2 Samuel 6
1 David a strâns iarăş pe toţi aleşii lui Israel, în număr de treizeci de mii de oameni.
2 Şi David, cu tot poporul care era cu el, a pornit dela Baale-Iuda, ca să suie de acolo chivotul lui Dumnezeu, înaintea căruia este chemat Numele Domnului oştirilor, care stă între Heruvimi deasupra chivotului.
3 Au pus chivotul lui Dumnezeu într-un car nou, şi l-au ridicat din casa lui Abinadab, de pe deal; Uza şi Ahio, fiul lui Abinadab, cârmuiau carul cel nou.
4 L-au luat dar din casa lui Abinadab de pe deal; Uza mergea alături de chivotul lui Dumnezeu, şi Ahio mergea înaintea chivotului.
5 David şi toată casa lui Israel cântau înaintea Domnului cu tot felul de instrumente de lemn de chiparos, cu arfe, cu lăute, cu timpane, cu fluere şi cu ţimbale.
6 Când au ajuns la aria lui Nacon, Uza a întins mâna spre chivotul lui Dumnezeu şi l-a apucat, pentrucă erau să-l răstoarne boii.
7 Domnul S-a aprins de mânie împotriva lui Uza, şi Dumnezeu l-a lovit pe loc pentru păcatul lui, şi a murit acolo lângă chivotul lui Dumnezeu.
8 David s-a întristat că Dumnezeu lovise pe Uza cu o astfel de pedeapsă, rupându-l pe loc. Şi locul acesta a fost numit până în ziua de azi Pereţ-Uza (Ruperea lui Uza).
9 David s-a temut de Domnul în ziua aceea, şi a zis: ,,Cum să intre chivotul Domnului la mine?``
10 N-a vrut să aducă chivotul Domnului la el în cetatea lui David, şi l-a dus în casa lui Obed-Edom din Gat.
11 Chivotul Domnului a rămas trei luni în casa lui Obed-Edom din Gat, şi Domnul a binecuvântat pe Obed-Edom şi toată casa lui.
12 Au venit şi au spus împăratului David: ,,Domnul a binecuvântat casa lui Obed-Edom şi tot ce avea, din pricina chivotului lui Dumnezeu.`` Atunci David a pornit, şi a suit chivotul lui Dumnezeu din casa lui Obed-Edom în cetatea lui David, în mijlocul veseliei.
13 Când ceice duceau chivotul Domnului au făcut şase paşi, au jertfit un bou şi un viţel gras.
14 David juca din răsputeri înaintea Domnului, şi era încins cu efodul de in subţire.
15 Astfel au suit David şi toată casa lui Israel chivotul Domnului, în strigăte de bucurie şi în sunet de trâmbiţe.
16 Pe când chivotul Domnului intra în cetatea lui David, Mical, fata lui Saul, se uita pe fereastră; şi, văzând pe împăratul David sărind şi jucând înaintea Domnului, l-a dispreţuit în inima ei.
17 După ce au adus chivotul Domnului, l-au pus la locul lui în mijlocul cortului pe care-l ridicase David pentru chivot; şi David a adus... înaintea Domnului arderi de tot şi jertfe de mulţămire.
18 Când a isprăvit David de adus arderile de tot şi jertfele de mulţămire, a binecuvântat poporul în Numele Domnului oştirilor.
19 Apoi a împărţit la tot poporul, la toată mulţimea lui Israel, bărbaţi şi femei, fiecăruia câte o pâne, o bucată de carne şi o turtă de stafide. Şi tot poporul a plecat, fiecare la casa lui.
20 David s-a întors să-şi binecuvinteze casa. Mical, fata lui Saul, i-a ieşit înainte, şi a zis: ,,Cu câtă cinste s-a purtat azi împăratul lui Israel descoperindu-se înaintea slujnicelor supuşilor lui, cum s-ar descoperi un om... de nimic!``
21 David a răspuns Micalei: ,,Înaintea Domnului, care m-a ales mai pe sus de tatăl tău şi de toată casa lui, ca să mă pună căpetenie peste poporul Domnului, peste Israel, înaintea Domnului am jucat.
22 Vreau să mă arăt şi mai de nimic de cât de data asta, şi să mă înjosesc în ochii mei; totuş voi fi în cinste la slujnicele de cari vorbeşti.``
23 Şi Mical, fata lui Saul, n-a avut copii până în ziua morţii ei.
{"verseMap":{"1":[{"id":2709,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ark of the Covenant","title_en":"Ark of the Covenant","content_ro":"<h3>ARK OF THE COVENANT<\/h3>\n<p>Most important piece of furniture in the wilderness tabernacle (tent-sanctuary) that God instructed Moses to build (Ex 25:10-22). The Hebrew word for ark can also mean “chest” (2 Kgs 12:9-10) or “coffin” (Gn 50:26), but it is not the same word used for Noah’s ark. The ark that Moses had Bezalel make was an oblong chest made of acacia wood (Ex 31:1-5; 37:1-9). The chest measured approximately 45 by 27 by 27 inches (114 by 69 by 69 centimeters), and was overlaid inside and out with gold. It was fitted with two pairs of rings through which poles were slid to make it portable. The ark would also serve as container for the two tablets of the covenant that would be given to Moses (Ex 25:16). Since the tablets were also called the “testimony,” the ark was sometimes called the “ark of the testimony.” Also in the ark were placed a pot of manna, the miraculous food provided by God (Ex 16:33), and Aaron’s rod that had budded (Nm 17:10; Heb 9:4).<\/p>\n<p>The lid of the ark was called the “mercy seat” or “place of mercy” (Ex 25:17). It was a slab of gold fitting over the top of the ark and having an importance of its own. Once a year the high priest was to make atonement for the people of Israel by sprinkling the mercy seat with the blood of bulls and goats (Lv 16:2-16). In fact, the English expression “mercy seat” is related to the Hebrew word for “atone.” The lid was called a “seat” because the Lord was considered as enthroned between two cherubim (winged creatures) positioned opposite each other (Ps 99:1). The Lord spoke to Moses from between the cherubim (Nm 7:89).<\/p>\n<p>The ark was sometimes referred to simply as the ark (Ex 37:1; Nm 3:31), at other times as the “ark of the covenant” (Nm 4:5; Jos 4:16). The Israelites were thus reminded that the ark’s holiness was not magical but derived from the holy law of God contained inside it. That name also confronted the Israelites with their need to follow the commands God had given in his “covenant.”<\/p>\n<p>Those commands were given by the God of the covenant (or promise) who had rescued Israel from slavery in Egypt and who had promised to be the ever-present God of his people (Ex 6:6-7). Hence the ark was most widely known as the “ark of the covenant.” Sometimes that name was expanded to “the Ark of the <span>Lord<\/span>’s covenant” (1 Chr 28:18, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>At times the ark was called “the Ark of God.” It was a visible sign that the invisible God was dwelling in Israel’s midst. It had a devastating and often deadly “holiness.” The people of Beth-shemesh were severely punished after they had treated the ark without proper reverence (1 Sm 6:19). A man named Uzzah was killed by the Lord when he touched it with his hand to keep it from tumbling to the ground from a cart (2 Sm 6:6-9). The ark was dangerous to touch because it was the very symbol of God’s presence. For this reason God commanded that the ark be placed in the Holy of Holies, separated from the rest of the tabernacle (and later the temple) by a heavy veil (Ex 26:31-33; Heb 9:3-5); no sinful man could look upon the glory of God above the ark and live (Lv 16:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"History\">History<\/p>\n<p>When the Israelites journeyed from Mt Sinai to Canaan, the ark accompanied them in their trek through the desert. It was to be a constant reminder of the holy presence of their God. The ark was spoken of in the accounts of that journey almost as though it were endowed with personal features (Nm 10:33-36). Although the wrapping and carrying of the sacred objects were carefully detailed (Nm 4), God’s relationship with the ark was so close that the ark seemed to be “alive.”<\/p>\n<p>The ark clearly played a benevolent role during the desert journey. A group of Israelites rebelled and tried to invade Canaan on their own, although neither the ark nor Moses went with them (Nm 14:44). The result was defeat at the hands of their enemies (Nm 14:45). The ark played an important role in the crossing of the Jordan (Jos 3:13-17; 4:9-10), the conquest of Jericho (Jos 6:6-11), and the life of the Israelites in their new land (Jos 8:33; Jgs 20:27). There is no hint of superstitious or magical use of the ark; it was not a fetish, talisman, or charm. Yet it had solemn significance as the container of God’s “testimony” and as the pledge of his presence.<\/p>\n<p>A sharp contrast to the role of the ark in Joshua’s day is found in later times. In the days of Eli and his sons, that is, at the end of the period of the judges, religious life in Israel was at a low ebb. The ark was still venerated but looked upon as a fetish to ensure success or victory automatically. When losing a battle with the Philistines, the Israelites rushed the sacred chest to the battlefield, thereby hoping to gain a victory (1 Sm 4:1-10). But the Lord did not tolerate such flagrant misuse of the ark. He allowed it to be captured by the uncircumcised Philistines (1 Sm 4:11) and inflicted defeat on Israel and death on the house of the high priest Eli (1 Sm 4:13-22).<\/p>\n<p>At the same time, God vindicated the honor of the ark when it was offered to Dagon, the god of the Philistines. The account of the efforts of the pagan Philistines to get rid of the ark is humorous (1 Sm 5–6). The biblical writer dramatically illustrated that the holy ark could neither be treated superstitiously by God’s people nor mocked by his enemies.<\/p>\n<p>Samuel, a great reformer and prophet, made no attempt to restore the ark to a place of prominence after it was returned to Israel. He allowed it to remain in Kiriath-jearim (1 Sm 6:21; 7:2). Samuel first had to bring Israel back to obedience to God’s covenant before the ark of the covenant could be of any use. David, described as a king after God’s own heart and chosen to replace the disobedient Saul, exerted efforts to bring the ark back to a prominent place (2 Sm 6:1-17). It may have been to David’s political advantage to add prestige to his newly established capital, Jerusalem, formerly the Canaanite stronghold of Jebus. But Psalm 132 describes David’s concern for the honor of God and for the ark. In a moment of great religious joy and enthusiasm he addressed God directly: “Arise, O <span>Lord<\/span>, and go to thy resting place, thou and the ark of thy might” (v 8, <span>rsv<\/span>). To restless David, the ark had also been “restless” as long as Israel had not yet obtained its “rest,” that is, as long as Canaan had not been completely conquered. Some measure of peace had already come during Joshua’s time (Jos 21:43-45), but much remained to be done. By conquering Jebus, David virtually completed the conquest of the Promised Land. Finally the land had rest and the Lord could then “dwell” in his temple, the suitable resting place for the ark. Nevertheless, David’s desire to build a temple for the ark was not granted (2 Sm 7:1-17). He was told that his son Solomon would build a home for the ark and for the Lord. Solomon erected a magnificent temple with a place for the ark in the most holy part, behind the curtains (1 Kgs 8:1-11).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ARK OF THE COVENANT<\/h3>\n<p>Most important piece of furniture in the wilderness tabernacle (tent-sanctuary) that God instructed Moses to build (Ex 25:10-22). The Hebrew word for ark can also mean “chest” (2 Kgs 12:9-10) or “coffin” (Gn 50:26), but it is not the same word used for Noah’s ark. The ark that Moses had Bezalel make was an oblong chest made of acacia wood (Ex 31:1-5; 37:1-9). The chest measured approximately 45 by 27 by 27 inches (114 by 69 by 69 centimeters), and was overlaid inside and out with gold. It was fitted with two pairs of rings through which poles were slid to make it portable. The ark would also serve as container for the two tablets of the covenant that would be given to Moses (Ex 25:16). Since the tablets were also called the “testimony,” the ark was sometimes called the “ark of the testimony.” Also in the ark were placed a pot of manna, the miraculous food provided by God (Ex 16:33), and Aaron’s rod that had budded (Nm 17:10; Heb 9:4).<\/p>\n<p>The lid of the ark was called the “mercy seat” or “place of mercy” (Ex 25:17). It was a slab of gold fitting over the top of the ark and having an importance of its own. Once a year the high priest was to make atonement for the people of Israel by sprinkling the mercy seat with the blood of bulls and goats (Lv 16:2-16). In fact, the English expression “mercy seat” is related to the Hebrew word for “atone.” The lid was called a “seat” because the Lord was considered as enthroned between two cherubim (winged creatures) positioned opposite each other (Ps 99:1). The Lord spoke to Moses from between the cherubim (Nm 7:89).<\/p>\n<p>The ark was sometimes referred to simply as the ark (Ex 37:1; Nm 3:31), at other times as the “ark of the covenant” (Nm 4:5; Jos 4:16). The Israelites were thus reminded that the ark’s holiness was not magical but derived from the holy law of God contained inside it. That name also confronted the Israelites with their need to follow the commands God had given in his “covenant.”<\/p>\n<p>Those commands were given by the God of the covenant (or promise) who had rescued Israel from slavery in Egypt and who had promised to be the ever-present God of his people (Ex 6:6-7). Hence the ark was most widely known as the “ark of the covenant.” Sometimes that name was expanded to “the Ark of the <span>Lord<\/span>’s covenant” (1 Chr 28:18, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>At times the ark was called “the Ark of God.” It was a visible sign that the invisible God was dwelling in Israel’s midst. It had a devastating and often deadly “holiness.” The people of Beth-shemesh were severely punished after they had treated the ark without proper reverence (1 Sm 6:19). A man named Uzzah was killed by the Lord when he touched it with his hand to keep it from tumbling to the ground from a cart (2 Sm 6:6-9). The ark was dangerous to touch because it was the very symbol of God’s presence. For this reason God commanded that the ark be placed in the Holy of Holies, separated from the rest of the tabernacle (and later the temple) by a heavy veil (Ex 26:31-33; Heb 9:3-5); no sinful man could look upon the glory of God above the ark and live (Lv 16:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"History\">History<\/p>\n<p>When the Israelites journeyed from Mt Sinai to Canaan, the ark accompanied them in their trek through the desert. It was to be a constant reminder of the holy presence of their God. The ark was spoken of in the accounts of that journey almost as though it were endowed with personal features (Nm 10:33-36). Although the wrapping and carrying of the sacred objects were carefully detailed (Nm 4), God’s relationship with the ark was so close that the ark seemed to be “alive.”<\/p>\n<p>The ark clearly played a benevolent role during the desert journey. A group of Israelites rebelled and tried to invade Canaan on their own, although neither the ark nor Moses went with them (Nm 14:44). The result was defeat at the hands of their enemies (Nm 14:45). The ark played an important role in the crossing of the Jordan (Jos 3:13-17; 4:9-10), the conquest of Jericho (Jos 6:6-11), and the life of the Israelites in their new land (Jos 8:33; Jgs 20:27). There is no hint of superstitious or magical use of the ark; it was not a fetish, talisman, or charm. Yet it had solemn significance as the container of God’s “testimony” and as the pledge of his presence.<\/p>\n<p>A sharp contrast to the role of the ark in Joshua’s day is found in later times. In the days of Eli and his sons, that is, at the end of the period of the judges, religious life in Israel was at a low ebb. The ark was still venerated but looked upon as a fetish to ensure success or victory automatically. When losing a battle with the Philistines, the Israelites rushed the sacred chest to the battlefield, thereby hoping to gain a victory (1 Sm 4:1-10). But the Lord did not tolerate such flagrant misuse of the ark. He allowed it to be captured by the uncircumcised Philistines (1 Sm 4:11) and inflicted defeat on Israel and death on the house of the high priest Eli (1 Sm 4:13-22).<\/p>\n<p>At the same time, God vindicated the honor of the ark when it was offered to Dagon, the god of the Philistines. The account of the efforts of the pagan Philistines to get rid of the ark is humorous (1 Sm 5–6). The biblical writer dramatically illustrated that the holy ark could neither be treated superstitiously by God’s people nor mocked by his enemies.<\/p>\n<p>Samuel, a great reformer and prophet, made no attempt to restore the ark to a place of prominence after it was returned to Israel. He allowed it to remain in Kiriath-jearim (1 Sm 6:21; 7:2). Samuel first had to bring Israel back to obedience to God’s covenant before the ark of the covenant could be of any use. David, described as a king after God’s own heart and chosen to replace the disobedient Saul, exerted efforts to bring the ark back to a prominent place (2 Sm 6:1-17). It may have been to David’s political advantage to add prestige to his newly established capital, Jerusalem, formerly the Canaanite stronghold of Jebus. But Psalm 132 describes David’s concern for the honor of God and for the ark. In a moment of great religious joy and enthusiasm he addressed God directly: “Arise, O <span>Lord<\/span>, and go to thy resting place, thou and the ark of thy might” (v 8, <span>rsv<\/span>). To restless David, the ark had also been “restless” as long as Israel had not yet obtained its “rest,” that is, as long as Canaan had not been completely conquered. Some measure of peace had already come during Joshua’s time (Jos 21:43-45), but much remained to be done. By conquering Jebus, David virtually completed the conquest of the Promised Land. Finally the land had rest and the Lord could then “dwell” in his temple, the suitable resting place for the ark. Nevertheless, David’s desire to build a temple for the ark was not granted (2 Sm 7:1-17). He was told that his son Solomon would build a home for the ark and for the Lord. Solomon erected a magnificent temple with a place for the ark in the most holy part, behind the curtains (1 Kgs 8:1-11).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ARK OF THE COVENANT Most important piece of furniture in the wilderness tabernacle (tent-sanctuary) that God instructed Moses to build (Ex 25:10-22). The Hebrew word for ark can also mean “chest” (2 Kgs 12:9-10) or “coffin” (Gn 50:26), but it is not the same word used for Noah’s ark. The ark that Moses had Bezalel make was an oblong chest made of acacia wood (Ex 31:1-5; 37:1-9). The chest measured approximately 45 by 27 by 27 inches (114 by 69 by 69 centimeters), and was overlaid inside and o...","summary_en":"ARK OF THE COVENANT Most important piece of furniture in the wilderness tabernacle (tent-sanctuary) that God instructed Moses to build (Ex 25:10-22). The Hebrew word for ark can also mean “chest” (2 Kgs 12:9-10) or “coffin” (Gn 50:26), but it is not the same word used for Noah’s ark. The ark that Moses had Bezalel make was an oblong chest made of acacia wood (Ex 31:1-5; 37:1-9). The chest measured approximately 45 by 27 by 27 inches (114 by 69 by 69 centimeters), and was overlaid inside and o...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":8728,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"David","title_en":"David","content_ro":"<h3>DAVID<\/h3>\n<p>Israel’s most important king. David’s kingdom represented the epitome of Israel’s power and influence during the nation’s OT history.<\/p>\n<p>The two books in the OT devoted to David’s reign are 2 Samuel and 1 Chronicles. His earlier years are recorded in 1 Samuel, beginning at chapter 16. Almost half of the biblical psalms are ascribed to David. His importance extends into the NT, where he is identified as an ancestor of Jesus Christ and forerunner of the messianic king.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Early Years<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Kingship<\/p>\n<p>• David as King<\/p>\n<p>David’s Lasting Influence<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"EarlyYears\">Early Years<\/p>\n<h5>Family<\/h5>\n<p>David was the youngest son in Jesse’s family, part of Judah’s tribe. The family lived in Bethlehem, about six miles (10 kilometers) south of Jerusalem. His great-grandmother was Ruth, from the land of Moab (Ru 4:18-22). Genealogies in both the OT and the NT trace David’s lineage back to Judah, son of the patriarch Jacob (1 Chr 2:3-15; Mt 1:3-6; Lk 3:31-33).<\/p>\n<h5>Training and Talents<\/h5>\n<p>Little is known about David’s early life. As a boy, he took care of his father’s sheep, risking his life to kill attacking bears and lions. Later, David publicly acknowledged God’s help and strength in protecting the flocks under his care (1 Sm 17:34-37).<\/p>\n<p>David was an accomplished musician. He had developed his ability as a harpist so well that, when a musician was needed at the royal court of King Saul, someone immediately recommended David.<\/p>\n<p>In Jesse’s family, David was regarded as unimportant. When the nationally known prophet Samuel visited Jesse’s home, all the older sons were on hand to meet him; David was tending the sheep. Samuel had been instructed by God to anoint a king from Jesse’s family, not knowing beforehand which son to anoint. Sensing divine restraint as seven brothers passed before him, he made further inquiry. When he learned that Jesse had one other son, David was immediately summoned. David was anointed by Samuel and endowed with the Spirit of the Lord (1 Sm 16:1-13). Whatever Jesse and his family understood by that anointing, it seems to have made no immediate change in David’s pattern of living. He continued to tend the sheep.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforKingship\">Preparation for Kingship<\/p>\n<p>During his youth, David was willing to serve others, even though he had been anointed king. It was his willingness to take supplies to three of his older brothers in the army that gave him his opportunity for national fame.<\/p>\n<p>As a young man, David was also sensitive toward God. While greeting his brothers on the battlefield, he was disturbed by the Philistine Goliath’s defiance of God’s armies. Although rebuked by his brothers, David accepted the challenge to take on Goliath. He had a reasonable confidence that God, who had helped him encounter a lion and a bear, would aid him against a champion warrior. So, with faith in God and using his ability to sling stones, David killed Goliath (1 Sm 17:12-58).<\/p>\n<h5>National Fame<\/h5>\n<p>Killing Goliath made David a hero to the nation of Israel. It also brought him into close relationship with the royal family of Saul. But success and national acclaim brought on the jealousy of Saul and ultimately resulted in David’s expulsion from the land of Israel.<\/p>\n<h5>In the Royal Court<\/h5>\n<p>Saul promised his oldest daughter, Merab, to David in marriage, but then Saul went back on the promise and offered David another daughter, Michal. The dowry of trophies from dead Philistines demanded by Saul was designed to bring about David’s death at Philistine hands. But again David was victorious. Women sang praises of his exploits, intensifying Saul’s jealousy and further endangering David’s life (1 Sm 18:6-30).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime, David and Saul’s son Jonathan developed a deep friendship. When they made a covenant, Jonathan gave David his choicest military equipment (sword, bow, and belt). Although Saul tried to turn Jonathan against David, the friendship deepened. Because Saul was trying to kill him, David had to flee from the court and live as a fugitive.<\/p>\n<p>After Jonathan had warned David of Saul’s continuing designs on his life, David went to Ramah to see the prophet Samuel. Together they went to Naioth, near Ramah. After sending several groups of men after David, Saul finally went with them himself. All his attempts to seize David were thwarted by the Spirit of God, who caused Saul and his men to prophesy all night in religious fervor (1 Sm 19).<\/p>\n<p>Conferring again with Jonathan, David realized that Saul’s jealousy had developed into hatred. Jonathan, aware that David would be the future king of Israel, requested assurance that his descendants would receive protection under David’s rule (1 Sm 20).<\/p>\n<h5>Life as a Fugitive<\/h5>\n<p>Fleeing from Saul, David stopped at Nob. By deceiving Ahimelech, who was officiating as priest there, David obtained food supplies and Goliath’s sword (kept as a trophy). An Edomite named Doeg, chief of Saul’s herdsmen, saw what happened at Nob. David continued his flight, taking refuge temporarily in Gath with King Achish (1 Sm 21), then finding shelter in the cave of Adullam, located 10 miles (16.1 kilometers) southwest of Bethlehem. There his relatives and about 400 fighting men joined him. He went to Mizpeh in Moab, appealing to the Moabite king for protection, especially for his parents. When the prophet Gad warned him not to stay there, David moved back to Judah to the Hereth woods (1 Sm 22:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>David’s freedom of movement enraged Saul, who charged his own people with conspiracy. When Doeg reported what he had witnessed at Nob, Saul executed Ahimelech and 84 other priests, then massacred all of Nob’s inhabitants. One priest named Abiathar escaped to report Saul’s atrocities to David, who assured him of protection (1 Sm 22:6-23).<\/p>\n<p>The Philistines were always ready to take advantage of any weakness in Israel. David’s reprisal after a Philistine raid on Keilah, 12 miles (19.3 kilometers) southwest of Bethlehem, gave Saul an opportunity to attack David, who escaped to the wilderness of Ziph, a desert area near Hebron. David and Jonathan met for the last time in that wilderness. Pursued by Saul’s army, David fled still farther south. He was almost encircled in uninhabited country near Maon when Saul had to march his army off to respond to a Philistine attack (1 Sm 23).<\/p>\n<p>At his next place of refuge, En-gedi, on the western shore of the Dead Sea, David was attacked by Saul with 3,000 soldiers. David had an opportunity to kill Saul but refused to harm the “Lord’s anointed” king of Israel. Learning of David’s loyalty, Saul confessed his sin in seeking David’s life (1 Sm 24).<\/p>\n<p>During the years they roamed the wilderness in the Maon\/Ziph\/En-gedi area, David’s band provided protection for Nabal, a rich man living in Maon with large flocks of sheep at Carmel. In exchange for that protection, David proposed that Nabal share some of his wealth. Nabal’s scorn angered David, but Nabal’s wife, Abigail, appealed to David not to take revenge. When Abigail told Nabal of his narrow escape, he was evidently so shocked that he had a heart seizure. He died ten days later, and Abigail later became David’s wife (1 Sm 25).<\/p>\n<p>Once more Saul came with an army of 3,000 men into the Ziph Desert to find David, and David again passed up an opportunity to harm the king. Finally realizing the folly of seeking David’s life, Saul abandoned pursuit (1 Sm 26).<\/p>\n<h5>Refuge in Philistia<\/h5>\n<p>David continued to feel unsafe in Saul’s kingdom. Returning to Gath in Philistine country, he was welcomed by King Achish. His followers were allotted the city of Ziklag, where they lived for about 16 months, attracting new recruits from Judah and the rest of Israel (1 Sm 27; 1 Chr 12:19-22).<\/p>\n<p>The Philistine army, marching up to the Megiddo Valley to fight Saul’s army, was uneasy with David’s guerrillas in their rear column, so the commanders put pressure on Achish to dismiss David. When he returned to Ziklag, David found that the city had just been raided by the Amalekites. He pursued the enemy, rescued his people and goods, and divided the spoils with those who had remained behind to guard the supplies (1 Sm 29–30). Meanwhile, the Philistines routed the Israelites at Mt Gilboa, killing Jonathan and two of Saul’s other sons in a fierce battle. Saul, badly wounded, killed himself with his own sword (ch 31).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DavidasKing\">David as King<\/p>\n<p>David ruled over Israel for about 40 years, although the accounts of his reign do not contain enough information for an exact chronology. He began his rule at Hebron and reigned over Judah’s territory for seven or eight years. With the death of Saul’s successor, Ishbosheth, David was recognized as king by all the tribes and made Jerusalem his capital. During the next decade, he unified Israel through military and economic expansion. Then came approximately 10 years of disruption in the royal family. The last years of David’s reign seem to have been devoted to plans for the Jerusalem temple, which was built in the reign of his son Solomon.<\/p>\n<h5>The Years in Hebron<\/h5>\n<p>David was subjected to an unusually rugged period of training for his kingship. Serving under Saul, he gained experience in military exploits against the Philistines. Then, during his fugitive wanderings in the desert area of southern Judah, he ingratiated himself with the landholders and sheep raisers by giving them protection. Being recognized as an outlaw of Israel even enabled him to negotiate diplomatic relations with Moab and Philistia.<\/p>\n<p>David was in Philistine country when news came to him that both Saul and Jonathan had been slain. In a beautiful elegy he paid tribute to his friend Jonathan as well as to King Saul (2 Sm 1).<\/p>\n<p>Sure of God’s guidance, David returned to his home, where the leaders of Judah anointed him king at Hebron. He sent a message of commendation to the men of Jabesh for providing a respectable burial for King Saul, probably also bidding for their support.<\/p>\n<p>Confusion probably swept through Israel when Saul was killed, because the Philistines occupied much of the land. Various leaders gathered whatever fighting men they could find, as old tribal loyalties reasserted themselves. David had most of Judah’s tribe firmly behind him.<\/p>\n<p>A kind of civil war broke out between the followers of David and those of Saul, with David gaining the allegiance of more and more people. Saul’s general, Abner, eventually negotiated peace with David, who requested the restoration of Michal as his wife, indicating that he held no animosity toward Saul’s dynasty. With the consent of Saul’s son Ishbosheth, whom Abner had enthroned as king, Abner went to Hebron and pledged Israel’s support for David. But Abner was killed by Joab, one of David’s captains, in a family vendetta, and soon afterward Ishbosheth was assassinated. David publicly mourned Abner’s death and had Ishbosheth’s two murderers executed. Thus, when Saul’s dynasty ended, David was seen by the people not so much as a challenger but as a logical successor. Hence, he was recognized as king by all Israel (2 Sm 2–4).<\/p>\n<h5>Consolidation in Jerusalem<\/h5>\n<p>When the Israelites turned to David as king, the Philistines became alarmed and attacked (2 Sm 5; 1 Chr 14:8-17). David was strong enough to defeat them and thus unify the people of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>In search of a more central location for his capital, David turned toward the city of Jerusalem, a Jebusite stronghold. Joab responded to his challenge to conquer the city and was rewarded by being made general of David’s army. Jerusalem became known as the “city of David” (1 Chr 11:4-9).<\/p>\n<p>In the same way that he had organized his earliest followers into an effective guerrilla band (1 Chr 11:1–12:22) at Hebron, David began organizing the whole nation (12:23-40). Once established in Jerusalem, he quickly gained recognition from the Phoenicians, contracting for their artisans to build him a magnificent palace in the new capital (14:1-2). He also made sure that Jerusalem would become Israel’s religious center (2 Sm 6; 1 Chr 13–16). His abortive attempt to move the ark of the covenant by oxcart (cf. Nm 4) reminded the powerful king that he still had to do things God’s way to be successful.<\/p>\n<p>With Jerusalem well established as the nation’s capital, David intended to build God a temple. He shared his plan with the prophet Nathan, whose immediate response was positive. That night, however, God sent a message via Nathan that David should not build the temple. David’s throne would be established eternally, the prophet said, and unlike Saul, King David would have a son to succeed him and perpetuate the kingdom; that son would build the temple (2 Sm 7; 1 Chr 17).<\/p>\n<h5>Prosperity and Supremacy<\/h5>\n<p>Little is recorded about the expansion of David’s rule from the tribal area of Judah to a vast empire stretching from the Nile River of Egypt to regions of the Tigris-Euphrates valley. Nothing in secular history negates the biblical perspective that David had the most powerful kingdom in the heart of that “Fertile Crescent” about 1000 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that skirmishes with the Philistines to the west were frequent until they finally became subservient to David and paid him tribute. In Saul’s day the Philistines had enjoyed a monopoly on the use of iron (1 Sm 13:19-21). The fact that David freely used iron near the end of his reign (1 Chr 22:3) hints at profound economic changes in Israel.<\/p>\n<p>David’s kingdom expanded southward as he built military garrisons in Edomite territory. Beyond Edom, he controlled the Moabites and Amalekites, who paid him tribute in silver and gold. To the northeast, Israelite domination was extended over the Ammonites and the Arameans, whose capital was Damascus. David’s treatment of both friends and enemies seemed to contribute to the strength of his kingdom (2 Sm 8–10). Although he was a brilliant military strategist who used all the means and resources available to bring Israel success, David was humble enough to glorify God (2 Sm 22; see Ps 18).<\/p>\n<h5>Sin in the Royal Family<\/h5>\n<p>A lengthy section of the book of 2 Samuel (chs 11–20) gives a remarkably frank account of sin, crime, and rebellion in David’s family. The king’s own imperfections are clearly portrayed; the king of Israel himself could not escape God’s judgement when he did wrong.<\/p>\n<p>Although polygamy was then a Near Eastern status symbol, it was forbidden for a king of Israel (Dt 17:17). David practiced polygamy, however; some of his marriages undoubtedly had political implications (such as his marriages to Saul’s daughter Michal and to princess Maacah of Geshur). Flagrant sins of incest, murder, and rebellion in his family brought David much suffering and almost cost him the throne.<\/p>\n<p>David’s sin of adultery with Bathsheba, committed at the height of his military success and territorial expansion, led him further into evil: he planned a strategy to have Bathsheba’s husband, Uriah, killed on the front line of battle. David seems to have excluded God from consideration in that segment of his personal life. Yet when the prophet Nathan confronted the king with his sins, David acknowledged his guilt. He confessed his sin and pleaded with God for forgiveness (as in Pss 32 and 51). God forgave him, but for nearly ten years David endured the consequences of his lack of self-restraint and his failure to exercise discipline in his family. Although unsurpassed in military and diplomatic strategy, David lacked strength of character in his domestic affairs. Evil fermented in his own house; the father’s self-indulgence was soon reflected in Amnon’s crime of incest, followed by Absalom’s murder of his brother.<\/p>\n<p>Having incurred his father’s disfavor, Absalom took refuge in Geshur with his mother’s people for three years. Joab, David’s general, was eventually able to reconcile David with his alienated son. Absalom, however, having taken advantage of his position in the royal family to gain a following, went to Hebron, staged a surprise rebellion, and proclaimed himself king throughout Israel. His strong following posed such a threat that David fled from Jerusalem. David, still a master strategist, gained time through a ruse to organize his forces and put down his son’s rebellion. Absalom was killed while trying to flee; his death plunged David into grief.<\/p>\n<p>On his return to Jerusalem, David had to work at undoing the damage caused by Absalom’s revolt. His own tribe of Judah, for example, had supported Absalom. Another rebellion, fomented by Sheba of Benjamin’s tribe, had to be suppressed by Joab before the nation could settle down.<\/p>\n<h5>David’s Last Years<\/h5>\n<p>Although David was not permitted to build the temple in Jerusalem, he made extensive preparations for that project during the last years of his reign. He stockpiled materials and organized the kingdom for efficient use of domestic and foreign labor. He also outlined details for religious worship in the new structure (1 Chr 21–29).<\/p>\n<p>The military and civic organization developed by David was probably patterned after Egyptian practice. The army, rigidly controlled by officers of proven loyalty to the king, included mercenaries. The king also appointed trusted supervisors over farms, livestock, and orchards in various parts of his empire (1 Chr 27:25-31).<\/p>\n<p>David took, or at least began, a census of Israel (2 Sm 24; 1 Chr 21). The incompleteness of the accounts leaves unanswered such questions as the reason for God’s punishment. The king overruled Joab’s objection and insisted that the census be taken. Since David later seemed keenly aware that he had sinned in taking the census, it may be that he was motivated by pride to ascertain his exact military strength (approx. 1.5 million men). God may also have been judging the people for their support of the rebellions of Absalom and Sheba.<\/p>\n<p>Through the prophet Gad, David was given a choice of punishments for his sin. He chose a three-day pestilence. As David and the elders repented, they saw an angel on the threshing floor of the Jebusite Ornan (Araunah). David offered sacrifice there and prayed for his people. Later he purchased the threshing floor, located just outside the city of Jerusalem, concluding that it should be the site for the temple to be built by his son Solomon (1 Chr 21:28–22:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DavidsLastingInfluence\">David’s Lasting Influence<\/p>\n<h5>The Writer of Psalms<\/h5>\n<p>The OT book of Psalms became one of the most popular books in ancient Israel, and has remained so among countless millions of people throughout the centuries. These words of praise prepared by David were intended for use in the temple worship (2 Chr 29:30). The 73 psalms ascribed to David generally grew out of his own relationship to God and to other persons.<\/p>\n\n<p>David probably compiled Book I of the book of Psalms (1–41) and Book IV (90–106), since most of those psalms were written by David himself. Other psalms of his (Pss 51–71) are in Book II (42–72), which was probably compiled by Solomon. As those psalms were used for worship in later generations, various people added others until the time of Ezra.<\/p>\n<p>David’s psalms provided much of the poetry that was set to music for Israel’s worship. His organization of the priests and Levites and his provision of instruments for worship (2 Chr 7:6; 8:14) set the pattern for generations to come in the religious life of Israel.<\/p>\n<h5>David in the Writings of the Prophets<\/h5>\n<p>David, recognized as the greatest Israelite king, is often mentioned as a standard of comparison in the writings of the OT prophets. Isaiah (as in Is 7:2, 13; 22:22) and Jeremiah often referred to their contemporary kings as belonging to the “house” or “throne” of David. Contrasting David with some of his descendants who did not honor God, both Isaiah and Jeremiah predicted a messianic ruler who would establish justice and righteousness on the throne of David forever (Is 9:7; Jer 33:15). When Isaiah described the coming ruler, he identified him as being from the lineage of Jesse, David’s father (Is 11:1-10). Predicting a period of universal peace, Isaiah saw the capital in “Zion,” identified with the city of David (2:1-4).<\/p>\n<p>Ezekiel promised the restoration of David as king in an eschatological and messianic sense (Ez 37:24-25), and of “my servant David” as Israel’s shepherd (34:23). Hosea likewise identified the future ruler as King David (Hos 3:5). Amos assured the people that God would restore the “tabernacle” of David (Am 9:11) so that they could again dwell in safety. Zechariah referred five times to the “house of David” (in Zec 12–13, <span>rsv<\/span>), encouraging the hope of a restoration of David’s glorious dynasty. The concept of the eternal throne promised to David during his reign was delineated in the message of the prophets even while they were announcing judgments to come on the rulers and people of their time.<\/p>\n<h5>David in the New Testament<\/h5>\n<p>David is frequently mentioned by the Gospel writers, who established Jesus’ identity as the “son of David.” The covenant God made with David was that an eternal king would come from David’s family (Mt 1:1; 9:27; 12:23; Mk 10:48; 12:35; Lk 18:38-39; 20:41). According to Mark 11:10 and John 7:42, the Jews of Jesus’ day expected the Messiah (Christ) to be a descendant of David. While stating that Jesus came from the lineage of David, the Gospels also clearly teach that Jesus was the Son of God (Mt 22:41-45; Mk 12:35-37; Lk 20:41-44).<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Acts, David is recognized as the recipient of God’s promises that were fulfilled in Jesus Christ. David is also seen as a prophet whom the Holy Spirit inspired to write the psalms (Acts 1:16; 2:22-36; 4:25; 13:26-39).<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Revelation, Jesus is designated as having the “key of David” (Rv 3:7), and as being “the Lion of the tribe of Judah, the Root of David” (5:5). Jesus is quoted as asserting that “I am the root and the offspring of David, the bright morning star” (22:16).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Christology; Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Israel, History of; King; Kingdom of God, Kingdom of Heaven; Messiah.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DAVID<\/h3>\n<p>Israel’s most important king. David’s kingdom represented the epitome of Israel’s power and influence during the nation’s OT history.<\/p>\n<p>The two books in the OT devoted to David’s reign are 2 Samuel and 1 Chronicles. His earlier years are recorded in 1 Samuel, beginning at chapter 16. Almost half of the biblical psalms are ascribed to David. His importance extends into the NT, where he is identified as an ancestor of Jesus Christ and forerunner of the messianic king.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Early Years<\/p>\n<p>• Preparation for Kingship<\/p>\n<p>• David as King<\/p>\n<p>David’s Lasting Influence<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"EarlyYears\">Early Years<\/p>\n<h5>Family<\/h5>\n<p>David was the youngest son in Jesse’s family, part of Judah’s tribe. The family lived in Bethlehem, about six miles (10 kilometers) south of Jerusalem. His great-grandmother was Ruth, from the land of Moab (Ru 4:18-22). Genealogies in both the OT and the NT trace David’s lineage back to Judah, son of the patriarch Jacob (1 Chr 2:3-15; Mt 1:3-6; Lk 3:31-33).<\/p>\n<h5>Training and Talents<\/h5>\n<p>Little is known about David’s early life. As a boy, he took care of his father’s sheep, risking his life to kill attacking bears and lions. Later, David publicly acknowledged God’s help and strength in protecting the flocks under his care (1 Sm 17:34-37).<\/p>\n<p>David was an accomplished musician. He had developed his ability as a harpist so well that, when a musician was needed at the royal court of King Saul, someone immediately recommended David.<\/p>\n<p>In Jesse’s family, David was regarded as unimportant. When the nationally known prophet Samuel visited Jesse’s home, all the older sons were on hand to meet him; David was tending the sheep. Samuel had been instructed by God to anoint a king from Jesse’s family, not knowing beforehand which son to anoint. Sensing divine restraint as seven brothers passed before him, he made further inquiry. When he learned that Jesse had one other son, David was immediately summoned. David was anointed by Samuel and endowed with the Spirit of the Lord (1 Sm 16:1-13). Whatever Jesse and his family understood by that anointing, it seems to have made no immediate change in David’s pattern of living. He continued to tend the sheep.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PreparationforKingship\">Preparation for Kingship<\/p>\n<p>During his youth, David was willing to serve others, even though he had been anointed king. It was his willingness to take supplies to three of his older brothers in the army that gave him his opportunity for national fame.<\/p>\n<p>As a young man, David was also sensitive toward God. While greeting his brothers on the battlefield, he was disturbed by the Philistine Goliath’s defiance of God’s armies. Although rebuked by his brothers, David accepted the challenge to take on Goliath. He had a reasonable confidence that God, who had helped him encounter a lion and a bear, would aid him against a champion warrior. So, with faith in God and using his ability to sling stones, David killed Goliath (1 Sm 17:12-58).<\/p>\n<h5>National Fame<\/h5>\n<p>Killing Goliath made David a hero to the nation of Israel. It also brought him into close relationship with the royal family of Saul. But success and national acclaim brought on the jealousy of Saul and ultimately resulted in David’s expulsion from the land of Israel.<\/p>\n<h5>In the Royal Court<\/h5>\n<p>Saul promised his oldest daughter, Merab, to David in marriage, but then Saul went back on the promise and offered David another daughter, Michal. The dowry of trophies from dead Philistines demanded by Saul was designed to bring about David’s death at Philistine hands. But again David was victorious. Women sang praises of his exploits, intensifying Saul’s jealousy and further endangering David’s life (1 Sm 18:6-30).<\/p>\n<p>In the meantime, David and Saul’s son Jonathan developed a deep friendship. When they made a covenant, Jonathan gave David his choicest military equipment (sword, bow, and belt). Although Saul tried to turn Jonathan against David, the friendship deepened. Because Saul was trying to kill him, David had to flee from the court and live as a fugitive.<\/p>\n<p>After Jonathan had warned David of Saul’s continuing designs on his life, David went to Ramah to see the prophet Samuel. Together they went to Naioth, near Ramah. After sending several groups of men after David, Saul finally went with them himself. All his attempts to seize David were thwarted by the Spirit of God, who caused Saul and his men to prophesy all night in religious fervor (1 Sm 19).<\/p>\n<p>Conferring again with Jonathan, David realized that Saul’s jealousy had developed into hatred. Jonathan, aware that David would be the future king of Israel, requested assurance that his descendants would receive protection under David’s rule (1 Sm 20).<\/p>\n<h5>Life as a Fugitive<\/h5>\n<p>Fleeing from Saul, David stopped at Nob. By deceiving Ahimelech, who was officiating as priest there, David obtained food supplies and Goliath’s sword (kept as a trophy). An Edomite named Doeg, chief of Saul’s herdsmen, saw what happened at Nob. David continued his flight, taking refuge temporarily in Gath with King Achish (1 Sm 21), then finding shelter in the cave of Adullam, located 10 miles (16.1 kilometers) southwest of Bethlehem. There his relatives and about 400 fighting men joined him. He went to Mizpeh in Moab, appealing to the Moabite king for protection, especially for his parents. When the prophet Gad warned him not to stay there, David moved back to Judah to the Hereth woods (1 Sm 22:1-5).<\/p>\n<p>David’s freedom of movement enraged Saul, who charged his own people with conspiracy. When Doeg reported what he had witnessed at Nob, Saul executed Ahimelech and 84 other priests, then massacred all of Nob’s inhabitants. One priest named Abiathar escaped to report Saul’s atrocities to David, who assured him of protection (1 Sm 22:6-23).<\/p>\n<p>The Philistines were always ready to take advantage of any weakness in Israel. David’s reprisal after a Philistine raid on Keilah, 12 miles (19.3 kilometers) southwest of Bethlehem, gave Saul an opportunity to attack David, who escaped to the wilderness of Ziph, a desert area near Hebron. David and Jonathan met for the last time in that wilderness. Pursued by Saul’s army, David fled still farther south. He was almost encircled in uninhabited country near Maon when Saul had to march his army off to respond to a Philistine attack (1 Sm 23).<\/p>\n<p>At his next place of refuge, En-gedi, on the western shore of the Dead Sea, David was attacked by Saul with 3,000 soldiers. David had an opportunity to kill Saul but refused to harm the “Lord’s anointed” king of Israel. Learning of David’s loyalty, Saul confessed his sin in seeking David’s life (1 Sm 24).<\/p>\n<p>During the years they roamed the wilderness in the Maon\/Ziph\/En-gedi area, David’s band provided protection for Nabal, a rich man living in Maon with large flocks of sheep at Carmel. In exchange for that protection, David proposed that Nabal share some of his wealth. Nabal’s scorn angered David, but Nabal’s wife, Abigail, appealed to David not to take revenge. When Abigail told Nabal of his narrow escape, he was evidently so shocked that he had a heart seizure. He died ten days later, and Abigail later became David’s wife (1 Sm 25).<\/p>\n<p>Once more Saul came with an army of 3,000 men into the Ziph Desert to find David, and David again passed up an opportunity to harm the king. Finally realizing the folly of seeking David’s life, Saul abandoned pursuit (1 Sm 26).<\/p>\n<h5>Refuge in Philistia<\/h5>\n<p>David continued to feel unsafe in Saul’s kingdom. Returning to Gath in Philistine country, he was welcomed by King Achish. His followers were allotted the city of Ziklag, where they lived for about 16 months, attracting new recruits from Judah and the rest of Israel (1 Sm 27; 1 Chr 12:19-22).<\/p>\n<p>The Philistine army, marching up to the Megiddo Valley to fight Saul’s army, was uneasy with David’s guerrillas in their rear column, so the commanders put pressure on Achish to dismiss David. When he returned to Ziklag, David found that the city had just been raided by the Amalekites. He pursued the enemy, rescued his people and goods, and divided the spoils with those who had remained behind to guard the supplies (1 Sm 29–30). Meanwhile, the Philistines routed the Israelites at Mt Gilboa, killing Jonathan and two of Saul’s other sons in a fierce battle. Saul, badly wounded, killed himself with his own sword (ch 31).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DavidasKing\">David as King<\/p>\n<p>David ruled over Israel for about 40 years, although the accounts of his reign do not contain enough information for an exact chronology. He began his rule at Hebron and reigned over Judah’s territory for seven or eight years. With the death of Saul’s successor, Ishbosheth, David was recognized as king by all the tribes and made Jerusalem his capital. During the next decade, he unified Israel through military and economic expansion. Then came approximately 10 years of disruption in the royal family. The last years of David’s reign seem to have been devoted to plans for the Jerusalem temple, which was built in the reign of his son Solomon.<\/p>\n<h5>The Years in Hebron<\/h5>\n<p>David was subjected to an unusually rugged period of training for his kingship. Serving under Saul, he gained experience in military exploits against the Philistines. Then, during his fugitive wanderings in the desert area of southern Judah, he ingratiated himself with the landholders and sheep raisers by giving them protection. Being recognized as an outlaw of Israel even enabled him to negotiate diplomatic relations with Moab and Philistia.<\/p>\n<p>David was in Philistine country when news came to him that both Saul and Jonathan had been slain. In a beautiful elegy he paid tribute to his friend Jonathan as well as to King Saul (2 Sm 1).<\/p>\n<p>Sure of God’s guidance, David returned to his home, where the leaders of Judah anointed him king at Hebron. He sent a message of commendation to the men of Jabesh for providing a respectable burial for King Saul, probably also bidding for their support.<\/p>\n<p>Confusion probably swept through Israel when Saul was killed, because the Philistines occupied much of the land. Various leaders gathered whatever fighting men they could find, as old tribal loyalties reasserted themselves. David had most of Judah’s tribe firmly behind him.