authority (Dn 7–8; Rv 13, 17).<\/li>\n<li>3. A container. The ram’s horn, goat’s horn, and horn of a wild ox were used as containers for liquid. They were also ceremonial receptacles for oil (1 Sm 16:1, 13; 1 Kgs 1:39). Cows’ horns were forbidden for any religious or ceremonial use.<\/li>\n<li>4. Four horn-shaped projections jutting from the four corners of the tabernacle and temple altars (Ex 27:2; 30:2-3). These altar horns were coated with sacrificial blood and denoted an area of sanctuary (Ex 29:12; Lv 4:7, 18; 1 Kgs 1:50-51).<\/li>","summary_ro":"HORN 1. Musical instrument frequently made from a ram’s horn. See Musical Instruments (Hatzotzrot). 2. Figuratively, a symbol of power (1 Kgs 22:11) expressing dominance over the weak (Ez 34:21), forces of destruction (Zec 1:18-21), and deliverance from oppression (1 Kgs 22:11; 2 Chr 18:10). Thus, the horn has two connotations: rescue and force (2 Sm 22:3; Ps 18:2). The sprouting of the horn referred to in Psalm 132:17 could mean the continuation of the kingly line. Psalm 75:10 declares that ...","summary_en":"HORN 1. Musical instrument frequently made from a ram’s horn. See Musical Instruments (Hatzotzrot). 2. Figuratively, a symbol of power (1 Kgs 22:11) expressing dominance over the weak (Ez 34:21), forces of destruction (Zec 1:18-21), and deliverance from oppression (1 Kgs 22:11; 2 Chr 18:10). Thus, the horn has two connotations: rescue and force (2 Sm 22:3; Ps 18:2). The sprouting of the horn referred to in Psalm 132:17 could mean the continuation of the kingly line. Psalm 75:10 declares that ...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":34036,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Savior","title_en":"Savior","content_ro":"<h3>SAVIOR<\/h3>\n<p>One who delivers or rescues. The term “savior” is most frequently applied to God and Jesus Christ in the Bible. The understanding of Jesus as Savior is a key truth in appropriating the biblical message. Versions of the English Bible use “savior” in the OT to translate various forms of the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">yasha‘<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “to save,” “to deliver,” or “to rescue.” Most frequently it is used to translate the participle of the verb, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">moshia‘<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “the one who saves.” Used in this way, “savior” is found 13 or 14 times in the OT, depending upon the version.<\/p>\n<p>The basic understanding of the term “savior” as one who delivers or rescues is illustrated in Deuteronomy 22:27, where the law anticipated a situation when no deliverer was near in time of need. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Moshia‘<\/span> is also used for individuals, as both Othniel and Ehud are called “deliverers” (Jgs 3:9, 15) and Nehemiah 9:27 speaks of the judges collectively as deliverers sent by God. Second Kings 13:5 reports that the Lord gave Israel a savior in reference to their deliverance from the Arameans. Some have identified this deliverer with King Jeroboam II of Judah; others with a foreign king, quite often Zakir of Hamath. But the text does not clearly indicate who this savior might have been. The point of the text is that God sent this deliverer for his people. The majority of references in the OT refer to God himself as Israel’s savior, and even when other individuals are so termed, it is clearly stated that God sent them or raised them up. Israel understood that God was their savior and declared this in songs of praise (Pss 17:7; 106:1-12) and cries for help (Jer 14:8). David said this of God: “He is my stronghold, my refuge and my savior” (2 Sm 22:3, <span>niv<\/span>). Quite often the psalmists refer to the Lord as their “help” or “salvation” (Pss 27:9; 38:22; 42:5, 11; 65:5; 68:19; 79:9; 85:4; 89:26; all rendered “Savior” by the <span>niv<\/span>). The exodus was undoubtedly the greatest example of deliverance for Israel and undergirded their knowledge of God as the savior. The psalmist, in remembrance of Israel’s sin of making a golden calf, proclaims, “They forgot God, their savior, who had done such great things in Egypt” (Ps 106:21, <span>nlt<\/span>; cf. Is 63:11; Hos 13:4-6). In Isaiah, where “savior” is a frequent title for God, the term is used to emphasize his uniqueness. God alone is seen as savior, in contrast to foreign gods and idols: “I, even I, am the <span>Lord<\/span>, and apart from me there is no savior. I have revealed and saved and proclaimed—I, and not some foreign god among you” (Is 43:11-12, <span>niv<\/span>). Isaiah further states that God would show himself as savior by the future blessing and restoration of Israel (49:26; 60:16). The designation “savior” is not directly applied to the Messiah in the OT, but a passage like Zechariah 9:9 indicates that God’s Anointed One would be a deliverer. Several apocryphal books use the term “savior” for God, some in lofty titles like “everlasting Savior” (Bar 4:22) or “the eternal Savior of Israel” (3 Macc 7:16). This later usage also illustrates the idea of God as the one who is able to save Israel.<\/p>\n\n<p>The Greek literature uses <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">soter<\/span> (“savior,” “deliverer” from the verb <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">sozo<\/span> “to save,” “to rescue”) for both gods and humans. For example, at one point Herodotus refers to the Athenians as the “saviors” of Greece (<em>Persian Wars<\/em> 7.139.5). In the Septuagint <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">soter<\/span> (“savior”) is used to render various forms of the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">yasha‘<\/span> (“to save”). <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Soter<\/span> occurs 24 times in the NT and is exclusively applied to God and Jesus Christ (to God 8 times and to Christ 16 times). Out of the 24 NT occurrences of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">soter<\/span><em>,<\/em> ten are in the Letters and five in 2 Peter. Dependence upon the OT can be seen in Luke 1:47, where Mary praises God as Savior in her hymn of praise. Jesus’ name (Greek for Joshua) means “the Lord is salvation” and was given in anticipation of his function as the Savior (Mt 1:21). As the Savior, Jesus completes God’s plan for a promised deliverer (Acts 13:23; Ti 3:4), provides redemption for humanity (Ti 2:13-14), and is the hope of the believer (Phil 3:20-21). Inherent in the term “savior” is the concept of one who saves or delivers from danger to a position of safety. Jesus has delivered the believer from sin and death into immortality and life (2 Tm 1:10). While Jesus never refers to himself as Savior (<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">soter<\/span>), he is announced as such by the angels at his birth (Lk 2:11), confessed as such by those who heard his words (Jn 4:42), and proclaimed as Savior by the early church (Acts 5:31; 13:23). Salvation is central to the mission of Jesus (Lk 19:10). Paul teaches that Christ is the Savior of the church in the present (Eph 5:23) and future (Phil 3:20).<\/p>\n<p>Savior, as a title, is applied to God in the Pastoral Epistles and clearly represents God as Savior of all persons (1 Tm 2:3; 4:10). The Pastorals also clearly designate Jesus as Savior (2 Tm 1:10; Ti 3:6), in some instances also declaring that he is God the Savior (Ti 2:13; 3:4-6). Savior is used as a title for Jesus Christ throughout 2 Peter (e.g., 2 Pt 2:20). John, in his first letter, uses it to describe Jesus as the Savior sent by the Father to save the world (1 Jn 4:14).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Salvation.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SAVIOR<\/h3>\n<p>One who delivers or rescues. The term “savior” is most frequently applied to God and Jesus Christ in the Bible. The understanding of Jesus as Savior is a key truth in appropriating the biblical message. Versions of the English Bible use “savior” in the OT to translate various forms of the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">yasha‘<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “to save,” “to deliver,” or “to rescue.” Most frequently it is used to translate the participle of the verb, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">moshia‘<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “the one who saves.” Used in this way, “savior” is found 13 or 14 times in the OT, depending upon the version.<\/p>\n<p>The basic understanding of the term “savior” as one who delivers or rescues is illustrated in Deuteronomy 22:27, where the law anticipated a situation when no deliverer was near in time of need. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Moshia‘<\/span> is also used for individuals, as both Othniel and Ehud are called “deliverers” (Jgs 3:9, 15) and Nehemiah 9:27 speaks of the judges collectively as deliverers sent by God. Second Kings 13:5 reports that the Lord gave Israel a savior in reference to their deliverance from the Arameans. Some have identified this deliverer with King Jeroboam II of Judah; others with a foreign king, quite often Zakir of Hamath. But the text does not clearly indicate who this savior might have been. The point of the text is that God sent this deliverer for his people. The majority of references in the OT refer to God himself as Israel’s savior, and even when other individuals are so termed, it is clearly stated that God sent them or raised them up. Israel understood that God was their savior and declared this in songs of praise (Pss 17:7; 106:1-12) and cries for help (Jer 14:8). David said this of God: “He is my stronghold, my refuge and my savior” (2 Sm 22:3, <span>niv<\/span>). Quite often the psalmists refer to the Lord as their “help” or “salvation” (Pss 27:9; 38:22; 42:5, 11; 65:5; 68:19; 79:9; 85:4; 89:26; all rendered “Savior” by the <span>niv<\/span>). The exodus was undoubtedly the greatest example of deliverance for Israel and undergirded their knowledge of God as the savior. The psalmist, in remembrance of Israel’s sin of making a golden calf, proclaims, “They forgot God, their savior, who had done such great things in Egypt” (Ps 106:21, <span>nlt<\/span>; cf. Is 63:11; Hos 13:4-6). In Isaiah, where “savior” is a frequent title for God, the term is used to emphasize his uniqueness. God alone is seen as savior, in contrast to foreign gods and idols: “I, even I, am the <span>Lord<\/span>, and apart from me there is no savior. I have revealed and saved and proclaimed—I, and not some foreign god among you” (Is 43:11-12, <span>niv<\/span>). Isaiah further states that God would show himself as savior by the future blessing and restoration of Israel (49:26; 60:16). The designation “savior” is not directly applied to the Messiah in the OT, but a passage like Zechariah 9:9 indicates that God’s Anointed One would be a deliverer. Several apocryphal books use the term “savior” for God, some in lofty titles like “everlasting Savior” (Bar 4:22) or “the eternal Savior of Israel” (3 Macc 7:16). This later usage also illustrates the idea of God as the one who is able to save Israel.<\/p>\n\n<p>The Greek literature uses <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">soter<\/span> (“savior,” “deliverer” from the verb <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">sozo<\/span> “to save,” “to rescue”) for both gods and humans. For example, at one point Herodotus refers to the Athenians as the “saviors” of Greece (<em>Persian Wars<\/em> 7.139.5). In the Septuagint <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">soter<\/span> (“savior”) is used to render various forms of the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">yasha‘<\/span> (“to save”). <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Soter<\/span> occurs 24 times in the NT and is exclusively applied to God and Jesus Christ (to God 8 times and to Christ 16 times). Out of the 24 NT occurrences of <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">soter<\/span><em>,<\/em> ten are in the Letters and five in 2 Peter. Dependence upon the OT can be seen in Luke 1:47, where Mary praises God as Savior in her hymn of praise. Jesus’ name (Greek for Joshua) means “the Lord is salvation” and was given in anticipation of his function as the Savior (Mt 1:21). As the Savior, Jesus completes God’s plan for a promised deliverer (Acts 13:23; Ti 3:4), provides redemption for humanity (Ti 2:13-14), and is the hope of the believer (Phil 3:20-21). Inherent in the term “savior” is the concept of one who saves or delivers from danger to a position of safety. Jesus has delivered the believer from sin and death into immortality and life (2 Tm 1:10). While Jesus never refers to himself as Savior (<span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">soter<\/span>), he is announced as such by the angels at his birth (Lk 2:11), confessed as such by those who heard his words (Jn 4:42), and proclaimed as Savior by the early church (Acts 5:31; 13:23). Salvation is central to the mission of Jesus (Lk 19:10). Paul teaches that Christ is the Savior of the church in the present (Eph 5:23) and future (Phil 3:20).<\/p>\n<p>Savior, as a title, is applied to God in the Pastoral Epistles and clearly represents God as Savior of all persons (1 Tm 2:3; 4:10). The Pastorals also clearly designate Jesus as Savior (2 Tm 1:10; Ti 3:6), in some instances also declaring that he is God the Savior (Ti 2:13; 3:4-6). Savior is used as a title for Jesus Christ throughout 2 Peter (e.g., 2 Pt 2:20). John, in his first letter, uses it to describe Jesus as the Savior sent by the Father to save the world (1 Jn 4:14).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Salvation.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SAVIOR One who delivers or rescues. The term “savior” is most frequently applied to God and Jesus Christ in the Bible. The understanding of Jesus as Savior is a key truth in appropriating the biblical message. Versions of the English Bible use “savior” in the OT to translate various forms of the Hebrew yasha‘, which means “to save,” “to deliver,” or “to rescue.” Most frequently it is used to translate the participle of the verb, moshia‘, meaning “the one who saves.” Used in this way, “savior”...","summary_en":"SAVIOR One who delivers or rescues. The term “savior” is most frequently applied to God and Jesus Christ in the Bible. The understanding of Jesus as Savior is a key truth in appropriating the biblical message. Versions of the English Bible use “savior” in the OT to translate various forms of the Hebrew yasha‘, which means “to save,” “to deliver,” or “to rescue.” Most frequently it is used to translate the participle of the verb, moshia‘, meaning “the one who saves.” Used in this way, “savior”...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":46812,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:3","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:3<\/strong> The phrase <em>the power that saves me<\/em> (literally <em>the horn that has saved me<\/em>) is similar to Hannah’s “the <span>Lord<\/span> has made me strong!,” (literally <em>the<\/em> <span><em>Lord<\/em><\/span><em> has exalted my horn,<\/em> 1 Sam 2:1).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:3<\/strong> The phrase <em>the power that saves me<\/em> (literally <em>the horn that has saved me<\/em>) is similar to Hannah’s “the <span>Lord<\/span> has made me strong!,” (literally <em>the<\/em> <span><em>Lord<\/em><\/span><em> has exalted my horn,<\/em> 1 Sam 2:1).<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:3 The phrase the power that saves me (literally the horn that has saved me) is similar to Hannah’s “the Lord has made me strong!,” (literally the Lord has exalted my horn, 1 Sam 2:1).","summary_en":"22:3 The phrase the power that saves me (literally the horn that has saved me) is similar to Hannah’s “the Lord has made me strong!,” (literally the Lord has exalted my horn, 1 Sam 2:1).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":74438,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:3","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:3<\/strong> The phrase <em>the power that saves me<\/em> (literally <em>the horn that has saved me<\/em>) is similar to Hannah’s “the <span>Lord<\/span> has made me strong!,” (literally <em>the<\/em> <span><em>Lord<\/em><\/span><em> has exalted my horn,<\/em> 1 Sam 2:1).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:3<\/strong> The phrase <em>the power that saves me<\/em> (literally <em>the horn that has saved me<\/em>) is similar to Hannah’s “the <span>Lord<\/span> has made me strong!,” (literally <em>the<\/em> <span><em>Lord<\/em><\/span><em> has exalted my horn,<\/em> 1 Sam 2:1).<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:3 The phrase the power that saves me (literally the horn that has saved me) is similar to Hannah’s “the Lord has made me strong!,” (literally the Lord has exalted my horn, 1 Sam 2:1).","summary_en":"22:3 The phrase the power that saves me (literally the horn that has saved me) is similar to Hannah’s “the Lord has made me strong!,” (literally the Lord has exalted my horn, 1 Sam 2:1).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":102064,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:3","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:3<\/strong> The phrase <em>the power that saves me<\/em> (literally <em>the horn that has saved me<\/em>) is similar to Hannah’s “the <span>Lord<\/span> has made me strong!,” (literally <em>the<\/em> <span><em>Lord<\/em><\/span><em> has exalted my horn,<\/em> 1 Sam 2:1).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:3<\/strong> The phrase <em>the power that saves me<\/em> (literally <em>the horn that has saved me<\/em>) is similar to Hannah’s “the <span>Lord<\/span> has made me strong!,” (literally <em>the<\/em> <span><em>Lord<\/em><\/span><em> has exalted my horn,<\/em> 1 Sam 2:1).<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:3 The phrase the power that saves me (literally the horn that has saved me) is similar to Hannah’s “the Lord has made me strong!,” (literally the Lord has exalted my horn, 1 Sam 2:1).","summary_en":"22:3 The phrase the power that saves me (literally the horn that has saved me) is similar to Hannah’s “the Lord has made me strong!,” (literally the Lord has exalted my horn, 1 Sam 2:1).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":129690,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:3","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:3<\/strong> The phrase <em>the power that saves me<\/em> (literally <em>the horn that has saved me<\/em>) is similar to Hannah’s “the <span>Lord<\/span> has made me strong!,” (literally <em>the<\/em> <span><em>Lord<\/em><\/span><em> has exalted my horn,<\/em> 1 Sam 2:1).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:3<\/strong> The phrase <em>the power that saves me<\/em> (literally <em>the horn that has saved me<\/em>) is similar to Hannah’s “the <span>Lord<\/span> has made me strong!,” (literally <em>the<\/em> <span><em>Lord<\/em><\/span><em> has exalted my horn,<\/em> 1 Sam 2:1).<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:3 The phrase the power that saves me (literally the horn that has saved me) is similar to Hannah’s “the Lord has made me strong!,” (literally the Lord has exalted my horn, 1 Sam 2:1).","summary_en":"22:3 The phrase the power that saves me (literally the horn that has saved me) is similar to Hannah’s “the Lord has made me strong!,” (literally the Lord has exalted my horn, 1 Sam 2:1).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"5":[{"id":29568,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Perdition*","title_en":"Perdition*","content_ro":"<h3>PERDITION*<\/h3>\n<p>Term used eight times in the <span>kjv<\/span> NT to express the eternal aspect of the destruction of life and self. In Philippians 1:28, “perdition” is the opposite of “salvation.” Hebrews 10:39 contrasts it with “preserving one’s soul.” Second Peter 3:7 links perdition with the day of judgment, while 1 Timothy 6:9 has both present and future in view. “Son of perdition” is a label affirming the destiny of the betrayer Judas (Jn 17:12) and of the antichrist (2 Thes 2:3). In Revelation 17:8, 11 perdition designates the final abode of the beast. Revelation 19:20 and 20:10 identify this abode as the “lake of fire,” a place of everlasting torment.<\/p>\n<p>“Perdition” occurs four times in the <span>rsv<\/span> NT (Jn 17:12; 2 Thes 2:3; Rv 17:8, 11) and twice in the OT (2 Sm 22:5; Ps 18:4). In the latter, the parallel lines of Hebrew poetry show that perdition is the equivalent of death.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Antichrist; Death; Judgment; Lake of Fire.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PERDITION*<\/h3>\n<p>Term used eight times in the <span>kjv<\/span> NT to express the eternal aspect of the destruction of life and self. In Philippians 1:28, “perdition” is the opposite of “salvation.” Hebrews 10:39 contrasts it with “preserving one’s soul.” Second Peter 3:7 links perdition with the day of judgment, while 1 Timothy 6:9 has both present and future in view. “Son of perdition” is a label affirming the destiny of the betrayer Judas (Jn 17:12) and of the antichrist (2 Thes 2:3). In Revelation 17:8, 11 perdition designates the final abode of the beast. Revelation 19:20 and 20:10 identify this abode as the “lake of fire,” a place of everlasting torment.<\/p>\n<p>“Perdition” occurs four times in the <span>rsv<\/span> NT (Jn 17:12; 2 Thes 2:3; Rv 17:8, 11) and twice in the OT (2 Sm 22:5; Ps 18:4). In the latter, the parallel lines of Hebrew poetry show that perdition is the equivalent of death.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Antichrist; Death; Judgment; Lake of Fire.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PERDITION* Term used eight times in the kjv NT to express the eternal aspect of the destruction of life and self. In Philippians 1:28, “perdition” is the opposite of “salvation.” Hebrews 10:39 contrasts it with “preserving one’s soul.” Second Peter 3:7 links perdition with the day of judgment, while 1 Timothy 6:9 has both present and future in view. “Son of perdition” is a label affirming the destiny of the betrayer Judas (Jn 17:12) and of the antichrist (2 Thes 2:3). In Revelation 17:8, 11 p...","summary_en":"PERDITION* Term used eight times in the kjv NT to express the eternal aspect of the destruction of life and self. In Philippians 1:28, “perdition” is the opposite of “salvation.” Hebrews 10:39 contrasts it with “preserving one’s soul.” Second Peter 3:7 links perdition with the day of judgment, while 1 Timothy 6:9 has both present and future in view. “Son of perdition” is a label affirming the destiny of the betrayer Judas (Jn 17:12) and of the antichrist (2 Thes 2:3). In Revelation 17:8, 11 p...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"7":[{"id":46813,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:7","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:7<\/strong> Although <em>his sanctuary<\/em> sometimes refers to the Tabernacle or Temple, here it refers to God’s heavenly dwelling; neither the Tabernacle nor the Temple were in existence at this time.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:7<\/strong> Although <em>his sanctuary<\/em> sometimes refers to the Tabernacle or Temple, here it refers to God’s heavenly dwelling; neither the Tabernacle nor the Temple were in existence at this time.<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:7 Although his sanctuary sometimes refers to the Tabernacle or Temple, here it refers to God’s heavenly dwelling; neither the Tabernacle nor the Temple were in existence at this time.","summary_en":"22:7 Although his sanctuary sometimes refers to the Tabernacle or Temple, here it refers to God’s heavenly dwelling; neither the Tabernacle nor the Temple were in existence at this time.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":74439,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:7","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:7<\/strong> Although <em>his sanctuary<\/em> sometimes refers to the Tabernacle or Temple, here it refers to God’s heavenly dwelling; neither the Tabernacle nor the Temple were in existence at this time.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:7<\/strong> Although <em>his sanctuary<\/em> sometimes refers to the Tabernacle or Temple, here it refers to God’s heavenly dwelling; neither the Tabernacle nor the Temple were in existence at this time.<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:7 Although his sanctuary sometimes refers to the Tabernacle or Temple, here it refers to God’s heavenly dwelling; neither the Tabernacle nor the Temple were in existence at this time.","summary_en":"22:7 Although his sanctuary sometimes refers to the Tabernacle or Temple, here it refers to God’s heavenly dwelling; neither the Tabernacle nor the Temple were in existence at this time.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":102065,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:7","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:7<\/strong> Although <em>his sanctuary<\/em> sometimes refers to the Tabernacle or Temple, here it refers to God’s heavenly dwelling; neither the Tabernacle nor the Temple were in existence at this time.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:7<\/strong> Although <em>his sanctuary<\/em> sometimes refers to the Tabernacle or Temple, here it refers to God’s heavenly dwelling; neither the Tabernacle nor the Temple were in existence at this time.<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:7 Although his sanctuary sometimes refers to the Tabernacle or Temple, here it refers to God’s heavenly dwelling; neither the Tabernacle nor the Temple were in existence at this time.","summary_en":"22:7 Although his sanctuary sometimes refers to the Tabernacle or Temple, here it refers to God’s heavenly dwelling; neither the Tabernacle nor the Temple were in existence at this time.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":129691,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:7","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:7","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:7<\/strong> Although <em>his sanctuary<\/em> sometimes refers to the Tabernacle or Temple, here it refers to God’s heavenly dwelling; neither the Tabernacle nor the Temple were in existence at this time.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:7<\/strong> Although <em>his sanctuary<\/em> sometimes refers to the Tabernacle or Temple, here it refers to God’s heavenly dwelling; neither the Tabernacle nor the Temple were in existence at this time.<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:7 Although his sanctuary sometimes refers to the Tabernacle or Temple, here it refers to God’s heavenly dwelling; neither the Tabernacle nor the Temple were in existence at this time.","summary_en":"22:7 Although his sanctuary sometimes refers to the Tabernacle or Temple, here it refers to God’s heavenly dwelling; neither the Tabernacle nor the Temple were in existence at this time.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"8":[{"id":15777,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Heaven","title_en":"Heaven","content_ro":"<h3>HEAVEN<\/h3>\n<p>Realm (or realms) designated by a Hebrew term used to represent the sky and air and also heaven. The form of the word in Hebrew is dual (implying two of something). Although this dual form may only represent an ancient device for expressing the plural, it is supposed by some to imply the existence of a lower and an upper heaven—a physical and a spiritual heaven.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The OT writers viewed the physical heavens as a “firmament” appearing as a great arch supported on foundations and pillars (2 Sm 22:8) and spread out above the earth, with rain descending through its doors (Ps 78:23). The keynote of the OT revelation about the physical heavens is set forth in Psalms 8 and 19:1-6. Elsewhere the OT speaks of the atmospheric heavens as the region of the clouds (Ps 147:8), winds (Zec 2:6), rain (Dt 11:11), thunder (1 Sm 2:10), dew (Dt 33:13), frost (Jb 38:29), and the abode of birds (Gn 1:26, 30). It is also the locale of such destructive forces as hail (Jos 10:11), fire, and brimstone (Gn 19:24). In the NT this notion of the vaulted expanse of the sky as the region in which the elements, clouds, and tempests gather (Mt 16:2; Lk 4:25) and birds fly (Lk 9:58) is continued.<\/p>\n<p>In addition to the atmospheric regions, the Hebrew idea of the physical heavens includes stellar space, which ultimately embraces the universe. The heavenly bodies of the stellar heavens were viewed by the Hebrews as inexpressibly glorious manifestations of God’s handiwork without having any power or vitality of their own. These include the sun, moon, planets, and stars, which were but lights in the firmament of the heavens (Gn 1:14; 15:5). As such, they were regarded as unworthy of worship because God had, by his own will and grace, made humans superior to them. In fact, the Hebrews were expressly forbidden to worship the stellar bodies (Ex 20:4), the gods and goddesses who represented them (Jer 44:17-25), or to participate in astrological speculation (Is 47:13). Hence, this unique theological ordinance differentiated the Hebrews, who viewed the heavenly bodies as made and moved by the will of God, from the superstitious heathen, who worshiped them.<\/p>\n<p>The term “heaven of heavens” (Dt 10:14; see also <span>kjv<\/span> 1 Kgs 8:27; Pss 68:33; 148:4) is the literal English rendition of the Hebrew idiom for the superlative “the highest heaven.” Some have thought this the counterpart to Paul’s expression “the third heaven” (2 Cor 12:2), which parallels the classical Greek conception of three heavens. This notion was subsequently adopted by the Roman Catholic medieval church and in the Latin form of <em>Coelum Aqueum, Coelum Sidereum,<\/em> and <em>Coelum Empyreum.<\/em> The basic concept followed the Greek view, and it coincides with the OT view of the physical and spiritual heavens as indicated earlier. Those who follow this approach tend to regard this third heaven as the place reached by the souls of the blessed as they pass through the two lower regions of the atmosphere and outer space containing the celestial bodies, and enter into the uttermost reaches of the universe.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The Lord Jesus indicated that heaven is the dwelling place of God (Mt 6:9). Jesus, during his earthly ministry, repeatedly claimed that he had come from heaven (Jn 3:13; 6:33-51); and on at least three occasions utterances from heaven confirmed these claims (Mt 3:16-17; 17:5; Jn 12:28). There is where the true tabernacle stands, of which the earthly tabernacle was merely a shadow (cf. Heb 8:1-5). That abode of God was in view when the apostle Paul wrote of “the third heaven” (2 Cor 12:2). As such, it is often seen as a synonym for God himself (cf. Mt 23:22; Lk 15:18).<\/p>\n<p>After Jesus’ ascension, recorded in Acts 1:6-11, two angels reminded the disciples that Jesus would return again from heaven. This was later confirmed by the apostle Paul (1 Cor 15:1-11; Eph 4:7-16; 1 Tm 3:16) and reiterated in the summary of the teachings of the NT known as the Apostles’ Creed. In all, the relationship of Jesus Christ to the heavenly abode of God is inextricably interwoven in the NT and is inseparable from the gospel message itself. Indeed, it is from the “right hand of God” that Christ forever lives to make intercession for those who have come to him by faith (Heb 7:25; cf. Mk 14:62).<\/p>\n<p>Paul asserts that the believer’s body will be made conformable to the glorious body of Jesus Christ when Christ returns from heaven (Phil 3:20-21). The believers need such a heavenly body to match their heavenly citizenship. The term “citizenship” (<span>kjv<\/span>) or “commonwealth” (<span>rsv<\/span>) implies a colony of individuals who live in a foreign country while observing the laws of their homeland instead of the land in which they reside (cf. Acts 22:28). The implication for believers is quite clear: They are to live according to the moral and ethical principles of God as revealed from heaven regardless of the standards proclaimed by the world. They have been raised together with Christ and have been instructed to “seek the things that are above, where Christ is, seated at the right hand of God” (Col 3:1). From there Christ has blessed his followers “with every spiritual blessing in the heavenly places” (Eph 1:3). The expression “in the heavenly places” is peculiar to Ephesians (see 1:3, 20; 2:6; 3:10; 6:12), suggesting that the blessings of the spiritual world are not relegated to some remote future time or place but can be perceived by faith here and now. That is why believers are said to have been made partakers already in the heavenly calling (Heb 3:1; 6:4).<\/p>\n<p>In the meanwhile, believers look forward to a new heaven and a new earth with the new Jerusalem. There will be no tears, sorrow, pain, death, and night there because the Son of God will be there (Rv 21:1-4, 27; 22:1-5), and in the resurrected state there will be no marrying or giving in marriage (Lk 20:27-38). At least two OT saints, Enoch (Gn 5:22-24; Heb 11:5) and Elijah (2 Kgs 2:11), were translated directly into the presence of God—into heaven. In addition to Paul’s statement about the third heaven, John was called into heaven (Rv 4:1), a heaven that is intended to be populated (cf. 19:1). All believers will ultimately dwell in heaven in their resurrection bodies, which they will receive when the Lord comes for them from heaven (1 Thes 4:16-17; Rv 19:1-4). The Lord will also give treasures and rewards at that time (Mt 5:12; 1 Cor 9:25; 2 Cor 5:1; 2 Tm 4:8; Jas 1:12; 1 Pt 1:4; 5:4; Rv 2:10; 4:10).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> “Abraham’s Bosom”; New Heavens and New Earth; Paradise.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HEAVEN<\/h3>\n<p>Realm (or realms) designated by a Hebrew term used to represent the sky and air and also heaven. The form of the word in Hebrew is dual (implying two of something). Although this dual form may only represent an ancient device for expressing the plural, it is supposed by some to imply the existence of a lower and an upper heaven—a physical and a spiritual heaven.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The OT writers viewed the physical heavens as a “firmament” appearing as a great arch supported on foundations and pillars (2 Sm 22:8) and spread out above the earth, with rain descending through its doors (Ps 78:23). The keynote of the OT revelation about the physical heavens is set forth in Psalms 8 and 19:1-6. Elsewhere the OT speaks of the atmospheric heavens as the region of the clouds (Ps 147:8), winds (Zec 2:6), rain (Dt 11:11), thunder (1 Sm 2:10), dew (Dt 33:13), frost (Jb 38:29), and the abode of birds (Gn 1:26, 30). It is also the locale of such destructive forces as hail (Jos 10:11), fire, and brimstone (Gn 19:24). In the NT this notion of the vaulted expanse of the sky as the region in which the elements, clouds, and tempests gather (Mt 16:2; Lk 4:25) and birds fly (Lk 9:58) is continued.<\/p>\n<p>In addition to the atmospheric regions, the Hebrew idea of the physical heavens includes stellar space, which ultimately embraces the universe. The heavenly bodies of the stellar heavens were viewed by the Hebrews as inexpressibly glorious manifestations of God’s handiwork without having any power or vitality of their own. These include the sun, moon, planets, and stars, which were but lights in the firmament of the heavens (Gn 1:14; 15:5). As such, they were regarded as unworthy of worship because God had, by his own will and grace, made humans superior to them. In fact, the Hebrews were expressly forbidden to worship the stellar bodies (Ex 20:4), the gods and goddesses who represented them (Jer 44:17-25), or to participate in astrological speculation (Is 47:13). Hence, this unique theological ordinance differentiated the Hebrews, who viewed the heavenly bodies as made and moved by the will of God, from the superstitious heathen, who worshiped them.<\/p>\n<p>The term “heaven of heavens” (Dt 10:14; see also <span>kjv<\/span> 1 Kgs 8:27; Pss 68:33; 148:4) is the literal English rendition of the Hebrew idiom for the superlative “the highest heaven.” Some have thought this the counterpart to Paul’s expression “the third heaven” (2 Cor 12:2), which parallels the classical Greek conception of three heavens. This notion was subsequently adopted by the Roman Catholic medieval church and in the Latin form of <em>Coelum Aqueum, Coelum Sidereum,<\/em> and <em>Coelum Empyreum.<\/em> The basic concept followed the Greek view, and it coincides with the OT view of the physical and spiritual heavens as indicated earlier. Those who follow this approach tend to regard this third heaven as the place reached by the souls of the blessed as they pass through the two lower regions of the atmosphere and outer space containing the celestial bodies, and enter into the uttermost reaches of the universe.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The Lord Jesus indicated that heaven is the dwelling place of God (Mt 6:9). Jesus, during his earthly ministry, repeatedly claimed that he had come from heaven (Jn 3:13; 6:33-51); and on at least three occasions utterances from heaven confirmed these claims (Mt 3:16-17; 17:5; Jn 12:28). There is where the true tabernacle stands, of which the earthly tabernacle was merely a shadow (cf. Heb 8:1-5). That abode of God was in view when the apostle Paul wrote of “the third heaven” (2 Cor 12:2). As such, it is often seen as a synonym for God himself (cf. Mt 23:22; Lk 15:18).<\/p>\n<p>After Jesus’ ascension, recorded in Acts 1:6-11, two angels reminded the disciples that Jesus would return again from heaven. This was later confirmed by the apostle Paul (1 Cor 15:1-11; Eph 4:7-16; 1 Tm 3:16) and reiterated in the summary of the teachings of the NT known as the Apostles’ Creed. In all, the relationship of Jesus Christ to the heavenly abode of God is inextricably interwoven in the NT and is inseparable from the gospel message itself. Indeed, it is from the “right hand of God” that Christ forever lives to make intercession for those who have come to him by faith (Heb 7:25; cf. Mk 14:62).<\/p>\n<p>Paul asserts that the believer’s body will be made conformable to the glorious body of Jesus Christ when Christ returns from heaven (Phil 3:20-21). The believers need such a heavenly body to match their heavenly citizenship. The term “citizenship” (<span>kjv<\/span>) or “commonwealth” (<span>rsv<\/span>) implies a colony of individuals who live in a foreign country while observing the laws of their homeland instead of the land in which they reside (cf. Acts 22:28). The implication for believers is quite clear: They are to live according to the moral and ethical principles of God as revealed from heaven regardless of the standards proclaimed by the world. They have been raised together with Christ and have been instructed to “seek the things that are above, where Christ is, seated at the right hand of God” (Col 3:1). From there Christ has blessed his followers “with every spiritual blessing in the heavenly places” (Eph 1:3). The expression “in the heavenly places” is peculiar to Ephesians (see 1:3, 20; 2:6; 3:10; 6:12), suggesting that the blessings of the spiritual world are not relegated to some remote future time or place but can be perceived by faith here and now. That is why believers are said to have been made partakers already in the heavenly calling (Heb 3:1; 6:4).<\/p>\n<p>In the meanwhile, believers look forward to a new heaven and a new earth with the new Jerusalem. There will be no tears, sorrow, pain, death, and night there because the Son of God will be there (Rv 21:1-4, 27; 22:1-5), and in the resurrected state there will be no marrying or giving in marriage (Lk 20:27-38). At least two OT saints, Enoch (Gn 5:22-24; Heb 11:5) and Elijah (2 Kgs 2:11), were translated directly into the presence of God—into heaven. In addition to Paul’s statement about the third heaven, John was called into heaven (Rv 4:1), a heaven that is intended to be populated (cf. 19:1). All believers will ultimately dwell in heaven in their resurrection bodies, which they will receive when the Lord comes for them from heaven (1 Thes 4:16-17; Rv 19:1-4). The Lord will also give treasures and rewards at that time (Mt 5:12; 1 Cor 9:25; 2 Cor 5:1; 2 Tm 4:8; Jas 1:12; 1 Pt 1:4; 5:4; Rv 2:10; 4:10).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> “Abraham’s Bosom”; New Heavens and New Earth; Paradise.<\/p>","summary_ro":"HEAVEN Realm (or realms) designated by a Hebrew term used to represent the sky and air and also heaven. The form of the word in Hebrew is dual (implying two of something). Although this dual form may only represent an ancient device for expressing the plural, it is supposed by some to imply the existence of a lower and an upper heaven—a physical and a spiritual heaven. In the Old Testament The OT writers viewed the physical heavens as a “firmament” appearing as a great arch supported on found...","summary_en":"HEAVEN Realm (or realms) designated by a Hebrew term used to represent the sky and air and also heaven. The form of the word in Hebrew is dual (implying two of something). Although this dual form may only represent an ancient device for expressing the plural, it is supposed by some to imply the existence of a lower and an upper heaven—a physical and a spiritual heaven. In the Old Testament The OT writers viewed the physical heavens as a “firmament” appearing as a great arch supported on found...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":46814,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:8","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:8-20<\/strong> David vividly expands on how God heard him (22:7). David describes God’s rescue as a <em>theophany<\/em> (manifestation of God’s presence; see study notes on Exod 19:16-25; Deut 1:33) that recalls God’s manifestation at Sinai (Exod 19:16-20; cp. Judg 5:4-5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:8-20<\/strong> David vividly expands on how God heard him (22:7). David describes God’s rescue as a <em>theophany<\/em> (manifestation of God’s presence; see study notes on Exod 19:16-25; Deut 1:33) that recalls God’s manifestation at Sinai (Exod 19:16-20; cp. Judg 5:4-5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:8-20 David vividly expands on how God heard him (22:7). David describes God’s rescue as a theophany (manifestation of God’s presence; see study notes on Exod 19:16-25; Deut 1:33) that recalls God’s manifestation at Sinai (Exod 19:16-20; cp. Judg 5:4-5).","summary_en":"22:8-20 David vividly expands on how God heard him (22:7). David describes God’s rescue as a theophany (manifestation of God’s presence; see study notes on Exod 19:16-25; Deut 1:33) that recalls God’s manifestation at Sinai (Exod 19:16-20; cp. Judg 5:4-5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":74440,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:8","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:8-20<\/strong> David vividly expands on how God heard him (22:7). David describes God’s rescue as a <em>theophany<\/em> (manifestation of God’s presence; see study notes on Exod 19:16-25; Deut 1:33) that recalls God’s manifestation at Sinai (Exod 19:16-20; cp. Judg 5:4-5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:8-20<\/strong> David vividly expands on how God heard him (22:7). David describes God’s rescue as a <em>theophany<\/em> (manifestation of God’s presence; see study notes on Exod 19:16-25; Deut 1:33) that recalls God’s manifestation at Sinai (Exod 19:16-20; cp. Judg 5:4-5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:8-20 David vividly expands on how God heard him (22:7). David describes God’s rescue as a theophany (manifestation of God’s presence; see study notes on Exod 19:16-25; Deut 1:33) that recalls God’s manifestation at Sinai (Exod 19:16-20; cp. Judg 5:4-5).","summary_en":"22:8-20 David vividly expands on how God heard him (22:7). David describes God’s rescue as a theophany (manifestation of God’s presence; see study notes on Exod 19:16-25; Deut 1:33) that recalls God’s manifestation at Sinai (Exod 19:16-20; cp. Judg 5:4-5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":102066,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:8","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:8-20<\/strong> David vividly expands on how God heard him (22:7). David describes God’s rescue as a <em>theophany<\/em> (manifestation of God’s presence; see study notes on Exod 19:16-25; Deut 1:33) that recalls God’s manifestation at Sinai (Exod 19:16-20; cp. Judg 5:4-5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:8-20<\/strong> David vividly expands on how God heard him (22:7). David describes God’s rescue as a <em>theophany<\/em> (manifestation of God’s presence; see study notes on Exod 19:16-25; Deut 1:33) that recalls God’s manifestation at Sinai (Exod 19:16-20; cp. Judg 5:4-5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:8-20 David vividly expands on how God heard him (22:7). David describes God’s rescue as a theophany (manifestation of God’s presence; see study notes on Exod 19:16-25; Deut 1:33) that recalls God’s manifestation at Sinai (Exod 19:16-20; cp. Judg 5:4-5).","summary_en":"22:8-20 David vividly expands on how God heard him (22:7). David describes God’s rescue as a theophany (manifestation of God’s presence; see study notes on Exod 19:16-25; Deut 1:33) that recalls God’s manifestation at Sinai (Exod 19:16-20; cp. Judg 5:4-5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":129692,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:8","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:8-20<\/strong> David vividly expands on how God heard him (22:7). David describes God’s rescue as a <em>theophany<\/em> (manifestation of God’s presence; see study notes on Exod 19:16-25; Deut 1:33) that recalls God’s manifestation at Sinai (Exod 19:16-20; cp. Judg 5:4-5).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:8-20<\/strong> David vividly expands on how God heard him (22:7). David describes God’s rescue as a <em>theophany<\/em> (manifestation of God’s presence; see study notes on Exod 19:16-25; Deut 1:33) that recalls God’s manifestation at Sinai (Exod 19:16-20; cp. Judg 5:4-5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:8-20 David vividly expands on how God heard him (22:7). David describes God’s rescue as a theophany (manifestation of God’s presence; see study notes on Exod 19:16-25; Deut 1:33) that recalls God’s manifestation at Sinai (Exod 19:16-20; cp. Judg 5:4-5).","summary_en":"22:8-20 David vividly expands on how God heard him (22:7). David describes God’s rescue as a theophany (manifestation of God’s presence; see study notes on Exod 19:16-25; Deut 1:33) that recalls God’s manifestation at Sinai (Exod 19:16-20; cp. Judg 5:4-5).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"9":[{"id":6974,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Coal","title_en":"Coal","content_ro":"<h3>COAL<\/h3>\n<p>Translation of several Hebrew or Greek words in the Bible referring primarily to charcoal (mineral coal is not found in Palestine). The glowing embers from a wood fire were used for heating (Is 47:14; Jn 18:18), cooking (Is 44:19; Jn 21:9), and by blacksmiths (Is 54:16). Coals from the altar were used in religious ritual (Lv 16:12; Is 6:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Figuratively, the term is used in descriptions of God’s infinite brightness and glory (2 Sm 22:9, 13), of his revelation (Ps 18:8), of divine judgment (140:10) and of creatures associated with God’s throne (Ez 1:13; 10:2). In other metaphorical passages, glowing coals stand for life (2 Sm 14:7, <span>rsv<\/span>), the breath of a huge beast (“leviathan,” Jb 41:21), and the risk of being “burned” by sexual sin (Prv 6:28).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>COAL<\/h3>\n<p>Translation of several Hebrew or Greek words in the Bible referring primarily to charcoal (mineral coal is not found in Palestine). The glowing embers from a wood fire were used for heating (Is 47:14; Jn 18:18), cooking (Is 44:19; Jn 21:9), and by blacksmiths (Is 54:16). Coals from the altar were used in religious ritual (Lv 16:12; Is 6:6-7).<\/p>\n<p>Figuratively, the term is used in descriptions of God’s infinite brightness and glory (2 Sm 22:9, 13), of his revelation (Ps 18:8), of divine judgment (140:10) and of creatures associated with God’s throne (Ez 1:13; 10:2). In other metaphorical passages, glowing coals stand for life (2 Sm 14:7, <span>rsv<\/span>), the breath of a huge beast (“leviathan,” Jb 41:21), and the risk of being “burned” by sexual sin (Prv 6:28).<\/p>","summary_ro":"COAL Translation of several Hebrew or Greek words in the Bible referring primarily to charcoal (mineral coal is not found in Palestine). The glowing embers from a wood fire were used for heating (Is 47:14; Jn 18:18), cooking (Is 44:19; Jn 21:9), and by blacksmiths (Is 54:16). Coals from the altar were used in religious ritual (Lv 16:12; Is 6:6-7). Figuratively, the term is used in descriptions of God’s infinite brightness and glory (2 Sm 22:9, 13), of his revelation (Ps 18:8), of divine judgm...","summary_en":"COAL Translation of several Hebrew or Greek words in the Bible referring primarily to charcoal (mineral coal is not found in Palestine). The glowing embers from a wood fire were used for heating (Is 47:14; Jn 18:18), cooking (Is 44:19; Jn 21:9), and by blacksmiths (Is 54:16). Coals from the altar were used in religious ritual (Lv 16:12; Is 6:6-7). Figuratively, the term is used in descriptions of God’s infinite brightness and glory (2 Sm 22:9, 13), of his revelation (Ps 18:8), of divine judgm...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"10":[{"id":8638,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Darkness","title_en":"Darkness","content_ro":"<h3>DARKNESS<\/h3>\n<p>Absence of light or brightness. Although the Bible seldom refers to literal darkness, a number of words translated “darkness” are used in a figurative or metaphorical sense.<\/p>\n<p>When God created the world, there was no light until he commanded that light appear. He then made distinction between light and its opposite, darkness, which he called night (Gn 1:2, 4-5, 18). Literal darkness is also mentioned in the account of the plagues God inflicted on Egypt; the ninth plague was an intense darkness that could be “felt” (Ex 10:21-23). That darkness lasted three days and was selective; wherever Egyptians were, it was dark, but where the Israelites were, there was light. The Israelites left Egypt accompanied by a cloud that separated them from their enemy, evidently giving light to the Israelites but making darkness for the Egyptians (Ex 14:20). The Bible notes that thieves or adulterers are likely to do their evil deeds in the dark or at night (Jb 24:16-17).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT “darkness” is used twice in its literal sense. At the crucifixion of Jesus, for a three-hour period from noon to three o’clock, there was not light (Mt 27:45; Mk 15:33; Lk 23:44). The other reference is to Christ’s second coming, when “the sun will be darkened, and the moon will not give its light” (Mt 24:29, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Several biblical passages speak of a darkness surrounding God, evidently moving from a literal sense of absence of light to a more profound meaning. God spoke to Moses on Mt Sinai in a dense, black cloud (Ex 20:21; Dt 4:11) or from the darkness (Dt 5:23). Darkness is pictured as a shelter or cloak around God (2 Sm 22:12; Pss 18:11; 97:2). God sets a boundary for light and darkness (Jb 26:10), brings darkness (Pss 104:20; 105:28), and creates light and darkness (Is 45:7). God dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12; 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sm 22:10; Ps 18:9).<\/p>\n<p>Most figurative references to darkness appear in poetic material, such as Job, Psalms, and Isaiah. Generally, such darkness depicts ignorance about God’s will. Knowledge of God is “light”; hence, lack of such knowledge is “darkness” (Jb 12:24-25; Mt 4:16; Jn 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11).<\/p>\n<p>Job spoke of darkness as equivalent to nothingness (Jb 3:4-6). In other references darkness stands for death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Jb 10:21-22; 15:24; 17:12-13; 18:18; Eccl 6:4; 11:8).<\/p>\n<p>Darkness frequently stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gn 15:12; Jb 5:14; 12:25; 15:22, 30; 19:8; 22:11; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Is 5:30). Moral depravity is sometimes described as darkness (Prv 2:13; 4:19; Is 5:20; 60:2). In the NT darkness is generally a metaphor of moral depravity and spiritual ignorance (Mt 4:16; 6:23; Lk 1:79; 11:35; 22:53; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of OT prophets was the Day of the Lord, often associated with darkness (Ez 32:8; Jl 2:2, 31; Am 5:18, 20; Zep 1:15). The NT also links darkness with judgment in connection with Christ’s second coming (Mt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pt 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13). Those who come to know God are said to come out of darkness (Is 9:2; 29:18; 42:7); darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Jb 34:22; Ps 139:11-12; Is 29:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Light.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DARKNESS<\/h3>\n<p>Absence of light or brightness. Although the Bible seldom refers to literal darkness, a number of words translated “darkness” are used in a figurative or metaphorical sense.<\/p>\n<p>When God created the world, there was no light until he commanded that light appear. He then made distinction between light and its opposite, darkness, which he called night (Gn 1:2, 4-5, 18). Literal darkness is also mentioned in the account of the plagues God inflicted on Egypt; the ninth plague was an intense darkness that could be “felt” (Ex 10:21-23). That darkness lasted three days and was selective; wherever Egyptians were, it was dark, but where the Israelites were, there was light. The Israelites left Egypt accompanied by a cloud that separated them from their enemy, evidently giving light to the Israelites but making darkness for the Egyptians (Ex 14:20). The Bible notes that thieves or adulterers are likely to do their evil deeds in the dark or at night (Jb 24:16-17).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT “darkness” is used twice in its literal sense. At the crucifixion of Jesus, for a three-hour period from noon to three o’clock, there was not light (Mt 27:45; Mk 15:33; Lk 23:44). The other reference is to Christ’s second coming, when “the sun will be darkened, and the moon will not give its light” (Mt 24:29, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Several biblical passages speak of a darkness surrounding God, evidently moving from a literal sense of absence of light to a more profound meaning. God spoke to Moses on Mt Sinai in a dense, black cloud (Ex 20:21; Dt 4:11) or from the darkness (Dt 5:23). Darkness is pictured as a shelter or cloak around God (2 Sm 22:12; Pss 18:11; 97:2). God sets a boundary for light and darkness (Jb 26:10), brings darkness (Pss 104:20; 105:28), and creates light and darkness (Is 45:7). God dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12; 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sm 22:10; Ps 18:9).<\/p>\n<p>Most figurative references to darkness appear in poetic material, such as Job, Psalms, and Isaiah. Generally, such darkness depicts ignorance about God’s will. Knowledge of God is “light”; hence, lack of such knowledge is “darkness” (Jb 12:24-25; Mt 4:16; Jn 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11).<\/p>\n<p>Job spoke of darkness as equivalent to nothingness (Jb 3:4-6). In other references darkness stands for death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Jb 10:21-22; 15:24; 17:12-13; 18:18; Eccl 6:4; 11:8).<\/p>\n<p>Darkness frequently stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gn 15:12; Jb 5:14; 12:25; 15:22, 30; 19:8; 22:11; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Is 5:30). Moral depravity is sometimes described as darkness (Prv 2:13; 4:19; Is 5:20; 60:2). In the NT darkness is generally a metaphor of moral depravity and spiritual ignorance (Mt 4:16; 6:23; Lk 1:79; 11:35; 22:53; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of OT prophets was the Day of the Lord, often associated with darkness (Ez 32:8; Jl 2:2, 31; Am 5:18, 20; Zep 1:15). The NT also links darkness with judgment in connection with Christ’s second coming (Mt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pt 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13). Those who come to know God are said to come out of darkness (Is 9:2; 29:18; 42:7); darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Jb 34:22; Ps 139:11-12; Is 29:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Light.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DARKNESS Absence of light or brightness. Although the Bible seldom refers to literal darkness, a number of words translated “darkness” are used in a figurative or metaphorical sense. When God created the world, there was no light until he commanded that light appear. He then made distinction between light and its opposite, darkness, which he called night (Gn 1:2, 4-5, 18). Literal darkness is also mentioned in the account of the plagues God inflicted on Egypt; the ninth plague was an intense ...","summary_en":"DARKNESS Absence of light or brightness. Although the Bible seldom refers to literal darkness, a number of words translated “darkness” are used in a figurative or metaphorical sense. When God created the world, there was no light until he commanded that light appear. He then made distinction between light and its opposite, darkness, which he called night (Gn 1:2, 4-5, 18). Literal darkness is also mentioned in the account of the plagues God inflicted on Egypt; the ninth plague was an intense ...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":63183,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Darkness and Light","title_en":"Darkness and Light","content_ro":"<h3>Darkness and Light<\/h3>\n<h5>Darkness<\/h5>\n<p>Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 <em>\/\/<\/em> 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sam 22:10 <em>\/\/<\/em> Ps 18:9). God is unknowable unless he reveals himself.<\/p>\n<p>Darkness often stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gen 15:12; Job 12:25; 19:8; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Isa 5:30).<\/p>\n<p>For Job, darkness was like nothingness (Job 3:4-6). It points to death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Job 10:21-22; 17:12-13; Eccl 6:4).<\/p>\n<p>Evil takes place under the cover of darkness (Job 24:16-17), but darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Ps 139:11-12; Isa 29:15-16). Darkness often depicts ignorance of God’s will: Knowledge of God is “light,” so lack of knowledge is “darkness” (Job 12:24-25; Matt 4:16; John 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11). Moral depravity is described as darkness (Prov 2:13; 4:19; Isa 5:20; 60:2). In the New Testament, darkness is also a metaphor for spiritual ignorance (Matt 4:16; 6:23; Luke 1:79; 11:35; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13). Those who come to know God come out of darkness (Isa 9:2).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of the Old Testament prophets was the Day of the Lord, which was often associated with darkness (Ezek 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15). The New Testament also links darkness with judgment (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Light<\/h5>\n<p>Light was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gen 1:3; see also 1:16). It is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting (Eccl 11:7; Jas 1:17). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led by a pillar of cloud and fire that gave them light (Exod 13:21; 14:20) and showed them the way to go (Neh 9:19). Light symbolizes the blessing of the Lord (Job 12:22; 29:2-3; Pss 4:6; 18:28; 44:3; 118:27). God’s servants can extend this blessing by being a light to guide others (Isa 42:6; 49:6). God’s light also exposes sin and brings justice (see Ps 90:8; Isa 51:4).<\/p>\n<p>God himself is described as light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19-20; Dan 2:22; 1 Jn 1:5), and he dwells in unapproachable light (see 1 Tim 6:16). Yet he brings his servants into the light (Mic 7:8-9; see also 1 Jn 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5; 12:46). He brought a revelation (light) from God, but he was more than a revealer—he was himself that revelation (John 1:1-10). Those who receive Jesus, who believe in the Light, receive the right to become children of God (John 1:9-12). They are illumined by his light and come to know God and his salvation (Matt 4:16; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18). They are “children of the light” (John 12:36; 1 Thes 5:5), their allegiance is to the light (1 Jn 1:7), and their conduct is characterized by light—by “what is good and right and true” (Eph 5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:3-5, 14-18; 15:12; Exod 10:21-23; 14:20; 20:21; 2 Sam 22:10-13; 1 Kgs 8:12; Job 3:3-7; 12:22-25; 15:22; 17:12-13; 34:22; Pss 18:11, 28; 27:1; 97:2-6; 139:11-12; Prov 2:13; 4:18-19; Eccl 11:7-8; Isa 5:20; 9:2; 29:15; 51:4; 60:2-3, 19-20; Dan 2:22; Mic 7:8-9; Matt 4:16; 6:22-23; 8:12; Luke 1:78-79; 2:32; John 1:4-9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:35-36, 46; Acts 13:47; 26:18; Rom 2:19-20; Eph 5:7-14; 1 Thes 5:5-8; 1 Tim 6:16; Jas 1:17; 2 Pet 2:17; 1 Jn 1:5-7; 2:7-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Darkness and Light<\/h3>\n<h5>Darkness<\/h5>\n<p>Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 <em>\/\/<\/em> 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sam 22:10 <em>\/\/<\/em> Ps 18:9). God is unknowable unless he reveals himself.<\/p>\n<p>Darkness often stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gen 15:12; Job 12:25; 19:8; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Isa 5:30).<\/p>\n<p>For Job, darkness was like nothingness (Job 3:4-6). It points to death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Job 10:21-22; 17:12-13; Eccl 6:4).<\/p>\n<p>Evil takes place under the cover of darkness (Job 24:16-17), but darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Ps 139:11-12; Isa 29:15-16). Darkness often depicts ignorance of God’s will: Knowledge of God is “light,” so lack of knowledge is “darkness” (Job 12:24-25; Matt 4:16; John 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11). Moral depravity is described as darkness (Prov 2:13; 4:19; Isa 5:20; 60:2). In the New Testament, darkness is also a metaphor for spiritual ignorance (Matt 4:16; 6:23; Luke 1:79; 11:35; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13). Those who come to know God come out of darkness (Isa 9:2).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of the Old Testament prophets was the Day of the Lord, which was often associated with darkness (Ezek 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15). The New Testament also links darkness with judgment (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Light<\/h5>\n<p>Light was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gen 1:3; see also 1:16). It is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting (Eccl 11:7; Jas 1:17). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led by a pillar of cloud and fire that gave them light (Exod 13:21; 14:20) and showed them the way to go (Neh 9:19). Light symbolizes the blessing of the Lord (Job 12:22; 29:2-3; Pss 4:6; 18:28; 44:3; 118:27). God’s servants can extend this blessing by being a light to guide others (Isa 42:6; 49:6). God’s light also exposes sin and brings justice (see Ps 90:8; Isa 51:4).<\/p>\n<p>God himself is described as light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19-20; Dan 2:22; 1 Jn 1:5), and he dwells in unapproachable light (see 1 Tim 6:16). Yet he brings his servants into the light (Mic 7:8-9; see also 1 Jn 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5; 12:46). He brought a revelation (light) from God, but he was more than a revealer—he was himself that revelation (John 1:1-10). Those who receive Jesus, who believe in the Light, receive the right to become children of God (John 1:9-12). They are illumined by his light and come to know God and his salvation (Matt 4:16; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18). They are “children of the light” (John 12:36; 1 Thes 5:5), their allegiance is to the light (1 Jn 1:7), and their conduct is characterized by light—by “what is good and right and true” (Eph 5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:3-5, 14-18; 15:12; Exod 10:21-23; 14:20; 20:21; 2 Sam 22:10-13; 1 Kgs 8:12; Job 3:3-7; 12:22-25; 15:22; 17:12-13; 34:22; Pss 18:11, 28; 27:1; 97:2-6; 139:11-12; Prov 2:13; 4:18-19; Eccl 11:7-8; Isa 5:20; 9:2; 29:15; 51:4; 60:2-3, 19-20; Dan 2:22; Mic 7:8-9; Matt 4:16; 6:22-23; 8:12; Luke 1:78-79; 2:32; John 1:4-9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:35-36, 46; Acts 13:47; 26:18; Rom 2:19-20; Eph 5:7-14; 1 Thes 5:5-8; 1 Tim 6:16; Jas 1:17; 2 Pet 2:17; 1 Jn 1:5-7; 2:7-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Darkness and Light Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23). There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/ 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sa...","summary_en":"Darkness and Light Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23). There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/ 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sa...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":90809,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Darkness and Light","title_en":"Darkness and Light","content_ro":"<h3>Darkness and Light<\/h3>\n<h5>Darkness<\/h5>\n<p>Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 <em>\/\/<\/em> 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sam 22:10 <em>\/\/<\/em> Ps 18:9). God is unknowable unless he reveals himself.<\/p>\n<p>Darkness often stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gen 15:12; Job 12:25; 19:8; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Isa 5:30).<\/p>\n<p>For Job, darkness was like nothingness (Job 3:4-6). It points to death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Job 10:21-22; 17:12-13; Eccl 6:4).<\/p>\n<p>Evil takes place under the cover of darkness (Job 24:16-17), but darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Ps 139:11-12; Isa 29:15-16). Darkness often depicts ignorance of God’s will: Knowledge of God is “light,” so lack of knowledge is “darkness” (Job 12:24-25; Matt 4:16; John 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11). Moral depravity is described as darkness (Prov 2:13; 4:19; Isa 5:20; 60:2). In the New Testament, darkness is also a metaphor for spiritual ignorance (Matt 4:16; 6:23; Luke 1:79; 11:35; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13). Those who come to know God come out of darkness (Isa 9:2).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of the Old Testament prophets was the Day of the Lord, which was often associated with darkness (Ezek 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15). The New Testament also links darkness with judgment (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Light<\/h5>\n<p>Light was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gen 1:3; see also 1:16). It is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting (Eccl 11:7; Jas 1:17). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led by a pillar of cloud and fire that gave them light (Exod 13:21; 14:20) and showed them the way to go (Neh 9:19). Light symbolizes the blessing of the Lord (Job 12:22; 29:2-3; Pss 4:6; 18:28; 44:3; 118:27). God’s servants can extend this blessing by being a light to guide others (Isa 42:6; 49:6). God’s light also exposes sin and brings justice (see Ps 90:8; Isa 51:4).<\/p>\n<p>God himself is described as light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19-20; Dan 2:22; 1 Jn 1:5), and he dwells in unapproachable light (see 1 Tim 6:16). Yet he brings his servants into the light (Mic 7:8-9; see also 1 Jn 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5; 12:46). He brought a revelation (light) from God, but he was more than a revealer—he was himself that revelation (John 1:1-10). Those who receive Jesus, who believe in the Light, receive the right to become children of God (John 1:9-12). They are illumined by his light and come to know God and his salvation (Matt 4:16; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18). They are “children of the light” (John 12:36; 1 Thes 5:5), their allegiance is to the light (1 Jn 1:7), and their conduct is characterized by light—by “what is good and right and true” (Eph 5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:3-5, 14-18; 15:12; Exod 10:21-23; 14:20; 20:21; 2 Sam 22:10-13; 1 Kgs 8:12; Job 3:3-7; 12:22-25; 15:22; 17:12-13; 34:22; Pss 18:11, 28; 27:1; 97:2-6; 139:11-12; Prov 2:13; 4:18-19; Eccl 11:7-8; Isa 5:20; 9:2; 29:15; 51:4; 60:2-3, 19-20; Dan 2:22; Mic 7:8-9; Matt 4:16; 6:22-23; 8:12; Luke 1:78-79; 2:32; John 1:4-9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:35-36, 46; Acts 13:47; 26:18; Rom 2:19-20; Eph 5:7-14; 1 Thes 5:5-8; 1 Tim 6:16; Jas 1:17; 2 Pet 2:17; 1 Jn 1:5-7; 2:7-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Darkness and Light<\/h3>\n<h5>Darkness<\/h5>\n<p>Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 <em>\/\/<\/em> 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sam 22:10 <em>\/\/<\/em> Ps 18:9). God is unknowable unless he reveals himself.<\/p>\n<p>Darkness often stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gen 15:12; Job 12:25; 19:8; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Isa 5:30).<\/p>\n<p>For Job, darkness was like nothingness (Job 3:4-6). It points to death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Job 10:21-22; 17:12-13; Eccl 6:4).<\/p>\n<p>Evil takes place under the cover of darkness (Job 24:16-17), but darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Ps 139:11-12; Isa 29:15-16). Darkness often depicts ignorance of God’s will: Knowledge of God is “light,” so lack of knowledge is “darkness” (Job 12:24-25; Matt 4:16; John 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11). Moral depravity is described as darkness (Prov 2:13; 4:19; Isa 5:20; 60:2). In the New Testament, darkness is also a metaphor for spiritual ignorance (Matt 4:16; 6:23; Luke 1:79; 11:35; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13). Those who come to know God come out of darkness (Isa 9:2).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of the Old Testament prophets was the Day of the Lord, which was often associated with darkness (Ezek 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15). The New Testament also links darkness with judgment (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Light<\/h5>\n<p>Light was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gen 1:3; see also 1:16). It is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting (Eccl 11:7; Jas 1:17). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led by a pillar of cloud and fire that gave them light (Exod 13:21; 14:20) and showed them the way to go (Neh 9:19). Light symbolizes the blessing of the Lord (Job 12:22; 29:2-3; Pss 4:6; 18:28; 44:3; 118:27). God’s servants can extend this blessing by being a light to guide others (Isa 42:6; 49:6). God’s light also exposes sin and brings justice (see Ps 90:8; Isa 51:4).<\/p>\n<p>God himself is described as light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19-20; Dan 2:22; 1 Jn 1:5), and he dwells in unapproachable light (see 1 Tim 6:16). Yet he brings his servants into the light (Mic 7:8-9; see also 1 Jn 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5; 12:46). He brought a revelation (light) from God, but he was more than a revealer—he was himself that revelation (John 1:1-10). Those who receive Jesus, who believe in the Light, receive the right to become children of God (John 1:9-12). They are illumined by his light and come to know God and his salvation (Matt 4:16; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18). They are “children of the light” (John 12:36; 1 Thes 5:5), their allegiance is to the light (1 Jn 1:7), and their conduct is characterized by light—by “what is good and right and true” (Eph 5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:3-5, 14-18; 15:12; Exod 10:21-23; 14:20; 20:21; 2 Sam 22:10-13; 1 Kgs 8:12; Job 3:3-7; 12:22-25; 15:22; 17:12-13; 34:22; Pss 18:11, 28; 27:1; 97:2-6; 139:11-12; Prov 2:13; 4:18-19; Eccl 11:7-8; Isa 5:20; 9:2; 29:15; 51:4; 60:2-3, 19-20; Dan 2:22; Mic 7:8-9; Matt 4:16; 6:22-23; 8:12; Luke 1:78-79; 2:32; John 1:4-9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:35-36, 46; Acts 13:47; 26:18; Rom 2:19-20; Eph 5:7-14; 1 Thes 5:5-8; 1 Tim 6:16; Jas 1:17; 2 Pet 2:17; 1 Jn 1:5-7; 2:7-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Darkness and Light Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23). There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/ 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sa...","summary_en":"Darkness and Light Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23). There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/ 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sa...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":118435,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Darkness and Light","title_en":"Darkness and Light","content_ro":"<h3>Darkness and Light<\/h3>\n<h5>Darkness<\/h5>\n<p>Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 <em>\/\/<\/em> 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sam 22:10 <em>\/\/<\/em> Ps 18:9). God is unknowable unless he reveals himself.<\/p>\n<p>Darkness often stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gen 15:12; Job 12:25; 19:8; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Isa 5:30).<\/p>\n<p>For Job, darkness was like nothingness (Job 3:4-6). It points to death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Job 10:21-22; 17:12-13; Eccl 6:4).<\/p>\n<p>Evil takes place under the cover of darkness (Job 24:16-17), but darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Ps 139:11-12; Isa 29:15-16). Darkness often depicts ignorance of God’s will: Knowledge of God is “light,” so lack of knowledge is “darkness” (Job 12:24-25; Matt 4:16; John 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11). Moral depravity is described as darkness (Prov 2:13; 4:19; Isa 5:20; 60:2). In the New Testament, darkness is also a metaphor for spiritual ignorance (Matt 4:16; 6:23; Luke 1:79; 11:35; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13). Those who come to know God come out of darkness (Isa 9:2).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of the Old Testament prophets was the Day of the Lord, which was often associated with darkness (Ezek 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15). The New Testament also links darkness with judgment (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Light<\/h5>\n<p>Light was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gen 1:3; see also 1:16). It is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting (Eccl 11:7; Jas 1:17). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led by a pillar of cloud and fire that gave them light (Exod 13:21; 14:20) and showed them the way to go (Neh 9:19). Light symbolizes the blessing of the Lord (Job 12:22; 29:2-3; Pss 4:6; 18:28; 44:3; 118:27). God’s servants can extend this blessing by being a light to guide others (Isa 42:6; 49:6). God’s light also exposes sin and brings justice (see Ps 90:8; Isa 51:4).<\/p>\n<p>God himself is described as light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19-20; Dan 2:22; 1 Jn 1:5), and he dwells in unapproachable light (see 1 Tim 6:16). Yet he brings his servants into the light (Mic 7:8-9; see also 1 Jn 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5; 12:46). He brought a revelation (light) from God, but he was more than a revealer—he was himself that revelation (John 1:1-10). Those who receive Jesus, who believe in the Light, receive the right to become children of God (John 1:9-12). They are illumined by his light and come to know God and his salvation (Matt 4:16; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18). They are “children of the light” (John 12:36; 1 Thes 5:5), their allegiance is to the light (1 Jn 1:7), and their conduct is characterized by light—by “what is good and right and true” (Eph 5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:3-5, 14-18; 15:12; Exod 10:21-23; 14:20; 20:21; 2 Sam 22:10-13; 1 Kgs 8:12; Job 3:3-7; 12:22-25; 15:22; 17:12-13; 34:22; Pss 18:11, 28; 27:1; 97:2-6; 139:11-12; Prov 2:13; 4:18-19; Eccl 11:7-8; Isa 5:20; 9:2; 29:15; 51:4; 60:2-3, 19-20; Dan 2:22; Mic 7:8-9; Matt 4:16; 6:22-23; 8:12; Luke 1:78-79; 2:32; John 1:4-9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:35-36, 46; Acts 13:47; 26:18; Rom 2:19-20; Eph 5:7-14; 1 Thes 5:5-8; 1 Tim 6:16; Jas 1:17; 2 Pet 2:17; 1 Jn 1:5-7; 2:7-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Darkness and Light<\/h3>\n<h5>Darkness<\/h5>\n<p>Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 <em>\/\/<\/em> 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sam 22:10 <em>\/\/<\/em> Ps 18:9). God is unknowable unless he reveals himself.<\/p>\n<p>Darkness often stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gen 15:12; Job 12:25; 19:8; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Isa 5:30).<\/p>\n<p>For Job, darkness was like nothingness (Job 3:4-6). It points to death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Job 10:21-22; 17:12-13; Eccl 6:4).<\/p>\n<p>Evil takes place under the cover of darkness (Job 24:16-17), but darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Ps 139:11-12; Isa 29:15-16). Darkness often depicts ignorance of God’s will: Knowledge of God is “light,” so lack of knowledge is “darkness” (Job 12:24-25; Matt 4:16; John 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11). Moral depravity is described as darkness (Prov 2:13; 4:19; Isa 5:20; 60:2). In the New Testament, darkness is also a metaphor for spiritual ignorance (Matt 4:16; 6:23; Luke 1:79; 11:35; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13). Those who come to know God come out of darkness (Isa 9:2).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of the Old Testament prophets was the Day of the Lord, which was often associated with darkness (Ezek 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15). The New Testament also links darkness with judgment (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Light<\/h5>\n<p>Light was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gen 1:3; see also 1:16). It is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting (Eccl 11:7; Jas 1:17). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led by a pillar of cloud and fire that gave them light (Exod 13:21; 14:20) and showed them the way to go (Neh 9:19). Light symbolizes the blessing of the Lord (Job 12:22; 29:2-3; Pss 4:6; 18:28; 44:3; 118:27). God’s servants can extend this blessing by being a light to guide others (Isa 42:6; 49:6). God’s light also exposes sin and brings justice (see Ps 90:8; Isa 51:4).<\/p>\n<p>God himself is described as light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19-20; Dan 2:22; 1 Jn 1:5), and he dwells in unapproachable light (see 1 Tim 6:16). Yet he brings his servants into the light (Mic 7:8-9; see also 1 Jn 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5; 12:46). He brought a revelation (light) from God, but he was more than a revealer—he was himself that revelation (John 1:1-10). Those who receive Jesus, who believe in the Light, receive the right to become children of God (John 1:9-12). They are illumined by his light and come to know God and his salvation (Matt 4:16; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18). They are “children of the light” (John 12:36; 1 Thes 5:5), their allegiance is to the light (1 Jn 1:7), and their conduct is characterized by light—by “what is good and right and true” (Eph 5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:3-5, 14-18; 15:12; Exod 10:21-23; 14:20; 20:21; 2 Sam 22:10-13; 1 Kgs 8:12; Job 3:3-7; 12:22-25; 15:22; 17:12-13; 34:22; Pss 18:11, 28; 27:1; 97:2-6; 139:11-12; Prov 2:13; 4:18-19; Eccl 11:7-8; Isa 5:20; 9:2; 29:15; 51:4; 60:2-3, 19-20; Dan 2:22; Mic 7:8-9; Matt 4:16; 6:22-23; 8:12; Luke 1:78-79; 2:32; John 1:4-9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:35-36, 46; Acts 13:47; 26:18; Rom 2:19-20; Eph 5:7-14; 1 Thes 5:5-8; 1 Tim 6:16; Jas 1:17; 2 Pet 2:17; 1 Jn 1:5-7; 2:7-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Darkness and Light Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23). There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/ 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sa...","summary_en":"Darkness and Light Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23). There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/ 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sa...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":146061,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Darkness and Light","title_en":"Darkness and Light","content_ro":"<h3>Darkness and Light<\/h3>\n<h5>Darkness<\/h5>\n<p>Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 <em>\/\/<\/em> 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sam 22:10 <em>\/\/<\/em> Ps 18:9). God is unknowable unless he reveals himself.<\/p>\n<p>Darkness often stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gen 15:12; Job 12:25; 19:8; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Isa 5:30).<\/p>\n<p>For Job, darkness was like nothingness (Job 3:4-6). It points to death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Job 10:21-22; 17:12-13; Eccl 6:4).<\/p>\n<p>Evil takes place under the cover of darkness (Job 24:16-17), but darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Ps 139:11-12; Isa 29:15-16). Darkness often depicts ignorance of God’s will: Knowledge of God is “light,” so lack of knowledge is “darkness” (Job 12:24-25; Matt 4:16; John 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11). Moral depravity is described as darkness (Prov 2:13; 4:19; Isa 5:20; 60:2). In the New Testament, darkness is also a metaphor for spiritual ignorance (Matt 4:16; 6:23; Luke 1:79; 11:35; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13). Those who come to know God come out of darkness (Isa 9:2).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of the Old Testament prophets was the Day of the Lord, which was often associated with darkness (Ezek 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15). The New Testament also links darkness with judgment (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Light<\/h5>\n<p>Light was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gen 1:3; see also 1:16). It is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting (Eccl 11:7; Jas 1:17). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led by a pillar of cloud and fire that gave them light (Exod 13:21; 14:20) and showed them the way to go (Neh 9:19). Light symbolizes the blessing of the Lord (Job 12:22; 29:2-3; Pss 4:6; 18:28; 44:3; 118:27). God’s servants can extend this blessing by being a light to guide others (Isa 42:6; 49:6). God’s light also exposes sin and brings justice (see Ps 90:8; Isa 51:4).<\/p>\n<p>God himself is described as light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19-20; Dan 2:22; 1 Jn 1:5), and he dwells in unapproachable light (see 1 Tim 6:16). Yet he brings his servants into the light (Mic 7:8-9; see also 1 Jn 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5; 12:46). He brought a revelation (light) from God, but he was more than a revealer—he was himself that revelation (John 1:1-10). Those who receive Jesus, who believe in the Light, receive the right to become children of God (John 1:9-12). They are illumined by his light and come to know God and his salvation (Matt 4:16; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18). They are “children of the light” (John 12:36; 1 Thes 5:5), their allegiance is to the light (1 Jn 1:7), and their conduct is characterized by light—by “what is good and right and true” (Eph 5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:3-5, 14-18; 15:12; Exod 10:21-23; 14:20; 20:21; 2 Sam 22:10-13; 1 Kgs 8:12; Job 3:3-7; 12:22-25; 15:22; 17:12-13; 34:22; Pss 18:11, 28; 27:1; 97:2-6; 139:11-12; Prov 2:13; 4:18-19; Eccl 11:7-8; Isa 5:20; 9:2; 29:15; 51:4; 60:2-3, 19-20; Dan 2:22; Mic 7:8-9; Matt 4:16; 6:22-23; 8:12; Luke 1:78-79; 2:32; John 1:4-9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:35-36, 46; Acts 13:47; 26:18; Rom 2:19-20; Eph 5:7-14; 1 Thes 5:5-8; 1 Tim 6:16; Jas 1:17; 2 Pet 2:17; 1 Jn 1:5-7; 2:7-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Darkness and Light<\/h3>\n<h5>Darkness<\/h5>\n<p>Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 <em>\/\/<\/em> 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sam 22:10 <em>\/\/<\/em> Ps 18:9). God is unknowable unless he reveals himself.<\/p>\n<p>Darkness often stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gen 15:12; Job 12:25; 19:8; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Isa 5:30).<\/p>\n<p>For Job, darkness was like nothingness (Job 3:4-6). It points to death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Job 10:21-22; 17:12-13; Eccl 6:4).<\/p>\n<p>Evil takes place under the cover of darkness (Job 24:16-17), but darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Ps 139:11-12; Isa 29:15-16). Darkness often depicts ignorance of God’s will: Knowledge of God is “light,” so lack of knowledge is “darkness” (Job 12:24-25; Matt 4:16; John 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11). Moral depravity is described as darkness (Prov 2:13; 4:19; Isa 5:20; 60:2). In the New Testament, darkness is also a metaphor for spiritual ignorance (Matt 4:16; 6:23; Luke 1:79; 11:35; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13). Those who come to know God come out of darkness (Isa 9:2).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of the Old Testament prophets was the Day of the Lord, which was often associated with darkness (Ezek 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15). The New Testament also links darkness with judgment (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Light<\/h5>\n<p>Light was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gen 1:3; see also 1:16). It is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting (Eccl 11:7; Jas 1:17). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led by a pillar of cloud and fire that gave them light (Exod 13:21; 14:20) and showed them the way to go (Neh 9:19). Light symbolizes the blessing of the Lord (Job 12:22; 29:2-3; Pss 4:6; 18:28; 44:3; 118:27). God’s servants can extend this blessing by being a light to guide others (Isa 42:6; 49:6). God’s light also exposes sin and brings justice (see Ps 90:8; Isa 51:4).<\/p>\n<p>God himself is described as light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19-20; Dan 2:22; 1 Jn 1:5), and he dwells in unapproachable light (see 1 Tim 6:16). Yet he brings his servants into the light (Mic 7:8-9; see also 1 Jn 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5; 12:46). He brought a revelation (light) from God, but he was more than a revealer—he was himself that revelation (John 1:1-10). Those who receive Jesus, who believe in the Light, receive the right to become children of God (John 1:9-12). They are illumined by his light and come to know God and his salvation (Matt 4:16; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18). They are “children of the light” (John 12:36; 1 Thes 5:5), their allegiance is to the light (1 Jn 1:7), and their conduct is characterized by light—by “what is good and right and true” (Eph 5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:3-5, 14-18; 15:12; Exod 10:21-23; 14:20; 20:21; 2 Sam 22:10-13; 1 Kgs 8:12; Job 3:3-7; 12:22-25; 15:22; 17:12-13; 34:22; Pss 18:11, 28; 27:1; 97:2-6; 139:11-12; Prov 2:13; 4:18-19; Eccl 11:7-8; Isa 5:20; 9:2; 29:15; 51:4; 60:2-3, 19-20; Dan 2:22; Mic 7:8-9; Matt 4:16; 6:22-23; 8:12; Luke 1:78-79; 2:32; John 1:4-9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:35-36, 46; Acts 13:47; 26:18; Rom 2:19-20; Eph 5:7-14; 1 Thes 5:5-8; 1 Tim 6:16; Jas 1:17; 2 Pet 2:17; 1 Jn 1:5-7; 2:7-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Darkness and Light Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23). There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/ 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sa...","summary_en":"Darkness and Light Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23). There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/ 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sa...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"11":[{"id":6283,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Cherub*, Cherubim","title_en":"Cherub*, Cherubim","content_ro":"<h3>CHERUB*, CHERUBIM<\/h3>\n<p>Winged creatures mentioned occasionally in Scripture (“cherubim” is the plural form of the Hebrew “cherub”). They belong to a supernatural created order along with the seraphim and angels. Some scholars have argued that the term “cherub” had its origin in the <em>karibu<\/em> (“intercessor”) of Akkadian mythological texts, commonly represented in Mesopotamian art as a griffin (a creature half lion and half eagle) or as a winged human. The sphinx also appears to go back to this concept. The biblical evidence, however, does not seem to support that identification.<\/p>\n<p>The prophet Ezekiel described four “living creatures,” each with four faces and four wings (Ez 1:5-24); those creatures corresponded to cherubim (10:2-22). The splendor of Ezekiel’s vision was recaptured more modestly in his description of the king of Tyre, who in the midst of his own prosperity seemed to be playing the part of a towering or guardian cherub before being dispossessed (28:13-16). That passage has been interpreted by some as a description of Satan’s “fall from grace” after he had once been in the service of God as a ranking member of a high celestial order.<\/p>\n<p>Despite Ezekiel’s elaborate visionary descriptions, it is difficult to be certain about the form in which cherubim appeared. Thus, in Ezekiel 41:18 the cherubim that were to decorate Ezekiel’s ideal temple had only two faces, a man’s and a young lion’s, in contrast to the four-faced creatures of the earlier visions. The four faces of Ezekiel 1:10 were those of a man, a lion, an ox, and an eagle, whereas in Ezekiel 10:14 the cherub had its own face (“the face of the cherub”), along with the faces of a man, a lion, and an eagle. If the cherub’s face corresponded to that of an ox, that might account for the fact that cherubim in Near Eastern art were represented as four-footed creatures, though frequently different otherwise from biblical cherubim. In addition to their wings, the cherubim of Ezekiel’s vision had straight legs and feet with hooves like those of a calf (Ez 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>That complex description has led scholars to try to identify cherubim in the statues and carvings of non-Israelite peoples. The throne of Ahiram, king of Byblos, was flanked by sphinxes, which some have judged to be cherubim. The sphinx, however, seems to have been a popular decorative motif, as evidenced by an ivory box from Megiddo and ivories from Samaria, Nimrud, and elsewhere. Other decorative creatures have various combinations of human and animal bodies, with wings generally prominent. None of them adequately represents the OT descriptions of cherubim.<\/p>\n<p>The four living creatures of the book of Revelation were similar to the cherubim of Ezekiel but lacked their whirling wheels (Rv 4:6-9). Subsequent references to the creatures in Revelation (5:6-14; 6:1-8; 7:1-11; 14:3; 15:7; 19:4) add nothing to the initial description.<\/p>\n<p>The cherubim of Genesis 3:24 acted as guardians or custodians. Supernatural guardians seem to have been common in Near Eastern thought. In Ezekiel 10 the cherubim were also executors of divine judgment, spreading burning coals over a city (Ez 10:2, 7).<\/p>\n<p>In early Israelite thought the cherubim stretched out their wings and provided God with a throne (1 Sm 4:4; 2 Sm 6:2; etc.). God spoke to Moses from such a throne on the cover of the ark of the covenant (Ex 25:22). In Ezekiel’s vision (Ez 1:26; 10:1) God was seated in a four-wheeled chariot moved by the cherubim and borne aloft by their wings. In Hebrew poetry God was portrayed as employing clouds for his chariot (Ps 104:3; cf. Is 19:1) or riding on a cherub in flight (2 Sm 22:11; Ps 18:10). The idea of cherubim furnishing a seat or platform for the invisible deity found expression in Near Eastern art, where the pagan gods stood on the backs of animals.<\/p>\n<p>In Israel cherubim were carved on the covenantal ark (Ex 25:18-20; 37:7-9), and representations of them were also embroidered on the curtains of the tabernacle and the veil that screened the innermost sanctuary in which the ark rested.<\/p>\n<p>The Most Holy Place of Solomon’s temple was adorned by two large representations of cherubim, made of olive wood and covered with gold leaf. When placed side by side with outstretched wings, they spanned the entire width of the inner sanctuary. Smaller cherubim and palms were carved on the temple’s wooden panels and some of the doors, and were also represented on the sides of the laver stands (1 Kgs 7:29, 36). Cherubim alternating with palm trees formed part of the decor of Ezekiel’s visionary temple (Ez 41:17-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Angel; Seraph, Seraphim.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CHERUB*, CHERUBIM<\/h3>\n<p>Winged creatures mentioned occasionally in Scripture (“cherubim” is the plural form of the Hebrew “cherub”). They belong to a supernatural created order along with the seraphim and angels. Some scholars have argued that the term “cherub” had its origin in the <em>karibu<\/em> (“intercessor”) of Akkadian mythological texts, commonly represented in Mesopotamian art as a griffin (a creature half lion and half eagle) or as a winged human. The sphinx also appears to go back to this concept. The biblical evidence, however, does not seem to support that identification.<\/p>\n<p>The prophet Ezekiel described four “living creatures,” each with four faces and four wings (Ez 1:5-24); those creatures corresponded to cherubim (10:2-22). The splendor of Ezekiel’s vision was recaptured more modestly in his description of the king of Tyre, who in the midst of his own prosperity seemed to be playing the part of a towering or guardian cherub before being dispossessed (28:13-16). That passage has been interpreted by some as a description of Satan’s “fall from grace” after he had once been in the service of God as a ranking member of a high celestial order.<\/p>\n<p>Despite Ezekiel’s elaborate visionary descriptions, it is difficult to be certain about the form in which cherubim appeared. Thus, in Ezekiel 41:18 the cherubim that were to decorate Ezekiel’s ideal temple had only two faces, a man’s and a young lion’s, in contrast to the four-faced creatures of the earlier visions. The four faces of Ezekiel 1:10 were those of a man, a lion, an ox, and an eagle, whereas in Ezekiel 10:14 the cherub had its own face (“the face of the cherub”), along with the faces of a man, a lion, and an eagle. If the cherub’s face corresponded to that of an ox, that might account for the fact that cherubim in Near Eastern art were represented as four-footed creatures, though frequently different otherwise from biblical cherubim. In addition to their wings, the cherubim of Ezekiel’s vision had straight legs and feet with hooves like those of a calf (Ez 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>That complex description has led scholars to try to identify cherubim in the statues and carvings of non-Israelite peoples. The throne of Ahiram, king of Byblos, was flanked by sphinxes, which some have judged to be cherubim. The sphinx, however, seems to have been a popular decorative motif, as evidenced by an ivory box from Megiddo and ivories from Samaria, Nimrud, and elsewhere. Other decorative creatures have various combinations of human and animal bodies, with wings generally prominent. None of them adequately represents the OT descriptions of cherubim.<\/p>\n<p>The four living creatures of the book of Revelation were similar to the cherubim of Ezekiel but lacked their whirling wheels (Rv 4:6-9). Subsequent references to the creatures in Revelation (5:6-14; 6:1-8; 7:1-11; 14:3; 15:7; 19:4) add nothing to the initial description.<\/p>\n<p>The cherubim of Genesis 3:24 acted as guardians or custodians. Supernatural guardians seem to have been common in Near Eastern thought. In Ezekiel 10 the cherubim were also executors of divine judgment, spreading burning coals over a city (Ez 10:2, 7).<\/p>\n<p>In early Israelite thought the cherubim stretched out their wings and provided God with a throne (1 Sm 4:4; 2 Sm 6:2; etc.). God spoke to Moses from such a throne on the cover of the ark of the covenant (Ex 25:22). In Ezekiel’s vision (Ez 1:26; 10:1) God was seated in a four-wheeled chariot moved by the cherubim and borne aloft by their wings. In Hebrew poetry God was portrayed as employing clouds for his chariot (Ps 104:3; cf. Is 19:1) or riding on a cherub in flight (2 Sm 22:11; Ps 18:10). The idea of cherubim furnishing a seat or platform for the invisible deity found expression in Near Eastern art, where the pagan gods stood on the backs of animals.<\/p>\n<p>In Israel cherubim were carved on the covenantal ark (Ex 25:18-20; 37:7-9), and representations of them were also embroidered on the curtains of the tabernacle and the veil that screened the innermost sanctuary in which the ark rested.<\/p>\n<p>The Most Holy Place of Solomon’s temple was adorned by two large representations of cherubim, made of olive wood and covered with gold leaf. When placed side by side with outstretched wings, they spanned the entire width of the inner sanctuary. Smaller cherubim and palms were carved on the temple’s wooden panels and some of the doors, and were also represented on the sides of the laver stands (1 Kgs 7:29, 36). Cherubim alternating with palm trees formed part of the decor of Ezekiel’s visionary temple (Ez 41:17-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Angel; Seraph, Seraphim.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CHERUB*, CHERUBIM Winged creatures mentioned occasionally in Scripture (“cherubim” is the plural form of the Hebrew “cherub”). They belong to a supernatural created order along with the seraphim and angels. Some scholars have argued that the term “cherub” had its origin in the karibu (“intercessor”) of Akkadian mythological texts, commonly represented in Mesopotamian art as a griffin (a creature half lion and half eagle) or as a winged human. The sphinx also appears to go back to this concept...","summary_en":"CHERUB*, CHERUBIM Winged creatures mentioned occasionally in Scripture (“cherubim” is the plural form of the Hebrew “cherub”). They belong to a supernatural created order along with the seraphim and angels. Some scholars have argued that the term “cherub” had its origin in the karibu (“intercessor”) of Akkadian mythological texts, commonly represented in Mesopotamian art as a griffin (a creature half lion and half eagle) or as a winged human. The sphinx also appears to go back to this concept...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"12":[{"id":8629,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Darkness","title_en":"Darkness","content_ro":"<h3>DARKNESS<\/h3>\n<p>Absence of light or brightness. Although the Bible seldom refers to literal darkness, a number of words translated “darkness” are used in a figurative or metaphorical sense.<\/p>\n<p>When God created the world, there was no light until he commanded that light appear. He then made distinction between light and its opposite, darkness, which he called night (Gn 1:2, 4-5, 18). Literal darkness is also mentioned in the account of the plagues God inflicted on Egypt; the ninth plague was an intense darkness that could be “felt” (Ex 10:21-23). That darkness lasted three days and was selective; wherever Egyptians were, it was dark, but where the Israelites were, there was light. The Israelites left Egypt accompanied by a cloud that separated them from their enemy, evidently giving light to the Israelites but making darkness for the Egyptians (Ex 14:20). The Bible notes that thieves or adulterers are likely to do their evil deeds in the dark or at night (Jb 24:16-17).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT “darkness” is used twice in its literal sense. At the crucifixion of Jesus, for a three-hour period from noon to three o’clock, there was not light (Mt 27:45; Mk 15:33; Lk 23:44). The other reference is to Christ’s second coming, when “the sun will be darkened, and the moon will not give its light” (Mt 24:29, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Several biblical passages speak of a darkness surrounding God, evidently moving from a literal sense of absence of light to a more profound meaning. God spoke to Moses on Mt Sinai in a dense, black cloud (Ex 20:21; Dt 4:11) or from the darkness (Dt 5:23). Darkness is pictured as a shelter or cloak around God (2 Sm 22:12; Pss 18:11; 97:2). God sets a boundary for light and darkness (Jb 26:10), brings darkness (Pss 104:20; 105:28), and creates light and darkness (Is 45:7). God dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12; 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sm 22:10; Ps 18:9).<\/p>\n<p>Most figurative references to darkness appear in poetic material, such as Job, Psalms, and Isaiah. Generally, such darkness depicts ignorance about God’s will. Knowledge of God is “light”; hence, lack of such knowledge is “darkness” (Jb 12:24-25; Mt 4:16; Jn 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11).<\/p>\n<p>Job spoke of darkness as equivalent to nothingness (Jb 3:4-6). In other references darkness stands for death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Jb 10:21-22; 15:24; 17:12-13; 18:18; Eccl 6:4; 11:8).<\/p>\n<p>Darkness frequently stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gn 15:12; Jb 5:14; 12:25; 15:22, 30; 19:8; 22:11; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Is 5:30). Moral depravity is sometimes described as darkness (Prv 2:13; 4:19; Is 5:20; 60:2). In the NT darkness is generally a metaphor of moral depravity and spiritual ignorance (Mt 4:16; 6:23; Lk 1:79; 11:35; 22:53; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of OT prophets was the Day of the Lord, often associated with darkness (Ez 32:8; Jl 2:2, 31; Am 5:18, 20; Zep 1:15). The NT also links darkness with judgment in connection with Christ’s second coming (Mt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pt 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13). Those who come to know God are said to come out of darkness (Is 9:2; 29:18; 42:7); darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Jb 34:22; Ps 139:11-12; Is 29:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Light.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DARKNESS<\/h3>\n<p>Absence of light or brightness. Although the Bible seldom refers to literal darkness, a number of words translated “darkness” are used in a figurative or metaphorical sense.<\/p>\n<p>When God created the world, there was no light until he commanded that light appear. He then made distinction between light and its opposite, darkness, which he called night (Gn 1:2, 4-5, 18). Literal darkness is also mentioned in the account of the plagues God inflicted on Egypt; the ninth plague was an intense darkness that could be “felt” (Ex 10:21-23). That darkness lasted three days and was selective; wherever Egyptians were, it was dark, but where the Israelites were, there was light. The Israelites left Egypt accompanied by a cloud that separated them from their enemy, evidently giving light to the Israelites but making darkness for the Egyptians (Ex 14:20). The Bible notes that thieves or adulterers are likely to do their evil deeds in the dark or at night (Jb 24:16-17).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT “darkness” is used twice in its literal sense. At the crucifixion of Jesus, for a three-hour period from noon to three o’clock, there was not light (Mt 27:45; Mk 15:33; Lk 23:44). The other reference is to Christ’s second coming, when “the sun will be darkened, and the moon will not give its light” (Mt 24:29, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Several biblical passages speak of a darkness surrounding God, evidently moving from a literal sense of absence of light to a more profound meaning. God spoke to Moses on Mt Sinai in a dense, black cloud (Ex 20:21; Dt 4:11) or from the darkness (Dt 5:23). Darkness is pictured as a shelter or cloak around God (2 Sm 22:12; Pss 18:11; 97:2). God sets a boundary for light and darkness (Jb 26:10), brings darkness (Pss 104:20; 105:28), and creates light and darkness (Is 45:7). God dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12; 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sm 22:10; Ps 18:9).<\/p>\n<p>Most figurative references to darkness appear in poetic material, such as Job, Psalms, and Isaiah. Generally, such darkness depicts ignorance about God’s will. Knowledge of God is “light”; hence, lack of such knowledge is “darkness” (Jb 12:24-25; Mt 4:16; Jn 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11).<\/p>\n<p>Job spoke of darkness as equivalent to nothingness (Jb 3:4-6). In other references darkness stands for death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Jb 10:21-22; 15:24; 17:12-13; 18:18; Eccl 6:4; 11:8).<\/p>\n<p>Darkness frequently stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gn 15:12; Jb 5:14; 12:25; 15:22, 30; 19:8; 22:11; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Is 5:30). Moral depravity is sometimes described as darkness (Prv 2:13; 4:19; Is 5:20; 60:2). In the NT darkness is generally a metaphor of moral depravity and spiritual ignorance (Mt 4:16; 6:23; Lk 1:79; 11:35; 22:53; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of OT prophets was the Day of the Lord, often associated with darkness (Ez 32:8; Jl 2:2, 31; Am 5:18, 20; Zep 1:15). The NT also links darkness with judgment in connection with Christ’s second coming (Mt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pt 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13). Those who come to know God are said to come out of darkness (Is 9:2; 29:18; 42:7); darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Jb 34:22; Ps 139:11-12; Is 29:15).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Light.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DARKNESS Absence of light or brightness. Although the Bible seldom refers to literal darkness, a number of words translated “darkness” are used in a figurative or metaphorical sense. When God created the world, there was no light until he commanded that light appear. He then made distinction between light and its opposite, darkness, which he called night (Gn 1:2, 4-5, 18). Literal darkness is also mentioned in the account of the plagues God inflicted on Egypt; the ninth plague was an intense ...","summary_en":"DARKNESS Absence of light or brightness. Although the Bible seldom refers to literal darkness, a number of words translated “darkness” are used in a figurative or metaphorical sense. When God created the world, there was no light until he commanded that light appear. He then made distinction between light and its opposite, darkness, which he called night (Gn 1:2, 4-5, 18). Literal darkness is also mentioned in the account of the plagues God inflicted on Egypt; the ninth plague was an intense ...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":63178,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Darkness and Light","title_en":"Darkness and Light","content_ro":"<h3>Darkness and Light<\/h3>\n<h5>Darkness<\/h5>\n<p>Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 <em>\/\/<\/em> 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sam 22:10 <em>\/\/<\/em> Ps 18:9). God is unknowable unless he reveals himself.<\/p>\n<p>Darkness often stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gen 15:12; Job 12:25; 19:8; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Isa 5:30).<\/p>\n<p>For Job, darkness was like nothingness (Job 3:4-6). It points to death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Job 10:21-22; 17:12-13; Eccl 6:4).<\/p>\n<p>Evil takes place under the cover of darkness (Job 24:16-17), but darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Ps 139:11-12; Isa 29:15-16). Darkness often depicts ignorance of God’s will: Knowledge of God is “light,” so lack of knowledge is “darkness” (Job 12:24-25; Matt 4:16; John 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11). Moral depravity is described as darkness (Prov 2:13; 4:19; Isa 5:20; 60:2). In the New Testament, darkness is also a metaphor for spiritual ignorance (Matt 4:16; 6:23; Luke 1:79; 11:35; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13). Those who come to know God come out of darkness (Isa 9:2).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of the Old Testament prophets was the Day of the Lord, which was often associated with darkness (Ezek 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15). The New Testament also links darkness with judgment (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Light<\/h5>\n<p>Light was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gen 1:3; see also 1:16). It is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting (Eccl 11:7; Jas 1:17). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led by a pillar of cloud and fire that gave them light (Exod 13:21; 14:20) and showed them the way to go (Neh 9:19). Light symbolizes the blessing of the Lord (Job 12:22; 29:2-3; Pss 4:6; 18:28; 44:3; 118:27). God’s servants can extend this blessing by being a light to guide others (Isa 42:6; 49:6). God’s light also exposes sin and brings justice (see Ps 90:8; Isa 51:4).<\/p>\n<p>God himself is described as light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19-20; Dan 2:22; 1 Jn 1:5), and he dwells in unapproachable light (see 1 Tim 6:16). Yet he brings his servants into the light (Mic 7:8-9; see also 1 Jn 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5; 12:46). He brought a revelation (light) from God, but he was more than a revealer—he was himself that revelation (John 1:1-10). Those who receive Jesus, who believe in the Light, receive the right to become children of God (John 1:9-12). They are illumined by his light and come to know God and his salvation (Matt 4:16; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18). They are “children of the light” (John 12:36; 1 Thes 5:5), their allegiance is to the light (1 Jn 1:7), and their conduct is characterized by light—by “what is good and right and true” (Eph 5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:3-5, 14-18; 15:12; Exod 10:21-23; 14:20; 20:21; 2 Sam 22:10-13; 1 Kgs 8:12; Job 3:3-7; 12:22-25; 15:22; 17:12-13; 34:22; Pss 18:11, 28; 27:1; 97:2-6; 139:11-12; Prov 2:13; 4:18-19; Eccl 11:7-8; Isa 5:20; 9:2; 29:15; 51:4; 60:2-3, 19-20; Dan 2:22; Mic 7:8-9; Matt 4:16; 6:22-23; 8:12; Luke 1:78-79; 2:32; John 1:4-9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:35-36, 46; Acts 13:47; 26:18; Rom 2:19-20; Eph 5:7-14; 1 Thes 5:5-8; 1 Tim 6:16; Jas 1:17; 2 Pet 2:17; 1 Jn 1:5-7; 2:7-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Darkness and Light<\/h3>\n<h5>Darkness<\/h5>\n<p>Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 <em>\/\/<\/em> 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sam 22:10 <em>\/\/<\/em> Ps 18:9). God is unknowable unless he reveals himself.<\/p>\n<p>Darkness often stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gen 15:12; Job 12:25; 19:8; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Isa 5:30).<\/p>\n<p>For Job, darkness was like nothingness (Job 3:4-6). It points to death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Job 10:21-22; 17:12-13; Eccl 6:4).<\/p>\n<p>Evil takes place under the cover of darkness (Job 24:16-17), but darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Ps 139:11-12; Isa 29:15-16). Darkness often depicts ignorance of God’s will: Knowledge of God is “light,” so lack of knowledge is “darkness” (Job 12:24-25; Matt 4:16; John 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11). Moral depravity is described as darkness (Prov 2:13; 4:19; Isa 5:20; 60:2). In the New Testament, darkness is also a metaphor for spiritual ignorance (Matt 4:16; 6:23; Luke 1:79; 11:35; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13). Those who come to know God come out of darkness (Isa 9:2).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of the Old Testament prophets was the Day of the Lord, which was often associated with darkness (Ezek 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15). The New Testament also links darkness with judgment (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Light<\/h5>\n<p>Light was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gen 1:3; see also 1:16). It is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting (Eccl 11:7; Jas 1:17). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led by a pillar of cloud and fire that gave them light (Exod 13:21; 14:20) and showed them the way to go (Neh 9:19). Light symbolizes the blessing of the Lord (Job 12:22; 29:2-3; Pss 4:6; 18:28; 44:3; 118:27). God’s servants can extend this blessing by being a light to guide others (Isa 42:6; 49:6). God’s light also exposes sin and brings justice (see Ps 90:8; Isa 51:4).<\/p>\n<p>God himself is described as light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19-20; Dan 2:22; 1 Jn 1:5), and he dwells in unapproachable light (see 1 Tim 6:16). Yet he brings his servants into the light (Mic 7:8-9; see also 1 Jn 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5; 12:46). He brought a revelation (light) from God, but he was more than a revealer—he was himself that revelation (John 1:1-10). Those who receive Jesus, who believe in the Light, receive the right to become children of God (John 1:9-12). They are illumined by his light and come to know God and his salvation (Matt 4:16; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18). They are “children of the light” (John 12:36; 1 Thes 5:5), their allegiance is to the light (1 Jn 1:7), and their conduct is characterized by light—by “what is good and right and true” (Eph 5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:3-5, 14-18; 15:12; Exod 10:21-23; 14:20; 20:21; 2 Sam 22:10-13; 1 Kgs 8:12; Job 3:3-7; 12:22-25; 15:22; 17:12-13; 34:22; Pss 18:11, 28; 27:1; 97:2-6; 139:11-12; Prov 2:13; 4:18-19; Eccl 11:7-8; Isa 5:20; 9:2; 29:15; 51:4; 60:2-3, 19-20; Dan 2:22; Mic 7:8-9; Matt 4:16; 6:22-23; 8:12; Luke 1:78-79; 2:32; John 1:4-9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:35-36, 46; Acts 13:47; 26:18; Rom 2:19-20; Eph 5:7-14; 1 Thes 5:5-8; 1 Tim 6:16; Jas 1:17; 2 Pet 2:17; 1 Jn 1:5-7; 2:7-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Darkness and Light Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23). There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/ 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sa...","summary_en":"Darkness and Light Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23). There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/ 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sa...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":90804,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Darkness and Light","title_en":"Darkness and Light","content_ro":"<h3>Darkness and Light<\/h3>\n<h5>Darkness<\/h5>\n<p>Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 <em>\/\/<\/em> 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sam 22:10 <em>\/\/<\/em> Ps 18:9). God is unknowable unless he reveals himself.<\/p>\n<p>Darkness often stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gen 15:12; Job 12:25; 19:8; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Isa 5:30).<\/p>\n<p>For Job, darkness was like nothingness (Job 3:4-6). It points to death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Job 10:21-22; 17:12-13; Eccl 6:4).<\/p>\n<p>Evil takes place under the cover of darkness (Job 24:16-17), but darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Ps 139:11-12; Isa 29:15-16). Darkness often depicts ignorance of God’s will: Knowledge of God is “light,” so lack of knowledge is “darkness” (Job 12:24-25; Matt 4:16; John 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11). Moral depravity is described as darkness (Prov 2:13; 4:19; Isa 5:20; 60:2). In the New Testament, darkness is also a metaphor for spiritual ignorance (Matt 4:16; 6:23; Luke 1:79; 11:35; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13). Those who come to know God come out of darkness (Isa 9:2).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of the Old Testament prophets was the Day of the Lord, which was often associated with darkness (Ezek 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15). The New Testament also links darkness with judgment (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Light<\/h5>\n<p>Light was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gen 1:3; see also 1:16). It is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting (Eccl 11:7; Jas 1:17). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led by a pillar of cloud and fire that gave them light (Exod 13:21; 14:20) and showed them the way to go (Neh 9:19). Light symbolizes the blessing of the Lord (Job 12:22; 29:2-3; Pss 4:6; 18:28; 44:3; 118:27). God’s servants can extend this blessing by being a light to guide others (Isa 42:6; 49:6). God’s light also exposes sin and brings justice (see Ps 90:8; Isa 51:4).<\/p>\n<p>God himself is described as light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19-20; Dan 2:22; 1 Jn 1:5), and he dwells in unapproachable light (see 1 Tim 6:16). Yet he brings his servants into the light (Mic 7:8-9; see also 1 Jn 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5; 12:46). He brought a revelation (light) from God, but he was more than a revealer—he was himself that revelation (John 1:1-10). Those who receive Jesus, who believe in the Light, receive the right to become children of God (John 1:9-12). They are illumined by his light and come to know God and his salvation (Matt 4:16; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18). They are “children of the light” (John 12:36; 1 Thes 5:5), their allegiance is to the light (1 Jn 1:7), and their conduct is characterized by light—by “what is good and right and true” (Eph 5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:3-5, 14-18; 15:12; Exod 10:21-23; 14:20; 20:21; 2 Sam 22:10-13; 1 Kgs 8:12; Job 3:3-7; 12:22-25; 15:22; 17:12-13; 34:22; Pss 18:11, 28; 27:1; 97:2-6; 139:11-12; Prov 2:13; 4:18-19; Eccl 11:7-8; Isa 5:20; 9:2; 29:15; 51:4; 60:2-3, 19-20; Dan 2:22; Mic 7:8-9; Matt 4:16; 6:22-23; 8:12; Luke 1:78-79; 2:32; John 1:4-9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:35-36, 46; Acts 13:47; 26:18; Rom 2:19-20; Eph 5:7-14; 1 Thes 5:5-8; 1 Tim 6:16; Jas 1:17; 2 Pet 2:17; 1 Jn 1:5-7; 2:7-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Darkness and Light<\/h3>\n<h5>Darkness<\/h5>\n<p>Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 <em>\/\/<\/em> 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sam 22:10 <em>\/\/<\/em> Ps 18:9). God is unknowable unless he reveals himself.<\/p>\n<p>Darkness often stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gen 15:12; Job 12:25; 19:8; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Isa 5:30).<\/p>\n<p>For Job, darkness was like nothingness (Job 3:4-6). It points to death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Job 10:21-22; 17:12-13; Eccl 6:4).<\/p>\n<p>Evil takes place under the cover of darkness (Job 24:16-17), but darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Ps 139:11-12; Isa 29:15-16). Darkness often depicts ignorance of God’s will: Knowledge of God is “light,” so lack of knowledge is “darkness” (Job 12:24-25; Matt 4:16; John 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11). Moral depravity is described as darkness (Prov 2:13; 4:19; Isa 5:20; 60:2). In the New Testament, darkness is also a metaphor for spiritual ignorance (Matt 4:16; 6:23; Luke 1:79; 11:35; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13). Those who come to know God come out of darkness (Isa 9:2).