<\/p>\n<p>A kind of civil war broke out between the followers of David and those of Saul, with David gaining the allegiance of more and more people. Saul’s general, Abner, eventually negotiated peace with David, who requested the restoration of Michal as his wife, indicating that he held no animosity toward Saul’s dynasty. With the consent of Saul’s son Ishbosheth, whom Abner had enthroned as king, Abner went to Hebron and pledged Israel’s support for David. But Abner was killed by Joab, one of David’s captains, in a family vendetta, and soon afterward Ishbosheth was assassinated. David publicly mourned Abner’s death and had Ishbosheth’s two murderers executed. Thus, when Saul’s dynasty ended, David was seen by the people not so much as a challenger but as a logical successor. Hence, he was recognized as king by all Israel (2 Sm 2–4).<\/p>\n<h5>Consolidation in Jerusalem<\/h5>\n<p>When the Israelites turned to David as king, the Philistines became alarmed and attacked (2 Sm 5; 1 Chr 14:8-17). David was strong enough to defeat them and thus unify the people of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>In search of a more central location for his capital, David turned toward the city of Jerusalem, a Jebusite stronghold. Joab responded to his challenge to conquer the city and was rewarded by being made general of David’s army. Jerusalem became known as the “city of David” (1 Chr 11:4-9).<\/p>\n<p>In the same way that he had organized his earliest followers into an effective guerrilla band (1 Chr 11:1–12:22) at Hebron, David began organizing the whole nation (12:23-40). Once established in Jerusalem, he quickly gained recognition from the Phoenicians, contracting for their artisans to build him a magnificent palace in the new capital (14:1-2). He also made sure that Jerusalem would become Israel’s religious center (2 Sm 6; 1 Chr 13–16). His abortive attempt to move the ark of the covenant by oxcart (cf. Nm 4) reminded the powerful king that he still had to do things God’s way to be successful.<\/p>\n<p>With Jerusalem well established as the nation’s capital, David intended to build God a temple. He shared his plan with the prophet Nathan, whose immediate response was positive. That night, however, God sent a message via Nathan that David should not build the temple. David’s throne would be established eternally, the prophet said, and unlike Saul, King David would have a son to succeed him and perpetuate the kingdom; that son would build the temple (2 Sm 7; 1 Chr 17).<\/p>\n<h5>Prosperity and Supremacy<\/h5>\n<p>Little is recorded about the expansion of David’s rule from the tribal area of Judah to a vast empire stretching from the Nile River of Egypt to regions of the Tigris-Euphrates valley. Nothing in secular history negates the biblical perspective that David had the most powerful kingdom in the heart of that “Fertile Crescent” about 1000 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>It is likely that skirmishes with the Philistines to the west were frequent until they finally became subservient to David and paid him tribute. In Saul’s day the Philistines had enjoyed a monopoly on the use of iron (1 Sm 13:19-21). The fact that David freely used iron near the end of his reign (1 Chr 22:3) hints at profound economic changes in Israel.<\/p>\n<p>David’s kingdom expanded southward as he built military garrisons in Edomite territory. Beyond Edom, he controlled the Moabites and Amalekites, who paid him tribute in silver and gold. To the northeast, Israelite domination was extended over the Ammonites and the Arameans, whose capital was Damascus. David’s treatment of both friends and enemies seemed to contribute to the strength of his kingdom (2 Sm 8–10). Although he was a brilliant military strategist who used all the means and resources available to bring Israel success, David was humble enough to glorify God (2 Sm 22; see Ps 18).<\/p>\n<h5>Sin in the Royal Family<\/h5>\n<p>A lengthy section of the book of 2 Samuel (chs 11–20) gives a remarkably frank account of sin, crime, and rebellion in David’s family. The king’s own imperfections are clearly portrayed; the king of Israel himself could not escape God’s judgement when he did wrong.<\/p>\n<p>Although polygamy was then a Near Eastern status symbol, it was forbidden for a king of Israel (Dt 17:17). David practiced polygamy, however; some of his marriages undoubtedly had political implications (such as his marriages to Saul’s daughter Michal and to princess Maacah of Geshur). Flagrant sins of incest, murder, and rebellion in his family brought David much suffering and almost cost him the throne.<\/p>\n<p>David’s sin of adultery with Bathsheba, committed at the height of his military success and territorial expansion, led him further into evil: he planned a strategy to have Bathsheba’s husband, Uriah, killed on the front line of battle. David seems to have excluded God from consideration in that segment of his personal life. Yet when the prophet Nathan confronted the king with his sins, David acknowledged his guilt. He confessed his sin and pleaded with God for forgiveness (as in Pss 32 and 51). God forgave him, but for nearly ten years David endured the consequences of his lack of self-restraint and his failure to exercise discipline in his family. Although unsurpassed in military and diplomatic strategy, David lacked strength of character in his domestic affairs. Evil fermented in his own house; the father’s self-indulgence was soon reflected in Amnon’s crime of incest, followed by Absalom’s murder of his brother.<\/p>\n<p>Having incurred his father’s disfavor, Absalom took refuge in Geshur with his mother’s people for three years. Joab, David’s general, was eventually able to reconcile David with his alienated son. Absalom, however, having taken advantage of his position in the royal family to gain a following, went to Hebron, staged a surprise rebellion, and proclaimed himself king throughout Israel. His strong following posed such a threat that David fled from Jerusalem. David, still a master strategist, gained time through a ruse to organize his forces and put down his son’s rebellion. Absalom was killed while trying to flee; his death plunged David into grief.<\/p>\n<p>On his return to Jerusalem, David had to work at undoing the damage caused by Absalom’s revolt. His own tribe of Judah, for example, had supported Absalom. Another rebellion, fomented by Sheba of Benjamin’s tribe, had to be suppressed by Joab before the nation could settle down.<\/p>\n<h5>David’s Last Years<\/h5>\n<p>Although David was not permitted to build the temple in Jerusalem, he made extensive preparations for that project during the last years of his reign. He stockpiled materials and organized the kingdom for efficient use of domestic and foreign labor. He also outlined details for religious worship in the new structure (1 Chr 21–29).<\/p>\n<p>The military and civic organization developed by David was probably patterned after Egyptian practice. The army, rigidly controlled by officers of proven loyalty to the king, included mercenaries. The king also appointed trusted supervisors over farms, livestock, and orchards in various parts of his empire (1 Chr 27:25-31).<\/p>\n<p>David took, or at least began, a census of Israel (2 Sm 24; 1 Chr 21). The incompleteness of the accounts leaves unanswered such questions as the reason for God’s punishment. The king overruled Joab’s objection and insisted that the census be taken. Since David later seemed keenly aware that he had sinned in taking the census, it may be that he was motivated by pride to ascertain his exact military strength (approx. 1.5 million men). God may also have been judging the people for their support of the rebellions of Absalom and Sheba.<\/p>\n<p>Through the prophet Gad, David was given a choice of punishments for his sin. He chose a three-day pestilence. As David and the elders repented, they saw an angel on the threshing floor of the Jebusite Ornan (Araunah). David offered sacrifice there and prayed for his people. Later he purchased the threshing floor, located just outside the city of Jerusalem, concluding that it should be the site for the temple to be built by his son Solomon (1 Chr 21:28–22:1).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DavidsLastingInfluence\">David’s Lasting Influence<\/p>\n<h5>The Writer of Psalms<\/h5>\n<p>The OT book of Psalms became one of the most popular books in ancient Israel, and has remained so among countless millions of people throughout the centuries. These words of praise prepared by David were intended for use in the temple worship (2 Chr 29:30). The 73 psalms ascribed to David generally grew out of his own relationship to God and to other persons.<\/p>\n\n<p>David probably compiled Book I of the book of Psalms (1–41) and Book IV (90–106), since most of those psalms were written by David himself. Other psalms of his (Pss 51–71) are in Book II (42–72), which was probably compiled by Solomon. As those psalms were used for worship in later generations, various people added others until the time of Ezra.<\/p>\n<p>David’s psalms provided much of the poetry that was set to music for Israel’s worship. His organization of the priests and Levites and his provision of instruments for worship (2 Chr 7:6; 8:14) set the pattern for generations to come in the religious life of Israel.<\/p>\n<h5>David in the Writings of the Prophets<\/h5>\n<p>David, recognized as the greatest Israelite king, is often mentioned as a standard of comparison in the writings of the OT prophets. Isaiah (as in Is 7:2, 13; 22:22) and Jeremiah often referred to their contemporary kings as belonging to the “house” or “throne” of David. Contrasting David with some of his descendants who did not honor God, both Isaiah and Jeremiah predicted a messianic ruler who would establish justice and righteousness on the throne of David forever (Is 9:7; Jer 33:15). When Isaiah described the coming ruler, he identified him as being from the lineage of Jesse, David’s father (Is 11:1-10). Predicting a period of universal peace, Isaiah saw the capital in “Zion,” identified with the city of David (2:1-4).<\/p>\n<p>Ezekiel promised the restoration of David as king in an eschatological and messianic sense (Ez 37:24-25), and of “my servant David” as Israel’s shepherd (34:23). Hosea likewise identified the future ruler as King David (Hos 3:5). Amos assured the people that God would restore the “tabernacle” of David (Am 9:11) so that they could again dwell in safety. Zechariah referred five times to the “house of David” (in Zec 12–13, <span>rsv<\/span>), encouraging the hope of a restoration of David’s glorious dynasty. The concept of the eternal throne promised to David during his reign was delineated in the message of the prophets even while they were announcing judgments to come on the rulers and people of their time.<\/p>\n<h5>David in the New Testament<\/h5>\n<p>David is frequently mentioned by the Gospel writers, who established Jesus’ identity as the “son of David.” The covenant God made with David was that an eternal king would come from David’s family (Mt 1:1; 9:27; 12:23; Mk 10:48; 12:35; Lk 18:38-39; 20:41). According to Mark 11:10 and John 7:42, the Jews of Jesus’ day expected the Messiah (Christ) to be a descendant of David. While stating that Jesus came from the lineage of David, the Gospels also clearly teach that Jesus was the Son of God (Mt 22:41-45; Mk 12:35-37; Lk 20:41-44).<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Acts, David is recognized as the recipient of God’s promises that were fulfilled in Jesus Christ. David is also seen as a prophet whom the Holy Spirit inspired to write the psalms (Acts 1:16; 2:22-36; 4:25; 13:26-39).<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Revelation, Jesus is designated as having the “key of David” (Rv 3:7), and as being “the Lion of the tribe of Judah, the Root of David” (5:5). Jesus is quoted as asserting that “I am the root and the offspring of David, the bright morning star” (22:16).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Christology; Chronology of the Bible (Old Testament); Israel, History of; King; Kingdom of God, Kingdom of Heaven; Messiah.<\/p>","summary_ro":"DAVID Israel’s most important king. David’s kingdom represented the epitome of Israel’s power and influence during the nation’s OT history. The two books in the OT devoted to David’s reign are 2 Samuel and 1 Chronicles. His earlier years are recorded in 1 Samuel, beginning at chapter 16. Almost half of the biblical psalms are ascribed to David. His importance extends into the NT, where he is identified as an ancestor of Jesus Christ and forerunner of the messianic king. Preview • Early Years ...","summary_en":"DAVID Israel’s most important king. David’s kingdom represented the epitome of Israel’s power and influence during the nation’s OT history. The two books in the OT devoted to David’s reign are 2 Samuel and 1 Chronicles. His earlier years are recorded in 1 Samuel, beginning at chapter 16. Almost half of the biblical psalms are ascribed to David. His importance extends into the NT, where he is identified as an ancestor of Jesus Christ and forerunner of the messianic king. Preview • Early Years ...","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":13771,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gibeah","title_en":"Gibeah","content_ro":"<h3>GIBEAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Town in the hill country of Judah (Jos 15:57). Its exact location is uncertain. Gibeah is listed as being among other towns located in the section of Judah southeast of Hebron and probably was in the fertile plateau containing Maon, Ziph, and Carmel.<\/li>\n<li>2. Town in the province of Benjamin, also called “Gibeah of Saul” (1 Sm 11:4; 15:34; Is 10:29), and its inhabitants are called Gibeathites (1 Chr 12:3). It is first mentioned in the description of the territory assigned to Benjamin (Jos 18:28, <span>kjv<\/span> “Gibeath”) and comes to prominence in the biblical narrative as a result of the atrocity recounted in Judges 19–21 of the Levite and his concubine.<\/li>\n<p>Gibeah was also noted as the home of Saul (1 Sm 10:26). After his anointing as king of Israel, Saul returned to Gibeah, which probably remained his home and his capital (10:26; 22:6; 23:19).<\/p>\n<p>The site of ancient Gibeah has been generally identified as the modern Tell el-Ful. The OT references place Gibeah north of Jerusalem, between Jerusalem and Ramah, and situated near the primary south-north road through the hill country (Jgs 19:11-19). Tell el-Ful is about three and a half miles (5.6 kilometers) north of Jerusalem and is situated on one of the highest areas in that mountain range. Excavations reveal that an early Israelite village was there about the 12th century <span>BC<\/span> and was destroyed by fire. Probably during the 11th century a stone fortress was built, and its corner tower is still evident. It probably was the citadel of Saul and his royal residence. A second fortress was built about 1000 <span>BC<\/span> but fell into disuse when David established the Israelite capital at Jerusalem. It then served as an outpost for the capital city. The tower was alternately destroyed and rebuilt through the centuries until its final destruction in the war between Antiochus III and Ptolemy V. Josephus wrote that a village existed at the site of Gibeah during the Roman period, but it finally ceased to exist with the Roman destruction of Jerusalem (<span>AD<\/span> 70).<\/p>\n<li>3. Town in the hills of Ephraim that was given to Phinehas, son of Eleazar. It was the burial site of Eleazar (Jos 24:33). An addition to the Septuagint indicates that Phinehas was also buried here. Its exact location is unknown, and several sites have been suggested: Nibi Saleh, about six miles (9.7 kilometers) northwest of Jifna; Jibia, four miles (6.5 kilometers) northwest of Jifna; et-Tell, northeast of Jifna and south of Sinjil; and Awertah, near Shechem.<\/li>\n<li>4. Gibeath-elohim (1 Sm 10:5, <span>rsv<\/span>; <span>kjv<\/span> “hill of God”; <span>nlt<\/span> “Gibeah of God”). At this site Samuel, following Saul’s anointing as king, predicted that Saul would meet a company of prophets and would prophesy with them. This was to be a sign of God’s selection of Saul as Israel’s king. Some have suggested that this is the same place as Gibeah of Benjamin, the home of Saul, but the context suggests that Saul reached this place before he arrived at his home.<\/li>\n<li>5. Hill near Kiriath-jearim, where the ark of the covenant was housed by Abinadab after its return from the Philistines and until it was moved by David to the house of Obed-edom (2 Sm 6:1-4).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>GIBEAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Town in the hill country of Judah (Jos 15:57). Its exact location is uncertain. Gibeah is listed as being among other towns located in the section of Judah southeast of Hebron and probably was in the fertile plateau containing Maon, Ziph, and Carmel.<\/li>\n<li>2. Town in the province of Benjamin, also called “Gibeah of Saul” (1 Sm 11:4; 15:34; Is 10:29), and its inhabitants are called Gibeathites (1 Chr 12:3). It is first mentioned in the description of the territory assigned to Benjamin (Jos 18:28, <span>kjv<\/span> “Gibeath”) and comes to prominence in the biblical narrative as a result of the atrocity recounted in Judges 19–21 of the Levite and his concubine.<\/li>\n<p>Gibeah was also noted as the home of Saul (1 Sm 10:26). After his anointing as king of Israel, Saul returned to Gibeah, which probably remained his home and his capital (10:26; 22:6; 23:19).<\/p>\n<p>The site of ancient Gibeah has been generally identified as the modern Tell el-Ful. The OT references place Gibeah north of Jerusalem, between Jerusalem and Ramah, and situated near the primary south-north road through the hill country (Jgs 19:11-19). Tell el-Ful is about three and a half miles (5.6 kilometers) north of Jerusalem and is situated on one of the highest areas in that mountain range. Excavations reveal that an early Israelite village was there about the 12th century <span>BC<\/span> and was destroyed by fire. Probably during the 11th century a stone fortress was built, and its corner tower is still evident. It probably was the citadel of Saul and his royal residence. A second fortress was built about 1000 <span>BC<\/span> but fell into disuse when David established the Israelite capital at Jerusalem. It then served as an outpost for the capital city. The tower was alternately destroyed and rebuilt through the centuries until its final destruction in the war between Antiochus III and Ptolemy V. Josephus wrote that a village existed at the site of Gibeah during the Roman period, but it finally ceased to exist with the Roman destruction of Jerusalem (<span>AD<\/span> 70).<\/p>\n<li>3. Town in the hills of Ephraim that was given to Phinehas, son of Eleazar. It was the burial site of Eleazar (Jos 24:33). An addition to the Septuagint indicates that Phinehas was also buried here. Its exact location is unknown, and several sites have been suggested: Nibi Saleh, about six miles (9.7 kilometers) northwest of Jifna; Jibia, four miles (6.5 kilometers) northwest of Jifna; et-Tell, northeast of Jifna and south of Sinjil; and Awertah, near Shechem.<\/li>\n<li>4. Gibeath-elohim (1 Sm 10:5, <span>rsv<\/span>; <span>kjv<\/span> “hill of God”; <span>nlt<\/span> “Gibeah of God”). At this site Samuel, following Saul’s anointing as king, predicted that Saul would meet a company of prophets and would prophesy with them. This was to be a sign of God’s selection of Saul as Israel’s king. Some have suggested that this is the same place as Gibeah of Benjamin, the home of Saul, but the context suggests that Saul reached this place before he arrived at his home.<\/li>\n<li>5. Hill near Kiriath-jearim, where the ark of the covenant was housed by Abinadab after its return from the Philistines and until it was moved by David to the house of Obed-edom (2 Sm 6:1-4).<\/li>","summary_ro":"GIBEAH 1. Town in the hill country of Judah (Jos 15:57). Its exact location is uncertain. Gibeah is listed as being among other towns located in the section of Judah southeast of Hebron and probably was in the fertile plateau containing Maon, Ziph, and Carmel. 2. Town in the province of Benjamin, also called “Gibeah of Saul” (1 Sm 11:4; 15:34; Is 10:29), and its inhabitants are called Gibeathites (1 Chr 12:3). It is first mentioned in the description of the territory assigned to Benjamin (Jos...","summary_en":"GIBEAH 1. Town in the hill country of Judah (Jos 15:57). Its exact location is uncertain. Gibeah is listed as being among other towns located in the section of Judah southeast of Hebron and probably was in the fertile plateau containing Maon, Ziph, and Carmel. 2. Town in the province of Benjamin, also called “Gibeah of Saul” (1 Sm 11:4; 15:34; Is 10:29), and its inhabitants are called Gibeathites (1 Chr 12:3). It is first mentioned in the description of the territory assigned to Benjamin (Jos...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":19231,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jerusalem","title_en":"Jerusalem","content_ro":"<h3>JERUSALEM<\/h3>\n<p>Historic city sacred to Christians, Jews, and Muslims; the chief city of ancient Palestine and of the modern state of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Meaning of the Name<\/p>\n<p>• Geographical Situation<\/p>\n<p>• History<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MeaningoftheName\">Meaning of the Name<\/p>\n<h5>Egyptian Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>The earliest mention of the name occurs in the Egyptian Execration Texts of the 19th and 18th centuries <span>BC<\/span> in the form probably transliterated <em>Urusalimum.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>Semitic Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>In the 14th century <span>BC<\/span> the name appears in the Abdi-Hepa correspondence from Tell el-Amarna, written <em>Urusalim.<\/em> Later it is found in the inscription of the Assyrian monarch Sennacherib, written <em>Ursalimmu.<\/em> The two transparently Semitic elements, <em>uru<\/em> (city) and <em>salim<\/em> (a divine name), have produced the hyphenated composite meaning “the city of [the god] Salim.” Hyphenating geographic names to incorporate divine elements was a common practice in the ancient Near Eastern world, and the deity Salim, or Shalem (Akkadian, Shulmanu; cf. Solomon), was a member of the Amorite pantheon (cf. Ez 16:3). Since the oldest textual evidence—Egyptian, West Semitic, and Akkadian—supports only <em>urusalim,<\/em> and since the OT itself attests that Jerusalem was not originally a Hebrew city, it is probable that the Semitic etymological origin of this name produced the meaning “the city of [the god] Salim.”<\/p>\n<h5>Hebrew\/Aramaic Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>In the Hebrew OT, Jerusalem is written <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">yerushalayim<\/span><em>,<\/em> and in the Aramaic portions the name is rendered <em>yerushalem.<\/em> Containing the elements <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">yarah<\/span> (“to found,” cf. Jb 38:6) and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalem<\/span> (a divine name), it yields the meaning “the foundation of [the god] Shalem,” the <em>sh<\/em> of the Hebrew\/Aramaic to be taken as the phonemic equivalent of the Akkadian <em>s.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>Greek Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>In the NT, Jerusalem translates the two Greek words <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Ierousalem<\/span> and <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Hierosoluma<\/span><em>.<\/em> The former is simply the Greek transliteration of the OT Aramaic form; the latter reflects the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hieros<\/span> (holy), representing a Hellenized paronomasia, corresponding neither with the Semitic root of the name nor with the city’s historical reality.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GeographicalSituation\">Geographical Situation<\/p>\n<p>Jerusalem is situated 31º 46’ 45” north latitude and 35º 13’ 25” east longitude. The city rises to just over 2,500 feet (762 meters) above sea level and rests some 14 miles (22.5 kilometers) west of the northern end of the Dead Sea and approximately 33 miles (53 kilometers) east of the Mediterranean coast.<\/p>\n<p>A Mediterranean climate pervades Jerusalem. From October to May, the city experiences its rainy season, with an annual accumulation of about 25 inches (63.5 centimeters). Throughout January and February the rains are often driven by winds, and the mercury drops to near freezing (cf. Ezr 10:9); the coldest weather coincides with the days of heaviest rainfall. Snow falls two years out of three. There is no rain between May and September, and a high percentage of solar radiation produces oppressive heat.<\/p>\n<p>Like Rome, Jerusalem is a city set on hills. A cluster of five hills comprise the denuded quadrilateral landmass roughly one mile (1.6 kilometers) long and one-half mile (.8 kilometer) wide, bordered on all sides, except the north, by deep ravines. Stationed astride the crest of Palestine’s central plateau and located at the crossroad of the watershed route connecting Hebron, Bethlehem, Shechem (Nablus), and points north with the longitudinal route from the Jordan Valley and the several arteries to the Mediterranean, Jerusalem is commercially central to the country. The lateral highway through the Judean mountains and eastward could not pass south of Jerusalem, being blocked by the Dead Sea and its sheer cliffs. Because it lacked significant water supply, the city’s strategic commercial location was probably the deciding criterion for its original occupation.<\/p>\n<p>Water, a lifeline of civilization, has always been in meager supply at Jerusalem. The only natural source of permanent water was the spring at Gihon, today sometimes called the Virgin’s Fountain, located in the Kidron Valley immediately east of the ancient fortress conquered by David. Tunnels were burrowed to provide access to the Gihon when Jerusalem was besieged. Later, the Siloam Tunnel was cut through nearly 1,800 feet (548.6 meters) of limestone, allowing the waters of the Gihon to pass through the hill of Zion to the pool of Siloam.<\/p>\n<p>Farther south, where the Kidron and Hinnom Valleys converge, there was another spring, called En-rogel in the Bible (modern Bir Eyyub). Owing to the lowering of the water table, this source of water ceased to percolate and was subsequently converted into a well.<\/p>\n<p>These two sources were clearly insufficient to sustain a sizable population, and both were too deep in the Kidron to be employed for irrigation. Hence, a vast network of cisterns, reservoirs, and water conduits for supplemental supply has been devised since ancient times.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"History\">History<\/p>\n<h5>The Pre-Israelite Period<\/h5>\n<p>Paleolithic and Mesolithic flint implements of an Acheulian type found in the plain of the Rephaim constitute the earliest evidence of the existence of human beings in the area of Jerusalem. Near the beginning of the fourth millennium <span>BC<\/span>, the southeastern hill was first occupied by a sedentary group, a fact evinced from the artifactual remains recovered from three graves and the pottery type discovered on bedrock. By 1800 <span>BC<\/span>, the crest of the southeastern hill was walled in rudimentary form.<\/p>\n<p>From the Bible one learns that Abraham paid tithes to Melchizedek, king of Salem (Gn 14:17-20). Again (ch 22) the great patriarch visited an area later incorporated into Jerusalem, Mt Moriah, the site where Isaac was nearly sacrificed. Second Chronicles 3:1 identifies Mt Moriah as the temple hill. In the 15th century <span>BC<\/span> or thereabouts the Hurrians (possibly the biblical Horites) penetrated into Palestine. About the same time at Jerusalem, extensive building activities were initiated and improved fortification methods were introduced. Accordingly, most writers attribute these projects at Jerusalem to the Hurrian infiltration.<\/p>\n<h5>Conquest and Settlement Period<\/h5>\n<p>Upon learning of Gibeon’s placation of Joshua’s army (Jos 9), Adoni-zedek, king of Jerusalem, formed a coalition with the kings of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon and attacked Gibeon. In response, Joshua marshaled his forces and defeated the coalition, killing all five monarchs at Makkedah (Jos 10:16-27). It appears that the tribe of Judah temporarily took control of Jerusalem and burned it in the wake of this victory (Jgs 1:8). However, the Jebusites reoccupied the site (Jos 15:63; 1 Chr 11:4-5). Apparently, the Jebusites more or less maintained control of Jerusalem until the time of David.<\/p>\n<p>The city appears again as a boundary separating the tribal inheritances of Judah and Benjamin, becoming the southern border of the latter’s domain. The identification of the “shoulder of the Jebusite” (<span>rsv<\/span> Jos 15:8; 18:16) with Jerusalem is usually explained as a reference to the southwestern hill, probably held also by the Jebusites at this time.<\/p>\n<h5>David’s Jerusalem<\/h5>\n<p>Following the Philistine victory atop Mt Gilboa, where Saul and Jonathan were killed in battle (1 Sm 31), David reigned over the tribe of Judah from Hebron, while a surviving son of Saul, Ishbosheth, ruled over the northern tribes from Mahanaim. During the two-year struggle that ensued, the house of David grew stronger while the forces of Ishbosheth shrunk considerably (2 Sm 3:1). This struggle culminated in the death and decapitation of Ishbosheth and the dispersion of his forces. David became the undisputed monarch of all the tribes of Israel.<\/p>\n\n<p>But the new monarch recognized that a consolidated national capital acceptable to both the north and the south would have to be created. Jerusalem had remained neutral in the conflict, being the site of a Jebusite enclave. It also represented a location that was militarily desirable, and by being commercially central to the fledgling nation, it was ideally suited.<\/p>\n<p>In the course of David’s 33-year reign at Jerusalem he made the city into the center of an empire that stretched from Egypt to the Euphrates River. He engaged in considerable building and expansion of the city. He fortified the Canaanite walls and prepared an extension of the city, possibly along the east slope of Zion.<\/p>\n<p>David also constructed a royal residence, receiving the technology and many materials from Hiram, king of Tyre (2 Sm 5:11). Nehemiah 12:37 suggests that this palace also may have been near the east side of the southeastern hill. It was from a window of this house that Michal saw David dancing in an undignified manner—according to her perception (2 Sm 6:16-23). From the roof of this palace David gazed upon Bathsheba as she bathed (11:2-5), and from this residence he plotted the murder of her husband, Uriah (vv 14-25).<\/p>\n<p>By bringing the ark of the covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sm 6:1-15)—implying that Yahweh would reside there—David displayed his most profound leadership. For in this perceptive act he merged for the first time in Israel’s history its political and religious capitals. Jerusalem took on the unique character of a holy city <em>and<\/em> a royal city. As a result, the city would be known as the “city of David” (5:7) as well as the “city of God” (Ps 46:4). Adult male Jews would make their pilgrimages to Jerusalem to take part in the feasts and offerings. It only remained for David to make this arrangement permanent, to enshrine Yahweh at Jerusalem forever by building him a temple. David aspired to do so (2 Sm 7), but God responded that such an undertaking was to be reserved for a son of the king.<\/p>\n<h5>The First Temple Period<\/h5>\n<p>A growing national realization of the extent and impact of the Davidic empire was employed by Solomon to full advantage. Himself an innovative and dynamic administrator, Solomon turned Jerusalem into a cosmopolitan center. The revenues of caravans from Egypt to Babylonia as well as the Phoenician trade with Elath, the Red Sea, and Ophir passed through his royal capital. Solomon’s own naval fleet traveled as far as Tarshish, most likely located on an island along the western coast of Spain. These expeditions returned every three years with such exotic commodities as apes, peacocks, silver, iron, tin, ivory, and gold. The capital swelled with residents and visitors, and the monarch’s fame became proverbial (1 Kgs 10).<\/p>\n<p>Solomon was the great OT builder of Jerusalem. His most significant building enterprise was undoubtedly the first temple. Erected on the summit of the temple hill, this edifice required seven years to construct, from April\/May 966 (1 Kgs 6:1) to October\/November 959 (v 38). Hiram again provided both the technology and the cedar beams.<\/p>\n<p>One may find in 1 Kings 10:27 a succinct encapsulation of the economic wealth lavished upon Jerusalem by Solomon: silver became as abundant as stone, and cedar was as common as sycamore. It is estimated that the annual revenues that coursed into Jerusalem were as high as $17 million. Ironically, it was the fiscal factor that became the burden of Solomon’s monarchy. Overextending himself financially, his economic and political programs soon required the levying of heavy taxes (1 Kgs 4:7-19) and the drafting of Israelites into forced labor (1 Kgs 5:13-18; cf. 9:20-23). These were the primary factors that prompted the schism in Israel’s political structure after the death of Solomon and resulted in a divided monarchy by 930 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>When the Babylonian army laid final siege to Jerusalem (588 <span>BC<\/span>), capturing it after many months, the city was completely decimated. The temple and Solomon’s palace were destroyed with fire; the city walls were demolished. The temple treasures were completely plundered, and the citizens were deported in large numbers.<\/p>\n<h5>The Second Temple Period<\/h5>\n<p>Jerusalem’s doom and 70-year captivity had been spelled out by Jeremiah (Jer 25:11; 29:10; cf. 2 Chr 36:21; Dn 9:2). In 538 <span>BC<\/span>, after the fall of Babylon, Cyrus, king of Persia, issued his famous proclamation (2 Chr 36:22-23; Ezr 1:1-4; cf. Is 44:28; 45:1). Thereupon, a humble group of Jews returned to Jerusalem with Sheshbazzar, a prince of Judah (Ezr 1:8-11) and Zerubbabel (2:2). In 515 <span>BC<\/span>, the doors of the second temple were opened officially, and the Passover feast was again observed from Jerusalem (6:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Ezra came to Jerusalem in the seventh year of Artaxerxes (Ezr 7:7). Assuming this is a reference to Artaxerxes I, the date of Ezra’s return would have been 458 <span>BC<\/span>. Again, it was only a meager remnant who felt the compelling urge to make that difficult journey (cf. Josephus’s <em>Antiquities<\/em> 11.1.3).<\/p>\n<p>Moved by reports of troubled conditions (Neh 1:3-4), Nehemiah, in the 20th year of Artaxerxes (445 <span>BC<\/span>), was able to leave his post as cup-bearer to the king and to go to Jerusalem. If the concern of the earlier returnees focused upon the temple, Nehemiah’s was upon the city walls. His is the most comprehensive description of Jerusalem’s postexilic city walls and topography (Neh 2:11-16). Spurred on by his energetic enthusiasm, the people completed the task of rebuilding the walls in 52 days (6:15).<\/p>\n\n<h5>The Roman Period<\/h5>\n<p>In 40 <span>BC<\/span>, with the aid of the Parthians, Antigonus attacked and seized Jerusalem, forcing Herod to escape by night. He journeyed to Rome, where the Senate appointed him as “king of the Jews” (cf. Mt 2:1). Armed with this new authority, Herod marshaled two Roman legions, and in 37 <span>BC<\/span>, he succeeded in forever expelling the Parthians. So began the long and infamous rule of Herod, who reigned at Jerusalem for 33 years (37–4 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>It cannot be denied that Jerusalem enjoyed prosperous and peaceful years during his reign. Herod transformed the external aspect of Jerusalem. He transferred the seat of government to the southwestern hill. Here he erected a lavish palace, an arena for athletic contests, a theater, and a vast aqueduct network.<\/p>\n<p>Other building projects concerned the temple hill. Herod transformed the old Maccabean fortress into a much larger structure and named it Antonia, in honor of Mark Antony. In the temple area proper he enlarged the esplanade on both the north and south sides, giving it a rectangular shape. Herod’s reconstruction of the temple was undertaken in 20 <span>BC<\/span>, and it was not completed until around <span>AD<\/span> 64, just six years prior to its destruction by Titus (cf. Jn 2:20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Jerusalem, New; Judaism; Zion; Zion, Daughter of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JERUSALEM<\/h3>\n<p>Historic city sacred to Christians, Jews, and Muslims; the chief city of ancient Palestine and of the modern state of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Meaning of the Name<\/p>\n<p>• Geographical Situation<\/p>\n<p>• History<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MeaningoftheName\">Meaning of the Name<\/p>\n<h5>Egyptian Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>The earliest mention of the name occurs in the Egyptian Execration Texts of the 19th and 18th centuries <span>BC<\/span> in the form probably transliterated <em>Urusalimum.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>Semitic Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>In the 14th century <span>BC<\/span> the name appears in the Abdi-Hepa correspondence from Tell el-Amarna, written <em>Urusalim.<\/em> Later it is found in the inscription of the Assyrian monarch Sennacherib, written <em>Ursalimmu.<\/em> The two transparently Semitic elements, <em>uru<\/em> (city) and <em>salim<\/em> (a divine name), have produced the hyphenated composite meaning “the city of [the god] Salim.” Hyphenating geographic names to incorporate divine elements was a common practice in the ancient Near Eastern world, and the deity Salim, or Shalem (Akkadian, Shulmanu; cf. Solomon), was a member of the Amorite pantheon (cf. Ez 16:3). Since the oldest textual evidence—Egyptian, West Semitic, and Akkadian—supports only <em>urusalim,<\/em> and since the OT itself attests that Jerusalem was not originally a Hebrew city, it is probable that the Semitic etymological origin of this name produced the meaning “the city of [the god] Salim.”<\/p>\n<h5>Hebrew\/Aramaic Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>In the Hebrew OT, Jerusalem is written <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">yerushalayim<\/span><em>,<\/em> and in the Aramaic portions the name is rendered <em>yerushalem.<\/em> Containing the elements <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">yarah<\/span> (“to found,” cf. Jb 38:6) and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalem<\/span> (a divine name), it yields the meaning “the foundation of [the god] Shalem,” the <em>sh<\/em> of the Hebrew\/Aramaic to be taken as the phonemic equivalent of the Akkadian <em>s.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>Greek Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>In the NT, Jerusalem translates the two Greek words <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Ierousalem<\/span> and <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Hierosoluma<\/span><em>.<\/em> The former is simply the Greek transliteration of the OT Aramaic form; the latter reflects the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hieros<\/span> (holy), representing a Hellenized paronomasia, corresponding neither with the Semitic root of the name nor with the city’s historical reality.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GeographicalSituation\">Geographical Situation<\/p>\n<p>Jerusalem is situated 31º 46’ 45” north latitude and 35º 13’ 25” east longitude. The city rises to just over 2,500 feet (762 meters) above sea level and rests some 14 miles (22.5 kilometers) west of the northern end of the Dead Sea and approximately 33 miles (53 kilometers) east of the Mediterranean coast.<\/p>\n<p>A Mediterranean climate pervades Jerusalem. From October to May, the city experiences its rainy season, with an annual accumulation of about 25 inches (63.5 centimeters). Throughout January and February the rains are often driven by winds, and the mercury drops to near freezing (cf. Ezr 10:9); the coldest weather coincides with the days of heaviest rainfall. Snow falls two years out of three. There is no rain between May and September, and a high percentage of solar radiation produces oppressive heat.<\/p>\n<p>Like Rome, Jerusalem is a city set on hills. A cluster of five hills comprise the denuded quadrilateral landmass roughly one mile (1.6 kilometers) long and one-half mile (.8 kilometer) wide, bordered on all sides, except the north, by deep ravines. Stationed astride the crest of Palestine’s central plateau and located at the crossroad of the watershed route connecting Hebron, Bethlehem, Shechem (Nablus), and points north with the longitudinal route from the Jordan Valley and the several arteries to the Mediterranean, Jerusalem is commercially central to the country. The lateral highway through the Judean mountains and eastward could not pass south of Jerusalem, being blocked by the Dead Sea and its sheer cliffs. Because it lacked significant water supply, the city’s strategic commercial location was probably the deciding criterion for its original occupation.<\/p>\n<p>Water, a lifeline of civilization, has always been in meager supply at Jerusalem. The only natural source of permanent water was the spring at Gihon, today sometimes called the Virgin’s Fountain, located in the Kidron Valley immediately east of the ancient fortress conquered by David. Tunnels were burrowed to provide access to the Gihon when Jerusalem was besieged. Later, the Siloam Tunnel was cut through nearly 1,800 feet (548.6 meters) of limestone, allowing the waters of the Gihon to pass through the hill of Zion to the pool of Siloam.<\/p>\n<p>Farther south, where the Kidron and Hinnom Valleys converge, there was another spring, called En-rogel in the Bible (modern Bir Eyyub). Owing to the lowering of the water table, this source of water ceased to percolate and was subsequently converted into a well.<\/p>\n<p>These two sources were clearly insufficient to sustain a sizable population, and both were too deep in the Kidron to be employed for irrigation. Hence, a vast network of cisterns, reservoirs, and water conduits for supplemental supply has been devised since ancient times.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"History\">History<\/p>\n<h5>The Pre-Israelite Period<\/h5>\n<p>Paleolithic and Mesolithic flint implements of an Acheulian type found in the plain of the Rephaim constitute the earliest evidence of the existence of human beings in the area of Jerusalem. Near the beginning of the fourth millennium <span>BC<\/span>, the southeastern hill was first occupied by a sedentary group, a fact evinced from the artifactual remains recovered from three graves and the pottery type discovered on bedrock. By 1800 <span>BC<\/span>, the crest of the southeastern hill was walled in rudimentary form.<\/p>\n<p>From the Bible one learns that Abraham paid tithes to Melchizedek, king of Salem (Gn 14:17-20). Again (ch 22) the great patriarch visited an area later incorporated into Jerusalem, Mt Moriah, the site where Isaac was nearly sacrificed. Second Chronicles 3:1 identifies Mt Moriah as the temple hill. In the 15th century <span>BC<\/span> or thereabouts the Hurrians (possibly the biblical Horites) penetrated into Palestine. About the same time at Jerusalem, extensive building activities were initiated and improved fortification methods were introduced. Accordingly, most writers attribute these projects at Jerusalem to the Hurrian infiltration.<\/p>\n<h5>Conquest and Settlement Period<\/h5>\n<p>Upon learning of Gibeon’s placation of Joshua’s army (Jos 9), Adoni-zedek, king of Jerusalem, formed a coalition with the kings of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon and attacked Gibeon. In response, Joshua marshaled his forces and defeated the coalition, killing all five monarchs at Makkedah (Jos 10:16-27). It appears that the tribe of Judah temporarily took control of Jerusalem and burned it in the wake of this victory (Jgs 1:8). However, the Jebusites reoccupied the site (Jos 15:63; 1 Chr 11:4-5). Apparently, the Jebusites more or less maintained control of Jerusalem until the time of David.<\/p>\n<p>The city appears again as a boundary separating the tribal inheritances of Judah and Benjamin, becoming the southern border of the latter’s domain. The identification of the “shoulder of the Jebusite” (<span>rsv<\/span> Jos 15:8; 18:16) with Jerusalem is usually explained as a reference to the southwestern hill, probably held also by the Jebusites at this time.<\/p>\n<h5>David’s Jerusalem<\/h5>\n<p>Following the Philistine victory atop Mt Gilboa, where Saul and Jonathan were killed in battle (1 Sm 31), David reigned over the tribe of Judah from Hebron, while a surviving son of Saul, Ishbosheth, ruled over the northern tribes from Mahanaim. During the two-year struggle that ensued, the house of David grew stronger while the forces of Ishbosheth shrunk considerably (2 Sm 3:1). This struggle culminated in the death and decapitation of Ishbosheth and the dispersion of his forces. David became the undisputed monarch of all the tribes of Israel.<\/p>\n\n<p>But the new monarch recognized that a consolidated national capital acceptable to both the north and the south would have to be created. Jerusalem had remained neutral in the conflict, being the site of a Jebusite enclave. It also represented a location that was militarily desirable, and by being commercially central to the fledgling nation, it was ideally suited.<\/p>\n<p>In the course of David’s 33-year reign at Jerusalem he made the city into the center of an empire that stretched from Egypt to the Euphrates River. He engaged in considerable building and expansion of the city. He fortified the Canaanite walls and prepared an extension of the city, possibly along the east slope of Zion.<\/p>\n<p>David also constructed a royal residence, receiving the technology and many materials from Hiram, king of Tyre (2 Sm 5:11). Nehemiah 12:37 suggests that this palace also may have been near the east side of the southeastern hill. It was from a window of this house that Michal saw David dancing in an undignified manner—according to her perception (2 Sm 6:16-23). From the roof of this palace David gazed upon Bathsheba as she bathed (11:2-5), and from this residence he plotted the murder of her husband, Uriah (vv 14-25).<\/p>\n<p>By bringing the ark of the covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sm 6:1-15)—implying that Yahweh would reside there—David displayed his most profound leadership. For in this perceptive act he merged for the first time in Israel’s history its political and religious capitals. Jerusalem took on the unique character of a holy city <em>and<\/em> a royal city. As a result, the city would be known as the “city of David” (5:7) as well as the “city of God” (Ps 46:4). Adult male Jews would make their pilgrimages to Jerusalem to take part in the feasts and offerings. It only remained for David to make this arrangement permanent, to enshrine Yahweh at Jerusalem forever by building him a temple. David aspired to do so (2 Sm 7), but God responded that such an undertaking was to be reserved for a son of the king.<\/p>\n<h5>The First Temple Period<\/h5>\n<p>A growing national realization of the extent and impact of the Davidic empire was employed by Solomon to full advantage. Himself an innovative and dynamic administrator, Solomon turned Jerusalem into a cosmopolitan center. The revenues of caravans from Egypt to Babylonia as well as the Phoenician trade with Elath, the Red Sea, and Ophir passed through his royal capital. Solomon’s own naval fleet traveled as far as Tarshish, most likely located on an island along the western coast of Spain. These expeditions returned every three years with such exotic commodities as apes, peacocks, silver, iron, tin, ivory, and gold. The capital swelled with residents and visitors, and the monarch’s fame became proverbial (1 Kgs 10).<\/p>\n<p>Solomon was the great OT builder of Jerusalem. His most significant building enterprise was undoubtedly the first temple. Erected on the summit of the temple hill, this edifice required seven years to construct, from April\/May 966 (1 Kgs 6:1) to October\/November 959 (v 38). Hiram again provided both the technology and the cedar beams.<\/p>\n<p>One may find in 1 Kings 10:27 a succinct encapsulation of the economic wealth lavished upon Jerusalem by Solomon: silver became as abundant as stone, and cedar was as common as sycamore. It is estimated that the annual revenues that coursed into Jerusalem were as high as $17 million. Ironically, it was the fiscal factor that became the burden of Solomon’s monarchy. Overextending himself financially, his economic and political programs soon required the levying of heavy taxes (1 Kgs 4:7-19) and the drafting of Israelites into forced labor (1 Kgs 5:13-18; cf. 9:20-23). These were the primary factors that prompted the schism in Israel’s political structure after the death of Solomon and resulted in a divided monarchy by 930 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>When the Babylonian army laid final siege to Jerusalem (588 <span>BC<\/span>), capturing it after many months, the city was completely decimated. The temple and Solomon’s palace were destroyed with fire; the city walls were demolished. The temple treasures were completely plundered, and the citizens were deported in large numbers.<\/p>\n<h5>The Second Temple Period<\/h5>\n<p>Jerusalem’s doom and 70-year captivity had been spelled out by Jeremiah (Jer 25:11; 29:10; cf. 2 Chr 36:21; Dn 9:2). In 538 <span>BC<\/span>, after the fall of Babylon, Cyrus, king of Persia, issued his famous proclamation (2 Chr 36:22-23; Ezr 1:1-4; cf. Is 44:28; 45:1). Thereupon, a humble group of Jews returned to Jerusalem with Sheshbazzar, a prince of Judah (Ezr 1:8-11) and Zerubbabel (2:2). In 515 <span>BC<\/span>, the doors of the second temple were opened officially, and the Passover feast was again observed from Jerusalem (6:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Ezra came to Jerusalem in the seventh year of Artaxerxes (Ezr 7:7). Assuming this is a reference to Artaxerxes I, the date of Ezra’s return would have been 458 <span>BC<\/span>. Again, it was only a meager remnant who felt the compelling urge to make that difficult journey (cf. Josephus’s <em>Antiquities<\/em> 11.1.3).<\/p>\n<p>Moved by reports of troubled conditions (Neh 1:3-4), Nehemiah, in the 20th year of Artaxerxes (445 <span>BC<\/span>), was able to leave his post as cup-bearer to the king and to go to Jerusalem. If the concern of the earlier returnees focused upon the temple, Nehemiah’s was upon the city walls. His is the most comprehensive description of Jerusalem’s postexilic city walls and topography (Neh 2:11-16). Spurred on by his energetic enthusiasm, the people completed the task of rebuilding the walls in 52 days (6:15).<\/p>\n\n<h5>The Roman Period<\/h5>\n<p>In 40 <span>BC<\/span>, with the aid of the Parthians, Antigonus attacked and seized Jerusalem, forcing Herod to escape by night. He journeyed to Rome, where the Senate appointed him as “king of the Jews” (cf. Mt 2:1). Armed with this new authority, Herod marshaled two Roman legions, and in 37 <span>BC<\/span>, he succeeded in forever expelling the Parthians. So began the long and infamous rule of Herod, who reigned at Jerusalem for 33 years (37–4 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>It cannot be denied that Jerusalem enjoyed prosperous and peaceful years during his reign. Herod transformed the external aspect of Jerusalem. He transferred the seat of government to the southwestern hill. Here he erected a lavish palace, an arena for athletic contests, a theater, and a vast aqueduct network.<\/p>\n<p>Other building projects concerned the temple hill. Herod transformed the old Maccabean fortress into a much larger structure and named it Antonia, in honor of Mark Antony. In the temple area proper he enlarged the esplanade on both the north and south sides, giving it a rectangular shape. Herod’s reconstruction of the temple was undertaken in 20 <span>BC<\/span>, and it was not completed until around <span>AD<\/span> 64, just six years prior to its destruction by Titus (cf. Jn 2:20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Jerusalem, New; Judaism; Zion; Zion, Daughter of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JERUSALEM Historic city sacred to Christians, Jews, and Muslims; the chief city of ancient Palestine and of the modern state of Israel. Preview • Meaning of the Name • Geographical Situation • History Meaning of the Name Egyptian Meaning The earliest mention of the name occurs in the Egyptian Execration Texts of the 19th and 18th centuries BC in the form probably transliterated Urusalimum. Semitic Meaning In the 14th century BC the name appears in the Abdi-Hepa correspondence from Tell el-Ama...","summary_en":"JERUSALEM Historic city sacred to Christians, Jews, and Muslims; the chief city of ancient Palestine and of the modern state of Israel. Preview • Meaning of the Name • Geographical Situation • History Meaning of the Name Egyptian Meaning The earliest mention of the name occurs in the Egyptian Execration Texts of the 19th and 18th centuries BC in the form probably transliterated Urusalimum. Semitic Meaning In the 14th century BC the name appears in the Abdi-Hepa correspondence from Tell el-Ama...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21040,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Tribe of Judah","title_en":"Tribe of Judah","content_ro":"<h3>JUDAH, Tribe of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the 12 tribes of Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GeographicalTerritory\">Geographical Territory<\/p>\n<p>The frontiers of Judah are well defined in Joshua 15, which describes the inheritance of the tribe after the Conquest. Second Kings 23:8 describes Judah as extending from Geba to Beersheba: Geba is about 8 miles (13 kilometers) north of Jerusalem, and Beersheba about 40 miles (64 kilometers) south. Judah thus held a strip of mountain land on the central spine of southern Palestine, about 50 miles (80 kilometers) from north to south and 20 miles (32 kilometers) from east to west. Of this 1,000 square miles, half was desert (on the south and east); the rest was stony and not well watered. The central ridge, upon which are situated Jerusalem, Hebron, and Beersheba, rises to over 3,000 feet (914 meters) in places before tapering off into the desert in the south. Along this ridge, connecting these towns, runs the chief road. To the east, the ridge drops steeply to the Dead Sea, nearly 5,000 feet (1,524 meters) below. To the west it drops less sharply to the “lowlands,” actually a plateau some 1,000 feet (305 meters) high, before descending to the Philistine plain, which stretches to the sea.<\/p>\n<p>Judah proper (Jerusalem was a later addition) was remote and secure in its hills. Its true center and capital was Hebron, 3,500 feet (1,067 meters) up. Only on the north was it vulnerable to attackers marching south along the ridge road. However, three great valleys led up from the western lowlands into the hills: the valley of Ajalon, the valley of Sorek, and the valley of Elah. Battles would rage up and down these valleys from the days of Joshua to the time of David and long afterward. The few roads to the east (the one from Jerusalem to Jericho is the best known) were not so important, although it was by this “back door” that Joshua had invaded the hill country (Jos 10:9). Judah was thus geographically well out of the mainstream of Israelite life, since only the territory of Simeon lay to the south.<\/p>\n<p>The area occupied by Judah falls easily into three natural regions: the central mountain ridge, fairly densely settled, especially on its western side, where rainfall and dew were greatest; the eastern slopes, almost uninhabited and mostly desert; and the southern pastoral region round Beersheba, where the mountains fall away into dry prairie, with sparse settlement throughout.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"EconomicLife\">Economic Life<\/p>\n<p>To Israel, Palestine was a land flowing with milk and honey (Nm 13:27). Half of Judah might be desert, but the rest had reasonably good soil, and on the western slopes the rain was usually adequate. Wheat, barley, olives, figs, and especially vineyards, grew freely. The land might be stony, but stones could be collected and used for walls and buildings. Not as rich as the great northern valleys like Jezreel, Judah was still good mixed farming country, although it required hard work. Sheep and goats were plentiful, and that meant wool and milk. Cattle were probably rarer; Judah was not cattle country like Bashan (Nm 32:1). Wool meant cloth, and hide meant leather. In those days the hills were forested, which meant fuel and building materials. Clay for pottery was readily available for domestic utensils. Copper came from Edom in the south, and iron from Philistia in the west; these could be obtained by bartering agricultural produce. Whether they realized it or not, God had dealt graciously with the people of Judah in giving them adequate resources. Nonetheless, the climate was bracing: a cold, wet winter, with snow and hail at times, and a long, rainless summer, with low humidity and cool nights. This brought heavy dews on the eastern slopes (Jgs 6:38), and precious rainwater was conserved in rock-hewn cisterns (Jer 2:13). Permanent streams of any size did not exist in Judah, but springs or “wells” were abundant, from Jerusalem to Beersheba. It was not until Judah got caught up into the economic life of Solomon’s trading empire that its simple pattern of life changed; even then, the change in the hills of Judah was far less than elsewhere. Judah had no seaport of its own and controlled no rich caravan routes. It had no coveted raw materials, like the copper of Edom or the cedars of Lebanon; no luxury goods for trade, like the purple dye of Phoenicia or the gold of Ophir; no lush land to tempt the greed of others. In God’s mercy Judah’s temptations were few. Its faith was also less liable to be corrupted: comparatively few Canaanites had ever settled in this area, while the Conquest had been more thorough in the south than in the north.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoryandSignificance\">History and Significance<\/p>\n<p>The earliest blessings on Judah are recorded in Genesis 49:8-12 and Deuteronomy 33:7. After the exodus, the tribe of Judah took first place in the desert camping arrangement (Nm 2:3). Caleb, one of the two faithful spies, was a tribal chieftain of Judah (13:6). In Joshua’s invasion of Palestine, the highlands allotted to Judah were the first to be cleared of Canaanites, after the initial fighting around Jericho and Ai (Jos 6; 8). The book of Joshua is a summary account of the whole campaign.<\/p>\n\n<p>After Joshua’s death, Simeon and Judah continued the fight against the Canaanites and marched together against the hill country of the south, led by Caleb and Othniel. Although God’s gift to Judah had been the whole land westward as far as the sea, Judah failed to take anything but the hills. The plain was controlled by iron-protected chariots and fortress cities. The king of Jerusalem was killed and Jerusalem was burned (Jgs 1:8), but the Jebusites continued to occupy the area until David’s day (v 21). The men of Judah, like other Israelites, might burn Canaanite towns, but they did not usually occupy the old sites themselves. Under the judges, the tribe of Judah was still isolated, though Othniel was of Judah (ch 3). In the great battle against Sisera, Judah is not even mentioned (ch 5). This tribal isolation was soon lost, first through Philistine invasions from the west, and then through David’s capture of Jerusalem and the placing of the national and religious capital there. Although in Judges 15:11 the men of Judah are prepared even to hand over Samson to the Philistines, with Samuel as judge, everything changes. The ark returns (1 Sm 7:1); lost territory is regained (v 14). Indeed, Samuel’s sons act as judges in Beersheba (8:2), although they are corrupt.<\/p>\n<p>David finally breaks the power of the Philistines in a series of victories and rules as king first in Hebron, Judah’s chief town (2 Sm 2:1-4). When he is crowned king of all Israel, however, he moves the capital to the newly conquered Jerusalem, on the northern frontier of the tribe of Judah (5:6-10). Here the ark was to be brought (ch 6), and here Solomon was to build the temple (7:13). All God’s promises will henceforth cluster around Jerusalem, the temple, and David’s line. Most important, the Messiah would come from Judah (Gn 49:10).<\/p>\n<p>The division between the northern and southern tribes had begun in David’s lifetime, after Absalom’s revolt (2 Sm 20:1); after Solomon’s death, the rift became complete (1 Kgs 12:16). Henceforth for 200 years, until the fall of the northern kingdom in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, there were two little kingdoms side by side: a larger one in the north and east, called Israel (the “ten tribes” of 1 Kgs 11:35), and a smaller one in the south, called Judah. With this, the history of Judah as a tribe virtually comes to an end, for although still called by the old tribal name, this little kingdom was really a “Greater Judah.” It now contained not only the old tribe of Judah but also the newly conquered Jebusite territory of Jerusalem, some of the old Philistine country, and the tribes of Benjamin and Simeon, as well as many Levites (2 Chr 11:14) and other “loyalists” from the north. Indeed, from now on, “tribe” had far less meaning than before; it was more important where a person lived than of what tribe the person was, although, within the family, tribal origins continued to be remembered. For 250 more years the little kingdom of Judah persisted alone. Even after the exile it was the tiny province of Judah that emerged under Nehemiah (Neh 1:2-3), and Judea still remained as a district in NT days (Lk 3:1). In fact, the vast majority of later Jews were of the tribe of Judah, as the very name “Jew” shows. But the chief glory of the tribe of Judah, now as ever, was that the house of David sprang from it. When Jesus Christ was born, he was to be of David’s line and Judah’s tribe. So it is that in Revelation 7:5, when 12,000 are sealed from each tribe, Judah has pride of place in the list, as it had in Numbers (Nm 2:3) so long before.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Judah (Person) #1.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JUDAH, Tribe of<\/h3>\n<p>One of the 12 tribes of Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GeographicalTerritory\">Geographical Territory<\/p>\n<p>The frontiers of Judah are well defined in Joshua 15, which describes the inheritance of the tribe after the Conquest. Second Kings 23:8 describes Judah as extending from Geba to Beersheba: Geba is about 8 miles (13 kilometers) north of Jerusalem, and Beersheba about 40 miles (64 kilometers) south. Judah thus held a strip of mountain land on the central spine of southern Palestine, about 50 miles (80 kilometers) from north to south and 20 miles (32 kilometers) from east to west. Of this 1,000 square miles, half was desert (on the south and east); the rest was stony and not well watered. The central ridge, upon which are situated Jerusalem, Hebron, and Beersheba, rises to over 3,000 feet (914 meters) in places before tapering off into the desert in the south. Along this ridge, connecting these towns, runs the chief road. To the east, the ridge drops steeply to the Dead Sea, nearly 5,000 feet (1,524 meters) below. To the west it drops less sharply to the “lowlands,” actually a plateau some 1,000 feet (305 meters) high, before descending to the Philistine plain, which stretches to the sea.<\/p>\n<p>Judah proper (Jerusalem was a later addition) was remote and secure in its hills. Its true center and capital was Hebron, 3,500 feet (1,067 meters) up. Only on the north was it vulnerable to attackers marching south along the ridge road. However, three great valleys led up from the western lowlands into the hills: the valley of Ajalon, the valley of Sorek, and the valley of Elah. Battles would rage up and down these valleys from the days of Joshua to the time of David and long afterward. The few roads to the east (the one from Jerusalem to Jericho is the best known) were not so important, although it was by this “back door” that Joshua had invaded the hill country (Jos 10:9). Judah was thus geographically well out of the mainstream of Israelite life, since only the territory of Simeon lay to the south.<\/p>\n<p>The area occupied by Judah falls easily into three natural regions: the central mountain ridge, fairly densely settled, especially on its western side, where rainfall and dew were greatest; the eastern slopes, almost uninhabited and mostly desert; and the southern pastoral region round Beersheba, where the mountains fall away into dry prairie, with sparse settlement throughout.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"EconomicLife\">Economic Life<\/p>\n<p>To Israel, Palestine was a land flowing with milk and honey (Nm 13:27). Half of Judah might be desert, but the rest had reasonably good soil, and on the western slopes the rain was usually adequate. Wheat, barley, olives, figs, and especially vineyards, grew freely. The land might be stony, but stones could be collected and used for walls and buildings. Not as rich as the great northern valleys like Jezreel, Judah was still good mixed farming country, although it required hard work. Sheep and goats were plentiful, and that meant wool and milk. Cattle were probably rarer; Judah was not cattle country like Bashan (Nm 32:1). Wool meant cloth, and hide meant leather. In those days the hills were forested, which meant fuel and building materials. Clay for pottery was readily available for domestic utensils. Copper came from Edom in the south, and iron from Philistia in the west; these could be obtained by bartering agricultural produce. Whether they realized it or not, God had dealt graciously with the people of Judah in giving them adequate resources. Nonetheless, the climate was bracing: a cold, wet winter, with snow and hail at times, and a long, rainless summer, with low humidity and cool nights. This brought heavy dews on the eastern slopes (Jgs 6:38), and precious rainwater was conserved in rock-hewn cisterns (Jer 2:13). Permanent streams of any size did not exist in Judah, but springs or “wells” were abundant, from Jerusalem to Beersheba. It was not until Judah got caught up into the economic life of Solomon’s trading empire that its simple pattern of life changed; even then, the change in the hills of Judah was far less than elsewhere. Judah had no seaport of its own and controlled no rich caravan routes. It had no coveted raw materials, like the copper of Edom or the cedars of Lebanon; no luxury goods for trade, like the purple dye of Phoenicia or the gold of Ophir; no lush land to tempt the greed of others. In God’s mercy Judah’s temptations were few. Its faith was also less liable to be corrupted: comparatively few Canaanites had ever settled in this area, while the Conquest had been more thorough in the south than in the north.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HistoryandSignificance\">History and Significance<\/p>\n<p>The earliest blessings on Judah are recorded in Genesis 49:8-12 and Deuteronomy 33:7. After the exodus, the tribe of Judah took first place in the desert camping arrangement (Nm 2:3). Caleb, one of the two faithful spies, was a tribal chieftain of Judah (13:6). In Joshua’s invasion of Palestine, the highlands allotted to Judah were the first to be cleared of Canaanites, after the initial fighting around Jericho and Ai (Jos 6; 8). The book of Joshua is a summary account of the whole campaign.<\/p>\n\n<p>After Joshua’s death, Simeon and Judah continued the fight against the Canaanites and marched together against the hill country of the south, led by Caleb and Othniel. Although God’s gift to Judah had been the whole land westward as far as the sea, Judah failed to take anything but the hills. The plain was controlled by iron-protected chariots and fortress cities. The king of Jerusalem was killed and Jerusalem was burned (Jgs 1:8), but the Jebusites continued to occupy the area until David’s day (v 21). The men of Judah, like other Israelites, might burn Canaanite towns, but they did not usually occupy the old sites themselves. Under the judges, the tribe of Judah was still isolated, though Othniel was of Judah (ch 3). In the great battle against Sisera, Judah is not even mentioned (ch 5). This tribal isolation was soon lost, first through Philistine invasions from the west, and then through David’s capture of Jerusalem and the placing of the national and religious capital there. Although in Judges 15:11 the men of Judah are prepared even to hand over Samson to the Philistines, with Samuel as judge, everything changes. The ark returns (1 Sm 7:1); lost territory is regained (v 14). Indeed, Samuel’s sons act as judges in Beersheba (8:2), although they are corrupt.<\/p>\n<p>David finally breaks the power of the Philistines in a series of victories and rules as king first in Hebron, Judah’s chief town (2 Sm 2:1-4). When he is crowned king of all Israel, however, he moves the capital to the newly conquered Jerusalem, on the northern frontier of the tribe of Judah (5:6-10). Here the ark was to be brought (ch 6), and here Solomon was to build the temple (7:13). All God’s promises will henceforth cluster around Jerusalem, the temple, and David’s line. Most important, the Messiah would come from Judah (Gn 49:10).<\/p>\n<p>The division between the northern and southern tribes had begun in David’s lifetime, after Absalom’s revolt (2 Sm 20:1); after Solomon’s death, the rift became complete (1 Kgs 12:16). Henceforth for 200 years, until the fall of the northern kingdom in 722 <span>BC<\/span>, there were two little kingdoms side by side: a larger one in the north and east, called Israel (the “ten tribes” of 1 Kgs 11:35), and a smaller one in the south, called Judah. With this, the history of Judah as a tribe virtually comes to an end, for although still called by the old tribal name, this little kingdom was really a “Greater Judah.” It now contained not only the old tribe of Judah but also the newly conquered Jebusite territory of Jerusalem, some of the old Philistine country, and the tribes of Benjamin and Simeon, as well as many Levites (2 Chr 11:14) and other “loyalists” from the north. Indeed, from now on, “tribe” had far less meaning than before; it was more important where a person lived than of what tribe the person was, although, within the family, tribal origins continued to be remembered. For 250 more years the little kingdom of Judah persisted alone. Even after the exile it was the tiny province of Judah that emerged under Nehemiah (Neh 1:2-3), and Judea still remained as a district in NT days (Lk 3:1). In fact, the vast majority of later Jews were of the tribe of Judah, as the very name “Jew” shows. But the chief glory of the tribe of Judah, now as ever, was that the house of David sprang from it. When Jesus Christ was born, he was to be of David’s line and Judah’s tribe. So it is that in Revelation 7:5, when 12,000 are sealed from each tribe, Judah has pride of place in the list, as it had in Numbers (Nm 2:3) so long before.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Judah (Person) #1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JUDAH, Tribe of One of the 12 tribes of Israel. Geographical Territory The frontiers of Judah are well defined in Joshua 15, which describes the inheritance of the tribe after the Conquest. Second Kings 23:8 describes Judah as extending from Geba to Beersheba: Geba is about 8 miles (13 kilometers) north of Jerusalem, and Beersheba about 40 miles (64 kilometers) south. Judah thus held a strip of mountain land on the central spine of southern Palestine, about 50 miles (80 kilometers) from north...","summary_en":"JUDAH, Tribe of One of the 12 tribes of Israel. Geographical Territory The frontiers of Judah are well defined in Joshua 15, which describes the inheritance of the tribe after the Conquest. Second Kings 23:8 describes Judah as extending from Geba to Beersheba: Geba is about 8 miles (13 kilometers) north of Jerusalem, and Beersheba about 40 miles (64 kilometers) south. Judah thus held a strip of mountain land on the central spine of southern Palestine, about 50 miles (80 kilometers) from north...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":22166,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Kiriath-Jearim","title_en":"Kiriath-Jearim","content_ro":"<h3>KIRIATH-JEARIM<\/h3>\n<p>Village on the road from Jerusalem to Tel Aviv, about 10 miles (16 kilometers) northwest of Jerusalem. Excavations by the French revealed a settlement 7,000 years old in which the residents changed from grazing to farming. Its modern name is Abu Ghosh, so named after a family of Arab sheiks who robbed pilgrims en route to Jerusalem until Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt terminated the practice early in the 19th century. The Crusaders mistakenly identified this village as Emmaus, where Jesus revealed himself to two people after his resurrection (Lk 24:13). Because of this, they built a church there (in the 12th century). The massive walls of the church were built over the remains of a Roman fort where Titus had stationed his veterans of the Jewish Revolt. The large crypt under the church contains a spring, mentioned in memoirs of the First Crusade as the “Emmaus Spring.”<\/p>\n<p>In the time of the judges this village was one of the four cities of the Gibeonites who, under false pretenses, made a mutual defense pact with Joshua and the elders of Israel (Jos 9:3-27). Because it was on the border between Judah and Benjamin, it was integrated into the tribe of Judah (15:9; 18:14). During the time of Samuel, after the Philistines captured the ark (1 Sm 4:11) and found its possession to be dangerous, they were advised to return it to Israel. This they did; the ark arrived in Beth-shemesh, where 70 men who peered into it perished. Because of the danger its presence presented, it was sent on to Kiriath-jearim, where it remained in the house of Abinadab (1 Sm 7:1) for 20 years. One of King David’s first official acts after arriving in Jerusalem was to bring the ark from Baalah (Kiriath-jearim) to Obed-edom’s house, then on to Jerusalem (2 Sm 6).<\/p>\n<p>Uriah the prophet, who condemned the reign of King Jehoiakim and was later executed (Jer 26:20-23), was a native of Kiriath-jearim. Among the returnees from the exile were citizens originally from Kiriath-jearim (Ezr 2:25; Neh 7:29).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KIRIATH-JEARIM<\/h3>\n<p>Village on the road from Jerusalem to Tel Aviv, about 10 miles (16 kilometers) northwest of Jerusalem. Excavations by the French revealed a settlement 7,000 years old in which the residents changed from grazing to farming. Its modern name is Abu Ghosh, so named after a family of Arab sheiks who robbed pilgrims en route to Jerusalem until Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt terminated the practice early in the 19th century. The Crusaders mistakenly identified this village as Emmaus, where Jesus revealed himself to two people after his resurrection (Lk 24:13). Because of this, they built a church there (in the 12th century). The massive walls of the church were built over the remains of a Roman fort where Titus had stationed his veterans of the Jewish Revolt. The large crypt under the church contains a spring, mentioned in memoirs of the First Crusade as the “Emmaus Spring.”<\/p>\n<p>In the time of the judges this village was one of the four cities of the Gibeonites who, under false pretenses, made a mutual defense pact with Joshua and the elders of Israel (Jos 9:3-27). Because it was on the border between Judah and Benjamin, it was integrated into the tribe of Judah (15:9; 18:14). During the time of Samuel, after the Philistines captured the ark (1 Sm 4:11) and found its possession to be dangerous, they were advised to return it to Israel. This they did; the ark arrived in Beth-shemesh, where 70 men who peered into it perished. Because of the danger its presence presented, it was sent on to Kiriath-jearim, where it remained in the house of Abinadab (1 Sm 7:1) for 20 years. One of King David’s first official acts after arriving in Jerusalem was to bring the ark from Baalah (Kiriath-jearim) to Obed-edom’s house, then on to Jerusalem (2 Sm 6).<\/p>\n<p>Uriah the prophet, who condemned the reign of King Jehoiakim and was later executed (Jer 26:20-23), was a native of Kiriath-jearim. Among the returnees from the exile were citizens originally from Kiriath-jearim (Ezr 2:25; Neh 7:29).<\/p>","summary_ro":"KIRIATH-JEARIM Village on the road from Jerusalem to Tel Aviv, about 10 miles (16 kilometers) northwest of Jerusalem. Excavations by the French revealed a settlement 7,000 years old in which the residents changed from grazing to farming. Its modern name is Abu Ghosh, so named after a family of Arab sheiks who robbed pilgrims en route to Jerusalem until Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt terminated the practice early in the 19th century. The Crusaders mistakenly identified this village as Emmaus, where Je...","summary_en":"KIRIATH-JEARIM Village on the road from Jerusalem to Tel Aviv, about 10 miles (16 kilometers) northwest of Jerusalem. Excavations by the French revealed a settlement 7,000 years old in which the residents changed from grazing to farming. Its modern name is Abu Ghosh, so named after a family of Arab sheiks who robbed pilgrims en route to Jerusalem until Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt terminated the practice early in the 19th century. The Crusaders mistakenly identified this village as Emmaus, where Je...","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26554,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Music","title_en":"Music","content_ro":"<h3>MUSIC<\/h3>\n<p>A natural human expression that probably began with speech-singing and developed into songs, which were then accompanied by instruments. Music as we know it has become quite complex, a luxury and entertainment; music in antiquity, however, was a functional expression of daily life, work, and worship.<\/p>\n<p>The phrase “sing to the Lord,” common to the OT (Ex 15:21; 1 Chr 16:9; Pss 68:32; 96:1-2; Is 42:10; Jer 20:13), was not unique to the Jewish nation. All religions draw on the natural human impulse to sing. The injunction “sing to the Lord” was a signal for the people to pour out their praise in song.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible, however, is limited in its treatment of music in ancient Israel. Since there was no written musical notation, the primary record of songs sung by the Hebrews is the collection of texts, particularly the psalms, and a few enigmatic musical instructions. The biblical writers were writing a history not of their culture but of their relationship with God; hence, their comments about music are not critical. Also, the biblical documents cover a long span of history and are grouped according to category rather than in chronological order, thus making it difficult to order the development of musical style with precision. Finally, there is the problem of understanding the biblical descriptions of music and its performance. Only in this century have scholars been able to interpret the information provided in the Bible in terms of Eastern music systems.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Music in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Music in the Psalms<\/p>\n<p>• Music in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MusicintheOldTestament\">Music in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first musician—the inventor of the harp and flute” (Gn 4:21, <span>nlt<\/span>). The importance of this description of a musician so early in history lies in the equality Jubal is given with his brothers Jabal, the herdsman, and Tubal-cain, the smith. Music making is recognized among the earliest professions of nomadic peoples. The name Jubal is believed to be a derivative from the Hebrew word for “ram.” The ram’s horn <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shophar<\/span><em>)<\/em> was an early instrument of the Jewish people and was significant in signaling important events.<\/p>\n<p>For the most part, the music described in early biblical history was of a functional nature. Music gained special significance as it became an important part of temple worship. Many of the descriptions of music making in ancient Israel, before David’s time, are quite utilitarian. There are accounts of music at times of farewell (Gn 31:27), at times of rejoicing and feasting (Ex 32:17-18; Is 5:12; 24:8-9), at military victories (2 Chr 20:27-28), and for work (Nm 21:17, the song of the well diggers; Is 16:10; Jer 48:33). Most of this music was probably rather crude and primitive in nature, especially the music associated with military advances, which was meant to terrify the enemy (Jgs 7:17-20). The music and dancing that greeted Moses as he descended from the mountain was described as if it sounded like “war in the camp” (Ex 32:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>In the early history of the Jewish people, women played an important part in the performance of music. The image of women dancing and singing for joy accompanied by percussion instruments is repeated several times: Miriam led the women in a hymn of thanksgiving after the deliverance from the Red Sea (Ex 15); Jephthah’s daughter welcomed her father in his victory (Jgs 11:34); Deborah joined with Barak in singing a song of victory (Jgs 5); and women hailed David after his defeat of the Philistines (1 Sm 18:6-7). There is little mention of women as musicians following the establishment of the temple in Jerusalem, but there are a few allusions to the fact that women did participate in singing and dancing. The account of the return from exile in Babylon includes both male and female singers (Neh 7:67), confirming that women still took part in musical performance.<\/p>\n<p>As Jerusalem became the religious center of the Hebrew people (950–850 <span>BC<\/span>), the role of the professional musician became more important. The women’s songs became insignificant compared to the pomp and ceremony associated with the temple and the royal court. While the Levitical singers took most of the musical responsibility at the temple, the development of antiphonal singing allowed the people to join in on responses in the singing of psalms.<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Style and Use<\/h5>\n<p>The Jewish people seem to have been especially musical. Of course, they were influenced by other ancient cultures, but there is evidence that they were in demand as musicians by other peoples. According to an Assyrian document, King Hezekiah gave as tribute to King Sennacherib many male and female Jewish musicians. The Babylonians demanded that the captive Jews sing to them and entertain them (cf. Ps 137:3).<\/p>\n<p>Since the OT’s purpose was to narrate the relationship between the Jewish nation and God, most of the references to music deal with its function in worship. However, evidence reveals that there was also a large body of secular musical literature. There may have been guilds of poets and singers early in Jewish history. The kinds of songs recorded in the early part of the OT represent a folklike poetry. The song of thanksgiving to the Lord by Moses and the people of Israel after their escape at the Red Sea is a stirring national song. Many descriptions of the biblical writers reflect the spirit of bardic song. This would be logical, as these stories were meant to be passed on. Marching songs (2 Chr 20:27-28), and songs of triumph (Jgs 5) also indicate a secular body of music.<\/p>\n<h5>Music in Worship<\/h5>\n<p>The singers and musicians for the temple worship were chosen from the tribe of Levi. King David assembled the Levites for a census, and out of the total of 38,000 men over the age of 30, 4,000 were chosen as musicians. These 4,000 were subsequently given specific jobs. “David and the chiefs of the service also set apart for the service certain of the sons of Asaph, and of Heman, and of Jeduthun, who should prophesy with lyres, with harps, and with cymbals. . . . The number of them along with their brethren, who were trained in singing to the <span>Lord<\/span>, all who were skilful, was two hundred and eighty-eight” (1 Chr 25:1, 7, <span>rsv<\/span>). The singers were further divided into 24 groups of 12 singers, who rotated in participating in the weekday, Sabbath, and high holy day services.<\/p>\n<p>According to a later source, there were minimum and maximum numbers of singers and instrumentalists required at each service. The minimum number of singers was twelve, the maximum was unlimited. There had to be in attendance at least two harps but no more than six, at least two flutes but no more than twelve, a minimum of two trumpets with no maximum, and a minimum of nine lyres with no maximum. There was only one player with a pair of cymbals.<\/p>\n<p>A singer was admitted to the Levitical choir at the age of thirty following a five-year apprenticeship (1 Chr 23:3). Five years is a relatively short time considering the amount of material these singers had to memorize (for there was no notation) and the liturgical ritual they had to master; it is speculated that they actually were in training from childhood. The Levites lived in villages outside the city wall and may have been actively involved in the musical education of their children (Neh 12:29). The Levites performed other duties connected with the sacred service, but the singers were excused from all other duties because they were on duty day and night (1 Chr 9:33). Their skills were an important part of the temple worship, and they were able to devote their entire life to the development of their musical ability. A singer served in the choir for 20 years, from age 30 to 50, and the music was of a high quality due to strict discipline and continuous practice and performance.<\/p>\n<p>From the beginning of Jewish formal worship connected with the tabernacle, music and sound was important. In Exodus 28:34-35 the descriptions of Aaron’s robe include bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. The first liturgical music mentioned in the OT is found in 2 Samuel 6 in the descriptions of the transfer of the ark: David and the Israelites sang, played instruments, and danced to the glory of the Lord. This music bore little resemblance to the stately ceremony described later in Solomon’s temple. In 2 Chronicles 7:6, David is given recognition for inventing the musical instruments used in the temple. In the postexilic era Levitical singers are mentioned as the descendants of Asaph, the “singing master” appointed by David (Ezr 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22-23). From passages such as these, we have a definite indication that liturgical music and organization stemmed from David’s time.<\/p>\n<p>The ceremonies in the Jewish temple were organized around the sacrifice. Singing formed an integral part of the sacrificial service and was necessary to validate the sacrificial action. There were special musical settings for each sacrifice; thus the daily burnt, expiatory, and laudatory offerings and libations had individual liturgies. Particular psalms became associated with certain sacrifices as well as with certain days of the week. The psalm of the day was intoned as the high priest started to pour out the drink offering. The psalm was divided into three sections, each signaled by the blowing of the trumpets, on which signal the people would prostrate themselves. This is the only time the trumpets were used together with the other instruments in orchestral fashion on solemn occasions (2 Chr 5:12-13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MusicinthePsalms\">Music in the Psalms<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Psalm Titles<\/h5>\n<p>The collection of 150 lyric poems known as the book of Psalms contains the most information on music making in ancient Israel. The Psalter contains not only religious songs but also songs that have their roots in secular or popular songs, such as work songs, love songs, and wedding songs. The majority are songs of praise, thanksgiving, prayer, and repentance. There are also historic odes that relate great national events—for example, Psalm 30, “a song at the dedication of the temple,” and Psalm 137, which portrays the sufferings of the Jews in captivity.<\/p>\n<p>The psalms were an important part of all the services of the temple; the Psalter became the liturgical hymnal of the Israelites. Worship included an appointed psalm for each day of the week. On the first day of the week, Psalm 24 was sung in remembrance of the first day of creation, Psalm 48 was sung on the second day, Psalm 82 on the third, Psalm 94 on the fourth, Psalm 81 on the fifth, Psalm 93 on the sixth, and Psalm 92 on the Sabbath. After the sacrificial offerings, Psalm 105:1-5 was sung at the morning service and Psalm 96 at the evening service. The Hallel psalms (Pss 113–118, 120–136, 146–148) were sung during the offering of the paschal lamb at the Passover feast.<\/p>\n<p>While most of the liturgical music was performed by Levites, texts of the psalms suggest that there was also congregational participation. The forms of music found both in synagogal and ecclesiastical chant had their source in the forms of the poetic text of the psalms. The simplest is the plain psalmody sung by one person (e.g., Pss 3–5, 46). In responsorial psalmody the soloist is answered by the choir (e.g., Ps 67:1-2; the soloist sang verse 1 and the choir answered with verse 2). Antiphonal psalmody involves two groups singing alternately (e.g., Ps 103:20-22). The congregation would chant a refrain such as appears in Psalm 80: “Restore us, O God; let thy face shine, that we may be saved!” recurs throughout the psalm (<span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Even though the synagogue had no altar for sacrifice, psalm singing retained an important place. After the Romans destroyed the temple, the worship heritage of the Jews could have been lost if the customs, including musical customs, had not become an integral part of synagogue worship.<\/p>\n<p>The most enigmatic part of the psalms is the headings that are not part of the poetic text. The first question is whether these should even be considered as superscripts. Greek, Latin, Hebrew, and other ancient languages were written in such a way that the text ran together without any break between chapters or paragraphs. This means that the verses, and even the division of the psalms themselves, were partially determined by copyists, chiefly the Masoretes. There is some question as to which psalms the extrapoetic texts actually belong with; they may actually be subscripts instead of superscripts. Sumerian and Babylonian poetry had information such as the name of the author, the musical instrument used for accompaniment, the tune, the purpose, and such listed at the end of the poem. Hence, some of the headings may actually be endings.<\/p>\n<p>The indications at the beginning of a psalm fall into three categories. They are either musical terms giving direction for the actual performance, musical cues designating the tune to which the psalm would be sung, or comments indicating the function of the psalm. These terms have been interpreted in various ways.<\/p>\n<p>Originally, these headings may have been marginal notes for the choir leaders. Realizing that these terms were not related to the psalm text proper, early biblical scribes may not have been overly careful with their placement in the text, which may explain some of the discrepancies among the early manuscripts—why certain words are left out in some and why terms assigned to only a few psalms may originally have been indicated on more of them.<\/p>\n<p>All but 50 of the psalms contain a proper name in the heading. These names possibly indicate the author; other commentators, interpreting the preposition appearing before the names to mean “for,” think the names are a dedication. Thus the title would be “A Psalm for David,” not “A Psalm of David.” This may be the case with the names of Asaph, Heman, Ethan, and especially the sons of Korah, where it would make better sense for the psalm to be written for rather than by the family. Seventy-three psalms have David’s name in the heading, hence the common reference to the Psalter as the Psalms of David. Twelve include the name of Asaph, eleven the children of Korah, two Solomon, and one each contains Moses, Heman, and Ethan.<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Terms in the Psalm Titles<\/h5>\n<p>Numerous musical terms are included in the superscriptions to cue the kind of instrumental accompaniment, mood, and style of performance for the psalm.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Alamoth<\/span> is one of the most controversial terms found in the psalm headings. It appears at the beginning of Psalm 46 and also in 1 Chronicles 15:20. One meaning for the Hebrew word is “maiden,” and musicologists interpret this as an instruction that the psalm should be sung in the range of the female singing voice. The reference in Chronicles is to harps in the range of women’s voices. This interpretation does not seem to fit Psalm 46, but if we look at the preceding psalm and read the term as a subscript, it becomes logical. Psalm 45 is a song of love, actually a nuptial ode; it would be natural for women to sing the second half (vv 10-17). While there is little mention of women singing in the temple, there is speculation that young boys in training may have sung along with the Levitical singers. Also this may be a case where the term appears only once in the modern text but may have been used more often in the original. Another possible meaning for <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Alamoth<\/span> is “flutes,” perhaps describing the kind of musical accompaniment for the performance of the psalm.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Gittith<\/span> is a term found in the superscriptions of Psalms 8, 81, and 84. It may be a musical cue, indicating a mood for the performance of these psalms, but a more common explanation is that it is a collective term for the stringed instruments that would have accompanied them.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mahalath<\/span> has been left in its original Hebrew form by early translators and is found in the headings of Psalms 53 and 88. It may have roots in the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mahaleh<\/span> “sickness” or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mahot<\/span> “dance,” though neither of these words can be related to the psalm texts. Another explanation is a musical one. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mahalath<\/span> may come from the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">halal<\/span> meaning “to pierce,” implying that the psalm was to be accompanied with pipes.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Maskil<\/span> (<span>kjv<\/span> “Maschil”) appears in the headings of 13 psalms (Pss 32, 42, 44–45, 52–55, 74, 78, 88–89, 142). The term is probably derived from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sakal<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to have insight or comprehension,” but there is no agreement among commentators. By looking at the psalms themselves, their didactic nature and the structure of stanzas and refrains, musicologists conclude the term represents a song of praise, possibly sung by a soloist with participation by the choir.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Menazzeah<\/span> appears in the heading of 55 psalms. It appears 52 times in the first three books of Psalms (Pss 1–89), not at all in book four (Pss 90–106), and 3 times in book five (Pss 107–150). The most common modern translations are “to the Choirmaster” (<span>rsv<\/span>), “to the choir director” (<span>nasb<\/span>, <span>nlt<\/span>), “to the director of music” (<span>niv<\/span>), “to the chief Musician” (<span>kjv<\/span>, <span>nkjv<\/span>). The word is derived from the Hebrew verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nazzah<\/span><em>,<\/em> appearing in 1 Chronicles 23:4 and Ezra 3:8-9 in the sense of “administering.” In 1 Chronicles 15:21 the word is found in relation to leading or directing song in the temple. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Menazzeah<\/span> relates to the choirmaster and represents the singer chosen to lead the music who probably was involved in rehearsing and instructing. It is now assumed that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">menazzeah<\/span> indicates the psalm was to be sung partially or entirely by a soloist. This is evidenced by the change in some texts from “I” where the soloist sang, to “we” where the choir or congregation sang. Psalm 5 is an example of a text divided for solo and choral singing: verses 1-3 solo; verses 4-6 choral; verses 7-8 solo; verses 9-10 choral; and verses 11-12 end the psalm with the combined soloist and choir.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Miktam<\/span> (<span>kjv<\/span> “Michtam”) is another term that has no clear musical meaning, due mainly to the fact that its etymology is unknown. It occurs in Psalms 16 and 56–60, all of which have a character of lamentation or supplication. In a musical sense, it probably meant that a certain well-known tune was to be selected as the melody of the psalm.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mizmor<\/span> (Hebrew, meaning a song sung to instrumental accompaniment) is found nowhere else in the Bible; it is included in the superscriptions of 57 psalms. It probably indicated a song accompanied by melodic instruments as opposed to a dance song accompanied by rhythmic instruments.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Neginah<\/span> appears in the superscriptions of Psalms 4, 6, 54–55, 61, 67, and 76. The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">neginah<\/span> and its plural <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">neginoth<\/span> are found in Psalm 77:7, Lamentations 5:14, Isaiah 38:20, and Habakkuk 3:19. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Neginah<\/span><em>,<\/em> from the Hebrew root <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">naggen<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to touch the strings,” instructs that stringed instruments accompany the singing.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Nehiloth<\/span> is found only in the introduction to Psalm 5 (<span>kjv<\/span>). The origin of the word is problematic. It could come from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nahal<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to possess or inherit,” or more feasibly from <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">halal<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “to pierce.” The latter implies the idea of a pierced instrument (the flute or pipe) to be used for accompaniment.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Sheminith<\/span> appears in Psalms 6 and 12 and also in 1 Chronicles 15:21. The Hebrew word means literally “over the eighth.” Some scholars feel it had something to do with an octave, but the Hebrew musical language probably did not include a musical unit divided into eight parts. Other scholars interpret <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sheminith<\/span> as meaning an eight-stringed instrument. A more logical interpretation comes from examining its use in 1 Chronicles. In 15:20 the instructions are for musicians to play the harps according to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">alamoth<\/span> and in verse 21 to play the lyres according to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sheminith<\/span><em>.<\/em> Here the terms <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">alamoth<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sheminith<\/span> seem to be used in opposition. If <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">alamoth<\/span> implies a register of the female voice, then <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sheminith<\/span> would imply a lower register. Thus, it may have been an instruction to use a lower pitched instrument for accompaniment.<\/p>\n<h5>Psalm Varieties in the Titles<\/h5>\n<p>Some of the notes in the psalm headings are indications of the type or variety of psalm.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Hazkir<\/span> is found in the headings of Psalms 38 and 70. According to the Targum, this is an indication that the psalm was sung at the sacrificial rite called <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">askara<\/span> and is translated “for a memorial offering.”<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Lammed<\/span> appears in the superscription of Psalm 60 in the phrase <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">le-lammed<\/span><em>,<\/em> translated “to teach.” According to tradition, this was a psalm, though undoubtedly not the only one, taught to young people as part of their education. This is another example of a term that may have been omitted from other psalms in later versions of the Psalter.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shiggaion<\/span> is in the heading of Psalm 7 and also in Habakkuk 3:1. The word probably comes from the Hebrew verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shagah<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to wander,” but may also be connected with the Assyrian liturgical term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shigu<\/span><em>,<\/em> which represented a plaintive song in several stanzas. Biblical scholars have assumed <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shiggaion<\/span><em>,<\/em> plural <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shigionoth<\/span><em>,<\/em> was a lament or penitential song.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir<\/span> is the simplest word for “song” and was probably used in the headings at an early stage of the Psalter; it is usually found with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mizmor<\/span> (13 times). Fifteen psalms have this heading. It was probably the term for a specific type of praise song, usually performed by the choir.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir Hamaalot<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir Lamaalot<\/span> occur in the headings of Psalms 120–134, which are often referred to as the Psalms of Ascent (<span>kjv<\/span> “Psalms of Degrees”). Most explanations offered relate to the fact that the temple was situated on high ground. Often these 15 psalms are associated with the 15 steps leading from the Court of the Women to the Court of the Israelites. But most contemporary scholars believe the idea of “going up” referred to the pilgrims’ journey to Jerusalem to worship at the temple. These psalms are short, with popular appeal, making them appropriate for singing during the journey.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir Hanukkat Habayit<\/span> is found only in the heading of Psalm 30. This phrase tells that the psalm was to be used for the dedication or rededication of the house of God.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir-yedidot<\/span> appears only in Psalm 45. It refers to a love song that was probably sung at wedding ceremonies.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Tefillah<\/span> is a common term for “prayer” and appears in the headings of Psalms 17, 86, 90, 102, and 142, and also in Habakkuk 3:1. The word probably refers to a specific form of poetic prayer.