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of the Old Testament prophets was the Day of the Lord, which was often associated with darkness (Ezek 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15). The New Testament also links darkness with judgment (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Light<\/h5>\n<p>Light was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gen 1:3; see also 1:16). It is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting (Eccl 11:7; Jas 1:17). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led by a pillar of cloud and fire that gave them light (Exod 13:21; 14:20) and showed them the way to go (Neh 9:19). Light symbolizes the blessing of the Lord (Job 12:22; 29:2-3; Pss 4:6; 18:28; 44:3; 118:27). God’s servants can extend this blessing by being a light to guide others (Isa 42:6; 49:6). God’s light also exposes sin and brings justice (see Ps 90:8; Isa 51:4).<\/p>\n<p>God himself is described as light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19-20; Dan 2:22; 1 Jn 1:5), and he dwells in unapproachable light (see 1 Tim 6:16). Yet he brings his servants into the light (Mic 7:8-9; see also 1 Jn 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5; 12:46). He brought a revelation (light) from God, but he was more than a revealer—he was himself that revelation (John 1:1-10). Those who receive Jesus, who believe in the Light, receive the right to become children of God (John 1:9-12). They are illumined by his light and come to know God and his salvation (Matt 4:16; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18). They are “children of the light” (John 12:36; 1 Thes 5:5), their allegiance is to the light (1 Jn 1:7), and their conduct is characterized by light—by “what is good and right and true” (Eph 5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:3-5, 14-18; 15:12; Exod 10:21-23; 14:20; 20:21; 2 Sam 22:10-13; 1 Kgs 8:12; Job 3:3-7; 12:22-25; 15:22; 17:12-13; 34:22; Pss 18:11, 28; 27:1; 97:2-6; 139:11-12; Prov 2:13; 4:18-19; Eccl 11:7-8; Isa 5:20; 9:2; 29:15; 51:4; 60:2-3, 19-20; Dan 2:22; Mic 7:8-9; Matt 4:16; 6:22-23; 8:12; Luke 1:78-79; 2:32; John 1:4-9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:35-36, 46; Acts 13:47; 26:18; Rom 2:19-20; Eph 5:7-14; 1 Thes 5:5-8; 1 Tim 6:16; Jas 1:17; 2 Pet 2:17; 1 Jn 1:5-7; 2:7-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Darkness and Light Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23). There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/ 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sa...","summary_en":"Darkness and Light Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23). There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/ 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sa...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":118430,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Darkness and Light","title_en":"Darkness and Light","content_ro":"<h3>Darkness and Light<\/h3>\n<h5>Darkness<\/h5>\n<p>Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 <em>\/\/<\/em> 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sam 22:10 <em>\/\/<\/em> Ps 18:9). God is unknowable unless he reveals himself.<\/p>\n<p>Darkness often stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gen 15:12; Job 12:25; 19:8; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Isa 5:30).<\/p>\n<p>For Job, darkness was like nothingness (Job 3:4-6). It points to death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Job 10:21-22; 17:12-13; Eccl 6:4).<\/p>\n<p>Evil takes place under the cover of darkness (Job 24:16-17), but darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Ps 139:11-12; Isa 29:15-16). Darkness often depicts ignorance of God’s will: Knowledge of God is “light,” so lack of knowledge is “darkness” (Job 12:24-25; Matt 4:16; John 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11). Moral depravity is described as darkness (Prov 2:13; 4:19; Isa 5:20; 60:2). In the New Testament, darkness is also a metaphor for spiritual ignorance (Matt 4:16; 6:23; Luke 1:79; 11:35; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13). Those who come to know God come out of darkness (Isa 9:2).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of the Old Testament prophets was the Day of the Lord, which was often associated with darkness (Ezek 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15). The New Testament also links darkness with judgment (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Light<\/h5>\n<p>Light was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gen 1:3; see also 1:16). It is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting (Eccl 11:7; Jas 1:17). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led by a pillar of cloud and fire that gave them light (Exod 13:21; 14:20) and showed them the way to go (Neh 9:19). Light symbolizes the blessing of the Lord (Job 12:22; 29:2-3; Pss 4:6; 18:28; 44:3; 118:27). God’s servants can extend this blessing by being a light to guide others (Isa 42:6; 49:6). God’s light also exposes sin and brings justice (see Ps 90:8; Isa 51:4).<\/p>\n<p>God himself is described as light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19-20; Dan 2:22; 1 Jn 1:5), and he dwells in unapproachable light (see 1 Tim 6:16). Yet he brings his servants into the light (Mic 7:8-9; see also 1 Jn 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5; 12:46). He brought a revelation (light) from God, but he was more than a revealer—he was himself that revelation (John 1:1-10). Those who receive Jesus, who believe in the Light, receive the right to become children of God (John 1:9-12). They are illumined by his light and come to know God and his salvation (Matt 4:16; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18). They are “children of the light” (John 12:36; 1 Thes 5:5), their allegiance is to the light (1 Jn 1:7), and their conduct is characterized by light—by “what is good and right and true” (Eph 5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:3-5, 14-18; 15:12; Exod 10:21-23; 14:20; 20:21; 2 Sam 22:10-13; 1 Kgs 8:12; Job 3:3-7; 12:22-25; 15:22; 17:12-13; 34:22; Pss 18:11, 28; 27:1; 97:2-6; 139:11-12; Prov 2:13; 4:18-19; Eccl 11:7-8; Isa 5:20; 9:2; 29:15; 51:4; 60:2-3, 19-20; Dan 2:22; Mic 7:8-9; Matt 4:16; 6:22-23; 8:12; Luke 1:78-79; 2:32; John 1:4-9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:35-36, 46; Acts 13:47; 26:18; Rom 2:19-20; Eph 5:7-14; 1 Thes 5:5-8; 1 Tim 6:16; Jas 1:17; 2 Pet 2:17; 1 Jn 1:5-7; 2:7-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Darkness and Light<\/h3>\n<h5>Darkness<\/h5>\n<p>Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 <em>\/\/<\/em> 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sam 22:10 <em>\/\/<\/em> Ps 18:9). God is unknowable unless he reveals himself.<\/p>\n<p>Darkness often stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gen 15:12; Job 12:25; 19:8; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Isa 5:30).<\/p>\n<p>For Job, darkness was like nothingness (Job 3:4-6). It points to death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Job 10:21-22; 17:12-13; Eccl 6:4).<\/p>\n<p>Evil takes place under the cover of darkness (Job 24:16-17), but darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Ps 139:11-12; Isa 29:15-16). Darkness often depicts ignorance of God’s will: Knowledge of God is “light,” so lack of knowledge is “darkness” (Job 12:24-25; Matt 4:16; John 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11). Moral depravity is described as darkness (Prov 2:13; 4:19; Isa 5:20; 60:2). In the New Testament, darkness is also a metaphor for spiritual ignorance (Matt 4:16; 6:23; Luke 1:79; 11:35; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13). Those who come to know God come out of darkness (Isa 9:2).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of the Old Testament prophets was the Day of the Lord, which was often associated with darkness (Ezek 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15). The New Testament also links darkness with judgment (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Light<\/h5>\n<p>Light was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gen 1:3; see also 1:16). It is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting (Eccl 11:7; Jas 1:17). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led by a pillar of cloud and fire that gave them light (Exod 13:21; 14:20) and showed them the way to go (Neh 9:19). Light symbolizes the blessing of the Lord (Job 12:22; 29:2-3; Pss 4:6; 18:28; 44:3; 118:27). God’s servants can extend this blessing by being a light to guide others (Isa 42:6; 49:6). God’s light also exposes sin and brings justice (see Ps 90:8; Isa 51:4).<\/p>\n<p>God himself is described as light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19-20; Dan 2:22; 1 Jn 1:5), and he dwells in unapproachable light (see 1 Tim 6:16). Yet he brings his servants into the light (Mic 7:8-9; see also 1 Jn 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5; 12:46). He brought a revelation (light) from God, but he was more than a revealer—he was himself that revelation (John 1:1-10). Those who receive Jesus, who believe in the Light, receive the right to become children of God (John 1:9-12). They are illumined by his light and come to know God and his salvation (Matt 4:16; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18). They are “children of the light” (John 12:36; 1 Thes 5:5), their allegiance is to the light (1 Jn 1:7), and their conduct is characterized by light—by “what is good and right and true” (Eph 5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:3-5, 14-18; 15:12; Exod 10:21-23; 14:20; 20:21; 2 Sam 22:10-13; 1 Kgs 8:12; Job 3:3-7; 12:22-25; 15:22; 17:12-13; 34:22; Pss 18:11, 28; 27:1; 97:2-6; 139:11-12; Prov 2:13; 4:18-19; Eccl 11:7-8; Isa 5:20; 9:2; 29:15; 51:4; 60:2-3, 19-20; Dan 2:22; Mic 7:8-9; Matt 4:16; 6:22-23; 8:12; Luke 1:78-79; 2:32; John 1:4-9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:35-36, 46; Acts 13:47; 26:18; Rom 2:19-20; Eph 5:7-14; 1 Thes 5:5-8; 1 Tim 6:16; Jas 1:17; 2 Pet 2:17; 1 Jn 1:5-7; 2:7-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Darkness and Light Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23). There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/ 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sa...","summary_en":"Darkness and Light Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23). There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/ 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sa...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":146056,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Darkness and Light","title_en":"Darkness and Light","content_ro":"<h3>Darkness and Light<\/h3>\n<h5>Darkness<\/h5>\n<p>Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 <em>\/\/<\/em> 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sam 22:10 <em>\/\/<\/em> Ps 18:9). God is unknowable unless he reveals himself.<\/p>\n<p>Darkness often stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gen 15:12; Job 12:25; 19:8; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Isa 5:30).<\/p>\n<p>For Job, darkness was like nothingness (Job 3:4-6). It points to death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Job 10:21-22; 17:12-13; Eccl 6:4).<\/p>\n<p>Evil takes place under the cover of darkness (Job 24:16-17), but darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Ps 139:11-12; Isa 29:15-16). Darkness often depicts ignorance of God’s will: Knowledge of God is “light,” so lack of knowledge is “darkness” (Job 12:24-25; Matt 4:16; John 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11). Moral depravity is described as darkness (Prov 2:13; 4:19; Isa 5:20; 60:2). In the New Testament, darkness is also a metaphor for spiritual ignorance (Matt 4:16; 6:23; Luke 1:79; 11:35; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13). Those who come to know God come out of darkness (Isa 9:2).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of the Old Testament prophets was the Day of the Lord, which was often associated with darkness (Ezek 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15). The New Testament also links darkness with judgment (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Light<\/h5>\n<p>Light was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gen 1:3; see also 1:16). It is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting (Eccl 11:7; Jas 1:17). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led by a pillar of cloud and fire that gave them light (Exod 13:21; 14:20) and showed them the way to go (Neh 9:19). Light symbolizes the blessing of the Lord (Job 12:22; 29:2-3; Pss 4:6; 18:28; 44:3; 118:27). God’s servants can extend this blessing by being a light to guide others (Isa 42:6; 49:6). God’s light also exposes sin and brings justice (see Ps 90:8; Isa 51:4).<\/p>\n<p>God himself is described as light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19-20; Dan 2:22; 1 Jn 1:5), and he dwells in unapproachable light (see 1 Tim 6:16). Yet he brings his servants into the light (Mic 7:8-9; see also 1 Jn 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5; 12:46). He brought a revelation (light) from God, but he was more than a revealer—he was himself that revelation (John 1:1-10). Those who receive Jesus, who believe in the Light, receive the right to become children of God (John 1:9-12). They are illumined by his light and come to know God and his salvation (Matt 4:16; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18). They are “children of the light” (John 12:36; 1 Thes 5:5), their allegiance is to the light (1 Jn 1:7), and their conduct is characterized by light—by “what is good and right and true” (Eph 5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:3-5, 14-18; 15:12; Exod 10:21-23; 14:20; 20:21; 2 Sam 22:10-13; 1 Kgs 8:12; Job 3:3-7; 12:22-25; 15:22; 17:12-13; 34:22; Pss 18:11, 28; 27:1; 97:2-6; 139:11-12; Prov 2:13; 4:18-19; Eccl 11:7-8; Isa 5:20; 9:2; 29:15; 51:4; 60:2-3, 19-20; Dan 2:22; Mic 7:8-9; Matt 4:16; 6:22-23; 8:12; Luke 1:78-79; 2:32; John 1:4-9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:35-36, 46; Acts 13:47; 26:18; Rom 2:19-20; Eph 5:7-14; 1 Thes 5:5-8; 1 Tim 6:16; Jas 1:17; 2 Pet 2:17; 1 Jn 1:5-7; 2:7-11<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Darkness and Light<\/h3>\n<h5>Darkness<\/h5>\n<p>Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23).<\/p>\n<p>There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 <em>\/\/<\/em> 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sam 22:10 <em>\/\/<\/em> Ps 18:9). God is unknowable unless he reveals himself.<\/p>\n<p>Darkness often stands for distress and anxiety, or for the confusion and destruction experienced by the wicked (Gen 15:12; Job 12:25; 19:8; Pss 35:6; 107:10, 14; Eccl 5:17; Isa 5:30).<\/p>\n<p>For Job, darkness was like nothingness (Job 3:4-6). It points to death, a land of shadows and gloom, the dwelling place of the dead far from the light of day (Job 10:21-22; 17:12-13; Eccl 6:4).<\/p>\n<p>Evil takes place under the cover of darkness (Job 24:16-17), but darkness cannot be a hiding place from God (Ps 139:11-12; Isa 29:15-16). Darkness often depicts ignorance of God’s will: Knowledge of God is “light,” so lack of knowledge is “darkness” (Job 12:24-25; Matt 4:16; John 1:5; 8:12; 12:35, 46; 1 Jn 1:5; 2:8-9, 11). Moral depravity is described as darkness (Prov 2:13; 4:19; Isa 5:20; 60:2). In the New Testament, darkness is also a metaphor for spiritual ignorance (Matt 4:16; 6:23; Luke 1:79; 11:35; Rom 2:19; Col 1:13). Those who come to know God come out of darkness (Isa 9:2).<\/p>\n<p>A major theme of the Old Testament prophets was the Day of the Lord, which was often associated with darkness (Ezek 32:8; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18, 20; Zeph 1:15). The New Testament also links darkness with judgment (Matt 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; 2 Pet 2:17; Jude 1:6, 13).<\/p>\n<h5>Light<\/h5>\n<p>Light was the first thing God created after the heavens and earth (Gen 1:3; see also 1:16). It is a natural symbol for what is pleasant, good, or uplifting (Eccl 11:7; Jas 1:17). When the Israelites left Egypt, they were led by a pillar of cloud and fire that gave them light (Exod 13:21; 14:20) and showed them the way to go (Neh 9:19). Light symbolizes the blessing of the Lord (Job 12:22; 29:2-3; Pss 4:6; 18:28; 44:3; 118:27). God’s servants can extend this blessing by being a light to guide others (Isa 42:6; 49:6). God’s light also exposes sin and brings justice (see Ps 90:8; Isa 51:4).<\/p>\n<p>God himself is described as light (Ps 27:1; Isa 60:19-20; Dan 2:22; 1 Jn 1:5), and he dwells in unapproachable light (see 1 Tim 6:16). Yet he brings his servants into the light (Mic 7:8-9; see also 1 Jn 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>Jesus said, “I am the light of the world” (John 8:12; 9:5; 12:46). He brought a revelation (light) from God, but he was more than a revealer—he was himself that revelation (John 1:1-10). Those who receive Jesus, who believe in the Light, receive the right to become children of God (John 1:9-12). They are illumined by his light and come to know God and his salvation (Matt 4:16; Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; 26:18). They are “children of the light” (John 12:36; 1 Thes 5:5), their allegiance is to the light (1 Jn 1:7), and their conduct is characterized by light—by “what is good and right and true” (Eph 5:8-9).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 1:3-5, 14-18; 15:12; Exod 10:21-23; 14:20; 20:21; 2 Sam 22:10-13; 1 Kgs 8:12; Job 3:3-7; 12:22-25; 15:22; 17:12-13; 34:22; Pss 18:11, 28; 27:1; 97:2-6; 139:11-12; Prov 2:13; 4:18-19; Eccl 11:7-8; Isa 5:20; 9:2; 29:15; 51:4; 60:2-3, 19-20; Dan 2:22; Mic 7:8-9; Matt 4:16; 6:22-23; 8:12; Luke 1:78-79; 2:32; John 1:4-9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:35-36, 46; Acts 13:47; 26:18; Rom 2:19-20; Eph 5:7-14; 1 Thes 5:5-8; 1 Tim 6:16; Jas 1:17; 2 Pet 2:17; 1 Jn 1:5-7; 2:7-11<\/p>","summary_ro":"Darkness and Light Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23). There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/ 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sa...","summary_en":"Darkness and Light Darkness Darkness is the absence of light. There was no light until God commanded that light appear. He then made a distinction between light and its absence (Gen 1:2, 4-5, 18). The ninth plague on Egypt was three days of intense darkness, a complete absence of light (Exod 10:21-23). There is a darkness surrounding God (Exod 20:21; Deut 4:11; 5:23; 2 Sam 22:12; Ps 18:11; 97:2); he dwells in thick darkness (1 Kgs 8:12 \/\/ 2 Chr 6:1), and thick darkness is under his feet (2 Sa...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"14":[{"id":46815,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:14","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:14<\/strong> <em>The<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> thundered from heaven:<\/em> Cp. 1 Sam 2:10.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:14<\/strong> <em>The<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> thundered from heaven:<\/em> Cp. 1 Sam 2:10.<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:14 The Lord thundered from heaven: Cp. 1 Sam 2:10.","summary_en":"22:14 The Lord thundered from heaven: Cp. 1 Sam 2:10.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":74441,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:14","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:14<\/strong> <em>The<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> thundered from heaven:<\/em> Cp. 1 Sam 2:10.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:14<\/strong> <em>The<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> thundered from heaven:<\/em> Cp. 1 Sam 2:10.<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:14 The Lord thundered from heaven: Cp. 1 Sam 2:10.","summary_en":"22:14 The Lord thundered from heaven: Cp. 1 Sam 2:10.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":102067,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:14","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:14<\/strong> <em>The<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> thundered from heaven:<\/em> Cp. 1 Sam 2:10.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:14<\/strong> <em>The<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> thundered from heaven:<\/em> Cp. 1 Sam 2:10.<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:14 The Lord thundered from heaven: Cp. 1 Sam 2:10.","summary_en":"22:14 The Lord thundered from heaven: Cp. 1 Sam 2:10.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":129693,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:14","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:14<\/strong> <em>The<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> thundered from heaven:<\/em> Cp. 1 Sam 2:10.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:14<\/strong> <em>The<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em> thundered from heaven:<\/em> Cp. 1 Sam 2:10.<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:14 The Lord thundered from heaven: Cp. 1 Sam 2:10.","summary_en":"22:14 The Lord thundered from heaven: Cp. 1 Sam 2:10.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"15":[{"id":23327,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Lightning","title_en":"Lightning","content_ro":"<h3>LIGHTNING<\/h3>\n<p>The flashing of light. When the Bible speaks of lightning, it usually has to do with God making an appearance. It occurs, therefore, at very dramatic moments, as when God comes down upon Mt Sinai just before giving the Ten Commandments to Moses (Ex 19:16); or referring to the return of Jesus (Mt 24:27), where lightning is only one of many spectacular signs of the event (Ez 1:14; Dn 10:6). It is a common symbol also in Revelation (Rv 4:5; 8:5; 16:18), a book whose chief concern is to give a vision of God.<\/p>\n<p>Sometimes the figure of lightning speaks of God in special ways. It can accompany judgment against God’s enemies (2 Sm 22:15; Rv 16:18). More often, it points to God’s power and kingship over all creation (Ps 135:7). Lightning is one of the things God mentions to Job (Jb 38:35) to show him how great is the creation and the Creator, and how small Job is by comparison (compare Ps 77:16-18).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LIGHTNING<\/h3>\n<p>The flashing of light. When the Bible speaks of lightning, it usually has to do with God making an appearance. It occurs, therefore, at very dramatic moments, as when God comes down upon Mt Sinai just before giving the Ten Commandments to Moses (Ex 19:16); or referring to the return of Jesus (Mt 24:27), where lightning is only one of many spectacular signs of the event (Ez 1:14; Dn 10:6). It is a common symbol also in Revelation (Rv 4:5; 8:5; 16:18), a book whose chief concern is to give a vision of God.<\/p>\n<p>Sometimes the figure of lightning speaks of God in special ways. It can accompany judgment against God’s enemies (2 Sm 22:15; Rv 16:18). More often, it points to God’s power and kingship over all creation (Ps 135:7). Lightning is one of the things God mentions to Job (Jb 38:35) to show him how great is the creation and the Creator, and how small Job is by comparison (compare Ps 77:16-18).<\/p>","summary_ro":"LIGHTNING The flashing of light. When the Bible speaks of lightning, it usually has to do with God making an appearance. It occurs, therefore, at very dramatic moments, as when God comes down upon Mt Sinai just before giving the Ten Commandments to Moses (Ex 19:16); or referring to the return of Jesus (Mt 24:27), where lightning is only one of many spectacular signs of the event (Ez 1:14; Dn 10:6). It is a common symbol also in Revelation (Rv 4:5; 8:5; 16:18), a book whose chief concern is to...","summary_en":"LIGHTNING The flashing of light. When the Bible speaks of lightning, it usually has to do with God making an appearance. It occurs, therefore, at very dramatic moments, as when God comes down upon Mt Sinai just before giving the Ten Commandments to Moses (Ex 19:16); or referring to the return of Jesus (Mt 24:27), where lightning is only one of many spectacular signs of the event (Ez 1:14; Dn 10:6). It is a common symbol also in Revelation (Rv 4:5; 8:5; 16:18), a book whose chief concern is to...","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"16":[{"id":6224,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"of the Sea*, Channels","title_en":"of the Sea*, Channels","content_ro":"<h3>CHANNELS OF THE SEA*<\/h3>\n<p>Valleys or stream beds in the ocean floor. When the Lord delivered David from all his enemies and from King Saul, David praised God’s great power, which could expose the ocean floor with a blast of his breath (2 Sm 22:16; Ps 18:15).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CHANNELS OF THE SEA*<\/h3>\n<p>Valleys or stream beds in the ocean floor. When the Lord delivered David from all his enemies and from King Saul, David praised God’s great power, which could expose the ocean floor with a blast of his breath (2 Sm 22:16; Ps 18:15).<\/p>","summary_ro":"CHANNELS OF THE SEA* Valleys or stream beds in the ocean floor. When the Lord delivered David from all his enemies and from King Saul, David praised God’s great power, which could expose the ocean floor with a blast of his breath (2 Sm 22:16; Ps 18:15).","summary_en":"CHANNELS OF THE SEA* Valleys or stream beds in the ocean floor. When the Lord delivered David from all his enemies and from King Saul, David praised God’s great power, which could expose the ocean floor with a blast of his breath (2 Sm 22:16; Ps 18:15).","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"17":[{"id":26315,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Moses","title_en":"Moses","content_ro":"<h3>MOSES<\/h3>\n<p>Great leader of the Hebrew people who brought them out of bondage in Egypt to the Promised Land in Canaan; also the one who gave them the law at Mt Sinai that became the basis for their religious faith through the centuries. Focused in this one person are the figures of prophet, priest, lawgiver, judge, intercessor, shepherd, miracle worker, and founder of a nation.<\/p>\n<p>The meaning of his name is uncertain. It has been explained as a Hebrew word meaning “to draw out” (Ex 2:10; cf. 2 Sm 22:17; Ps 18:16). If, however, it is an Egyptian name given him by the daughter of Pharaoh who found him, it is more likely from an Egyptian word for “son” (also found as part of many well-known Egyptian names such as Ahmose, Thutmose, and Ramses). No one else in the OT bears this name.<\/p>\n<p>Without question, the greatest figure in the OT (mentioned by name 767 times), his influence also extends to the pages of the NT (where he is mentioned 79 times). The first 40 years of his life were spent in the household of Pharaoh (Acts 7:23), where he was instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians. The next 40 years he spent in Midian as a fugitive from the wrath of Pharaoh, after killing an Egyptian who was mistreating a Hebrew. His last 40 years were devoted to leading the Israelites out of bondage in Egypt to the land God had promised to Abraham and his descendants (Gn 12:1-3). He died at the age of 120 after leading the Israelites successfully through 40 years of wandering in the wilderness to the very edge of the Promised Land on the east side of the Jordan River (Dt 34:7). He is one of the great figures in all of history, a man who took a group of slaves and, under inconceivably difficult circumstances, molded them into a nation that has influenced and altered the entire course of history.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• The First 40 Years—In Egypt<\/p>\n<p>• The Second 40 Years—In Midian<\/p>\n<p>• The Third 40 Years—From Egypt to Canaan<\/p>\n<p>• Moses in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The only source of information for the life of Moses is the Bible. Archaeology confirms the credibility of the events associated with Moses, but it has never provided any specific confirmation of his existence or work. His story begins with the arrival in Egypt of Jacob, his sons, and their families during a time of famine in Canaan. Invited by Joseph and welcomed by Pharaoh, the family settled down in northeast Egypt in an area known as Goshen, where they remained for 430 years (Ex 12:40). With the passing of time, their numbers grew rapidly, so that the land was filled with them (1:7). A new king arose over Egypt who did not know Joseph. The biblical account does not give the name of this pharaoh, and there has never been agreement as to his identity. He has most frequently been identified as Thutmose III (1504–1451 <span>BC<\/span>), Seti I (1304–1290 <span>BC<\/span>), or Ramses II (1290–1224 <span>BC<\/span>). Out of fear that their growing numbers might become a threat to the security of his nation, Pharaoh determined to take measures to reduce their number. He put them to work building the store cities of Pithom and Rameses, but the severity of the work did not diminish them. He next tried to enlist the cooperation of the midwives to destroy the male babies, but they would not carry out his orders. He then ordered his own people to drown the male infants in the Nile River. Against the background of this first-known Jewish persecution, the baby Moses was born.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheFirst40YearsInEgypt\">The First 40 Years—In Egypt<\/p>\n<h5>Birth and Early Life<\/h5>\n<p>A man of the family of Levi named Amram married his father’s sister Jochebed (Ex 6:20; cf. 2:1). Their first son, Aaron, three years older than Moses, was born before the command to drown the Hebrew babies was given, as there is no indication that his life was in danger. However, the cruel order was in force when Moses was born, and after three months, when his mother could no longer hide him, she took a basket made of bulrushes and daubed it with bitumen and pitch. She put the baby into the basket and placed it among the reeds along the banks of the river. An older sister, Miriam, stayed near the river to see what would happen. Soon the daughter of Pharaoh (identified by Josephus as Thermuthis and by others as Hatshepsut, but whose actual identity cannot be determined) came to the river to bathe, as was her custom. She discovered the baby, recognized it as one of the Hebrew children, and determined that she would raise the child as her own. Miriam emerged from her hiding place and offered to secure a Hebrew woman to nurse the child, an arrangement that was agreeable to the princess. Miriam took the baby to his own mother, who kept him for perhaps two or three years (cf. 1 Sm 1:19-24). Nothing is recorded of those formative years. Whether his mother continued seeing him during his later childhood and young manhood or revealed his true identity to him or taught him the Hebrew faith are matters of speculation. Moses was instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, as would befit a member of the royal household, and he became mighty in his words and deeds (Acts 7:22).<\/p>\n<h5>Identification with His Own People<\/h5>\n<p>Just when Moses became aware that he was a Hebrew rather than Egyptian cannot be known, but it is clear that he knew it by the time he was 40 years old. One day he went out to visit his people and to observe their treatment, for the cruel measures taken against them by Pharaoh at the time of Moses’ birth had not been lifted. Seeing an Egyptian beating a Hebrew, Moses in great anger killed the Egyptian and buried him. He thought the deed had gone unnoticed until the next day when he encountered two Hebrews fighting with each other. When he tried to act as peacemaker, they both turned on him and accused him of murder: “Who made you a prince and a judge over us? Do you mean to kill me, as you killed the Egyptian?” (Ex 2:14, <span>rsv<\/span>). Acts 7:25 adds: “He supposed that his brethren understood that God was giving them deliverance by his hand” (<span>rsv<\/span>). Aware that being a member of Pharaoh’s household would not exempt him from punishment now that the deed was known, Moses fled for his life to the land of Midian.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheSecond40YearsInMidian\">The Second 40 Years—In Midian<\/p>\n<h5>Marriage into the Family of Jethro<\/h5>\n<p>Soon after arriving in Midian, Moses sat down by a well, where he observed the seven daughters of the priest of Midian who had come to the well to draw water for their father’s flock. Shepherds came and drove them away, but Moses intervened and helped them water their animals. When Jethro (Ex 3:1; also called Reuel, 2:18; Hobab, Nm 10:29) learned what had happened, he invited Moses to stay with his family and gave him Zipporah as his wife. (There is some disagreement among scholars regarding the identity of Hobab in Numbers 10:29; some think he was Moses’ father-in-law, while others maintain that Hobab was Moses’ brother-in-law. <em>See also<\/em> Hobab). Two children, Gershom (Ex 2:22) and Eliezer (18:4), were born to Moses and Zipporah during the years in Midian. Forty years passed, and Moses’ thoughts about his former life in Egypt must have faded into the past. He could not have foreseen that God would soon thrust him back into the midst of the court in Egypt, where he would confront the son of the now-dead pharaoh with the demand to release the Hebrew people from the bondage they had endured for so many years. God had not forgotten his people and was now ready to deliver them.<\/p>\n<h5>Encounter with God at the Burning Bush<\/h5>\n<p>One day, while Moses was taking care of the flocks of his father-in-law, he led them to Mt Horeb (known also as Sinai), where God appeared to him in a flame of fire out of the midst of a bush that burned but was not consumed. Moses approached to observe the strange sight more closely and heard God speak to him out of the bush, “Moses, Moses!” Moses replied, “Here am I.” Before he could come any nearer to the bush, God said, “Do not come near; put off your shoes from your feet, for the place on which you are standing is holy ground” (Ex 3:4-5, <span>rsv<\/span>). He further identified himself as the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. He assured Moses that he was aware of the cruel afflictions of his people and had heard their cries. Then he told of his plan to send Moses to Egypt to deliver his people from their bondage.<\/p>\n<p>Faced with a challenge that seemed beyond his capabilities, the aged Moses began making excuses for not accepting the task. God assured Moses that he would be with him (Ex 3:11-12). To his excuse that he would not be able to give an answer if the people asked him the name of the God he represented, God revealed his name in the cryptic statement, “ ‘<span>I Am the One Who Always Is<\/span>’ . . . Just tell them, ‘I <span>Am<\/span> has sent me to you’ ” (vv 13-14, <span>nlt<\/span>). Many interpretations have been proposed for the name. Whatever else it means, it undoubtedly suggests the self-existence and all-sufficiency of God. Moses then argued that the people would not believe him when he told them that God had sent him to deliver them from Egypt. In response God gave him three signs: When he cast his shepherd’s rod to the ground, it became a serpent. When he put his hand to his bosom, it became leprous. He was also told that when he would pour water from the Nile on the ground, it would become blood (Ex 4:1-9). Even armed with these powerful evidences of the presence of God with him, Moses raised still another objection, “O Lord, I’m just not a good speaker. I never have been, and I’m not now, even after you have spoken to me. I’m clumsy with words” (v 10, <span>nlt<\/span>). God told him that he would teach him what to say, but despite such assurance, Moses asked God to send someone else. In anger mingled with compassion, God made Moses’ brother, Aaron, the spokesman, but said his instructions would still be given directly to Moses.<\/p>\n<h5>Return to Egypt<\/h5>\n<p>Moses took his wife and sons and set out for Egypt, telling his father-in-law only that he wanted to go back to Egypt to visit his kinsmen there (Ex 4:18). The biblical account says he put his wife and sons on the same donkey to journey back to Egypt (v 20). The fact that all three rode the same animal indicates that both children were quite young and had not been born in the early years of Moses’ marriage. At a lodging place along the way a strange thing happened. The Lord met him and sought to kill him (v 24), apparently because Moses had failed to circumcise the baby before leaving Midian. When Zipporah realized that Moses’ life was in danger, she performed the rite herself and said to her husband, “What a blood-smeared bridegroom you are to me!” (v 25, <span>nlt<\/span>). Whatever else may have been involved in this unusual encounter with God, it was a solemn reminder that the one who was to be the leader of the covenant people must not himself neglect any part of the covenant (Gn 17:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>God told Aaron (who was still in Egypt) to go to the mountain where Moses had encountered God at the burning bush and meet his brother there. Moses told Aaron everything that had happened, and together they went to Egypt, gathered the elders together, and informed them of these matters. When Moses and Aaron performed the signs in the presence of the people, they believed these leaders had been sent by God to deliver them from their affliction (Ex 4:30-31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheThird40YearsFromEgypttoCanaan\">The Third 40 Years—From Egypt to Canaan<\/p>\n<h5>The Encounter with Pharaoh<\/h5>\n<p>Soon after his return to Egypt, Moses, accompanied by Aaron, went to Pharaoh and repeated the demands of the Lord, “Let my people go, for they must go out into the wilderness to hold a religious festival in my honor” (Ex 5:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). Pharaoh rejected the demand with the observation that he had never heard of this God of Moses. When one realizes that Egyptian kings considered themselves to be gods, the affront to Pharaoh becomes even more acute. Not only did he reject Moses’ demands, but he intensified the burdens of the Hebrews. Their work had up until then required them to make brick using straw provided for them, but now Pharaoh said they would have to gather their own straw and still produce the same number of bricks. The Hebrews turned in anguish and anger to Moses and blamed him for making them offensive in the sight of Pharaoh. Even Moses could not understand the turn of events and complained bitterly to God. God reassured Moses that he would deliver the Hebrews from their bondage, and moreover, he would bring them into the land he had promised Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. He then instructed Moses to return to Pharaoh and repeat the demand to release the Hebrews upon threat of severe reprisal if the demand were ignored.<\/p>\n<p>Ushered again into Pharaoh’s presence, Moses repeated his request for release of the Israelites. He attempted to impress Pharaoh by turning his rod into a serpent, but the Egyptian wise men, through their secret arts, were able to duplicate the miracle, so Pharaoh’s heart remained hardened and he would not listen to Moses. In rapid succession Moses brought nine plagues upon the land of Egypt to show the omnipotence of God to force the compliance of Pharaoh. These included a plague in which the water of the Nile turned to blood, a plague of frogs, one of gnats, then of flies, a plague on the livestock, boils on the people, plagues of hail, locusts, and complete darkness. During the plagues of the frogs, flies, hail, locusts, and darkness, Pharaoh was distraught and would temporarily relent and agree to Moses’ demands, but as soon as the plague was lifted, his heart hardened and he would retract his promise. The outcome of the first nine plagues was terrible devastation of the land of Egypt, but the Israelites were not released. There was yet one more plague in store, the most terrible of all.<\/p>\n<h5>The First Passover<\/h5>\n<p>God told Moses that there remained one more plague in store for the Egyptians: “All the firstborn sons will die in every family in Egypt, from the oldest son of Pharaoh, who sits on the throne, to the oldest son of his lowliest slave. Even the firstborn of the animals will die” (Ex 11:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). Furthermore, he assured Moses that the plague would not touch a single household of the Hebrews, “Then you will know that the <span>Lord<\/span> makes a distinction between the Egyptians and the Israelites” (v 7, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>God instructed the people through Moses and Aaron to make their preparations for leaving the land in haste. They were to go to the Egyptians and ask them for their jewels of silver and gold (Ex 11:2-3), a request to which the Egyptians agreed, perhaps out of fear of the Hebrews and in the belief that the gifts would bring about an end of the terrors that had struck the land. The Hebrews were also instructed to prepare a lamb for each family—small families could share—for the last meal to be eaten in the land of Egypt (a rite that became the pattern for the Jewish observance of the Passover for many centuries). Blood of the lamb was to be put on the doorposts and lintels of the houses in which the Passover meal was being eaten that night. The Hebrews were promised that wherever the blood was on the door, no harm would come to that household. They were also instructed to prepare unleavened bread. At midnight the death angel of the Lord killed all the firstborn in the land of Egypt, from the firstborn of Pharaoh himself to the lowest captive in a dungeon; not a single house of the Egyptians escaped tragedy. When Pharaoh saw what had happened, he ordered Moses and the people to leave the land at once (12:31-32). The biblical record says that about 600,000 Hebrew men left Egypt. Together with women and children, the total would have been in excess of 2 million people.<\/p>\n<h5>The Exodus from Egypt<\/h5>\n<p>The exodus is the central event of the OT and marks the birth of Israel as a nation. The Jewish people still look back to that event as the great redemptive act of God in history on behalf of his people, much as Christians look upon the cross as the great redemptive act of their faith.<\/p>\n\n<p>The exact route taken by the Hebrews out of Egypt cannot be determined today, though many possibilities have been proposed. They did not take the shortest, most direct route to Canaan (which would have been about a 10 days’ journey along the Mediterranean coastline), but set out in the direction of Mt Sinai, where Moses had earlier met God at the burning bush. As a sign that Moses had been sent to deliver the people, God told Moses he would bring them to that same spot, where they would worship God (Ex 3:12). The Hebrews did not forget the request of Joseph to carry his bones with them when they returned to their own land (Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19).<\/p>\n<p>As the people journeyed, they were preceded by a pillar of cloud during the day and a pillar of fire at night. The cloud represented the presence of God with his people and guided them along the route they should travel.<\/p>\n<p>Back in Egypt, Pharaoh was having second thoughts about letting the Hebrews leave the land and decided to pursue them with his army and bring them back. When the Hebrews saw the approaching cloud of dust and realized that the Egyptian army was pursuing them, they were terrified. The sea lay ahead of them and the Egyptians were behind; there seemed to be no way of escape. The people turned on Moses, blaming him for bringing them out of Egypt. God again assured them that they did not need to be afraid or do anything to defend themselves. He promised to fight the battle for them and give them victory (Ex 14:14).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord parted the water of the Sea of Reeds (traditionally but erroneously referred to as the Red Sea) by a strong east wind and allowed the Israelites to pass through the sea on dry ground to the other side. The Egyptians rushed after the Israelites, following them into the dry bed of the sea. But before they reached the other side, the waters rushed back together, destroying the Egyptian army in the midst of the sea and leaving the Israelites safe on the other side. The people celebrated their great deliverance in song (Ex 15) and then continued their journey. The narrative that follows describes the struggle of the Israelites to survive in the desert—problems of food and water, internal dissension, murmurings against Moses, and battles with enemies. Through all their experiences, Moses towers as the unifying force and great spiritual leader.<\/p>\n<p>In spite of having seen God’s great act of deliverance so recently, the faith of the Israelites was not strong. Three days later they came to a place where the water was not fit to drink, and they began complaining against Moses. The Lord showed Moses how to purify the water, and the people’s needs were satisfied (Ex 15:22-25). When they reached the wilderness of Sin, they complained again, this time because of lack of food. God met their need by supplying manna, a breadlike substance that would serve as their food until they came to Canaan (16:1-21). Later, camped at Rephidim, the people complained again, this time for lack of water. Once again God met their needs by supplying water from the rock at Horeb (17:1-7). The Amalekites attacked them while they were still camped at Rephidim, but God gave a great victory to the Israelites (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>Moses and the people reached Sinai and camped there. Jethro came to visit, bringing Moses’ wife and sons. Zipporah had apparently decided to return with her children to stay with her father rather than to go on to Egypt with Moses. It was a joyful reunion, and Jethro made a burnt offering and sacrifices to God (an act that has evoked the suggestion that Jethro was a true worshiper of God, though nothing is known of his links to the Hebrew faith). When Jethro observed Moses trying to settle all the disputes and problems of the Hebrews unaided, he proposed that Moses delegate responsibility for some of the lesser matters to able men chosen from among the people. Moses accepted the suggestion, and shortly afterward Jethro returned to his own land. He did not remain at Sinai to participate in the ratification of the covenant (Ex 18:13-27).<\/p>\n<h5>Giving of the Law at Sinai<\/h5>\n<p>God had kept his promises to Moses. He had delivered the Hebrews from their Egyptian bondage and brought them to the very place where he had commissioned Moses to be their leader. He was now ready to enter into a covenant relationship with Israel. Amid a spectacular and terrifying scene of lightning, thunder, thick clouds, fire, smoke, and earthquake, God descended to the top of Sinai and called Moses to come up the mountain, where he remained 40 days to receive the law that would become the basis of the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>At Sinai, God was revealed as the God who demands exclusive allegiance in all areas of life and, at the same time, as the God who desires personal fellowship with his people.<\/p>\n<h5>Apostasy of the People<\/h5>\n<p>While Moses tarried on Mt Sinai, the people below became impatient and skeptical about his return, so they went to Aaron and asked him to make idols for them to worship. They contributed the gold earrings they were wearing. “Then Aaron took the gold, melted it down, and molded and tooled it into the shape of a calf. The people exclaimed, ‘O Israel, these are the gods who brought you out of Egypt!’ ” (Ex 32:4, <span>nlt<\/span>). The next day they joined in the worship of the idol with sacrifices and revelry. God told Moses what was taking place below and angrily declared that he was going to destroy the people but would make a great nation of Moses and his descendants. Moses immediately interceded on behalf of the people, and God’s wrath abated. Moses descended the mountain, carrying the two tablets of stone on which the law had been written, but when he entered the camp and saw what was taking place, he could not restrain his anger. He threw the stone tablets to the ground, ground the golden calf to powder, mixed it with water, and forced the people to drink it. He turned angrily to Aaron and demanded an explanation for the great sin that had been committed. Aaron lamely tried to shift the blame by minimizing his own role: “I threw them [the gold] into the fire—and out came this calf!” (v 24, <span>nlt<\/span>). Moses called for volunteers to carry out God’s judgment on the people for the great sin they had committed. Men of the tribe of Levi responded and executed about 3,000 men. Later they were commended and rewarded (Dt 33:9-10). Moses again interceded for the people, requesting that he be destroyed with the rest if God could not forgive them. God relented and promised Moses that the angel of the Lord would go with them still (Ex 32:34).<\/p>\n<p>Then Moses made a special request that he might be allowed to see the glory of the Lord. God instructed Moses to hew out two more tablets of stone like the ones he had destroyed and to return to the top of the mountain the next day. There the Lord passed before him and proclaimed his name: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span>, I am the <span>Lord<\/span>, the merciful and gracious God. I am slow to anger and rich in unfailing love and faithfulness” (Ex 34:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). Moses remained on the mountain another 40 days, where he received renewed warnings against idolatry and further instructions from the Lord, together with another copy of the Ten Commandments on tablets of stone. When Moses came down from the mountain, he was not aware that the skin of his face shone as a result of talking with God. At first the people were afraid to come near him, but he called them together and repeated all the Lord had said to him on the mountain. Afterward, he covered his face with a veil, which he removed only when he went into the presence of the Lord. Paul said the purpose of the veil was to prevent the people from seeing the heavenly light gradually fade from Moses’ face (2 Cor 3:13).<\/p>\n<h5>The Tabernacle and Establishment of the Priesthood<\/h5>\n<p>When Moses went up to the mountain the first time to receive the law from God, he was instructed to collect materials to be used in the construction of the tabernacle or tent. Gold, silver, bronze, blue and purple and scarlet yarn, fine twined linen, goats’ hair, tanned rams’ skins, goatskins, and acacia wood would be needed, along with oil for the lamps, spices for the anointing oil and for the fragrant incense, onyx stones, and stones for setting (Ex 25:3-7). The pattern for construction was also given to him, together with the ritual to be used for the consecration of the priests. A man named Bezalel was put in charge of the construction of the tabernacle, assisted by Oholiab (31:1-6). The tabernacle was portable like a tent so that it could be taken down and moved from place to place as the Hebrews continued their journey toward Canaan.<\/p>\n<p>In addition to giving Moses directions for the tabernacle, God also instructed him concerning the sacrifices that were to be brought: the burnt offering, grain offering, peace offering, sin offering, and guilt offering (Lv 1–7). The solemn ceremony for ordaining Aaron and his sons as priests and for inaugurating the worship practices were to be performed by Moses (chs 8–9).<\/p>\n<p>Sometime after this solemn inauguration of the religious ritual actually took place, Nadab and Abihu, two of Aaron’s four sons, offered unauthorized fire before the Lord. A fire came out from the Lord and destroyed them. Moses forbade Aaron and his sons Eleazar and Ithamar to express grief because of the sinfulness of the act (Lv 10:1-7). The nature of their sin is difficult to determine, but it surely involved a violation of God’s holiness. Therefore, it is appropriate that a large part of the remainder of the book of Leviticus gives regulations that stress the holy living that God expected from his people.<\/p>\n<h5>From Sinai to Kadesh<\/h5>\n<p>A year had elapsed from the time the Israelites left Egypt until the census was taken (Nm 9:1). God reminded the people that it was time to observe the Passover, which they did, and a month later they set out from Sinai and came to the wilderness of Paran. Along the way they complained about the unvarying diet of manna and they longed for the fish, cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions, and garlic they had eaten in Egypt (11:4-6). In anger God sent quail in abundance, but even while the people were devouring the meat, God sent a great plague that killed many Israelites. The complaining attitude of the people was shared even by Miriam and Aaron. They began to speak against the Cushite woman Moses had married (12:1-2). It is not certain whether the Cushite was an Ethiopian or whether this was another way of referring to Zipporah. If Moses did marry a second time, no mention is made of it elsewhere in the OT. Moses made no reply to the accusations of his brother and sister. It was not necessary, for God intervened in defense of his servant. He smote Miriam with leprosy for her part in speaking against Moses, and when Aaron saw what had happened to Miriam, he acknowledged that they both had sinned. Miriam’s leprosy was removed in response to Moses’ fervent intercession.<\/p>\n\n<p>While the people were encamped at Kadesh (also called Kadesh-barnea—Nm 32:8) in the wilderness of Paran, Moses sent 12 men into Canaan, one from each tribe, to spy out the land in preparation for the Israelite entry. After 40 days the spies returned and, though they acknowledged that the land was fertile and inviting, 10 of them were afraid of the Canaanite inhabitants and advised against going into the land. Only Joshua and Caleb were willing to go ahead and occupy the territory. The entire congregation joined the protest against going in and determined to choose a new leader and return to Egypt rather than risk death by the sword in Canaan. They threatened to stone Moses and Aaron. At that moment God intervened and would have destroyed all the people on the spot except for the intervention of Moses (13:1–14:19). He declared that, if God did not bring the people into Canaan, the nations round about would conclude that the God of the Israelites was unable to bring them into the land. Once again God acquiesced to Moses’ request to pardon the people but said that none of them 20 years and older who had complained against him would be allowed to enter the land. All the people would wander in the wilderness for 40 years until that generation died, and then their children would be allowed to enter Canaan (14:29-33). When they heard the Lord’s sentence upon them, the people quickly decided to lift the sentence of judgment by entering the land at once, but God was not with them, and they suffered a disastrous defeat at the hands of the Amalekites and Canaanites.<\/p>\n<h5>Forty Years in the Wilderness<\/h5>\n<p>Very little is known about events during the 40 years of wilderness wanderings. In spite of the judgment that had already come upon them, the people did not seem to change their ways. A man named Korah led another rebellion against the authority of Moses and Aaron. God would not listen to the pleas of Moses and Aaron on behalf of these dissidents (Nm 16:22-24), but told the congregation to separate itself from the tents of Korah and his conspirators. While the people watched, the ground split open and swallowed up the rebellious factions together with their households and all their possessions. Though the rest of the Israelites witnessed the fate of the rebels, it did not deter them from again turning on Moses and Aaron. At this, God told Moses to remove himself from the murmuring congregation in order that he could take vengeance. Though Moses offered atonement for the people’s sins, 14,700 died by plague before the punishment was ended. To demonstrate further to the people that Moses was his chosen leader, the Lord instructed Moses to take rods, one for each tribe, and to deposit them in the tent of meeting. God would cause the rod of the man chosen by him to sprout, and so silence the murmurings of the people. The rod belonging to Aaron sprouted and budded and bloomed, but the people only complained more.<\/p>\n<p>As the people neared the end of their years of wilderness wanderings, Miriam died in Kadesh and was buried there (Nm 20:1). Soon after, the people began to complain once more for lack of water. God instructed Moses to speak to a rock that would bring forth water to satisfy the needs of the people. Instead of speaking to the rock, Moses struck it twice with his rod. The water came forth, but God rebuked Moses and Aaron: “Because you did not trust me enough to demonstrate my holiness to the people of Israel, you will not lead them into the land I am giving them!” (v 12, <span>nlt<\/span>). The nature of the sin is not clear, but Moses and Aaron were apparently taking to themselves honor that belonged to God alone. Because of the sin, they were denied the privilege of leading the Israelites into the Promised Land. The punishment may seem too severe for the sin, but it shows that the privileged role of leadership given to Moses and Aaron carried with it an unusual measure of responsibility.<\/p>\n<p>The people then journeyed from Kadesh to Mt Hor on the border of the land of Edom, where Aaron died. Moses took his priestly garments from him and gave them to Eleazar, his son, thereby transferring the priestly office (Nm 20:28).<\/p>\n<p>As the people came closer to their destination, resistance on the part of the native population increased. There was a skirmish with the king of Arad and his forces at Hormah, resulting in a victory for Israel (Nm 21:1-3). As they journeyed around Edom, some of the Israelites began speaking against God and Moses because there was no food or water and they were tired of eating manna. This time the Lord sent poisonous snakes among the people, and many of them died of the venomous bites. Those who had not yet been bitten came to Moses, acknowledged their sin, and asked that the serpents be removed from their midst. God instructed Moses to make a serpent of bronze and set it on a pole. If a person bitten by a serpent looked up at the bronze serpent, he or she would live.<\/p>\n<p>As the Israelites approached the territory of Sihon, king of the Amorites, they sent messengers asking permission to pass peaceably through his land. Instead of granting the request, Sihon gathered his army together and fought against Israel. He was killed in the battle, and his land and cities were taken and occupied by the Hebrews (Nm 21:21-25).<\/p>\n<h5>Arrival at the Jordan River<\/h5>\n<p>After their victory over Sihon, the Israelites set out again and encamped in the plains of Moab on the east side of the Jordan River facing Jericho, in full view of the Promised Land. The Moabites were terrified by the presence of these people because they had heard what happened to the Amorites. Their king, Balak, hired a magician named Balaam to curse the Israelites. Three times Balaam attempted to curse them, but each time God turned his words into a blessing (Nm 22–24). Though unable to curse the Israelites, Balaam was responsible for an even greater calamity. He advised the Moabites to entice the Israelites to sacrifice to their gods and bow down to them (Nm 25:1-3; 31:16; 2 Pt 2:15; Rv 2:14). While the people were worshiping the Moabite deity, Baal of Peor, God’s anger was kindled against them, and he sent a plague that killed 24,000 of them (Nm 25:9). It was Israel’s first encounter with the seductive allurement of licentious idolatry and an ominous foreview of what would happen after they settled down in Canaan. Their continued attraction to idolatry would be their final undoing.