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Selah<\/span> is one of the most frequently used, but most enigmatic, terms found in the book of Psalms. It occurs in 39 psalms, appearing a total of 71 times in the Psalter—67 times within the text and 4 times at the end of a psalm. It is most frequent in the first three books. In the first book <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span> appears in 9 psalms; in the second book, 17 psalms; in the third book, 11 psalms. In the fourth book it is not found at all and in the fifth book in only two psalms. Thirty-one of these psalms also include the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">menazzeah<\/span> in their superscriptions, which implies that they were sung by a soloist and choir. Most commonly, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span> is interpreted as a signal for a break in the singing and possibly for an instrumental interlude. It never appears at the beginning of a psalm but only in the middle of the text or at the end. The regularity of its appearance within a psalm is not consistent, and in only a few instances do these divisions break the psalm into equal sections. Because of the random placement of the term, some scholars believe that, like the headings, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span> was not always carefully copied into the text. It may have been a note appearing only in the texts of the musicians, which would explain this inconsistency. An explanation of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span> is found in the Talmudic tradition: “Ben Azra clashed the cymbal and the Levites broke forth into singing. When they reached a break in the singing they blew upon the trumpets and the people prostrated themselves; at every break there was a blowing of the trumpet and at every blowing of the trumpet a prostration. This was the rite of the daily whole offering in the service of the House of our God.” <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Selah<\/span><em>,<\/em> then, would be an instruction for the musicians that the singing was to cease and the instrumentalists were to play.<\/p>\n<p>The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">higgaion selah<\/span> appears once, in Psalm 9:16. The word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">higgaiaon<\/span> comes from the root <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hagah<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to murmur, to growl, to produce a low sound.” This may have been an instruction for the interlude to be more subdued than a normal <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span><em>.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>Ancient Melodies in the Titles<\/h5>\n<p>Many psalms contain headings that are not direct musical references but are cue words to suggest well-known tunes. They probably refer either to names or the first words of popular secular songs <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">makams<\/span><em>)<\/em> whose melodic patterns were used in singing the psalm. Many biblical scholars have tried to find hidden meaning in these headings, but most musicologists believe these are simply references or introductions to melodies.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Aijeleth Shahar<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 22 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “according to The Hind of the Dawn” (<span>rsv<\/span>), and “To the tune of ‘The Doe of the Morning’ ” (<span>niv<\/span>), “To the tune ‘Doe of the Dawn’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Al-taschith<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalms 57–59 and 75 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Do Not Destroy!’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Jonath-elem-rechokim<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 56 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “according to The Dove on Far-off Terebinths” (<span>rsv<\/span>), and “To the tune ‘Dove on Distant Oaks’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mahalath Leannoth<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 88, is translated “To the tune ‘The Suffering of Affliction’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Muthlabben<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 9, is translated “To the tune ‘Death of the Son’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shoshannim<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalms 45 and 69 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Lilies’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shoshannim-Eduth<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 80 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Lilies of the Covenant’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shushan-eduth<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 60, is translated “To the tune ‘Lily of the Testimony’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>These melody types appear only in the first three books of the Psalter, and this may imply that these popular <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">makams<\/span> had fallen into disuse by the time the final books of the Psalter were written. Other <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">makam<\/span>-types had probably become popular, and the authors, realizing the relatively short life of a popular tune, did not include them in the headings of the Psalms but left the choice up to the performer.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MusicintheNewTestament\">Music in the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>First-Century Influences<\/h5>\n<h6>The Synagogue<\/h6>\n<p>By the time of Christ, the synagogue had become the chief place of worship for the Jewish people. It began as a place for study of the law but gradually became the center of worship for Jews unable to attend the temple. The liturgical service of the temple could not be duplicated in the synagogue as there was no sacrificial rite, and the music could not be exactly reproduced as there were no trained Levitical singers. Scholars do not agree about the amount of continuity between the music of the temple and the music of the synagogue, but there is evidence that certain musical practices did remain constant between the two places of worship.<\/p>\n<p>Information on the customs and rituals of the synagogue come from Talmudic writings. The musical elements of worship in the synagogue were the chanting of Scripture, psalmody, and spiritual songs. The choral singing of the temple was replaced by a single cantor. The cantor was a layman who, according to tradition, had to have the following qualifications: “He had to be well educated, gifted with a sweet voice, of humble personality, recognized by the community, conversant with Scripture and all the prayers; he must not be a rich man, for his prayers should come from his heart.” His most important job was the cantillation of the Law and the Prophets. A series of accents and punctuations, forerunners of actual musical notation, were indications for the cantor in the musical interpretation of the Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Psalm singing was gradually transplanted from the temple to the synagogue, which in turn influenced the early Christian church. Gregorian psalm tones have their roots in Hebrew psalmody.<\/p>\n<h6>Greek and Roman Cultures<\/h6>\n<p>While both the temple and the synagogue were familiar to the early Christians (Acts 2:46-47; 3:1; 5:42; 9:20; 18:4; etc.), the Greek and Roman cultures also played a major part in shaping the young church. Hellenistic influences by the time of Christ had long been felt in the Middle East, and while it was strongly opposed by some Jewish leaders, the Greek arts had permeated Jewish culture. Greek philosophers considered music a cathartic force that could lead humans into metaphysical knowledge. This understanding led to the belief that music had a moral substance that could influence people to either good or evil. If this philosophy had totally encompassed Judeo-Christian thought, certainly Paul would have encouraged the use of music in the spread of the gospel. However, Paul’s omission of this theory implies that the Judeo-Christian world at that time had rejected the Greek ideal, at least in part.<\/p>\n<p>While the Jewish rabbis considered music an art form for the praise of God, and while the Greek philosophers thought of it as a powerful moral force in creation, the Romans considered music mainly as entertainment. The music of the Roman games was neither religious nor philosophic and, from the accounts of witnesses, it was not technically exceptional. In the Roman Empire musicians were given a lower status and looked on as mere entertainers. One reason the early church did not include instrumental music in their worship was in reaction to the debased secular use of instruments by the Romans.<\/p>\n<h5>In the New Testament Writings<\/h5>\n<p>One of the few mentions of instruments in the NT is the use of flutes at a wake (Mt 9:23). As in the OT, music is associated with feasting and merrymaking (e.g., the return of the prodigal son, Lk 15:25). Five passages mention music metaphorically (Mt 6:2; 11:17; Lk 7:32; 1 Cor 13:1; 14:7-8). The most well known of these is Paul’s celebration of love in 1 Corinthians 13. The denunciation of the gong and cymbals must be understood in light of the attitude of the early Christians toward the music of the Pharisees. Here the signal instruments of the temple were used to represent pompous display of religious pietism.<\/p>\n\n<p>Most references to music are found in the eschatological visions and prophetic passages scattered throughout the NT—most frequently in the book of Revelation (also Mt 24:31; 1 Cor 15:52; 1 Thes 4:16; Heb 12:19). Many of these descriptions have a direct association with musical references in the OT (e.g., the use of harps and trumpets and the singing of the Hallelujah). But the value of many of the passages in Revelation comes from their literary style. These doxological and psalmlike passages were probably spontaneous “spiritual songs” composed by the young church (e.g., Rv 5:9-10).<\/p>\n<p>The passages that mention religious or liturgical music are often more conceptual than literal. Two parallel passages describing the Last Supper (Mt 26:30; Mk 14:26) mention that Christ and his disciples sang a hymn. This is the only direct account of Jesus singing, but it is probable that when he read in the synagogue he did so in the accepted vocal style (Lk 4:16-20). There is much controversy surrounding the actual events at the Last Supper, but we can assume that the hymn sung was a traditional Jewish hymn, probably associated with the Passover.<\/p>\n<p>From the account in Acts 16:25 we know that Paul and Silas sang hymns while in jail. Paul gives instruction for music making in 1 Corinthians 14:15, 26 in terms of a balance between rationalism and emotion. And, as with all the gifts of the Spirit, Paul asks that singing be done for edification.<\/p>\n<p>In two similar passages (Eph 5:19; Col 3:16) Paul groups together three musical terms—psalms, hymns, and spiritual songs. The singing of psalms was an obvious carryover from the synagogue, and we can assume that the early Christian psalm singing followed the Jewish style. The term for “hymns” probably refers to poetic texts, possibly modeled after the psalms, but in praise of Christ. “Spiritual songs” may refer to a spontaneous, ecstatic form of musical prayer, possibly wordless (perhaps related to glossolalia), in a style that was popular in mystical Judaism. These outbursts of song were probably melismatic (sung on one tone) and are perhaps the forerunners of the later Alleluia chant.<\/p>\n<h5>Hymnody in the New Testament<\/h5>\n<p>It can be assumed that the early Christians composed hymns in praise of Christ. Logically, most of the hymns found in the NT are based on Hebrew poetic psalm forms, but there is Greek and Latin influence also. The hymns from the Gospel of Luke have become well-known canticles adopted by the church: the Magnificat (Lk 1:46-55), the Benedictus (1:68-79), the Gloria (2:14) and the Nunc Dimittis (2:29-32). While patterned after the psalms of the OT, these hymns are full of confidence in the salvation of Christ and in his imminent return. Other Christological hymns found in the NT include the prologue to the Gospel of John, Ephesians 2:14-16, Philippians 2:6-11, Colossians 1:15-20, 1 Timothy 3:16, Hebrews 1:3, and 1 Peter 3:18-22.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MUSIC<\/h3>\n<p>A natural human expression that probably began with speech-singing and developed into songs, which were then accompanied by instruments. Music as we know it has become quite complex, a luxury and entertainment; music in antiquity, however, was a functional expression of daily life, work, and worship.<\/p>\n<p>The phrase “sing to the Lord,” common to the OT (Ex 15:21; 1 Chr 16:9; Pss 68:32; 96:1-2; Is 42:10; Jer 20:13), was not unique to the Jewish nation. All religions draw on the natural human impulse to sing. The injunction “sing to the Lord” was a signal for the people to pour out their praise in song.<\/p>\n<p>The Bible, however, is limited in its treatment of music in ancient Israel. Since there was no written musical notation, the primary record of songs sung by the Hebrews is the collection of texts, particularly the psalms, and a few enigmatic musical instructions. The biblical writers were writing a history not of their culture but of their relationship with God; hence, their comments about music are not critical. Also, the biblical documents cover a long span of history and are grouped according to category rather than in chronological order, thus making it difficult to order the development of musical style with precision. Finally, there is the problem of understanding the biblical descriptions of music and its performance. Only in this century have scholars been able to interpret the information provided in the Bible in terms of Eastern music systems.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Music in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Music in the Psalms<\/p>\n<p>• Music in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MusicintheOldTestament\">Music in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first musician—the inventor of the harp and flute” (Gn 4:21, <span>nlt<\/span>). The importance of this description of a musician so early in history lies in the equality Jubal is given with his brothers Jabal, the herdsman, and Tubal-cain, the smith. Music making is recognized among the earliest professions of nomadic peoples. The name Jubal is believed to be a derivative from the Hebrew word for “ram.” The ram’s horn <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shophar<\/span><em>)<\/em> was an early instrument of the Jewish people and was significant in signaling important events.<\/p>\n<p>For the most part, the music described in early biblical history was of a functional nature. Music gained special significance as it became an important part of temple worship. Many of the descriptions of music making in ancient Israel, before David’s time, are quite utilitarian. There are accounts of music at times of farewell (Gn 31:27), at times of rejoicing and feasting (Ex 32:17-18; Is 5:12; 24:8-9), at military victories (2 Chr 20:27-28), and for work (Nm 21:17, the song of the well diggers; Is 16:10; Jer 48:33). Most of this music was probably rather crude and primitive in nature, especially the music associated with military advances, which was meant to terrify the enemy (Jgs 7:17-20). The music and dancing that greeted Moses as he descended from the mountain was described as if it sounded like “war in the camp” (Ex 32:17-18).<\/p>\n<p>In the early history of the Jewish people, women played an important part in the performance of music. The image of women dancing and singing for joy accompanied by percussion instruments is repeated several times: Miriam led the women in a hymn of thanksgiving after the deliverance from the Red Sea (Ex 15); Jephthah’s daughter welcomed her father in his victory (Jgs 11:34); Deborah joined with Barak in singing a song of victory (Jgs 5); and women hailed David after his defeat of the Philistines (1 Sm 18:6-7). There is little mention of women as musicians following the establishment of the temple in Jerusalem, but there are a few allusions to the fact that women did participate in singing and dancing. The account of the return from exile in Babylon includes both male and female singers (Neh 7:67), confirming that women still took part in musical performance.<\/p>\n<p>As Jerusalem became the religious center of the Hebrew people (950–850 <span>BC<\/span>), the role of the professional musician became more important. The women’s songs became insignificant compared to the pomp and ceremony associated with the temple and the royal court. While the Levitical singers took most of the musical responsibility at the temple, the development of antiphonal singing allowed the people to join in on responses in the singing of psalms.<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Style and Use<\/h5>\n<p>The Jewish people seem to have been especially musical. Of course, they were influenced by other ancient cultures, but there is evidence that they were in demand as musicians by other peoples. According to an Assyrian document, King Hezekiah gave as tribute to King Sennacherib many male and female Jewish musicians. The Babylonians demanded that the captive Jews sing to them and entertain them (cf. Ps 137:3).<\/p>\n<p>Since the OT’s purpose was to narrate the relationship between the Jewish nation and God, most of the references to music deal with its function in worship. However, evidence reveals that there was also a large body of secular musical literature. There may have been guilds of poets and singers early in Jewish history. The kinds of songs recorded in the early part of the OT represent a folklike poetry. The song of thanksgiving to the Lord by Moses and the people of Israel after their escape at the Red Sea is a stirring national song. Many descriptions of the biblical writers reflect the spirit of bardic song. This would be logical, as these stories were meant to be passed on. Marching songs (2 Chr 20:27-28), and songs of triumph (Jgs 5) also indicate a secular body of music.<\/p>\n<h5>Music in Worship<\/h5>\n<p>The singers and musicians for the temple worship were chosen from the tribe of Levi. King David assembled the Levites for a census, and out of the total of 38,000 men over the age of 30, 4,000 were chosen as musicians. These 4,000 were subsequently given specific jobs. “David and the chiefs of the service also set apart for the service certain of the sons of Asaph, and of Heman, and of Jeduthun, who should prophesy with lyres, with harps, and with cymbals. . . . The number of them along with their brethren, who were trained in singing to the <span>Lord<\/span>, all who were skilful, was two hundred and eighty-eight” (1 Chr 25:1, 7, <span>rsv<\/span>). The singers were further divided into 24 groups of 12 singers, who rotated in participating in the weekday, Sabbath, and high holy day services.<\/p>\n<p>According to a later source, there were minimum and maximum numbers of singers and instrumentalists required at each service. The minimum number of singers was twelve, the maximum was unlimited. There had to be in attendance at least two harps but no more than six, at least two flutes but no more than twelve, a minimum of two trumpets with no maximum, and a minimum of nine lyres with no maximum. There was only one player with a pair of cymbals.<\/p>\n<p>A singer was admitted to the Levitical choir at the age of thirty following a five-year apprenticeship (1 Chr 23:3). Five years is a relatively short time considering the amount of material these singers had to memorize (for there was no notation) and the liturgical ritual they had to master; it is speculated that they actually were in training from childhood. The Levites lived in villages outside the city wall and may have been actively involved in the musical education of their children (Neh 12:29). The Levites performed other duties connected with the sacred service, but the singers were excused from all other duties because they were on duty day and night (1 Chr 9:33). Their skills were an important part of the temple worship, and they were able to devote their entire life to the development of their musical ability. A singer served in the choir for 20 years, from age 30 to 50, and the music was of a high quality due to strict discipline and continuous practice and performance.<\/p>\n<p>From the beginning of Jewish formal worship connected with the tabernacle, music and sound was important. In Exodus 28:34-35 the descriptions of Aaron’s robe include bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. The first liturgical music mentioned in the OT is found in 2 Samuel 6 in the descriptions of the transfer of the ark: David and the Israelites sang, played instruments, and danced to the glory of the Lord. This music bore little resemblance to the stately ceremony described later in Solomon’s temple. In 2 Chronicles 7:6, David is given recognition for inventing the musical instruments used in the temple. In the postexilic era Levitical singers are mentioned as the descendants of Asaph, the “singing master” appointed by David (Ezr 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22-23). From passages such as these, we have a definite indication that liturgical music and organization stemmed from David’s time.<\/p>\n<p>The ceremonies in the Jewish temple were organized around the sacrifice. Singing formed an integral part of the sacrificial service and was necessary to validate the sacrificial action. There were special musical settings for each sacrifice; thus the daily burnt, expiatory, and laudatory offerings and libations had individual liturgies. Particular psalms became associated with certain sacrifices as well as with certain days of the week. The psalm of the day was intoned as the high priest started to pour out the drink offering. The psalm was divided into three sections, each signaled by the blowing of the trumpets, on which signal the people would prostrate themselves. This is the only time the trumpets were used together with the other instruments in orchestral fashion on solemn occasions (2 Chr 5:12-13).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MusicinthePsalms\">Music in the Psalms<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Psalm Titles<\/h5>\n<p>The collection of 150 lyric poems known as the book of Psalms contains the most information on music making in ancient Israel. The Psalter contains not only religious songs but also songs that have their roots in secular or popular songs, such as work songs, love songs, and wedding songs. The majority are songs of praise, thanksgiving, prayer, and repentance. There are also historic odes that relate great national events—for example, Psalm 30, “a song at the dedication of the temple,” and Psalm 137, which portrays the sufferings of the Jews in captivity.<\/p>\n<p>The psalms were an important part of all the services of the temple; the Psalter became the liturgical hymnal of the Israelites. Worship included an appointed psalm for each day of the week. On the first day of the week, Psalm 24 was sung in remembrance of the first day of creation, Psalm 48 was sung on the second day, Psalm 82 on the third, Psalm 94 on the fourth, Psalm 81 on the fifth, Psalm 93 on the sixth, and Psalm 92 on the Sabbath. After the sacrificial offerings, Psalm 105:1-5 was sung at the morning service and Psalm 96 at the evening service. The Hallel psalms (Pss 113–118, 120–136, 146–148) were sung during the offering of the paschal lamb at the Passover feast.<\/p>\n<p>While most of the liturgical music was performed by Levites, texts of the psalms suggest that there was also congregational participation. The forms of music found both in synagogal and ecclesiastical chant had their source in the forms of the poetic text of the psalms. The simplest is the plain psalmody sung by one person (e.g., Pss 3–5, 46). In responsorial psalmody the soloist is answered by the choir (e.g., Ps 67:1-2; the soloist sang verse 1 and the choir answered with verse 2). Antiphonal psalmody involves two groups singing alternately (e.g., Ps 103:20-22). The congregation would chant a refrain such as appears in Psalm 80: “Restore us, O God; let thy face shine, that we may be saved!” recurs throughout the psalm (<span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Even though the synagogue had no altar for sacrifice, psalm singing retained an important place. After the Romans destroyed the temple, the worship heritage of the Jews could have been lost if the customs, including musical customs, had not become an integral part of synagogue worship.<\/p>\n<p>The most enigmatic part of the psalms is the headings that are not part of the poetic text. The first question is whether these should even be considered as superscripts. Greek, Latin, Hebrew, and other ancient languages were written in such a way that the text ran together without any break between chapters or paragraphs. This means that the verses, and even the division of the psalms themselves, were partially determined by copyists, chiefly the Masoretes. There is some question as to which psalms the extrapoetic texts actually belong with; they may actually be subscripts instead of superscripts. Sumerian and Babylonian poetry had information such as the name of the author, the musical instrument used for accompaniment, the tune, the purpose, and such listed at the end of the poem. Hence, some of the headings may actually be endings.<\/p>\n<p>The indications at the beginning of a psalm fall into three categories. They are either musical terms giving direction for the actual performance, musical cues designating the tune to which the psalm would be sung, or comments indicating the function of the psalm. These terms have been interpreted in various ways.<\/p>\n<p>Originally, these headings may have been marginal notes for the choir leaders. Realizing that these terms were not related to the psalm text proper, early biblical scribes may not have been overly careful with their placement in the text, which may explain some of the discrepancies among the early manuscripts—why certain words are left out in some and why terms assigned to only a few psalms may originally have been indicated on more of them.<\/p>\n<p>All but 50 of the psalms contain a proper name in the heading. These names possibly indicate the author; other commentators, interpreting the preposition appearing before the names to mean “for,” think the names are a dedication. Thus the title would be “A Psalm for David,” not “A Psalm of David.” This may be the case with the names of Asaph, Heman, Ethan, and especially the sons of Korah, where it would make better sense for the psalm to be written for rather than by the family. Seventy-three psalms have David’s name in the heading, hence the common reference to the Psalter as the Psalms of David. Twelve include the name of Asaph, eleven the children of Korah, two Solomon, and one each contains Moses, Heman, and Ethan.<\/p>\n<h5>Musical Terms in the Psalm Titles<\/h5>\n<p>Numerous musical terms are included in the superscriptions to cue the kind of instrumental accompaniment, mood, and style of performance for the psalm.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Alamoth<\/span> is one of the most controversial terms found in the psalm headings. It appears at the beginning of Psalm 46 and also in 1 Chronicles 15:20. One meaning for the Hebrew word is “maiden,” and musicologists interpret this as an instruction that the psalm should be sung in the range of the female singing voice. The reference in Chronicles is to harps in the range of women’s voices. This interpretation does not seem to fit Psalm 46, but if we look at the preceding psalm and read the term as a subscript, it becomes logical. Psalm 45 is a song of love, actually a nuptial ode; it would be natural for women to sing the second half (vv 10-17). While there is little mention of women singing in the temple, there is speculation that young boys in training may have sung along with the Levitical singers. Also this may be a case where the term appears only once in the modern text but may have been used more often in the original. Another possible meaning for <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Alamoth<\/span> is “flutes,” perhaps describing the kind of musical accompaniment for the performance of the psalm.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Gittith<\/span> is a term found in the superscriptions of Psalms 8, 81, and 84. It may be a musical cue, indicating a mood for the performance of these psalms, but a more common explanation is that it is a collective term for the stringed instruments that would have accompanied them.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mahalath<\/span> has been left in its original Hebrew form by early translators and is found in the headings of Psalms 53 and 88. It may have roots in the Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mahaleh<\/span> “sickness” or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mahot<\/span> “dance,” though neither of these words can be related to the psalm texts. Another explanation is a musical one. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mahalath<\/span> may come from the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">halal<\/span> meaning “to pierce,” implying that the psalm was to be accompanied with pipes.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Maskil<\/span> (<span>kjv<\/span> “Maschil”) appears in the headings of 13 psalms (Pss 32, 42, 44–45, 52–55, 74, 78, 88–89, 142). The term is probably derived from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sakal<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to have insight or comprehension,” but there is no agreement among commentators. By looking at the psalms themselves, their didactic nature and the structure of stanzas and refrains, musicologists conclude the term represents a song of praise, possibly sung by a soloist with participation by the choir.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Menazzeah<\/span> appears in the heading of 55 psalms. It appears 52 times in the first three books of Psalms (Pss 1–89), not at all in book four (Pss 90–106), and 3 times in book five (Pss 107–150). The most common modern translations are “to the Choirmaster” (<span>rsv<\/span>), “to the choir director” (<span>nasb<\/span>, <span>nlt<\/span>), “to the director of music” (<span>niv<\/span>), “to the chief Musician” (<span>kjv<\/span>, <span>nkjv<\/span>). The word is derived from the Hebrew verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nazzah<\/span><em>,<\/em> appearing in 1 Chronicles 23:4 and Ezra 3:8-9 in the sense of “administering.” In 1 Chronicles 15:21 the word is found in relation to leading or directing song in the temple. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Menazzeah<\/span> relates to the choirmaster and represents the singer chosen to lead the music who probably was involved in rehearsing and instructing. It is now assumed that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">menazzeah<\/span> indicates the psalm was to be sung partially or entirely by a soloist. This is evidenced by the change in some texts from “I” where the soloist sang, to “we” where the choir or congregation sang. Psalm 5 is an example of a text divided for solo and choral singing: verses 1-3 solo; verses 4-6 choral; verses 7-8 solo; verses 9-10 choral; and verses 11-12 end the psalm with the combined soloist and choir.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Miktam<\/span> (<span>kjv<\/span> “Michtam”) is another term that has no clear musical meaning, due mainly to the fact that its etymology is unknown. It occurs in Psalms 16 and 56–60, all of which have a character of lamentation or supplication. In a musical sense, it probably meant that a certain well-known tune was to be selected as the melody of the psalm.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mizmor<\/span> (Hebrew, meaning a song sung to instrumental accompaniment) is found nowhere else in the Bible; it is included in the superscriptions of 57 psalms. It probably indicated a song accompanied by melodic instruments as opposed to a dance song accompanied by rhythmic instruments.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Neginah<\/span> appears in the superscriptions of Psalms 4, 6, 54–55, 61, 67, and 76. The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">neginah<\/span> and its plural <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">neginoth<\/span> are found in Psalm 77:7, Lamentations 5:14, Isaiah 38:20, and Habakkuk 3:19. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Neginah<\/span><em>,<\/em> from the Hebrew root <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">naggen<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to touch the strings,” instructs that stringed instruments accompany the singing.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Nehiloth<\/span> is found only in the introduction to Psalm 5 (<span>kjv<\/span>). The origin of the word is problematic. It could come from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nahal<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to possess or inherit,” or more feasibly from <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">halal<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “to pierce.” The latter implies the idea of a pierced instrument (the flute or pipe) to be used for accompaniment.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Sheminith<\/span> appears in Psalms 6 and 12 and also in 1 Chronicles 15:21. The Hebrew word means literally “over the eighth.” Some scholars feel it had something to do with an octave, but the Hebrew musical language probably did not include a musical unit divided into eight parts. Other scholars interpret <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sheminith<\/span> as meaning an eight-stringed instrument. A more logical interpretation comes from examining its use in 1 Chronicles. In 15:20 the instructions are for musicians to play the harps according to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">alamoth<\/span> and in verse 21 to play the lyres according to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sheminith<\/span><em>.<\/em> Here the terms <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">alamoth<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sheminith<\/span> seem to be used in opposition. If <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">alamoth<\/span> implies a register of the female voice, then <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sheminith<\/span> would imply a lower register. Thus, it may have been an instruction to use a lower pitched instrument for accompaniment.<\/p>\n<h5>Psalm Varieties in the Titles<\/h5>\n<p>Some of the notes in the psalm headings are indications of the type or variety of psalm.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Hazkir<\/span> is found in the headings of Psalms 38 and 70. According to the Targum, this is an indication that the psalm was sung at the sacrificial rite called <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">askara<\/span> and is translated “for a memorial offering.”<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Lammed<\/span> appears in the superscription of Psalm 60 in the phrase <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">le-lammed<\/span><em>,<\/em> translated “to teach.” According to tradition, this was a psalm, though undoubtedly not the only one, taught to young people as part of their education. This is another example of a term that may have been omitted from other psalms in later versions of the Psalter.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shiggaion<\/span> is in the heading of Psalm 7 and also in Habakkuk 3:1. The word probably comes from the Hebrew verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shagah<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to wander,” but may also be connected with the Assyrian liturgical term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shigu<\/span><em>,<\/em> which represented a plaintive song in several stanzas. Biblical scholars have assumed <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shiggaion<\/span><em>,<\/em> plural <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shigionoth<\/span><em>,<\/em> was a lament or penitential song.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir<\/span> is the simplest word for “song” and was probably used in the headings at an early stage of the Psalter; it is usually found with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">mizmor<\/span> (13 times). Fifteen psalms have this heading. It was probably the term for a specific type of praise song, usually performed by the choir.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir Hamaalot<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir Lamaalot<\/span> occur in the headings of Psalms 120–134, which are often referred to as the Psalms of Ascent (<span>kjv<\/span> “Psalms of Degrees”). Most explanations offered relate to the fact that the temple was situated on high ground. Often these 15 psalms are associated with the 15 steps leading from the Court of the Women to the Court of the Israelites. But most contemporary scholars believe the idea of “going up” referred to the pilgrims’ journey to Jerusalem to worship at the temple. These psalms are short, with popular appeal, making them appropriate for singing during the journey.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir Hanukkat Habayit<\/span> is found only in the heading of Psalm 30. This phrase tells that the psalm was to be used for the dedication or rededication of the house of God.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shir-yedidot<\/span> appears only in Psalm 45. It refers to a love song that was probably sung at wedding ceremonies.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Tefillah<\/span> is a common term for “prayer” and appears in the headings of Psalms 17, 86, 90, 102, and 142, and also in Habakkuk 3:1. The word probably refers to a specific form of poetic prayer.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Selah<\/span> is one of the most frequently used, but most enigmatic, terms found in the book of Psalms. It occurs in 39 psalms, appearing a total of 71 times in the Psalter—67 times within the text and 4 times at the end of a psalm. It is most frequent in the first three books. In the first book <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span> appears in 9 psalms; in the second book, 17 psalms; in the third book, 11 psalms. In the fourth book it is not found at all and in the fifth book in only two psalms. Thirty-one of these psalms also include the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">menazzeah<\/span> in their superscriptions, which implies that they were sung by a soloist and choir. Most commonly, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span> is interpreted as a signal for a break in the singing and possibly for an instrumental interlude. It never appears at the beginning of a psalm but only in the middle of the text or at the end. The regularity of its appearance within a psalm is not consistent, and in only a few instances do these divisions break the psalm into equal sections. Because of the random placement of the term, some scholars believe that, like the headings, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span> was not always carefully copied into the text. It may have been a note appearing only in the texts of the musicians, which would explain this inconsistency. An explanation of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span> is found in the Talmudic tradition: “Ben Azra clashed the cymbal and the Levites broke forth into singing. When they reached a break in the singing they blew upon the trumpets and the people prostrated themselves; at every break there was a blowing of the trumpet and at every blowing of the trumpet a prostration. This was the rite of the daily whole offering in the service of the House of our God.” <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Selah<\/span><em>,<\/em> then, would be an instruction for the musicians that the singing was to cease and the instrumentalists were to play.<\/p>\n<p>The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">higgaion selah<\/span> appears once, in Psalm 9:16. The word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">higgaiaon<\/span> comes from the root <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hagah<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to murmur, to growl, to produce a low sound.” This may have been an instruction for the interlude to be more subdued than a normal <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">selah<\/span><em>.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>Ancient Melodies in the Titles<\/h5>\n<p>Many psalms contain headings that are not direct musical references but are cue words to suggest well-known tunes. They probably refer either to names or the first words of popular secular songs <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">makams<\/span><em>)<\/em> whose melodic patterns were used in singing the psalm. Many biblical scholars have tried to find hidden meaning in these headings, but most musicologists believe these are simply references or introductions to melodies.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Aijeleth Shahar<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 22 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “according to The Hind of the Dawn” (<span>rsv<\/span>), and “To the tune of ‘The Doe of the Morning’ ” (<span>niv<\/span>), “To the tune ‘Doe of the Dawn’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Al-taschith<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalms 57–59 and 75 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Do Not Destroy!’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Jonath-elem-rechokim<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 56 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “according to The Dove on Far-off Terebinths” (<span>rsv<\/span>), and “To the tune ‘Dove on Distant Oaks’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mahalath Leannoth<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 88, is translated “To the tune ‘The Suffering of Affliction’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Muthlabben<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 9, is translated “To the tune ‘Death of the Son’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shoshannim<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalms 45 and 69 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Lilies’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shoshannim-Eduth<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 80 (<span>kjv<\/span>), is translated “To the tune ‘Lilies of the Covenant’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shushan-eduth<\/span><em>,<\/em> in Psalm 60, is translated “To the tune ‘Lily of the Testimony’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>These melody types appear only in the first three books of the Psalter, and this may imply that these popular <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">makams<\/span> had fallen into disuse by the time the final books of the Psalter were written. Other <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">makam<\/span>-types had probably become popular, and the authors, realizing the relatively short life of a popular tune, did not include them in the headings of the Psalms but left the choice up to the performer.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MusicintheNewTestament\">Music in the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>First-Century Influences<\/h5>\n<h6>The Synagogue<\/h6>\n<p>By the time of Christ, the synagogue had become the chief place of worship for the Jewish people. It began as a place for study of the law but gradually became the center of worship for Jews unable to attend the temple. The liturgical service of the temple could not be duplicated in the synagogue as there was no sacrificial rite, and the music could not be exactly reproduced as there were no trained Levitical singers. Scholars do not agree about the amount of continuity between the music of the temple and the music of the synagogue, but there is evidence that certain musical practices did remain constant between the two places of worship.<\/p>\n<p>Information on the customs and rituals of the synagogue come from Talmudic writings. The musical elements of worship in the synagogue were the chanting of Scripture, psalmody, and spiritual songs. The choral singing of the temple was replaced by a single cantor. The cantor was a layman who, according to tradition, had to have the following qualifications: “He had to be well educated, gifted with a sweet voice, of humble personality, recognized by the community, conversant with Scripture and all the prayers; he must not be a rich man, for his prayers should come from his heart.” His most important job was the cantillation of the Law and the Prophets. A series of accents and punctuations, forerunners of actual musical notation, were indications for the cantor in the musical interpretation of the Scripture.<\/p>\n<p>Psalm singing was gradually transplanted from the temple to the synagogue, which in turn influenced the early Christian church. Gregorian psalm tones have their roots in Hebrew psalmody.<\/p>\n<h6>Greek and Roman Cultures<\/h6>\n<p>While both the temple and the synagogue were familiar to the early Christians (Acts 2:46-47; 3:1; 5:42; 9:20; 18:4; etc.), the Greek and Roman cultures also played a major part in shaping the young church. Hellenistic influences by the time of Christ had long been felt in the Middle East, and while it was strongly opposed by some Jewish leaders, the Greek arts had permeated Jewish culture. Greek philosophers considered music a cathartic force that could lead humans into metaphysical knowledge. This understanding led to the belief that music had a moral substance that could influence people to either good or evil. If this philosophy had totally encompassed Judeo-Christian thought, certainly Paul would have encouraged the use of music in the spread of the gospel. However, Paul’s omission of this theory implies that the Judeo-Christian world at that time had rejected the Greek ideal, at least in part.<\/p>\n<p>While the Jewish rabbis considered music an art form for the praise of God, and while the Greek philosophers thought of it as a powerful moral force in creation, the Romans considered music mainly as entertainment. The music of the Roman games was neither religious nor philosophic and, from the accounts of witnesses, it was not technically exceptional. In the Roman Empire musicians were given a lower status and looked on as mere entertainers. One reason the early church did not include instrumental music in their worship was in reaction to the debased secular use of instruments by the Romans.<\/p>\n<h5>In the New Testament Writings<\/h5>\n<p>One of the few mentions of instruments in the NT is the use of flutes at a wake (Mt 9:23). As in the OT, music is associated with feasting and merrymaking (e.g., the return of the prodigal son, Lk 15:25). Five passages mention music metaphorically (Mt 6:2; 11:17; Lk 7:32; 1 Cor 13:1; 14:7-8). The most well known of these is Paul’s celebration of love in 1 Corinthians 13. The denunciation of the gong and cymbals must be understood in light of the attitude of the early Christians toward the music of the Pharisees. Here the signal instruments of the temple were used to represent pompous display of religious pietism.<\/p>\n\n<p>Most references to music are found in the eschatological visions and prophetic passages scattered throughout the NT—most frequently in the book of Revelation (also Mt 24:31; 1 Cor 15:52; 1 Thes 4:16; Heb 12:19). Many of these descriptions have a direct association with musical references in the OT (e.g., the use of harps and trumpets and the singing of the Hallelujah). But the value of many of the passages in Revelation comes from their literary style. These doxological and psalmlike passages were probably spontaneous “spiritual songs” composed by the young church (e.g., Rv 5:9-10).<\/p>\n<p>The passages that mention religious or liturgical music are often more conceptual than literal. Two parallel passages describing the Last Supper (Mt 26:30; Mk 14:26) mention that Christ and his disciples sang a hymn. This is the only direct account of Jesus singing, but it is probable that when he read in the synagogue he did so in the accepted vocal style (Lk 4:16-20). There is much controversy surrounding the actual events at the Last Supper, but we can assume that the hymn sung was a traditional Jewish hymn, probably associated with the Passover.<\/p>\n<p>From the account in Acts 16:25 we know that Paul and Silas sang hymns while in jail. Paul gives instruction for music making in 1 Corinthians 14:15, 26 in terms of a balance between rationalism and emotion. And, as with all the gifts of the Spirit, Paul asks that singing be done for edification.<\/p>\n<p>In two similar passages (Eph 5:19; Col 3:16) Paul groups together three musical terms—psalms, hymns, and spiritual songs. The singing of psalms was an obvious carryover from the synagogue, and we can assume that the early Christian psalm singing followed the Jewish style. The term for “hymns” probably refers to poetic texts, possibly modeled after the psalms, but in praise of Christ. “Spiritual songs” may refer to a spontaneous, ecstatic form of musical prayer, possibly wordless (perhaps related to glossolalia), in a style that was popular in mystical Judaism. These outbursts of song were probably melismatic (sung on one tone) and are perhaps the forerunners of the later Alleluia chant.<\/p>\n<h5>Hymnody in the New Testament<\/h5>\n<p>It can be assumed that the early Christians composed hymns in praise of Christ. Logically, most of the hymns found in the NT are based on Hebrew poetic psalm forms, but there is Greek and Latin influence also. The hymns from the Gospel of Luke have become well-known canticles adopted by the church: the Magnificat (Lk 1:46-55), the Benedictus (1:68-79), the Gloria (2:14) and the Nunc Dimittis (2:29-32). While patterned after the psalms of the OT, these hymns are full of confidence in the salvation of Christ and in his imminent return. Other Christological hymns found in the NT include the prologue to the Gospel of John, Ephesians 2:14-16, Philippians 2:6-11, Colossians 1:15-20, 1 Timothy 3:16, Hebrews 1:3, and 1 Peter 3:18-22.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MUSIC A natural human expression that probably began with speech-singing and developed into songs, which were then accompanied by instruments. Music as we know it has become quite complex, a luxury and entertainment; music in antiquity, however, was a functional expression of daily life, work, and worship. The phrase “sing to the Lord,” common to the OT (Ex 15:21; 1 Chr 16:9; Pss 68:32; 96:1-2; Is 42:10; Jer 20:13), was not unique to the Jewish nation. All religions draw on the natural human ...","summary_en":"MUSIC A natural human expression that probably began with speech-singing and developed into songs, which were then accompanied by instruments. Music as we know it has become quite complex, a luxury and entertainment; music in antiquity, however, was a functional expression of daily life, work, and worship. The phrase “sing to the Lord,” common to the OT (Ex 15:21; 1 Chr 16:9; Pss 68:32; 96:1-2; Is 42:10; Jer 20:13), was not unique to the Jewish nation. All religions draw on the natural human ...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":33829,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Books of First and Second Samuel","title_en":"Books of First and Second Samuel","content_ro":"<h3>SAMUEL, Books of First and Second<\/h3>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Name<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Name\">Name<\/p>\n<p>First and Second Samuel derive their names from the individual whom God used to establish kingship in Israel. Samuel is the most prominent figure in the early narratives of 1 Samuel. His key role in leading the nation of Israel through the transition from the period of the judges to that of the monarchy warrants the use of his name as the title for the book.<\/p>\n<p>These books, however, have not always been so designated, nor was the material originally divided into two books. As far as is known, the Septuagint (the Greek translation of the OT dating from the third century <span>BC<\/span>) translators were the first to separate the material of Samuel into two books (they made a similar division in the material of Kings). The Hebrew original of these books was written, as is characteristic of Hebrew, with symbols only for consonants and none for vowels. When translated into Greek, it was necessary to use symbols for both vowels and consonants, thus greatly lengthening the manuscript. Presumably the practical consideration of the length of the scroll was the cause for dividing the material of both Samuel and Kings into two books (scrolls) instead of retaining just one. The Septuagint translators, recognizing the continuity of content and emphasis in Samuel and Kings, designated what is now known as 1 and 2 Samuel as “The First and Second Books of Kingdoms” and then designated what now is known as 1 and 2 Kings as “The Third and Fourth Books of Kingdoms.” The Latin Vulgate (the Latin translation of the Bible prepared by Jerome in the late fourth century <span>AD<\/span>) slightly modified the Septuagint titles to “First, Second, Third, and Fourth Kings.” These titles were utilized all through the Middle Ages and were modified into our present titles by the Protestant Reformers in the 16th century <span>AD<\/span> in agreement with Jewish rabbinic tradition. The Reformers, however, retained the division into two books, and this has been followed in modern English versions.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>Even though Samuel is prominent in the early part of the book, and the book bears his name in our English versions, it is clear that he is not the author of the entirety of 1 and 2 Samuel. Samuel’s death is recorded in 1 Samuel 25:1, prior to the time of the accession of David to the throne in place of Saul. Who wrote the material of 1 and 2 Samuel if it was not Samuel? On the basis of the statement in 1 Chronicles 29:29, it has been suggested by some that Samuel composed the early narratives of the book and that his work was later supplemented by the writings of the prophets Nathan and Gad. Others have suggested one of David’s contemporaries, such as Ahimaaz (2 Sm 15:27, 36; 17:17), Hushai (2 Sm 15:32; 16:16), or Zabud (1 Kgs 4:5). Presumably, these men would have had access to the writings of Samuel, Nathan, and Gad, as well as to other sources (see 2 Sm 1:18) pertaining to the life and reigns of Saul and David. Who the real author was, however, cannot be determined from available evidence. Whoever it was, it is clear that he lived after the death of Solomon and the division of the kingdom in 930 <span>BC<\/span> (see references to “Israel in Judah” in 1 Sm 11:8; 17:52; 18:16; 2 Sm 5:5; 24:1-9; and “kings of Judah” in 1 Sm 27:6). Thus, 1 and 2 Samuel was published in its final form sometime after 930 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The theme binding together the narratives of 1 and 2 Samuel pertains to the relationship between kingship and the covenant. Kingship as requested by the people was a denial of the covenant; kingship as instituted by Samuel was compatible with the covenant; kingship as practiced by Saul failed to correspond to the covenantal idea; and kingship as practiced by David was an imperfect but true representation of the ideal of the covenantal king.<\/p>\n<p>It has often been pointed out that there is ambivalence in the description of the establishment of kingship in Israel (1 Sm 8–12), because in some places it seems to be suggested that kingship is improper for Israel, while in other places it seems to be suggested that kingship was God’s will for his people. Resolution to this tension is provided in 1 Samuel 12, when Samuel inaugurates Saul as Israel’s first king in the context of a covenant renewal ceremony by which Israel renews its allegiance to the Lord. Here it becomes clear that kingship in itself was not wrong for Israel; God desired Israel to have a king. But kingship of the type Israel desired (“like the other nations”) and for the reasons she wanted a king (to give a sense of national security and lead her to victory in battle) involved a denial of the Lord as her ultimate sovereign. Samuel defined the role of the king in Israel and presented Saul to the people in a ceremony in which they renewed their allegiance to the Lord. The monarchy in Israel was first established in a form that was compatible with the covenant. The king in Israel, as every other citizen of the nation, was to be subject to the law of the Lord and to the word of the prophet. From this perspective, the author depicts the reign of Saul as failing to correspond to the covenantal requirements, while the reign of David, although imperfect, reflected the covenantal ideal.<\/p>\n<p>There are at least two other important themes recorded in 1 and 2 Samuel. The first of these is that David conquers and acquires the land promised to Abraham. It is in the time of David that Israel’s borders are extended from Egypt to the Euphrates, as had been promised. A second event of major significance for the remainder of the Bible is David’s selection of Jerusalem to be the political and religious center of Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Samuel (1 Sm 1–7)<\/h5>\n<h6>Samuel’s Youth (1 Sm 1–3)<\/h6>\n<p>God granted the request of Hannah for a son after a long period of barrenness. She named her son Samuel (a wordplay on the Hebrew expression “heard of God”) and dedicated him to the service of the Lord—with Eli the priest at the tabernacle in Shiloh. Hannah’s beautiful song of praise to God, who hears and answers prayer (2:1-10), exalts the sovereignty of God and prophetically anticipates not only the establishment of kingship in Israel but ultimately the highest fulfillment of the royal office in Christ himself (v 10). The evil practices of the sons of the priest Eli are described in verses 11-26. These men not only used their office for personal gain (vv 12-17) but also committed immoral acts with the women serving at the entrance to the tabernacle (v 22). Although Eli rebuked his sons (vv 22-25), his warnings were too little too late. It was in this lax environment that Samuel grew up (vv 18-21, 26).<\/p>\n<p>In 1 Samuel 2:27-36, an unnamed prophet pronounced judgment on Eli and his priestly line. The prediction of the imminent death of Hophni and Phinehas, Eli’s sons, was fulfilled when the Philistines took the ark and destroyed the tabernacle at Shiloh (4:11; Jer 7:14). In 1 Samuel 3:1–4:1, Samuel is called to be a prophet, and he too is given a message of judgment for the house of Eli (3:11-14). As the reliability of Samuel’s words are attested, it is recognized by the people that he was a true prophet of the Lord (3:19–4:1).<\/p>\n\n<h6>The Loss and Return of the Ark (1 Sm 4–6)<\/h6>\n<p>In a battle with the Philistines, the prophecy of 2:27-36 and 3:11-14 was partially fulfilled. The Israelites were defeated, the ark was taken, and Hophni and Phinehas were killed. Upon hearing the report of these calamities, Eli also died (4:17-18). The Philistines placed the ark of the Lord in the temple of their god Dagon in Ashdod (5:1-2). However, when the idol of Dagon broke in pieces and fell before the ark and a plague broke out in Ashdod, the ark was moved to Gath. When the plague broke out in Gath, it was moved to Ekron. When the plague erupted in Ekron, the Philistines were compelled to return the ark to Israel—as a test, it was placed on a cart pulled by two nursing cows. These cows, going against their motherly instincts, left their penned-up calves and headed for the Israelite border and the town of Beth-shemesh (6:1-21). By this the Lord demonstrated that the victory over the Israelites and the capture of the ark could not be attributed to the Philistines’ god Dagon.<\/p>\n<h6>The Defeat of the Philistines (1 Sm 7)<\/h6>\n<p>Twenty years went by. Samuel assured the people of deliverance from Philistine oppression if they would confess their sin and turn from the worship of Baals and Ashtaroths. He called for a national assembly at Mizpah to renew allegiance to the Lord. While the Israelites were assembled, the Philistines attacked and the Lord gave the Israelites a miraculous victory, thereby demonstrating that obedience to covenant obligations would ensure national security (see Ex 23:22; Dt 20:1-4).<\/p>\n<h5>Kingship Established in Israel (1 Sm 8–12)<\/h5>\n<h6>The People Request a King (1 Sm 8:1-22)<\/h6>\n<p>When Samuel was an old man, the elders of the nation approached him and requested that he give them a king. Samuel immediately perceived that their request was tantamount to a rejection of the Lord, who was their King, for the people desired a king “like the other nations”—as a symbol of national unity and military security. Nevertheless, the Lord told Samuel to give the people a king. At the same time, however, he told Samuel to warn the people concerning what having a king “like the nations” would mean. The warning, descriptive of the practices of contemporary Canaanite kings, fell on deaf ears; the people persisted in their desire for a king.<\/p>\n<h6>Samuel Privately Anoints Saul (1 Sm 9:1–10:16)<\/h6>\n<p>The narrative of Saul’s search for the lost donkeys of his father and his encounter with Samuel in the process of his search is given to explain how Samuel and Saul first met, and how the Lord indicated to Samuel who the person was that he was to anoint as Israel’s first king (9:16-17). After Samuel privately anointed Saul (10:1), he was given three signs to confirm that his new calling came from the Lord.<\/p>\n<h6>Saul Publicly Chosen by Lot at Mizpah (1 Sm 10:17-27)<\/h6>\n<p>After the private designation and anointing of Saul to be king (9:1–10:16), Samuel convened a national assembly at Mizpah to make the Lord’s choice known to the people (10:20-24) and to define the king’s task (v 25). Again, at this assembly, Samuel emphasized that the people had rejected the Lord in requesting a king because they sought a king for the wrong reasons and failed to recognize the Lord’s past faithfulness in delivering them from their enemies. But again it was clear that the time for kingship in Israel had come and it was the Lord’s desire to give the people a king. Samuel’s explanation of the “regulations of the kingship” was an important step in resolving the tension between, on the one hand, Israel’s sin in desiring a king, and on the other, the Lord’s intent to give them a king. This document, which was preserved at the tabernacle, probably contained an enlarged version of the “law of the king” in Deuteronomy 17:14-20 and spelled out regulations governing the role of the king in Israel for the benefit of both the king and the people. This document undoubtedly distinguished Israelite kingship from that of the kings of the surrounding nations.<\/p>\n<h6>Saul Leads Israel to Victory over the Ammonites (1 Sm 11:1-13)<\/h6>\n<p>When Nahash, king of the Ammonites, attacked Jabesh-gilead, a town east of the Jordan in the territory of Manasseh, Saul left his farmwork to lead a volunteer army in support of the inhabitants of Jabesh-gilead. The victory over the Ammonites under Saul’s leadership placed another seal of divine approval on his selection to be king. Saul attributed the victory to the Lord rather than to his own military strategies.<\/p>\n<h6>Saul Inaugurated as King (1 Sm 11:14–12:25)<\/h6>\n<p>The victory at Jabesh-gilead prompted Samuel to call for a national assembly at Gilgal to renew the kingdom and make Saul king (11:14-15). At the Gilgal assembly, Samuel led the people in confessing the sin of their initial request for a king and in renewing their allegiance to the Lord. In the context of this covenant renewal ceremony, Saul was formally inaugurated in his office as king. By inaugurating Saul in this manner, Samuel effectively provided for covenantal continuity in the transition from the period of the judges to that of the monarchy.<\/p>\n<h5>Saul Rejected as King (1 Sm 13–15)<\/h5>\n<h6>Saul’s Disobedience (1 Sm 13:1-22)<\/h6>\n<p>When Saul was threatened with an imminent attack from the Philistines, he gathered troops at Gilgal and awaited Samuel, as he had been instructed (10:8; 13:8). When it appeared that Samuel would not come within the prearranged time, Saul became impatient and offered a sacrifice himself (13:9). Just as the sacrifice was completed, Samuel appeared and rebuked Saul for not keeping the commandment of the Lord. In disobeying Samuel’s previous instructions, Saul had violated a fundamental requirement of his office. He was seriously mistaken in thinking he could strengthen Israel’s hand against the Philistines by sacrifice to the Lord when this was done in violation of the Lord’s specific command. Samuel told Saul that because of his disobedience his dynasty would not endure (v 14).<\/p>\n<h6>Jonathan’s Victory (1 Sm 13:23–14:52)<\/h6>\n<p>Saul’s son Jonathan and Jonathan’s armor bearer skillfully and courageously attacked a Philistine outpost, killing about 20 men (14:8-14). The Lord used this defeat, along with an earthquake, to bring panic to the entire Philistine force. In the meantime, Saul sought divine guidance on whether to join the fray with his own forces. When the Lord’s answer did not come immediately, Saul concluded that waiting for the Lord’s word might jeopardize his military advantage. Here again he demonstrated that he trusted more in his own insight than in waiting upon the Lord. Saul further damaged his own stature in the eyes of his troops by pronouncing a foolish curse on any who would eat food before the battle was won. This nearly cost Jonathan his life; he was spared only because of the intervention of the troops in his defense.<\/p>\n<h6>Saul Rejected as King (1 Sm 15:1-35)<\/h6>\n<p>Saul was commanded by the Lord through Samuel to attack the Amalekites and totally destroy them, sparing neither human nor animal life. The Amalekites had previously attempted to destroy Israel shortly after their exodus from Egypt while journeying to Sinai (Ex 17:8-16). Saul disobeyed the Lord in sparing the best of the animals for sacrifice and in sparing Agag, the Amalekite king. The Lord sent Samuel again to rebuke Saul for his disobedience. Samuel charged Saul with rebellion against the Lord and told him that, because he had rejected the word of the Lord, the Lord had rejected him as king.<\/p>\n<h5>Saul and David (1 Sm 16:1—2 Sm 1:27)<\/h5>\n<h6>Samuel Anoints David (1 Sm 16:1-13)<\/h6>\n<p>The Lord instructed Samuel to go to the house of Jesse in Bethlehem to anoint one of his sons to be king in place of Saul. By divine leading, Jesse’s youngest son, David, was shown to be the one whom the Lord had chosen. When Samuel anointed him as king, the Spirit of the Lord came upon him with power.<\/p>\n<h6>David in the Service of Saul (1 Sm 16:14–17:58)<\/h6>\n<p>When Saul became plagued by an evil spirit, his attendants sought a harpist whose music would soothe him. David was the one chosen for this purpose. The position at the court, however, was not permanent, and David divided his time between the court and his home duties. In due time, the Philistines, led by the giant Goliath, encamped against the Israelites. Goliath challenged any Israelite who dared to meet him in individual combat. No Israelite ventured to accept his challenge until David, who was visiting the camp of the Israelite forces to bring food to his brothers, heard the challenge and responded in the strength and power of the Lord. The Lord gave David a great victory because he acknowledged that “the battle is the <span>Lord<\/span>’s” (17:47, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h6>Saul’s Hatred toward David (1 Sm 18:1–19:24)<\/h6>\n<p>In the aftermath of David’s victory over Goliath, Saul’s son Jonathan pledged loyalty to David in a covenant of friendship. As David achieved further successes in leading Israel’s armies, and as his public acclaim grew, Saul began to fear that David was a threat to his throne (18:14-16, 28-30). Saul, hating David, made several attempts to kill him (18:17, 25; 19:1, 10). David was finally forced to flee and sought refuge with Samuel at Ramah. When Saul and three of his messengers went to Ramah to arrest David, they were so overcome by the Spirit of God that they were incapable of fulfilling their mission.<\/p>\n<h6>David and Jonathan (1 Sm 20:1-42)<\/h6>\n<p>David’s absence from the royal table at the new moon festival provoked Saul to again threaten David’s life. Jonathan met with David at a prearranged place to inform him of the danger and say good-bye. Jonathan and David again pledged themselves to mutual loyalty and kindness. In the encounter it is clear that both men knew that David, not Jonathan, would be the successor to Saul on the throne of Israel.<\/p>\n<h6>David at Nob (1 Sm 21:1-9)<\/h6>\n<p>David went to the priest Ahimelech at Nob and, indicating he was on a secret mission for Saul, asked for bread and for the sword of Goliath, both of which were given to him. One of Saul’s servants, Doeg the Edomite, who was at Nob, observed the transaction.<\/p>\n<h6>David at Gath (1 Sm 21:10-15)<\/h6>\n<p>David then went into Philistine territory to King Achish at Gath. When his identity was discovered, he feigned insanity in order to escape.<\/p>\n<h6>David at Adullam (1 Sm 22:1-5)<\/h6>\n<p>From Gath David went to the cave of Adullam where he was joined by about 400 supporters. He took his parents to Moab for their own protection and then returned to the Forest of Hereth in Judah.<\/p>\n<h6>Saul Kills the Priests at Nob (1 Sm 22:6-23)<\/h6>\n<p>Doeg the Edomite reported to Saul that Ahimelech the priest had given assistance to David. At Saul’s command Doeg massacred all the priests at Nob except Abiathar, who escaped with the ephod and joined David.<\/p>\n<h6>David at Keilah (1 Sm 23:1-13)<\/h6>\n<p>David and his men delivered the citizens of Keilah from Philistine raiders but were forced to leave the city when it was apparent that its unthankful inhabitants were prepared to hand David over to Saul.<\/p>\n<h6>David in the Desert of Ziph (1 Sm 23:14-29)<\/h6>\n<p>While David was in the desert of Ziph, he was encouraged by a visit from Jonathan, who again pledged to him his loyalty. Although the Ziphites promised to aid Saul in capturing David, a Philistine attack forced Saul to abandon his attempt to apprehend him.<\/p>\n<h6>David Spares Saul’s Life (1 Sm 24:1-22)<\/h6>\n<p>While hiding deep in a cave at En-gedi, David was unexpectedly provided the opportunity to take Saul’s life when Saul relieved himself at the entrance to the cave. Nevertheless, because Saul was “the anointed of the Lord,” David spared his life and shamed him into confessing his own wickedness. David did this by showing Saul a piece of his robe that he had cut off while Saul was in the entrance to the cave.<\/p>\n<h6>David, Nabal, and Abigail (1 Sm 25:1-44)<\/h6>\n<p>David was badly mistreated by a sheepherder named Nabal. David was deterred, however, from foolishly taking the man’s life by the discerning words of Nabal’s wife, Abigail. Shortly after this incident, Nabal died and David took Abigail as his wife.<\/p>\n<h6>David Spares Saul’s Life a Second Time (1 Sm 26:1-25)<\/h6>\n<p>For a second time, the Ziphites joined Saul in attempting to capture David. While Saul and his men were sleeping, David and Abishai crept into their camp and took Saul’s spear and water jug. On the next day, David was again able to demonstrate to Saul that he did not seek to steal the kingship from his hands.<\/p>\n<h6>David among the Philistines (1 Sm 27:1-12)<\/h6>\n<p>David eventually became weary of hiding from Saul in Israelite territory; in a time of discouragement, he went again to Philistia to seek refuge beyond Saul’s reach. Ingratiating himself with Achish, a Philistine ruler, he was given the town of Ziklag as a place for himself and his men to reside. From Ziklag, David raided various tribes inhabiting the area south of Philistia, but deceived Achish into thinking he was raiding the territory of Judah.<\/p>\n<h6>Saul and the Medium of Endor (1 Sm 28:1-25)<\/h6>\n<p>The Philistines again gathered an army to fight Israel, and Saul, terrified and seemingly anticipating an imminent defeat, vainly sought for some word from the Lord concerning the outcome of the battle. When this was denied, he went in disguise to a medium at Endor and requested her to bring up to him the spirit of Samuel. Saul was told by this spirit that Israel would be defeated and that he and his sons would die in the upcoming battle.<\/p>\n<h6>The Philistines Mistrust David (1 Sm 29:1-11)<\/h6>\n<p>Although Achish desired David to join the Philistine army in its battle with Israel, the other Philistine commanders mistrusted him and forced Achish to send David and his men back to Ziklag. This turn of events rescued David from a serious dilemma created by his apparent friendship with Achish.<\/p>\n<h6>David Defeats the Amalekites (1 Sm 30:1-31)<\/h6>\n<p>Upon returning to Ziklag, David discovered that in his absence the city had been raided and burned by the Amalekites and that their wives, children, and cattle had been taken captive. After inquiring of the Lord through Abiathar the priest, David and his men went in pursuit of the Amalekites and recovered all they had taken and more. He divided the plunder among his troops and sent gifts from it to various towns in Judah.<\/p>\n<h6>The Death of Saul and His Sons (1 Sm 31:1—2 Sm 1:27)<\/h6>\n<p>As had been predicted, the battle with the Philistines ended in a disastrous defeat for Israel, in which Saul took his own life after being seriously wounded. Jonathan and two other sons of Saul were killed. David mourned for Saul and Jonathan and exalted their memory in his tribute to them recorded in 2 Samuel 1:19-27.<\/p>\n<h5>David (2 Sm 2–24)<\/h5>\n\n<h6>David Anointed King over Judah (2 Sm 2:1-7)<\/h6>\n<p>Subsequent to Saul’s death, the Lord instructed David to go to Hebron, where the tribe of Judah anointed him as their king.<\/p>\n<h6>David, Ishbosheth, and Abner (2 Sm 2:8–4:12)<\/h6>\n<p>Although David became king over Judah, the remaining tribes—under the influence of Abner, commander of Saul’s army—recognized Ishbosheth as Saul’s successor (2:8-10). Ishbosheth was a son of Saul who had survived the battle with the Philistines. Conflict quickly broke out between the men of David, led by Joab, and the men of Ishbosheth, led by Abner. In this conflict Asahel, Joab’s brother, was slain by Abner. As David grew stronger and Ishbosheth weaker, Abner shifted his allegiance from Ishbosheth to David (3:1-21). Joab, however, avenged the blood of his brother Asahel by murdering Abner under the pretense of negotiating with him. Although David detested this act, mourned for Abner, and cursed Joab, the crime was not punished until early in the reign of Solomon (see 1 Kgs 2:5-6, 29-34). Shortly afterward, Ishbosheth was killed by two soldiers, who brought his head to David at Hebron, expecting to be rewarded (2 Sm 4:1-8). David, however, had them both put to death. The only male survivor of Saul’s line was the crippled son of Jonathan named Mephibosheth.<\/p>\n<h6>David King over All Israel (2 Sm 5)<\/h6>\n<p>After Ishbosheth’s death, David was made king over all the tribes at Hebron. One of David’s first acts as king was to capture the fortress of Zion from the Jebusites. David established Zion as his capital and built a palace there for his residence.<\/p>\n<h6>The Ark Brought to Jerusalem (2 Sm 6)<\/h6>\n<p>Recognizing the importance of the ark as a symbol of God’s presence with his people, David determined that it should be brought to Jerusalem from the obscurity of the house of Abinadab in Kiriath-jearim, where it had remained throughout the entirety of Saul’s reign. Violation of prescriptions for handling the ark led to the death of Uzzah, one of Abinadab’s sons, and delayed the ark’s conveyance to Jerusalem for three months. In a second attempt David led a joyful procession into the city of Jerusalem, where the ark was placed in a tent that had been prepared for it.<\/p>\n<h6>David, Nathan, and the Temple (2 Sm 7)<\/h6>\n<p>It soon became David’s desire to build a temple to house the ark and provide a center for Israel’s worship of the Lord. The Lord told David through Nathan the prophet that he was not to build the Lord a house (temple) but that the Lord would build him a house (a dynasty) that would endure forever. Here the line of the promised seed is narrowed to the house of David within the tribe of Judah. This promise finds its fulfillment in the birth of Jesus, who was the “son of David, the son of Abraham” (see Mt 1:1). It would be the task of Solomon, David’s son, to construct the temple (2 Sm 7:13).<\/p>\n<h6>David’s Victories (2 Sm 8)<\/h6>\n<p>David was able to defeat numerous surrounding peoples, to extend Israel’s borders, and to establish a time of prosperity and rest for the nation.<\/p>\n<h6>David and Mephibosheth (2 Sm 9)<\/h6>\n<p>Remembering his covenant with Jonathan (see 1 Sm 18:1-3; 20:13-16, 42), David inquired concerning survivors of the house of Saul to whom he could show kindness. When Mephibosheth was sought out, David brought him to the court to enjoy the honor of eating at the king’s table.<\/p>\n<h6>David and Bathsheba (2 Sm 10–12)<\/h6>\n<p>During a war with the Ammonites, David committed adultery with the wife of one of his soldiers, Uriah the Hittite. When Bathsheba became pregnant, David attempted to get Uriah to sleep with her. When this failed, David arranged for Uriah’s certain death in battle. These sinful acts provoked God’s wrath (2 Sm 12:10-12) and David experienced the bitter fruits of his misconduct during the remainder of his life.<\/p>\n<h6>Amnon, Absalom, and Tamar (2 Sm 13)<\/h6>\n<p>David’s oldest son, Amnon, feigned sickness in order to arrange for his half sister, Tamar, to care for him. When Tamar refused Amnon’s sexual advances to her, he raped her. This incident enraged Tamar’s full brother Absalom, who determined to avenge his sister by killing Amnon. Absalom waited two years and then arranged for the murder of Amnon during the festivities of the time of sheepshearing. He then fled to Geshur, a small city-state in Syria, where his maternal grandfather was king.<\/p>\n<h6>David and Absalom (2 Sm 14–19)<\/h6>\n<p>Absalom remained in exile for three years until Joab arranged for his return by securing a renunciation of blood revenge from David (14:1-27). Upon Absalom’s return, however, David refused to see him for two years, until they were finally reconciled. In this whole episode David sidestepped the issues of repentance and justice and took no effective disciplinary action. In the meantime Absalom conspired to take the throne from David his father by attempting to discredit his administration of justice, and by seeking to win the favor of the people and members of David’s court. After four years, Absalom proclaimed himself king in Hebron and gathered sufficient military strength to force his father to flee from Jerusalem (ch 15). Failure to immediately pursue David led to the defeat of Absalom’s forces and to Absalom’s own death at the hand of Joab, David’s commander. David mourned for his son Absalom (19:1-8), but he was able to return to Jerusalem and to reestablish his government. David disciplined Joab for killing Absalom by replacing him as commander of his troops with Amasa.<\/p>\n<h6>Rebellion of Sheba (2 Sm 20)<\/h6>\n<p>In the unsettled conditions immediately after David’s return to Jerusalem, another abortive revolt was attempted by Sheba of the tribe of Benjamin. Joab, in defiance of David’s disciplinary action, killed Amasa, pursued Sheba, and crushed his revolt.<\/p>\n<h6>David and the Gibeonites (2 Sm 21:1-14)<\/h6>\n<p>At some unspecified time during David’s reign, the land suffered a three-year famine. It was revealed to David by the Lord that the famine was due to Saul’s violation of an Israelite treaty with the Gibeonites (see Jos 9:15, 18-27). This offense was atoned for by giving seven descendants of Saul to the Gibeonites for execution.<\/p>\n<h6>David and the Philistines (2 Sm 21:15-22)<\/h6>\n<p>In this pericope four episodes of heroic accomplishments by David’s mighty men against the Philistines are recounted.<\/p>\n<h6>David’s Song of Praise (2 Sm 22)<\/h6>\n<p>In a beautiful song of praise, David described his deliverance from his enemies and the help with which the Lord sustained him. The same song occurs with minor variations in Psalm 18.<\/p>\n<h6>David’s Last Words (2 Sm 23:1-7)<\/h6>\n<p>In a brief statement, David acknowledges the work of God’s Spirit in enabling him to speak God’s word, and proclaims his confidence in the realization of the Lord’s promise to him and his dynasty.<\/p>\n<h6>David’s Mighty Men (2 Sm 23:8-39)<\/h6>\n<p>This pericope contains a list of 37 of David’s warriors and a description of some of their accomplishments.<\/p>\n<h6>The Census and David’s Punishment (2 Sm 24:1-25)<\/h6>\n<p>David’s decision to take a census of his fighting men reflected an improper trust in military-political organization and power. The Lord judged him by sending a plague on the land that killed many people. At the word of the Lord through Gad the prophet, David built an altar on the threshing floor of Araunah, which was later to become the site of the temple (see 2 Chr 3:1). The Lord responded to David’s sacrifices and prayers on behalf of the people; the plague was stopped.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> David; Samuel (Person); Saul #2.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SAMUEL, Books of First and Second<\/h3>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Name<\/p>\n<p>• Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>• Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>• Content<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Name\">Name<\/p>\n<p>First and Second Samuel derive their names from the individual whom God used to establish kingship in Israel. Samuel is the most prominent figure in the early narratives of 1 Samuel. His key role in leading the nation of Israel through the transition from the period of the judges to that of the monarchy warrants the use of his name as the title for the book.<\/p>\n<p>These books, however, have not always been so designated, nor was the material originally divided into two books. As far as is known, the Septuagint (the Greek translation of the OT dating from the third century <span>BC<\/span>) translators were the first to separate the material of Samuel into two books (they made a similar division in the material of Kings). The Hebrew original of these books was written, as is characteristic of Hebrew, with symbols only for consonants and none for vowels. When translated into Greek, it was necessary to use symbols for both vowels and consonants, thus greatly lengthening the manuscript. Presumably the practical consideration of the length of the scroll was the cause for dividing the material of both Samuel and Kings into two books (scrolls) instead of retaining just one. The Septuagint translators, recognizing the continuity of content and emphasis in Samuel and Kings, designated what is now known as 1 and 2 Samuel as “The First and Second Books of Kingdoms” and then designated what now is known as 1 and 2 Kings as “The Third and Fourth Books of Kingdoms.” The Latin Vulgate (the Latin translation of the Bible prepared by Jerome in the late fourth century <span>AD<\/span>) slightly modified the Septuagint titles to “First, Second, Third, and Fourth Kings.” These titles were utilized all through the Middle Ages and were modified into our present titles by the Protestant Reformers in the 16th century <span>AD<\/span> in agreement with Jewish rabbinic tradition. The Reformers, however, retained the division into two books, and this has been followed in modern English versions.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"AuthorandDate\">Author and Date<\/p>\n<p>Even though Samuel is prominent in the early part of the book, and the book bears his name in our English versions, it is clear that he is not the author of the entirety of 1 and 2 Samuel. Samuel’s death is recorded in 1 Samuel 25:1, prior to the time of the accession of David to the throne in place of Saul. Who wrote the material of 1 and 2 Samuel if it was not Samuel? On the basis of the statement in 1 Chronicles 29:29, it has been suggested by some that Samuel composed the early narratives of the book and that his work was later supplemented by the writings of the prophets Nathan and Gad. Others have suggested one of David’s contemporaries, such as Ahimaaz (2 Sm 15:27, 36; 17:17), Hushai (2 Sm 15:32; 16:16), or Zabud (1 Kgs 4:5). Presumably, these men would have had access to the writings of Samuel, Nathan, and Gad, as well as to other sources (see 2 Sm 1:18) pertaining to the life and reigns of Saul and David. Who the real author was, however, cannot be determined from available evidence. Whoever it was, it is clear that he lived after the death of Solomon and the division of the kingdom in 930 <span>BC<\/span> (see references to “Israel in Judah” in 1 Sm 11:8; 17:52; 18:16; 2 Sm 5:5; 24:1-9; and “kings of Judah” in 1 Sm 27:6). Thus, 1 and 2 Samuel was published in its final form sometime after 930 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PurposeandTheologicalTeaching\">Purpose and Theological Teaching<\/p>\n<p>The theme binding together the narratives of 1 and 2 Samuel pertains to the relationship between kingship and the covenant. Kingship as requested by the people was a denial of the covenant; kingship as instituted by Samuel was compatible with the covenant; kingship as practiced by Saul failed to correspond to the covenantal idea; and kingship as practiced by David was an imperfect but true representation of the ideal of the covenantal king.<\/p>\n<p>It has often been pointed out that there is ambivalence in the description of the establishment of kingship in Israel (1 Sm 8–12), because in some places it seems to be suggested that kingship is improper for Israel, while in other places it seems to be suggested that kingship was God’s will for his people. Resolution to this tension is provided in 1 Samuel 12, when Samuel inaugurates Saul as Israel’s first king in the context of a covenant renewal ceremony by which Israel renews its allegiance to the Lord. Here it becomes clear that kingship in itself was not wrong for Israel; God desired Israel to have a king. But kingship of the type Israel desired (“like the other nations”) and for the reasons she wanted a king (to give a sense of national security and lead her to victory in battle) involved a denial of the Lord as her ultimate sovereign. Samuel defined the role of the king in Israel and presented Saul to the people in a ceremony in which they renewed their allegiance to the Lord. The monarchy in Israel was first established in a form that was compatible with the covenant. The king in Israel, as every other citizen of the nation, was to be subject to the law of the Lord and to the word of the prophet. From this perspective, the author depicts the reign of Saul as failing to correspond to the covenantal requirements, while the reign of David, although imperfect, reflected the covenantal ideal.<\/p>\n<p>There are at least two other important themes recorded in 1 and 2 Samuel. The first of these is that David conquers and acquires the land promised to Abraham. It is in the time of David that Israel’s borders are extended from Egypt to the Euphrates, as had been promised. A second event of major significance for the remainder of the Bible is David’s selection of Jerusalem to be the political and religious center of Israel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Content\">Content<\/p>\n<h5>Samuel (1 Sm 1–7)<\/h5>\n<h6>Samuel’s Youth (1 Sm 1–3)<\/h6>\n<p>God granted the request of Hannah for a son after a long period of barrenness. She named her son Samuel (a wordplay on the Hebrew expression “heard of God”) and dedicated him to the service of the Lord—with Eli the priest at the tabernacle in Shiloh. Hannah’s beautiful song of praise to God, who hears and answers prayer (2:1-10), exalts the sovereignty of God and prophetically anticipates not only the establishment of kingship in Israel but ultimately the highest fulfillment of the royal office in Christ himself (v 10). The evil practices of the sons of the priest Eli are described in verses 11-26. These men not only used their office for personal gain (vv 12-17) but also committed immoral acts with the women serving at the entrance to the tabernacle (v 22). Although Eli rebuked his sons (vv 22-25), his warnings were too little too late. It was in this lax environment that Samuel grew up (vv 18-21, 26).<\/p>\n<p>In 1 Samuel 2:27-36, an unnamed prophet pronounced judgment on Eli and his priestly line. The prediction of the imminent death of Hophni and Phinehas, Eli’s sons, was fulfilled when the Philistines took the ark and destroyed the tabernacle at Shiloh (4:11; Jer 7:14). In 1 Samuel 3:1–4:1, Samuel is called to be a prophet, and he too is given a message of judgment for the house of Eli (3:11-14). As the reliability of Samuel’s words are attested, it is recognized by the people that he was a true prophet of the Lord (3:19–4:1).<\/p>\n\n<h6>The Loss and Return of the Ark (1 Sm 4–6)<\/h6>\n<p>In a battle with the Philistines, the prophecy of 2:27-36 and 3:11-14 was partially fulfilled. The Israelites were defeated, the ark was taken, and Hophni and Phinehas were killed. Upon hearing the report of these calamities, Eli also died (4:17-18). The Philistines placed the ark of the Lord in the temple of their god Dagon in Ashdod (5:1-2). However, when the idol of Dagon broke in pieces and fell before the ark and a plague broke out in Ashdod, the ark was moved to Gath. When the plague broke out in Gath, it was moved to Ekron. When the plague erupted in Ekron, the Philistines were compelled to return the ark to Israel—as a test, it was placed on a cart pulled by two nursing cows. These cows, going against their motherly instincts, left their penned-up calves and headed for the Israelite border and the town of Beth-shemesh (6:1-21). By this the Lord demonstrated that the victory over the Israelites and the capture of the ark could not be attributed to the Philistines’ god Dagon.<\/p>\n<h6>The Defeat of the Philistines (1 Sm 7)<\/h6>\n<p>Twenty years went by. Samuel assured the people of deliverance from Philistine oppression if they would confess their sin and turn from the worship of Baals and Ashtaroths. He called for a national assembly at Mizpah to renew allegiance to the Lord. While the Israelites were assembled, the Philistines attacked and the Lord gave the Israelites a miraculous victory, thereby demonstrating that obedience to covenant obligations would ensure national security (see Ex 23:22; Dt 20:1-4).<\/p>\n<h5>Kingship Established in Israel (1 Sm 8–12)<\/h5>\n<h6>The People Request a King (1 Sm 8:1-22)<\/h6>\n<p>When Samuel was an old man, the elders of the nation approached him and requested that he give them a king. Samuel immediately perceived that their request was tantamount to a rejection of the Lord, who was their King, for the people desired a king “like the other nations”—as a symbol of national unity and military security. Nevertheless, the Lord told Samuel to give the people a king. At the same time, however, he told Samuel to warn the people concerning what having a king “like the nations” would mean. The warning, descriptive of the practices of contemporary Canaanite kings, fell on deaf ears; the people persisted in their desire for a king.<\/p>\n<h6>Samuel Privately Anoints Saul (1 Sm 9:1–10:16)<\/h6>\n<p>The narrative of Saul’s search for the lost donkeys of his father and his encounter with Samuel in the process of his search is given to explain how Samuel and Saul first met, and how the Lord indicated to Samuel who the person was that he was to anoint as Israel’s first king (9:16-17). After Samuel privately anointed Saul (10:1), he was given three signs to confirm that his new calling came from the Lord.<\/p>\n<h6>Saul Publicly Chosen by Lot at Mizpah (1 Sm 10:17-27)<\/h6>\n<p>After the private designation and anointing of Saul to be king (9:1–10:16), Samuel convened a national assembly at Mizpah to make the Lord’s choice known to the people (10:20-24) and to define the king’s task (v 25). Again, at this assembly, Samuel emphasized that the people had rejected the Lord in requesting a king because they sought a king for the wrong reasons and failed to recognize the Lord’s past faithfulness in delivering them from their enemies. But again it was clear that the time for kingship in Israel had come and it was the Lord’s desire to give the people a king. Samuel’s explanation of the “regulations of the kingship” was an important step in resolving the tension between, on the one hand, Israel’s sin in desiring a king, and on the other, the Lord’s intent to give them a king. This document, which was preserved at the tabernacle, probably contained an enlarged version of the “law of the king” in Deuteronomy 17:14-20 and spelled out regulations governing the role of the king in Israel for the benefit of both the king and the people. This document undoubtedly distinguished Israelite kingship from that of the kings of the surrounding nations.<\/p>\n<h6>Saul Leads Israel to Victory over the Ammonites (1 Sm 11:1-13)<\/h6>\n<p>When Nahash, king of the Ammonites, attacked Jabesh-gilead, a town east of the Jordan in the territory of Manasseh, Saul left his farmwork to lead a volunteer army in support of the inhabitants of Jabesh-gilead. The victory over the Ammonites under Saul’s leadership placed another seal of divine approval on his selection to be king. Saul attributed the victory to the Lord rather than to his own military strategies.<\/p>\n<h6>Saul Inaugurated as King (1 Sm 11:14–12:25)<\/h6>\n<p>The victory at Jabesh-gilead prompted Samuel to call for a national assembly at Gilgal to renew the kingdom and make Saul king (11:14-15). At the Gilgal assembly, Samuel led the people in confessing the sin of their initial request for a king and in renewing their allegiance to the Lord. In the context of this covenant renewal ceremony, Saul was formally inaugurated in his office as king. By inaugurating Saul in this manner, Samuel effectively provided for covenantal continuity in the transition from the period of the judges to that of the monarchy.<\/p>\n<h5>Saul Rejected as King (1 Sm 13–15)<\/h5>\n<h6>Saul’s Disobedience (1 Sm 13:1-22)<\/h6>\n<p>When Saul was threatened with an imminent attack from the Philistines, he gathered troops at Gilgal and awaited Samuel, as he had been instructed (10:8; 13:8). When it appeared that Samuel would not come within the prearranged time, Saul became impatient and offered a sacrifice himself (13:9). Just as the sacrifice was completed, Samuel appeared and rebuked Saul for not keeping the commandment of the Lord. In disobeying Samuel’s previous instructions, Saul had violated a fundamental requirement of his office. He was seriously mistaken in thinking he could strengthen Israel’s hand against the Philistines by sacrifice to the Lord when this was done in violation of the Lord’s specific command. Samuel told Saul that because of his disobedience his dynasty would not endure (v 14).<\/p>\n<h6>Jonathan’s Victory (1 Sm 13:23–14:52)<\/h6>\n<p>Saul’s son Jonathan and Jonathan’s armor bearer skillfully and courageously attacked a Philistine outpost, killing about 20 men (14:8-14). The Lord used this defeat, along with an earthquake, to bring panic to the entire Philistine force. In the meantime, Saul sought divine guidance on whether to join the fray with his own forces. When the Lord’s answer did not come immediately, Saul concluded that waiting for the Lord’s word might jeopardize his military advantage. Here again he demonstrated that he trusted more in his own insight than in waiting upon the Lord. Saul further damaged his own stature in the eyes of his troops by pronouncing a foolish curse on any who would eat food before the battle was won. This nearly cost Jonathan his life; he was spared only because of the intervention of the troops in his defense.<\/p>\n<h6>Saul Rejected as King (1 Sm 15:1-35)<\/h6>\n<p>Saul was commanded by the Lord through Samuel to attack the Amalekites and totally destroy them, sparing neither human nor animal life. The Amalekites had previously attempted to destroy Israel shortly after their exodus from Egypt while journeying to Sinai (Ex 17:8-16). Saul disobeyed the Lord in sparing the best of the animals for sacrifice and in sparing Agag, the Amalekite king. The Lord sent Samuel again to rebuke Saul for his disobedience. Samuel charged Saul with rebellion against the Lord and told him that, because he had rejected the word of the Lord, the Lord had rejected him as king.<\/p>\n<h5>Saul and David (1 Sm 16:1—2 Sm 1:27)<\/h5>\n<h6>Samuel Anoints David (1 Sm 16:1-13)<\/h6>\n<p>The Lord instructed Samuel to go to the house of Jesse in Bethlehem to anoint one of his sons to be king in place of Saul. By divine leading, Jesse’s youngest son, David, was shown to be the one whom the Lord had chosen. When Samuel anointed him as king, the Spirit of the Lord came upon him with power.<\/p>\n<h6>David in the Service of Saul (1 Sm 16:14–17:58)<\/h6>\n<p>When Saul became plagued by an evil spirit, his attendants sought a harpist whose music would soothe him. David was the one chosen for this purpose. The position at the court, however, was not permanent, and David divided his time between the court and his home duties. In due time, the Philistines, led by the giant Goliath, encamped against the Israelites. Goliath challenged any Israelite who dared to meet him in individual combat. No Israelite ventured to accept his challenge until David, who was visiting the camp of the Israelite forces to bring food to his brothers, heard the challenge and responded in the strength and power of the Lord. The Lord gave David a great victory because he acknowledged that “the battle is the <span>Lord<\/span>’s” (17:47, <span>rsv<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h6>Saul’s Hatred toward David (1 Sm 18:1–19:24)<\/h6>\n<p>In the aftermath of David’s victory over Goliath, Saul’s son Jonathan pledged loyalty to David in a covenant of friendship. As David achieved further successes in leading Israel’s armies, and as his public acclaim grew, Saul began to fear that David was a threat to his throne (18:14-16, 28-30). Saul, hating David, made several attempts to kill him (18:17, 25; 19:1, 10). David was finally forced to flee and sought refuge with Samuel at Ramah. When Saul and three of his messengers went to Ramah to arrest David, they were so overcome by the Spirit of God that they were incapable of fulfilling their mission.<\/p>\n<h6>David and Jonathan (1 Sm 20:1-42)<\/h6>\n<p>David’s absence from the royal table at the new moon festival provoked Saul to again threaten David’s life. Jonathan met with David at a prearranged place to inform him of the danger and say good-bye. Jonathan and David again pledged themselves to mutual loyalty and kindness. In the encounter it is clear that both men knew that David, not Jonathan, would be the successor to Saul on the throne of Israel.<\/p>\n<h6>David at Nob (1 Sm 21:1-9)<\/h6>\n<p>David went to the priest Ahimelech at Nob and, indicating he was on a secret mission for Saul, asked for bread and for the sword of Goliath, both of which were given to him. One of Saul’s servants, Doeg the Edomite, who was at Nob, observed the transaction.<\/p>\n<h6>David at Gath (1 Sm 21:10-15)<\/h6>\n<p>David then went into Philistine territory to King Achish at Gath. When his identity was discovered, he feigned insanity in order to escape.<\/p>\n<h6>David at Adullam (1 Sm 22:1-5)<\/h6>\n<p>From Gath David went to the cave of Adullam where he was joined by about 400 supporters. He took his parents to Moab for their own protection and then returned to the Forest of Hereth in Judah.<\/p>\n<h6>Saul Kills the Priests at Nob (1 Sm 22:6-23)<\/h6>\n<p>Doeg the Edomite reported to Saul that Ahimelech the priest had given assistance to David. At Saul’s command Doeg massacred all the priests at Nob except Abiathar, who escaped with the ephod and joined David.<\/p>\n<h6>David at Keilah (1 Sm 23:1-13)<\/h6>\n<p>David and his men delivered the citizens of Keilah from Philistine raiders but were forced to leave the city when it was apparent that its unthankful inhabitants were prepared to hand David over to Saul.<\/p>\n<h6>David in the Desert of Ziph (1 Sm 23:14-29)<\/h6>\n<p>While David was in the desert of Ziph, he was encouraged by a visit from Jonathan, who again pledged to him his loyalty. Although the Ziphites promised to aid Saul in capturing David, a Philistine attack forced Saul to abandon his attempt to apprehend him.<\/p>\n<h6>David Spares Saul’s Life (1 Sm 24:1-22)<\/h6>\n<p>While hiding deep in a cave at En-gedi, David was unexpectedly provided the opportunity to take Saul’s life when Saul relieved himself at the entrance to the cave. Nevertheless, because Saul was “the anointed of the Lord,” David spared his life and shamed him into confessing his own wickedness. David did this by showing Saul a piece of his robe that he had cut off while Saul was in the entrance to the cave.<\/p>\n<h6>David, Nabal, and Abigail (1 Sm 25:1-44)<\/h6>\n<p>David was badly mistreated by a sheepherder named Nabal. David was deterred, however, from foolishly taking the man’s life by the discerning words of Nabal’s wife, Abigail. Shortly after this incident, Nabal died and David took Abigail as his wife.<\/p>\n<h6>David Spares Saul’s Life a Second Time (1 Sm 26:1-25)<\/h6>\n<p>For a second time, the Ziphites joined Saul in attempting to capture David. While Saul and his men were sleeping, David and Abishai crept into their camp and took Saul’s spear and water jug. On the next day, David was again able to demonstrate to Saul that he did not seek to steal the kingship from his hands.<\/p>\n<h6>David among the Philistines (1 Sm 27:1-12)<\/h6>\n<p>David eventually became weary of hiding from Saul in Israelite territory; in a time of discouragement, he went again to Philistia to seek refuge beyond Saul’s reach. Ingratiating himself with Achish, a Philistine ruler, he was given the town of Ziklag as a place for himself and his men to reside. From Ziklag, David raided various tribes inhabiting the area south of Philistia, but deceived Achish into thinking he was raiding the territory of Judah.<\/p>\n<h6>Saul and the Medium of Endor (1 Sm 28:1-25)<\/h6>\n<p>The Philistines again gathered an army to fight Israel, and Saul, terrified and seemingly anticipating an imminent defeat, vainly sought for some word from the Lord concerning the outcome of the battle. When this was denied, he went in disguise to a medium at Endor and requested her to bring up to him the spirit of Samuel. Saul was told by this spirit that Israel would be defeated and that he and his sons would die in the upcoming battle.<\/p>\n<h6>The Philistines Mistrust David (1 Sm 29:1-11)<\/h6>\n<p>Although Achish desired David to join the Philistine army in its battle with Israel, the other Philistine commanders mistrusted him and forced Achish to send David and his men back to Ziklag. This turn of events rescued David from a serious dilemma created by his apparent friendship with Achish.<\/p>\n<h6>David Defeats the Amalekites (1 Sm 30:1-31)<\/h6>\n<p>Upon returning to Ziklag, David discovered that in his absence the city had been raided and burned by the Amalekites and that their wives, children, and cattle had been taken captive. After inquiring of the Lord through Abiathar the priest, David and his men went in pursuit of the Amalekites and recovered all they had taken and more. He divided the plunder among his troops and sent gifts from it to various towns in Judah.<\/p>\n<h6>The Death of Saul and His Sons (1 Sm 31:1—2 Sm 1:27)<\/h6>\n<p>As had been predicted, the battle with the Philistines ended in a disastrous defeat for Israel, in which Saul took his own life after being seriously wounded. Jonathan and two other sons of Saul were killed. David mourned for Saul and Jonathan and exalted their memory in his tribute to them recorded in 2 Samuel 1:19-27.<\/p>\n<h5>David (2 Sm 2–24)<\/h5>\n\n<h6>David Anointed King over Judah (2 Sm 2:1-7)<\/h6>\n<p>Subsequent to Saul’s death, the Lord instructed David to go to Hebron, where the tribe of Judah anointed him as their king.<\/p>\n<h6>David, Ishbosheth, and Abner (2 Sm 2:8–4:12)<\/h6>\n<p>Although David became king over Judah, the remaining tribes—under the influence of Abner, commander of Saul’s army—recognized Ishbosheth as Saul’s successor (2:8-10). Ishbosheth was a son of Saul who had survived the battle with the Philistines. Conflict quickly broke out between the men of David, led by Joab, and the men of Ishbosheth, led by Abner. In this conflict Asahel, Joab’s brother, was slain by Abner. As David grew stronger and Ishbosheth weaker, Abner shifted his allegiance from Ishbosheth to David (3:1-21). Joab, however, avenged the blood of his brother Asahel by murdering Abner under the pretense of negotiating with him. Although David detested this act, mourned for Abner, and cursed Joab, the crime was not punished until early in the reign of Solomon (see 1 Kgs 2:5-6, 29-34). Shortly afterward, Ishbosheth was killed by two soldiers, who brought his head to David at Hebron, expecting to be rewarded (2 Sm 4:1-8). David, however, had them both put to death. The only male survivor of Saul’s line was the crippled son of Jonathan named Mephibosheth.