<\/p>\n<p>After the plague, God instructed Moses and Eleazar to take another census of the people like the one almost 40 years earlier. A whole generation of Israelites had died in the wilderness, but they had been replaced by an almost equal number, so that now there were 601,730 men 20 years and older who were able to go to war (Nm 26:51). Not a man remained of those who had been counted in the first census, except Caleb and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord instructed Moses to lay hands on Joshua and commission him as the new leader in the sight of Eleazar the priest and all the congregation (Nm 27:12-23). In addition, the Lord gave Moses instructions concerning feasts and offerings and vows (chs 28–30). God ordered Moses, as his last act as leader, to avenge the Israelites on the Midianites. In that battle the armies of Israel gained a great victory over the Midianites, killing their kings, their men, and also Balaam.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord gave instructions to Moses concerning the boundaries that would mark the Promised Land and named the men who would divide the land among the tribes (Nm 34). He also ordered that 48 cities be given to the Levites, the priestly tribe, as their portion. Six of these were designated as cities of refuge where murderers could flee so that they would not be killed by those seeking vengeance without having an opportunity to stand before the congregation for judgment (ch 35).<\/p>\n<h5>Moses’ Death<\/h5>\n<p>The book of Deuteronomy has often been called Moses’ valedictory speech to the people, for in it Moses is not merely the chief speaker but the only speaker. With the congregation of his people gathered before him, he rehearsed all that God had done for them since leaving Sinai, and he reminded them of their failure to enter the Promised Land 38 years earlier (Dt 2:14). He recalled his plea that God would let him cross the Jordan and see the land that was to be the home of the people, but God responded that Moses would only be allowed to view the land from the top of Pisgah. Moses then exhorted the people to obey the statutes and ordinances that had been given to them in order to experience God’s blessings in the land.<\/p>\n\n<p>As the day of Moses’ death approached, the Lord ordered Moses and Joshua to present themselves at the tent of meeting in order for Joshua to be commissioned as the new leader (Dt 31:14-23). Before his death, Moses pronounced a blessing upon all the Israelites (ch 33). Having completed these tasks, Moses went up from the plains of Moab to Mt Nebo, and to the top of Pisgah. From there God showed him the land promised long ago to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob—the land that was soon to be the home of the wandering Israelite tribes. Again God told him that he would not be allowed to cross over the Jordan. Moses died there and God buried him somewhere in the valley in the land of Moab opposite Beth-peor (34:6). Moses was 120 years old when he died, and the Israelites mourned his death for 30 days. The finest tribute to Moses is found in the closing words of the book of Deuteronomy, “There has never been another prophet like Moses, whom the <span>Lord<\/span> knew face to face” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MosesintheNewTestament\">Moses in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>All Jews and Christians in apostolic times considered Moses the author of the Pentateuch. Such expressions as “the law of Moses” (Lk 2:22), “Moses commanded” (Mt 19:7), “Moses said” (Mk 7:10) “and Moses wrote” (12:19) shows that his name was synonymous with the OT books attributed to him. He is mentioned in the NT more than any other OT figure, a total of 79 times. His role as lawgiver is emphasized more than any other aspect of his life (Mt 8:4; Mk 7:10; Jn 1:17; Acts 15:1). He appears at the transfiguration of Jesus as the representative of OT law, along with Elijah as the representative of OT prophets (Mt 17:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Moses’ role as prophet is also mentioned in the NT. As a prophet, he spoke of the coming Messiah and his sufferings (Lk 24:25-27; Acts 3:22). The NT also draws from the life and experiences of Moses to show patterns of life under the new covenant. The nativity story of Jesus parallels the Mosaic story of the infant deliverer being rescued from the evil designs of an earthly despot (Mt 2:13-18). Jesus’ proclamation of a new law in his Sermon on the Mount parallels the giving of the law at Sinai (Mt 5–7) and presents Jesus as the authoritative interpreter of the will of God. Contrast between the old law and the new relationship with God is especially marked in the book of Galatians. The comparison of Moses with Christ is an important emphasis of the book of Hebrews (Heb 3:5-6; 9:11-22). John contrasted the law that was given through Moses with the grace and truth that came through Jesus Christ (Jn 1:17). He also contrasted the manna in the wilderness to Jesus as “the bread of life” (6:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Other references to Moses or to events associated with him include his birth (Acts 7:20; Heb 11:23), the burning bush (Lk 20:37), the magicians of Egypt (2 Tm 3:8), the Passover (Heb 11:28), the exodus (3:16), crossing of the sea (1 Cor 10:2), the covenant sacrifice at Sinai (Mt 26:28), the manna (1 Cor 10:3), the glory on Moses’ face (2 Cor 3:7-18), water from the rock (1 Cor 10:4), the bronze serpent (Jn 3:14), and the song of Moses (Rv 15:3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, The; Israel, History of; Plagues upon Egypt; Priests and Levites; Tabernacle; Temple; Commandments, The Ten; Wilderness Wanderings.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MOSES<\/h3>\n<p>Great leader of the Hebrew people who brought them out of bondage in Egypt to the Promised Land in Canaan; also the one who gave them the law at Mt Sinai that became the basis for their religious faith through the centuries. Focused in this one person are the figures of prophet, priest, lawgiver, judge, intercessor, shepherd, miracle worker, and founder of a nation.<\/p>\n<p>The meaning of his name is uncertain. It has been explained as a Hebrew word meaning “to draw out” (Ex 2:10; cf. 2 Sm 22:17; Ps 18:16). If, however, it is an Egyptian name given him by the daughter of Pharaoh who found him, it is more likely from an Egyptian word for “son” (also found as part of many well-known Egyptian names such as Ahmose, Thutmose, and Ramses). No one else in the OT bears this name.<\/p>\n<p>Without question, the greatest figure in the OT (mentioned by name 767 times), his influence also extends to the pages of the NT (where he is mentioned 79 times). The first 40 years of his life were spent in the household of Pharaoh (Acts 7:23), where he was instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians. The next 40 years he spent in Midian as a fugitive from the wrath of Pharaoh, after killing an Egyptian who was mistreating a Hebrew. His last 40 years were devoted to leading the Israelites out of bondage in Egypt to the land God had promised to Abraham and his descendants (Gn 12:1-3). He died at the age of 120 after leading the Israelites successfully through 40 years of wandering in the wilderness to the very edge of the Promised Land on the east side of the Jordan River (Dt 34:7). He is one of the great figures in all of history, a man who took a group of slaves and, under inconceivably difficult circumstances, molded them into a nation that has influenced and altered the entire course of history.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• The First 40 Years—In Egypt<\/p>\n<p>• The Second 40 Years—In Midian<\/p>\n<p>• The Third 40 Years—From Egypt to Canaan<\/p>\n<p>• Moses in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>The only source of information for the life of Moses is the Bible. Archaeology confirms the credibility of the events associated with Moses, but it has never provided any specific confirmation of his existence or work. His story begins with the arrival in Egypt of Jacob, his sons, and their families during a time of famine in Canaan. Invited by Joseph and welcomed by Pharaoh, the family settled down in northeast Egypt in an area known as Goshen, where they remained for 430 years (Ex 12:40). With the passing of time, their numbers grew rapidly, so that the land was filled with them (1:7). A new king arose over Egypt who did not know Joseph. The biblical account does not give the name of this pharaoh, and there has never been agreement as to his identity. He has most frequently been identified as Thutmose III (1504–1451 <span>BC<\/span>), Seti I (1304–1290 <span>BC<\/span>), or Ramses II (1290–1224 <span>BC<\/span>). Out of fear that their growing numbers might become a threat to the security of his nation, Pharaoh determined to take measures to reduce their number. He put them to work building the store cities of Pithom and Rameses, but the severity of the work did not diminish them. He next tried to enlist the cooperation of the midwives to destroy the male babies, but they would not carry out his orders. He then ordered his own people to drown the male infants in the Nile River. Against the background of this first-known Jewish persecution, the baby Moses was born.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheFirst40YearsInEgypt\">The First 40 Years—In Egypt<\/p>\n<h5>Birth and Early Life<\/h5>\n<p>A man of the family of Levi named Amram married his father’s sister Jochebed (Ex 6:20; cf. 2:1). Their first son, Aaron, three years older than Moses, was born before the command to drown the Hebrew babies was given, as there is no indication that his life was in danger. However, the cruel order was in force when Moses was born, and after three months, when his mother could no longer hide him, she took a basket made of bulrushes and daubed it with bitumen and pitch. She put the baby into the basket and placed it among the reeds along the banks of the river. An older sister, Miriam, stayed near the river to see what would happen. Soon the daughter of Pharaoh (identified by Josephus as Thermuthis and by others as Hatshepsut, but whose actual identity cannot be determined) came to the river to bathe, as was her custom. She discovered the baby, recognized it as one of the Hebrew children, and determined that she would raise the child as her own. Miriam emerged from her hiding place and offered to secure a Hebrew woman to nurse the child, an arrangement that was agreeable to the princess. Miriam took the baby to his own mother, who kept him for perhaps two or three years (cf. 1 Sm 1:19-24). Nothing is recorded of those formative years. Whether his mother continued seeing him during his later childhood and young manhood or revealed his true identity to him or taught him the Hebrew faith are matters of speculation. Moses was instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, as would befit a member of the royal household, and he became mighty in his words and deeds (Acts 7:22).<\/p>\n<h5>Identification with His Own People<\/h5>\n<p>Just when Moses became aware that he was a Hebrew rather than Egyptian cannot be known, but it is clear that he knew it by the time he was 40 years old. One day he went out to visit his people and to observe their treatment, for the cruel measures taken against them by Pharaoh at the time of Moses’ birth had not been lifted. Seeing an Egyptian beating a Hebrew, Moses in great anger killed the Egyptian and buried him. He thought the deed had gone unnoticed until the next day when he encountered two Hebrews fighting with each other. When he tried to act as peacemaker, they both turned on him and accused him of murder: “Who made you a prince and a judge over us? Do you mean to kill me, as you killed the Egyptian?” (Ex 2:14, <span>rsv<\/span>). Acts 7:25 adds: “He supposed that his brethren understood that God was giving them deliverance by his hand” (<span>rsv<\/span>). Aware that being a member of Pharaoh’s household would not exempt him from punishment now that the deed was known, Moses fled for his life to the land of Midian.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheSecond40YearsInMidian\">The Second 40 Years—In Midian<\/p>\n<h5>Marriage into the Family of Jethro<\/h5>\n<p>Soon after arriving in Midian, Moses sat down by a well, where he observed the seven daughters of the priest of Midian who had come to the well to draw water for their father’s flock. Shepherds came and drove them away, but Moses intervened and helped them water their animals. When Jethro (Ex 3:1; also called Reuel, 2:18; Hobab, Nm 10:29) learned what had happened, he invited Moses to stay with his family and gave him Zipporah as his wife. (There is some disagreement among scholars regarding the identity of Hobab in Numbers 10:29; some think he was Moses’ father-in-law, while others maintain that Hobab was Moses’ brother-in-law. <em>See also<\/em> Hobab). Two children, Gershom (Ex 2:22) and Eliezer (18:4), were born to Moses and Zipporah during the years in Midian. Forty years passed, and Moses’ thoughts about his former life in Egypt must have faded into the past. He could not have foreseen that God would soon thrust him back into the midst of the court in Egypt, where he would confront the son of the now-dead pharaoh with the demand to release the Hebrew people from the bondage they had endured for so many years. God had not forgotten his people and was now ready to deliver them.<\/p>\n<h5>Encounter with God at the Burning Bush<\/h5>\n<p>One day, while Moses was taking care of the flocks of his father-in-law, he led them to Mt Horeb (known also as Sinai), where God appeared to him in a flame of fire out of the midst of a bush that burned but was not consumed. Moses approached to observe the strange sight more closely and heard God speak to him out of the bush, “Moses, Moses!” Moses replied, “Here am I.” Before he could come any nearer to the bush, God said, “Do not come near; put off your shoes from your feet, for the place on which you are standing is holy ground” (Ex 3:4-5, <span>rsv<\/span>). He further identified himself as the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. He assured Moses that he was aware of the cruel afflictions of his people and had heard their cries. Then he told of his plan to send Moses to Egypt to deliver his people from their bondage.<\/p>\n<p>Faced with a challenge that seemed beyond his capabilities, the aged Moses began making excuses for not accepting the task. God assured Moses that he would be with him (Ex 3:11-12). To his excuse that he would not be able to give an answer if the people asked him the name of the God he represented, God revealed his name in the cryptic statement, “ ‘<span>I Am the One Who Always Is<\/span>’ . . . Just tell them, ‘I <span>Am<\/span> has sent me to you’ ” (vv 13-14, <span>nlt<\/span>). Many interpretations have been proposed for the name. Whatever else it means, it undoubtedly suggests the self-existence and all-sufficiency of God. Moses then argued that the people would not believe him when he told them that God had sent him to deliver them from Egypt. In response God gave him three signs: When he cast his shepherd’s rod to the ground, it became a serpent. When he put his hand to his bosom, it became leprous. He was also told that when he would pour water from the Nile on the ground, it would become blood (Ex 4:1-9). Even armed with these powerful evidences of the presence of God with him, Moses raised still another objection, “O Lord, I’m just not a good speaker. I never have been, and I’m not now, even after you have spoken to me. I’m clumsy with words” (v 10, <span>nlt<\/span>). God told him that he would teach him what to say, but despite such assurance, Moses asked God to send someone else. In anger mingled with compassion, God made Moses’ brother, Aaron, the spokesman, but said his instructions would still be given directly to Moses.<\/p>\n<h5>Return to Egypt<\/h5>\n<p>Moses took his wife and sons and set out for Egypt, telling his father-in-law only that he wanted to go back to Egypt to visit his kinsmen there (Ex 4:18). The biblical account says he put his wife and sons on the same donkey to journey back to Egypt (v 20). The fact that all three rode the same animal indicates that both children were quite young and had not been born in the early years of Moses’ marriage. At a lodging place along the way a strange thing happened. The Lord met him and sought to kill him (v 24), apparently because Moses had failed to circumcise the baby before leaving Midian. When Zipporah realized that Moses’ life was in danger, she performed the rite herself and said to her husband, “What a blood-smeared bridegroom you are to me!” (v 25, <span>nlt<\/span>). Whatever else may have been involved in this unusual encounter with God, it was a solemn reminder that the one who was to be the leader of the covenant people must not himself neglect any part of the covenant (Gn 17:10-14).<\/p>\n<p>God told Aaron (who was still in Egypt) to go to the mountain where Moses had encountered God at the burning bush and meet his brother there. Moses told Aaron everything that had happened, and together they went to Egypt, gathered the elders together, and informed them of these matters. When Moses and Aaron performed the signs in the presence of the people, they believed these leaders had been sent by God to deliver them from their affliction (Ex 4:30-31).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheThird40YearsFromEgypttoCanaan\">The Third 40 Years—From Egypt to Canaan<\/p>\n<h5>The Encounter with Pharaoh<\/h5>\n<p>Soon after his return to Egypt, Moses, accompanied by Aaron, went to Pharaoh and repeated the demands of the Lord, “Let my people go, for they must go out into the wilderness to hold a religious festival in my honor” (Ex 5:1, <span>nlt<\/span>). Pharaoh rejected the demand with the observation that he had never heard of this God of Moses. When one realizes that Egyptian kings considered themselves to be gods, the affront to Pharaoh becomes even more acute. Not only did he reject Moses’ demands, but he intensified the burdens of the Hebrews. Their work had up until then required them to make brick using straw provided for them, but now Pharaoh said they would have to gather their own straw and still produce the same number of bricks. The Hebrews turned in anguish and anger to Moses and blamed him for making them offensive in the sight of Pharaoh. Even Moses could not understand the turn of events and complained bitterly to God. God reassured Moses that he would deliver the Hebrews from their bondage, and moreover, he would bring them into the land he had promised Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. He then instructed Moses to return to Pharaoh and repeat the demand to release the Hebrews upon threat of severe reprisal if the demand were ignored.<\/p>\n<p>Ushered again into Pharaoh’s presence, Moses repeated his request for release of the Israelites. He attempted to impress Pharaoh by turning his rod into a serpent, but the Egyptian wise men, through their secret arts, were able to duplicate the miracle, so Pharaoh’s heart remained hardened and he would not listen to Moses. In rapid succession Moses brought nine plagues upon the land of Egypt to show the omnipotence of God to force the compliance of Pharaoh. These included a plague in which the water of the Nile turned to blood, a plague of frogs, one of gnats, then of flies, a plague on the livestock, boils on the people, plagues of hail, locusts, and complete darkness. During the plagues of the frogs, flies, hail, locusts, and darkness, Pharaoh was distraught and would temporarily relent and agree to Moses’ demands, but as soon as the plague was lifted, his heart hardened and he would retract his promise. The outcome of the first nine plagues was terrible devastation of the land of Egypt, but the Israelites were not released. There was yet one more plague in store, the most terrible of all.<\/p>\n<h5>The First Passover<\/h5>\n<p>God told Moses that there remained one more plague in store for the Egyptians: “All the firstborn sons will die in every family in Egypt, from the oldest son of Pharaoh, who sits on the throne, to the oldest son of his lowliest slave. Even the firstborn of the animals will die” (Ex 11:5, <span>nlt<\/span>). Furthermore, he assured Moses that the plague would not touch a single household of the Hebrews, “Then you will know that the <span>Lord<\/span> makes a distinction between the Egyptians and the Israelites” (v 7, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>God instructed the people through Moses and Aaron to make their preparations for leaving the land in haste. They were to go to the Egyptians and ask them for their jewels of silver and gold (Ex 11:2-3), a request to which the Egyptians agreed, perhaps out of fear of the Hebrews and in the belief that the gifts would bring about an end of the terrors that had struck the land. The Hebrews were also instructed to prepare a lamb for each family—small families could share—for the last meal to be eaten in the land of Egypt (a rite that became the pattern for the Jewish observance of the Passover for many centuries). Blood of the lamb was to be put on the doorposts and lintels of the houses in which the Passover meal was being eaten that night. The Hebrews were promised that wherever the blood was on the door, no harm would come to that household. They were also instructed to prepare unleavened bread. At midnight the death angel of the Lord killed all the firstborn in the land of Egypt, from the firstborn of Pharaoh himself to the lowest captive in a dungeon; not a single house of the Egyptians escaped tragedy. When Pharaoh saw what had happened, he ordered Moses and the people to leave the land at once (12:31-32). The biblical record says that about 600,000 Hebrew men left Egypt. Together with women and children, the total would have been in excess of 2 million people.<\/p>\n<h5>The Exodus from Egypt<\/h5>\n<p>The exodus is the central event of the OT and marks the birth of Israel as a nation. The Jewish people still look back to that event as the great redemptive act of God in history on behalf of his people, much as Christians look upon the cross as the great redemptive act of their faith.<\/p>\n\n<p>The exact route taken by the Hebrews out of Egypt cannot be determined today, though many possibilities have been proposed. They did not take the shortest, most direct route to Canaan (which would have been about a 10 days’ journey along the Mediterranean coastline), but set out in the direction of Mt Sinai, where Moses had earlier met God at the burning bush. As a sign that Moses had been sent to deliver the people, God told Moses he would bring them to that same spot, where they would worship God (Ex 3:12). The Hebrews did not forget the request of Joseph to carry his bones with them when they returned to their own land (Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19).<\/p>\n<p>As the people journeyed, they were preceded by a pillar of cloud during the day and a pillar of fire at night. The cloud represented the presence of God with his people and guided them along the route they should travel.<\/p>\n<p>Back in Egypt, Pharaoh was having second thoughts about letting the Hebrews leave the land and decided to pursue them with his army and bring them back. When the Hebrews saw the approaching cloud of dust and realized that the Egyptian army was pursuing them, they were terrified. The sea lay ahead of them and the Egyptians were behind; there seemed to be no way of escape. The people turned on Moses, blaming him for bringing them out of Egypt. God again assured them that they did not need to be afraid or do anything to defend themselves. He promised to fight the battle for them and give them victory (Ex 14:14).<\/p>\n<p>The Lord parted the water of the Sea of Reeds (traditionally but erroneously referred to as the Red Sea) by a strong east wind and allowed the Israelites to pass through the sea on dry ground to the other side. The Egyptians rushed after the Israelites, following them into the dry bed of the sea. But before they reached the other side, the waters rushed back together, destroying the Egyptian army in the midst of the sea and leaving the Israelites safe on the other side. The people celebrated their great deliverance in song (Ex 15) and then continued their journey. The narrative that follows describes the struggle of the Israelites to survive in the desert—problems of food and water, internal dissension, murmurings against Moses, and battles with enemies. Through all their experiences, Moses towers as the unifying force and great spiritual leader.<\/p>\n<p>In spite of having seen God’s great act of deliverance so recently, the faith of the Israelites was not strong. Three days later they came to a place where the water was not fit to drink, and they began complaining against Moses. The Lord showed Moses how to purify the water, and the people’s needs were satisfied (Ex 15:22-25). When they reached the wilderness of Sin, they complained again, this time because of lack of food. God met their need by supplying manna, a breadlike substance that would serve as their food until they came to Canaan (16:1-21). Later, camped at Rephidim, the people complained again, this time for lack of water. Once again God met their needs by supplying water from the rock at Horeb (17:1-7). The Amalekites attacked them while they were still camped at Rephidim, but God gave a great victory to the Israelites (vv 8-13).<\/p>\n<p>Moses and the people reached Sinai and camped there. Jethro came to visit, bringing Moses’ wife and sons. Zipporah had apparently decided to return with her children to stay with her father rather than to go on to Egypt with Moses. It was a joyful reunion, and Jethro made a burnt offering and sacrifices to God (an act that has evoked the suggestion that Jethro was a true worshiper of God, though nothing is known of his links to the Hebrew faith). When Jethro observed Moses trying to settle all the disputes and problems of the Hebrews unaided, he proposed that Moses delegate responsibility for some of the lesser matters to able men chosen from among the people. Moses accepted the suggestion, and shortly afterward Jethro returned to his own land. He did not remain at Sinai to participate in the ratification of the covenant (Ex 18:13-27).<\/p>\n<h5>Giving of the Law at Sinai<\/h5>\n<p>God had kept his promises to Moses. He had delivered the Hebrews from their Egyptian bondage and brought them to the very place where he had commissioned Moses to be their leader. He was now ready to enter into a covenant relationship with Israel. Amid a spectacular and terrifying scene of lightning, thunder, thick clouds, fire, smoke, and earthquake, God descended to the top of Sinai and called Moses to come up the mountain, where he remained 40 days to receive the law that would become the basis of the covenant.<\/p>\n<p>At Sinai, God was revealed as the God who demands exclusive allegiance in all areas of life and, at the same time, as the God who desires personal fellowship with his people.<\/p>\n<h5>Apostasy of the People<\/h5>\n<p>While Moses tarried on Mt Sinai, the people below became impatient and skeptical about his return, so they went to Aaron and asked him to make idols for them to worship. They contributed the gold earrings they were wearing. “Then Aaron took the gold, melted it down, and molded and tooled it into the shape of a calf. The people exclaimed, ‘O Israel, these are the gods who brought you out of Egypt!’ ” (Ex 32:4, <span>nlt<\/span>). The next day they joined in the worship of the idol with sacrifices and revelry. God told Moses what was taking place below and angrily declared that he was going to destroy the people but would make a great nation of Moses and his descendants. Moses immediately interceded on behalf of the people, and God’s wrath abated. Moses descended the mountain, carrying the two tablets of stone on which the law had been written, but when he entered the camp and saw what was taking place, he could not restrain his anger. He threw the stone tablets to the ground, ground the golden calf to powder, mixed it with water, and forced the people to drink it. He turned angrily to Aaron and demanded an explanation for the great sin that had been committed. Aaron lamely tried to shift the blame by minimizing his own role: “I threw them [the gold] into the fire—and out came this calf!” (v 24, <span>nlt<\/span>). Moses called for volunteers to carry out God’s judgment on the people for the great sin they had committed. Men of the tribe of Levi responded and executed about 3,000 men. Later they were commended and rewarded (Dt 33:9-10). Moses again interceded for the people, requesting that he be destroyed with the rest if God could not forgive them. God relented and promised Moses that the angel of the Lord would go with them still (Ex 32:34).<\/p>\n<p>Then Moses made a special request that he might be allowed to see the glory of the Lord. God instructed Moses to hew out two more tablets of stone like the ones he had destroyed and to return to the top of the mountain the next day. There the Lord passed before him and proclaimed his name: “I am the <span>Lord<\/span>, I am the <span>Lord<\/span>, the merciful and gracious God. I am slow to anger and rich in unfailing love and faithfulness” (Ex 34:6, <span>nlt<\/span>). Moses remained on the mountain another 40 days, where he received renewed warnings against idolatry and further instructions from the Lord, together with another copy of the Ten Commandments on tablets of stone. When Moses came down from the mountain, he was not aware that the skin of his face shone as a result of talking with God. At first the people were afraid to come near him, but he called them together and repeated all the Lord had said to him on the mountain. Afterward, he covered his face with a veil, which he removed only when he went into the presence of the Lord. Paul said the purpose of the veil was to prevent the people from seeing the heavenly light gradually fade from Moses’ face (2 Cor 3:13).<\/p>\n<h5>The Tabernacle and Establishment of the Priesthood<\/h5>\n<p>When Moses went up to the mountain the first time to receive the law from God, he was instructed to collect materials to be used in the construction of the tabernacle or tent. Gold, silver, bronze, blue and purple and scarlet yarn, fine twined linen, goats’ hair, tanned rams’ skins, goatskins, and acacia wood would be needed, along with oil for the lamps, spices for the anointing oil and for the fragrant incense, onyx stones, and stones for setting (Ex 25:3-7). The pattern for construction was also given to him, together with the ritual to be used for the consecration of the priests. A man named Bezalel was put in charge of the construction of the tabernacle, assisted by Oholiab (31:1-6). The tabernacle was portable like a tent so that it could be taken down and moved from place to place as the Hebrews continued their journey toward Canaan.<\/p>\n<p>In addition to giving Moses directions for the tabernacle, God also instructed him concerning the sacrifices that were to be brought: the burnt offering, grain offering, peace offering, sin offering, and guilt offering (Lv 1–7). The solemn ceremony for ordaining Aaron and his sons as priests and for inaugurating the worship practices were to be performed by Moses (chs 8–9).<\/p>\n<p>Sometime after this solemn inauguration of the religious ritual actually took place, Nadab and Abihu, two of Aaron’s four sons, offered unauthorized fire before the Lord. A fire came out from the Lord and destroyed them. Moses forbade Aaron and his sons Eleazar and Ithamar to express grief because of the sinfulness of the act (Lv 10:1-7). The nature of their sin is difficult to determine, but it surely involved a violation of God’s holiness. Therefore, it is appropriate that a large part of the remainder of the book of Leviticus gives regulations that stress the holy living that God expected from his people.<\/p>\n<h5>From Sinai to Kadesh<\/h5>\n<p>A year had elapsed from the time the Israelites left Egypt until the census was taken (Nm 9:1). God reminded the people that it was time to observe the Passover, which they did, and a month later they set out from Sinai and came to the wilderness of Paran. Along the way they complained about the unvarying diet of manna and they longed for the fish, cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions, and garlic they had eaten in Egypt (11:4-6). In anger God sent quail in abundance, but even while the people were devouring the meat, God sent a great plague that killed many Israelites. The complaining attitude of the people was shared even by Miriam and Aaron. They began to speak against the Cushite woman Moses had married (12:1-2). It is not certain whether the Cushite was an Ethiopian or whether this was another way of referring to Zipporah. If Moses did marry a second time, no mention is made of it elsewhere in the OT. Moses made no reply to the accusations of his brother and sister. It was not necessary, for God intervened in defense of his servant. He smote Miriam with leprosy for her part in speaking against Moses, and when Aaron saw what had happened to Miriam, he acknowledged that they both had sinned. Miriam’s leprosy was removed in response to Moses’ fervent intercession.<\/p>\n\n<p>While the people were encamped at Kadesh (also called Kadesh-barnea—Nm 32:8) in the wilderness of Paran, Moses sent 12 men into Canaan, one from each tribe, to spy out the land in preparation for the Israelite entry. After 40 days the spies returned and, though they acknowledged that the land was fertile and inviting, 10 of them were afraid of the Canaanite inhabitants and advised against going into the land. Only Joshua and Caleb were willing to go ahead and occupy the territory. The entire congregation joined the protest against going in and determined to choose a new leader and return to Egypt rather than risk death by the sword in Canaan. They threatened to stone Moses and Aaron. At that moment God intervened and would have destroyed all the people on the spot except for the intervention of Moses (13:1–14:19). He declared that, if God did not bring the people into Canaan, the nations round about would conclude that the God of the Israelites was unable to bring them into the land. Once again God acquiesced to Moses’ request to pardon the people but said that none of them 20 years and older who had complained against him would be allowed to enter the land. All the people would wander in the wilderness for 40 years until that generation died, and then their children would be allowed to enter Canaan (14:29-33). When they heard the Lord’s sentence upon them, the people quickly decided to lift the sentence of judgment by entering the land at once, but God was not with them, and they suffered a disastrous defeat at the hands of the Amalekites and Canaanites.<\/p>\n<h5>Forty Years in the Wilderness<\/h5>\n<p>Very little is known about events during the 40 years of wilderness wanderings. In spite of the judgment that had already come upon them, the people did not seem to change their ways. A man named Korah led another rebellion against the authority of Moses and Aaron. God would not listen to the pleas of Moses and Aaron on behalf of these dissidents (Nm 16:22-24), but told the congregation to separate itself from the tents of Korah and his conspirators. While the people watched, the ground split open and swallowed up the rebellious factions together with their households and all their possessions. Though the rest of the Israelites witnessed the fate of the rebels, it did not deter them from again turning on Moses and Aaron. At this, God told Moses to remove himself from the murmuring congregation in order that he could take vengeance. Though Moses offered atonement for the people’s sins, 14,700 died by plague before the punishment was ended. To demonstrate further to the people that Moses was his chosen leader, the Lord instructed Moses to take rods, one for each tribe, and to deposit them in the tent of meeting. God would cause the rod of the man chosen by him to sprout, and so silence the murmurings of the people. The rod belonging to Aaron sprouted and budded and bloomed, but the people only complained more.<\/p>\n<p>As the people neared the end of their years of wilderness wanderings, Miriam died in Kadesh and was buried there (Nm 20:1). Soon after, the people began to complain once more for lack of water. God instructed Moses to speak to a rock that would bring forth water to satisfy the needs of the people. Instead of speaking to the rock, Moses struck it twice with his rod. The water came forth, but God rebuked Moses and Aaron: “Because you did not trust me enough to demonstrate my holiness to the people of Israel, you will not lead them into the land I am giving them!” (v 12, <span>nlt<\/span>). The nature of the sin is not clear, but Moses and Aaron were apparently taking to themselves honor that belonged to God alone. Because of the sin, they were denied the privilege of leading the Israelites into the Promised Land. The punishment may seem too severe for the sin, but it shows that the privileged role of leadership given to Moses and Aaron carried with it an unusual measure of responsibility.<\/p>\n<p>The people then journeyed from Kadesh to Mt Hor on the border of the land of Edom, where Aaron died. Moses took his priestly garments from him and gave them to Eleazar, his son, thereby transferring the priestly office (Nm 20:28).<\/p>\n<p>As the people came closer to their destination, resistance on the part of the native population increased. There was a skirmish with the king of Arad and his forces at Hormah, resulting in a victory for Israel (Nm 21:1-3). As they journeyed around Edom, some of the Israelites began speaking against God and Moses because there was no food or water and they were tired of eating manna. This time the Lord sent poisonous snakes among the people, and many of them died of the venomous bites. Those who had not yet been bitten came to Moses, acknowledged their sin, and asked that the serpents be removed from their midst. God instructed Moses to make a serpent of bronze and set it on a pole. If a person bitten by a serpent looked up at the bronze serpent, he or she would live.<\/p>\n<p>As the Israelites approached the territory of Sihon, king of the Amorites, they sent messengers asking permission to pass peaceably through his land. Instead of granting the request, Sihon gathered his army together and fought against Israel. He was killed in the battle, and his land and cities were taken and occupied by the Hebrews (Nm 21:21-25).<\/p>\n<h5>Arrival at the Jordan River<\/h5>\n<p>After their victory over Sihon, the Israelites set out again and encamped in the plains of Moab on the east side of the Jordan River facing Jericho, in full view of the Promised Land. The Moabites were terrified by the presence of these people because they had heard what happened to the Amorites. Their king, Balak, hired a magician named Balaam to curse the Israelites. Three times Balaam attempted to curse them, but each time God turned his words into a blessing (Nm 22–24). Though unable to curse the Israelites, Balaam was responsible for an even greater calamity. He advised the Moabites to entice the Israelites to sacrifice to their gods and bow down to them (Nm 25:1-3; 31:16; 2 Pt 2:15; Rv 2:14). While the people were worshiping the Moabite deity, Baal of Peor, God’s anger was kindled against them, and he sent a plague that killed 24,000 of them (Nm 25:9). It was Israel’s first encounter with the seductive allurement of licentious idolatry and an ominous foreview of what would happen after they settled down in Canaan. Their continued attraction to idolatry would be their final undoing.<\/p>\n<p>After the plague, God instructed Moses and Eleazar to take another census of the people like the one almost 40 years earlier. A whole generation of Israelites had died in the wilderness, but they had been replaced by an almost equal number, so that now there were 601,730 men 20 years and older who were able to go to war (Nm 26:51). Not a man remained of those who had been counted in the first census, except Caleb and Joshua.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord instructed Moses to lay hands on Joshua and commission him as the new leader in the sight of Eleazar the priest and all the congregation (Nm 27:12-23). In addition, the Lord gave Moses instructions concerning feasts and offerings and vows (chs 28–30). God ordered Moses, as his last act as leader, to avenge the Israelites on the Midianites. In that battle the armies of Israel gained a great victory over the Midianites, killing their kings, their men, and also Balaam.<\/p>\n<p>The Lord gave instructions to Moses concerning the boundaries that would mark the Promised Land and named the men who would divide the land among the tribes (Nm 34). He also ordered that 48 cities be given to the Levites, the priestly tribe, as their portion. Six of these were designated as cities of refuge where murderers could flee so that they would not be killed by those seeking vengeance without having an opportunity to stand before the congregation for judgment (ch 35).<\/p>\n<h5>Moses’ Death<\/h5>\n<p>The book of Deuteronomy has often been called Moses’ valedictory speech to the people, for in it Moses is not merely the chief speaker but the only speaker. With the congregation of his people gathered before him, he rehearsed all that God had done for them since leaving Sinai, and he reminded them of their failure to enter the Promised Land 38 years earlier (Dt 2:14). He recalled his plea that God would let him cross the Jordan and see the land that was to be the home of the people, but God responded that Moses would only be allowed to view the land from the top of Pisgah. Moses then exhorted the people to obey the statutes and ordinances that had been given to them in order to experience God’s blessings in the land.<\/p>\n\n<p>As the day of Moses’ death approached, the Lord ordered Moses and Joshua to present themselves at the tent of meeting in order for Joshua to be commissioned as the new leader (Dt 31:14-23). Before his death, Moses pronounced a blessing upon all the Israelites (ch 33). Having completed these tasks, Moses went up from the plains of Moab to Mt Nebo, and to the top of Pisgah. From there God showed him the land promised long ago to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob—the land that was soon to be the home of the wandering Israelite tribes. Again God told him that he would not be allowed to cross over the Jordan. Moses died there and God buried him somewhere in the valley in the land of Moab opposite Beth-peor (34:6). Moses was 120 years old when he died, and the Israelites mourned his death for 30 days. The finest tribute to Moses is found in the closing words of the book of Deuteronomy, “There has never been another prophet like Moses, whom the <span>Lord<\/span> knew face to face” (v 10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MosesintheNewTestament\">Moses in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>All Jews and Christians in apostolic times considered Moses the author of the Pentateuch. Such expressions as “the law of Moses” (Lk 2:22), “Moses commanded” (Mt 19:7), “Moses said” (Mk 7:10) “and Moses wrote” (12:19) shows that his name was synonymous with the OT books attributed to him. He is mentioned in the NT more than any other OT figure, a total of 79 times. His role as lawgiver is emphasized more than any other aspect of his life (Mt 8:4; Mk 7:10; Jn 1:17; Acts 15:1). He appears at the transfiguration of Jesus as the representative of OT law, along with Elijah as the representative of OT prophets (Mt 17:1-3).<\/p>\n<p>Moses’ role as prophet is also mentioned in the NT. As a prophet, he spoke of the coming Messiah and his sufferings (Lk 24:25-27; Acts 3:22). The NT also draws from the life and experiences of Moses to show patterns of life under the new covenant. The nativity story of Jesus parallels the Mosaic story of the infant deliverer being rescued from the evil designs of an earthly despot (Mt 2:13-18). Jesus’ proclamation of a new law in his Sermon on the Mount parallels the giving of the law at Sinai (Mt 5–7) and presents Jesus as the authoritative interpreter of the will of God. Contrast between the old law and the new relationship with God is especially marked in the book of Galatians. The comparison of Moses with Christ is an important emphasis of the book of Hebrews (Heb 3:5-6; 9:11-22). John contrasted the law that was given through Moses with the grace and truth that came through Jesus Christ (Jn 1:17). He also contrasted the manna in the wilderness to Jesus as “the bread of life” (6:30-35).<\/p>\n<p>Other references to Moses or to events associated with him include his birth (Acts 7:20; Heb 11:23), the burning bush (Lk 20:37), the magicians of Egypt (2 Tm 3:8), the Passover (Heb 11:28), the exodus (3:16), crossing of the sea (1 Cor 10:2), the covenant sacrifice at Sinai (Mt 26:28), the manna (1 Cor 10:3), the glory on Moses’ face (2 Cor 3:7-18), water from the rock (1 Cor 10:4), the bronze serpent (Jn 3:14), and the song of Moses (Rv 15:3).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Egypt, Egyptian; Exodus, The; Israel, History of; Plagues upon Egypt; Priests and Levites; Tabernacle; Temple; Commandments, The Ten; Wilderness Wanderings.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MOSES Great leader of the Hebrew people who brought them out of bondage in Egypt to the Promised Land in Canaan; also the one who gave them the law at Mt Sinai that became the basis for their religious faith through the centuries. Focused in this one person are the figures of prophet, priest, lawgiver, judge, intercessor, shepherd, miracle worker, and founder of a nation. The meaning of his name is uncertain. It has been explained as a Hebrew word meaning “to draw out” (Ex 2:10; cf. 2 Sm 22:1...","summary_en":"MOSES Great leader of the Hebrew people who brought them out of bondage in Egypt to the Promised Land in Canaan; also the one who gave them the law at Mt Sinai that became the basis for their religious faith through the centuries. Focused in this one person are the figures of prophet, priest, lawgiver, judge, intercessor, shepherd, miracle worker, and founder of a nation. The meaning of his name is uncertain. It has been explained as a Hebrew word meaning “to draw out” (Ex 2:10; cf. 2 Sm 22:1...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"21":[{"id":6799,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Regulations concerning Cleanness and Uncleanness","title_en":"and Uncleanness, Regulations concerning, Cleanness","content_ro":"<h3>CLEANNESS AND UNCLEANNESS, Regulations Concerning<\/h3>\n<p>Aspect of Hebrew religion having physical, ceremonial, moral, and spiritual significance. Though these senses of clean and unclean can be distinguished with reference to their contexts, they also merge into and illustrate each other; the physical and ceremonial contexts point to a moral state of the worshiper and to a spiritual relationship between God and his people.<\/p>\n<p>The OT vision of a people’s relationship with God is along moral and personal lines—God’s personal nature being expressed in his giving of the law to Moses. The personal and uniquely consistent character of Israel’s Lord made him morally a completely different being from the many gods of pagan cultures. Unlike the Lord, the Baals of the Canaanites were capricious and vicious; nobody expected them to be ethically consistent. Israel’s Lord, on the other hand, could be trusted to keep his word (a verbal communication through his chosen prophets). Nobody, not even the high priest or the king, was above the law, which expressed not only God’s character but also his sovereign will for the individual and the nation. His moral consistency carried over into his miraculous interventions into history to protect his people, to judge them and their enemies, and to redeem humanity itself.<\/p>\n<p>Cleanness as defined in the book of Leviticus, therefore, was always conditioned by the presence of the personal God who gave the law. As the people sought to approach the Lord, they necessarily did so on his terms and therefore within the framework of the cultic ceremonies he had prescribed. Details of the Levitical ceremonies were designed to illustrate the moral implications of the sinner’s approach to God and God’s provision for his people to become morally clean in his sight.<\/p>\n<p>The meaning of the Levitical system was stated clearly in the psalmist’s words: “Who shall ascend the hill of the <span>Lord<\/span>? And who shall stand in his holy place? He who has clean hands and a pure heart, who does not lift up his soul to what is false, and does not swear deceitfully” (Ps 24:3-4, <span>rsv<\/span>). One’s state of cleanness depends not only on external actions but also on an internal relationship with God. As a result, the sinner’s inability to satisfy the moral demands of a holy God leads to his or her complete dependence on God and on God’s provision for satisfying his own demands. That provision was detailed in the law.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Early History<\/p>\n<p>• Levitical Prescriptions<\/p>\n<p>• Purification Rites<\/p>\n<p>• New Testament Perspective<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"EarlyHistory\">Early History<\/p>\n<h5>Gentile Religious Background<\/h5>\n<p>The gentile conscience was no doubt a strong influence on the development of ethnic notions of clean and unclean. The subjective sense of sin’s uncleanness is universally encountered in one form or another in the literature of every great religion, whatever explanation is given for it. Many religions have rites of purification based on water and washings. The Hebrews’ ritual avoidance of certain objects, some because of their holiness and others because of their unholiness, finds an analogy in the taboos of many primitive religions, including some of those with which the early Hebrews came into contact.<\/p>\n<p>The similarities between the Hebrew and other ancient religions are easily established by superficial comparison. It would be surprising if there were none. Those differences that give biblical religion its distinctive character, however, must be accounted for.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LeviticalPrescriptions\">Levitical Prescriptions<\/p>\n<h5>Ceremonial and Moral Law<\/h5>\n<p>The relationship between the external ceremonial details of the Mosaic law and the internally directed moral requirements of such parts of it as the Ten Commandments is one of the fundamental issues of OT theology. It is possible to demonstrate that, throughout the OT, uncleanness and sin are virtually synonymous. In many passages sin is described as uncleanness (e.g., Lv 16:16, 30; the ordeal of the bitter water in Nm 5:11-28; Zec 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The relationship between ceremonial and moral cleanness can be illustrated from passages mentioning clean hands on the one hand (2 Sm 22:21; Jb 17:9; 22:30) and a clean heart on the other (Pss 24:4; 51:10; 73:13; Prv 20:9). The prophet Isaiah felt convicted of “unclean lips” when he was in God’s presence; a purifying coal, perhaps representing forgiveness and atonement, cleansed him (Is 6:5-7). In many passages cleanness represents innocence before God (Jb 11:4; 33:9; Ps 51:7-10; Prv 20:9), and uncleanness is said to come from sin (Ps 51:2; Is 1:16; 64:6).<\/p>\n<h5>Causes of Uncleanness<\/h5>\n<p>From the Mosaic law a number of causes of uncleanness can be derived.<\/p>\n<p>1. Some foods were not to be eaten. Various laws concerning animals make a “distinction between the unclean and the clean and between the living creature that may be eaten and the living creature that may not be eaten” (Lv 11:47, <span>rsv<\/span>). Permitted food was what was acceptable to God (see also Dt 14:3-21; Acts 15:28-29).<\/p>\n<li>2. Diseases, especially leprosy, produced an unclean state (Lv 13–14). The story of Naaman refers to leprous defilement (2 Kgs 5:1-14). The Gospels refer often to lepers (e.g., Mt 8:1-4; 10:8; 11:5; Lk 4:27). Many swellings, sores, and rashes were included under that heading, including Hansen’s disease (modern leprosy). The defilement of disease included all things touched by a diseased person (Lv 14:33-57).<\/li>\n<li>3. Bodily discharges were unclean, and contact with them defiled a person for various periods of time. Emission of semen produced uncleanness until the evening, whether in intercourse (Lv 15:16-18) or inadvertently during the night (Dt 23:10). An unnatural discharge, since it usually indicated disease, made a person unclean for seven days after it had ceased (Lv 15:1-15). Menstruation also produced uncleanness lasting seven days after it ceased (Lv 15:19-24; 2 Sm 11:4). Sexual intercourse during that time made both partners unclean (Lv 15:19-24; 20:18). Contact with the spittle of an unclean person produced uncleanness for a day (15:8).<\/li>\n<li>4. Dead bodies, or even parts of them such as bone, caused uncleanness (Nm 19:16). Persons who touched a dead body were unclean for a month, and only after that period could they celebrate their own Passover if they had missed it (9:6-11). The high priest could not even bury his own parents because of his special ritual responsibilities (Lv 21:10-11; cf. Nm 6:6-7; Hg 2:13; Mt 23:27).<\/li>\n<li>5. Idolatry was the greatest source of spiritual defilement. The entire nation of Israel was defiled because of it (Ps 106:38; Is 30:22; Ez 36:25), as were the Gentiles (Jer 43:12). Consequently, contact with Gentiles was thought to produce defilement. The gospel’s universal appeal confronted that conviction (e.g., Jn 4:9; Acts 10:28; cf. Gal 2:11-14). Closely related to the defilement of idolatry was the defilement caused by unclean spirits (Zec 13:2; cf. Mt 10:1; Mk 1:23-27).<\/li>\n<h5>Laws about Objects<\/h5>\n<p>Certain laws illustrate the principle that uncleanness was transmitted much like a contagion. Dead bodies contaminated what they touched, as did dead insects and certain crawling things (Lv 11:29-38). It is interesting that dry grain, running springwater, and water in a cistern were expressly excluded from that law of contamination; perhaps otherwise, starvation would have resulted, dead insects and mice being found in grain and water every day in an agricultural community. Unclean pottery had to be broken, but wooden vessels merely required washing (Lv 15:12). Even uncovered pots in a house where a person had died became unclean (Nm 19:15); everyone who entered the house was unclean.<\/p>\n<p>Because of their idolatrous associations, the possessions of pagans were unclean; therefore, booty taken in war had to be cleansed by fire or washing (Nm 31:21-24). Clothing of wool, linen, or leather could contract unclean “leprosy” from diseased persons and had to be tested. If the leprous spots (greenish or reddish patches) spread after a test period, the garments had to be burned (Lv 13:47-59; 14:33-53).<\/p>\n<h5>Laws about Places<\/h5>\n<p>The land and people of Israel were holy; they could be defiled by the uncleanness of economic oppression or idolatry (Jos 22:17-19; Jer 13:27). Jerusalem was a holy city, but it could be defiled by the sins of its people (Ez 22:2-4; Lam 1:8) or by the blood of its slaughtered inhabitants (Lam 4:15).<\/p>\n<p>The temple could be defiled by unclean persons. It was necessary for Hezekiah to cleanse the temple after Ahaz’s idolatrous worship (2 Chr 29:15-19); Nehemiah had to cleanse the rooms in which Tobiah had been living (Neh 13:9). One of the functions of the Day of Atonement was removal of impurities transferred to the temple by the sins of the Israelites during the past year (Lv 16:16-19; 31-33).<\/p>\n<p>An unclean place received the pieces of a leprous house after its demolition (Lv 14:45). The valley of Hinnom became Jerusalem’s garbage dump in later years, giving rise to the visions of “Gehenna” as a place of eternal punishment in NT eschatology. Since the Israelite camp was a holy place, care was taken to bury human excrement outside its boundaries (Dt 23:12-14). The value of that simple expedient in preventing disease during military excursions can hardly be exaggerated, since plagues were a great scourge of ancient armies.<\/p>\n<h5>Laws about Food<\/h5>\n<p>Certain kinds of animals were unclean and thus could not be eaten (Lv 11; Dt 14:3-21). Animals that died of old age, disease, or injury, or had been wounded by predators, were unclean. Animals that did not both chew the cud and have a cloven hoof were unclean, a definition that included pigs, camels, badgers, and rabbits among others. Israelites could eat only those fish that had both fins and scales. Birds of prey and scavengers were unclean. All winged insects were unclean except hopping insects (locusts, grasshoppers, and crickets). A large classification of “crawling things” was prohibited, including worms, lizards, snakes, weasels, and mice. In addition to all those was the ancient prohibition against eating blood (Gn 9:4; Lv 17:14-15; Dt 12:16-23; Acts 15:28-29).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurificationRites\">Purification Rites<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Lapse of Time<\/h5>\n<p>Secondary contamination could often be canceled simply by waiting until the evening (Lv 11:24) or for 7, 14, 40, or 80 days. Dead bodies contaminated what they touched for 7 days (Nm 19:11), as did menstruation (Lv 15:19). When a child was born, the mother’s unclean condition lasted 7 days for a boy and 14 days for a girl. An additional 33 days for a male child and 66 days for a female were required before the mother could touch any sacred thing.<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Water<\/h5>\n<p>Contact with unclean things, such as bodily discharges, often required washing of hands and clothing, usually accompanied by the lapse of a day (Lv 15:5-11).<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Ceremonial Substances<\/h5>\n<p>Ceremonial substances used in purification rites included the ashes of a red heifer mixed with water (Nm 19:1-10), and (in cases of leprosy) cedarwood, scarlet cloth, hyssop, and blood (Lv 14:2-9). When the altar was used in a purification ceremony, only blood was suitable, since the altar was the place of sacrifice for sin (Lv 16:18-19; Ez 43:20).<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Sacrifice<\/h5>\n<p>Sacrifice was the ultimate source of both ritual and moral purification. All bodily discharges except sexual ones were purified by offerings of doves and pigeons (Lv 15:14-15, 29-30). Childbirth required a lamb and a bird (12:6). Poor people could offer birds in place of an animal (Lv 12:8; 14:21-32; Lk 2:24).<\/p>\n<p>In sacrifice, blood was symbolic of a life given and therefore a death experienced; the uncleanness of disease or sin was thought of as being transferred to the victim, thus removing the uncleanness (Lv 14:7). Sacrificial death, therefore, always had a substitutionary element. Only blood sacrifice could provide the moral cleansing necessary for sin itself; such sacrifice was therefore the basis of all cleansing, including that of disease.<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Fire<\/h5>\n<p>Some contamination could be removed only by fire, such as contamination of metal pots (Nm 31:22-23). Incest was punishable not only by death but also by burning the bodies (Lv 20:14). Idolatry had to be put away by total destruction of the objects and by burning (Ex 32:20). Cities consecrated to pagan deities were to be burned.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NewTestamentPerspective\">New Testament Perspective<\/p>\n<p>The NT did not reject the OT concept of clean and unclean, but rather reinterpreted it in a new context. It stressed in particular the moral sense of the concept as well as the identification of uncleanness with sin.<\/p>\n<p>The Gospels were written in the context of OT law and its Pharisaic and Sadducean accretions. Jesus obeyed the law but was often at odds with the practical casuistry (system) that had grown up around it. Jesus taught that true defilement came from the sinner’s heart and not from outside contamination (Mk 7:14-23; Lk 11:39-41). A central element in his teaching was his attack on the ceremonial externalism of the Pharisees. Thus it has been said that Jesus “internalized” the law. It would be more correct to say that he forced attention to the law’s demands on people’s inner lives.<\/p>\n<p>The intrinsic wickedness of demons is underscored by the use of the term “unclean spirit” throughout the Gospels. In fact, the word “unclean” itself always appears in the Gospels in the context of spirit, a detail that illustrates the NT shift of emphasis from ritual uncleanness to sin and its guilt.