<\/p>\n<h6>David King over All Israel (2 Sm 5)<\/h6>\n<p>After Ishbosheth’s death, David was made king over all the tribes at Hebron. One of David’s first acts as king was to capture the fortress of Zion from the Jebusites. David established Zion as his capital and built a palace there for his residence.<\/p>\n<h6>The Ark Brought to Jerusalem (2 Sm 6)<\/h6>\n<p>Recognizing the importance of the ark as a symbol of God’s presence with his people, David determined that it should be brought to Jerusalem from the obscurity of the house of Abinadab in Kiriath-jearim, where it had remained throughout the entirety of Saul’s reign. Violation of prescriptions for handling the ark led to the death of Uzzah, one of Abinadab’s sons, and delayed the ark’s conveyance to Jerusalem for three months. In a second attempt David led a joyful procession into the city of Jerusalem, where the ark was placed in a tent that had been prepared for it.<\/p>\n<h6>David, Nathan, and the Temple (2 Sm 7)<\/h6>\n<p>It soon became David’s desire to build a temple to house the ark and provide a center for Israel’s worship of the Lord. The Lord told David through Nathan the prophet that he was not to build the Lord a house (temple) but that the Lord would build him a house (a dynasty) that would endure forever. Here the line of the promised seed is narrowed to the house of David within the tribe of Judah. This promise finds its fulfillment in the birth of Jesus, who was the “son of David, the son of Abraham” (see Mt 1:1). It would be the task of Solomon, David’s son, to construct the temple (2 Sm 7:13).<\/p>\n<h6>David’s Victories (2 Sm 8)<\/h6>\n<p>David was able to defeat numerous surrounding peoples, to extend Israel’s borders, and to establish a time of prosperity and rest for the nation.<\/p>\n<h6>David and Mephibosheth (2 Sm 9)<\/h6>\n<p>Remembering his covenant with Jonathan (see 1 Sm 18:1-3; 20:13-16, 42), David inquired concerning survivors of the house of Saul to whom he could show kindness. When Mephibosheth was sought out, David brought him to the court to enjoy the honor of eating at the king’s table.<\/p>\n<h6>David and Bathsheba (2 Sm 10–12)<\/h6>\n<p>During a war with the Ammonites, David committed adultery with the wife of one of his soldiers, Uriah the Hittite. When Bathsheba became pregnant, David attempted to get Uriah to sleep with her. When this failed, David arranged for Uriah’s certain death in battle. These sinful acts provoked God’s wrath (2 Sm 12:10-12) and David experienced the bitter fruits of his misconduct during the remainder of his life.<\/p>\n<h6>Amnon, Absalom, and Tamar (2 Sm 13)<\/h6>\n<p>David’s oldest son, Amnon, feigned sickness in order to arrange for his half sister, Tamar, to care for him. When Tamar refused Amnon’s sexual advances to her, he raped her. This incident enraged Tamar’s full brother Absalom, who determined to avenge his sister by killing Amnon. Absalom waited two years and then arranged for the murder of Amnon during the festivities of the time of sheepshearing. He then fled to Geshur, a small city-state in Syria, where his maternal grandfather was king.<\/p>\n<h6>David and Absalom (2 Sm 14–19)<\/h6>\n<p>Absalom remained in exile for three years until Joab arranged for his return by securing a renunciation of blood revenge from David (14:1-27). Upon Absalom’s return, however, David refused to see him for two years, until they were finally reconciled. In this whole episode David sidestepped the issues of repentance and justice and took no effective disciplinary action. In the meantime Absalom conspired to take the throne from David his father by attempting to discredit his administration of justice, and by seeking to win the favor of the people and members of David’s court. After four years, Absalom proclaimed himself king in Hebron and gathered sufficient military strength to force his father to flee from Jerusalem (ch 15). Failure to immediately pursue David led to the defeat of Absalom’s forces and to Absalom’s own death at the hand of Joab, David’s commander. David mourned for his son Absalom (19:1-8), but he was able to return to Jerusalem and to reestablish his government. David disciplined Joab for killing Absalom by replacing him as commander of his troops with Amasa.<\/p>\n<h6>Rebellion of Sheba (2 Sm 20)<\/h6>\n<p>In the unsettled conditions immediately after David’s return to Jerusalem, another abortive revolt was attempted by Sheba of the tribe of Benjamin. Joab, in defiance of David’s disciplinary action, killed Amasa, pursued Sheba, and crushed his revolt.<\/p>\n<h6>David and the Gibeonites (2 Sm 21:1-14)<\/h6>\n<p>At some unspecified time during David’s reign, the land suffered a three-year famine. It was revealed to David by the Lord that the famine was due to Saul’s violation of an Israelite treaty with the Gibeonites (see Jos 9:15, 18-27). This offense was atoned for by giving seven descendants of Saul to the Gibeonites for execution.<\/p>\n<h6>David and the Philistines (2 Sm 21:15-22)<\/h6>\n<p>In this pericope four episodes of heroic accomplishments by David’s mighty men against the Philistines are recounted.<\/p>\n<h6>David’s Song of Praise (2 Sm 22)<\/h6>\n<p>In a beautiful song of praise, David described his deliverance from his enemies and the help with which the Lord sustained him. The same song occurs with minor variations in Psalm 18.<\/p>\n<h6>David’s Last Words (2 Sm 23:1-7)<\/h6>\n<p>In a brief statement, David acknowledges the work of God’s Spirit in enabling him to speak God’s word, and proclaims his confidence in the realization of the Lord’s promise to him and his dynasty.<\/p>\n<h6>David’s Mighty Men (2 Sm 23:8-39)<\/h6>\n<p>This pericope contains a list of 37 of David’s warriors and a description of some of their accomplishments.<\/p>\n<h6>The Census and David’s Punishment (2 Sm 24:1-25)<\/h6>\n<p>David’s decision to take a census of his fighting men reflected an improper trust in military-political organization and power. The Lord judged him by sending a plague on the land that killed many people. At the word of the Lord through Gad the prophet, David built an altar on the threshing floor of Araunah, which was later to become the site of the temple (see 2 Chr 3:1). The Lord responded to David’s sacrifices and prayers on behalf of the people; the plague was stopped.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> David; Samuel (Person); Saul #2.<\/p>","summary_ro":"SAMUEL, Books of First and Second Preview • Name • Author and Date • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Name First and Second Samuel derive their names from the individual whom God used to establish kingship in Israel. Samuel is the most prominent figure in the early narratives of 1 Samuel. His key role in leading the nation of Israel through the transition from the period of the judges to that of the monarchy warrants the use of his name as the title for the book. These books, howeve...","summary_en":"SAMUEL, Books of First and Second Preview • Name • Author and Date • Purpose and Theological Teaching • Content Name First and Second Samuel derive their names from the individual whom God used to establish kingship in Israel. Samuel is the most prominent figure in the early narratives of 1 Samuel. His key role in leading the nation of Israel through the transition from the period of the judges to that of the monarchy warrants the use of his name as the title for the book. These books, howeve...","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":36928,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Temple","title_en":"Temple","content_ro":"<h3>TEMPLE<\/h3>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Solomon’s Temple<\/p>\n<p>• Zerubbabel’s Temple<\/p>\n<p>• Herod’s Temple<\/p>\n<p>• Significance of the Temple in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Significance of the Temple in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>David’s capture of Jerusalem (2 Sm 5:6-9) and his designation of it as the nation’s capital is one of the great masterstrokes of history. Occupied by the Jebusites, it was a pocket of neutral territory between the northern and southern sections of David’s united kingdom and was politically acceptable to both. Jerusalem was then established as the national religious center by the return of the ark, which had been largely neglected since its capture by the Philistines (2 Sm 6:1-17). Henceforth, God’s choices of both David and Jerusalem (“Mount Zion”) were indissolubly linked (Ps 78:67-72).<\/p>\n<p>David’s great impulse was to build an adequate dwelling place for Israel’s God. The idea was initially approved by Nathan the prophet (2 Sm 7:1-3), but God revealed otherwise to him, and he conveyed the divine purpose to David (vv 4-17). In a significant wordplay, David was informed that, while he was not to build a house (temple) for God, God would build a house (dynasty) for him. David was not the one to build a temple because of the numerous wars during his reign; the temple would instead be built by his son (1 Kgs 5:3; 1 Chr 22:7-8; 28:3). Nevertheless, David enthusiastically amassed most of the necessary finances and materials and drew up the blueprints for the temple (1 Chr 22:3-5, 14; 28:2, 11-19). He also purchased the temple site (21:25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SolomonsTemple\">Solomon’s Temple<\/p>\n\n<h5>Date<\/h5>\n<p>Construction commenced in Solomon’s fourth year, about 966 <span>BC<\/span>, and took seven years to complete (1 Kgs 6:1, 38). Everything necessary for the temple, including the workers, had been prepared by David (1 Chr 28:21). The temple evidently had first priority among Solomon’s building schemes, as he built his own palace later (1 Kgs 7:1).<\/p>\n<h5>Superintendents and Workforce<\/h5>\n<p>The principal architect for the bronze furnishings was Huram (Hebrew “Hiram”), whose father was a metal craftsman from Tyre and whose mother was an Israelite (1 Kgs 7:13-14). Cedar for the temple came from Lebanon and was felled and transported by the skilled woodsmen of another Hiram—the king of Tyre, Solomon’s ally (5:5-9). Thirty thousand Israelites, divided into three groups, were drafted to assist at Lebanon. Each group was on duty for one month in three. For the stonework, Solomon conscripted 153,600 foreigners resident in Israel to provide a self-contained group of carriers, stone cutters, and supervisors (vv 15-17; 2 Chr 2:17-18). Possibly the “men of Gebal,” with their specialized skills, formed yet another group (1 Kgs 5:18). Building the temple was obviously a national project of immense size and effort. In order to preserve the sanctity of the site and to eliminate noise, the masonry and carpentry were not done at the temple site (6:7).<\/p>\n<h5>Description<\/h5>\n<p>The details given in the Bible are sufficiently clear for us to make a reasonably accurate description of the temple. The accounts in Kings and Chronicles are supplemented by Ezekiel’s depiction of the temple (see below), which was broadly based on his knowledge of the Jerusalem temple (Ez 40–48).<\/p>\n<p>The side rooms probably rested on a foundation or platform that was separate from the temple itself (1 Kgs 6:5, 10; cf. Ez 41:8-9) and were arranged in three stories, each seven and a half feet (2.3 meters) high, extending around the whole building except for the porch side. Each successive story was one and a half feet (.5 meter) wider than the one below, these dimensions coinciding with the thickness of the side wall of the Holy Place. The ground floor rooms were seven and a half feet (2.3 meters) wide; the first story was nine feet (2.7 meters), and the second was ten and a half feet (3.2 meters). Access to the upper stories was possibly by winding staircases (1 Kgs 6:8). There is some uncertainty concerning the location of the entrances; there may have been one on either side, but only one is mentioned (v 8). As in Ezekiel’s temple (Ez 40:17, 28), there were two adjacent courts, an inner and an outer (1 Kgs 6:36; 7:12), but no dimensions are given for these. The inner court, or “court of the priests,” being next to the temple itself, was also called “the upper court” (2 Chr 4:9; Jer 36:10). The wall of the inner court was made of three layers of hewn stone held together by a layer of cedar beams (1 Kgs 6:36), and the doors of both courts were sheathed in bronze (2 Chr 4:9). The palace buildings were within the outer court area, probably with a private passageway between the palace and the temple that was later closed during the reign of Ahaz (2 Chr 4:9, 12; 2 Kgs 16:18).<\/p>\n<p>The temple itself was 90 feet (27.4 meters) long, 30 feet (9.1 meters) wide, and 45 feet (13.7 meters) high (1 Kgs 6:2), with a porch or vestibule 15 feet (4.6 meters) deep stretching across the width. Probably the vestibule was on the east end of the temple, thus corresponding with the orientation of Ezekiel’s temple (Ez 43:1; 44:1). The larger part of the main sanctuary, next to the porch, formed the Holy Place, which was 60 feet (18.3 meters) long (1 Kgs 6:17). Beyond this was the innermost sanctuary, the Holy of Holies (or the “Most Holy Place“), which was a perfect cube of 30 feet (9.1 meters). All the interior walls were paneled with cedar decorated with flower patterns, cherubim, and palm trees, so that no masonry was visible. The walls of both inner and outer sanctuaries were “overlaid” (v 22) with pure gold. Actually the gold decoration may have been inlaid, on the basis that a solid sheath of gold would spoil the natural beauty of the wood carving. The floor was made of cypress planks (v 15). Narrow windows set high in the walls above the level of the three-storied outer chambers provided light in the Holy Place (v 4). The ceiling was paneled with beams and planks of cedar. No detail is given about the exterior roofing, but probably the contemporary technique was employed, using a wooden, latticelike framework into which a waterproof, limestone plaster was packed and rolled.<\/p>\n<p>The outer porch was apparently an open space, since no doors are mentioned. Access into the Holy Place was by double doors, both hinged to fold back on themselves, made of cypress and decorated in exactly the same way as the interior walls (vv 34-35). The doorposts were made of olive wood. Within the Holy Place was the altar of incense made of cedar overlaid with gold; it was placed centrally before the Holy of Holies. Also in the Holy Place were a table for the bread of the Presence of God, ten lampstands arranged in two groups of five on either side, and various utensils required for maintaining the priestly duties (1 Kgs 7:48-50). All these were made or overlaid with gold. The ten tables, arranged five on each side, were presumably for the utensils and accessories (2 Chr 4:8).<\/p>\n<p>Between the Holy Place and the Holy of Holies was a double door made of olive wood, carved with cherubim, palm trees, and flower patterns and overlaid with gold. Inside these doors, veiling still further the Holy of Holies, was a blue, purple, and crimson curtain, made of the finest fabrics and ornamented with cherubim (2 Chr 3:14).<\/p>\n<p>In the Holy of Holies were two cherubim, each 15 feet (4.6 meters) high and made of olive wood covered with gold (1 Kgs 6:23-28). Each wing measured seven and a half feet (2.3 meters). A wing of each touched the side walls; the other wings met at the center of the room. The divine throne had been considerably less impressive in the tabernacle, where a wing of each cherubim fused into the mercy seat above the ark (Ex 25:17-22). In Solomon’s temple, the ark of the covenant was placed below the forward-facing cherubim, the symbolic protectors. The ark, the only major item surviving from the Mosaic tabernacle, still contained the tablets of the law, but the pot of manna and Aaron’s rod were missing (1 Kgs 8:9).<\/p>\n<p>Immediately outside the temple and on either side of the vestibule were two hollow bronze pillars (1 Kgs 7:15-20; 2 Chr 3:15-17). According to the book of Kings, these pillars were 27 feet (8.2 meters) high, with a circumference of 18 feet (5.5 meters). The metal itself was about four inches (10.2 centimeters) thick. The pillars were surmounted by bronze, lily-shaped capitals seven and a half feet (2.3 meters) high and six feet (1.8 meters) wide, intricately adorned with a chain latticework that supported two rows of pomegranates. The total weight must have been enormous, and their size is attested to by Jeremiah, who notes that the Babylonians had to break them in pieces before transporting them to Babylon (Jer 52:17, 21-23).<\/p>\n<p>The bronze altar of sacrifice in front of the vestibule is not listed in the specifications of 1 Kings 7. However, it is mentioned in the temple dedication and subsequently (1 Kgs 8:22, 54, 64; 9:25) and clearly stood in the inner court. Its dimensions were 30 feet (9.1 meters) square and 15 feet (4.6 meters) high (2 Chr 4:1). In view of its weight, it was probably cast in sections at Solomon’s foundry in the Jordan Rift valley (vv 17-18) and then transported to the temple site for assembly.<\/p>\n<p>Probably the most striking article in the inner court was the “molten (bronze) sea,” a huge, round tank made of bronze 3 inches (8 centimeters) thick, 7½ feet (2.3 meters) high, and 15 feet (4.6 meters) in diameter (1 Kgs 7:23-26). Its rim flared out like a lily (2 Chr 4:2-5). The tank was supported on 12 bronze oxen, four on each side, and had two rows of decoration, possibly gourds or pomegranates, under the brim. Its capacity was between 10,000 and 12,000 gallons (37,850–45,420 liters). The bronze sea was used for priestly ablutions (v 6). Presumably this involved a platform of sorts, for the brim of this vast basin would have been about 15 feet (4.6 meters) above ground level.<\/p>\n<p>Hiram also constructed ten large lavers, mounted on moveable stands and placed in two groups of five, on the north and south sides of the inner court (1 Kgs 7:27-39). Basically the stands were bronze boxes, six feet (1.8 meters) square and four and a half feet (1.4 meters) high with a nine-inch (22.9-centimeter) rim around the top edge. Each corner was attached to braced posts to which the axles were fixed. The four-spoked wheels were 27 inches (68.6 centimeters) high. Into each stand there fitted a laver containing approximately 220 gallons (832.7 liters) of water, used for washing sacrificial animals (2 Chr 4:6). Probably each was adjacent to one of the ten tables that would be used to flay and otherwise prepare the sacrifices (v 8). Supplementary items, such as pots, shovels, and basins, all made of bronze, were also manufactured (1 Kgs 7:40, 45).<\/p>\n<h5>The Dedication<\/h5>\n<p>Eleven months elapsed between the completion of the temple and its dedication (1 Kgs 6:38; 8:2), during which time the major items of furniture were set in place. The dedication itself took place in the seventh month, presumably in connection with the Feast of Tabernacles and the Day of Atonement (Lv 23:23-36). The ark of the covenant was brought into its final resting place (1 Kgs 8:3-4), but the inner court proved inadequate for the vast numbers of beasts sacrificed (1 Kgs 8:62-64; 2 Chr 7:7).<\/p>\n<p>The temple employed the most sophisticated building techniques of the age, and no expense had been spared in construction, ornamentation, or equipment. Yet Solomon readily confessed its utter inadequacy to house the eternal God (1 Kgs 8:27). His prayer also underlined Israel’s propensity to forsake the Lord, contrasting the nation with God, who, though a just judge, was also merciful and faithful. The climax of the proceedings came when fire from heaven consumed the sacrifices and the shekinah glory filled the temple (2 Chr 7:1-3).<\/p>\n<h5>Later History<\/h5>\n<p>Like most ancient shrines, the temple became a treasury for national wealth and as such was often the target for attack. Shishak of Egypt plundered it within five years of Solomon’s death (1 Kgs 14:25-38). Shortly afterward, King Asa (910–869 <span>BC<\/span>) depleted its gold and silver treasures to buy Syrian help against his oppressor, Baasha (908–886 <span>BC<\/span>), king of Israel (15:16-19). Joash, the king of Judah (835–796 <span>BC<\/span>) who was concealed in the temple from the vicious Athaliah during his youth (2 Kgs 11), made provision for its repair after protesting the priests’ embezzlement of gifts (12:4-16). But after the death of Jehoiada, the high priest, Joash himself was adversely influenced by his nobles (2 Chr 24:15-19). As punishment for his apostasy, the Lord allowed the Syrians to attack, and Joash used the temple treasures to buy them off (2 Kgs 12:17-18). Hardly had provision for replacements been made, when Jehoash of Israel (798–782 <span>BC<\/span>), having shattered the arrogant pride of Amaziah of Judah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>), again stripped the temple (14:8-14). Later, King Ahaz (735-715 <span>BC<\/span>) used the remaining resources of the temple to enlist support from the Assyrians (16:7-9), though he eventually became completely subservient to them.<\/p>\n<p> Then Hezekiah (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>), one of the great reforming kings, thoroughly renovated the temple and restored worship after it had fallen into disuse during theclosing years of Ahaz (2 Chr 29:1-19; 31:9-21). Manasseh (696–642 <span>BC<\/span>), however, completely reversed his father’s policy, bringing the practices of Canaanite and Mesopotamian worship into the temple (2 Kgs 21:3-7). His conversion experience, which probably occurred late in his reign and resulted in certain reform measures in the temple (2 Chr 33:12-19), was not far-reaching enough to escape the final judgment that his reign was the dark spot of Judah’s history (2 Kgs 21:10-16).<\/p>\n<p>Manasseh’s grandson Josiah (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>), was the second great reforming king. He organized the repair of the temple in 622 <span>BC<\/span>, during which the lost Book of the Law (almost certainly the book of Deuteronomy) was discovered (2 Kgs 22:3-13). As a result, Josiah’s reformation gained a new dimension and sense of urgency (22:14–23:3). The reformation included a thorough purge of all idolatrous elements from the temple (23:4-12) and the restoration of the traditional festivals. Sadly, however, Josiah’s reformation died with him, and Judah’s downward slide continued under the apostate Jehoiakim (609–598 <span>BC<\/span>). It was probably during this time that Jeremiah preached his famous temple sermon foretelling its destruction (Jer 7:1–8:3; 26:1-19), which alienated him from the religious leaders. In Nebuchadnezzar’s reprisal raid following Jehoiakim’s rebellion in 601 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 24:1-4), Jerusalem was captured (596 <span>BC<\/span>) and many of the temple treasures were transported to Babylon (2 Chr 36:7). The temple itself appears to have escaped damage, but when Judah again rebelled under Zedekiah (597–586 <span>BC<\/span>), the temple was demolished (2 Kgs 25:8-10). The remaining temple treasures were taken away.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ZerubbabelsTemple\">Zerubbabel’s Temple<\/p>\n<h5>Construction<\/h5>\n<p>Although the temple was devastated, the site still remained as a place of pilgrimage during the exile (Jer 41:4-5). In 538 <span>BC<\/span> the Persian king, Cyrus, in pursuance of a liberal policy diametrically opposed to that of the earlier empires, permitted the Jews to return from exile. And he authorized the rebuilding of the temple, financing it from the Persian treasury.<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Ezra, the decree of authorization has been preserved in two forms: the general proclamation (Ezr 1:2-4) and a more prosaic memorandum in the national archives indicating the main temple specifications and the amount of promised Persian help (6:1-5). Probably only a minority of the Jews opted to leave the relative comforts of Mesopotamia for the dangers of a long journey to their desolated homeland. According to the book of Ezra, 42,360 dedicated individuals and their servants (2:64-65) responded under the leadership of Sheshbazzar (1:8-11; 5:14-16) and Zerubbabel (2:2; 3:2, 8; 4:2). With great enthusiasm, the altar was rebuilt on the temple site and the traditional pattern of worship reestablished (3:1-6). Utilizing the grant from Persia as well as their own freewill gifts (2:68-69; 3:7), the Jews began to plan the second temple and lay its foundations (3:7-13). The initial impetus quickly died as a result of local opposition (4:1-4, 24), selfish preoccupation, and crop failures (Hg 1:2-11). In 520 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 4:24; Hg 1:1; Zec 1:1), inspired by the prophets Haggai and Zechariah, the Jews under Zerubbabel and Joshua the high priest commenced rebuilding. Work continued in spite of official suspicion, if not direct opposition, and the temple was completed and dedicated in 515 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 5:1–6:22).<\/p>\n<p>Little is known of the physical features of Zerubbabel’s temple. The inference that it was vastly inferior to Solomon’s temple (Hg 2:3) probably relates to an early stage in the building operation. In fact, the second temple stood for over 500 years. The dimensions noted in Ezra 6:3 are incomplete; the new temple was no doubt about the same size as its predecessor and was probably built on the same foundation. The construction technique appears to have followed the method of the original, with layers of timber providing a framework for sections of masonry (v 4). Clearly, there was auxiliary accommodation, probably like the side rooms of Solomon’s temple (Ezr 8:29; Neh 12:44; 13:4-5). If Persian aid was forthcoming as promised (Ezr 6:8-12), the second temple was a more splendid, substantial structure than is generally supposed.<\/p>\n<h5>Later History<\/h5>\n<p>Several references in the Apocrypha, pseudepigrapha, rabbinic writings, and the historian Josephus help to illumine the history of the temple and give more detail on its structure and furnishings. Josephus, quoting from Hecateus of Abdera (fourth century <span>BC<\/span>), states that the temple was a large building in an enclosure about 500 feet by 150 feet (152.4 meters by 45.7 meters), surrounded by a stone wall, with an altar of unhewn stones the same size as Solomon’s bronze altar (cf. 2 Chr 4:1). Within the sanctuary was a golden altar of incense and a lampstand, the flame of which burned continually. Josephus also notes that Antiochus III (223–187 <span>BC<\/span>) financially supported the temple when the Seleucids displaced the Ptolemies as masters of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>Ben Sirach, early in the second century <span>BC<\/span>, commended Simon, the son of Onias the high priest, for his work in fortifying and repairing the temple area. First Maccabees provides valuable evidence of the fate of the temple during the oppression under Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175–164 <span>BC<\/span>). The books of the Maccabees recount the defilement of the altar of burnt offering (1 Macc 1:54) and the plundering of the golden lampstand, altar of incense, table of offering, veil, and other treasures (2 Macc 5:15-16; 6:2-4). When the temple was recaptured and restored, the victorious Maccabees replaced the items taken by the Seleucids, except for the altar of sacrifice, which was considered so polluted that it was dismantled and replaced by a new one constructed of unhewn stone (1 Macc 4:36-61; 2 Macc 10:1-9). Clearly the temple area was used as a fortress, both in opposition to the Seleucid garrison that was maintained in Jerusalem in the Maccabean period and in the conflicts of the later Hasmonean period. When Pompey captured Jerusalem about 63 <span>BC<\/span>, he entered the temple to assert his authority but took no plunder, thus showing respect for it.<\/p>\n<p>The history of Zerubbabel’s temple closed when Herod, having carefully preserved it from any major damage when he gained control of Jerusalem with Roman aid in 37 <span>BC<\/span>, began to dismantle it about 21 <span>BC<\/span> in preparation for the construction of his own grand temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HerodsTemple\">Herod’s Temple<\/p>\n<p>Apart from over 100 references in the NT, our main sources of information about Herod’s temple come from the Jewish historian Josephus and from the Middoth (a section of the Jewish rabbinic writings). There are considerable differences in detail between the two, which rules out any dogmatic interpretation in attempted reconstructions. Since Josephus was contemporary with the temple (he was born about <span>AD<\/span> 37 and died early in the second century), he is probably more reliable than the Middoth, which, dating from about <span>AD<\/span> 150, appears to exaggerate occasionally. Archaeological research has been helpful in determining the positions of the outer walls and gates.<\/p>\n<p>Herod’s motive in building his temple was political rather than religious. As an Idumean, he wished to placate his Jewish subjects by constructing a sanctuary as magnificent as Solomon’s. Possible fears that the site might be profaned, or that the existing temple might be demolished and never rebuilt, were allayed by the training of 1,000 priests as masons and the amassing of materials before the work commenced. Herod’s temple followed the tripartite plan of its predecessors, although its porch was much larger. It was built in the contemporary Greco-Roman architectural style and must therefore be regarded as distinct from Zerubbabel’s temple. Work began in 20 <span>BC<\/span>, and while the main sanctuary was quickly erected (it was in full operation within ten years), the total project was not completed until <span>AD<\/span> 64, only six years before it was destroyed by the Romans.<\/p>\n<p>Herod first prepared the site by clearing and leveling an area approximately 500 yards (457.2 meters) from north to south and about 325 yards (297.2 meters) from east to west. This involved cutting away sections of rock in some areas and building up with rubble in others. Considerable sections of the enclosing wall, constructed on stone blocks averaging about 15 feet (4.6 meters) long by 4 feet (1.2 meters) high, still survive. Some of the stones in the corners of the south wall weigh up to 70 tons (63.5 metric tons).<\/p>\n<p>The sanctuary itself seems to have been based on the same dimensions as Solomon’s temple. It was divided into the Holy Place, which was 60 feet (18.3 meters) long, 30 feet (9.1 meters) wide, and 60 feet high, and the Holy of Holies, which was 30 feet square. There was no furniture within the Holy of Holies, which was separated by a veil from the Holy Place. The Holy Place contained the seven-branch lampstand, the table for the bread of the Presence, and the incense altar. The main divergence from Solomon’s temple was the imposing porch, 150 feet (45.7 meters) in width and height. Outside was a doorway approximately 30 feet (9.1 meters) wide by 40 feet (12.2 meters) high, with an inner doorway about half that size leading into the sanctuary. By allowing empty rooms over the Holy of Holies and the Holy Place, there was a uniform roof height of 150 feet (45.7 meters). Golden spikes on the roof discouraged birds from alighting and defiling the structure. Like its predecessors, the temple was oriented toward the east and was surrounded on the other sides by three stories of rooms rising to a height of 60 feet (18.3 meters). The stone used was the local white stone, cut in huge blocks and highly polished.<\/p>\n<p>Access to the porch was by a flight of 12 steps from the Court of the Priests. Centrally placed before the porch and 33 feet (10.1 meters) away was the altar of sacrifice. Made of unhewn stone, it was a multilevel construction 15 feet (4.6 meters) high and about 48 feet (14.6 meters) square at its base. Male Israelites were allowed into this area once a year, during the Feast of the Tabernacles, to walk around the altar of sacrifice. Otherwise, they were restricted to the Court of Israel. To the east of the Court of Israel, and separated from it by a flight of 15 steps and by the ornate Great Gate, made of Corinthian bronze, was the Court of the Women. Here the offertory chests for temple expenses were located (Mk 12:41-44). The next court was the large, lower, outer Court of the Gentiles, which surrounded the inner courts and was separated from them by a balustrade and a series of warning notices. Two of these have been excavated, written in Latin and Greek and forbidding trespass by Gentiles into the inner areas, on pain of death. This outer court was widely used. Immediately inside its walls was a portico, supported by four rows of columns almost 40 feet (12.2 meters) high on the south side (the Royal Porch), and two rows on the other sides, the eastern portico known as “Solomon’s Porch” or “Solomon’s Colonnade.” Here is the area where the stalls of the money changers and merchants were set up, where the Sanhedrin met, and where Christ and the scribes taught and debated (Mk 11:27; Lk 2:46; 19:47; Jn 10:23). Here, too, the infant church met before it was rejected by a hostile Judaism (Acts 3:11; 5:12). Just to the northwest of the temple enclosure was the Fortress of Antonia, where the Roman governor resided while in Jerusalem, and where a Roman garrison was on hand to deal with disturbances (Acts 21:31-40). Overlooking the temple area, it was separated from it by a wide moat. The high priest’s vestments were stored in the fortress as a symbol of Roman authority. Access to the Court of the Gentiles was by four gates in the west wall; two in the south wall, where the ground fell away steeply into the valley, a site often identified as the pinnacle of the temple (Mt 4:5; Lk 4:9); and one gate in each of the east and north walls.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SignificanceoftheTempleintheOldTestament\">Significance of the Temple in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The temple in Jerusalem functioned as the focal point of the tribal confederation. In spite of the attempt of Jeroboam I, the first king of the northern kingdom, to divert attention from Jerusalem by establishing shrines at Bethel and Dan (1 Kgs 12:26-30), Jerusalem never lost its preeminence. Naturally, both Hezekiah and Josiah sought to extend their reformation into the area of the northern tribes (2 Chr 30:1-12; 34:6-7), and Jerusalem was a pilgrimage center for those areas even after its destruction (Jer 41:5). The prophets foretold its destiny as the focal point of universal worship (Is 2:1-4).<\/p>\n<p>The temple was God’s dwelling place among his people. God’s presence, symbolized in the shekinah glory and the pillar of cloud, was associated with the tent of meeting (Ex 33:9-11), with the tabernacle (40:34-38), and finally with the temple (1 Kgs 8:10-11). The paradox is that while God is completely unrestricted, the temple was considered a place for God to live forever (vv 13, 27). God had chosen Zion, as he had chosen David (Pss 68:15-18; 76:2; 78:67-72), so the temple was regarded as God’s house (27:4; 42:4; 84:1-4).<\/p>\n<h5>Ezekiel’s Temple<\/h5>\n<p>Ezekiel’s detailed description of the ideal temple (Ez 40–48) was not used as the blueprint for Zerubbabel’s temple. In fact, since Ezekiel must have been familiar with Solomon’s temple before his deportation in 597 <span>BC<\/span>, his description is of greater help in determining uncertain details of the first temple. Ezekiel’s concern was to show the nature of pure worship, safeguarded from all contamination. This worship would allow the glory of God, which had departed from corrupted Solomon’s temple (9:3; 10:4, 18-19: 11:22-23), to return so that Jerusalem could again be named “the Lord is there” (43:1-5; 48:35). This thought, linked with Ezekiel’s vital concept of God’s Spirit indwelling his faithful worshipers (36:24-28), anticipated the NT teaching of the believers becoming God’s temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SignificanceoftheTempleintheNewTestament\">Significance of the Temple in the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>Christ and the Temple<\/h5>\n<p>Christ showed considerable respect for the temple. When he was 12 years old, he entered into the rabbinic discussions in its porticoes and described it as his Father’s house (Lk 2:41-50). To him “the house of God” was indwelt by God (Mt 12:4; 23:21). Although he twice cleansed it in righteous anger (Mt 21:12-13; Jn 2:13-16), he wept over the impending destruction of the city and temple (Lk 19:41-44). He often taught there, but he was “greater than the temple” (Mt 12:6). When his presentation to Jerusalem as the predicted Messiah was rejected, in spite of attendant miracles, he foretold its inevitable destruction (Mt 21:9-15; 24:1-2). For a brief period after Pentecost, the early church used the temple as its meeting place, until mounting opposition drove believers from Jerusalem (Acts 5:12, 21, 42; 8:1).<\/p>\n<h5>The Church as the Temple<\/h5>\n<p>The NT writers used two different Greek words to describe the temple: <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span> and <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hieron<\/span><em>.<\/em> <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Naos<\/span> refers to the actual sanctuary of the temple, the place of God’s dwelling. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Hieron<\/span> refers to the temple precincts as well as to the sanctuary. Generally speaking, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span> was used to designate the inner section of the temple known as the Holy Place and the Holy of Holies, whereas <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hieron<\/span> included the outer court and the temple proper.<\/p>\n<p>In Paul’s epistles the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span> appears six times (1 Cor 3:16-17; 6:19; 2 Cor 6:16; Eph 2:21; 2 Thes 2:4) and <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hieron<\/span> once (1 Cor 9:13). In these verses Paul maintains the distinction of definition noted above. When speaking of the actual physical temple, he used the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hieron<\/span> to indicate the place where the priests offered up animal sacrifices on the altar (1 Cor 9:13), which was situated in the outer court (see Ex 27–29, 40). And when Paul referred to the abominable act of the lawless one in usurping God’s place in the temple, he used the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span>—the word that designates the place of deity’s presence (2 Thes 2:4).<\/p>\n<p>In all the other Pauline passages, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span> is used metaphorically—to depict a human habitation for the divine Spirit. In one instance the sanctuary image is used to describe the individual believer’s body (1 Cor 6:19); in every other instance the sanctuary depicts Christ’s body, the church (1 Cor 3:16-17; 2 Cor 6:16; Eph 2:21). Mistakenly, many readers think 1 Corinthians 3:16-17 speaks of the individual, but according to the Greek text, it is unquestionably clear that Paul was speaking about the collective church (specifically, the church in Corinth).<\/p>\n<p>When Paul told the church in Corinth that it was God’s sanctuary, they would have understood the image from their knowledge of pagan temples. But Paul probably had in mind the one temple in Jerusalem. The Gentiles had many gods with many temples in one city; the Jews had one God with only one temple in all of Israel. This helped to preserve unity among the Israelites. The Corinthians needed spiritual unity; they were fragmented due to their individual preferences (see 1 Cor 1:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>In Ephesians, Paul’s masterpiece on the church, he speaks of the local churches as living, organic entities that are all (compositely speaking) growing into a holy sanctuary in the Lord (Eph 2:21). Paul pictured each local church as providing God with a spiritual habitation in that locality (v 22) and as growing together with all the other churches into one holy, universal sanctuary for the Lord’s indwelling.<\/p>\n<h5>The Temple in John’s Revelation<\/h5>\n<p>In John’s revelation there is no material temple, even though he continues to use the imagery of Jerusalem and Mt Zion (Rv 3:12; 14:1; 21:2, 10, 22). Three interrelated ideas dominate. First is the concept of the church made up of martyrs, whose faithful members are God’s temple (3:12; 14:1). This temple grows gradually as the number of martyrs increases (6:11). Another aspect is the temple as the place of judgment (11:19; 14:15; 15:5–16:1). Finally, any temple in the new age is unnecessary, “for its temple is the Lord God Almighty and the Lamb” (21:22). The ultimate state will be God’s dwelling with his people—the eternal, spritual temple.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Altar; Ark of the Covenant; Bread of the Presence; David; Feasts and Festivals of Israel; First Jewish Revolt; Judaism; Mercy Seat; Offerings and Sacrifices; Priests and Levites; Sanctuary; Singers in the Temple; Solomon (Person).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>TEMPLE<\/h3>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Background<\/p>\n<p>• Solomon’s Temple<\/p>\n<p>• Zerubbabel’s Temple<\/p>\n<p>• Herod’s Temple<\/p>\n<p>• Significance of the Temple in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Significance of the Temple in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/p>\n<p>David’s capture of Jerusalem (2 Sm 5:6-9) and his designation of it as the nation’s capital is one of the great masterstrokes of history. Occupied by the Jebusites, it was a pocket of neutral territory between the northern and southern sections of David’s united kingdom and was politically acceptable to both. Jerusalem was then established as the national religious center by the return of the ark, which had been largely neglected since its capture by the Philistines (2 Sm 6:1-17). Henceforth, God’s choices of both David and Jerusalem (“Mount Zion”) were indissolubly linked (Ps 78:67-72).<\/p>\n<p>David’s great impulse was to build an adequate dwelling place for Israel’s God. The idea was initially approved by Nathan the prophet (2 Sm 7:1-3), but God revealed otherwise to him, and he conveyed the divine purpose to David (vv 4-17). In a significant wordplay, David was informed that, while he was not to build a house (temple) for God, God would build a house (dynasty) for him. David was not the one to build a temple because of the numerous wars during his reign; the temple would instead be built by his son (1 Kgs 5:3; 1 Chr 22:7-8; 28:3). Nevertheless, David enthusiastically amassed most of the necessary finances and materials and drew up the blueprints for the temple (1 Chr 22:3-5, 14; 28:2, 11-19). He also purchased the temple site (21:25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SolomonsTemple\">Solomon’s Temple<\/p>\n\n<h5>Date<\/h5>\n<p>Construction commenced in Solomon’s fourth year, about 966 <span>BC<\/span>, and took seven years to complete (1 Kgs 6:1, 38). Everything necessary for the temple, including the workers, had been prepared by David (1 Chr 28:21). The temple evidently had first priority among Solomon’s building schemes, as he built his own palace later (1 Kgs 7:1).<\/p>\n<h5>Superintendents and Workforce<\/h5>\n<p>The principal architect for the bronze furnishings was Huram (Hebrew “Hiram”), whose father was a metal craftsman from Tyre and whose mother was an Israelite (1 Kgs 7:13-14). Cedar for the temple came from Lebanon and was felled and transported by the skilled woodsmen of another Hiram—the king of Tyre, Solomon’s ally (5:5-9). Thirty thousand Israelites, divided into three groups, were drafted to assist at Lebanon. Each group was on duty for one month in three. For the stonework, Solomon conscripted 153,600 foreigners resident in Israel to provide a self-contained group of carriers, stone cutters, and supervisors (vv 15-17; 2 Chr 2:17-18). Possibly the “men of Gebal,” with their specialized skills, formed yet another group (1 Kgs 5:18). Building the temple was obviously a national project of immense size and effort. In order to preserve the sanctity of the site and to eliminate noise, the masonry and carpentry were not done at the temple site (6:7).<\/p>\n<h5>Description<\/h5>\n<p>The details given in the Bible are sufficiently clear for us to make a reasonably accurate description of the temple. The accounts in Kings and Chronicles are supplemented by Ezekiel’s depiction of the temple (see below), which was broadly based on his knowledge of the Jerusalem temple (Ez 40–48).<\/p>\n<p>The side rooms probably rested on a foundation or platform that was separate from the temple itself (1 Kgs 6:5, 10; cf. Ez 41:8-9) and were arranged in three stories, each seven and a half feet (2.3 meters) high, extending around the whole building except for the porch side. Each successive story was one and a half feet (.5 meter) wider than the one below, these dimensions coinciding with the thickness of the side wall of the Holy Place. The ground floor rooms were seven and a half feet (2.3 meters) wide; the first story was nine feet (2.7 meters), and the second was ten and a half feet (3.2 meters). Access to the upper stories was possibly by winding staircases (1 Kgs 6:8). There is some uncertainty concerning the location of the entrances; there may have been one on either side, but only one is mentioned (v 8). As in Ezekiel’s temple (Ez 40:17, 28), there were two adjacent courts, an inner and an outer (1 Kgs 6:36; 7:12), but no dimensions are given for these. The inner court, or “court of the priests,” being next to the temple itself, was also called “the upper court” (2 Chr 4:9; Jer 36:10). The wall of the inner court was made of three layers of hewn stone held together by a layer of cedar beams (1 Kgs 6:36), and the doors of both courts were sheathed in bronze (2 Chr 4:9). The palace buildings were within the outer court area, probably with a private passageway between the palace and the temple that was later closed during the reign of Ahaz (2 Chr 4:9, 12; 2 Kgs 16:18).<\/p>\n<p>The temple itself was 90 feet (27.4 meters) long, 30 feet (9.1 meters) wide, and 45 feet (13.7 meters) high (1 Kgs 6:2), with a porch or vestibule 15 feet (4.6 meters) deep stretching across the width. Probably the vestibule was on the east end of the temple, thus corresponding with the orientation of Ezekiel’s temple (Ez 43:1; 44:1). The larger part of the main sanctuary, next to the porch, formed the Holy Place, which was 60 feet (18.3 meters) long (1 Kgs 6:17). Beyond this was the innermost sanctuary, the Holy of Holies (or the “Most Holy Place“), which was a perfect cube of 30 feet (9.1 meters). All the interior walls were paneled with cedar decorated with flower patterns, cherubim, and palm trees, so that no masonry was visible. The walls of both inner and outer sanctuaries were “overlaid” (v 22) with pure gold. Actually the gold decoration may have been inlaid, on the basis that a solid sheath of gold would spoil the natural beauty of the wood carving. The floor was made of cypress planks (v 15). Narrow windows set high in the walls above the level of the three-storied outer chambers provided light in the Holy Place (v 4). The ceiling was paneled with beams and planks of cedar. No detail is given about the exterior roofing, but probably the contemporary technique was employed, using a wooden, latticelike framework into which a waterproof, limestone plaster was packed and rolled.<\/p>\n<p>The outer porch was apparently an open space, since no doors are mentioned. Access into the Holy Place was by double doors, both hinged to fold back on themselves, made of cypress and decorated in exactly the same way as the interior walls (vv 34-35). The doorposts were made of olive wood. Within the Holy Place was the altar of incense made of cedar overlaid with gold; it was placed centrally before the Holy of Holies. Also in the Holy Place were a table for the bread of the Presence of God, ten lampstands arranged in two groups of five on either side, and various utensils required for maintaining the priestly duties (1 Kgs 7:48-50). All these were made or overlaid with gold. The ten tables, arranged five on each side, were presumably for the utensils and accessories (2 Chr 4:8).<\/p>\n<p>Between the Holy Place and the Holy of Holies was a double door made of olive wood, carved with cherubim, palm trees, and flower patterns and overlaid with gold. Inside these doors, veiling still further the Holy of Holies, was a blue, purple, and crimson curtain, made of the finest fabrics and ornamented with cherubim (2 Chr 3:14).<\/p>\n<p>In the Holy of Holies were two cherubim, each 15 feet (4.6 meters) high and made of olive wood covered with gold (1 Kgs 6:23-28). Each wing measured seven and a half feet (2.3 meters). A wing of each touched the side walls; the other wings met at the center of the room. The divine throne had been considerably less impressive in the tabernacle, where a wing of each cherubim fused into the mercy seat above the ark (Ex 25:17-22). In Solomon’s temple, the ark of the covenant was placed below the forward-facing cherubim, the symbolic protectors. The ark, the only major item surviving from the Mosaic tabernacle, still contained the tablets of the law, but the pot of manna and Aaron’s rod were missing (1 Kgs 8:9).<\/p>\n<p>Immediately outside the temple and on either side of the vestibule were two hollow bronze pillars (1 Kgs 7:15-20; 2 Chr 3:15-17). According to the book of Kings, these pillars were 27 feet (8.2 meters) high, with a circumference of 18 feet (5.5 meters). The metal itself was about four inches (10.2 centimeters) thick. The pillars were surmounted by bronze, lily-shaped capitals seven and a half feet (2.3 meters) high and six feet (1.8 meters) wide, intricately adorned with a chain latticework that supported two rows of pomegranates. The total weight must have been enormous, and their size is attested to by Jeremiah, who notes that the Babylonians had to break them in pieces before transporting them to Babylon (Jer 52:17, 21-23).<\/p>\n<p>The bronze altar of sacrifice in front of the vestibule is not listed in the specifications of 1 Kings 7. However, it is mentioned in the temple dedication and subsequently (1 Kgs 8:22, 54, 64; 9:25) and clearly stood in the inner court. Its dimensions were 30 feet (9.1 meters) square and 15 feet (4.6 meters) high (2 Chr 4:1). In view of its weight, it was probably cast in sections at Solomon’s foundry in the Jordan Rift valley (vv 17-18) and then transported to the temple site for assembly.<\/p>\n<p>Probably the most striking article in the inner court was the “molten (bronze) sea,” a huge, round tank made of bronze 3 inches (8 centimeters) thick, 7½ feet (2.3 meters) high, and 15 feet (4.6 meters) in diameter (1 Kgs 7:23-26). Its rim flared out like a lily (2 Chr 4:2-5). The tank was supported on 12 bronze oxen, four on each side, and had two rows of decoration, possibly gourds or pomegranates, under the brim. Its capacity was between 10,000 and 12,000 gallons (37,850–45,420 liters). The bronze sea was used for priestly ablutions (v 6). Presumably this involved a platform of sorts, for the brim of this vast basin would have been about 15 feet (4.6 meters) above ground level.<\/p>\n<p>Hiram also constructed ten large lavers, mounted on moveable stands and placed in two groups of five, on the north and south sides of the inner court (1 Kgs 7:27-39). Basically the stands were bronze boxes, six feet (1.8 meters) square and four and a half feet (1.4 meters) high with a nine-inch (22.9-centimeter) rim around the top edge. Each corner was attached to braced posts to which the axles were fixed. The four-spoked wheels were 27 inches (68.6 centimeters) high. Into each stand there fitted a laver containing approximately 220 gallons (832.7 liters) of water, used for washing sacrificial animals (2 Chr 4:6). Probably each was adjacent to one of the ten tables that would be used to flay and otherwise prepare the sacrifices (v 8). Supplementary items, such as pots, shovels, and basins, all made of bronze, were also manufactured (1 Kgs 7:40, 45).<\/p>\n<h5>The Dedication<\/h5>\n<p>Eleven months elapsed between the completion of the temple and its dedication (1 Kgs 6:38; 8:2), during which time the major items of furniture were set in place. The dedication itself took place in the seventh month, presumably in connection with the Feast of Tabernacles and the Day of Atonement (Lv 23:23-36). The ark of the covenant was brought into its final resting place (1 Kgs 8:3-4), but the inner court proved inadequate for the vast numbers of beasts sacrificed (1 Kgs 8:62-64; 2 Chr 7:7).<\/p>\n<p>The temple employed the most sophisticated building techniques of the age, and no expense had been spared in construction, ornamentation, or equipment. Yet Solomon readily confessed its utter inadequacy to house the eternal God (1 Kgs 8:27). His prayer also underlined Israel’s propensity to forsake the Lord, contrasting the nation with God, who, though a just judge, was also merciful and faithful. The climax of the proceedings came when fire from heaven consumed the sacrifices and the shekinah glory filled the temple (2 Chr 7:1-3).<\/p>\n<h5>Later History<\/h5>\n<p>Like most ancient shrines, the temple became a treasury for national wealth and as such was often the target for attack. Shishak of Egypt plundered it within five years of Solomon’s death (1 Kgs 14:25-38). Shortly afterward, King Asa (910–869 <span>BC<\/span>) depleted its gold and silver treasures to buy Syrian help against his oppressor, Baasha (908–886 <span>BC<\/span>), king of Israel (15:16-19). Joash, the king of Judah (835–796 <span>BC<\/span>) who was concealed in the temple from the vicious Athaliah during his youth (2 Kgs 11), made provision for its repair after protesting the priests’ embezzlement of gifts (12:4-16). But after the death of Jehoiada, the high priest, Joash himself was adversely influenced by his nobles (2 Chr 24:15-19). As punishment for his apostasy, the Lord allowed the Syrians to attack, and Joash used the temple treasures to buy them off (2 Kgs 12:17-18). Hardly had provision for replacements been made, when Jehoash of Israel (798–782 <span>BC<\/span>), having shattered the arrogant pride of Amaziah of Judah (796–767 <span>BC<\/span>), again stripped the temple (14:8-14). Later, King Ahaz (735-715 <span>BC<\/span>) used the remaining resources of the temple to enlist support from the Assyrians (16:7-9), though he eventually became completely subservient to them.<\/p>\n<p> Then Hezekiah (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>), one of the great reforming kings, thoroughly renovated the temple and restored worship after it had fallen into disuse during theclosing years of Ahaz (2 Chr 29:1-19; 31:9-21). Manasseh (696–642 <span>BC<\/span>), however, completely reversed his father’s policy, bringing the practices of Canaanite and Mesopotamian worship into the temple (2 Kgs 21:3-7). His conversion experience, which probably occurred late in his reign and resulted in certain reform measures in the temple (2 Chr 33:12-19), was not far-reaching enough to escape the final judgment that his reign was the dark spot of Judah’s history (2 Kgs 21:10-16).<\/p>\n<p>Manasseh’s grandson Josiah (640–609 <span>BC<\/span>), was the second great reforming king. He organized the repair of the temple in 622 <span>BC<\/span>, during which the lost Book of the Law (almost certainly the book of Deuteronomy) was discovered (2 Kgs 22:3-13). As a result, Josiah’s reformation gained a new dimension and sense of urgency (22:14–23:3). The reformation included a thorough purge of all idolatrous elements from the temple (23:4-12) and the restoration of the traditional festivals. Sadly, however, Josiah’s reformation died with him, and Judah’s downward slide continued under the apostate Jehoiakim (609–598 <span>BC<\/span>). It was probably during this time that Jeremiah preached his famous temple sermon foretelling its destruction (Jer 7:1–8:3; 26:1-19), which alienated him from the religious leaders. In Nebuchadnezzar’s reprisal raid following Jehoiakim’s rebellion in 601 <span>BC<\/span> (2 Kgs 24:1-4), Jerusalem was captured (596 <span>BC<\/span>) and many of the temple treasures were transported to Babylon (2 Chr 36:7). The temple itself appears to have escaped damage, but when Judah again rebelled under Zedekiah (597–586 <span>BC<\/span>), the temple was demolished (2 Kgs 25:8-10). The remaining temple treasures were taken away.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ZerubbabelsTemple\">Zerubbabel’s Temple<\/p>\n<h5>Construction<\/h5>\n<p>Although the temple was devastated, the site still remained as a place of pilgrimage during the exile (Jer 41:4-5). In 538 <span>BC<\/span> the Persian king, Cyrus, in pursuance of a liberal policy diametrically opposed to that of the earlier empires, permitted the Jews to return from exile. And he authorized the rebuilding of the temple, financing it from the Persian treasury.<\/p>\n<p>In the book of Ezra, the decree of authorization has been preserved in two forms: the general proclamation (Ezr 1:2-4) and a more prosaic memorandum in the national archives indicating the main temple specifications and the amount of promised Persian help (6:1-5). Probably only a minority of the Jews opted to leave the relative comforts of Mesopotamia for the dangers of a long journey to their desolated homeland. According to the book of Ezra, 42,360 dedicated individuals and their servants (2:64-65) responded under the leadership of Sheshbazzar (1:8-11; 5:14-16) and Zerubbabel (2:2; 3:2, 8; 4:2). With great enthusiasm, the altar was rebuilt on the temple site and the traditional pattern of worship reestablished (3:1-6). Utilizing the grant from Persia as well as their own freewill gifts (2:68-69; 3:7), the Jews began to plan the second temple and lay its foundations (3:7-13). The initial impetus quickly died as a result of local opposition (4:1-4, 24), selfish preoccupation, and crop failures (Hg 1:2-11). In 520 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 4:24; Hg 1:1; Zec 1:1), inspired by the prophets Haggai and Zechariah, the Jews under Zerubbabel and Joshua the high priest commenced rebuilding. Work continued in spite of official suspicion, if not direct opposition, and the temple was completed and dedicated in 515 <span>BC<\/span> (Ezr 5:1–6:22).<\/p>\n<p>Little is known of the physical features of Zerubbabel’s temple. The inference that it was vastly inferior to Solomon’s temple (Hg 2:3) probably relates to an early stage in the building operation. In fact, the second temple stood for over 500 years. The dimensions noted in Ezra 6:3 are incomplete; the new temple was no doubt about the same size as its predecessor and was probably built on the same foundation. The construction technique appears to have followed the method of the original, with layers of timber providing a framework for sections of masonry (v 4). Clearly, there was auxiliary accommodation, probably like the side rooms of Solomon’s temple (Ezr 8:29; Neh 12:44; 13:4-5). If Persian aid was forthcoming as promised (Ezr 6:8-12), the second temple was a more splendid, substantial structure than is generally supposed.<\/p>\n<h5>Later History<\/h5>\n<p>Several references in the Apocrypha, pseudepigrapha, rabbinic writings, and the historian Josephus help to illumine the history of the temple and give more detail on its structure and furnishings. Josephus, quoting from Hecateus of Abdera (fourth century <span>BC<\/span>), states that the temple was a large building in an enclosure about 500 feet by 150 feet (152.4 meters by 45.7 meters), surrounded by a stone wall, with an altar of unhewn stones the same size as Solomon’s bronze altar (cf. 2 Chr 4:1). Within the sanctuary was a golden altar of incense and a lampstand, the flame of which burned continually. Josephus also notes that Antiochus III (223–187 <span>BC<\/span>) financially supported the temple when the Seleucids displaced the Ptolemies as masters of Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p>Ben Sirach, early in the second century <span>BC<\/span>, commended Simon, the son of Onias the high priest, for his work in fortifying and repairing the temple area. First Maccabees provides valuable evidence of the fate of the temple during the oppression under Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175–164 <span>BC<\/span>). The books of the Maccabees recount the defilement of the altar of burnt offering (1 Macc 1:54) and the plundering of the golden lampstand, altar of incense, table of offering, veil, and other treasures (2 Macc 5:15-16; 6:2-4). When the temple was recaptured and restored, the victorious Maccabees replaced the items taken by the Seleucids, except for the altar of sacrifice, which was considered so polluted that it was dismantled and replaced by a new one constructed of unhewn stone (1 Macc 4:36-61; 2 Macc 10:1-9). Clearly the temple area was used as a fortress, both in opposition to the Seleucid garrison that was maintained in Jerusalem in the Maccabean period and in the conflicts of the later Hasmonean period. When Pompey captured Jerusalem about 63 <span>BC<\/span>, he entered the temple to assert his authority but took no plunder, thus showing respect for it.<\/p>\n<p>The history of Zerubbabel’s temple closed when Herod, having carefully preserved it from any major damage when he gained control of Jerusalem with Roman aid in 37 <span>BC<\/span>, began to dismantle it about 21 <span>BC<\/span> in preparation for the construction of his own grand temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HerodsTemple\">Herod’s Temple<\/p>\n<p>Apart from over 100 references in the NT, our main sources of information about Herod’s temple come from the Jewish historian Josephus and from the Middoth (a section of the Jewish rabbinic writings). There are considerable differences in detail between the two, which rules out any dogmatic interpretation in attempted reconstructions. Since Josephus was contemporary with the temple (he was born about <span>AD<\/span> 37 and died early in the second century), he is probably more reliable than the Middoth, which, dating from about <span>AD<\/span> 150, appears to exaggerate occasionally. Archaeological research has been helpful in determining the positions of the outer walls and gates.<\/p>\n<p>Herod’s motive in building his temple was political rather than religious. As an Idumean, he wished to placate his Jewish subjects by constructing a sanctuary as magnificent as Solomon’s. Possible fears that the site might be profaned, or that the existing temple might be demolished and never rebuilt, were allayed by the training of 1,000 priests as masons and the amassing of materials before the work commenced. Herod’s temple followed the tripartite plan of its predecessors, although its porch was much larger. It was built in the contemporary Greco-Roman architectural style and must therefore be regarded as distinct from Zerubbabel’s temple. Work began in 20 <span>BC<\/span>, and while the main sanctuary was quickly erected (it was in full operation within ten years), the total project was not completed until <span>AD<\/span> 64, only six years before it was destroyed by the Romans.<\/p>\n<p>Herod first prepared the site by clearing and leveling an area approximately 500 yards (457.2 meters) from north to south and about 325 yards (297.2 meters) from east to west. This involved cutting away sections of rock in some areas and building up with rubble in others. Considerable sections of the enclosing wall, constructed on stone blocks averaging about 15 feet (4.6 meters) long by 4 feet (1.2 meters) high, still survive. Some of the stones in the corners of the south wall weigh up to 70 tons (63.5 metric tons).<\/p>\n<p>The sanctuary itself seems to have been based on the same dimensions as Solomon’s temple. It was divided into the Holy Place, which was 60 feet (18.3 meters) long, 30 feet (9.1 meters) wide, and 60 feet high, and the Holy of Holies, which was 30 feet square. There was no furniture within the Holy of Holies, which was separated by a veil from the Holy Place. The Holy Place contained the seven-branch lampstand, the table for the bread of the Presence, and the incense altar. The main divergence from Solomon’s temple was the imposing porch, 150 feet (45.7 meters) in width and height. Outside was a doorway approximately 30 feet (9.1 meters) wide by 40 feet (12.2 meters) high, with an inner doorway about half that size leading into the sanctuary. By allowing empty rooms over the Holy of Holies and the Holy Place, there was a uniform roof height of 150 feet (45.7 meters). Golden spikes on the roof discouraged birds from alighting and defiling the structure. Like its predecessors, the temple was oriented toward the east and was surrounded on the other sides by three stories of rooms rising to a height of 60 feet (18.3 meters). The stone used was the local white stone, cut in huge blocks and highly polished.<\/p>\n<p>Access to the porch was by a flight of 12 steps from the Court of the Priests. Centrally placed before the porch and 33 feet (10.1 meters) away was the altar of sacrifice. Made of unhewn stone, it was a multilevel construction 15 feet (4.6 meters) high and about 48 feet (14.6 meters) square at its base. Male Israelites were allowed into this area once a year, during the Feast of the Tabernacles, to walk around the altar of sacrifice. Otherwise, they were restricted to the Court of Israel. To the east of the Court of Israel, and separated from it by a flight of 15 steps and by the ornate Great Gate, made of Corinthian bronze, was the Court of the Women. Here the offertory chests for temple expenses were located (Mk 12:41-44). The next court was the large, lower, outer Court of the Gentiles, which surrounded the inner courts and was separated from them by a balustrade and a series of warning notices. Two of these have been excavated, written in Latin and Greek and forbidding trespass by Gentiles into the inner areas, on pain of death. This outer court was widely used. Immediately inside its walls was a portico, supported by four rows of columns almost 40 feet (12.2 meters) high on the south side (the Royal Porch), and two rows on the other sides, the eastern portico known as “Solomon’s Porch” or “Solomon’s Colonnade.” Here is the area where the stalls of the money changers and merchants were set up, where the Sanhedrin met, and where Christ and the scribes taught and debated (Mk 11:27; Lk 2:46; 19:47; Jn 10:23). Here, too, the infant church met before it was rejected by a hostile Judaism (Acts 3:11; 5:12). Just to the northwest of the temple enclosure was the Fortress of Antonia, where the Roman governor resided while in Jerusalem, and where a Roman garrison was on hand to deal with disturbances (Acts 21:31-40). Overlooking the temple area, it was separated from it by a wide moat. The high priest’s vestments were stored in the fortress as a symbol of Roman authority. Access to the Court of the Gentiles was by four gates in the west wall; two in the south wall, where the ground fell away steeply into the valley, a site often identified as the pinnacle of the temple (Mt 4:5; Lk 4:9); and one gate in each of the east and north walls.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SignificanceoftheTempleintheOldTestament\">Significance of the Temple in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>The temple in Jerusalem functioned as the focal point of the tribal confederation. In spite of the attempt of Jeroboam I, the first king of the northern kingdom, to divert attention from Jerusalem by establishing shrines at Bethel and Dan (1 Kgs 12:26-30), Jerusalem never lost its preeminence. Naturally, both Hezekiah and Josiah sought to extend their reformation into the area of the northern tribes (2 Chr 30:1-12; 34:6-7), and Jerusalem was a pilgrimage center for those areas even after its destruction (Jer 41:5). The prophets foretold its destiny as the focal point of universal worship (Is 2:1-4).<\/p>\n<p>The temple was God’s dwelling place among his people. God’s presence, symbolized in the shekinah glory and the pillar of cloud, was associated with the tent of meeting (Ex 33:9-11), with the tabernacle (40:34-38), and finally with the temple (1 Kgs 8:10-11). The paradox is that while God is completely unrestricted, the temple was considered a place for God to live forever (vv 13, 27). God had chosen Zion, as he had chosen David (Pss 68:15-18; 76:2; 78:67-72), so the temple was regarded as God’s house (27:4; 42:4; 84:1-4).<\/p>\n<h5>Ezekiel’s Temple<\/h5>\n<p>Ezekiel’s detailed description of the ideal temple (Ez 40–48) was not used as the blueprint for Zerubbabel’s temple. In fact, since Ezekiel must have been familiar with Solomon’s temple before his deportation in 597 <span>BC<\/span>, his description is of greater help in determining uncertain details of the first temple. Ezekiel’s concern was to show the nature of pure worship, safeguarded from all contamination. This worship would allow the glory of God, which had departed from corrupted Solomon’s temple (9:3; 10:4, 18-19: 11:22-23), to return so that Jerusalem could again be named “the Lord is there” (43:1-5; 48:35). This thought, linked with Ezekiel’s vital concept of God’s Spirit indwelling his faithful worshipers (36:24-28), anticipated the NT teaching of the believers becoming God’s temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SignificanceoftheTempleintheNewTestament\">Significance of the Temple in the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>Christ and the Temple<\/h5>\n<p>Christ showed considerable respect for the temple. When he was 12 years old, he entered into the rabbinic discussions in its porticoes and described it as his Father’s house (Lk 2:41-50). To him “the house of God” was indwelt by God (Mt 12:4; 23:21). Although he twice cleansed it in righteous anger (Mt 21:12-13; Jn 2:13-16), he wept over the impending destruction of the city and temple (Lk 19:41-44). He often taught there, but he was “greater than the temple” (Mt 12:6). When his presentation to Jerusalem as the predicted Messiah was rejected, in spite of attendant miracles, he foretold its inevitable destruction (Mt 21:9-15; 24:1-2). For a brief period after Pentecost, the early church used the temple as its meeting place, until mounting opposition drove believers from Jerusalem (Acts 5:12, 21, 42; 8:1).<\/p>\n<h5>The Church as the Temple<\/h5>\n<p>The NT writers used two different Greek words to describe the temple: <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span> and <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hieron<\/span><em>.<\/em> <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Naos<\/span> refers to the actual sanctuary of the temple, the place of God’s dwelling. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Hieron<\/span> refers to the temple precincts as well as to the sanctuary. Generally speaking, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span> was used to designate the inner section of the temple known as the Holy Place and the Holy of Holies, whereas <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hieron<\/span> included the outer court and the temple proper.<\/p>\n<p>In Paul’s epistles the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span> appears six times (1 Cor 3:16-17; 6:19; 2 Cor 6:16; Eph 2:21; 2 Thes 2:4) and <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hieron<\/span> once (1 Cor 9:13). In these verses Paul maintains the distinction of definition noted above. When speaking of the actual physical temple, he used the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hieron<\/span> to indicate the place where the priests offered up animal sacrifices on the altar (1 Cor 9:13), which was situated in the outer court (see Ex 27–29, 40). And when Paul referred to the abominable act of the lawless one in usurping God’s place in the temple, he used the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span>—the word that designates the place of deity’s presence (2 Thes 2:4).<\/p>\n<p>In all the other Pauline passages, <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">naos<\/span> is used metaphorically—to depict a human habitation for the divine Spirit. In one instance the sanctuary image is used to describe the individual believer’s body (1 Cor 6:19); in every other instance the sanctuary depicts Christ’s body, the church (1 Cor 3:16-17; 2 Cor 6:16; Eph 2:21). Mistakenly, many readers think 1 Corinthians 3:16-17 speaks of the individual, but according to the Greek text, it is unquestionably clear that Paul was speaking about the collective church (specifically, the church in Corinth).<\/p>\n<p>When Paul told the church in Corinth that it was God’s sanctuary, they would have understood the image from their knowledge of pagan temples. But Paul probably had in mind the one temple in Jerusalem. The Gentiles had many gods with many temples in one city; the Jews had one God with only one temple in all of Israel. This helped to preserve unity among the Israelites. The Corinthians needed spiritual unity; they were fragmented due to their individual preferences (see 1 Cor 1:10-13).<\/p>\n<p>In Ephesians, Paul’s masterpiece on the church, he speaks of the local churches as living, organic entities that are all (compositely speaking) growing into a holy sanctuary in the Lord (Eph 2:21). Paul pictured each local church as providing God with a spiritual habitation in that locality (v 22) and as growing together with all the other churches into one holy, universal sanctuary for the Lord’s indwelling.<\/p>\n<h5>The Temple in John’s Revelation<\/h5>\n<p>In John’s revelation there is no material temple, even though he continues to use the imagery of Jerusalem and Mt Zion (Rv 3:12; 14:1; 21:2, 10, 22). Three interrelated ideas dominate. First is the concept of the church made up of martyrs, whose faithful members are God’s temple (3:12; 14:1). This temple grows gradually as the number of martyrs increases (6:11). Another aspect is the temple as the place of judgment (11:19; 14:15; 15:5–16:1). Finally, any temple in the new age is unnecessary, “for its temple is the Lord God Almighty and the Lamb” (21:22). The ultimate state will be God’s dwelling with his people—the eternal, spritual temple.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Altar; Ark of the Covenant; Bread of the Presence; David; Feasts and Festivals of Israel; First Jewish Revolt; Judaism; Mercy Seat; Offerings and Sacrifices; Priests and Levites; Sanctuary; Singers in the Temple; Solomon (Person).<\/p>","summary_ro":"TEMPLE Preview • Background • Solomon’s Temple • Zerubbabel’s Temple • Herod’s Temple • Significance of the Temple in the Old Testament • Significance of the Temple in the New Testament Background David’s capture of Jerusalem (2 Sm 5:6-9) and his designation of it as the nation’s capital is one of the great masterstrokes of history. Occupied by the Jebusites, it was a pocket of neutral territory between the northern and southern sections of David’s united kingdom and was politically acceptabl...","summary_en":"TEMPLE Preview • Background • Solomon’s Temple • Zerubbabel’s Temple • Herod’s Temple • Significance of the Temple in the Old Testament • Significance of the Temple in the New Testament Background David’s capture of Jerusalem (2 Sm 5:6-9) and his designation of it as the nation’s capital is one of the great masterstrokes of history. Occupied by the Jebusites, it was a pocket of neutral territory between the northern and southern sections of David’s united kingdom and was politically acceptabl...","source":"Articles\/T.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":37935,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Uzzah","title_en":"Uzzah","content_ro":"<h3>UZZAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Son of Abinadab who was killed while accompanying the cart that carried the ark of the covenant when it was returned from the Philistines (2 Sm 6:1-8; 1 Chr 13:7-11). He was struck dead by the Lord because he took hold of the ark while trying to steady it, thereby violating the instructions of Numbers 4:15. Uzzah’s brother, Ahio, was apparently leading the oxen while Uzzah walked alongside. As a result of the incident, David renamed the site Perez-uzzah (“the breaking forth against Uzzah”) and left the ark at the home of Obed-edom.<\/li>\n<li>2. Levite from the clan of Merari who is listed as the son of Shimei and the father of Shimea (1 Chr 6:29).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>UZZAH<\/h3>\n<li>1. Son of Abinadab who was killed while accompanying the cart that carried the ark of the covenant when it was returned from the Philistines (2 Sm 6:1-8; 1 Chr 13:7-11). He was struck dead by the Lord because he took hold of the ark while trying to steady it, thereby violating the instructions of Numbers 4:15. Uzzah’s brother, Ahio, was apparently leading the oxen while Uzzah walked alongside. As a result of the incident, David renamed the site Perez-uzzah (“the breaking forth against Uzzah”) and left the ark at the home of Obed-edom.<\/li>\n<li>2. Levite from the clan of Merari who is listed as the son of Shimei and the father of Shimea (1 Chr 6:29).<\/li>","summary_ro":"UZZAH 1. Son of Abinadab who was killed while accompanying the cart that carried the ark of the covenant when it was returned from the Philistines (2 Sm 6:1-8; 1 Chr 13:7-11). He was struck dead by the Lord because he took hold of the ark while trying to steady it, thereby violating the instructions of Numbers 4:15. Uzzah’s brother, Ahio, was apparently leading the oxen while Uzzah walked alongside. As a result of the incident, David renamed the site Perez-uzzah (“the breaking forth against U...","summary_en":"UZZAH 1. Son of Abinadab who was killed while accompanying the cart that carried the ark of the covenant when it was returned from the Philistines (2 Sm 6:1-8; 1 Chr 13:7-11). He was struck dead by the Lord because he took hold of the ark while trying to steady it, thereby violating the instructions of Numbers 4:15. Uzzah’s brother, Ahio, was apparently leading the oxen while Uzzah walked alongside. As a result of the incident, David renamed the site Perez-uzzah (“the breaking forth against U...","source":"Articles\/U.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":46565,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:1","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:1-23<\/strong> Except for the brief reference in 1 Sam 14:18 (see note), <em>the Ark<\/em> of the Covenant has not been mentioned since 1 Sam 7:1-2, when the Philistines returned the captured Ark to Beth-shemesh and then to Kiriath-jearim, where it was placed in Abinadab’s home. The Ark’s virtual absence during Saul’s forty-year reign highlights that Saul, in his spiritual insensitivity, did not seek the Lord (see 1 Chr 10:13-14; 13:3). David brought the Ark into Jerusalem, effectively acknowledging and enthroning (see 2 Sam 6:2) Yahweh as the true king over Israel in the new capital.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:1-23<\/strong> Except for the brief reference in 1 Sam 14:18 (see note), <em>the Ark<\/em> of the Covenant has not been mentioned since 1 Sam 7:1-2, when the Philistines returned the captured Ark to Beth-shemesh and then to Kiriath-jearim, where it was placed in Abinadab’s home. The Ark’s virtual absence during Saul’s forty-year reign highlights that Saul, in his spiritual insensitivity, did not seek the Lord (see 1 Chr 10:13-14; 13:3). David brought the Ark into Jerusalem, effectively acknowledging and enthroning (see 2 Sam 6:2) Yahweh as the true king over Israel in the new capital.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:1-23 Except for the brief reference in 1 Sam 14:18 (see note), the Ark of the Covenant has not been mentioned since 1 Sam 7:1-2, when the Philistines returned the captured Ark to Beth-shemesh and then to Kiriath-jearim, where it was placed in Abinadab’s home. The Ark’s virtual absence during Saul’s forty-year reign highlights that Saul, in his spiritual insensitivity, did not seek the Lord (see 1 Chr 10:13-14; 13:3). David brought the Ark into Jerusalem, effectively acknowledging and enthro...","summary_en":"6:1-23 Except for the brief reference in 1 Sam 14:18 (see note), the Ark of the Covenant has not been mentioned since 1 Sam 7:1-2, when the Philistines returned the captured Ark to Beth-shemesh and then to Kiriath-jearim, where it was placed in Abinadab’s home. The Ark’s virtual absence during Saul’s forty-year reign highlights that Saul, in his spiritual insensitivity, did not seek the Lord (see 1 Chr 10:13-14; 13:3). David brought the Ark into Jerusalem, effectively acknowledging and enthro...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":74191,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:1","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:1-23<\/strong> Except for the brief reference in 1 Sam 14:18 (see note), <em>the Ark<\/em> of the Covenant has not been mentioned since 1 Sam 7:1-2, when the Philistines returned the captured Ark to Beth-shemesh and then to Kiriath-jearim, where it was placed in Abinadab’s home. The Ark’s virtual absence during Saul’s forty-year reign highlights that Saul, in his spiritual insensitivity, did not seek the Lord (see 1 Chr 10:13-14; 13:3). David brought the Ark into Jerusalem, effectively acknowledging and enthroning (see 2 Sam 6:2) Yahweh as the true king over Israel in the new capital.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:1-23<\/strong> Except for the brief reference in 1 Sam 14:18 (see note), <em>the Ark<\/em> of the Covenant has not been mentioned since 1 Sam 7:1-2, when the Philistines returned the captured Ark to Beth-shemesh and then to Kiriath-jearim, where it was placed in Abinadab’s home. The Ark’s virtual absence during Saul’s forty-year reign highlights that Saul, in his spiritual insensitivity, did not seek the Lord (see 1 Chr 10:13-14; 13:3). David brought the Ark into Jerusalem, effectively acknowledging and enthroning (see 2 Sam 6:2) Yahweh as the true king over Israel in the new capital.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:1-23 Except for the brief reference in 1 Sam 14:18 (see note), the Ark of the Covenant has not been mentioned since 1 Sam 7:1-2, when the Philistines returned the captured Ark to Beth-shemesh and then to Kiriath-jearim, where it was placed in Abinadab’s home. The Ark’s virtual absence during Saul’s forty-year reign highlights that Saul, in his spiritual insensitivity, did not seek the Lord (see 1 Chr 10:13-14; 13:3). David brought the Ark into Jerusalem, effectively acknowledging and enthro...","summary_en":"6:1-23 Except for the brief reference in 1 Sam 14:18 (see note), the Ark of the Covenant has not been mentioned since 1 Sam 7:1-2, when the Philistines returned the captured Ark to Beth-shemesh and then to Kiriath-jearim, where it was placed in Abinadab’s home. The Ark’s virtual absence during Saul’s forty-year reign highlights that Saul, in his spiritual insensitivity, did not seek the Lord (see 1 Chr 10:13-14; 13:3). David brought the Ark into Jerusalem, effectively acknowledging and enthro...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101817,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:1","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:1-23<\/strong> Except for the brief reference in 1 Sam 14:18 (see note), <em>the Ark<\/em> of the Covenant has not been mentioned since 1 Sam 7:1-2, when the Philistines returned the captured Ark to Beth-shemesh and then to Kiriath-jearim, where it was placed in Abinadab’s home. The Ark’s virtual absence during Saul’s forty-year reign highlights that Saul, in his spiritual insensitivity, did not seek the Lord (see 1 Chr 10:13-14; 13:3). David brought the Ark into Jerusalem, effectively acknowledging and enthroning (see 2 Sam 6:2) Yahweh as the true king over Israel in the new capital.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:1-23<\/strong> Except for the brief reference in 1 Sam 14:18 (see note), <em>the Ark<\/em> of the Covenant has not been mentioned since 1 Sam 7:1-2, when the Philistines returned the captured Ark to Beth-shemesh and then to Kiriath-jearim, where it was placed in Abinadab’s home. The Ark’s virtual absence during Saul’s forty-year reign highlights that Saul, in his spiritual insensitivity, did not seek the Lord (see 1 Chr 10:13-14; 13:3). David brought the Ark into Jerusalem, effectively acknowledging and enthroning (see 2 Sam 6:2) Yahweh as the true king over Israel in the new capital.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:1-23 Except for the brief reference in 1 Sam 14:18 (see note), the Ark of the Covenant has not been mentioned since 1 Sam 7:1-2, when the Philistines returned the captured Ark to Beth-shemesh and then to Kiriath-jearim, where it was placed in Abinadab’s home. The Ark’s virtual absence during Saul’s forty-year reign highlights that Saul, in his spiritual insensitivity, did not seek the Lord (see 1 Chr 10:13-14; 13:3). David brought the Ark into Jerusalem, effectively acknowledging and enthro...","summary_en":"6:1-23 Except for the brief reference in 1 Sam 14:18 (see note), the Ark of the Covenant has not been mentioned since 1 Sam 7:1-2, when the Philistines returned the captured Ark to Beth-shemesh and then to Kiriath-jearim, where it was placed in Abinadab’s home. The Ark’s virtual absence during Saul’s forty-year reign highlights that Saul, in his spiritual insensitivity, did not seek the Lord (see 1 Chr 10:13-14; 13:3). David brought the Ark into Jerusalem, effectively acknowledging and enthro...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":129443,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:1","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:1","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:1-23<\/strong> Except for the brief reference in 1 Sam 14:18 (see note), <em>the Ark<\/em> of the Covenant has not been mentioned since 1 Sam 7:1-2, when the Philistines returned the captured Ark to Beth-shemesh and then to Kiriath-jearim, where it was placed in Abinadab’s home. The Ark’s virtual absence during Saul’s forty-year reign highlights that Saul, in his spiritual insensitivity, did not seek the Lord (see 1 Chr 10:13-14; 13:3). David brought the Ark into Jerusalem, effectively acknowledging and enthroning (see 2 Sam 6:2) Yahweh as the true king over Israel in the new capital.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:1-23<\/strong> Except for the brief reference in 1 Sam 14:18 (see note), <em>the Ark<\/em> of the Covenant has not been mentioned since 1 Sam 7:1-2, when the Philistines returned the captured Ark to Beth-shemesh and then to Kiriath-jearim, where it was placed in Abinadab’s home. The Ark’s virtual absence during Saul’s forty-year reign highlights that Saul, in his spiritual insensitivity, did not seek the Lord (see 1 Chr 10:13-14; 13:3). David brought the Ark into Jerusalem, effectively acknowledging and enthroning (see 2 Sam 6:2) Yahweh as the true king over Israel in the new capital.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:1-23 Except for the brief reference in 1 Sam 14:18 (see note), the Ark of the Covenant has not been mentioned since 1 Sam 7:1-2, when the Philistines returned the captured Ark to Beth-shemesh and then to Kiriath-jearim, where it was placed in Abinadab’s home. The Ark’s virtual absence during Saul’s forty-year reign highlights that Saul, in his spiritual insensitivity, did not seek the Lord (see 1 Chr 10:13-14; 13:3). David brought the Ark into Jerusalem, effectively acknowledging and enthro...","summary_en":"6:1-23 Except for the brief reference in 1 Sam 14:18 (see note), the Ark of the Covenant has not been mentioned since 1 Sam 7:1-2, when the Philistines returned the captured Ark to Beth-shemesh and then to Kiriath-jearim, where it was placed in Abinadab’s home. The Ark’s virtual absence during Saul’s forty-year reign highlights that Saul, in his spiritual insensitivity, did not seek the Lord (see 1 Chr 10:13-14; 13:3). David brought the Ark into Jerusalem, effectively acknowledging and enthro...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":61134,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Ark of the Covenant","title_en":"The Ark of the Covenant","content_ro":"<h3>The Ark of the Covenant<\/h3>\n<p>The Ark of the Covenant was a wooden chest overlaid with gold, and it was placed within the Most Holy Place in the sanctuary. The Ark reminded Israel of God’s covenant with them; its contents included the tablets of the covenant (the Ten Commandments). On the Day of Atonement, the high priest would sprinkle blood on the Ark’s cover in order to purify the people (Lev 16:2-17).<\/p>\n<p>During Israel’s wilderness wanderings, the glory of God would appear over the Ark, and God would meet with his people there (see Exod 25:22). Throughout Israel’s history, the Ark served as a sign of God’s presence. It was carried before the people as they traveled (Num 10:33-36), and when it was brought to the Jordan River, the water stopped up so the Israelites could pass through on dry ground (Josh 3:4-6). The Ark was carried around Jericho before that city was invaded and was present during the siege of the Ammonite city of Rabbah during David’s time (2 Sam 11:1-11).<\/p>\n<p>The Philistines equated the Ark with Israel’s God (1 Sam 4:6-8). This is understandable because the Philistines brought images of their own gods into battle (2 Sam 5:21). The Israelites were not to use images of the divine, so they viewed the Ark as the Lord’s footstool and temporary residence rather than his image (see 1 Chr 28:2). However, the Israelites developed an idolatrous, pagan point of view. They treated the sacred symbol as a fetish and tried to manipulate God’s presence for their own benefit. They reasoned, “If the Ark is with us, then God’s presence and favor in battle will also be with us” (see 1 Sam 4:3). As their defeat that day showed (4:1-11), God cannot be manipulated—he is the ruler of his people, and he must be obeyed and trusted (cp. Josh 5:13-15).<\/p>\n<p>Eventually, King David moved the Ark to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-17). When Solomon built the Temple, the Ark was placed in the Most Holy Place, and it continued to play a central role in Israelite worship (1 Kgs 8:1-11). After the early monarchical period, the Ark is not mentioned again. Presumably, it was destroyed by the Babylonians along with the Temple in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, though an apocryphal tradition claimed that the prophet Jeremiah had hidden the Ark at the time of the Exile (2 Macc 2:4-8). Regardless, the arrival of God’s presence through Jesus Christ and the all-sufficient nature of his sacrifice rendered the Ark unnecessary (see Heb 9:1–10:18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 25:10-22; 40:20-21; Lev 16:2; Num 10:33-36; Deut 31:25-26; Josh 3:4-6; 6:6-13; Judg 20:26-28; 1 Sam 4:3-11; 5:1–7:2; 2 Sam 6:1-17; Jer 3:16-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Ark of the Covenant<\/h3>\n<p>The Ark of the Covenant was a wooden chest overlaid with gold, and it was placed within the Most Holy Place in the sanctuary. The Ark reminded Israel of God’s covenant with them; its contents included the tablets of the covenant (the Ten Commandments). On the Day of Atonement, the high priest would sprinkle blood on the Ark’s cover in order to purify the people (Lev 16:2-17).<\/p>\n<p>During Israel’s wilderness wanderings, the glory of God would appear over the Ark, and God would meet with his people there (see Exod 25:22). Throughout Israel’s history, the Ark served as a sign of God’s presence. It was carried before the people as they traveled (Num 10:33-36), and when it was brought to the Jordan River, the water stopped up so the Israelites could pass through on dry ground (Josh 3:4-6). The Ark was carried around Jericho before that city was invaded and was present during the siege of the Ammonite city of Rabbah during David’s time (2 Sam 11:1-11).<\/p>\n<p>The Philistines equated the Ark with Israel’s God (1 Sam 4:6-8). This is understandable because the Philistines brought images of their own gods into battle (2 Sam 5:21). The Israelites were not to use images of the divine, so they viewed the Ark as the Lord’s footstool and temporary residence rather than his image (see 1 Chr 28:2). However, the Israelites developed an idolatrous, pagan point of view. They treated the sacred symbol as a fetish and tried to manipulate God’s presence for their own benefit. They reasoned, “If the Ark is with us, then God’s presence and favor in battle will also be with us” (see 1 Sam 4:3). As their defeat that day showed (4:1-11), God cannot be manipulated—he is the ruler of his people, and he must be obeyed and trusted (cp. Josh 5:13-15).<\/p>\n<p>Eventually, King David moved the Ark to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-17). When Solomon built the Temple, the Ark was placed in the Most Holy Place, and it continued to play a central role in Israelite worship (1 Kgs 8:1-11). After the early monarchical period, the Ark is not mentioned again. Presumably, it was destroyed by the Babylonians along with the Temple in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, though an apocryphal tradition claimed that the prophet Jeremiah had hidden the Ark at the time of the Exile (2 Macc 2:4-8). Regardless, the arrival of God’s presence through Jesus Christ and the all-sufficient nature of his sacrifice rendered the Ark unnecessary (see Heb 9:1–10:18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 25:10-22; 40:20-21; Lev 16:2; Num 10:33-36; Deut 31:25-26; Josh 3:4-6; 6:6-13; Judg 20:26-28; 1 Sam 4:3-11; 5:1–7:2; 2 Sam 6:1-17; Jer 3:16-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Ark of the Covenant The Ark of the Covenant was a wooden chest overlaid with gold, and it was placed within the Most Holy Place in the sanctuary. The Ark reminded Israel of God’s covenant with them; its contents included the tablets of the covenant (the Ten Commandments). On the Day of Atonement, the high priest would sprinkle blood on the Ark’s cover in order to purify the people (Lev 16:2-17). During Israel’s wilderness wanderings, the glory of God would appear over the Ark, and God wou...","summary_en":"The Ark of the Covenant The Ark of the Covenant was a wooden chest overlaid with gold, and it was placed within the Most Holy Place in the sanctuary. The Ark reminded Israel of God’s covenant with them; its contents included the tablets of the covenant (the Ten Commandments). On the Day of Atonement, the high priest would sprinkle blood on the Ark’s cover in order to purify the people (Lev 16:2-17). During Israel’s wilderness wanderings, the glory of God would appear over the Ark, and God wou...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":61297,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Celebration","title_en":"Celebration","content_ro":"<h3>Celebration<\/h3>\n<p>God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">karar<\/span> (2 Sam 6:14, 16), <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pazaz<\/span> (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">raqad<\/span> (1 Chr 15:29, “skipping about”). All three words refer to vigorous physical expression beyond the meaning of the Hebrew term for “celebrate” used in David’s first attempt (2 Sam 6:5). Thus, in the first procession, David celebrated; in the second procession he engaged in exultant dancing and extravagant merrymaking with intensified musical expression through the addition of shouting and trumpets.<\/p>\n<p>Musical instruments played a significant role in Temple worship. In 1 Chronicles 25:1-31, David assigned various groups to the ministry of music. Many psalms refer to playing musical instruments in praise and worship of God (see Pss 33:2-3; 57:8; 81:2; 92:1-3; 98:4-6). In Pss 149 and 150, dance and music are combined as a praise offering. Similarly, music and dancing were heard in the father’s house in the parable of the lost son (Luke 15:25), as the son’s return was truly a joyful occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation gives a picture of the eternal celebration that awaits the faithful—a celebration characterized by worship in the presence of God (Rev 4:1-11; 5:8-14; 15:1-4). This celebration is described as a wedding feast, in which the bridegroom (Christ) and the bride (his church) are joined together forever (Rev 19:9; see also Matt 22:1-14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 5:1; 12:17; 15:20-21; 1 Sam 18:6; 2 Sam 6:1-15; 2 Chr 7:6-10; Ezra 3:10-11; Pss 30:11; 69:30; 98:4-6; 107:32; 149:1-9; 150:1-6; Isa 30:29; 54:1; Jer 30:18-19; 31:4, 13; Lam 5:14-15; Zeph 3:17; Luke 15:22-25; 1 Cor 5:8; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Rev 18:20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Celebration<\/h3>\n<p>God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">karar<\/span> (2 Sam 6:14, 16), <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pazaz<\/span> (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">raqad<\/span> (1 Chr 15:29, “skipping about”). All three words refer to vigorous physical expression beyond the meaning of the Hebrew term for “celebrate” used in David’s first attempt (2 Sam 6:5). Thus, in the first procession, David celebrated; in the second procession he engaged in exultant dancing and extravagant merrymaking with intensified musical expression through the addition of shouting and trumpets.<\/p>\n<p>Musical instruments played a significant role in Temple worship. In 1 Chronicles 25:1-31, David assigned various groups to the ministry of music. Many psalms refer to playing musical instruments in praise and worship of God (see Pss 33:2-3; 57:8; 81:2; 92:1-3; 98:4-6). In Pss 149 and 150, dance and music are combined as a praise offering. Similarly, music and dancing were heard in the father’s house in the parable of the lost son (Luke 15:25), as the son’s return was truly a joyful occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation gives a picture of the eternal celebration that awaits the faithful—a celebration characterized by worship in the presence of God (Rev 4:1-11; 5:8-14; 15:1-4). This celebration is described as a wedding feast, in which the bridegroom (Christ) and the bride (his church) are joined together forever (Rev 19:9; see also Matt 22:1-14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 5:1; 12:17; 15:20-21; 1 Sam 18:6; 2 Sam 6:1-15; 2 Chr 7:6-10; Ezra 3:10-11; Pss 30:11; 69:30; 98:4-6; 107:32; 149:1-9; 150:1-6; Isa 30:29; 54:1; Jer 30:18-19; 31:4, 13; Lam 5:14-15; Zeph 3:17; Luke 15:22-25; 1 Cor 5:8; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Rev 18:20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Celebration God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): karar (2 Sam 6:14, 16), pazaz (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and raqad (1 Chr 15:29, “skippin...","summary_en":"Celebration God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): karar (2 Sam 6:14, 16), pazaz (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and raqad (1 Chr 15:29, “skippin...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":88760,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Ark of the Covenant","title_en":"The Ark of the Covenant","content_ro":"<h3>The Ark of the Covenant<\/h3>\n<p>The Ark of the Covenant was a wooden chest overlaid with gold, and it was placed within the Most Holy Place in the sanctuary. The Ark reminded Israel of God’s covenant with them; its contents included the tablets of the covenant (the Ten Commandments). On the Day of Atonement, the high priest would sprinkle blood on the Ark’s cover in order to purify the people (Lev 16:2-17).<\/p>\n<p>During Israel’s wilderness wanderings, the glory of God would appear over the Ark, and God would meet with his people there (see Exod 25:22). Throughout Israel’s history, the Ark served as a sign of God’s presence. It was carried before the people as they traveled (Num 10:33-36), and when it was brought to the Jordan River, the water stopped up so the Israelites could pass through on dry ground (Josh 3:4-6). The Ark was carried around Jericho before that city was invaded and was present during the siege of the Ammonite city of Rabbah during David’s time (2 Sam 11:1-11).<\/p>\n<p>The Philistines equated the Ark with Israel’s God (1 Sam 4:6-8). This is understandable because the Philistines brought images of their own gods into battle (2 Sam 5:21). The Israelites were not to use images of the divine, so they viewed the Ark as the Lord’s footstool and temporary residence rather than his image (see 1 Chr 28:2). However, the Israelites developed an idolatrous, pagan point of view. They treated the sacred symbol as a fetish and tried to manipulate God’s presence for their own benefit. They reasoned, “If the Ark is with us, then God’s presence and favor in battle will also be with us” (see 1 Sam 4:3). As their defeat that day showed (4:1-11), God cannot be manipulated—he is the ruler of his people, and he must be obeyed and trusted (cp. Josh 5:13-15).<\/p>\n<p>Eventually, King David moved the Ark to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-17). When Solomon built the Temple, the Ark was placed in the Most Holy Place, and it continued to play a central role in Israelite worship (1 Kgs 8:1-11). After the early monarchical period, the Ark is not mentioned again. Presumably, it was destroyed by the Babylonians along with the Temple in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, though an apocryphal tradition claimed that the prophet Jeremiah had hidden the Ark at the time of the Exile (2 Macc 2:4-8). Regardless, the arrival of God’s presence through Jesus Christ and the all-sufficient nature of his sacrifice rendered the Ark unnecessary (see Heb 9:1–10:18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 25:10-22; 40:20-21; Lev 16:2; Num 10:33-36; Deut 31:25-26; Josh 3:4-6; 6:6-13; Judg 20:26-28; 1 Sam 4:3-11; 5:1–7:2; 2 Sam 6:1-17; Jer 3:16-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Ark of the Covenant<\/h3>\n<p>The Ark of the Covenant was a wooden chest overlaid with gold, and it was placed within the Most Holy Place in the sanctuary. The Ark reminded Israel of God’s covenant with them; its contents included the tablets of the covenant (the Ten Commandments). On the Day of Atonement, the high priest would sprinkle blood on the Ark’s cover in order to purify the people (Lev 16:2-17).<\/p>\n<p>During Israel’s wilderness wanderings, the glory of God would appear over the Ark, and God would meet with his people there (see Exod 25:22). Throughout Israel’s history, the Ark served as a sign of God’s presence. It was carried before the people as they traveled (Num 10:33-36), and when it was brought to the Jordan River, the water stopped up so the Israelites could pass through on dry ground (Josh 3:4-6). The Ark was carried around Jericho before that city was invaded and was present during the siege of the Ammonite city of Rabbah during David’s time (2 Sam 11:1-11).<\/p>\n<p>The Philistines equated the Ark with Israel’s God (1 Sam 4:6-8). This is understandable because the Philistines brought images of their own gods into battle (2 Sam 5:21). The Israelites were not to use images of the divine, so they viewed the Ark as the Lord’s footstool and temporary residence rather than his image (see 1 Chr 28:2). However, the Israelites developed an idolatrous, pagan point of view. They treated the sacred symbol as a fetish and tried to manipulate God’s presence for their own benefit. They reasoned, “If the Ark is with us, then God’s presence and favor in battle will also be with us” (see 1 Sam 4:3). As their defeat that day showed (4:1-11), God cannot be manipulated—he is the ruler of his people, and he must be obeyed and trusted (cp. Josh 5:13-15).<\/p>\n<p>Eventually, King David moved the Ark to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-17). When Solomon built the Temple, the Ark was placed in the Most Holy Place, and it continued to play a central role in Israelite worship (1 Kgs 8:1-11). After the early monarchical period, the Ark is not mentioned again. Presumably, it was destroyed by the Babylonians along with the Temple in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, though an apocryphal tradition claimed that the prophet Jeremiah had hidden the Ark at the time of the Exile (2 Macc 2:4-8). Regardless, the arrival of God’s presence through Jesus Christ and the all-sufficient nature of his sacrifice rendered the Ark unnecessary (see Heb 9:1–10:18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 25:10-22; 40:20-21; Lev 16:2; Num 10:33-36; Deut 31:25-26; Josh 3:4-6; 6:6-13; Judg 20:26-28; 1 Sam 4:3-11; 5:1–7:2; 2 Sam 6:1-17; Jer 3:16-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Ark of the Covenant The Ark of the Covenant was a wooden chest overlaid with gold, and it was placed within the Most Holy Place in the sanctuary. The Ark reminded Israel of God’s covenant with them; its contents included the tablets of the covenant (the Ten Commandments). On the Day of Atonement, the high priest would sprinkle blood on the Ark’s cover in order to purify the people (Lev 16:2-17). During Israel’s wilderness wanderings, the glory of God would appear over the Ark, and God wou...","summary_en":"The Ark of the Covenant The Ark of the Covenant was a wooden chest overlaid with gold, and it was placed within the Most Holy Place in the sanctuary. The Ark reminded Israel of God’s covenant with them; its contents included the tablets of the covenant (the Ten Commandments). On the Day of Atonement, the high priest would sprinkle blood on the Ark’s cover in order to purify the people (Lev 16:2-17). During Israel’s wilderness wanderings, the glory of God would appear over the Ark, and God wou...