<\/p>\n<p>An important episode in the life of the early church came in Acts 10, when God taught the apostle Peter that Gentiles were not unclean in themselves and that Peter was obliged to receive them. The result was Cornelius’s conversion.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus’ assertion that uncleanness originates in the heart bore fruit in the apostle Paul’s doctrine of Christian freedom. Paul, a Pharisee who could say of himself that he had never broken an external law, came to see that nothing is unclean in itself (Rom 14:14-20). Throughout his epistles, cleanness is the result of obedience of the heart flowing from regeneration; it is based on the cleansing power of the Atonement (see Rom 6:19; 1 Thes 2:3-4, where uncleanness is strictly moral).<\/p>\n<p>Christ’s atonement was the final cleansing agent for sin and its moral results (Heb 9:14, 22; 1 Jn 1:7), doing in reality what the blood of bulls and goats only typified. Thus those who are washed in the blood of the Lamb (Rv 7:14) are seen as wearing clean white robes (15:6; 19:8-14). His blood, symbolizing the life given and the death died by the Son at the behest of the Father, satisfies the attributes of personal justice of the triune God. Because the personal character of a righteous Father was vindicated, the personal forgiveness of sinners is morally possible. God can be in history only what he is eternally: he is both just and the justifier of believers in Christ (Rom 3:24-26).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Baptism; Circumcision; Uncircumcision; Offerings and Sacrifices; Law, Biblical Concept of; Dietary Laws.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CLEANNESS AND UNCLEANNESS, Regulations Concerning<\/h3>\n<p>Aspect of Hebrew religion having physical, ceremonial, moral, and spiritual significance. Though these senses of clean and unclean can be distinguished with reference to their contexts, they also merge into and illustrate each other; the physical and ceremonial contexts point to a moral state of the worshiper and to a spiritual relationship between God and his people.<\/p>\n<p>The OT vision of a people’s relationship with God is along moral and personal lines—God’s personal nature being expressed in his giving of the law to Moses. The personal and uniquely consistent character of Israel’s Lord made him morally a completely different being from the many gods of pagan cultures. Unlike the Lord, the Baals of the Canaanites were capricious and vicious; nobody expected them to be ethically consistent. Israel’s Lord, on the other hand, could be trusted to keep his word (a verbal communication through his chosen prophets). Nobody, not even the high priest or the king, was above the law, which expressed not only God’s character but also his sovereign will for the individual and the nation. His moral consistency carried over into his miraculous interventions into history to protect his people, to judge them and their enemies, and to redeem humanity itself.<\/p>\n<p>Cleanness as defined in the book of Leviticus, therefore, was always conditioned by the presence of the personal God who gave the law. As the people sought to approach the Lord, they necessarily did so on his terms and therefore within the framework of the cultic ceremonies he had prescribed. Details of the Levitical ceremonies were designed to illustrate the moral implications of the sinner’s approach to God and God’s provision for his people to become morally clean in his sight.<\/p>\n<p>The meaning of the Levitical system was stated clearly in the psalmist’s words: “Who shall ascend the hill of the <span>Lord<\/span>? And who shall stand in his holy place? He who has clean hands and a pure heart, who does not lift up his soul to what is false, and does not swear deceitfully” (Ps 24:3-4, <span>rsv<\/span>). One’s state of cleanness depends not only on external actions but also on an internal relationship with God. As a result, the sinner’s inability to satisfy the moral demands of a holy God leads to his or her complete dependence on God and on God’s provision for satisfying his own demands. That provision was detailed in the law.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Early History<\/p>\n<p>• Levitical Prescriptions<\/p>\n<p>• Purification Rites<\/p>\n<p>• New Testament Perspective<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"EarlyHistory\">Early History<\/p>\n<h5>Gentile Religious Background<\/h5>\n<p>The gentile conscience was no doubt a strong influence on the development of ethnic notions of clean and unclean. The subjective sense of sin’s uncleanness is universally encountered in one form or another in the literature of every great religion, whatever explanation is given for it. Many religions have rites of purification based on water and washings. The Hebrews’ ritual avoidance of certain objects, some because of their holiness and others because of their unholiness, finds an analogy in the taboos of many primitive religions, including some of those with which the early Hebrews came into contact.<\/p>\n<p>The similarities between the Hebrew and other ancient religions are easily established by superficial comparison. It would be surprising if there were none. Those differences that give biblical religion its distinctive character, however, must be accounted for.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LeviticalPrescriptions\">Levitical Prescriptions<\/p>\n<h5>Ceremonial and Moral Law<\/h5>\n<p>The relationship between the external ceremonial details of the Mosaic law and the internally directed moral requirements of such parts of it as the Ten Commandments is one of the fundamental issues of OT theology. It is possible to demonstrate that, throughout the OT, uncleanness and sin are virtually synonymous. In many passages sin is described as uncleanness (e.g., Lv 16:16, 30; the ordeal of the bitter water in Nm 5:11-28; Zec 13:1).<\/p>\n<p>The relationship between ceremonial and moral cleanness can be illustrated from passages mentioning clean hands on the one hand (2 Sm 22:21; Jb 17:9; 22:30) and a clean heart on the other (Pss 24:4; 51:10; 73:13; Prv 20:9). The prophet Isaiah felt convicted of “unclean lips” when he was in God’s presence; a purifying coal, perhaps representing forgiveness and atonement, cleansed him (Is 6:5-7). In many passages cleanness represents innocence before God (Jb 11:4; 33:9; Ps 51:7-10; Prv 20:9), and uncleanness is said to come from sin (Ps 51:2; Is 1:16; 64:6).<\/p>\n<h5>Causes of Uncleanness<\/h5>\n<p>From the Mosaic law a number of causes of uncleanness can be derived.<\/p>\n<p>1. Some foods were not to be eaten. Various laws concerning animals make a “distinction between the unclean and the clean and between the living creature that may be eaten and the living creature that may not be eaten” (Lv 11:47, <span>rsv<\/span>). Permitted food was what was acceptable to God (see also Dt 14:3-21; Acts 15:28-29).<\/p>\n<li>2. Diseases, especially leprosy, produced an unclean state (Lv 13–14). The story of Naaman refers to leprous defilement (2 Kgs 5:1-14). The Gospels refer often to lepers (e.g., Mt 8:1-4; 10:8; 11:5; Lk 4:27). Many swellings, sores, and rashes were included under that heading, including Hansen’s disease (modern leprosy). The defilement of disease included all things touched by a diseased person (Lv 14:33-57).<\/li>\n<li>3. Bodily discharges were unclean, and contact with them defiled a person for various periods of time. Emission of semen produced uncleanness until the evening, whether in intercourse (Lv 15:16-18) or inadvertently during the night (Dt 23:10). An unnatural discharge, since it usually indicated disease, made a person unclean for seven days after it had ceased (Lv 15:1-15). Menstruation also produced uncleanness lasting seven days after it ceased (Lv 15:19-24; 2 Sm 11:4). Sexual intercourse during that time made both partners unclean (Lv 15:19-24; 20:18). Contact with the spittle of an unclean person produced uncleanness for a day (15:8).<\/li>\n<li>4. Dead bodies, or even parts of them such as bone, caused uncleanness (Nm 19:16). Persons who touched a dead body were unclean for a month, and only after that period could they celebrate their own Passover if they had missed it (9:6-11). The high priest could not even bury his own parents because of his special ritual responsibilities (Lv 21:10-11; cf. Nm 6:6-7; Hg 2:13; Mt 23:27).<\/li>\n<li>5. Idolatry was the greatest source of spiritual defilement. The entire nation of Israel was defiled because of it (Ps 106:38; Is 30:22; Ez 36:25), as were the Gentiles (Jer 43:12). Consequently, contact with Gentiles was thought to produce defilement. The gospel’s universal appeal confronted that conviction (e.g., Jn 4:9; Acts 10:28; cf. Gal 2:11-14). Closely related to the defilement of idolatry was the defilement caused by unclean spirits (Zec 13:2; cf. Mt 10:1; Mk 1:23-27).<\/li>\n<h5>Laws about Objects<\/h5>\n<p>Certain laws illustrate the principle that uncleanness was transmitted much like a contagion. Dead bodies contaminated what they touched, as did dead insects and certain crawling things (Lv 11:29-38). It is interesting that dry grain, running springwater, and water in a cistern were expressly excluded from that law of contamination; perhaps otherwise, starvation would have resulted, dead insects and mice being found in grain and water every day in an agricultural community. Unclean pottery had to be broken, but wooden vessels merely required washing (Lv 15:12). Even uncovered pots in a house where a person had died became unclean (Nm 19:15); everyone who entered the house was unclean.<\/p>\n<p>Because of their idolatrous associations, the possessions of pagans were unclean; therefore, booty taken in war had to be cleansed by fire or washing (Nm 31:21-24). Clothing of wool, linen, or leather could contract unclean “leprosy” from diseased persons and had to be tested. If the leprous spots (greenish or reddish patches) spread after a test period, the garments had to be burned (Lv 13:47-59; 14:33-53).<\/p>\n<h5>Laws about Places<\/h5>\n<p>The land and people of Israel were holy; they could be defiled by the uncleanness of economic oppression or idolatry (Jos 22:17-19; Jer 13:27). Jerusalem was a holy city, but it could be defiled by the sins of its people (Ez 22:2-4; Lam 1:8) or by the blood of its slaughtered inhabitants (Lam 4:15).<\/p>\n<p>The temple could be defiled by unclean persons. It was necessary for Hezekiah to cleanse the temple after Ahaz’s idolatrous worship (2 Chr 29:15-19); Nehemiah had to cleanse the rooms in which Tobiah had been living (Neh 13:9). One of the functions of the Day of Atonement was removal of impurities transferred to the temple by the sins of the Israelites during the past year (Lv 16:16-19; 31-33).<\/p>\n<p>An unclean place received the pieces of a leprous house after its demolition (Lv 14:45). The valley of Hinnom became Jerusalem’s garbage dump in later years, giving rise to the visions of “Gehenna” as a place of eternal punishment in NT eschatology. Since the Israelite camp was a holy place, care was taken to bury human excrement outside its boundaries (Dt 23:12-14). The value of that simple expedient in preventing disease during military excursions can hardly be exaggerated, since plagues were a great scourge of ancient armies.<\/p>\n<h5>Laws about Food<\/h5>\n<p>Certain kinds of animals were unclean and thus could not be eaten (Lv 11; Dt 14:3-21). Animals that died of old age, disease, or injury, or had been wounded by predators, were unclean. Animals that did not both chew the cud and have a cloven hoof were unclean, a definition that included pigs, camels, badgers, and rabbits among others. Israelites could eat only those fish that had both fins and scales. Birds of prey and scavengers were unclean. All winged insects were unclean except hopping insects (locusts, grasshoppers, and crickets). A large classification of “crawling things” was prohibited, including worms, lizards, snakes, weasels, and mice. In addition to all those was the ancient prohibition against eating blood (Gn 9:4; Lv 17:14-15; Dt 12:16-23; Acts 15:28-29).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurificationRites\">Purification Rites<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Lapse of Time<\/h5>\n<p>Secondary contamination could often be canceled simply by waiting until the evening (Lv 11:24) or for 7, 14, 40, or 80 days. Dead bodies contaminated what they touched for 7 days (Nm 19:11), as did menstruation (Lv 15:19). When a child was born, the mother’s unclean condition lasted 7 days for a boy and 14 days for a girl. An additional 33 days for a male child and 66 days for a female were required before the mother could touch any sacred thing.<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Water<\/h5>\n<p>Contact with unclean things, such as bodily discharges, often required washing of hands and clothing, usually accompanied by the lapse of a day (Lv 15:5-11).<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Ceremonial Substances<\/h5>\n<p>Ceremonial substances used in purification rites included the ashes of a red heifer mixed with water (Nm 19:1-10), and (in cases of leprosy) cedarwood, scarlet cloth, hyssop, and blood (Lv 14:2-9). When the altar was used in a purification ceremony, only blood was suitable, since the altar was the place of sacrifice for sin (Lv 16:18-19; Ez 43:20).<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Sacrifice<\/h5>\n<p>Sacrifice was the ultimate source of both ritual and moral purification. All bodily discharges except sexual ones were purified by offerings of doves and pigeons (Lv 15:14-15, 29-30). Childbirth required a lamb and a bird (12:6). Poor people could offer birds in place of an animal (Lv 12:8; 14:21-32; Lk 2:24).<\/p>\n<p>In sacrifice, blood was symbolic of a life given and therefore a death experienced; the uncleanness of disease or sin was thought of as being transferred to the victim, thus removing the uncleanness (Lv 14:7). Sacrificial death, therefore, always had a substitutionary element. Only blood sacrifice could provide the moral cleansing necessary for sin itself; such sacrifice was therefore the basis of all cleansing, including that of disease.<\/p>\n<h5>Purification by Fire<\/h5>\n<p>Some contamination could be removed only by fire, such as contamination of metal pots (Nm 31:22-23). Incest was punishable not only by death but also by burning the bodies (Lv 20:14). Idolatry had to be put away by total destruction of the objects and by burning (Ex 32:20). Cities consecrated to pagan deities were to be burned.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NewTestamentPerspective\">New Testament Perspective<\/p>\n<p>The NT did not reject the OT concept of clean and unclean, but rather reinterpreted it in a new context. It stressed in particular the moral sense of the concept as well as the identification of uncleanness with sin.<\/p>\n<p>The Gospels were written in the context of OT law and its Pharisaic and Sadducean accretions. Jesus obeyed the law but was often at odds with the practical casuistry (system) that had grown up around it. Jesus taught that true defilement came from the sinner’s heart and not from outside contamination (Mk 7:14-23; Lk 11:39-41). A central element in his teaching was his attack on the ceremonial externalism of the Pharisees. Thus it has been said that Jesus “internalized” the law. It would be more correct to say that he forced attention to the law’s demands on people’s inner lives.<\/p>\n<p>The intrinsic wickedness of demons is underscored by the use of the term “unclean spirit” throughout the Gospels. In fact, the word “unclean” itself always appears in the Gospels in the context of spirit, a detail that illustrates the NT shift of emphasis from ritual uncleanness to sin and its guilt.<\/p>\n<p>An important episode in the life of the early church came in Acts 10, when God taught the apostle Peter that Gentiles were not unclean in themselves and that Peter was obliged to receive them. The result was Cornelius’s conversion.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus’ assertion that uncleanness originates in the heart bore fruit in the apostle Paul’s doctrine of Christian freedom. Paul, a Pharisee who could say of himself that he had never broken an external law, came to see that nothing is unclean in itself (Rom 14:14-20). Throughout his epistles, cleanness is the result of obedience of the heart flowing from regeneration; it is based on the cleansing power of the Atonement (see Rom 6:19; 1 Thes 2:3-4, where uncleanness is strictly moral).<\/p>\n<p>Christ’s atonement was the final cleansing agent for sin and its moral results (Heb 9:14, 22; 1 Jn 1:7), doing in reality what the blood of bulls and goats only typified. Thus those who are washed in the blood of the Lamb (Rv 7:14) are seen as wearing clean white robes (15:6; 19:8-14). His blood, symbolizing the life given and the death died by the Son at the behest of the Father, satisfies the attributes of personal justice of the triune God. Because the personal character of a righteous Father was vindicated, the personal forgiveness of sinners is morally possible. God can be in history only what he is eternally: he is both just and the justifier of believers in Christ (Rom 3:24-26).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Baptism; Circumcision; Uncircumcision; Offerings and Sacrifices; Law, Biblical Concept of; Dietary Laws.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CLEANNESS AND UNCLEANNESS, Regulations Concerning Aspect of Hebrew religion having physical, ceremonial, moral, and spiritual significance. Though these senses of clean and unclean can be distinguished with reference to their contexts, they also merge into and illustrate each other; the physical and ceremonial contexts point to a moral state of the worshiper and to a spiritual relationship between God and his people. The OT vision of a people’s relationship with God is along moral and persona...","summary_en":"CLEANNESS AND UNCLEANNESS, Regulations Concerning Aspect of Hebrew religion having physical, ceremonial, moral, and spiritual significance. Though these senses of clean and unclean can be distinguished with reference to their contexts, they also merge into and illustrate each other; the physical and ceremonial contexts point to a moral state of the worshiper and to a spiritual relationship between God and his people. The OT vision of a people’s relationship with God is along moral and persona...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":46816,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:21","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:21-30<\/strong> David’s divine rescue and success were related to his own obedient walk with God. God honors those who order their lives in a way that pleases him (see also Lev 26:1-13; Deut 28:1-14; Ps 1).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:21-30<\/strong> David’s divine rescue and success were related to his own obedient walk with God. God honors those who order their lives in a way that pleases him (see also Lev 26:1-13; Deut 28:1-14; Ps 1).<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:21-30 David’s divine rescue and success were related to his own obedient walk with God. God honors those who order their lives in a way that pleases him (see also Lev 26:1-13; Deut 28:1-14; Ps 1).","summary_en":"22:21-30 David’s divine rescue and success were related to his own obedient walk with God. God honors those who order their lives in a way that pleases him (see also Lev 26:1-13; Deut 28:1-14; Ps 1).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":74442,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:21","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:21-30<\/strong> David’s divine rescue and success were related to his own obedient walk with God. God honors those who order their lives in a way that pleases him (see also Lev 26:1-13; Deut 28:1-14; Ps 1).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:21-30<\/strong> David’s divine rescue and success were related to his own obedient walk with God. God honors those who order their lives in a way that pleases him (see also Lev 26:1-13; Deut 28:1-14; Ps 1).<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:21-30 David’s divine rescue and success were related to his own obedient walk with God. God honors those who order their lives in a way that pleases him (see also Lev 26:1-13; Deut 28:1-14; Ps 1).","summary_en":"22:21-30 David’s divine rescue and success were related to his own obedient walk with God. God honors those who order their lives in a way that pleases him (see also Lev 26:1-13; Deut 28:1-14; Ps 1).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":102068,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:21","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:21-30<\/strong> David’s divine rescue and success were related to his own obedient walk with God. God honors those who order their lives in a way that pleases him (see also Lev 26:1-13; Deut 28:1-14; Ps 1).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:21-30<\/strong> David’s divine rescue and success were related to his own obedient walk with God. God honors those who order their lives in a way that pleases him (see also Lev 26:1-13; Deut 28:1-14; Ps 1).<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:21-30 David’s divine rescue and success were related to his own obedient walk with God. God honors those who order their lives in a way that pleases him (see also Lev 26:1-13; Deut 28:1-14; Ps 1).","summary_en":"22:21-30 David’s divine rescue and success were related to his own obedient walk with God. God honors those who order their lives in a way that pleases him (see also Lev 26:1-13; Deut 28:1-14; Ps 1).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":129694,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:21","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:21-30<\/strong> David’s divine rescue and success were related to his own obedient walk with God. God honors those who order their lives in a way that pleases him (see also Lev 26:1-13; Deut 28:1-14; Ps 1).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:21-30<\/strong> David’s divine rescue and success were related to his own obedient walk with God. God honors those who order their lives in a way that pleases him (see also Lev 26:1-13; Deut 28:1-14; Ps 1).<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:21-30 David’s divine rescue and success were related to his own obedient walk with God. God honors those who order their lives in a way that pleases him (see also Lev 26:1-13; Deut 28:1-14; Ps 1).","summary_en":"22:21-30 David’s divine rescue and success were related to his own obedient walk with God. God honors those who order their lives in a way that pleases him (see also Lev 26:1-13; Deut 28:1-14; Ps 1).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"22":[{"id":46817,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:22","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:22-24<\/strong> David composed these words much earlier (22:1), before his sin with Bathsheba. Still, his claim to being blameless should not be construed as a claim to perfection. David was simply noting that he had kept the covenant and followed its law.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:22-24<\/strong> David composed these words much earlier (22:1), before his sin with Bathsheba. Still, his claim to being blameless should not be construed as a claim to perfection. David was simply noting that he had kept the covenant and followed its law.<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:22-24 David composed these words much earlier (22:1), before his sin with Bathsheba. Still, his claim to being blameless should not be construed as a claim to perfection. David was simply noting that he had kept the covenant and followed its law.","summary_en":"22:22-24 David composed these words much earlier (22:1), before his sin with Bathsheba. Still, his claim to being blameless should not be construed as a claim to perfection. David was simply noting that he had kept the covenant and followed its law.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":74443,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:22","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:22-24<\/strong> David composed these words much earlier (22:1), before his sin with Bathsheba. Still, his claim to being blameless should not be construed as a claim to perfection. David was simply noting that he had kept the covenant and followed its law.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:22-24<\/strong> David composed these words much earlier (22:1), before his sin with Bathsheba. Still, his claim to being blameless should not be construed as a claim to perfection. David was simply noting that he had kept the covenant and followed its law.<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:22-24 David composed these words much earlier (22:1), before his sin with Bathsheba. Still, his claim to being blameless should not be construed as a claim to perfection. David was simply noting that he had kept the covenant and followed its law.","summary_en":"22:22-24 David composed these words much earlier (22:1), before his sin with Bathsheba. Still, his claim to being blameless should not be construed as a claim to perfection. David was simply noting that he had kept the covenant and followed its law.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":102069,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:22","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:22-24<\/strong> David composed these words much earlier (22:1), before his sin with Bathsheba. Still, his claim to being blameless should not be construed as a claim to perfection. David was simply noting that he had kept the covenant and followed its law.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:22-24<\/strong> David composed these words much earlier (22:1), before his sin with Bathsheba. Still, his claim to being blameless should not be construed as a claim to perfection. David was simply noting that he had kept the covenant and followed its law.<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:22-24 David composed these words much earlier (22:1), before his sin with Bathsheba. Still, his claim to being blameless should not be construed as a claim to perfection. David was simply noting that he had kept the covenant and followed its law.","summary_en":"22:22-24 David composed these words much earlier (22:1), before his sin with Bathsheba. Still, his claim to being blameless should not be construed as a claim to perfection. David was simply noting that he had kept the covenant and followed its law.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":129695,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:22","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:22-24<\/strong> David composed these words much earlier (22:1), before his sin with Bathsheba. Still, his claim to being blameless should not be construed as a claim to perfection. David was simply noting that he had kept the covenant and followed its law.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:22-24<\/strong> David composed these words much earlier (22:1), before his sin with Bathsheba. Still, his claim to being blameless should not be construed as a claim to perfection. David was simply noting that he had kept the covenant and followed its law.<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:22-24 David composed these words much earlier (22:1), before his sin with Bathsheba. Still, his claim to being blameless should not be construed as a claim to perfection. David was simply noting that he had kept the covenant and followed its law.","summary_en":"22:22-24 David composed these words much earlier (22:1), before his sin with Bathsheba. Still, his claim to being blameless should not be construed as a claim to perfection. David was simply noting that he had kept the covenant and followed its law.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"26":[{"id":23550,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Love","title_en":"Love","content_ro":"<h3>LOVE<\/h3>\n<p>Prominent virtue in Christian theology and ethics. It is therefore important to understand clearly this exceedingly important term.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Sexual love <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ahabah<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">dod<\/span><em>)<\/em> is spoken of in the stories of Adam and Eve and of Jacob and Rachel, as well as in the Song of Songs. A higher form of love, involving loyalty, steadfastness, and kindness, is expressed by the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hesed<\/span><em>,<\/em> which is sometimes rendered “loyalty” (2 Sm 22:26, <span>rsv<\/span>), but more often “steadfast love” or “loving-kindness.”<\/p>\n<p>The connotation of this significant word is clear in Hosea 2:19-20: “I will make you my wife forever, showing you righteousness and justice, unfailing love and compassion. I will be faithful to you and make you mine, and you will finally know me as <span>Lord<\/span>” (<span>nlt<\/span>); in Job 6:14-15, where kindness is compared with treachery; and in 1 Samuel 20:8, which speaks of covenanted kindness. This unshakable, steadfast love of God is contrasted with the unpredictable, capricious moods of heathen deities. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Hesed<\/span> is not an emotional response to beauty, merit, or kindness but rather a moral attitude dedicated to another’s good, whether or not that other is lovable, worthy, or responsive (see Dt 7:7-9).<\/p>\n<p>This enduring loyalty, rooted in an unswerving purpose of good, could be stern, determined to discipline a wayward people, as several prophets warned. But God’s love does not change. Through exile and failure it persisted with infinite patience, neither condoning evil nor abandoning the evildoers. It has within it kindness, tenderness, and compassion (Pss 86:15; 103:1-18; 136; Hos 11:1-4), but its chief characteristic is an accepted moral obligation for another’s welfare.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, response was expected. The Law enjoined wholehearted love and gratitude for God’s choosing and redeeming of Israel (Dt 6:20-25). This was to be shown in worship and especially in humane treatment of the poor, the defenseless, the resident alien, slaves, widows, and all suffering oppression and cruelty. Hosea similarly expected steadfast love among people to result from the steadfast love of God toward people (Hos 6:6; 7:1-7; 10:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Love for God and for “your neighbor as yourself” (Lv 19:18) are thus linked in Israel’s law and prophecy. While much love of another kind lies within the OT, these are the major points: God’s loving initiative, the moral quality of love, and the close relationship between love for God with loving others.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>Of the Greek words available to describe love, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">eros<\/span> (sexual love) does not occur in the NT. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Phileo<\/span><em>,<\/em> connoting natural affection, occurs some 25 times, with <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">philadelphia<\/span> (brotherly love) five times, and <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">philia<\/span> (friendship) only in James 4:4. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Storge<\/span><em>,<\/em> connoting natural affection between relatives, appears occasionally in compounds. By far the most frequent word is <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">agape<\/span><em>,<\/em> generally assumed to mean moral goodwill that proceeds from esteem, principle, or duty rather than attraction of charm. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Agape<\/span> is very similar in meaning to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hesed<\/span> in that both denote dedication. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Agape<\/span> specifically means to love the undeserving, despite disappointment and rejection. The difference between <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">agapao<\/span> and <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">phileo<\/span> is difficult to sustain in all passages. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Agape<\/span> is especially appropriate for divine love. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Agape<\/span> was long believed to be a Christian coinage, but pagan occurrences have recently been claimed. The verb <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">agapao<\/span> was frequent in the Greek OT. Though <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">agape<\/span> has more to do with moral principle than with inclination or liking, it never means the cold religious kindness shown from duty alone, as scriptural examples abundantly prove.<\/p>\n<h5>In the Synoptic Gospels<\/h5>\n<p>In a sinful and suffering world, Jesus’ divine love showed itself supremely in compassion and healing for the distressed and in redemptive concern for the alienated and the self-despairing. Hence, the kingdom Christ proclaimed offered good news to the poor, captives, blind, and oppressed (Mt 11:2-5; Lk 4:18), while the attitude of Jesus toward those ostracized, despised, or grieving over sin in some far country of the soul assured them of forgiveness and a welcome return to the Father’s house (Lk 15). Such forgiveness was free, its only precondition being readiness to receive it in repentance and faith.<\/p>\n<p>Moreover, the good news of divine love does impose its own obligation: to love God and to love others as God does (Mt 5:44-48). The first and greatest commandment in God’s law is “You shall love the Lord your God. . . . And a second is like it, You shall love your neighbor as yourself. On these two commandments depend all the law and the prophets” (Mt 22:35-40, <span>rsv<\/span>; cf. Lv 19:18; Dt 6:5).<\/p>\n<p>The first commandment is not identical with, lost in, or only fulfilled through the second; it is separate and primary. What Jesus meant by loving God is indicated by his own habits of public worship, private prayer, and absolute obedience. Love for one’s neighbor is nowhere defined but everywhere illustrated. In the parable of the good Samaritan, “neighbor” is shown to mean anyone near enough to help, and love involves whatever service the neighbor’s situation demands. The parable of the sheep and goats shows love feeding the hungry, clothing the naked, visiting the sick and the imprisoned. In the untiring example of Jesus, love heals, teaches, adapts instruction to the hearers by parable and symbolic language, defends those criticized or despised, pronounces forgiveness, comforts the bereaved, befriends the lonely. We are to love others as he has loved us and as we love ourselves. Such imaginative transfer of self-love does good without expecting return, never returns ill treatment, ensures unfailing courtesy even to the lowliest, sustains thoughtful understanding that tempers judgment.<\/p>\n<p>To Jesus, the outstanding sin was lovelessness, the willful omission of any possible good, passing by on the other side while others suffer, ignoring the destitute at one’s gate, withholding forgiveness. Lovelessness was made worse by self-righteousness, censoriousness, the religious insensitivity that ignores another’s distress to preserve some petty ritual regulation. In the end, obedience to or neglect of the law of love will determine everyone’s eternal destiny (Mt 25:31-46).<\/p>\n<h5>In the Writings of Paul<\/h5>\n<p>The apostolic church quickly grasped the revolutionary principle that love is enough. Paul’s declaration that love fulfills the whole law is almost a quotation from Jesus. His exposition of various commandments against adultery, killing, stealing, and coveting is summarized in loving, because love can do no wrong to a neighbor (Rom 13:8-10). Ephesians 4:25–5:2 makes the same point another way: all bitterness, anger, lying, stealing, slander, and malice are to be replaced by tenderness, forgiveness, and kindness.<\/p>\n<p>Love is, for Paul, “the law of Christ,” supreme and sufficient (Gal 5:14; 6:2), and Paul neatly defines what alone “avails” in Christianity as “faith working through love” (5:6). He insists that the supreme manifestation of the Spirit that Christians should covet is “the more excellent way” of love (1 Cor 12:27–13:13; cf. Rom 5:5; Gal 5:22). Here, too, he contrasts love with five other expressions of religious zeal much prized at Corinth in order to show that each is profitless without love (1 Cor 13:1-3). He ends the chapter by comparing love with faith and hope, the other enduring elements of religious experience, and declares love to be the greatest.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s description of love in action includes liberality, acts of mercy, and hospitality; avoidance of revenge; sympathy; rejoicing with others; sharing of weakness, shame, or need; restoring, supporting, and edifying others, giving them all honor, kindness, forgiveness, encouragement; restraining criticism, even of the divisive, overscrupulous “weaker brother”—the list is almost endless. More generally, love is revealed as a quality of activity, of thinking, and of suffering (1 Cor 13:4-8). In brief, love does no harm and omits no good; it is God’s law.<\/p>\n<p>According to Paul, God showed his love for us in that Christ died for us. Because of his great love, he made us alive in Christ; in that love we live, by it we conquer, and from it nothing shall separate us (Rom 5:8; 8:32-39; 2 Cor 13:14; Eph 2:4; 2 Thes 2:16; Ti 3:4-5). Our love reflects the love first “poured into our hearts” (Rom 5:5), and it is directed toward Christ (1 Cor 7; 16:22; Eph 6:24) and toward others, whom we love for his sake.<\/p>\n<h5>In the Writings of John<\/h5>\n<p>What John later recalled, and reflected upon, forms the crown of biblical teaching about love. For John, love was the foundation of all that had happened—“God so loved the world” (Jn 3:16; 16:27; 17:23). This is how we know love at all: Christ laid down his life for us (1 Jn 3:16). The mutual love of Father, Son, and disciples must be the fundamental fact in Christianity because God himself is love (4:8, 16).<\/p>\n<p>We know this by the Incarnation and by the cross (1 Jn 4:9-10). Thus we know and believe the love God has for us, and that love itself is divine (“of God”). It follows that “he who loves is born of God.” “He who does not love does not know God.” Such a person “is in the darkness,” “is not of God,” and “remains in death.” No one has ever seen God; nevertheless “if we love, . . . God abides in us” and we in God.<\/p>\n<p>God’s love is thus prior and original; if we love at all, it is “because he first loved.” Our love is directed first toward God, and John is exceedingly searching in his tests of that Godward love. It demands that we “love not the world,” that we “keep his word [and] his commandments,” and that we love our Christian brothers and sisters. This commandment we received from Christ, “that he who loves God should love his brother also,” for “if God so loved us, we also ought to love one another.” Twelve times John stressed the duty of mutual loyalty and love. Indeed, if one closes his heart against his brother or sister, “how does God’s love abide in him?”<\/p>\n<p>This emphasis upon the mutual love of Christians has been held a serious limitation of the love Jesus required. “Your brother” appears to have supplanted “your neighbor.” In this respect the commandment given in the upper room (Jn 13:34) is “new” compared with that in Matthew 22:39 (citing Lv 19:18), and the circumstances explain why. The night on which Jesus was betrayed was shadowed by the surrounding world’s hostility, the imminent crucifixion, and the defection of Judas. All the future depended upon the mutual loyalty of the 11 disciples, standing together under social pressure. By the time of John’s letter, new defections had rent the church. A perversion of the gospel called Gnosticism, essentially intellectualist, proud, “giving no heed to love” (Ignatius), had drawn away leaders and adherents (1 Jn 2:19, 26). Once again mutual loyalty was all-important, and John wrote expressly to consolidate and maintain the apostolic fellowship (1 Jn 1:3).<\/p>\n<p>However, love for one’s fellow Christians does not exclude, but instead leads on to, a wider love (cf. 2 Pt 1:7). John insists that God loved the whole world (Jn 3:16; 1 Jn 2:2; 4:14). Moreover, if love fails within the Christian fellowship, it certainly will not flourish beyond it but evaporate in mere words (1 Jn 3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In countering the loveless conceit of Gnostic Christianity, John’s concern was with the basic commandment of love to God and people as at once the criterion and the consummation of true Christian life. He does not, therefore, detail the many-sided expressions of love. For description of love in action, his mind recalls Christ’s words about “keeping commandments” and “laying down life” in sacrifice (Jn 15:10, 13; 1 Jn 3:16), and he mentioned especially love’s noticing a brother’s need, and so sharing this world’s goods (v 17). Terse as these expressions are, they contain the heart of Christian love. John’s forthright realism in testing all religious claims ensures that for him love could be no vague sentimentalism.<\/p>\n<p>The Christian ideal can only be socially fulfilled within a disciple band, a divine kingdom, the Father’s family, the Christian fellowship. In Scripture, love is no abstract idea, conceived to provide a self-explanatory, self-motivating “norm” to resolve the problem in every moral situation. It is rooted in the divine nature, expressed in the coming and death of Christ, experienced in salvation, and so kindled within the saved. Thus it is central, essential, and indispensable to Christianity. For God is love.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> God, Being and Attributes of; Grace; Mercy; Wrath of God.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LOVE<\/h3>\n<p>Prominent virtue in Christian theology and ethics. It is therefore important to understand clearly this exceedingly important term.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheOldTestament\">In the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Sexual love <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ahabah<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">dod<\/span><em>)<\/em> is spoken of in the stories of Adam and Eve and of Jacob and Rachel, as well as in the Song of Songs. A higher form of love, involving loyalty, steadfastness, and kindness, is expressed by the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hesed<\/span><em>,<\/em> which is sometimes rendered “loyalty” (2 Sm 22:26, <span>rsv<\/span>), but more often “steadfast love” or “loving-kindness.”<\/p>\n<p>The connotation of this significant word is clear in Hosea 2:19-20: “I will make you my wife forever, showing you righteousness and justice, unfailing love and compassion. I will be faithful to you and make you mine, and you will finally know me as <span>Lord<\/span>” (<span>nlt<\/span>); in Job 6:14-15, where kindness is compared with treachery; and in 1 Samuel 20:8, which speaks of covenanted kindness. This unshakable, steadfast love of God is contrasted with the unpredictable, capricious moods of heathen deities. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Hesed<\/span> is not an emotional response to beauty, merit, or kindness but rather a moral attitude dedicated to another’s good, whether or not that other is lovable, worthy, or responsive (see Dt 7:7-9).<\/p>\n<p>This enduring loyalty, rooted in an unswerving purpose of good, could be stern, determined to discipline a wayward people, as several prophets warned. But God’s love does not change. Through exile and failure it persisted with infinite patience, neither condoning evil nor abandoning the evildoers. It has within it kindness, tenderness, and compassion (Pss 86:15; 103:1-18; 136; Hos 11:1-4), but its chief characteristic is an accepted moral obligation for another’s welfare.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, response was expected. The Law enjoined wholehearted love and gratitude for God’s choosing and redeeming of Israel (Dt 6:20-25). This was to be shown in worship and especially in humane treatment of the poor, the defenseless, the resident alien, slaves, widows, and all suffering oppression and cruelty. Hosea similarly expected steadfast love among people to result from the steadfast love of God toward people (Hos 6:6; 7:1-7; 10:12-13).<\/p>\n<p>Love for God and for “your neighbor as yourself” (Lv 19:18) are thus linked in Israel’s law and prophecy. While much love of another kind lies within the OT, these are the major points: God’s loving initiative, the moral quality of love, and the close relationship between love for God with loving others.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"IntheNewTestament\">In the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>Of the Greek words available to describe love, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">eros<\/span> (sexual love) does not occur in the NT. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Phileo<\/span><em>,<\/em> connoting natural affection, occurs some 25 times, with <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">philadelphia<\/span> (brotherly love) five times, and <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">philia<\/span> (friendship) only in James 4:4. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Storge<\/span><em>,<\/em> connoting natural affection between relatives, appears occasionally in compounds. By far the most frequent word is <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">agape<\/span><em>,<\/em> generally assumed to mean moral goodwill that proceeds from esteem, principle, or duty rather than attraction of charm. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Agape<\/span> is very similar in meaning to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hesed<\/span> in that both denote dedication. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Agape<\/span> specifically means to love the undeserving, despite disappointment and rejection. The difference between <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">agapao<\/span> and <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">phileo<\/span> is difficult to sustain in all passages. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Agape<\/span> is especially appropriate for divine love. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Agape<\/span> was long believed to be a Christian coinage, but pagan occurrences have recently been claimed. The verb <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">agapao<\/span> was frequent in the Greek OT. Though <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">agape<\/span> has more to do with moral principle than with inclination or liking, it never means the cold religious kindness shown from duty alone, as scriptural examples abundantly prove.<\/p>\n<h5>In the Synoptic Gospels<\/h5>\n<p>In a sinful and suffering world, Jesus’ divine love showed itself supremely in compassion and healing for the distressed and in redemptive concern for the alienated and the self-despairing. Hence, the kingdom Christ proclaimed offered good news to the poor, captives, blind, and oppressed (Mt 11:2-5; Lk 4:18), while the attitude of Jesus toward those ostracized, despised, or grieving over sin in some far country of the soul assured them of forgiveness and a welcome return to the Father’s house (Lk 15). Such forgiveness was free, its only precondition being readiness to receive it in repentance and faith.<\/p>\n<p>Moreover, the good news of divine love does impose its own obligation: to love God and to love others as God does (Mt 5:44-48). The first and greatest commandment in God’s law is “You shall love the Lord your God. . . . And a second is like it, You shall love your neighbor as yourself. On these two commandments depend all the law and the prophets” (Mt 22:35-40, <span>rsv<\/span>; cf. Lv 19:18; Dt 6:5).<\/p>\n<p>The first commandment is not identical with, lost in, or only fulfilled through the second; it is separate and primary. What Jesus meant by loving God is indicated by his own habits of public worship, private prayer, and absolute obedience. Love for one’s neighbor is nowhere defined but everywhere illustrated. In the parable of the good Samaritan, “neighbor” is shown to mean anyone near enough to help, and love involves whatever service the neighbor’s situation demands. The parable of the sheep and goats shows love feeding the hungry, clothing the naked, visiting the sick and the imprisoned. In the untiring example of Jesus, love heals, teaches, adapts instruction to the hearers by parable and symbolic language, defends those criticized or despised, pronounces forgiveness, comforts the bereaved, befriends the lonely. We are to love others as he has loved us and as we love ourselves. Such imaginative transfer of self-love does good without expecting return, never returns ill treatment, ensures unfailing courtesy even to the lowliest, sustains thoughtful understanding that tempers judgment.<\/p>\n<p>To Jesus, the outstanding sin was lovelessness, the willful omission of any possible good, passing by on the other side while others suffer, ignoring the destitute at one’s gate, withholding forgiveness. Lovelessness was made worse by self-righteousness, censoriousness, the religious insensitivity that ignores another’s distress to preserve some petty ritual regulation. In the end, obedience to or neglect of the law of love will determine everyone’s eternal destiny (Mt 25:31-46).<\/p>\n<h5>In the Writings of Paul<\/h5>\n<p>The apostolic church quickly grasped the revolutionary principle that love is enough. Paul’s declaration that love fulfills the whole law is almost a quotation from Jesus. His exposition of various commandments against adultery, killing, stealing, and coveting is summarized in loving, because love can do no wrong to a neighbor (Rom 13:8-10). Ephesians 4:25–5:2 makes the same point another way: all bitterness, anger, lying, stealing, slander, and malice are to be replaced by tenderness, forgiveness, and kindness.<\/p>\n<p>Love is, for Paul, “the law of Christ,” supreme and sufficient (Gal 5:14; 6:2), and Paul neatly defines what alone “avails” in Christianity as “faith working through love” (5:6). He insists that the supreme manifestation of the Spirit that Christians should covet is “the more excellent way” of love (1 Cor 12:27–13:13; cf. Rom 5:5; Gal 5:22). Here, too, he contrasts love with five other expressions of religious zeal much prized at Corinth in order to show that each is profitless without love (1 Cor 13:1-3). He ends the chapter by comparing love with faith and hope, the other enduring elements of religious experience, and declares love to be the greatest.<\/p>\n<p>Paul’s description of love in action includes liberality, acts of mercy, and hospitality; avoidance of revenge; sympathy; rejoicing with others; sharing of weakness, shame, or need; restoring, supporting, and edifying others, giving them all honor, kindness, forgiveness, encouragement; restraining criticism, even of the divisive, overscrupulous “weaker brother”—the list is almost endless. More generally, love is revealed as a quality of activity, of thinking, and of suffering (1 Cor 13:4-8). In brief, love does no harm and omits no good; it is God’s law.<\/p>\n<p>According to Paul, God showed his love for us in that Christ died for us. Because of his great love, he made us alive in Christ; in that love we live, by it we conquer, and from it nothing shall separate us (Rom 5:8; 8:32-39; 2 Cor 13:14; Eph 2:4; 2 Thes 2:16; Ti 3:4-5). Our love reflects the love first “poured into our hearts” (Rom 5:5), and it is directed toward Christ (1 Cor 7; 16:22; Eph 6:24) and toward others, whom we love for his sake.<\/p>\n<h5>In the Writings of John<\/h5>\n<p>What John later recalled, and reflected upon, forms the crown of biblical teaching about love. For John, love was the foundation of all that had happened—“God so loved the world” (Jn 3:16; 16:27; 17:23). This is how we know love at all: Christ laid down his life for us (1 Jn 3:16). The mutual love of Father, Son, and disciples must be the fundamental fact in Christianity because God himself is love (4:8, 16).<\/p>\n<p>We know this by the Incarnation and by the cross (1 Jn 4:9-10). Thus we know and believe the love God has for us, and that love itself is divine (“of God”). It follows that “he who loves is born of God.” “He who does not love does not know God.” Such a person “is in the darkness,” “is not of God,” and “remains in death.” No one has ever seen God; nevertheless “if we love, . . . God abides in us” and we in God.<\/p>\n<p>God’s love is thus prior and original; if we love at all, it is “because he first loved.” Our love is directed first toward God, and John is exceedingly searching in his tests of that Godward love. It demands that we “love not the world,” that we “keep his word [and] his commandments,” and that we love our Christian brothers and sisters. This commandment we received from Christ, “that he who loves God should love his brother also,” for “if God so loved us, we also ought to love one another.” Twelve times John stressed the duty of mutual loyalty and love. Indeed, if one closes his heart against his brother or sister, “how does God’s love abide in him?”<\/p>\n<p>This emphasis upon the mutual love of Christians has been held a serious limitation of the love Jesus required. “Your brother” appears to have supplanted “your neighbor.” In this respect the commandment given in the upper room (Jn 13:34) is “new” compared with that in Matthew 22:39 (citing Lv 19:18), and the circumstances explain why. The night on which Jesus was betrayed was shadowed by the surrounding world’s hostility, the imminent crucifixion, and the defection of Judas. All the future depended upon the mutual loyalty of the 11 disciples, standing together under social pressure. By the time of John’s letter, new defections had rent the church. A perversion of the gospel called Gnosticism, essentially intellectualist, proud, “giving no heed to love” (Ignatius), had drawn away leaders and adherents (1 Jn 2:19, 26). Once again mutual loyalty was all-important, and John wrote expressly to consolidate and maintain the apostolic fellowship (1 Jn 1:3).<\/p>\n<p>However, love for one’s fellow Christians does not exclude, but instead leads on to, a wider love (cf. 2 Pt 1:7). John insists that God loved the whole world (Jn 3:16; 1 Jn 2:2; 4:14). Moreover, if love fails within the Christian fellowship, it certainly will not flourish beyond it but evaporate in mere words (1 Jn 3:18).<\/p>\n<p>In countering the loveless conceit of Gnostic Christianity, John’s concern was with the basic commandment of love to God and people as at once the criterion and the consummation of true Christian life. He does not, therefore, detail the many-sided expressions of love. For description of love in action, his mind recalls Christ’s words about “keeping commandments” and “laying down life” in sacrifice (Jn 15:10, 13; 1 Jn 3:16), and he mentioned especially love’s noticing a brother’s need, and so sharing this world’s goods (v 17). Terse as these expressions are, they contain the heart of Christian love. John’s forthright realism in testing all religious claims ensures that for him love could be no vague sentimentalism.<\/p>\n<p>The Christian ideal can only be socially fulfilled within a disciple band, a divine kingdom, the Father’s family, the Christian fellowship. In Scripture, love is no abstract idea, conceived to provide a self-explanatory, self-motivating “norm” to resolve the problem in every moral situation. It is rooted in the divine nature, expressed in the coming and death of Christ, experienced in salvation, and so kindled within the saved. Thus it is central, essential, and indispensable to Christianity. For God is love.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> God, Being and Attributes of; Grace; Mercy; Wrath of God.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LOVE Prominent virtue in Christian theology and ethics. It is therefore important to understand clearly this exceedingly important term. In the Old Testament Sexual love (ahabah and dod) is spoken of in the stories of Adam and Eve and of Jacob and Rachel, as well as in the Song of Songs. A higher form of love, involving loyalty, steadfastness, and kindness, is expressed by the Hebrew word hesed, which is sometimes rendered “loyalty” (2 Sm 22:26, rsv), but more often “steadfast love” or “lovin...","summary_en":"LOVE Prominent virtue in Christian theology and ethics. It is therefore important to understand clearly this exceedingly important term. In the Old Testament Sexual love (ahabah and dod) is spoken of in the stories of Adam and Eve and of Jacob and Rachel, as well as in the Song of Songs. A higher form of love, involving loyalty, steadfastness, and kindness, is expressed by the Hebrew word hesed, which is sometimes rendered “loyalty” (2 Sm 22:26, rsv), but more often “steadfast love” or “lovin...","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"28":[{"id":16939,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Humility","title_en":"Humility","content_ro":"<h3>HUMILITY<\/h3>\n<p>A condition of lowliness or affliction in which one experiences a loss of power and prestige. Outside of biblical faith, humility in this sense would not usually be considered a virtue. Within the context of the Judeo-Christian tradition, however, humility is considered the proper attitude of human beings toward their Creator. Humility is a grateful and spontaneous awareness that life is a gift, and it is manifested as an ungrudging and unhypocritical acknowledgment of absolute dependence upon God.<\/p>\n<p>In biblical literature there is not a clear distinction between humility and meekness or patience. In early stages of Israel’s history, the humble were identified as the poor, the afflicted, and the powerless. The Lord delivers the humble but brings down the proud (1 Sm 2:7; 2 Sm 22:28). Before the power and glory of God, the patriarch Abraham confessed that he was but dust and ashes (Gn 18:27). Israel began as a nation subjected to slavery and knew themselves as a people chosen not because of numerical strength or material wealth but because of God’s love (Dt 7:7-8). By attributing the source of all wealth and power to the Lord, those two major sources of human pride and arrogance are brought under control (cf. Jer 9:23-24).<\/p>\n<p>The humble poor are the constant concern of the Lord (Ex 23:6, 11; Dt 15:4, 7). Consequently, the humility of the poor became the symbol of the righteous God-fearer (Nm 12:3). In the development of the concept of humility in the OT, humility is nearly equated with righteousness and is identified, along with justice and mercy, as the requirement of God (Mi 6:8). In the Psalms particularly, “the afflicted” is almost a technical term for the righteous (Pss 22:26; 25:9; 147:6).<\/p>\n<p>In addition, humility is the appropriate response of the sinner in the presence of the holiness of God. The prophet Isaiah, confronted by the glory of God in the temple, cried, “My destruction is sealed, for I am a sinful man” (Is 6:5). Thus humility became more of a character trait than a term that reflected a state of material poverty or affliction. It became a concept reflective of the essence of piety and godliness expected of all people who have God as their Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Only rarely in the NT does humility refer to an objective condition of poverty, affliction, or oppression.The humility motif is developed in connection with Jesus as Messiah. The religious ideal of humility that the OT attributed to the coming King certainly applied to Jesus (Zec 9:9; cf. Mt 21:4-5). As Son of God, Jesus took no thought for himself but lived a life of obedience and trust in God the Father. The apostle Paul attributed to the incarnate Son of God a self-emptying by which he “humbled himself” and took on the form of a servant (Phil 2:5-8). Jesus’ character exhibited no pride or arrogance.<\/p>\n<p>Though bold in the face of hypocrisy and unflinching in his repudiation of pretentious religion, Jesus was “gentle and humble in heart” (Mt 11:29). He could, therefore, issue a severe warning against desire for status and openly rebuke the Pharisees for their violence against the poor and oppressed (Lk 14:11; Mt 23:12). At the same time, he was humble before those whose servant and helper he had become (Lk 22:27; Mk 10:45; Mt 20:28). The highest dignity of Jesus and his willingness to accept the cross in submission to the Father’s will are one. So his teaching on poverty of spirit rang true as a testimony of his own life. He ascribed all glory to his Father and lived in total dependence upon him (Jn 5:19; 6:38; 7:15; 8:28, 50; 14:10, 24). By washing his disciples’ feet, he assumed the role of servant with no loss of dignity or self-worth. And he set forth such service as a model of a life that finds happiness in preferring others over one’s self (Jn 13:1-20; Phil 2:1-4).<\/p>\n<p>Consequently, disciples of Jesus are also summoned to a life of humility. Turning their backs on status, security, and success, Christians seek an opportunity to gain themselves in serving others. Humility, thus, is the all-embracing life principle by which love seeks the good of others, and thus fulfills the law (cf. Rom 12:10; 13:8-10).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>HUMILITY<\/h3>\n<p>A condition of lowliness or affliction in which one experiences a loss of power and prestige. Outside of biblical faith, humility in this sense would not usually be considered a virtue. Within the context of the Judeo-Christian tradition, however, humility is considered the proper attitude of human beings toward their Creator. Humility is a grateful and spontaneous awareness that life is a gift, and it is manifested as an ungrudging and unhypocritical acknowledgment of absolute dependence upon God.<\/p>\n<p>In biblical literature there is not a clear distinction between humility and meekness or patience. In early stages of Israel’s history, the humble were identified as the poor, the afflicted, and the powerless. The Lord delivers the humble but brings down the proud (1 Sm 2:7; 2 Sm 22:28). Before the power and glory of God, the patriarch Abraham confessed that he was but dust and ashes (Gn 18:27). Israel began as a nation subjected to slavery and knew themselves as a people chosen not because of numerical strength or material wealth but because of God’s love (Dt 7:7-8). By attributing the source of all wealth and power to the Lord, those two major sources of human pride and arrogance are brought under control (cf. Jer 9:23-24).<\/p>\n<p>The humble poor are the constant concern of the Lord (Ex 23:6, 11; Dt 15:4, 7). Consequently, the humility of the poor became the symbol of the righteous God-fearer (Nm 12:3). In the development of the concept of humility in the OT, humility is nearly equated with righteousness and is identified, along with justice and mercy, as the requirement of God (Mi 6:8). In the Psalms particularly, “the afflicted” is almost a technical term for the righteous (Pss 22:26; 25:9; 147:6).<\/p>\n<p>In addition, humility is the appropriate response of the sinner in the presence of the holiness of God. The prophet Isaiah, confronted by the glory of God in the temple, cried, “My destruction is sealed, for I am a sinful man” (Is 6:5). Thus humility became more of a character trait than a term that reflected a state of material poverty or affliction. It became a concept reflective of the essence of piety and godliness expected of all people who have God as their Lord.<\/p>\n<p>Only rarely in the NT does humility refer to an objective condition of poverty, affliction, or oppression.The humility motif is developed in connection with Jesus as Messiah. The religious ideal of humility that the OT attributed to the coming King certainly applied to Jesus (Zec 9:9; cf. Mt 21:4-5). As Son of God, Jesus took no thought for himself but lived a life of obedience and trust in God the Father. The apostle Paul attributed to the incarnate Son of God a self-emptying by which he “humbled himself” and took on the form of a servant (Phil 2:5-8). Jesus’ character exhibited no pride or arrogance.<\/p>\n<p>Though bold in the face of hypocrisy and unflinching in his repudiation of pretentious religion, Jesus was “gentle and humble in heart” (Mt 11:29). He could, therefore, issue a severe warning against desire for status and openly rebuke the Pharisees for their violence against the poor and oppressed (Lk 14:11; Mt 23:12). At the same time, he was humble before those whose servant and helper he had become (Lk 22:27; Mk 10:45; Mt 20:28). The highest dignity of Jesus and his willingness to accept the cross in submission to the Father’s will are one. So his teaching on poverty of spirit rang true as a testimony of his own life. He ascribed all glory to his Father and lived in total dependence upon him (Jn 5:19; 6:38; 7:15; 8:28, 50; 14:10, 24). By washing his disciples’ feet, he assumed the role of servant with no loss of dignity or self-worth. And he set forth such service as a model of a life that finds happiness in preferring others over one’s self (Jn 13:1-20; Phil 2:1-4).<\/p>\n<p>Consequently, disciples of Jesus are also summoned to a life of humility. Turning their backs on status, security, and success, Christians seek an opportunity to gain themselves in serving others. Humility, thus, is the all-embracing life principle by which love seeks the good of others, and thus fulfills the law (cf. Rom 12:10; 13:8-10).<\/p>","summary_ro":"HUMILITY A condition of lowliness or affliction in which one experiences a loss of power and prestige. Outside of biblical faith, humility in this sense would not usually be considered a virtue. Within the context of the Judeo-Christian tradition, however, humility is considered the proper attitude of human beings toward their Creator. Humility is a grateful and spontaneous awareness that life is a gift, and it is manifested as an ungrudging and unhypocritical acknowledgment of absolute depen...","summary_en":"HUMILITY A condition of lowliness or affliction in which one experiences a loss of power and prestige. Outside of biblical faith, humility in this sense would not usually be considered a virtue. Within the context of the Judeo-Christian tradition, however, humility is considered the proper attitude of human beings toward their Creator. Humility is a grateful and spontaneous awareness that life is a gift, and it is manifested as an ungrudging and unhypocritical acknowledgment of absolute depen...","source":"Articles\/H.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"29":[{"id":22493,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Lampstand Lamp","title_en":"Lampstand Lamp","content_ro":"<h3>LAMP, LAMPSTAND<\/h3>\n<p>Israelite lamps developed from those in general use among the Canaanites in the second millennium <span>BC<\/span>. Their shape was similar to a shell or saucer with a lip. Lamps of stone, metal, and shells were used, although the majority were made of pottery. A multitude of clay lamps, fashioned in a variety of designs, have been excavated in Palestine.<\/p>\n\n<p>The clay bowl was fashioned first, and the rim was folded over to help contain the oil. A spout was pinched in place at one end, into which the wick would be placed. When the clay had dried, the lamp would be fired to a dull brown shade. Gradually a style with an increasingly sharply pinched lip was developed. The wick was generally made of flax (Is 42:3, <span>kjv<\/span>), although an old piece of linen cloth was sometimes used. Salt could be added to the wick for a brighter flame, and frequently extra wicks were used. This led to the development of multispouted lamps like those found at Tell Dotha from 1200 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Olive oil provided the most common form of lamp fuel (Ex 27:20), and the average lamp could hold enough oil to burn through the night. Despite this, the housewife would have to get up several times to tend the wick and keep her precious lamp lit (Prv 31:18). Tongs were used for extinguishing the flame of a lamp in the tabernacle or temple (Ex 25:38; 37:23; Nm 4:9; 1 Kgs 7:49; Is 6:6). Since candles were not known in biblical times, the translation in the <span>kjv<\/span> is incorrect.<\/p>\n<p>The saucer lamp, which would have spilled easily, was not suitable for night travel, so a torch was probably used for that purpose (Jgs 7:16-20). In addition, the wick of the open saucer lamp could easily have blown out at night.<\/p>\n<p>Lamps were commonly found in burials along with food offerings. Because the lamp’s flame was associated with life, lamps were frequently placed in tombs as a symbol of life being rekindled.<\/p>\n<p>Although a more elaborate cup-and-saucer style of lamp was developed in which the flame came from the central area, the saucer lamp remained the most popular. The earliest Hellenistic lamp found in Palestine dates from 630 <span>BC<\/span> and already shows indications of the later covered model. During the sixth and fifth centuries <span>BC<\/span>, a flat-bottomed, saucer-style lamp was developed.<\/p>\n<p>In the third century <span>BC<\/span> the more elaborate wheel-made, covered Greek style took precedence. These lamps were often simple in design, rounded, with a central hole for the oil and one in the small spout for the wick.<\/p>\n<p>In the second century <span>BC<\/span> the wheel-made lamp was replaced by a molded ceramic lamp of finer design with a larger spout. Imported Egyptian lamps of this type have been found in southern Palestine. Multispouted lamps were probably used on festive occasions. From the same period comes the Hellenistic-influenced bronze lamp of a seated figure holding out a saucer lamp in his hands. At the end of the Hellenistic age the form of lamps deteriorated as the spouts became thick and squat.<\/p>\n<p>Small, round wheel-made lamps of simple design were prevalent in the time of Christ; this would be the type of lamp used by the woman searching the house for her gold coin (Lk 15:8). With wicks trimmed, the lamps of the foolish virgins would probably have lasted approximately five hours, from dark until about midnight (Mt 25:1-12).<\/p>\n<p>Jewish lamps were part of the religious symbolism of the home, probably dating back to the prohibition against lighting a fire on the Sabbath (Ex 35:3). References to light abound in Scripture. We read of the eye as a lamp (Mt 6:22-23; Lk 11:33-36) and of Christ as the Light of the World (Jn 8:12). We are warned to pay attention to teaching as to a light shining in the dark (Prv 6:23; 2 Pt 1:19). Both God and the spirit of man are symbolized as lamps (2 Sm 22:29; Prv 20:27), while in Proverbs 13:9 “lamp” is synonymous with the essence of life itself. Lamps, with or without stands, were also part of the Jewish ritual of death, mourning, and burial.<\/p>\n<p>The tabernacle housed an ornate golden lampstand, or menorah. On either side three branches came out from the main central stem, and seven lamps could be lighted in the flower-shaped holders. The menorah from the Jerusalem temple is represented in relief on the Arch of Titus in Rome. This particular seven-branched lampstand resembles the ten that were part of the furnishings of Solomon’s temple.<\/p>\n<p>The seven-branched lampstand has been a particular symbol of the Jewish faith from the time of its earliest appearance on a coin in the reign of Antigonus (40–37 <span>BC<\/span>) up to the present day.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Menorah.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>LAMP, LAMPSTAND<\/h3>\n<p>Israelite lamps developed from those in general use among the Canaanites in the second millennium <span>BC<\/span>. Their shape was similar to a shell or saucer with a lip. Lamps of stone, metal, and shells were used, although the majority were made of pottery. A multitude of clay lamps, fashioned in a variety of designs, have been excavated in Palestine.<\/p>\n\n<p>The clay bowl was fashioned first, and the rim was folded over to help contain the oil. A spout was pinched in place at one end, into which the wick would be placed. When the clay had dried, the lamp would be fired to a dull brown shade. Gradually a style with an increasingly sharply pinched lip was developed. The wick was generally made of flax (Is 42:3, <span>kjv<\/span>), although an old piece of linen cloth was sometimes used. Salt could be added to the wick for a brighter flame, and frequently extra wicks were used. This led to the development of multispouted lamps like those found at Tell Dotha from 1200 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Olive oil provided the most common form of lamp fuel (Ex 27:20), and the average lamp could hold enough oil to burn through the night. Despite this, the housewife would have to get up several times to tend the wick and keep her precious lamp lit (Prv 31:18). Tongs were used for extinguishing the flame of a lamp in the tabernacle or temple (Ex 25:38; 37:23; Nm 4:9; 1 Kgs 7:49; Is 6:6). Since candles were not known in biblical times, the translation in the <span>kjv<\/span> is incorrect.<\/p>\n<p>The saucer lamp, which would have spilled easily, was not suitable for night travel, so a torch was probably used for that purpose (Jgs 7:16-20). In addition, the wick of the open saucer lamp could easily have blown out at night.<\/p>\n<p>Lamps were commonly found in burials along with food offerings. Because the lamp’s flame was associated with life, lamps were frequently placed in tombs as a symbol of life being rekindled.<\/p>\n<p>Although a more elaborate cup-and-saucer style of lamp was developed in which the flame came from the central area, the saucer lamp remained the most popular. The earliest Hellenistic lamp found in Palestine dates from 630 <span>BC<\/span> and already shows indications of the later covered model. During the sixth and fifth centuries <span>BC<\/span>, a flat-bottomed, saucer-style lamp was developed.<\/p>\n<p>In the third century <span>BC<\/span> the more elaborate wheel-made, covered Greek style took precedence. These lamps were often simple in design, rounded, with a central hole for the oil and one in the small spout for the wick.<\/p>\n<p>In the second century <span>BC<\/span> the wheel-made lamp was replaced by a molded ceramic lamp of finer design with a larger spout. Imported Egyptian lamps of this type have been found in southern Palestine. Multispouted lamps were probably used on festive occasions. From the same period comes the Hellenistic-influenced bronze lamp of a seated figure holding out a saucer lamp in his hands. At the end of the Hellenistic age the form of lamps deteriorated as the spouts became thick and squat.<\/p>\n<p>Small, round wheel-made lamps of simple design were prevalent in the time of Christ; this would be the type of lamp used by the woman searching the house for her gold coin (Lk 15:8). With wicks trimmed, the lamps of the foolish virgins would probably have lasted approximately five hours, from dark until about midnight (Mt 25:1-12).<\/p>\n<p>Jewish lamps were part of the religious symbolism of the home, probably dating back to the prohibition against lighting a fire on the Sabbath (Ex 35:3). References to light abound in Scripture. We read of the eye as a lamp (Mt 6:22-23; Lk 11:33-36) and of Christ as the Light of the World (Jn 8:12). We are warned to pay attention to teaching as to a light shining in the dark (Prv 6:23; 2 Pt 1:19). Both God and the spirit of man are symbolized as lamps (2 Sm 22:29; Prv 20:27), while in Proverbs 13:9 “lamp” is synonymous with the essence of life itself. Lamps, with or without stands, were also part of the Jewish ritual of death, mourning, and burial.<\/p>\n<p>The tabernacle housed an ornate golden lampstand, or menorah. On either side three branches came out from the main central stem, and seven lamps could be lighted in the flower-shaped holders. The menorah from the Jerusalem temple is represented in relief on the Arch of Titus in Rome. This particular seven-branched lampstand resembles the ten that were part of the furnishings of Solomon’s temple.<\/p>\n<p>The seven-branched lampstand has been a particular symbol of the Jewish faith from the time of its earliest appearance on a coin in the reign of Antigonus (40–37 <span>BC<\/span>) up to the present day.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Menorah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"LAMP, LAMPSTAND Israelite lamps developed from those in general use among the Canaanites in the second millennium BC. Their shape was similar to a shell or saucer with a lip. Lamps of stone, metal, and shells were used, although the majority were made of pottery. A multitude of clay lamps, fashioned in a variety of designs, have been excavated in Palestine. The clay bowl was fashioned first, and the rim was folded over to help contain the oil. A spout was pinched in place at one end, into whi...","summary_en":"LAMP, LAMPSTAND Israelite lamps developed from those in general use among the Canaanites in the second millennium BC. Their shape was similar to a shell or saucer with a lip. Lamps of stone, metal, and shells were used, although the majority were made of pottery. A multitude of clay lamps, fashioned in a variety of designs, have been excavated in Palestine. The clay bowl was fashioned first, and the rim was folded over to help contain the oil. A spout was pinched in place at one end, into whi...","source":"Articles\/L.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"31":[{"id":46818,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:31","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:31","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:31-51<\/strong> David glorifies God for rescue in the past and for his <em>promises<\/em> to David’s house for coming generations (see 7:8-16).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:31-51<\/strong> David glorifies God for rescue in the past and for his <em>promises<\/em> to David’s house for coming generations (see 7:8-16).<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:31-51 David glorifies God for rescue in the past and for his promises to David’s house for coming generations (see 7:8-16).","summary_en":"22:31-51 David glorifies God for rescue in the past and for his promises to David’s house for coming generations (see 7:8-16).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":74444,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:31","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:31","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:31-51<\/strong> David glorifies God for rescue in the past and for his <em>promises<\/em> to David’s house for coming generations (see 7:8-16).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:31-51<\/strong> David glorifies God for rescue in the past and for his <em>promises<\/em> to David’s house for coming generations (see 7:8-16).<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:31-51 David glorifies God for rescue in the past and for his promises to David’s house for coming generations (see 7:8-16).","summary_en":"22:31-51 David glorifies God for rescue in the past and for his promises to David’s house for coming generations (see 7:8-16).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":102070,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:31","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:31","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:31-51<\/strong> David glorifies God for rescue in the past and for his <em>promises<\/em> to David’s house for coming generations (see 7:8-16).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:31-51<\/strong> David glorifies God for rescue in the past and for his <em>promises<\/em> to David’s house for coming generations (see 7:8-16).<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:31-51 David glorifies God for rescue in the past and for his promises to David’s house for coming generations (see 7:8-16).","summary_en":"22:31-51 David glorifies God for rescue in the past and for his promises to David’s house for coming generations (see 7:8-16).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":129696,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:31","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:31","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:31-51<\/strong> David glorifies God for rescue in the past and for his <em>promises<\/em> to David’s house for coming generations (see 7:8-16).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:31-51<\/strong> David glorifies God for rescue in the past and for his <em>promises<\/em> to David’s house for coming generations (see 7:8-16).<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:31-51 David glorifies God for rescue in the past and for his promises to David’s house for coming generations (see 7:8-16).","summary_en":"22:31-51 David glorifies God for rescue in the past and for his promises to David’s house for coming generations (see 7:8-16).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"32":[{"id":14222,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Names of God","title_en":"Names of God","content_ro":"<h3>GOD, Names of<\/h3>\n<p>God’s self-identifications expressing various aspects of his being.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Biblical Idea of Name<\/p>\n<p>• The Names of God in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• The Names of God in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheBiblicalIdeaofName\">The Biblical Idea of Name<\/p>\n<p>In the Scriptures the name and person of God are inseparably related. This is in keeping with the biblical conception of what a name signifies.<\/p>\n<p>In the Hebrew language, the term for “name” most probably meant “sign” or “distinctive mark.” In the Greek language, “name” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">onoma<\/span><em>)<\/em> is derived from a verb that means “to know.” A name, therefore, indicates that by which a person or object is to be known. But the idea of name is not to be taken in the sense of a label or an arbitrary means of identifying or specifying a person, place, or object. “Name” in biblical usage correctly describes the person, place, or object and indicates the essential character of that to which the name is given. Adam named the animals according to their nature (Gn 2:19-20); Noah means “one who brings relief and comfort” (5:29); Jesus means “savior” (Mt 1:21). When a person was given a new position or a radical change took place in his life, a new name was given to indicate that new aspect—for example, Abraham (“father of many,” Gn 17:5), and Israel (“one who strives with God” or “God strives,” 32:28). The name of a person or people expressed what the person or people thought the proper description or statement of character was.<\/p>\n<p>With regard to the names of God, there are considerable differences, and these are most clearly seen when biblical scholars and theologians confront the question of whether the names of God are ascriptions given by God concerning himself or they are ascriptions given to God by people who observed his acts and reflected on his character as discerned through a study of divine deeds. Here are some examples of various kinds of divine names:<\/p>\n<p>1. Proper names: El, Yahweh, Adonai, Theos (God), Kurios (Lord).<\/p>\n<li>2. Personal names: Father, Abba, Son, Jesus, Holy Spirit.<\/li>\n<li>3. Titles: Creator, Messiah\/Christ, Paraclete\/Comforter.<\/li>\n<li>4. Essential names: Light, Love, Spirit.<\/li>\n<li>5. Descriptive names: Rock, Ba’al, Master, Rabboni, Shepherd.<\/li>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheNamesofGodintheOldTestament\">The Names of God in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<h5>El and Related Names<\/h5>\n<p>The name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span> is found over 200 times in the Hebrew Bible. It is best translated as “God.” The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’el<\/span> has a number of possible meanings. The root is thought by some to be <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’ul<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “to be first” or “to be strong.” Others suggest the root is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’alah<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “to precede” and suggests “leader” or “commander.” It can also mean “to be afraid.” Thus God as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’alah<\/span><em>,<\/em> as the strong one, is to be feared. Still others suggest the preposition <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’el<\/span> (“to, toward”) as the root; the idea then is of “one giving self to others” or of “one to whom others go for help.” Some scholars suggest that the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’alim<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “to bind,” should be considered as a root also—that is, “the strong one binds and holds firm control.” Common to these four suggested root meanings is the idea of strength, power, and of supreme excellence and greatness.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span> in the OT is used particularly in the earlier books, where it describes God’s exercising dynamic power as distinguished from authority. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span> speaks of God as the great doer and producer. He is the One who exercises such power that whatever is made, done, kept, or destroyed is his doing (cf. Ex 15). <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span> is also used to express the idea that God is not to be identified as part of creation but as the One who is above, behind, and beyond creation (Ps 19:1).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> is also commonly used as the name of God, occurring over 2,500 times in the OT. There are differences of opinion concerning the exact origin and meaning of this plural name. Some have suggested that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> is the plural form of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span><em>,<\/em> but it seems more likely that it is a plural of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Eloah<\/span><em>,<\/em> which appears in the poetical writings. Some critical writers have suggested that this plural form is borrowed from pagan polytheistic sources, but no such plural form is found among pagans as the name of a deity. Others have suggested that the plural form is used to indicate the triune nature of God, and support for this has been seen in the use of a singular verb with this plural noun. The biblical doctrine of the Trinity, as it is developed throughout the Scriptures, does not appear to be based on the use of this plural form of God’s name, even though the two positions are not contradictory.<\/p>\n<p>The plural form, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span><em>,<\/em> is best understood as expressing intensity. God makes himself known by this name as the Lord of intense and extensive glory and richness as he exercises his preeminence and power in the created cosmos. Hence, when the Scripture speaks of creation, it states, “In the beginning <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> created the heavens and the earth” (Gn 1:1). This name is repeated 35 times in Genesis 1 and 2 in connection with God’s power as revealed in Creation. In the book of Deuteronomy the name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> is used repeatedly to stress the majestic power of God that was shown in Israel’s release from bondage in Egypt, preservation in the wilderness, and preparation for entrance into the Promised Land. In this context, God <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span><em>)<\/em> is also recognized as the Lawgiver who will powerfully execute judgment on covenant breakers. The psalmists also used this named repeatedly as they acknowledged and praised God the majestic ruler who had demonstrated his omnipotence in many dimensions of life (see Ps 68, in which <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> appears 26 times.)<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars point to the use of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> when God spoke to Abraham and said he would be <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> to the patriarch and his seed; that is, God would be in a covenant relationship to them (Gn 17:1-8). Included in this relationship is the idea that God is ever ready to use his power on behalf of those who are in covenant with him. Thus, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’<\/span><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Elohim<\/span> also expresses the concept of God’s faithfulness in regard to the covenant and the promises and blessings involved in it.<\/p>\n<p>The name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’<\/span><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Eloah<\/span> occurs mainly in the poetical writings, no fewer than 41 times in Job. Isaiah used it to express the incomparable character of God (Is 44:8). In like manner David asked, “Who is God [<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’<\/span><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Eloah<\/span>], but the <span>Lord<\/span>?” (2 Sm 22:32). Moses was the first to use the name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’<\/span><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Eloah<\/span> in his song (Dt 32:15-17), referring to Israel’s God in the context of the “no-gods,” which had been chosen in place of the Rock of salvation and the incomparable One. This name was probably used to stress the fact that God is the only true and living One, the One to be adored and worshiped; he is to be revered with a holy fear.<\/p>\n<p>Another closely related name is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elah<\/span><em>,<\/em> found in Ezra and Daniel. Some think <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elah<\/span> is a Chaldee or Aramaic form of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Eloah<\/span><em>.<\/em> Its root is said to be <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’alah<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “to fear” or “to be perplexed.” God as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elah<\/span> is the God to be feared and worshiped accordingly. In view of this meaning, it can be understood why, in the time of Israel’s exile and immediately after their return, this name was commonly used.<\/p>\n<p>Three other names of God include the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span><em>:<\/em><\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El ‘Elyon<\/span> is the name used to designate the God of Melchizedek (Gn 14:18-22) as God Most High. In Psalms 57:2 and 78:56 the Hebrew reads <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim ‘Elyon<\/span><em>.<\/em> It is believed that the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘Elyon<\/span> is derived from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘alah<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “go up, be elevated, to be exalted.” There are a number of instances where the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘Elyon<\/span> is used alone, but the context indicates that it is then used as a synonym for God (e.g., Nm 24:16; Ps 83:18; Is 14:14). The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘elyon<\/span> is used quite frequently as an adjective; it is then translated as “high, highest, upper, uppermost.” The basic ascription given to God when this name is employed is to One who is above all things as the maker, possessor, and ruler. He is incomparable in every way; he is subject to no one and no thing; he is the Exalted One.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Shaddai<\/span> is used in the longer form seven times in the Scriptures (Gn 17:1; 28:3; 35:11; 43:14; 48:3; Ex 6:3; Ez 10:5). In the shorter form <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shaddai<\/span><em>),<\/em> it appears more frequently: in Job 30 times; in Psalms 19:1 and 68:14; once in Ruth (1:21), Isaiah (13:6), Ezekiel (1:24), and Joel (1:15). In these passages the combined ideas of God as the all-powerful, all-sufficient, transcendent, sovereign ruler and disposer are present. This meaning is generally accepted, but there are differences as to the exact meaning of the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shaddai<\/span><em>.<\/em> Some have begun with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shad<\/span> as the first concept to be considered; its meaning is “breast, pap, or teat,” and it is considered a “precious metaphor” of the God who nourishes, supplies, and satisfies. The root of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shad<\/span> <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shadah<\/span><em>),<\/em> in Semitic usage, is to moisten. This meaning is not the preferred one in the context of which <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Shaddai<\/span> appears; nor is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shed<\/span> (demon), which some scholars have sought to use because it appears in Deuteronomy 32:17 and Psalm 106:37 speaking of Israel’s idolatry. In addition to the fact that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shed<\/span> is spelled differently, the connection between the concept of demon and God as all-powerful is difficult to establish. More acceptable is the suggestion that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shaddai<\/span> is a composite term of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sha<\/span> (“the one who”) and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">dai<\/span> (“is sufficient”). The later Greek versions have adopted this meaning. The most preferred explanation is that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shaddai<\/span> is derived from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shadad<\/span> (“to overpower, to deal violently, or to devastate”). A clear connection between <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shadad<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shaddai<\/span> is said to be found in Isaiah 13:6 and Joel 1:15. God as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Shaddai<\/span> is presented as the all-powerful One, totally self-sufficient, absolute ruler, and the One who can and does make final disposition. The Septuagint has adapted this meaning; it translates <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Shaddai<\/span> as <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Pantokrator<\/span><em>,<\/em> the “All-Ruler” or “Sovereign One.”<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El ‘Olam<\/span> is used to refer to God as the everlasting or eternal One, a clear instance where the name of God and an attribute of God are combined. The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘olam<\/span> has a wide range of uses. It is usually defined in lexicons as meaning “long duration, antiquity, and indefinite futurity.” It is used to speak of God’s existence, of God’s covenant and promises, and of the Messiah’s reign. Speaking to God, the psalmist said, “You are from <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘olam<\/span> (everlasting) to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘olam<\/span> (everlasting)” (Ps 90:2), and the prophet Isaiah spoke of God as the everlasting Creator (Is 40:28) and as everlasting strength (26:4), and Jeremiah spoke of God as everlasting King (Jer 10:10). God’s everlastingness or eternity speaks of his infinity in relation to time. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘Olam<\/span><em>,<\/em> as ascribed to God, should not be thought of as duration prolonged indefinitely backward and forward. Rather, the word speaks to God’s transcending all temporal limits; in addition, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘olam<\/span> refers to the quality of God that differs essentially from time. The Scriptures speak of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El ‘Olam<\/span> in contexts where the believer’s assurance of well-being, security, and hope are presented as prized possessions.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Gibbor<\/span> is a name that speaks of God’s power and might. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Gibbor<\/span> alone is used in reference to mighty and heroic men. The two terms together always refer to God, and in some instances <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Haggadol<\/span> (“the greatest”) is added (Dt 10:17; Jer 32:18) to emphasize the greatness and awesome majesty of God. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Gibbor<\/span> is also used to describe the Messiah in Isaiah 9:6 (cf. Ps 45:4).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Ro’i<\/span> is used once to describe God as the seeing One. Hagar described the Lord this way when she was found in the wilderness (Gn 16:13). Psalm 139:1-2 expresses this concept of God as the all-seeing One from whose eye nothing is hidden (cf. Ps 33:18).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> is a distinctly proper name of God. It is never used to refer to any pagan gods; neither is it used in regard to men. It appears 6,823 times in the OT, occurring first in Genesis 2:4, where it is joined with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span><em>.<\/em> <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> is used 164 times in Genesis, and it appears 1,800 times in Exodus through Joshua. It never appears in a declined form in the Hebrew language, and it never occurs in the plural form or with suffixes. It is abbreviated as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yah<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahu<\/span> (cf. Ex 15:2; Ps 68:4; Is 12:2; etc.).<\/p>\n<p>The exact meaning of the name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> is difficult to determine. Some have sought the root in the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hayah<\/span> (“to be”) or in an ancient form of that same verb, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hawah<\/span><em>.<\/em> There is no agreement as to whether the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">qal<\/span> or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hiphil<\/span> form of the verb should be considered as the root. Those who opt for the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hiphil<\/span> form read <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> to mean “cause to be”; thus Exodus 3:14 would read, “I will cause to be what has come to be.” Others look to the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">qal<\/span> form and then translate the name as “I Am” or “I Shall Be.” Still others are inclined to disassociate the name from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hayah<\/span> and regard it as an original and independent term, expressing the uniqueness of Israel’s gracious God.<\/p>\n\n<p>Translators of the OT have not agreed upon the correct translation of the name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>.<\/em> Since it is translated into the Greek as <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kurios<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “Lord,” many have rendered <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> as “<span>Lord<\/span>.” But <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span><em>,<\/em> which is best rendered “Lord,” appears with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> in various instances. The <span>kjv<\/span>, for example, translates <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> as “God,” and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span> as “Lord.” Some modern translators have chosen to use <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> (see <span>jb<\/span> and <span>njb<\/span>). The name Jehovah, as used in the <span>asv<\/span> (1901), has been judged unacceptable. This name arose due to the Jewish practice of not pronouncing <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> because of Leviticus 24:16, “He that blasphemes the name of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> shall surely be put to death.” This warning against a vain or blasphemous use of the name was taken in an absolute sense, especially after Israel’s deportation (cf. Am 6:10). Hence, when reading the OT the Jews substituted either <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span> for <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>.<\/em> From this, the practice of adding the vowels of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span> to YHWH (JeHoWaH) became established.<\/p>\n<p>The interpretation of Exodus 6:2-3 has caused much debate. “And God said to Moses, ‘I am <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>;<\/em> I appeared to Abraham, to Isaac, and to Jacob, as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’<\/span><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">El Shaddai<\/span><em>,<\/em> but by my name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> I did not make myself known to them.’ ” This passage has been understood to mean that the name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> was not known or used prior to the time of Moses. But that is not what the passage states; rather, it speaks of the patriarchs not knowing God as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>.<\/em> They knew him as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Shaddai<\/span> in actual revelatory historical deeds. They had not come to know God according to his unique character, that is, as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>.<\/em> In other words, God had always been <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>;<\/em> he is saying to Moses that the descendants of the patriarchs would come to know the full, rich meaning of the name by the way God dealt with them.<\/p>\n<p>This name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> reveals God’s nature in the highest and fullest sense possible. It includes, or presupposes, the meaning of the other names. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> particularly stresses the absolute faithfulness of God. God had promised the patriarchs that he would be their God, that he would be with them and deliver and bless them, keep them, and give them a land as a place of service and inheritance. Moses is told by God that Israel is about to behold and experience the unchangeableness of God as he steadfastly and wondrously remembers his word and executes it to the fullest degree. God would prove to be a faithful, redeeming, upholding, restoring God. In working out this redemption, God would demonstrate that he is all that his name implies: merciful, gracious, patient, full of loving-kindness, truthful, faithful, forgiving, just, and righteous (Ex 34:5-6). Truly, Jacob had received an insight into the meaning of the name when he exclaimed, “I wait for thy salvation, O <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span>” (Gn 49:18).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>,<\/em> then, is the name par excellence of Israel’s God. As <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>,<\/em> he is a faithful covenant God who, having given his word of love and life, keeps that word by bestowing love and life abundantly on his own.<\/p>\n<p>In view of the richness of the name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>,<\/em> it can be understood why there were stringent rules regarding its proper use (Lv 24:11, 16). It also explains why thankful, rejoicing, worshiping Israelites used the abbreviated form of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> in song when they sang Hallelujah: “Praise Yah” (Pss 104:35; 106:1; 149:1; 150:1).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> is used in a number of phrases that are considered names of or ascriptions of God. The most common of these compound names is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh Tseba’oth<\/span> (“hosts”). The word “hosts” is used frequently in the Pentateuch to refer to the armies of Israel (cf. Nm 10:14-28). This is because the word is derived from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">saba<\/span><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “to wage” war. It also means “to serve” in some contexts; for example, Numbers 8:24 clearly has reference to the service performed in the tabernacle. The noun <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tseba’oth<\/span> first occurs in Genesis 2:1, where it refers to the many components of the earth and heaven. Some would limit the reference in these contexts to the stars. Still others would suggest that the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tseba’oth<\/span> refers to the angels, appealing to Psalm 33:6 for confirmation.<\/p>\n<p>The compound name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh Tseba’oth<\/span> first appears in 1 Samuel 1:3. In view of the frequent use of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tseba’oth<\/span> in 1—2 Samuel to refer to armies (1 Sm 12:9; 14:50; 17:55; 2 Sm 2:8; 8:16; 10:16), it is thought that the compound name refers to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> as the God of armies, that is, God has his armies to serve him. These are considered to be armies of angels who are ministering servants to God. It has been correctly pointed out that the compound name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh Tseba’oth<\/span> is used most frequently by the prophets (Jeremiah, 88 times; Zechariah, 55 times; Malachi, 25 times; Haggai, 14 times) at times when God’s people had either suffered defeat at the hands of enemy armies or were threatened by defeat. Therefore, the compound name was used to remind them that their covenant God had great hosts to fight and work for him on behalf of his people. Thus, though Israel’s armies failed, their covenant God was sufficient for every possible circumstance. And it was to this <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh Tseba’oth<\/span> that Israel’s commanders were to give allegiance (Jos 5:14-15), and in whose name Israel was blessed (2 Sm 6:18).<\/p>\n<p>Several other compound names occur infrequently:<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh-Nissi<\/span> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nissi<\/span><em>,<\/em> “my banner”) is the name that Moses called on when he built an altar celebrating Israel’s God-given victory over the Amalekites (Ex 17:15). Isaiah uses the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nissi<\/span> when speaking of the coming Messiah who is to be the conqueror (Is 11:10).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh-Rapha<\/span> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">rapha’<\/span><em>,<\/em> “healer”) appears in Exodus 15:26, when Israel is assured that God, their healer, will prevent the diseases of Egypt from affecting Israel. Although the name is only used once, God was often called upon and praised as the healing One (e.g., Ps 103:3; Is 30:26; Jer 6:14).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh-Rohi<\/span> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ro‘i<\/span><em>,<\/em> “my shepherd”) appears in Psalm 23:1. The concept of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> as shepherd is explicated in Ezekiel 34. “I myself will be the Shepherd of my sheep” (v 15). Jesus demonstrated this concept’s full meaning when as a shepherd he gave his life for his sheep.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh-Jireh<\/span> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">yir’eh<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to see ahead or to provide”) appears in Genesis 22:14. Abraham gave this name to the place where God provided a substitute for his son Isaac, whom Abraham was to offer as a sacrifice to God. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh-Shalom<\/span> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalom<\/span><em>,<\/em> “peace”) is the name Gideon gave to the altar he built when the angel of the Lord came to give him orders to fight the Midianites (Jgs 6:24).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> appears with a few forms of the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tsadaq<\/span><em>,<\/em> “righteousness.” <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> is spoken of as our righteousness in Jeremiah 23:6; the thought evidently is that David’s Righteous Branch (the Messiah) will attribute God’s righteousness to those who are incorporated in the new covenant. This concept is expressed in the Pentateuch a number of times when it is said that God has provided a way for living righteously; that is, God provides a way of sanctification (cf. Lv 20:8; 22:9).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span> as a name for God appears about 360 times in the OT, though it is not uniformly used. It is first found in Genesis 15:2 and 8, when Abram requests more definite information concerning a son and the Promised Land. It appears only 14 times after that in the Pentateuch. It appears repeatedly in the Psalms (over 50 times), and certain of the prophets use it frequently (Isaiah, 47 times; Jeremiah, 29 times; Ezekiel, over 150 times; and Amos, 27 times).<\/p>\n<p>The word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’adan<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “master, ruler, owner, lord,” is thought to be the root of the noun <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’adon<\/span><em>,<\/em> which is frequently used of men. For example, in Genesis and 1—2 Samuel the term is used often for men who own slaves or are in positions of authority. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span> is correctly described as the name of personal communication between the believer and God. In such communication the worshiper acknowledged God’s intense majesty and greatness and also the sense of belonging to this God. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span><em>,<\/em> coming from human lips, expressed honor for God and humble submission on the part of the believing person. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span><em>,<\/em> thus, is the name that expresses faith, assurance, security, ready service, and thanksgiving (Pss 16:2; 57:9-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Old Testament Name Combinations<\/h5>\n<p>In the OT the names of God appear in various combinations. For example <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim-Yahweh<\/span><em>,<\/em> <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim-Yahweh-’Adonai<\/span><em>,<\/em> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim-’Adonai<\/span> are very common. These combinations were an effort to express the fullness of God’s being and character as these had been revealed. Names of God in combination with “Israel” occur also as, for example, with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span>-God-Israel (Jgs 5:3; Is 17:6). God is also invoked in relation to Israel without the mention of one of his names—for example, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Qedosh Yisrael<\/span> (“Holy One of Israel,” Is 43:14) and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Abir Yisrael<\/span> (“Mighty One of Israel,” Gn 49:24; Ps 132:2; Is 49:26). By means of these phrases, the covenantal relationship between God and his people was expressed and God’s unchanging character was positively acknowledged.<\/p>\n<h5>Old Testament Personal Names<\/h5>\n<p>The personal names of God are Father, Son, and Holy Spirit and variations of these.<\/p>\n<p>The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Abh<\/span> (“father”) appears more frequently in Genesis than in any other book, and in the Pentateuch more than in any other division of the OT. But it is not used there of God but rather of one who has generated children (i.e., the male parent), the progenitor—head, chief, and ruler of the family group or clan. It is used often in the sense of the responsible one through whom God has spoken, with whom God has dealt, and through whom he has given a rich heritage to the children and descendants of the patriarchs.<\/p>\n<p>In the poetical books, God is referred to as Father but is not directly named as such. Job is asked, “Has the rain a father?” (Jb 38:28). The reference is to God as the maker, source, and controller of rain. In Psalm 68:5 God in his holy dwelling place is the “Father of the fatherless”; the parallel phrase, “protector of widows,” indicates the sense. Psalm 89:26 says that David will cry to God, “Thou art my Father,” and the parallels use the terms “God” and “Rock of my salvation.” The idea here is of God as Creator and Savior who raised up, delivered, and protected David. In Psalm 103:13, “Father” is used analogously, “As a father pities his children.”<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah uses the term “Father” in relation to God four times. Three times it refers to the One who has made, saved, formed, kept, and directed Israel (Is 63:16; 64:8). Isaiah says the promised child is to be named Everlasting Father (9:6). Used in this sense, the term establishes the Son’s equality with the Father in stature, function, ability, and responsibility. Jeremiah also refers to God as Father in Jeremiah 3:4, 19, meaning the origin, keeper, and friend of his people Israel. Malachi 1:6 and 2:10 speak of God as the parent who deserves honor from his children and as the origin and ruler of all people.<\/p>\n<p>The term “son” is one of the most-used terms in the OT; it commonly occurs in the sense of offspring and descendant. It also appears in the sense of follower or successor. There are a few indirect references to the second person of the Trinity.<\/p>\n<p>The messianic Psalm 2 has such a reference: “You are my son” (v 7). It is stated in the context of the king speaking to one who rules and is to rule with and under the sovereign. The immediate reference may be to the theocratic king; however, the reference is revealed in the NT to be the second person of the Trinity (Acts 13:33). Thus, the term “son” is applied to the promised Messiah who is set forth as the divine sovereign ruler and judge of the nations. The Son is perceived to be equal with the Father in deity and function. Not all biblical scholars accept this interpretation, but support is found in such NT passages as Hebrews 1:8 which quotes Psalm 45:6. As stated above, Isaiah speaks of the son to be given (Is 9:6), the One born of the virgin (7:14), who is Immanuel, Mighty God, Everlasting Father, Prince of Peace.<\/p>\n<p>The name “Holy Spirit” occurs only a few times in the OT. The Spirit is referred to frequently by terms and phrases such as “the Spirit of God” (Gn 1:2), “the Spirit of the Lord God” (Is 61:1), “the Spirit of the Lord” (Ez 37:1), “the Spirit” (Nm 11:17; 27:18), “my Spirit” (Gn 6:3), and “your Spirit” (Ps 51:11). Though the character of the Spirit is not developed as clearly in the OT as in the NT, it can be safely stated that the relationship posited between God and the Spirit is such that there is no doubt that the OT teaches the deity of the Spirit. The character and function of the Spirit is referred to especially in relation to the work of creation (Gn 1:2; Ps 33:6; etc.) and the equipping of servants for the service of God—for example, craftsmanship (Ex 35:31), leadership (Nm 11:17; 27:18), and prophecy (1 Sm 10:6; 2 Sm 23:2; 2 Chr 15:1; Ez 11:5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheNamesofGodintheNewTestament\">The Names of God in the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>Proper Names of God<\/h5>\n<p><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Theos<\/span> is the NT equivalent of the OT names <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span>and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span><em>;<\/em> <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘Elyon<\/span> appears in the NT as <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Hupsistos<\/span><em>,<\/em> the Highest (Mk 5:7; Lk 1:32, 76). <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Pantokrator<\/span> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘El Shaddai<\/span>) appears with <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Theos<\/span> (2 Cor 6:18; Rv 16:7). This name was used not only to express God’s transcendency, power, sovereignty, and lordship, but also to express that God is one who has a close relationship with his people. This fact is established by the very frequent use of personal pronouns with <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Theos<\/span><em>.<\/em> The name <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Theos<\/span> appears over 1,000 times in the NT.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Kurios<\/span><em>,<\/em> “Lord,” is used to express the OT names <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘Adonai<\/span> in the Septuagint, and the NT follows it. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Kurios<\/span> means “power,” so the meaning is not the same as with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>;<\/em> yet the NT does give <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Kurios<\/span> the full weight of meaning that the OT gave to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>,<\/em> especially when used of Jesus Christ (cf. Acts 2:36; Phil 2:9-11; etc.)<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Despotes<\/span> is used five times of God or Jesus in the NT (Lk 2:29; Acts 4:24; 2 Pt 2:11; Jude 1:4; Rv 6:10). It expresses the idea of authority. The idea of brutality conveyed by the modern concept “despot” is absent from the NT usage even when applied to men, where its central thought is ownership (2 Tm 2:21).<\/p>\n<h5>Personal Names of God<\/h5>\n<p>In the baptismal formula, which is part of the Great Commission (Mt 28:19-20), the three personal names of God appear: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. These names carry the OT meaning, but since the relationship of the three Persons is explicated, the NT meaning of the names is enriched.<\/p>\n<p>“Jesus” is the personal name of the Son, the second person of the triune Godhead. It means “savior” (Mt 1:21). The root of this name “to save” gave rise to names such as Joshua, Hoshea, and Hosea. The basic meaning of the OT root is “to bring into a safe, wide-open place.” Joshua, bringing Israel into Canaan, personally did what his name meant. The NT explanation (“save from sin”) is not contrary to the OT meaning. To be saved from sin is to be restored to fellowship with God and to enter into the paradise of the heavenly kingdom.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Christology; God, Being and Attributes of; Holy Spirit; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Messiah; Names, Significance of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GOD, Names of<\/h3>\n<p>God’s self-identifications expressing various aspects of his being.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Biblical Idea of Name<\/p>\n<p>• The Names of God in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• The Names of God in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheBiblicalIdeaofName\">The Biblical Idea of Name<\/p>\n<p>In the Scriptures the name and person of God are inseparably related. This is in keeping with the biblical conception of what a name signifies.<\/p>\n<p>In the Hebrew language, the term for “name” most probably meant “sign” or “distinctive mark.” In the Greek language, “name” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">onoma<\/span><em>)<\/em> is derived from a verb that means “to know.” A name, therefore, indicates that by which a person or object is to be known. But the idea of name is not to be taken in the sense of a label or an arbitrary means of identifying or specifying a person, place, or object. “Name” in biblical usage correctly describes the person, place, or object and indicates the essential character of that to which the name is given. Adam named the animals according to their nature (Gn 2:19-20); Noah means “one who brings relief and comfort” (5:29); Jesus means “savior” (Mt 1:21). When a person was given a new position or a radical change took place in his life, a new name was given to indicate that new aspect—for example, Abraham (“father of many,” Gn 17:5), and Israel (“one who strives with God” or “God strives,” 32:28). The name of a person or people expressed what the person or people thought the proper description or statement of character was.<\/p>\n<p>With regard to the names of God, there are considerable differences, and these are most clearly seen when biblical scholars and theologians confront the question of whether the names of God are ascriptions given by God concerning himself or they are ascriptions given to God by people who observed his acts and reflected on his character as discerned through a study of divine deeds. Here are some examples of various kinds of divine names:<\/p>\n<p>1. Proper names: El, Yahweh, Adonai, Theos (God), Kurios (Lord).<\/p>\n<li>2. Personal names: Father, Abba, Son, Jesus, Holy Spirit.<\/li>\n<li>3. Titles: Creator, Messiah\/Christ, Paraclete\/Comforter.<\/li>\n<li>4. Essential names: Light, Love, Spirit.<\/li>\n<li>5. Descriptive names: Rock, Ba’al, Master, Rabboni, Shepherd.<\/li>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheNamesofGodintheOldTestament\">The Names of God in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<h5>El and Related Names<\/h5>\n<p>The name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span> is found over 200 times in the Hebrew Bible. It is best translated as “God.” The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’el<\/span> has a number of possible meanings. The root is thought by some to be <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’ul<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “to be first” or “to be strong.” Others suggest the root is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’alah<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “to precede” and suggests “leader” or “commander.” It can also mean “to be afraid.” Thus God as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’alah<\/span><em>,<\/em> as the strong one, is to be feared. Still others suggest the preposition <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’el<\/span> (“to, toward”) as the root; the idea then is of “one giving self to others” or of “one to whom others go for help.” Some scholars suggest that the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’alim<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “to bind,” should be considered as a root also—that is, “the strong one binds and holds firm control.” Common to these four suggested root meanings is the idea of strength, power, and of supreme excellence and greatness.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span> in the OT is used particularly in the earlier books, where it describes God’s exercising dynamic power as distinguished from authority. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span> speaks of God as the great doer and producer. He is the One who exercises such power that whatever is made, done, kept, or destroyed is his doing (cf. Ex 15). <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span> is also used to express the idea that God is not to be identified as part of creation but as the One who is above, behind, and beyond creation (Ps 19:1).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> is also commonly used as the name of God, occurring over 2,500 times in the OT. There are differences of opinion concerning the exact origin and meaning of this plural name. Some have suggested that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> is the plural form of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span><em>,<\/em> but it seems more likely that it is a plural of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Eloah<\/span><em>,<\/em> which appears in the poetical writings. Some critical writers have suggested that this plural form is borrowed from pagan polytheistic sources, but no such plural form is found among pagans as the name of a deity. Others have suggested that the plural form is used to indicate the triune nature of God, and support for this has been seen in the use of a singular verb with this plural noun. The biblical doctrine of the Trinity, as it is developed throughout the Scriptures, does not appear to be based on the use of this plural form of God’s name, even though the two positions are not contradictory.<\/p>\n<p>The plural form, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span><em>,<\/em> is best understood as expressing intensity. God makes himself known by this name as the Lord of intense and extensive glory and richness as he exercises his preeminence and power in the created cosmos. Hence, when the Scripture speaks of creation, it states, “In the beginning <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> created the heavens and the earth” (Gn 1:1). This name is repeated 35 times in Genesis 1 and 2 in connection with God’s power as revealed in Creation. In the book of Deuteronomy the name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> is used repeatedly to stress the majestic power of God that was shown in Israel’s release from bondage in Egypt, preservation in the wilderness, and preparation for entrance into the Promised Land. In this context, God <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span><em>)<\/em> is also recognized as the Lawgiver who will powerfully execute judgment on covenant breakers. The psalmists also used this named repeatedly as they acknowledged and praised God the majestic ruler who had demonstrated his omnipotence in many dimensions of life (see Ps 68, in which <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> appears 26 times.)<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars point to the use of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> when God spoke to Abraham and said he would be <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> to the patriarch and his seed; that is, God would be in a covenant relationship to them (Gn 17:1-8). Included in this relationship is the idea that God is ever ready to use his power on behalf of those who are in covenant with him. Thus, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’<\/span><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Elohim<\/span> also expresses the concept of God’s faithfulness in regard to the covenant and the promises and blessings involved in it.<\/p>\n<p>The name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’<\/span><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Eloah<\/span> occurs mainly in the poetical writings, no fewer than 41 times in Job. Isaiah used it to express the incomparable character of God (Is 44:8). In like manner David asked, “Who is God [<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’<\/span><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Eloah<\/span>], but the <span>Lord<\/span>?” (2 Sm 22:32). Moses was the first to use the name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’<\/span><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Eloah<\/span> in his song (Dt 32:15-17), referring to Israel’s God in the context of the “no-gods,” which had been chosen in place of the Rock of salvation and the incomparable One. This name was probably used to stress the fact that God is the only true and living One, the One to be adored and worshiped; he is to be revered with a holy fear.<\/p>\n<p>Another closely related name is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elah<\/span><em>,<\/em> found in Ezra and Daniel. Some think <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elah<\/span> is a Chaldee or Aramaic form of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Eloah<\/span><em>.<\/em> Its root is said to be <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’alah<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “to fear” or “to be perplexed.” God as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elah<\/span> is the God to be feared and worshiped accordingly. In view of this meaning, it can be understood why, in the time of Israel’s exile and immediately after their return, this name was commonly used.<\/p>\n<p>Three other names of God include the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span><em>:<\/em><\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El ‘Elyon<\/span> is the name used to designate the God of Melchizedek (Gn 14:18-22) as God Most High. In Psalms 57:2 and 78:56 the Hebrew reads <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim ‘Elyon<\/span><em>.<\/em> It is believed that the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘Elyon<\/span> is derived from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘alah<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “go up, be elevated, to be exalted.” There are a number of instances where the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘Elyon<\/span> is used alone, but the context indicates that it is then used as a synonym for God (e.g., Nm 24:16; Ps 83:18; Is 14:14). The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘elyon<\/span> is used quite frequently as an adjective; it is then translated as “high, highest, upper, uppermost.” The basic ascription given to God when this name is employed is to One who is above all things as the maker, possessor, and ruler. He is incomparable in every way; he is subject to no one and no thing; he is the Exalted One.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Shaddai<\/span> is used in the longer form seven times in the Scriptures (Gn 17:1; 28:3; 35:11; 43:14; 48:3; Ex 6:3; Ez 10:5). In the shorter form <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shaddai<\/span><em>),<\/em> it appears more frequently: in Job 30 times; in Psalms 19:1 and 68:14; once in Ruth (1:21), Isaiah (13:6), Ezekiel (1:24), and Joel (1:15). In these passages the combined ideas of God as the all-powerful, all-sufficient, transcendent, sovereign ruler and disposer are present. This meaning is generally accepted, but there are differences as to the exact meaning of the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shaddai<\/span><em>.<\/em> Some have begun with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shad<\/span> as the first concept to be considered; its meaning is “breast, pap, or teat,” and it is considered a “precious metaphor” of the God who nourishes, supplies, and satisfies. The root of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shad<\/span> <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shadah<\/span><em>),<\/em> in Semitic usage, is to moisten. This meaning is not the preferred one in the context of which <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Shaddai<\/span> appears; nor is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shed<\/span> (demon), which some scholars have sought to use because it appears in Deuteronomy 32:17 and Psalm 106:37 speaking of Israel’s idolatry. In addition to the fact that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shed<\/span> is spelled differently, the connection between the concept of demon and God as all-powerful is difficult to establish. More acceptable is the suggestion that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shaddai<\/span> is a composite term of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sha<\/span> (“the one who”) and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">dai<\/span> (“is sufficient”). The later Greek versions have adopted this meaning. The most preferred explanation is that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shaddai<\/span> is derived from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shadad<\/span> (“to overpower, to deal violently, or to devastate”). A clear connection between <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shadad<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shaddai<\/span> is said to be found in Isaiah 13:6 and Joel 1:15. God as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Shaddai<\/span> is presented as the all-powerful One, totally self-sufficient, absolute ruler, and the One who can and does make final disposition. The Septuagint has adapted this meaning; it translates <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Shaddai<\/span> as <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Pantokrator<\/span><em>,<\/em> the “All-Ruler” or “Sovereign One.”<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El ‘Olam<\/span> is used to refer to God as the everlasting or eternal One, a clear instance where the name of God and an attribute of God are combined. The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘olam<\/span> has a wide range of uses. It is usually defined in lexicons as meaning “long duration, antiquity, and indefinite futurity.” It is used to speak of God’s existence, of God’s covenant and promises, and of the Messiah’s reign. Speaking to God, the psalmist said, “You are from <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘olam<\/span> (everlasting) to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘olam<\/span> (everlasting)” (Ps 90:2), and the prophet Isaiah spoke of God as the everlasting Creator (Is 40:28) and as everlasting strength (26:4), and Jeremiah spoke of God as everlasting King (Jer 10:10). God’s everlastingness or eternity speaks of his infinity in relation to time. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘Olam<\/span><em>,<\/em> as ascribed to God, should not be thought of as duration prolonged indefinitely backward and forward. Rather, the word speaks to God’s transcending all temporal limits; in addition, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘olam<\/span> refers to the quality of God that differs essentially from time. The Scriptures speak of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El ‘Olam<\/span> in contexts where the believer’s assurance of well-being, security, and hope are presented as prized possessions.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Gibbor<\/span> is a name that speaks of God’s power and might. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Gibbor<\/span> alone is used in reference to mighty and heroic men. The two terms together always refer to God, and in some instances <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Haggadol<\/span> (“the greatest”) is added (Dt 10:17; Jer 32:18) to emphasize the greatness and awesome majesty of God. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Gibbor<\/span> is also used to describe the Messiah in Isaiah 9:6 (cf. Ps 45:4).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Ro’i<\/span> is used once to describe God as the seeing One. Hagar described the Lord this way when she was found in the wilderness (Gn 16:13). Psalm 139:1-2 expresses this concept of God as the all-seeing One from whose eye nothing is hidden (cf. Ps 33:18).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> is a distinctly proper name of God. It is never used to refer to any pagan gods; neither is it used in regard to men. It appears 6,823 times in the OT, occurring first in Genesis 2:4, where it is joined with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span><em>.<\/em> <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> is used 164 times in Genesis, and it appears 1,800 times in Exodus through Joshua. It never appears in a declined form in the Hebrew language, and it never occurs in the plural form or with suffixes. It is abbreviated as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yah<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahu<\/span> (cf. Ex 15:2; Ps 68:4; Is 12:2; etc.).<\/p>\n<p>The exact meaning of the name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> is difficult to determine. Some have sought the root in the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hayah<\/span> (“to be”) or in an ancient form of that same verb, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hawah<\/span><em>.<\/em> There is no agreement as to whether the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">qal<\/span> or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hiphil<\/span> form of the verb should be considered as the root. Those who opt for the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hiphil<\/span> form read <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> to mean “cause to be”; thus Exodus 3:14 would read, “I will cause to be what has come to be.” Others look to the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">qal<\/span> form and then translate the name as “I Am” or “I Shall Be.” Still others are inclined to disassociate the name from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hayah<\/span> and regard it as an original and independent term, expressing the uniqueness of Israel’s gracious God.<\/p>\n\n<p>Translators of the OT have not agreed upon the correct translation of the name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>.<\/em> Since it is translated into the Greek as <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kurios<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “Lord,” many have rendered <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> as “<span>Lord<\/span>.” But <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span><em>,<\/em> which is best rendered “Lord,” appears with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> in various instances. The <span>kjv<\/span>, for example, translates <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> as “God,” and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span> as “Lord.” Some modern translators have chosen to use <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> (see <span>jb<\/span> and <span>njb<\/span>). The name Jehovah, as used in the <span>asv<\/span> (1901), has been judged unacceptable. This name arose due to the Jewish practice of not pronouncing <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> because of Leviticus 24:16, “He that blasphemes the name of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> shall surely be put to death.” This warning against a vain or blasphemous use of the name was taken in an absolute sense, especially after Israel’s deportation (cf. Am 6:10). Hence, when reading the OT the Jews substituted either <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span> for <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>.<\/em> From this, the practice of adding the vowels of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span> to YHWH (JeHoWaH) became established.<\/p>\n<p>The interpretation of Exodus 6:2-3 has caused much debate. “And God said to Moses, ‘I am <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>;<\/em> I appeared to Abraham, to Isaac, and to Jacob, as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’<\/span><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">El Shaddai<\/span><em>,<\/em> but by my name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> I did not make myself known to them.’ ” This passage has been understood to mean that the name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> was not known or used prior to the time of Moses. But that is not what the passage states; rather, it speaks of the patriarchs not knowing God as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>.<\/em> They knew him as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Shaddai<\/span> in actual revelatory historical deeds. They had not come to know God according to his unique character, that is, as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>.<\/em> In other words, God had always been <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>;<\/em> he is saying to Moses that the descendants of the patriarchs would come to know the full, rich meaning of the name by the way God dealt with them.<\/p>\n<p>This name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> reveals God’s nature in the highest and fullest sense possible. It includes, or presupposes, the meaning of the other names. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> particularly stresses the absolute faithfulness of God. God had promised the patriarchs that he would be their God, that he would be with them and deliver and bless them, keep them, and give them a land as a place of service and inheritance. Moses is told by God that Israel is about to behold and experience the unchangeableness of God as he steadfastly and wondrously remembers his word and executes it to the fullest degree. God would prove to be a faithful, redeeming, upholding, restoring God. In working out this redemption, God would demonstrate that he is all that his name implies: merciful, gracious, patient, full of loving-kindness, truthful, faithful, forgiving, just, and righteous (Ex 34:5-6). Truly, Jacob had received an insight into the meaning of the name when he exclaimed, “I wait for thy salvation, O <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span>” (Gn 49:18).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>,<\/em> then, is the name par excellence of Israel’s God. As <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>,<\/em> he is a faithful covenant God who, having given his word of love and life, keeps that word by bestowing love and life abundantly on his own.<\/p>\n<p>In view of the richness of the name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>,<\/em> it can be understood why there were stringent rules regarding its proper use (Lv 24:11, 16). It also explains why thankful, rejoicing, worshiping Israelites used the abbreviated form of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> in song when they sang Hallelujah: “Praise Yah” (Pss 104:35; 106:1; 149:1; 150:1).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> is used in a number of phrases that are considered names of or ascriptions of God. The most common of these compound names is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh Tseba’oth<\/span> (“hosts”). The word “hosts” is used frequently in the Pentateuch to refer to the armies of Israel (cf. Nm 10:14-28). This is because the word is derived from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">saba<\/span><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “to wage” war. It also means “to serve” in some contexts; for example, Numbers 8:24 clearly has reference to the service performed in the tabernacle. The noun <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tseba’oth<\/span> first occurs in Genesis 2:1, where it refers to the many components of the earth and heaven. Some would limit the reference in these contexts to the stars. Still others would suggest that the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tseba’oth<\/span> refers to the angels, appealing to Psalm 33:6 for confirmation.<\/p>\n<p>The compound name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh Tseba’oth<\/span> first appears in 1 Samuel 1:3. In view of the frequent use of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tseba’oth<\/span> in 1—2 Samuel to refer to armies (1 Sm 12:9; 14:50; 17:55; 2 Sm 2:8; 8:16; 10:16), it is thought that the compound name refers to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> as the God of armies, that is, God has his armies to serve him. These are considered to be armies of angels who are ministering servants to God. It has been correctly pointed out that the compound name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh Tseba’oth<\/span> is used most frequently by the prophets (Jeremiah, 88 times; Zechariah, 55 times; Malachi, 25 times; Haggai, 14 times) at times when God’s people had either suffered defeat at the hands of enemy armies or were threatened by defeat. Therefore, the compound name was used to remind them that their covenant God had great hosts to fight and work for him on behalf of his people. Thus, though Israel’s armies failed, their covenant God was sufficient for every possible circumstance. And it was to this <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh Tseba’oth<\/span> that Israel’s commanders were to give allegiance (Jos 5:14-15), and in whose name Israel was blessed (2 Sm 6:18).<\/p>\n<p>Several other compound names occur infrequently:<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh-Nissi<\/span> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nissi<\/span><em>,<\/em> “my banner”) is the name that Moses called on when he built an altar celebrating Israel’s God-given victory over the Amalekites (Ex 17:15). Isaiah uses the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nissi<\/span> when speaking of the coming Messiah who is to be the conqueror (Is 11:10).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh-Rapha<\/span> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">rapha’<\/span><em>,<\/em> “healer”) appears in Exodus 15:26, when Israel is assured that God, their healer, will prevent the diseases of Egypt from affecting Israel. Although the name is only used once, God was often called upon and praised as the healing One (e.g., Ps 103:3; Is 30:26; Jer 6:14).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh-Rohi<\/span> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ro‘i<\/span><em>,<\/em> “my shepherd”) appears in Psalm 23:1. The concept of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> as shepherd is explicated in Ezekiel 34. “I myself will be the Shepherd of my sheep” (v 15). Jesus demonstrated this concept’s full meaning when as a shepherd he gave his life for his sheep.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh-Jireh<\/span> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">yir’eh<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to see ahead or to provide”) appears in Genesis 22:14. Abraham gave this name to the place where God provided a substitute for his son Isaac, whom Abraham was to offer as a sacrifice to God. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh-Shalom<\/span> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalom<\/span><em>,<\/em> “peace”) is the name Gideon gave to the altar he built when the angel of the Lord came to give him orders to fight the Midianites (Jgs 6:24).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> appears with a few forms of the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tsadaq<\/span><em>,<\/em> “righteousness.” <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> is spoken of as our righteousness in Jeremiah 23:6; the thought evidently is that David’s Righteous Branch (the Messiah) will attribute God’s righteousness to those who are incorporated in the new covenant. This concept is expressed in the Pentateuch a number of times when it is said that God has provided a way for living righteously; that is, God provides a way of sanctification (cf. Lv 20:8; 22:9).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span> as a name for God appears about 360 times in the OT, though it is not uniformly used. It is first found in Genesis 15:2 and 8, when Abram requests more definite information concerning a son and the Promised Land. It appears only 14 times after that in the Pentateuch. It appears repeatedly in the Psalms (over 50 times), and certain of the prophets use it frequently (Isaiah, 47 times; Jeremiah, 29 times; Ezekiel, over 150 times; and Amos, 27 times).<\/p>\n<p>The word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’adan<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “master, ruler, owner, lord,” is thought to be the root of the noun <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’adon<\/span><em>,<\/em> which is frequently used of men. For example, in Genesis and 1—2 Samuel the term is used often for men who own slaves or are in positions of authority. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span> is correctly described as the name of personal communication between the believer and God. In such communication the worshiper acknowledged God’s intense majesty and greatness and also the sense of belonging to this God. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span><em>,<\/em> coming from human lips, expressed honor for God and humble submission on the part of the believing person. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span><em>,<\/em> thus, is the name that expresses faith, assurance, security, ready service, and thanksgiving (Pss 16:2; 57:9-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Old Testament Name Combinations<\/h5>\n<p>In the OT the names of God appear in various combinations. For example <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim-Yahweh<\/span><em>,<\/em> <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim-Yahweh-’Adonai<\/span><em>,<\/em> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim-’Adonai<\/span> are very common. These combinations were an effort to express the fullness of God’s being and character as these had been revealed. Names of God in combination with “Israel” occur also as, for example, with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span>-God-Israel (Jgs 5:3; Is 17:6). God is also invoked in relation to Israel without the mention of one of his names—for example, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Qedosh Yisrael<\/span> (“Holy One of Israel,” Is 43:14) and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Abir Yisrael<\/span> (“Mighty One of Israel,” Gn 49:24; Ps 132:2; Is 49:26). By means of these phrases, the covenantal relationship between God and his people was expressed and God’s unchanging character was positively acknowledged.<\/p>\n<h5>Old Testament Personal Names<\/h5>\n<p>The personal names of God are Father, Son, and Holy Spirit and variations of these.<\/p>\n<p>The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Abh<\/span> (“father”) appears more frequently in Genesis than in any other book, and in the Pentateuch more than in any other division of the OT. But it is not used there of God but rather of one who has generated children (i.e., the male parent), the progenitor—head, chief, and ruler of the family group or clan. It is used often in the sense of the responsible one through whom God has spoken, with whom God has dealt, and through whom he has given a rich heritage to the children and descendants of the patriarchs.<\/p>\n<p>In the poetical books, God is referred to as Father but is not directly named as such. Job is asked, “Has the rain a father?” (Jb 38:28). The reference is to God as the maker, source, and controller of rain. In Psalm 68:5 God in his holy dwelling place is the “Father of the fatherless”; the parallel phrase, “protector of widows,” indicates the sense. Psalm 89:26 says that David will cry to God, “Thou art my Father,” and the parallels use the terms “God” and “Rock of my salvation.” The idea here is of God as Creator and Savior who raised up, delivered, and protected David. In Psalm 103:13, “Father” is used analogously, “As a father pities his children.”<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah uses the term “Father” in relation to God four times. Three times it refers to the One who has made, saved, formed, kept, and directed Israel (Is 63:16; 64:8). Isaiah says the promised child is to be named Everlasting Father (9:6). Used in this sense, the term establishes the Son’s equality with the Father in stature, function, ability, and responsibility. Jeremiah also refers to God as Father in Jeremiah 3:4, 19, meaning the origin, keeper, and friend of his people Israel. Malachi 1:6 and 2:10 speak of God as the parent who deserves honor from his children and as the origin and ruler of all people.<\/p>\n<p>The term “son” is one of the most-used terms in the OT; it commonly occurs in the sense of offspring and descendant. It also appears in the sense of follower or successor. There are a few indirect references to the second person of the Trinity.<\/p>\n<p>The messianic Psalm 2 has such a reference: “You are my son” (v 7). It is stated in the context of the king speaking to one who rules and is to rule with and under the sovereign. The immediate reference may be to the theocratic king; however, the reference is revealed in the NT to be the second person of the Trinity (Acts 13:33). Thus, the term “son” is applied to the promised Messiah who is set forth as the divine sovereign ruler and judge of the nations. The Son is perceived to be equal with the Father in deity and function. Not all biblical scholars accept this interpretation, but support is found in such NT passages as Hebrews 1:8 which quotes Psalm 45:6. As stated above, Isaiah speaks of the son to be given (Is 9:6), the One born of the virgin (7:14), who is Immanuel, Mighty God, Everlasting Father, Prince of Peace.<\/p>\n<p>The name “Holy Spirit” occurs only a few times in the OT. The Spirit is referred to frequently by terms and phrases such as “the Spirit of God” (Gn 1:2), “the Spirit of the Lord God” (Is 61:1), “the Spirit of the Lord” (Ez 37:1), “the Spirit” (Nm 11:17; 27:18), “my Spirit” (Gn 6:3), and “your Spirit” (Ps 51:11). Though the character of the Spirit is not developed as clearly in the OT as in the NT, it can be safely stated that the relationship posited between God and the Spirit is such that there is no doubt that the OT teaches the deity of the Spirit. The character and function of the Spirit is referred to especially in relation to the work of creation (Gn 1:2; Ps 33:6; etc.) and the equipping of servants for the service of God—for example, craftsmanship (Ex 35:31), leadership (Nm 11:17; 27:18), and prophecy (1 Sm 10:6; 2 Sm 23:2; 2 Chr 15:1; Ez 11:5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheNamesofGodintheNewTestament\">The Names of God in the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>Proper Names of God<\/h5>\n<p><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Theos<\/span> is the NT equivalent of the OT names <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span>and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span><em>;<\/em> <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘Elyon<\/span> appears in the NT as <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Hupsistos<\/span><em>,<\/em> the Highest (Mk 5:7; Lk 1:32, 76). <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Pantokrator<\/span> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘El Shaddai<\/span>) appears with <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Theos<\/span> (2 Cor 6:18; Rv 16:7). This name was used not only to express God’s transcendency, power, sovereignty, and lordship, but also to express that God is one who has a close relationship with his people. This fact is established by the very frequent use of personal pronouns with <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Theos<\/span><em>.<\/em> The name <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Theos<\/span> appears over 1,000 times in the NT.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Kurios<\/span><em>,<\/em> “Lord,” is used to express the OT names <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘Adonai<\/span> in the Septuagint, and the NT follows it. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Kurios<\/span> means “power,” so the meaning is not the same as with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>;<\/em> yet the NT does give <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Kurios<\/span> the full weight of meaning that the OT gave to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>,<\/em> especially when used of Jesus Christ (cf. Acts 2:36; Phil 2:9-11; etc.)<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Despotes<\/span> is used five times of God or Jesus in the NT (Lk 2:29; Acts 4:24; 2 Pt 2:11; Jude 1:4; Rv 6:10). It expresses the idea of authority. The idea of brutality conveyed by the modern concept “despot” is absent from the NT usage even when applied to men, where its central thought is ownership (2 Tm 2:21).<\/p>\n<h5>Personal Names of God<\/h5>\n<p>In the baptismal formula, which is part of the Great Commission (Mt 28:19-20), the three personal names of God appear: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. These names carry the OT meaning, but since the relationship of the three Persons is explicated, the NT meaning of the names is enriched.<\/p>\n<p>“Jesus” is the personal name of the Son, the second person of the triune Godhead. It means “savior” (Mt 1:21). The root of this name “to save” gave rise to names such as Joshua, Hoshea, and Hosea. The basic meaning of the OT root is “to bring into a safe, wide-open place.” Joshua, bringing Israel into Canaan, personally did what his name meant. The NT explanation (“save from sin”) is not contrary to the OT meaning. To be saved from sin is to be restored to fellowship with God and to enter into the paradise of the heavenly kingdom.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Christology; God, Being and Attributes of; Holy Spirit; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Messiah; Names, Significance of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GOD, Names of God’s self-identifications expressing various aspects of his being. Preview • The Biblical Idea of Name • The Names of God in the Old Testament • The Names of God in the New Testament The Biblical Idea of Name In the Scriptures the name and person of God are inseparably related. This is in keeping with the biblical conception of what a name signifies. In the Hebrew language, the term for “name” most probably meant “sign” or “distinctive mark.” In the Greek language, “name” (onom...","summary_en":"GOD, Names of God’s self-identifications expressing various aspects of his being. Preview • The Biblical Idea of Name • The Names of God in the Old Testament • The Names of God in the New Testament The Biblical Idea of Name In the Scriptures the name and person of God are inseparably related. This is in keeping with the biblical conception of what a name signifies. In the Hebrew language, the term for “name” most probably meant “sign” or “distinctive mark.” In the Greek language, “name” (onom...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":46819,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:32","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:32","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:32<\/strong> See Isa 43:11; 44:6, 8; 45:5, 21.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:32<\/strong> See Isa 43:11; 44:6, 8; 45:5, 21.<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:32 See Isa 43:11; 44:6, 8; 45:5, 21.","summary_en":"22:32 See Isa 43:11; 44:6, 8; 45:5, 21.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":74445,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:32","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:32","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:32<\/strong> See Isa 43:11; 44:6, 8; 45:5, 21.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:32<\/strong> See Isa 43:11; 44:6, 8; 45:5, 21.<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:32 See Isa 43:11; 44:6, 8; 45:5, 21.","summary_en":"22:32 See Isa 43:11; 44:6, 8; 45:5, 21.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":102071,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:32","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:32","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:32<\/strong> See Isa 43:11; 44:6, 8; 45:5, 21.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:32<\/strong> See Isa 43:11; 44:6, 8; 45:5, 21.<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:32 See Isa 43:11; 44:6, 8; 45:5, 21.","summary_en":"22:32 See Isa 43:11; 44:6, 8; 45:5, 21.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":129697,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:32","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:32","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:32<\/strong> See Isa 43:11; 44:6, 8; 45:5, 21.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:32<\/strong> See Isa 43:11; 44:6, 8; 45:5, 21.<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:32 See Isa 43:11; 44:6, 8; 45:5, 21.","summary_en":"22:32 See Isa 43:11; 44:6, 8; 45:5, 21.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"34":[{"id":3565,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Bamah","title_en":"Bamah","content_ro":"<h3>BAMAH<\/h3>\n<p>Hebrew word meaning height, ridge, or elevation in the topography of the land (2 Sm 1:19, 25; 22:34); transliterated into English once (Ez 20:29; see <span>nlt<\/span>). It is a term designating hills or mountains overlooking the Arnon River (Nm 21:28). The plural form (Bamoth) alone or as the first part of a compound is used for the name of towns in Moab (Nm 21:19-20; 22:41; Jos 13:17).<\/p>\n<p>Metaphorically, the word connotes a place of security (Dt 32:13; Hb 3:19), as well as the high ground that a military commander wished to control in battle. Possession of an enemy’s “heights” was synonymous with subjection of that enemy (Dt 33:29; Ez 36:2). The word seems to combine both literal and figurative connotations in several references to Jerusalem, a “high place” in ruin overgrown with scrub vegetation (Mi 3:12; see also Jer 26:18; Ez 36:1-2). “High place” was also a special, or technical, term in Canaanite religion, designating a local shrine on a hill near a town or village, in contrast to the large temples located throughout the land.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> High Place.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BAMAH<\/h3>\n<p>Hebrew word meaning height, ridge, or elevation in the topography of the land (2 Sm 1:19, 25; 22:34); transliterated into English once (Ez 20:29; see <span>nlt<\/span>). It is a term designating hills or mountains overlooking the Arnon River (Nm 21:28). The plural form (Bamoth) alone or as the first part of a compound is used for the name of towns in Moab (Nm 21:19-20; 22:41; Jos 13:17).<\/p>\n<p>Metaphorically, the word connotes a place of security (Dt 32:13; Hb 3:19), as well as the high ground that a military commander wished to control in battle. Possession of an enemy’s “heights” was synonymous with subjection of that enemy (Dt 33:29; Ez 36:2). The word seems to combine both literal and figurative connotations in several references to Jerusalem, a “high place” in ruin overgrown with scrub vegetation (Mi 3:12; see also Jer 26:18; Ez 36:1-2). “High place” was also a special, or technical, term in Canaanite religion, designating a local shrine on a hill near a town or village, in contrast to the large temples located throughout the land.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> High Place.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BAMAH Hebrew word meaning height, ridge, or elevation in the topography of the land (2 Sm 1:19, 25; 22:34); transliterated into English once (Ez 20:29; see nlt). It is a term designating hills or mountains overlooking the Arnon River (Nm 21:28). The plural form (Bamoth) alone or as the first part of a compound is used for the name of towns in Moab (Nm 21:19-20; 22:41; Jos 13:17). Metaphorically, the word connotes a place of security (Dt 32:13; Hb 3:19), as well as the high ground that a milit...","summary_en":"BAMAH Hebrew word meaning height, ridge, or elevation in the topography of the land (2 Sm 1:19, 25; 22:34); transliterated into English once (Ez 20:29; see nlt). It is a term designating hills or mountains overlooking the Arnon River (Nm 21:28). The plural form (Bamoth) alone or as the first part of a compound is used for the name of towns in Moab (Nm 21:19-20; 22:41; Jos 13:17). Metaphorically, the word connotes a place of security (Dt 32:13; Hb 3:19), as well as the high ground that a milit...","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":46820,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:34","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:34","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:34<\/strong> David probably encountered <em>deer<\/em>during his many days of hiding out in hilly terrain and caves (1 Sam 19:11–27:12).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:34<\/strong> David probably encountered <em>deer<\/em>during his many days of hiding out in hilly terrain and caves (1 Sam 19:11–27:12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:34 David probably encountered deerduring his many days of hiding out in hilly terrain and caves (1 Sam 19:11–27:12).","summary_en":"22:34 David probably encountered deerduring his many days of hiding out in hilly terrain and caves (1 Sam 19:11–27:12).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":74446,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:34","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:34","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:34<\/strong> David probably encountered <em>deer<\/em>during his many days of hiding out in hilly terrain and caves (1 Sam 19:11–27:12).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:34<\/strong> David probably encountered <em>deer<\/em>during his many days of hiding out in hilly terrain and caves (1 Sam 19:11–27:12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:34 David probably encountered deerduring his many days of hiding out in hilly terrain and caves (1 Sam 19:11–27:12).","summary_en":"22:34 David probably encountered deerduring his many days of hiding out in hilly terrain and caves (1 Sam 19:11–27:12).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":102072,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:34","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:34","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:34<\/strong> David probably encountered <em>deer<\/em>during his many days of hiding out in hilly terrain and caves (1 Sam 19:11–27:12).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:34<\/strong> David probably encountered <em>deer<\/em>during his many days of hiding out in hilly terrain and caves (1 Sam 19:11–27:12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:34 David probably encountered deerduring his many days of hiding out in hilly terrain and caves (1 Sam 19:11–27:12).","summary_en":"22:34 David probably encountered deerduring his many days of hiding out in hilly terrain and caves (1 Sam 19:11–27:12).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":129698,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:34","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:34","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:34<\/strong> David probably encountered <em>deer<\/em>during his many days of hiding out in hilly terrain and caves (1 Sam 19:11–27:12).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:34<\/strong> David probably encountered <em>deer<\/em>during his many days of hiding out in hilly terrain and caves (1 Sam 19:11–27:12).<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:34 David probably encountered deerduring his many days of hiding out in hilly terrain and caves (1 Sam 19:11–27:12).","summary_en":"22:34 David probably encountered deerduring his many days of hiding out in hilly terrain and caves (1 Sam 19:11–27:12).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"35":[{"id":2728,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Armor and Weapons","title_en":"Armor and Weapons","content_ro":"<h3>ARMOR AND WEAPONS<\/h3>\n<p>The location of Palestine at the crossroads of three continents gave it a strategic importance in the ancient world quite out of proportion to its size. Surrounded by the great military powers (Egypt, Mesopotamia, the Hittites of Anatolia), that stretch of land was constantly the object of aggressive ambitions of other nations. The invention of different weapons, fortifications, and tactics exerted a profound reciprocal influence on other inventions. Tactical innovation by one side prompted new countertactics by the other.<\/p>\n<p>The three basic elements of the art of warfare are mobility, firepower, and security. Weapons alone seldom determined the issue of battle, particularly when both sides were evenly matched. The skill with which strategy and tactics were deployed, the spirit of the commander in directing his troops, and the precision with which the troops handled their weapons were decisive factors in many of the battles mentioned in the Bible.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AttackWeapons\">Attack Weapons<\/p>\n<p>The armory of a military commander in antiquity consisted of a variety of offensive weapons designed to engage the enemy at long, medium, and short range. The bow and the sling were the principal weapons developed for long-range firepower; the javelin and the spear for medium-range; the sword, the ax, and the mace for short-range.<\/p>\n<h5>Bow<\/h5>\n<p>Early bows were fashioned from one piece of seasoned wood. No single type of bow wood, however, could provide the lightness, toughness, and elasticity required. Gradually the idea was conceived of combining several natural materials—wood, sections of animal horn, animal tendons and sinews, and glue—in the construction of a bow to meet all the demands placed on it. The resulting composite bow became a weapon of supreme importance. Composite structure gave a bow lightness, strength, and elasticity. Use of a double-convex form gave increased range and power of penetration.<\/p>\n<p>The bowstring was made from bindweed, natural cord, hide, or the intestines of oxen or camels. The bow was strung by hand (2 Kgs 13:16), usually bending it with the foot, which required considerable strength (cf. 2 Sm 22:35; Jer 51:3). That may explain why archers were known as “bow treaders” or as “those who tread a bow.”<\/p>\n<p>The form of the arrowhead was a response to the enemy’s defense and armor. In the late Bronze period, for example, a battle arrowhead was generally of bronze and was thick in the middle, tapering to a spine. Its shape was dictated by the fact that the coats of mail in widespread use at the time could be penetrated only by a spined or ribbed arrowhead. The arrow shaft was usually made from reed, a material that combined strength with pliability.<\/p>\n<h5>Sling<\/h5>\n<p>Complementing the bow was the sling, devised originally by shepherds to drive off animals molesting their flocks (cf. 1 Sm 17:40). It gradually assumed importance as a weapon of war, its supreme advantage being simple construction. Not only did a sling require little technical skill to produce, but the stones used as projectiles were readily available on the ground. In the hands of a trained slinger a missile could be hurled as far as 600 feet (183 meters) in any terrain. The sling’s capacity for high-angled fire up a steep slope was particularly important in an assault on a fortified city. Its principal disadvantage was that strenuous training and experience were required to achieve accuracy in its operation (cf. Jgs 20:16).<\/p>\n<p>A sling was commonly made from two leather thongs to which were attached a pocket for holding the stone. With the thongs pulled taut the pocket became a bag. The slinger held his arms above his head, the bag in his left hand and the ends of the taut thongs in his right hand. After swinging the sling several times around his head with great force to give it momentum, he suddenly released the end of one of the thongs to discharge the missile. Lead pellets as well as smooth stones were used as projectiles. They were carried in a bag or were piled conveniently at the slinger’s feet.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of the sling as a long-range weapon is evident in the familiar account of David’s encounter with the Philistine champion, Goliath of Gath (1 Sm 17:40-51). At that time the Philistines possessed many advanced types of weapons, but the bow and sling were not among them. They depended on medium-range weapons like the javelin and short-range weapons like the sword (cf. 1 Sm 17:4-7, 45, 51). The sling gave David an advantage in range that was decisive against Goliath’s superior weapons and armor (1 Sm 17:48-49).<\/p>\n<h5>Javelin and Spear<\/h5>\n<p>Two weapons employed for medium-distance warfare were similar in appearance but different in length and operation. The javelin, generally lighter and shorter than the spear, was designed for throwing. It was like a large arrow that was hurled by the hand. Sumerian charioteers of the third millennium <span>BC<\/span> were armed with several javelins, carried like arrows in a quiver attached to the body of the chariot. Javelin heads were designed for penetration and altered in shape and material as enemy armor became more effective. A head fashioned with sharp hooks or barbs was difficult and painful to extract from a wound.<\/p>\n<p>The spear was similar in appearance to the javelin but was larger, heavier, and designed primarily as a thrusting weapon (cf. Nm 25:7-8). The oldest military monuments known indicate that the spear was already well developed. On the Egyptian hunter’s slate palette and on the black granite stele from Warka (c. 3000 <span>BC<\/span>), the warrior’s personal weapon is a long staff tipped with a leaf-shaped blade with a sharp spine. Throughout the third millennium <span>BC<\/span>, the spear was standard equipment for heavy-armed infantry and the most effective weapon for both chariot and infantry charges. Excavations have shown that the spear was the common weapon of the seminomadic tribes who began pouring into Palestine from the north in the middle Bronze Age.<\/p>\n<p>Another characteristic of spears in that early period was a metal tip attached to the butt of the shaft, enabling a spear to be stuck upright in the ground when not in use. That feature persisted into later periods and is mentioned specifically in reference to Saul’s spear, which was stuck in the ground by his head while he slept (1 Sm 26:7). Occasionally the metal tip functioned as a thrusting weapon in its own right, as is evident in the account of the slaying of Asahel (2 Sm 2:23).<\/p>\n<h5>Sword<\/h5>\n<p>One of the earliest objects made of iron was the sword. Swords were designed for either stabbing or striking. The stabbing sword developed as a long straight blade, tapered toward the point for piercing the body. Its tapered edges were sharpened so that it could also serve as a cutting instrument. The striking sword, on the other hand, had only one sharp edge, with the thickest part of the blade not along the center but along its blunt edge. Such a sword was often curved, sometimes to a degree that gave it the appearance of a sickle, but with the outer, convex edge sharpened as the cutting blade. The earliest type of sickle sword appeared in the second half of the third millennium <span>BC<\/span>. Both the hilt, or handle, and the blade were fashioned from a single bar of metal. In the middle Bronze Age the curved striking sword functioned essentially as an ax, with a comparatively long hilt and short blade.<\/p>\n<p>That type of sword completely disappeared in the late Bronze Age because it proved ineffective against the widespread use of the helmet and armor. In its place appeared a new design with the curved blade equal in length to the hilt and sometimes longer. It provided a cutting weapon in chariot fighting and against an enemy who possessed no armor. Widespread use of such long-bladed swords at that time explains the phrase repeatedly used in the Bible to describe Joshua’s conquests of the Canaanites: Joshua smote them with the edge of the sword (e.g., Jos 8:24; 10:28-39). That expression would be inappropriate for the action of a short, straight, narrow sword designed as a thrusting weapon. A fine specimen of curved sword was found at Gezer in Palestine in the tomb of a nobleman, dating to the first half of the 14th century <span>BC<\/span>. The same type of blade is also depicted on a late 13th century <span>BC<\/span> ivory carving from Megiddo.<\/p>\n<p>During those centuries advances made in the technology of forging iron were reflected in the development of the straight sword as well. The Sea Peoples, among whom were the Philistines, specialized in short-range arms. As early as the 13th century <span>BC<\/span> they began to make the straight blade more effective than the curved sickle-type sword.<\/p>\n<p>By the time of Saul, the Philistines had used their technology to establish themselves as city dwellers and the dominant military presence in the land. Their military superiority was based on the chariot and on an infantry equipped with personal armaments of high quality. They carefully retained the forging of hard metal under their own supervision and kept the Israelites from developing forges of their own (cf. 1 Sm 13:19-22). Not until that situation was altered could the balance of power pass from the Philistines to Israel.<\/p>\n<h5>Mace and Ax<\/h5>\n<p>The mace and the ax, developed as alternatives to the sword before hard metal could be forged, were designed for hand-to-hand fighting. They consisted of a comparatively short wooden handle, one end of which was fitted with a lethal head made of stone or metal. The weapons were swung like a hammer to deliver a striking blow. The critical detail was the secure fastening of the head to the handle to prevent its flying off when swung or breaking off when struck. The handle of both the mace and the ax was widened at the point of the grip, tapering toward the head, to prevent the weapon from slipping from the hand when swung. Such weapons were carried in the hand or attached to the wrist with a loop. The mace was designed to batter and smash, the ax to pierce and cut.<\/p>\n<p>The mace was a very primitive weapon. The hieroglyphic sign for the infinitive <em>to fight<\/em> represents hands holding a mace and a medium-size shield. During the Chalcolithic and the first half of the early Bronze periods (3500–2500 <span>BC<\/span>), the mace was the primary weapon for personal combat. Because the helmet had not yet made its appearance, the striking power of the mace was devastating. Long after the mace had become obsolete as a personal weapon, it continued to serve as a symbol of sovereign authority for the king or deity (cf. Ps 2:9).<\/p>\n<p>Complex technical problems taxed the ingenuity of armorers in the production of the ax. The blade had to be fixed securely to the handle. The cutting ax had a short blade and a wide edge. It was an effective weapon against an enemy unprotected by armor. It was also used for tearing down the wall of a besieged city, as in the wall painting at Saqqarah (23d century <span>BC<\/span>). But against armor the cutting ax was ineffective. Deeper power of penetration was achieved with the piercing ax, which had a long, narrow blade ending in a short, sharp edge.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DefensiveProtection\">Defensive Protection<\/p>\n<p>Without provision for personal protection of the individual soldier on the battlefield, the mobility and firepower of an army could be seriously compromised.<\/p>\n<h5>Shield<\/h5>\n<p>Designed to provide a barrier between the body of a soldier and the weapon of his foe, the shield was one of the oldest means of security devised. In the time of the judges and the early Israelite kings, persons of rank were frequently protected by a very large shield. It was carried by a special shield bearer who remained constantly at the unprotected right side of the warrior to whom he was assigned as a bodyguard (cf. Jgs 9:54; 1 Sm 14:1; 17:7; 2 Sm 18:15). The right side of an armed combatant was unprotected because he carried his weapons in his right hand and his shield in his left. The shield bearer therefore had to stand by his master’s vulnerable right side to protect him (1 Sm 17:41; cf. Ps 16:8). In that period the shield was ordinarily anointed as part of the consecration of an Israelite warrior and his weapons for battle (cf. 2 Sm 1:21).<\/p>\n<h5>Armor<\/h5>\n<p>Personal armor protected the body of a combatant from injury while freeing his hands to use his weapons. The earliest type of body armor formed a substitute for the long shield. It consisted of a full-length tunic made from leather or some tough fiber. It was relatively simple to produce, was light enough to permit full mobility, and offered a measure of protection to the chest, abdomen, back, thighs, and legs. So equipped, a soldier required only a short shield to protect his arms and face.<\/p>\n<p>The late Bronze period saw the development of the coat of mail. It consisted of hundreds of small pieces of overlapping metal joined together like fish scales and sewed to the surface of a cloth or leather tunic. Written documents from Nuzi state that from 400 to 600 large scales and several hundred smaller scales went into the production of a single coat. Smaller scales and narrower rows were used where greater flexibility was needed, as at the throat and neck. The resulting garment was relatively flexible, affording freedom of movement, while the hard metal scales gave far greater personal protection than leather or fiber could provide.<\/p>\n<h5>Helmet<\/h5>\n<p>Since the greatest point of vulnerability for a soldier in combat was his head, concern for some form of protective helmet can be traced as far back as the end of the fourth millennium <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Bronze helmets were worn both by Goliath and by Saul (1 Sm 17:5, 38). Although the helmet was standard equipment for the heavily armed infantry of foreign armies for centuries, it does not seem to have been a common possession of soldiers in the Israelite army during the period of the united monarchy. Among military reforms introduced by King Uzziah in the ninth century <span>BC<\/span> was provision of helmets for the army of the southern kingdom of Judah (2 Chr 26:14).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Warfare.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ARMOR AND WEAPONS<\/h3>\n<p>The location of Palestine at the crossroads of three continents gave it a strategic importance in the ancient world quite out of proportion to its size. Surrounded by the great military powers (Egypt, Mesopotamia, the Hittites of Anatolia), that stretch of land was constantly the object of aggressive ambitions of other nations. The invention of different weapons, fortifications, and tactics exerted a profound reciprocal influence on other inventions. Tactical innovation by one side prompted new countertactics by the other.<\/p>\n<p>The three basic elements of the art of warfare are mobility, firepower, and security. Weapons alone seldom determined the issue of battle, particularly when both sides were evenly matched. The skill with which strategy and tactics were deployed, the spirit of the commander in directing his troops, and the precision with which the troops handled their weapons were decisive factors in many of the battles mentioned in the Bible.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AttackWeapons\">Attack Weapons<\/p>\n<p>The armory of a military commander in antiquity consisted of a variety of offensive weapons designed to engage the enemy at long, medium, and short range. The bow and the sling were the principal weapons developed for long-range firepower; the javelin and the spear for medium-range; the sword, the ax, and the mace for short-range.<\/p>\n<h5>Bow<\/h5>\n<p>Early bows were fashioned from one piece of seasoned wood. No single type of bow wood, however, could provide the lightness, toughness, and elasticity required. Gradually the idea was conceived of combining several natural materials—wood, sections of animal horn, animal tendons and sinews, and glue—in the construction of a bow to meet all the demands placed on it. The resulting composite bow became a weapon of supreme importance. Composite structure gave a bow lightness, strength, and elasticity. Use of a double-convex form gave increased range and power of penetration.<\/p>\n<p>The bowstring was made from bindweed, natural cord, hide, or the intestines of oxen or camels. The bow was strung by hand (2 Kgs 13:16), usually bending it with the foot, which required considerable strength (cf. 2 Sm 22:35; Jer 51:3). That may explain why archers were known as “bow treaders” or as “those who tread a bow.”<\/p>\n<p>The form of the arrowhead was a response to the enemy’s defense and armor. In the late Bronze period, for example, a battle arrowhead was generally of bronze and was thick in the middle, tapering to a spine. Its shape was dictated by the fact that the coats of mail in widespread use at the time could be penetrated only by a spined or ribbed arrowhead. The arrow shaft was usually made from reed, a material that combined strength with pliability.<\/p>\n<h5>Sling<\/h5>\n<p>Complementing the bow was the sling, devised originally by shepherds to drive off animals molesting their flocks (cf. 1 Sm 17:40). It gradually assumed importance as a weapon of war, its supreme advantage being simple construction. Not only did a sling require little technical skill to produce, but the stones used as projectiles were readily available on the ground. In the hands of a trained slinger a missile could be hurled as far as 600 feet (183 meters) in any terrain. The sling’s capacity for high-angled fire up a steep slope was particularly important in an assault on a fortified city. Its principal disadvantage was that strenuous training and experience were required to achieve accuracy in its operation (cf. Jgs 20:16).<\/p>\n<p>A sling was commonly made from two leather thongs to which were attached a pocket for holding the stone. With the thongs pulled taut the pocket became a bag. The slinger held his arms above his head, the bag in his left hand and the ends of the taut thongs in his right hand. After swinging the sling several times around his head with great force to give it momentum, he suddenly released the end of one of the thongs to discharge the missile. Lead pellets as well as smooth stones were used as projectiles. They were carried in a bag or were piled conveniently at the slinger’s feet.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of the sling as a long-range weapon is evident in the familiar account of David’s encounter with the Philistine champion, Goliath of Gath (1 Sm 17:40-51). At that time the Philistines possessed many advanced types of weapons, but the bow and sling were not among them. They depended on medium-range weapons like the javelin and short-range weapons like the sword (cf. 1 Sm 17:4-7, 45, 51). The sling gave David an advantage in range that was decisive against Goliath’s superior weapons and armor (1 Sm 17:48-49).<\/p>\n<h5>Javelin and Spear<\/h5>\n<p>Two weapons employed for medium-distance warfare were similar in appearance but different in length and operation. The javelin, generally lighter and shorter than the spear, was designed for throwing. It was like a large arrow that was hurled by the hand. Sumerian charioteers of the third millennium <span>BC<\/span> were armed with several javelins, carried like arrows in a quiver attached to the body of the chariot. Javelin heads were designed for penetration and altered in shape and material as enemy armor became more effective. A head fashioned with sharp hooks or barbs was difficult and painful to extract from a wound.<\/p>\n<p>The spear was similar in appearance to the javelin but was larger, heavier, and designed primarily as a thrusting weapon (cf. Nm 25:7-8). The oldest military monuments known indicate that the spear was already well developed. On the Egyptian hunter’s slate palette and on the black granite stele from Warka (c. 3000 <span>BC<\/span>), the warrior’s personal weapon is a long staff tipped with a leaf-shaped blade with a sharp spine. Throughout the third millennium <span>BC<\/span>, the spear was standard equipment for heavy-armed infantry and the most effective weapon for both chariot and infantry charges. Excavations have shown that the spear was the common weapon of the seminomadic tribes who began pouring into Palestine from the north in the middle Bronze Age.<\/p>\n<p>Another characteristic of spears in that early period was a metal tip attached to the butt of the shaft, enabling a spear to be stuck upright in the ground when not in use. That feature persisted into later periods and is mentioned specifically in reference to Saul’s spear, which was stuck in the ground by his head while he slept (1 Sm 26:7). Occasionally the metal tip functioned as a thrusting weapon in its own right, as is evident in the account of the slaying of Asahel (2 Sm 2:23).<\/p>\n<h5>Sword<\/h5>\n<p>One of the earliest objects made of iron was the sword. Swords were designed for either stabbing or striking. The stabbing sword developed as a long straight blade, tapered toward the point for piercing the body. Its tapered edges were sharpened so that it could also serve as a cutting instrument. The striking sword, on the other hand, had only one sharp edge, with the thickest part of the blade not along the center but along its blunt edge. Such a sword was often curved, sometimes to a degree that gave it the appearance of a sickle, but with the outer, convex edge sharpened as the cutting blade. The earliest type of sickle sword appeared in the second half of the third millennium <span>BC<\/span>. Both the hilt, or handle, and the blade were fashioned from a single bar of metal. In the middle Bronze Age the curved striking sword functioned essentially as an ax, with a comparatively long hilt and short blade.<\/p>\n<p>That type of sword completely disappeared in the late Bronze Age because it proved ineffective against the widespread use of the helmet and armor. In its place appeared a new design with the curved blade equal in length to the hilt and sometimes longer. It provided a cutting weapon in chariot fighting and against an enemy who possessed no armor. Widespread use of such long-bladed swords at that time explains the phrase repeatedly used in the Bible to describe Joshua’s conquests of the Canaanites: Joshua smote them with the edge of the sword (e.g., Jos 8:24; 10:28-39). That expression would be inappropriate for the action of a short, straight, narrow sword designed as a thrusting weapon. A fine specimen of curved sword was found at Gezer in Palestine in the tomb of a nobleman, dating to the first half of the 14th century <span>BC<\/span>. The same type of blade is also depicted on a late 13th century <span>BC<\/span> ivory carving from Megiddo.<\/p>\n<p>During those centuries advances made in the technology of forging iron were reflected in the development of the straight sword as well. The Sea Peoples, among whom were the Philistines, specialized in short-range arms. As early as the 13th century <span>BC<\/span> they began to make the straight blade more effective than the curved sickle-type sword.<\/p>\n<p>By the time of Saul, the Philistines had used their technology to establish themselves as city dwellers and the dominant military presence in the land. Their military superiority was based on the chariot and on an infantry equipped with personal armaments of high quality. They carefully retained the forging of hard metal under their own supervision and kept the Israelites from developing forges of their own (cf. 1 Sm 13:19-22). Not until that situation was altered could the balance of power pass from the Philistines to Israel.<\/p>\n<h5>Mace and Ax<\/h5>\n<p>The mace and the ax, developed as alternatives to the sword before hard metal could be forged, were designed for hand-to-hand fighting. They consisted of a comparatively short wooden handle, one end of which was fitted with a lethal head made of stone or metal. The weapons were swung like a hammer to deliver a striking blow. The critical detail was the secure fastening of the head to the handle to prevent its flying off when swung or breaking off when struck. The handle of both the mace and the ax was widened at the point of the grip, tapering toward the head, to prevent the weapon from slipping from the hand when swung. Such weapons were carried in the hand or attached to the wrist with a loop. The mace was designed to batter and smash, the ax to pierce and cut.<\/p>\n<p>The mace was a very primitive weapon. The hieroglyphic sign for the infinitive <em>to fight<\/em> represents hands holding a mace and a medium-size shield. During the Chalcolithic and the first half of the early Bronze periods (3500–2500 <span>BC<\/span>), the mace was the primary weapon for personal combat. Because the helmet had not yet made its appearance, the striking power of the mace was devastating. Long after the mace had become obsolete as a personal weapon, it continued to serve as a symbol of sovereign authority for the king or deity (cf. Ps 2:9).<\/p>\n<p>Complex technical problems taxed the ingenuity of armorers in the production of the ax. The blade had to be fixed securely to the handle. The cutting ax had a short blade and a wide edge. It was an effective weapon against an enemy unprotected by armor. It was also used for tearing down the wall of a besieged city, as in the wall painting at Saqqarah (23d century <span>BC<\/span>). But against armor the cutting ax was ineffective. Deeper power of penetration was achieved with the piercing ax, which had a long, narrow blade ending in a short, sharp edge.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DefensiveProtection\">Defensive Protection<\/p>\n<p>Without provision for personal protection of the individual soldier on the battlefield, the mobility and firepower of an army could be seriously compromised.<\/p>\n<h5>Shield<\/h5>\n<p>Designed to provide a barrier between the body of a soldier and the weapon of his foe, the shield was one of the oldest means of security devised. In the time of the judges and the early Israelite kings, persons of rank were frequently protected by a very large shield. It was carried by a special shield bearer who remained constantly at the unprotected right side of the warrior to whom he was assigned as a bodyguard (cf. Jgs 9:54; 1 Sm 14:1; 17:7; 2 Sm 18:15). The right side of an armed combatant was unprotected because he carried his weapons in his right hand and his shield in his left. The shield bearer therefore had to stand by his master’s vulnerable right side to protect him (1 Sm 17:41; cf. Ps 16:8). In that period the shield was ordinarily anointed as part of the consecration of an Israelite warrior and his weapons for battle (cf. 2 Sm 1:21).<\/p>\n<h5>Armor<\/h5>\n<p>Personal armor protected the body of a combatant from injury while freeing his hands to use his weapons. The earliest type of body armor formed a substitute for the long shield. It consisted of a full-length tunic made from leather or some tough fiber. It was relatively simple to produce, was light enough to permit full mobility, and offered a measure of protection to the chest, abdomen, back, thighs, and legs. So equipped, a soldier required only a short shield to protect his arms and face.<\/p>\n<p>The late Bronze period saw the development of the coat of mail. It consisted of hundreds of small pieces of overlapping metal joined together like fish scales and sewed to the surface of a cloth or leather tunic. Written documents from Nuzi state that from 400 to 600 large scales and several hundred smaller scales went into the production of a single coat. Smaller scales and narrower rows were used where greater flexibility was needed, as at the throat and neck. The resulting garment was relatively flexible, affording freedom of movement, while the hard metal scales gave far greater personal protection than leather or fiber could provide.<\/p>\n<h5>Helmet<\/h5>\n<p>Since the greatest point of vulnerability for a soldier in combat was his head, concern for some form of protective helmet can be traced as far back as the end of the fourth millennium <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Bronze helmets were worn both by Goliath and by Saul (1 Sm 17:5, 38). Although the helmet was standard equipment for the heavily armed infantry of foreign armies for centuries, it does not seem to have been a common possession of soldiers in the Israelite army during the period of the united monarchy. Among military reforms introduced by King Uzziah in the ninth century <span>BC<\/span> was provision of helmets for the army of the southern kingdom of Judah (2 Chr 26:14).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Warfare.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ARMOR AND WEAPONS The location of Palestine at the crossroads of three continents gave it a strategic importance in the ancient world quite out of proportion to its size. Surrounded by the great military powers (Egypt, Mesopotamia, the Hittites of Anatolia), that stretch of land was constantly the object of aggressive ambitions of other nations. The invention of different weapons, fortifications, and tactics exerted a profound reciprocal influence on other inventions. Tactical innovation by o...","summary_en":"ARMOR AND WEAPONS The location of Palestine at the crossroads of three continents gave it a strategic importance in the ancient world quite out of proportion to its size. Surrounded by the great military powers (Egypt, Mesopotamia, the Hittites of Anatolia), that stretch of land was constantly the object of aggressive ambitions of other nations. The invention of different weapons, fortifications, and tactics exerted a profound reciprocal influence on other inventions. Tactical innovation by o...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"36":[{"id":13617,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gentleness","title_en":"Gentleness","content_ro":"<h3>GENTLENESS<\/h3>\n<p>In the OT an attitude of humility or bending low (2 Sm 22:36, <span>kjv<\/span>; cf. Ps 18:35, <span>kjv<\/span>). Its adjectival and adverbial forms (“gentle,” “gently”) can mean courteous and unpretentious (Prv 15:4), quiet and tender (Dt 32:2; Is 8:6), or unharsh (2 Sm 18:5; Jb 15:11).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT several words are translated “gentleness,” “gentle,” or “gently.” Shades of meaning include (1) mildness, meekness, forbearance (Mt 11:29; 1 Cor 4:21; 2 Cor 10:1; Gal 5:23; 1 Tm 6:11; 1 Pt 3:4, 15), or a courteous and unassuming attitude (2 Tm 2:25); (2) kindness expressed toward others (1 Thes 2:7; 2 Tm 2:24, <span>kjv<\/span>); and (3) fitting, fair, or seemly (1 Tm 3:3; Ti 3:2; 1 Pt 2:18). Church leaders and other believers are instructed to deal gently with those who stumble (Gal 6:1), oppose the faith (2 Tm 2:25), or are ignorant and wayward (Heb 5:2).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GENTLENESS<\/h3>\n<p>In the OT an attitude of humility or bending low (2 Sm 22:36, <span>kjv<\/span>; cf. Ps 18:35, <span>kjv<\/span>). Its adjectival and adverbial forms (“gentle,” “gently”) can mean courteous and unpretentious (Prv 15:4), quiet and tender (Dt 32:2; Is 8:6), or unharsh (2 Sm 18:5; Jb 15:11).<\/p>\n<p>In the NT several words are translated “gentleness,” “gentle,” or “gently.” Shades of meaning include (1) mildness, meekness, forbearance (Mt 11:29; 1 Cor 4:21; 2 Cor 10:1; Gal 5:23; 1 Tm 6:11; 1 Pt 3:4, 15), or a courteous and unassuming attitude (2 Tm 2:25); (2) kindness expressed toward others (1 Thes 2:7; 2 Tm 2:24, <span>kjv<\/span>); and (3) fitting, fair, or seemly (1 Tm 3:3; Ti 3:2; 1 Pt 2:18). Church leaders and other believers are instructed to deal gently with those who stumble (Gal 6:1), oppose the faith (2 Tm 2:25), or are ignorant and wayward (Heb 5:2).<\/p>","summary_ro":"GENTLENESS In the OT an attitude of humility or bending low (2 Sm 22:36, kjv; cf. Ps 18:35, kjv). Its adjectival and adverbial forms (“gentle,” “gently”) can mean courteous and unpretentious (Prv 15:4), quiet and tender (Dt 32:2; Is 8:6), or unharsh (2 Sm 18:5; Jb 15:11). In the NT several words are translated “gentleness,” “gentle,” or “gently.” Shades of meaning include (1) mildness, meekness, forbearance (Mt 11:29; 1 Cor 4:21; 2 Cor 10:1; Gal 5:23; 1 Tm 6:11; 1 Pt 3:4, 15), or a courteous ...","summary_en":"GENTLENESS In the OT an attitude of humility or bending low (2 Sm 22:36, kjv; cf. Ps 18:35, kjv). Its adjectival and adverbial forms (“gentle,” “gently”) can mean courteous and unpretentious (Prv 15:4), quiet and tender (Dt 32:2; Is 8:6), or unharsh (2 Sm 18:5; Jb 15:11). In the NT several words are translated “gentleness,” “gentle,” or “gently.” Shades of meaning include (1) mildness, meekness, forbearance (Mt 11:29; 1 Cor 4:21; 2 Cor 10:1; Gal 5:23; 1 Tm 6:11; 1 Pt 3:4, 15), or a courteous ...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"38":[{"id":46821,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:38","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:38","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:38-40<\/strong> David’s military accomplishments before he became king were impressive (see 1 Sam 17:12-58; 18:17-30; 23:1-5; 30:1-31). Yet rather than exalting himself, David glorified God and gave him the credit.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:38-40<\/strong> David’s military accomplishments before he became king were impressive (see 1 Sam 17:12-58; 18:17-30; 23:1-5; 30:1-31). Yet rather than exalting himself, David glorified God and gave him the credit.<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:38-40 David’s military accomplishments before he became king were impressive (see 1 Sam 17:12-58; 18:17-30; 23:1-5; 30:1-31). Yet rather than exalting himself, David glorified God and gave him the credit.","summary_en":"22:38-40 David’s military accomplishments before he became king were impressive (see 1 Sam 17:12-58; 18:17-30; 23:1-5; 30:1-31). Yet rather than exalting himself, David glorified God and gave him the credit.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":74447,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:38","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:38","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:38-40<\/strong> David’s military accomplishments before he became king were impressive (see 1 Sam 17:12-58; 18:17-30; 23:1-5; 30:1-31). Yet rather than exalting himself, David glorified God and gave him the credit.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:38-40<\/strong> David’s military accomplishments before he became king were impressive (see 1 Sam 17:12-58; 18:17-30; 23:1-5; 30:1-31). Yet rather than exalting himself, David glorified God and gave him the credit.<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:38-40 David’s military accomplishments before he became king were impressive (see 1 Sam 17:12-58; 18:17-30; 23:1-5; 30:1-31). Yet rather than exalting himself, David glorified God and gave him the credit.","summary_en":"22:38-40 David’s military accomplishments before he became king were impressive (see 1 Sam 17:12-58; 18:17-30; 23:1-5; 30:1-31). Yet rather than exalting himself, David glorified God and gave him the credit.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":102073,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:38","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:38","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:38-40<\/strong> David’s military accomplishments before he became king were impressive (see 1 Sam 17:12-58; 18:17-30; 23:1-5; 30:1-31). Yet rather than exalting himself, David glorified God and gave him the credit.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:38-40<\/strong> David’s military accomplishments before he became king were impressive (see 1 Sam 17:12-58; 18:17-30; 23:1-5; 30:1-31). Yet rather than exalting himself, David glorified God and gave him the credit.<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:38-40 David’s military accomplishments before he became king were impressive (see 1 Sam 17:12-58; 18:17-30; 23:1-5; 30:1-31). Yet rather than exalting himself, David glorified God and gave him the credit.","summary_en":"22:38-40 David’s military accomplishments before he became king were impressive (see 1 Sam 17:12-58; 18:17-30; 23:1-5; 30:1-31). Yet rather than exalting himself, David glorified God and gave him the credit.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":129699,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:38","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:38","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:38-40<\/strong> David’s military accomplishments before he became king were impressive (see 1 Sam 17:12-58; 18:17-30; 23:1-5; 30:1-31). Yet rather than exalting himself, David glorified God and gave him the credit.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:38-40<\/strong> David’s military accomplishments before he became king were impressive (see 1 Sam 17:12-58; 18:17-30; 23:1-5; 30:1-31). Yet rather than exalting himself, David glorified God and gave him the credit.<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:38-40 David’s military accomplishments before he became king were impressive (see 1 Sam 17:12-58; 18:17-30; 23:1-5; 30:1-31). Yet rather than exalting himself, David glorified God and gave him the credit.","summary_en":"22:38-40 David’s military accomplishments before he became king were impressive (see 1 Sam 17:12-58; 18:17-30; 23:1-5; 30:1-31). Yet rather than exalting himself, David glorified God and gave him the credit.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"48":[{"id":25371,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Messiah","title_en":"Messiah","content_ro":"<h3>MESSIAH<\/h3>\n<p>Title derived from the Hebrew, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mashiach<\/span><em>,<\/em> a verbal adjective meaning “anointed one.” Along with its NT equivalent, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">christos<\/span> (Christ), it refers to an act of consecration whereby an individual is set apart to serve God and then anointed with oil. The verbal root <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mashach<\/span><em>)<\/em> conveys this idea as well.<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s practice of ceremonially anointing with oil is present in several contexts. Priests were regularly anointed prior to their divinely given service at the altar of sacrifice (Lv 4:3). While there is evidence for a literal anointing of prophets (1 Kgs 19:16), this does not appear to have been a standard practice. The anointing of Saul and David by Samuel established the act as a significant prerequisite for Hebrew kings before they assumed their positions of royal leadership. The king was especially considered to be the Lord’s anointed and as such was viewed to hold a secure position before men (1 Sm 12:14; 2 Sm 19:21) and God (Pss 2:2; 20:6). Along with numerous messianic prophecies, these proceedings helped inform the Jews of the Anointed One, par excellence, who would eventually come to bring salvation to Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Concluding the 13 articles of Hebraic faith attributed to Moses Maimonides (13th century <span>AD<\/span>) is the statement still found in many Hebrew prayer books: “I believe with a perfect heart that the Messiah will come; and although his coming be delayed, I will still wait patiently for his speedy appearance.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MessiahintheOldTestament\">Messiah in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Jewish hope for the advent of the Messiah developed dynamically from the period of David’s reign, when it was prophesied that his kingdom would endure to the end of time (2 Sm 7:16). Israel was told that, through David’s descendants, his throne would exert a never-ending dominion over all the earth (2 Sm 22:48-51; Jer 33). It is with this aspect of messianic salvation that Jewish minds have traditionally been preoccupied (cf. Acts 1:6).<\/p>\n<p>Among Orthodox rabbis there has never been a lack of conjecture respecting the details of the Messiah’s ministry. At one time the rabbis applied no less than 456 passages of Scripture to his person and salvation. Preoccupation with the Messiah is evident in the tractate <em>Sanhedrin<\/em> (Babylonian Talmud), where passages state that the world was created for him and that all the prophets prophesied of his days (<em>Sanhedrin<\/em> 98b, 99a). By and large, Orthodoxy still retains its time-worn belief in the Messiah’s reign in Jerusalem, the rebuilding of the temple, and the reestablishment of both priesthood and sacrifice.<\/p>\n<p>While later Judaism looked for the Messiah as an eschatological figure who will reign at the end of time, modern Jewish thought has largely jettisoned the traditional notion of a personal Messiah in favor of belief in a messianic age. Prevalent liberal Judaism envisions the world ultimately perfected through the influence of the twin Judaic ideals of justice and compassion. Such conviction, ignoring the plight of fallen humans and the teaching of Scripture, substitutes humanistic thinking for miraculous heavenly intervention.<\/p>\n<p>While the Messiah’s origin is linked firmly to the house of David (2 Sm 7:14; Hos 3:5), the promise for a Messiah was given long before David lived. In fact, the hope for the Messiah is implicit in the first promise of the establishment of the kingdom of God. Addressed to Satan, Genesis 3:15 declares that God will place hostility between the serpent and the woman until, in the fullness of time, the “seed” of the woman inflicts a fatal blow to the head of the serpent.<\/p>\n<p>The nature of messianic prophecy is progressive; each prophecy casts more light on the subject. This occurs, for example, respecting the concept of the “seed”: Messiah is to be born of a woman (Gn 3:15), through the line of Shem (9:26) and specifically through Abraham (22:18). Yet even as late as Genesis 22:18, the “seed” is not clearly presented as a person, since <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">zerah<\/span> (seed) may indicate a singular or plural object. Still less apparent in these early stages of messianic prophecy is the nature of the “bruising” that is to occur. Yet the idea of the Messiah being crushed for sin is implicit in the Genesis pronouncement, as is the violence associated with that act. Chief among the messianic prophets, Isaiah gives full range to the axiom that the Anointed One must endure extensive suffering (Is 53:1). Under the figure “the Servant of the Lord,” four “servant songs” delineate the mission of the future deliverer (Is 42:1-7; 49:1-9; 50:4-11; 52:13–53:12). While it is true that Isaiah does not explicitly link the title Messiah with the Servant of the Lord, identifying both figures as one and the same person is justifiable. Both figures are uniquely anointed (61:1); each brings light to the Gentiles (55:4; cf. 49:6); neither is pretentious in his first appearance (7:14-15; 11:1; cf. 42:3; 53:1); and the title of Davidic “branch” rests upon them both (11:1-4). Equally significant are the dual facts of their humiliation and exaltation (49:7; 52:13-15). Jewish scholars of the early Christian era in the Aramaic Targum on the prophets paraphrase Isaiah 42:1, “Behold my Servant Messiah” and begin Isaiah 53, “Behold my Servant Messiah will prosper.” While Cyrus may be spoken of as “anointed,” no final salvific work is attributed to him (45:1-5). Israel, although elect and loved by God (41:8), is ill-equipped as God’s servant to bring his redeeming work to mankind (42:18). The collapse of David’s dynasty points eloquently to Israel’s need for an anointed monarch who will heal the apostasy and disobedience (Ex 33:5; Hos 4:1). More and more, OT history presents Israel’s comprehensive moral failure. Her problem, which she shares with mankind, can only be solved by the making of a covenant whose surety and focal point is both a personal Savior and sovereign Lord (Jer 31:31-34). The advent of such a champion lives in the recorded promise of a shoot from the stump of Jesse’s fallen tree, who will bring the light of life to God’s benighted people (Is 9:2; 11:1).<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to get away from the idea that the concept of servanthood and lowliness belongs within the sphere of royalty (Zec 9:9). The concept of the Messiah filling the complementary offices of priest and king is incontrovertible (Ps 110:1-4); a suffering priest-king is far less obvious. Some among the Talmudic writers apparently recognized the likelihood that the Messiah would have to suffer. In the Babylonian Talmud, tractate <em>Sanhedrin<\/em> 98b, the Messiah is said to bear sicknesses and pain. Among the prayers for the Day of Atonement may be found the words of Eleazar ben Qalir (perhaps as late as <span>AD<\/span> 1000): “Our righteous Messiah has departed from us; we are horror-stricken, and there is none to justify us. Our iniquities and the yoke of our transgressions he carries, and is wounded for our transgressions. He bears on his shoulders our sins to find pardon for our iniquities. May we be healed by his stripes.” In a similar vein Rabbi Eliyya de Vidas writes, “The meaning of ‘He was wounded for our transgressions, bruised for our iniquities,’ is that since the Messiah bears our iniquities, which produce the effect of His being bruised, it follows that whosoever will not admit that the Messiah thus suffers for our iniquities must endure and suffer for them himself.” For all this, it is highly doubtful that anyone imagined the Messiah would accomplish his salvational work by means of his own death (cf. Is 53:12). When rabbinic speculation failed to satisfactorily harmonize the paradoxical facts of humiliation and exaltation, some hypothesized that God would send a Messiah to suffer as well as a Messiah to reign. Biblically, it is evident that the Anointed One’s terrible ordeal of suffering is but the necessary prelude to infinite glory. He is pictured not only as a great king (52:13; 53:12) but also as humble (53:2), humiliated (52:14), rejected (53:3), and bearing the consequences of mankind’s rebellion (vv 5-6). Yet he is raised up to intercede for, and richly bless, his people (v 12). The Messiah, having accomplished that full obedience that Adam and Israel failed to achieve, will bring Israel and the nations back to God (42:18-19; 49:3, 6).<\/p>\n<p>The writings of Daniel contain important messianic data. Daniel is unique in that he boldly speaks of “Messiah the Prince” (Dn 9:25), identifies him as the “Son of Man” (7:13), and says he suffers (“cut off,” 9:26). This statement of the cutting off (i.e., death) of the Messiah makes possible his work of atonement (9:24). The doctrine of a vicarious substitutionary atonement is the only doctrine of atonement found in the Bible (cf. Lv 17:11). Israel understood that to bear sin meant enduring the consequences, or penalty, for sin (cf. Nm 14:33). The same penal substitution is evident in the working principle of the Messiah’s atoning sacrifice. He is the victim’s substitute to whom is transferred the suffering due the sinner. The penalty having been thus borne vicariously, the suppliant is fully pardoned.<\/p>\n<p>Psalm 22:1 records the plaintive cry of the Messiah bearing man’s penalty for sin (cf. Mt 27:46) as he becomes sin on behalf of his people (2 Cor 5:21). Yet his cry, “My God,” indicates an intimate relationship that cannot be radically severed. Once again the motif of messianic humiliation prior to great exaltation is in view (Ps 22:27). In the so-called “royal psalms” (e.g., 2; 72; 110) it is the priestly intercessor who is also ordained to function as monarch and judge.<\/p>\n<p>Jeremiah brings the portrait a step further. The one who will enable humans to enter into a salvational covenant with God conveys God’s imputed righteousness: the Messiah, God’s righteous branch, becomes “the Lord our Righteousness.” Paradoxically, under the law no one could be crucified who was not guilty of sin (Dt 21:22). But it is Christ the righteous one who was crucified, thereby forever undermining any supposed legalistic confidence (Dt 21:23; Gal 3:13). More than forgiven, believers are deemed righteous in him (Jer 23:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>While the birthplace of the Messiah was well established (Mi 5:2), his deity was a hotly contested matter. Although few in ancient Israel disputed the belief in a superhuman Messiah, it is doubtful that anyone imagined him to be “God with us” in the fullest sense of the expression (cf. Heb 1:3).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MessiahintheNewTestament\">Messiah in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The NT writers present the picture that he who was the child of supernatural origins (Is 7:14; Mi 5:2) carried the full weight of divinity (Is 9:6; Phil 2:6; Col 1:19). He is the Son of God, worthy to receive the worship of all people (Ps 45:6-7; cf. Heb 1:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Jews of first-century Palestine knew that the messianic promise would be fulfilled in the coming of one like Moses (Dt 18:18). Parallels between Jesus and Moses are abundant. As mediators, innovators, and propagators of new phases of spiritual life for the people, they are unexcelled. Specifically, both are miraculously spared in infancy (Ex 2; Mt 2:13-23); both renounce a royal court for the sake of serving the people of God (Phil 2:5-8; Heb 11:24-28); both exhibit intense compassion for others (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36); both commune “face to face” with God (Ex 34:29-30; 2 Cor 3:7); and each mediates a covenant of redemption (Dt 29:1; Heb 8:6-7). But, as Luther observes, “Christ is no Moses.” In the final analysis Moses is but a household servant; the Messiah is the maker and master of all things (Heb 3:3-6; cf. Jn 1:1-2, 18).<\/p>\n<p>Family genealogies are important in Scripture. Rabbis agreed upon the absolute necessity of the Messiah’s Davidic lineage based on Hosea 3:5 and Jeremiah 30:9. The angelic announcement immediately establishes the correct lineage for Jesus (Lk 1:32-33; cf. 2:4), as does Matthew’s (Mt 1:1-17). The Lukan list, like that of Matthew, sets forth the exclusive kingly descent verifying Jesus as Messiah (Lk 3:23-38). Although variations occur between the two genealogies, there is a firm solidarity emphasizing an ancestry within the unique messianic stock. Fully aware of the messianic focus of Scripture (Jn 5:46; 8:56), Jesus acknowledged himself to be the Christ on numerous occasions. He accepted the title from blind Bartimaeus (Mk 10:46-48); from the crowds when he entered Jerusalem (Mt 21:9); from the children at the temple (v 15); and in other contexts as well (Mt 16:16-18; Mk 14:61-62; Lk 4:21; Jn 4:25-26). Nonetheless, he warned his disciples not to broadcast his mighty acts as Messiah prior to his resurrection (Mt 17:9; cf. Lk 9:20-21). Owing to the commonly held (but false) notion that the Messiah’s role was primarily that of a political liberator, Jesus actually avoided use of that term and preferred to identify himself as “the Son of Man.” It was by no means assumed that both designations referred to the same person (cf. Mk 14:61-62). Borrowing essentially from Daniel’s vision of a heavenly conqueror (Dn 7:13-14), Jesus consistently employed this less-known title and filled it with the true character and scope of messianic salvation. Jesus’ teaching in this regard enabled his disciples to correct their erroneous views concerning his mission (Mt 16:21-23). In the fullness of time they would come to see him not only as Messiah but also as the theme of the entire OT (Mt 5:17; Lk 24:27, 44; Jn 5:39; cf. Heb 10:7). When Jesus expounded the Scriptures beginning with the Torah (Lk 24:27), he did so as the living exegesis of God, the Word made flesh (Jn 1:14, 18). Legitimate messianic exposition is found in a host of texts, such as Psalms 2; 16; 22; 40; 110; Isaiah 7:14; 9:6; 11:1; 40:10-11; 50:6; 52:13–53:12; 61:1; 63:1-6; Jeremiah 23:5-6; 33:14-16; Ezekiel 34:23; 37:25; Daniel 9:24-27; Hosea 11:1; Micah 5:2; Zechariah 9:9; 11:13; 12:10; 13:7; Malachi 3:1; 4:2.<\/p>\n<p>The messiahship of Jesus is firmly proclaimed by all four evangelists (Mt 1:1; Mk 1:1; Lk 24:26; Jn 20:31). Peter on Pentecost, Philip before the Ethiopian eunuch, and Apollos in open debate all argue convincingly that Jesus is the Messiah (Acts 2:36; 8:35; 28:28). Peter says he was “made” both Lord and Christ (2:36), signifying that the resurrection rightfully confirms him as such. Similarly, the apostle Paul speaks of Jesus’ resurrection as a patent declaration of his inalienable right to the title (Rom 1:4). For the ex-Pharisee and former persecutor of the church, “Jesus the Christ” is the very heart and soul of Paul’s preaching. Nothing is worthy to be compared to the glory of the Messiah; everything pales by comparison (Phil 3:5-10). The apostle’s all-consuming passion is for others to know the fullness of God in the person of his only Son (Eph 3:14-19).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit in Scripture speaks of Jesus with wide-ranging appellatives—Holy One, Judge, Righteous One, King, Son of God, and Lord—but these are not exhaustive. In him all the lines of messianic prediction converge; he is the touchstone whereby their validity is firmly established. The Lord Jesus Christ is himself the heart and substance of that covenant through which sinful people may be reconciled to a holy God (Is 42:6; Jn 14:6). That Jesus is the Messiah of Israel, God incarnate, exhaustively fulfills prophecy, type, and symbol—all shadows of his coming. Therefore, all should trust in him, the source of all grace, the only abiding treasure (Mt 12:21; Jn 1:16-17; Col 2:3). Anointed as prophet, he leads us into all truth (Jn 6:14; 7:16); as priest he intercedes for us (Heb 7:21); and as king he reigns over us (Phil 2:9-10).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Atonement; Branch; Christology; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Redeemer, Redemption; Son of God; Son of Man.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MESSIAH<\/h3>\n<p>Title derived from the Hebrew, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mashiach<\/span><em>,<\/em> a verbal adjective meaning “anointed one.” Along with its NT equivalent, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">christos<\/span> (Christ), it refers to an act of consecration whereby an individual is set apart to serve God and then anointed with oil. The verbal root <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mashach<\/span><em>)<\/em> conveys this idea as well.<\/p>\n<p>Israel’s practice of ceremonially anointing with oil is present in several contexts. Priests were regularly anointed prior to their divinely given service at the altar of sacrifice (Lv 4:3). While there is evidence for a literal anointing of prophets (1 Kgs 19:16), this does not appear to have been a standard practice. The anointing of Saul and David by Samuel established the act as a significant prerequisite for Hebrew kings before they assumed their positions of royal leadership. The king was especially considered to be the Lord’s anointed and as such was viewed to hold a secure position before men (1 Sm 12:14; 2 Sm 19:21) and God (Pss 2:2; 20:6). Along with numerous messianic prophecies, these proceedings helped inform the Jews of the Anointed One, par excellence, who would eventually come to bring salvation to Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Concluding the 13 articles of Hebraic faith attributed to Moses Maimonides (13th century <span>AD<\/span>) is the statement still found in many Hebrew prayer books: “I believe with a perfect heart that the Messiah will come; and although his coming be delayed, I will still wait patiently for his speedy appearance.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MessiahintheOldTestament\">Messiah in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Jewish hope for the advent of the Messiah developed dynamically from the period of David’s reign, when it was prophesied that his kingdom would endure to the end of time (2 Sm 7:16). Israel was told that, through David’s descendants, his throne would exert a never-ending dominion over all the earth (2 Sm 22:48-51; Jer 33). It is with this aspect of messianic salvation that Jewish minds have traditionally been preoccupied (cf. Acts 1:6).<\/p>\n<p>Among Orthodox rabbis there has never been a lack of conjecture respecting the details of the Messiah’s ministry. At one time the rabbis applied no less than 456 passages of Scripture to his person and salvation. Preoccupation with the Messiah is evident in the tractate <em>Sanhedrin<\/em> (Babylonian Talmud), where passages state that the world was created for him and that all the prophets prophesied of his days (<em>Sanhedrin<\/em> 98b, 99a). By and large, Orthodoxy still retains its time-worn belief in the Messiah’s reign in Jerusalem, the rebuilding of the temple, and the reestablishment of both priesthood and sacrifice.<\/p>\n<p>While later Judaism looked for the Messiah as an eschatological figure who will reign at the end of time, modern Jewish thought has largely jettisoned the traditional notion of a personal Messiah in favor of belief in a messianic age. Prevalent liberal Judaism envisions the world ultimately perfected through the influence of the twin Judaic ideals of justice and compassion. Such conviction, ignoring the plight of fallen humans and the teaching of Scripture, substitutes humanistic thinking for miraculous heavenly intervention.<\/p>\n<p>While the Messiah’s origin is linked firmly to the house of David (2 Sm 7:14; Hos 3:5), the promise for a Messiah was given long before David lived. In fact, the hope for the Messiah is implicit in the first promise of the establishment of the kingdom of God. Addressed to Satan, Genesis 3:15 declares that God will place hostility between the serpent and the woman until, in the fullness of time, the “seed” of the woman inflicts a fatal blow to the head of the serpent.<\/p>\n<p>The nature of messianic prophecy is progressive; each prophecy casts more light on the subject. This occurs, for example, respecting the concept of the “seed”: Messiah is to be born of a woman (Gn 3:15), through the line of Shem (9:26) and specifically through Abraham (22:18). Yet even as late as Genesis 22:18, the “seed” is not clearly presented as a person, since <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">zerah<\/span> (seed) may indicate a singular or plural object. Still less apparent in these early stages of messianic prophecy is the nature of the “bruising” that is to occur. Yet the idea of the Messiah being crushed for sin is implicit in the Genesis pronouncement, as is the violence associated with that act. Chief among the messianic prophets, Isaiah gives full range to the axiom that the Anointed One must endure extensive suffering (Is 53:1). Under the figure “the Servant of the Lord,” four “servant songs” delineate the mission of the future deliverer (Is 42:1-7; 49:1-9; 50:4-11; 52:13–53:12). While it is true that Isaiah does not explicitly link the title Messiah with the Servant of the Lord, identifying both figures as one and the same person is justifiable. Both figures are uniquely anointed (61:1); each brings light to the Gentiles (55:4; cf. 49:6); neither is pretentious in his first appearance (7:14-15; 11:1; cf. 42:3; 53:1); and the title of Davidic “branch” rests upon them both (11:1-4). Equally significant are the dual facts of their humiliation and exaltation (49:7; 52:13-15). Jewish scholars of the early Christian era in the Aramaic Targum on the prophets paraphrase Isaiah 42:1, “Behold my Servant Messiah” and begin Isaiah 53, “Behold my Servant Messiah will prosper.” While Cyrus may be spoken of as “anointed,” no final salvific work is attributed to him (45:1-5). Israel, although elect and loved by God (41:8), is ill-equipped as God’s servant to bring his redeeming work to mankind (42:18). The collapse of David’s dynasty points eloquently to Israel’s need for an anointed monarch who will heal the apostasy and disobedience (Ex 33:5; Hos 4:1). More and more, OT history presents Israel’s comprehensive moral failure. Her problem, which she shares with mankind, can only be solved by the making of a covenant whose surety and focal point is both a personal Savior and sovereign Lord (Jer 31:31-34). The advent of such a champion lives in the recorded promise of a shoot from the stump of Jesse’s fallen tree, who will bring the light of life to God’s benighted people (Is 9:2; 11:1).<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to get away from the idea that the concept of servanthood and lowliness belongs within the sphere of royalty (Zec 9:9). The concept of the Messiah filling the complementary offices of priest and king is incontrovertible (Ps 110:1-4); a suffering priest-king is far less obvious. Some among the Talmudic writers apparently recognized the likelihood that the Messiah would have to suffer. In the Babylonian Talmud, tractate <em>Sanhedrin<\/em> 98b, the Messiah is said to bear sicknesses and pain. Among the prayers for the Day of Atonement may be found the words of Eleazar ben Qalir (perhaps as late as <span>AD<\/span> 1000): “Our righteous Messiah has departed from us; we are horror-stricken, and there is none to justify us. Our iniquities and the yoke of our transgressions he carries, and is wounded for our transgressions. He bears on his shoulders our sins to find pardon for our iniquities. May we be healed by his stripes.” In a similar vein Rabbi Eliyya de Vidas writes, “The meaning of ‘He was wounded for our transgressions, bruised for our iniquities,’ is that since the Messiah bears our iniquities, which produce the effect of His being bruised, it follows that whosoever will not admit that the Messiah thus suffers for our iniquities must endure and suffer for them himself.” For all this, it is highly doubtful that anyone imagined the Messiah would accomplish his salvational work by means of his own death (cf. Is 53:12). When rabbinic speculation failed to satisfactorily harmonize the paradoxical facts of humiliation and exaltation, some hypothesized that God would send a Messiah to suffer as well as a Messiah to reign. Biblically, it is evident that the Anointed One’s terrible ordeal of suffering is but the necessary prelude to infinite glory. He is pictured not only as a great king (52:13; 53:12) but also as humble (53:2), humiliated (52:14), rejected (53:3), and bearing the consequences of mankind’s rebellion (vv 5-6). Yet he is raised up to intercede for, and richly bless, his people (v 12). The Messiah, having accomplished that full obedience that Adam and Israel failed to achieve, will bring Israel and the nations back to God (42:18-19; 49:3, 6).<\/p>\n<p>The writings of Daniel contain important messianic data. Daniel is unique in that he boldly speaks of “Messiah the Prince” (Dn 9:25), identifies him as the “Son of Man” (7:13), and says he suffers (“cut off,” 9:26). This statement of the cutting off (i.e., death) of the Messiah makes possible his work of atonement (9:24). The doctrine of a vicarious substitutionary atonement is the only doctrine of atonement found in the Bible (cf. Lv 17:11). Israel understood that to bear sin meant enduring the consequences, or penalty, for sin (cf. Nm 14:33). The same penal substitution is evident in the working principle of the Messiah’s atoning sacrifice. He is the victim’s substitute to whom is transferred the suffering due the sinner. The penalty having been thus borne vicariously, the suppliant is fully pardoned.<\/p>\n<p>Psalm 22:1 records the plaintive cry of the Messiah bearing man’s penalty for sin (cf. Mt 27:46) as he becomes sin on behalf of his people (2 Cor 5:21). Yet his cry, “My God,” indicates an intimate relationship that cannot be radically severed. Once again the motif of messianic humiliation prior to great exaltation is in view (Ps 22:27). In the so-called “royal psalms” (e.g., 2; 72; 110) it is the priestly intercessor who is also ordained to function as monarch and judge.<\/p>\n<p>Jeremiah brings the portrait a step further. The one who will enable humans to enter into a salvational covenant with God conveys God’s imputed righteousness: the Messiah, God’s righteous branch, becomes “the Lord our Righteousness.” Paradoxically, under the law no one could be crucified who was not guilty of sin (Dt 21:22). But it is Christ the righteous one who was crucified, thereby forever undermining any supposed legalistic confidence (Dt 21:23; Gal 3:13). More than forgiven, believers are deemed righteous in him (Jer 23:5-6).<\/p>\n<p>While the birthplace of the Messiah was well established (Mi 5:2), his deity was a hotly contested matter. Although few in ancient Israel disputed the belief in a superhuman Messiah, it is doubtful that anyone imagined him to be “God with us” in the fullest sense of the expression (cf. Heb 1:3).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MessiahintheNewTestament\">Messiah in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The NT writers present the picture that he who was the child of supernatural origins (Is 7:14; Mi 5:2) carried the full weight of divinity (Is 9:6; Phil 2:6; Col 1:19). He is the Son of God, worthy to receive the worship of all people (Ps 45:6-7; cf. Heb 1:8-9).<\/p>\n<p>The Jews of first-century Palestine knew that the messianic promise would be fulfilled in the coming of one like Moses (Dt 18:18). Parallels between Jesus and Moses are abundant. As mediators, innovators, and propagators of new phases of spiritual life for the people, they are unexcelled. Specifically, both are miraculously spared in infancy (Ex 2; Mt 2:13-23); both renounce a royal court for the sake of serving the people of God (Phil 2:5-8; Heb 11:24-28); both exhibit intense compassion for others (Nm 27:17; Mt 9:36); both commune “face to face” with God (Ex 34:29-30; 2 Cor 3:7); and each mediates a covenant of redemption (Dt 29:1; Heb 8:6-7). But, as Luther observes, “Christ is no Moses.” In the final analysis Moses is but a household servant; the Messiah is the maker and master of all things (Heb 3:3-6; cf. Jn 1:1-2, 18).<\/p>\n<p>Family genealogies are important in Scripture. Rabbis agreed upon the absolute necessity of the Messiah’s Davidic lineage based on Hosea 3:5 and Jeremiah 30:9. The angelic announcement immediately establishes the correct lineage for Jesus (Lk 1:32-33; cf. 2:4), as does Matthew’s (Mt 1:1-17). The Lukan list, like that of Matthew, sets forth the exclusive kingly descent verifying Jesus as Messiah (Lk 3:23-38). Although variations occur between the two genealogies, there is a firm solidarity emphasizing an ancestry within the unique messianic stock. Fully aware of the messianic focus of Scripture (Jn 5:46; 8:56), Jesus acknowledged himself to be the Christ on numerous occasions. He accepted the title from blind Bartimaeus (Mk 10:46-48); from the crowds when he entered Jerusalem (Mt 21:9); from the children at the temple (v 15); and in other contexts as well (Mt 16:16-18; Mk 14:61-62; Lk 4:21; Jn 4:25-26). Nonetheless, he warned his disciples not to broadcast his mighty acts as Messiah prior to his resurrection (Mt 17:9; cf. Lk 9:20-21). Owing to the commonly held (but false) notion that the Messiah’s role was primarily that of a political liberator, Jesus actually avoided use of that term and preferred to identify himself as “the Son of Man.” It was by no means assumed that both designations referred to the same person (cf. Mk 14:61-62). Borrowing essentially from Daniel’s vision of a heavenly conqueror (Dn 7:13-14), Jesus consistently employed this less-known title and filled it with the true character and scope of messianic salvation. Jesus’ teaching in this regard enabled his disciples to correct their erroneous views concerning his mission (Mt 16:21-23). In the fullness of time they would come to see him not only as Messiah but also as the theme of the entire OT (Mt 5:17; Lk 24:27, 44; Jn 5:39; cf. Heb 10:7). When Jesus expounded the Scriptures beginning with the Torah (Lk 24:27), he did so as the living exegesis of God, the Word made flesh (Jn 1:14, 18). Legitimate messianic exposition is found in a host of texts, such as Psalms 2; 16; 22; 40; 110; Isaiah 7:14; 9:6; 11:1; 40:10-11; 50:6; 52:13–53:12; 61:1; 63:1-6; Jeremiah 23:5-6; 33:14-16; Ezekiel 34:23; 37:25; Daniel 9:24-27; Hosea 11:1; Micah 5:2; Zechariah 9:9; 11:13; 12:10; 13:7; Malachi 3:1; 4:2.<\/p>\n<p>The messiahship of Jesus is firmly proclaimed by all four evangelists (Mt 1:1; Mk 1:1; Lk 24:26; Jn 20:31). Peter on Pentecost, Philip before the Ethiopian eunuch, and Apollos in open debate all argue convincingly that Jesus is the Messiah (Acts 2:36; 8:35; 28:28). Peter says he was “made” both Lord and Christ (2:36), signifying that the resurrection rightfully confirms him as such. Similarly, the apostle Paul speaks of Jesus’ resurrection as a patent declaration of his inalienable right to the title (Rom 1:4). For the ex-Pharisee and former persecutor of the church, “Jesus the Christ” is the very heart and soul of Paul’s preaching. Nothing is worthy to be compared to the glory of the Messiah; everything pales by comparison (Phil 3:5-10). The apostle’s all-consuming passion is for others to know the fullness of God in the person of his only Son (Eph 3:14-19).<\/p>\n<p>The Holy Spirit in Scripture speaks of Jesus with wide-ranging appellatives—Holy One, Judge, Righteous One, King, Son of God, and Lord—but these are not exhaustive. In him all the lines of messianic prediction converge; he is the touchstone whereby their validity is firmly established. The Lord Jesus Christ is himself the heart and substance of that covenant through which sinful people may be reconciled to a holy God (Is 42:6; Jn 14:6). That Jesus is the Messiah of Israel, God incarnate, exhaustively fulfills prophecy, type, and symbol—all shadows of his coming. Therefore, all should trust in him, the source of all grace, the only abiding treasure (Mt 12:21; Jn 1:16-17; Col 2:3). Anointed as prophet, he leads us into all truth (Jn 6:14; 7:16); as priest he intercedes for us (Heb 7:21); and as king he reigns over us (Phil 2:9-10).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Atonement; Branch; Christology; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Redeemer, Redemption; Son of God; Son of Man.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MESSIAH Title derived from the Hebrew, mashiach, a verbal adjective meaning “anointed one.” Along with its NT equivalent, christos (Christ), it refers to an act of consecration whereby an individual is set apart to serve God and then anointed with oil. The verbal root (mashach) conveys this idea as well. Israel’s practice of ceremonially anointing with oil is present in several contexts. Priests were regularly anointed prior to their divinely given service at the altar of sacrifice (Lv 4:3). ...","summary_en":"MESSIAH Title derived from the Hebrew, mashiach, a verbal adjective meaning “anointed one.” Along with its NT equivalent, christos (Christ), it refers to an act of consecration whereby an individual is set apart to serve God and then anointed with oil. The verbal root (mashach) conveys this idea as well. Israel’s practice of ceremonially anointing with oil is present in several contexts. Priests were regularly anointed prior to their divinely given service at the altar of sacrifice (Lv 4:3). ...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"51":[{"id":46822,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:51","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:51","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:51<\/strong> Cp. 7:5-29; 1 Sam 2:10.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:51<\/strong> Cp. 7:5-29; 1 Sam 2:10.<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:51 Cp. 7:5-29; 1 Sam 2:10.","summary_en":"22:51 Cp. 7:5-29; 1 Sam 2:10.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":74448,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:51","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:51","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:51<\/strong> Cp. 7:5-29; 1 Sam 2:10.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:51<\/strong> Cp. 7:5-29; 1 Sam 2:10.<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:51 Cp. 7:5-29; 1 Sam 2:10.","summary_en":"22:51 Cp. 7:5-29; 1 Sam 2:10.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":102074,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:51","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:51","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:51<\/strong> Cp. 7:5-29; 1 Sam 2:10.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:51<\/strong> Cp. 7:5-29; 1 Sam 2:10.<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:51 Cp. 7:5-29; 1 Sam 2:10.","summary_en":"22:51 Cp. 7:5-29; 1 Sam 2:10.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":129700,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 22:51","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 22:51","content_ro":"<p><strong>22:51<\/strong> Cp. 7:5-29; 1 Sam 2:10.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>22:51<\/strong> Cp. 7:5-29; 1 Sam 2:10.<\/p>","summary_ro":"22:51 Cp. 7:5-29; 1 Sam 2:10.","summary_en":"22:51 Cp. 7:5-29; 1 Sam 2:10.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}
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