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":88923,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Celebration","title_en":"Celebration","content_ro":"<h3>Celebration<\/h3>\n<p>God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">karar<\/span> (2 Sam 6:14, 16), <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pazaz<\/span> (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">raqad<\/span> (1 Chr 15:29, “skipping about”). All three words refer to vigorous physical expression beyond the meaning of the Hebrew term for “celebrate” used in David’s first attempt (2 Sam 6:5). Thus, in the first procession, David celebrated; in the second procession he engaged in exultant dancing and extravagant merrymaking with intensified musical expression through the addition of shouting and trumpets.<\/p>\n<p>Musical instruments played a significant role in Temple worship. In 1 Chronicles 25:1-31, David assigned various groups to the ministry of music. Many psalms refer to playing musical instruments in praise and worship of God (see Pss 33:2-3; 57:8; 81:2; 92:1-3; 98:4-6). In Pss 149 and 150, dance and music are combined as a praise offering. Similarly, music and dancing were heard in the father’s house in the parable of the lost son (Luke 15:25), as the son’s return was truly a joyful occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation gives a picture of the eternal celebration that awaits the faithful—a celebration characterized by worship in the presence of God (Rev 4:1-11; 5:8-14; 15:1-4). This celebration is described as a wedding feast, in which the bridegroom (Christ) and the bride (his church) are joined together forever (Rev 19:9; see also Matt 22:1-14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 5:1; 12:17; 15:20-21; 1 Sam 18:6; 2 Sam 6:1-15; 2 Chr 7:6-10; Ezra 3:10-11; Pss 30:11; 69:30; 98:4-6; 107:32; 149:1-9; 150:1-6; Isa 30:29; 54:1; Jer 30:18-19; 31:4, 13; Lam 5:14-15; Zeph 3:17; Luke 15:22-25; 1 Cor 5:8; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Rev 18:20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Celebration<\/h3>\n<p>God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">karar<\/span> (2 Sam 6:14, 16), <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pazaz<\/span> (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">raqad<\/span> (1 Chr 15:29, “skipping about”). All three words refer to vigorous physical expression beyond the meaning of the Hebrew term for “celebrate” used in David’s first attempt (2 Sam 6:5). Thus, in the first procession, David celebrated; in the second procession he engaged in exultant dancing and extravagant merrymaking with intensified musical expression through the addition of shouting and trumpets.<\/p>\n<p>Musical instruments played a significant role in Temple worship. In 1 Chronicles 25:1-31, David assigned various groups to the ministry of music. Many psalms refer to playing musical instruments in praise and worship of God (see Pss 33:2-3; 57:8; 81:2; 92:1-3; 98:4-6). In Pss 149 and 150, dance and music are combined as a praise offering. Similarly, music and dancing were heard in the father’s house in the parable of the lost son (Luke 15:25), as the son’s return was truly a joyful occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation gives a picture of the eternal celebration that awaits the faithful—a celebration characterized by worship in the presence of God (Rev 4:1-11; 5:8-14; 15:1-4). This celebration is described as a wedding feast, in which the bridegroom (Christ) and the bride (his church) are joined together forever (Rev 19:9; see also Matt 22:1-14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 5:1; 12:17; 15:20-21; 1 Sam 18:6; 2 Sam 6:1-15; 2 Chr 7:6-10; Ezra 3:10-11; Pss 30:11; 69:30; 98:4-6; 107:32; 149:1-9; 150:1-6; Isa 30:29; 54:1; Jer 30:18-19; 31:4, 13; Lam 5:14-15; Zeph 3:17; Luke 15:22-25; 1 Cor 5:8; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Rev 18:20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Celebration God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): karar (2 Sam 6:14, 16), pazaz (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and raqad (1 Chr 15:29, “skippin...","summary_en":"Celebration God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): karar (2 Sam 6:14, 16), pazaz (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and raqad (1 Chr 15:29, “skippin...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":116386,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Ark of the Covenant","title_en":"The Ark of the Covenant","content_ro":"<h3>The Ark of the Covenant<\/h3>\n<p>The Ark of the Covenant was a wooden chest overlaid with gold, and it was placed within the Most Holy Place in the sanctuary. The Ark reminded Israel of God’s covenant with them; its contents included the tablets of the covenant (the Ten Commandments). On the Day of Atonement, the high priest would sprinkle blood on the Ark’s cover in order to purify the people (Lev 16:2-17).<\/p>\n<p>During Israel’s wilderness wanderings, the glory of God would appear over the Ark, and God would meet with his people there (see Exod 25:22). Throughout Israel’s history, the Ark served as a sign of God’s presence. It was carried before the people as they traveled (Num 10:33-36), and when it was brought to the Jordan River, the water stopped up so the Israelites could pass through on dry ground (Josh 3:4-6). The Ark was carried around Jericho before that city was invaded and was present during the siege of the Ammonite city of Rabbah during David’s time (2 Sam 11:1-11).<\/p>\n<p>The Philistines equated the Ark with Israel’s God (1 Sam 4:6-8). This is understandable because the Philistines brought images of their own gods into battle (2 Sam 5:21). The Israelites were not to use images of the divine, so they viewed the Ark as the Lord’s footstool and temporary residence rather than his image (see 1 Chr 28:2). However, the Israelites developed an idolatrous, pagan point of view. They treated the sacred symbol as a fetish and tried to manipulate God’s presence for their own benefit. They reasoned, “If the Ark is with us, then God’s presence and favor in battle will also be with us” (see 1 Sam 4:3). As their defeat that day showed (4:1-11), God cannot be manipulated—he is the ruler of his people, and he must be obeyed and trusted (cp. Josh 5:13-15).<\/p>\n<p>Eventually, King David moved the Ark to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-17). When Solomon built the Temple, the Ark was placed in the Most Holy Place, and it continued to play a central role in Israelite worship (1 Kgs 8:1-11). After the early monarchical period, the Ark is not mentioned again. Presumably, it was destroyed by the Babylonians along with the Temple in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, though an apocryphal tradition claimed that the prophet Jeremiah had hidden the Ark at the time of the Exile (2 Macc 2:4-8). Regardless, the arrival of God’s presence through Jesus Christ and the all-sufficient nature of his sacrifice rendered the Ark unnecessary (see Heb 9:1–10:18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 25:10-22; 40:20-21; Lev 16:2; Num 10:33-36; Deut 31:25-26; Josh 3:4-6; 6:6-13; Judg 20:26-28; 1 Sam 4:3-11; 5:1–7:2; 2 Sam 6:1-17; Jer 3:16-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Ark of the Covenant<\/h3>\n<p>The Ark of the Covenant was a wooden chest overlaid with gold, and it was placed within the Most Holy Place in the sanctuary. The Ark reminded Israel of God’s covenant with them; its contents included the tablets of the covenant (the Ten Commandments). On the Day of Atonement, the high priest would sprinkle blood on the Ark’s cover in order to purify the people (Lev 16:2-17).<\/p>\n<p>During Israel’s wilderness wanderings, the glory of God would appear over the Ark, and God would meet with his people there (see Exod 25:22). Throughout Israel’s history, the Ark served as a sign of God’s presence. It was carried before the people as they traveled (Num 10:33-36), and when it was brought to the Jordan River, the water stopped up so the Israelites could pass through on dry ground (Josh 3:4-6). The Ark was carried around Jericho before that city was invaded and was present during the siege of the Ammonite city of Rabbah during David’s time (2 Sam 11:1-11).<\/p>\n<p>The Philistines equated the Ark with Israel’s God (1 Sam 4:6-8). This is understandable because the Philistines brought images of their own gods into battle (2 Sam 5:21). The Israelites were not to use images of the divine, so they viewed the Ark as the Lord’s footstool and temporary residence rather than his image (see 1 Chr 28:2). However, the Israelites developed an idolatrous, pagan point of view. They treated the sacred symbol as a fetish and tried to manipulate God’s presence for their own benefit. They reasoned, “If the Ark is with us, then God’s presence and favor in battle will also be with us” (see 1 Sam 4:3). As their defeat that day showed (4:1-11), God cannot be manipulated—he is the ruler of his people, and he must be obeyed and trusted (cp. Josh 5:13-15).<\/p>\n<p>Eventually, King David moved the Ark to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-17). When Solomon built the Temple, the Ark was placed in the Most Holy Place, and it continued to play a central role in Israelite worship (1 Kgs 8:1-11). After the early monarchical period, the Ark is not mentioned again. Presumably, it was destroyed by the Babylonians along with the Temple in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, though an apocryphal tradition claimed that the prophet Jeremiah had hidden the Ark at the time of the Exile (2 Macc 2:4-8). Regardless, the arrival of God’s presence through Jesus Christ and the all-sufficient nature of his sacrifice rendered the Ark unnecessary (see Heb 9:1–10:18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 25:10-22; 40:20-21; Lev 16:2; Num 10:33-36; Deut 31:25-26; Josh 3:4-6; 6:6-13; Judg 20:26-28; 1 Sam 4:3-11; 5:1–7:2; 2 Sam 6:1-17; Jer 3:16-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Ark of the Covenant The Ark of the Covenant was a wooden chest overlaid with gold, and it was placed within the Most Holy Place in the sanctuary. The Ark reminded Israel of God’s covenant with them; its contents included the tablets of the covenant (the Ten Commandments). On the Day of Atonement, the high priest would sprinkle blood on the Ark’s cover in order to purify the people (Lev 16:2-17). During Israel’s wilderness wanderings, the glory of God would appear over the Ark, and God wou...","summary_en":"The Ark of the Covenant The Ark of the Covenant was a wooden chest overlaid with gold, and it was placed within the Most Holy Place in the sanctuary. The Ark reminded Israel of God’s covenant with them; its contents included the tablets of the covenant (the Ten Commandments). On the Day of Atonement, the high priest would sprinkle blood on the Ark’s cover in order to purify the people (Lev 16:2-17). During Israel’s wilderness wanderings, the glory of God would appear over the Ark, and God wou...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":116549,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Celebration","title_en":"Celebration","content_ro":"<h3>Celebration<\/h3>\n<p>God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">karar<\/span> (2 Sam 6:14, 16), <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pazaz<\/span> (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">raqad<\/span> (1 Chr 15:29, “skipping about”). All three words refer to vigorous physical expression beyond the meaning of the Hebrew term for “celebrate” used in David’s first attempt (2 Sam 6:5). Thus, in the first procession, David celebrated; in the second procession he engaged in exultant dancing and extravagant merrymaking with intensified musical expression through the addition of shouting and trumpets.<\/p>\n<p>Musical instruments played a significant role in Temple worship. In 1 Chronicles 25:1-31, David assigned various groups to the ministry of music. Many psalms refer to playing musical instruments in praise and worship of God (see Pss 33:2-3; 57:8; 81:2; 92:1-3; 98:4-6). In Pss 149 and 150, dance and music are combined as a praise offering. Similarly, music and dancing were heard in the father’s house in the parable of the lost son (Luke 15:25), as the son’s return was truly a joyful occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation gives a picture of the eternal celebration that awaits the faithful—a celebration characterized by worship in the presence of God (Rev 4:1-11; 5:8-14; 15:1-4). This celebration is described as a wedding feast, in which the bridegroom (Christ) and the bride (his church) are joined together forever (Rev 19:9; see also Matt 22:1-14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 5:1; 12:17; 15:20-21; 1 Sam 18:6; 2 Sam 6:1-15; 2 Chr 7:6-10; Ezra 3:10-11; Pss 30:11; 69:30; 98:4-6; 107:32; 149:1-9; 150:1-6; Isa 30:29; 54:1; Jer 30:18-19; 31:4, 13; Lam 5:14-15; Zeph 3:17; Luke 15:22-25; 1 Cor 5:8; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Rev 18:20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Celebration<\/h3>\n<p>God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">karar<\/span> (2 Sam 6:14, 16), <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pazaz<\/span> (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">raqad<\/span> (1 Chr 15:29, “skipping about”). All three words refer to vigorous physical expression beyond the meaning of the Hebrew term for “celebrate” used in David’s first attempt (2 Sam 6:5). Thus, in the first procession, David celebrated; in the second procession he engaged in exultant dancing and extravagant merrymaking with intensified musical expression through the addition of shouting and trumpets.<\/p>\n<p>Musical instruments played a significant role in Temple worship. In 1 Chronicles 25:1-31, David assigned various groups to the ministry of music. Many psalms refer to playing musical instruments in praise and worship of God (see Pss 33:2-3; 57:8; 81:2; 92:1-3; 98:4-6). In Pss 149 and 150, dance and music are combined as a praise offering. Similarly, music and dancing were heard in the father’s house in the parable of the lost son (Luke 15:25), as the son’s return was truly a joyful occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation gives a picture of the eternal celebration that awaits the faithful—a celebration characterized by worship in the presence of God (Rev 4:1-11; 5:8-14; 15:1-4). This celebration is described as a wedding feast, in which the bridegroom (Christ) and the bride (his church) are joined together forever (Rev 19:9; see also Matt 22:1-14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 5:1; 12:17; 15:20-21; 1 Sam 18:6; 2 Sam 6:1-15; 2 Chr 7:6-10; Ezra 3:10-11; Pss 30:11; 69:30; 98:4-6; 107:32; 149:1-9; 150:1-6; Isa 30:29; 54:1; Jer 30:18-19; 31:4, 13; Lam 5:14-15; Zeph 3:17; Luke 15:22-25; 1 Cor 5:8; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Rev 18:20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Celebration God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): karar (2 Sam 6:14, 16), pazaz (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and raqad (1 Chr 15:29, “skippin...","summary_en":"Celebration God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): karar (2 Sam 6:14, 16), pazaz (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and raqad (1 Chr 15:29, “skippin...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":144012,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"The Ark of the Covenant","title_en":"The Ark of the Covenant","content_ro":"<h3>The Ark of the Covenant<\/h3>\n<p>The Ark of the Covenant was a wooden chest overlaid with gold, and it was placed within the Most Holy Place in the sanctuary. The Ark reminded Israel of God’s covenant with them; its contents included the tablets of the covenant (the Ten Commandments). On the Day of Atonement, the high priest would sprinkle blood on the Ark’s cover in order to purify the people (Lev 16:2-17).<\/p>\n<p>During Israel’s wilderness wanderings, the glory of God would appear over the Ark, and God would meet with his people there (see Exod 25:22). Throughout Israel’s history, the Ark served as a sign of God’s presence. It was carried before the people as they traveled (Num 10:33-36), and when it was brought to the Jordan River, the water stopped up so the Israelites could pass through on dry ground (Josh 3:4-6). The Ark was carried around Jericho before that city was invaded and was present during the siege of the Ammonite city of Rabbah during David’s time (2 Sam 11:1-11).<\/p>\n<p>The Philistines equated the Ark with Israel’s God (1 Sam 4:6-8). This is understandable because the Philistines brought images of their own gods into battle (2 Sam 5:21). The Israelites were not to use images of the divine, so they viewed the Ark as the Lord’s footstool and temporary residence rather than his image (see 1 Chr 28:2). However, the Israelites developed an idolatrous, pagan point of view. They treated the sacred symbol as a fetish and tried to manipulate God’s presence for their own benefit. They reasoned, “If the Ark is with us, then God’s presence and favor in battle will also be with us” (see 1 Sam 4:3). As their defeat that day showed (4:1-11), God cannot be manipulated—he is the ruler of his people, and he must be obeyed and trusted (cp. Josh 5:13-15).<\/p>\n<p>Eventually, King David moved the Ark to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-17). When Solomon built the Temple, the Ark was placed in the Most Holy Place, and it continued to play a central role in Israelite worship (1 Kgs 8:1-11). After the early monarchical period, the Ark is not mentioned again. Presumably, it was destroyed by the Babylonians along with the Temple in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, though an apocryphal tradition claimed that the prophet Jeremiah had hidden the Ark at the time of the Exile (2 Macc 2:4-8). Regardless, the arrival of God’s presence through Jesus Christ and the all-sufficient nature of his sacrifice rendered the Ark unnecessary (see Heb 9:1–10:18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 25:10-22; 40:20-21; Lev 16:2; Num 10:33-36; Deut 31:25-26; Josh 3:4-6; 6:6-13; Judg 20:26-28; 1 Sam 4:3-11; 5:1–7:2; 2 Sam 6:1-17; Jer 3:16-18<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>The Ark of the Covenant<\/h3>\n<p>The Ark of the Covenant was a wooden chest overlaid with gold, and it was placed within the Most Holy Place in the sanctuary. The Ark reminded Israel of God’s covenant with them; its contents included the tablets of the covenant (the Ten Commandments). On the Day of Atonement, the high priest would sprinkle blood on the Ark’s cover in order to purify the people (Lev 16:2-17).<\/p>\n<p>During Israel’s wilderness wanderings, the glory of God would appear over the Ark, and God would meet with his people there (see Exod 25:22). Throughout Israel’s history, the Ark served as a sign of God’s presence. It was carried before the people as they traveled (Num 10:33-36), and when it was brought to the Jordan River, the water stopped up so the Israelites could pass through on dry ground (Josh 3:4-6). The Ark was carried around Jericho before that city was invaded and was present during the siege of the Ammonite city of Rabbah during David’s time (2 Sam 11:1-11).<\/p>\n<p>The Philistines equated the Ark with Israel’s God (1 Sam 4:6-8). This is understandable because the Philistines brought images of their own gods into battle (2 Sam 5:21). The Israelites were not to use images of the divine, so they viewed the Ark as the Lord’s footstool and temporary residence rather than his image (see 1 Chr 28:2). However, the Israelites developed an idolatrous, pagan point of view. They treated the sacred symbol as a fetish and tried to manipulate God’s presence for their own benefit. They reasoned, “If the Ark is with us, then God’s presence and favor in battle will also be with us” (see 1 Sam 4:3). As their defeat that day showed (4:1-11), God cannot be manipulated—he is the ruler of his people, and he must be obeyed and trusted (cp. Josh 5:13-15).<\/p>\n<p>Eventually, King David moved the Ark to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-17). When Solomon built the Temple, the Ark was placed in the Most Holy Place, and it continued to play a central role in Israelite worship (1 Kgs 8:1-11). After the early monarchical period, the Ark is not mentioned again. Presumably, it was destroyed by the Babylonians along with the Temple in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, though an apocryphal tradition claimed that the prophet Jeremiah had hidden the Ark at the time of the Exile (2 Macc 2:4-8). Regardless, the arrival of God’s presence through Jesus Christ and the all-sufficient nature of his sacrifice rendered the Ark unnecessary (see Heb 9:1–10:18).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 25:10-22; 40:20-21; Lev 16:2; Num 10:33-36; Deut 31:25-26; Josh 3:4-6; 6:6-13; Judg 20:26-28; 1 Sam 4:3-11; 5:1–7:2; 2 Sam 6:1-17; Jer 3:16-18<\/p>","summary_ro":"The Ark of the Covenant The Ark of the Covenant was a wooden chest overlaid with gold, and it was placed within the Most Holy Place in the sanctuary. The Ark reminded Israel of God’s covenant with them; its contents included the tablets of the covenant (the Ten Commandments). On the Day of Atonement, the high priest would sprinkle blood on the Ark’s cover in order to purify the people (Lev 16:2-17). During Israel’s wilderness wanderings, the glory of God would appear over the Ark, and God wou...","summary_en":"The Ark of the Covenant The Ark of the Covenant was a wooden chest overlaid with gold, and it was placed within the Most Holy Place in the sanctuary. The Ark reminded Israel of God’s covenant with them; its contents included the tablets of the covenant (the Ten Commandments). On the Day of Atonement, the high priest would sprinkle blood on the Ark’s cover in order to purify the people (Lev 16:2-17). During Israel’s wilderness wanderings, the glory of God would appear over the Ark, and God wou...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":144175,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Celebration","title_en":"Celebration","content_ro":"<h3>Celebration<\/h3>\n<p>God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">karar<\/span> (2 Sam 6:14, 16), <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pazaz<\/span> (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">raqad<\/span> (1 Chr 15:29, “skipping about”). All three words refer to vigorous physical expression beyond the meaning of the Hebrew term for “celebrate” used in David’s first attempt (2 Sam 6:5). Thus, in the first procession, David celebrated; in the second procession he engaged in exultant dancing and extravagant merrymaking with intensified musical expression through the addition of shouting and trumpets.<\/p>\n<p>Musical instruments played a significant role in Temple worship. In 1 Chronicles 25:1-31, David assigned various groups to the ministry of music. Many psalms refer to playing musical instruments in praise and worship of God (see Pss 33:2-3; 57:8; 81:2; 92:1-3; 98:4-6). In Pss 149 and 150, dance and music are combined as a praise offering. Similarly, music and dancing were heard in the father’s house in the parable of the lost son (Luke 15:25), as the son’s return was truly a joyful occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation gives a picture of the eternal celebration that awaits the faithful—a celebration characterized by worship in the presence of God (Rev 4:1-11; 5:8-14; 15:1-4). This celebration is described as a wedding feast, in which the bridegroom (Christ) and the bride (his church) are joined together forever (Rev 19:9; see also Matt 22:1-14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 5:1; 12:17; 15:20-21; 1 Sam 18:6; 2 Sam 6:1-15; 2 Chr 7:6-10; Ezra 3:10-11; Pss 30:11; 69:30; 98:4-6; 107:32; 149:1-9; 150:1-6; Isa 30:29; 54:1; Jer 30:18-19; 31:4, 13; Lam 5:14-15; Zeph 3:17; Luke 15:22-25; 1 Cor 5:8; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Rev 18:20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Celebration<\/h3>\n<p>God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">karar<\/span> (2 Sam 6:14, 16), <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pazaz<\/span> (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">raqad<\/span> (1 Chr 15:29, “skipping about”). All three words refer to vigorous physical expression beyond the meaning of the Hebrew term for “celebrate” used in David’s first attempt (2 Sam 6:5). Thus, in the first procession, David celebrated; in the second procession he engaged in exultant dancing and extravagant merrymaking with intensified musical expression through the addition of shouting and trumpets.<\/p>\n<p>Musical instruments played a significant role in Temple worship. In 1 Chronicles 25:1-31, David assigned various groups to the ministry of music. Many psalms refer to playing musical instruments in praise and worship of God (see Pss 33:2-3; 57:8; 81:2; 92:1-3; 98:4-6). In Pss 149 and 150, dance and music are combined as a praise offering. Similarly, music and dancing were heard in the father’s house in the parable of the lost son (Luke 15:25), as the son’s return was truly a joyful occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation gives a picture of the eternal celebration that awaits the faithful—a celebration characterized by worship in the presence of God (Rev 4:1-11; 5:8-14; 15:1-4). This celebration is described as a wedding feast, in which the bridegroom (Christ) and the bride (his church) are joined together forever (Rev 19:9; see also Matt 22:1-14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 5:1; 12:17; 15:20-21; 1 Sam 18:6; 2 Sam 6:1-15; 2 Chr 7:6-10; Ezra 3:10-11; Pss 30:11; 69:30; 98:4-6; 107:32; 149:1-9; 150:1-6; Isa 30:29; 54:1; Jer 30:18-19; 31:4, 13; Lam 5:14-15; Zeph 3:17; Luke 15:22-25; 1 Cor 5:8; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Rev 18:20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Celebration God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): karar (2 Sam 6:14, 16), pazaz (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and raqad (1 Chr 15:29, “skippin...","summary_en":"Celebration God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): karar (2 Sam 6:14, 16), pazaz (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and raqad (1 Chr 15:29, “skippin...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"2":[{"id":3381,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"of Judah* Baale-Judah*, Baale","title_en":"of Judah* Baale-Judah*, Baale","content_ro":"<h3>BAALE-JUDAH*, BAALE OF JUDAH*<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate name for Kiriath-jearim, a village on the road from Jerusalem to Tel Aviv (2 Sm 6:2). <em>See<\/em> Kiriath-jearim.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>BAALE-JUDAH*, BAALE OF JUDAH*<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate name for Kiriath-jearim, a village on the road from Jerusalem to Tel Aviv (2 Sm 6:2). <em>See<\/em> Kiriath-jearim.<\/p>","summary_ro":"BAALE-JUDAH*, BAALE OF JUDAH* Alternate name for Kiriath-jearim, a village on the road from Jerusalem to Tel Aviv (2 Sm 6:2). See Kiriath-jearim.","summary_en":"BAALE-JUDAH*, BAALE OF JUDAH* Alternate name for Kiriath-jearim, a village on the road from Jerusalem to Tel Aviv (2 Sm 6:2). See Kiriath-jearim.","source":"Articles\/B.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":6278,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Cherub*, Cherubim","title_en":"Cherub*, Cherubim","content_ro":"<h3>CHERUB*, CHERUBIM<\/h3>\n<p>Winged creatures mentioned occasionally in Scripture (“cherubim” is the plural form of the Hebrew “cherub”). They belong to a supernatural created order along with the seraphim and angels. Some scholars have argued that the term “cherub” had its origin in the <em>karibu<\/em> (“intercessor”) of Akkadian mythological texts, commonly represented in Mesopotamian art as a griffin (a creature half lion and half eagle) or as a winged human. The sphinx also appears to go back to this concept. The biblical evidence, however, does not seem to support that identification.<\/p>\n<p>The prophet Ezekiel described four “living creatures,” each with four faces and four wings (Ez 1:5-24); those creatures corresponded to cherubim (10:2-22). The splendor of Ezekiel’s vision was recaptured more modestly in his description of the king of Tyre, who in the midst of his own prosperity seemed to be playing the part of a towering or guardian cherub before being dispossessed (28:13-16). That passage has been interpreted by some as a description of Satan’s “fall from grace” after he had once been in the service of God as a ranking member of a high celestial order.<\/p>\n<p>Despite Ezekiel’s elaborate visionary descriptions, it is difficult to be certain about the form in which cherubim appeared. Thus, in Ezekiel 41:18 the cherubim that were to decorate Ezekiel’s ideal temple had only two faces, a man’s and a young lion’s, in contrast to the four-faced creatures of the earlier visions. The four faces of Ezekiel 1:10 were those of a man, a lion, an ox, and an eagle, whereas in Ezekiel 10:14 the cherub had its own face (“the face of the cherub”), along with the faces of a man, a lion, and an eagle. If the cherub’s face corresponded to that of an ox, that might account for the fact that cherubim in Near Eastern art were represented as four-footed creatures, though frequently different otherwise from biblical cherubim. In addition to their wings, the cherubim of Ezekiel’s vision had straight legs and feet with hooves like those of a calf (Ez 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>That complex description has led scholars to try to identify cherubim in the statues and carvings of non-Israelite peoples. The throne of Ahiram, king of Byblos, was flanked by sphinxes, which some have judged to be cherubim. The sphinx, however, seems to have been a popular decorative motif, as evidenced by an ivory box from Megiddo and ivories from Samaria, Nimrud, and elsewhere. Other decorative creatures have various combinations of human and animal bodies, with wings generally prominent. None of them adequately represents the OT descriptions of cherubim.<\/p>\n<p>The four living creatures of the book of Revelation were similar to the cherubim of Ezekiel but lacked their whirling wheels (Rv 4:6-9). Subsequent references to the creatures in Revelation (5:6-14; 6:1-8; 7:1-11; 14:3; 15:7; 19:4) add nothing to the initial description.<\/p>\n<p>The cherubim of Genesis 3:24 acted as guardians or custodians. Supernatural guardians seem to have been common in Near Eastern thought. In Ezekiel 10 the cherubim were also executors of divine judgment, spreading burning coals over a city (Ez 10:2, 7).<\/p>\n<p>In early Israelite thought the cherubim stretched out their wings and provided God with a throne (1 Sm 4:4; 2 Sm 6:2; etc.). God spoke to Moses from such a throne on the cover of the ark of the covenant (Ex 25:22). In Ezekiel’s vision (Ez 1:26; 10:1) God was seated in a four-wheeled chariot moved by the cherubim and borne aloft by their wings. In Hebrew poetry God was portrayed as employing clouds for his chariot (Ps 104:3; cf. Is 19:1) or riding on a cherub in flight (2 Sm 22:11; Ps 18:10). The idea of cherubim furnishing a seat or platform for the invisible deity found expression in Near Eastern art, where the pagan gods stood on the backs of animals.<\/p>\n<p>In Israel cherubim were carved on the covenantal ark (Ex 25:18-20; 37:7-9), and representations of them were also embroidered on the curtains of the tabernacle and the veil that screened the innermost sanctuary in which the ark rested.<\/p>\n<p>The Most Holy Place of Solomon’s temple was adorned by two large representations of cherubim, made of olive wood and covered with gold leaf. When placed side by side with outstretched wings, they spanned the entire width of the inner sanctuary. Smaller cherubim and palms were carved on the temple’s wooden panels and some of the doors, and were also represented on the sides of the laver stands (1 Kgs 7:29, 36). Cherubim alternating with palm trees formed part of the decor of Ezekiel’s visionary temple (Ez 41:17-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Angel; Seraph, Seraphim.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CHERUB*, CHERUBIM<\/h3>\n<p>Winged creatures mentioned occasionally in Scripture (“cherubim” is the plural form of the Hebrew “cherub”). They belong to a supernatural created order along with the seraphim and angels. Some scholars have argued that the term “cherub” had its origin in the <em>karibu<\/em> (“intercessor”) of Akkadian mythological texts, commonly represented in Mesopotamian art as a griffin (a creature half lion and half eagle) or as a winged human. The sphinx also appears to go back to this concept. The biblical evidence, however, does not seem to support that identification.<\/p>\n<p>The prophet Ezekiel described four “living creatures,” each with four faces and four wings (Ez 1:5-24); those creatures corresponded to cherubim (10:2-22). The splendor of Ezekiel’s vision was recaptured more modestly in his description of the king of Tyre, who in the midst of his own prosperity seemed to be playing the part of a towering or guardian cherub before being dispossessed (28:13-16). That passage has been interpreted by some as a description of Satan’s “fall from grace” after he had once been in the service of God as a ranking member of a high celestial order.<\/p>\n<p>Despite Ezekiel’s elaborate visionary descriptions, it is difficult to be certain about the form in which cherubim appeared. Thus, in Ezekiel 41:18 the cherubim that were to decorate Ezekiel’s ideal temple had only two faces, a man’s and a young lion’s, in contrast to the four-faced creatures of the earlier visions. The four faces of Ezekiel 1:10 were those of a man, a lion, an ox, and an eagle, whereas in Ezekiel 10:14 the cherub had its own face (“the face of the cherub”), along with the faces of a man, a lion, and an eagle. If the cherub’s face corresponded to that of an ox, that might account for the fact that cherubim in Near Eastern art were represented as four-footed creatures, though frequently different otherwise from biblical cherubim. In addition to their wings, the cherubim of Ezekiel’s vision had straight legs and feet with hooves like those of a calf (Ez 1:7).<\/p>\n<p>That complex description has led scholars to try to identify cherubim in the statues and carvings of non-Israelite peoples. The throne of Ahiram, king of Byblos, was flanked by sphinxes, which some have judged to be cherubim. The sphinx, however, seems to have been a popular decorative motif, as evidenced by an ivory box from Megiddo and ivories from Samaria, Nimrud, and elsewhere. Other decorative creatures have various combinations of human and animal bodies, with wings generally prominent. None of them adequately represents the OT descriptions of cherubim.<\/p>\n<p>The four living creatures of the book of Revelation were similar to the cherubim of Ezekiel but lacked their whirling wheels (Rv 4:6-9). Subsequent references to the creatures in Revelation (5:6-14; 6:1-8; 7:1-11; 14:3; 15:7; 19:4) add nothing to the initial description.<\/p>\n<p>The cherubim of Genesis 3:24 acted as guardians or custodians. Supernatural guardians seem to have been common in Near Eastern thought. In Ezekiel 10 the cherubim were also executors of divine judgment, spreading burning coals over a city (Ez 10:2, 7).<\/p>\n<p>In early Israelite thought the cherubim stretched out their wings and provided God with a throne (1 Sm 4:4; 2 Sm 6:2; etc.). God spoke to Moses from such a throne on the cover of the ark of the covenant (Ex 25:22). In Ezekiel’s vision (Ez 1:26; 10:1) God was seated in a four-wheeled chariot moved by the cherubim and borne aloft by their wings. In Hebrew poetry God was portrayed as employing clouds for his chariot (Ps 104:3; cf. Is 19:1) or riding on a cherub in flight (2 Sm 22:11; Ps 18:10). The idea of cherubim furnishing a seat or platform for the invisible deity found expression in Near Eastern art, where the pagan gods stood on the backs of animals.<\/p>\n<p>In Israel cherubim were carved on the covenantal ark (Ex 25:18-20; 37:7-9), and representations of them were also embroidered on the curtains of the tabernacle and the veil that screened the innermost sanctuary in which the ark rested.<\/p>\n<p>The Most Holy Place of Solomon’s temple was adorned by two large representations of cherubim, made of olive wood and covered with gold leaf. When placed side by side with outstretched wings, they spanned the entire width of the inner sanctuary. Smaller cherubim and palms were carved on the temple’s wooden panels and some of the doors, and were also represented on the sides of the laver stands (1 Kgs 7:29, 36). Cherubim alternating with palm trees formed part of the decor of Ezekiel’s visionary temple (Ez 41:17-20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Angel; Seraph, Seraphim.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CHERUB*, CHERUBIM Winged creatures mentioned occasionally in Scripture (“cherubim” is the plural form of the Hebrew “cherub”). They belong to a supernatural created order along with the seraphim and angels. Some scholars have argued that the term “cherub” had its origin in the karibu (“intercessor”) of Akkadian mythological texts, commonly represented in Mesopotamian art as a griffin (a creature half lion and half eagle) or as a winged human. The sphinx also appears to go back to this concept...","summary_en":"CHERUB*, CHERUBIM Winged creatures mentioned occasionally in Scripture (“cherubim” is the plural form of the Hebrew “cherub”). They belong to a supernatural created order along with the seraphim and angels. Some scholars have argued that the term “cherub” had its origin in the karibu (“intercessor”) of Akkadian mythological texts, commonly represented in Mesopotamian art as a griffin (a creature half lion and half eagle) or as a winged human. The sphinx also appears to go back to this concept...","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":25244,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Seat*, Mercy","title_en":"Seat*, Mercy","content_ro":"<h3>MERCY SEAT*<\/h3>\n<p>Gold slab placed on top of the ark of the covenant with cherubim attached to it on either end, termed the “mercy seat” in many English versions of the Bible (cf. Ex 25:17-22). The Hebrew word for which “mercy seat” is the translation is technically best rendered as “propitiatory,” a term denoting the removal of wrath by the offering of a gift. The significance of this designation is found in the ceremony performed on the Day of Atonement, held once a year, when blood was sprinkled on the mercy seat to make atonement for the sins of the people of Israel (Lv 16). Because of the importance of this covering on the ark and the ceremony associated with it, the Holy of Holies in which the ark was housed in the temple is termed the “room for the mercy seat” in 1 Chronicles 28:11 (<span>rsv<\/span>). The term “mercy seat” came into English use from Luther’s German rendering of the Hebrew term, which is difficult to translate appropriately from the Hebrew (cf. <span>niv<\/span> “atonement cover” and <span>nlt<\/span> “Ark’s cover”).<\/p>\n\n<p>The mercy seat measured two and a half cubits (45 inches, or 114.3 centimeters) by one and a half cubits (27 inches, 68.6 centimeters). The cherubim on each end were also made of gold and faced each other with their wings spread upward over the ark. It was in this space above the ark that the Lord’s presence with his people was localized in a special sense, and from which the Lord made his commandments known to Moses (Ex 25:22; cf. also Lv 16:2). Because of the close association of the Lord’s presence with the space above the ark, he is said to be enthroned between the cherubim (1 Sm 4:4; 2 Sm 6:2). The ark itself contained the tables of stone inscribed with the Ten Commandments that summarized the covenantal obligations of the Israelites to their divine King. When the children of Israel fell short of their covenant obligations by sinning against God and breaking his commands, the blood of the sacrifice sprinkled on the mercy seat made atonement for their sin and reconciled them with God.<\/p>\n<p>The propitiatory or mercy seat points forward to Jesus, who is termed by Paul (Rom 3:25) the “means of propitiation” through faith in his blood for all who have sinned and fallen short of the glory of God. Here in Romans 3:25 the Greek term translated “propitiation” is the same Greek word consistently used in the Septuagint and in Hebrews 9:5 to translate the Hebrew word for mercy seat in the OT.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Ark of the Covenant; Propitiation; Tabernacle; Temple.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MERCY SEAT*<\/h3>\n<p>Gold slab placed on top of the ark of the covenant with cherubim attached to it on either end, termed the “mercy seat” in many English versions of the Bible (cf. Ex 25:17-22). The Hebrew word for which “mercy seat” is the translation is technically best rendered as “propitiatory,” a term denoting the removal of wrath by the offering of a gift. The significance of this designation is found in the ceremony performed on the Day of Atonement, held once a year, when blood was sprinkled on the mercy seat to make atonement for the sins of the people of Israel (Lv 16). Because of the importance of this covering on the ark and the ceremony associated with it, the Holy of Holies in which the ark was housed in the temple is termed the “room for the mercy seat” in 1 Chronicles 28:11 (<span>rsv<\/span>). The term “mercy seat” came into English use from Luther’s German rendering of the Hebrew term, which is difficult to translate appropriately from the Hebrew (cf. <span>niv<\/span> “atonement cover” and <span>nlt<\/span> “Ark’s cover”).<\/p>\n\n<p>The mercy seat measured two and a half cubits (45 inches, or 114.3 centimeters) by one and a half cubits (27 inches, 68.6 centimeters). The cherubim on each end were also made of gold and faced each other with their wings spread upward over the ark. It was in this space above the ark that the Lord’s presence with his people was localized in a special sense, and from which the Lord made his commandments known to Moses (Ex 25:22; cf. also Lv 16:2). Because of the close association of the Lord’s presence with the space above the ark, he is said to be enthroned between the cherubim (1 Sm 4:4; 2 Sm 6:2). The ark itself contained the tables of stone inscribed with the Ten Commandments that summarized the covenantal obligations of the Israelites to their divine King. When the children of Israel fell short of their covenant obligations by sinning against God and breaking his commands, the blood of the sacrifice sprinkled on the mercy seat made atonement for their sin and reconciled them with God.<\/p>\n<p>The propitiatory or mercy seat points forward to Jesus, who is termed by Paul (Rom 3:25) the “means of propitiation” through faith in his blood for all who have sinned and fallen short of the glory of God. Here in Romans 3:25 the Greek term translated “propitiation” is the same Greek word consistently used in the Septuagint and in Hebrews 9:5 to translate the Hebrew word for mercy seat in the OT.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Ark of the Covenant; Propitiation; Tabernacle; Temple.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MERCY SEAT* Gold slab placed on top of the ark of the covenant with cherubim attached to it on either end, termed the “mercy seat” in many English versions of the Bible (cf. Ex 25:17-22). The Hebrew word for which “mercy seat” is the translation is technically best rendered as “propitiatory,” a term denoting the removal of wrath by the offering of a gift. The significance of this designation is found in the ceremony performed on the Day of Atonement, held once a year, when blood was sprinkled...","summary_en":"MERCY SEAT* Gold slab placed on top of the ark of the covenant with cherubim attached to it on either end, termed the “mercy seat” in many English versions of the Bible (cf. Ex 25:17-22). The Hebrew word for which “mercy seat” is the translation is technically best rendered as “propitiatory,” a term denoting the removal of wrath by the offering of a gift. The significance of this designation is found in the ceremony performed on the Day of Atonement, held once a year, when blood was sprinkled...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":46566,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:2","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:2<\/strong> <em>is enthroned between the cherubim:<\/em> See also 1 Sam 4:4; 2 Kgs 19:15; Pss 80:1; 99:1.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:2<\/strong> <em>is enthroned between the cherubim:<\/em> See also 1 Sam 4:4; 2 Kgs 19:15; Pss 80:1; 99:1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:2 is enthroned between the cherubim: See also 1 Sam 4:4; 2 Kgs 19:15; Pss 80:1; 99:1.","summary_en":"6:2 is enthroned between the cherubim: See also 1 Sam 4:4; 2 Kgs 19:15; Pss 80:1; 99:1.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":74192,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:2","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:2<\/strong> <em>is enthroned between the cherubim:<\/em> See also 1 Sam 4:4; 2 Kgs 19:15; Pss 80:1; 99:1.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:2<\/strong> <em>is enthroned between the cherubim:<\/em> See also 1 Sam 4:4; 2 Kgs 19:15; Pss 80:1; 99:1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:2 is enthroned between the cherubim: See also 1 Sam 4:4; 2 Kgs 19:15; Pss 80:1; 99:1.","summary_en":"6:2 is enthroned between the cherubim: See also 1 Sam 4:4; 2 Kgs 19:15; Pss 80:1; 99:1.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101818,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:2","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:2<\/strong> <em>is enthroned between the cherubim:<\/em> See also 1 Sam 4:4; 2 Kgs 19:15; Pss 80:1; 99:1.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:2<\/strong> <em>is enthroned between the cherubim:<\/em> See also 1 Sam 4:4; 2 Kgs 19:15; Pss 80:1; 99:1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:2 is enthroned between the cherubim: See also 1 Sam 4:4; 2 Kgs 19:15; Pss 80:1; 99:1.","summary_en":"6:2 is enthroned between the cherubim: See also 1 Sam 4:4; 2 Kgs 19:15; Pss 80:1; 99:1.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":129444,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:2","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:2","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:2<\/strong> <em>is enthroned between the cherubim:<\/em> See also 1 Sam 4:4; 2 Kgs 19:15; Pss 80:1; 99:1.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:2<\/strong> <em>is enthroned between the cherubim:<\/em> See also 1 Sam 4:4; 2 Kgs 19:15; Pss 80:1; 99:1.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:2 is enthroned between the cherubim: See also 1 Sam 4:4; 2 Kgs 19:15; Pss 80:1; 99:1.","summary_en":"6:2 is enthroned between the cherubim: See also 1 Sam 4:4; 2 Kgs 19:15; Pss 80:1; 99:1.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"3":[{"id":928,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ahio","title_en":"Ahio","content_ro":"<h3>AHIO<\/h3>\n<li>1. Abinadab’s son. With his brother Uzzah, Ahio drove the ox cart carrying the ark of the covenant to its new home at Jerusalem (2 Sm 6:3-4; 1 Chr 13:7).<\/li>\n<li>2. Elpaal’s son from Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 8:14).<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of Jeiel and his wife Maacah. This Ahio was a brother or an uncle of Kish, Saul’s father (1 Chr 8:31; 9:36-37).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>AHIO<\/h3>\n<li>1. Abinadab’s son. With his brother Uzzah, Ahio drove the ox cart carrying the ark of the covenant to its new home at Jerusalem (2 Sm 6:3-4; 1 Chr 13:7).<\/li>\n<li>2. Elpaal’s son from Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 8:14).<\/li>\n<li>3. Son of Jeiel and his wife Maacah. This Ahio was a brother or an uncle of Kish, Saul’s father (1 Chr 8:31; 9:36-37).<\/li>","summary_ro":"AHIO 1. Abinadab’s son. With his brother Uzzah, Ahio drove the ox cart carrying the ark of the covenant to its new home at Jerusalem (2 Sm 6:3-4; 1 Chr 13:7). 2. Elpaal’s son from Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 8:14). 3. Son of Jeiel and his wife Maacah. This Ahio was a brother or an uncle of Kish, Saul’s father (1 Chr 8:31; 9:36-37).","summary_en":"AHIO 1. Abinadab’s son. With his brother Uzzah, Ahio drove the ox cart carrying the ark of the covenant to its new home at Jerusalem (2 Sm 6:3-4; 1 Chr 13:7). 2. Elpaal’s son from Benjamin’s tribe (1 Chr 8:14). 3. Son of Jeiel and his wife Maacah. This Ahio was a brother or an uncle of Kish, Saul’s father (1 Chr 8:31; 9:36-37).","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":46567,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:3","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:3-4<\/strong> According to God’s instructions (Exod 25:14; 37:5; Num 4:6), <em>the Ark<\/em> was to be carried by Levites of the clan of Kohath, holding two poles slipped through four rings at the corners of the Ark. God’s instructions were ignored in this instance. • <em>Uzzah and Ahio:<\/em> In 1 Sam 7:1, Eleazar, another son of Abinadab, was put in charge of the Ark.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:3-4<\/strong> According to God’s instructions (Exod 25:14; 37:5; Num 4:6), <em>the Ark<\/em> was to be carried by Levites of the clan of Kohath, holding two poles slipped through four rings at the corners of the Ark. God’s instructions were ignored in this instance. • <em>Uzzah and Ahio:<\/em> In 1 Sam 7:1, Eleazar, another son of Abinadab, was put in charge of the Ark.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:3-4 According to God’s instructions (Exod 25:14; 37:5; Num 4:6), the Ark was to be carried by Levites of the clan of Kohath, holding two poles slipped through four rings at the corners of the Ark. God’s instructions were ignored in this instance. • Uzzah and Ahio: In 1 Sam 7:1, Eleazar, another son of Abinadab, was put in charge of the Ark.","summary_en":"6:3-4 According to God’s instructions (Exod 25:14; 37:5; Num 4:6), the Ark was to be carried by Levites of the clan of Kohath, holding two poles slipped through four rings at the corners of the Ark. God’s instructions were ignored in this instance. • Uzzah and Ahio: In 1 Sam 7:1, Eleazar, another son of Abinadab, was put in charge of the Ark.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":74193,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:3","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:3-4<\/strong> According to God’s instructions (Exod 25:14; 37:5; Num 4:6), <em>the Ark<\/em> was to be carried by Levites of the clan of Kohath, holding two poles slipped through four rings at the corners of the Ark. God’s instructions were ignored in this instance. • <em>Uzzah and Ahio:<\/em> In 1 Sam 7:1, Eleazar, another son of Abinadab, was put in charge of the Ark.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:3-4<\/strong> According to God’s instructions (Exod 25:14; 37:5; Num 4:6), <em>the Ark<\/em> was to be carried by Levites of the clan of Kohath, holding two poles slipped through four rings at the corners of the Ark. God’s instructions were ignored in this instance. • <em>Uzzah and Ahio:<\/em> In 1 Sam 7:1, Eleazar, another son of Abinadab, was put in charge of the Ark.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:3-4 According to God’s instructions (Exod 25:14; 37:5; Num 4:6), the Ark was to be carried by Levites of the clan of Kohath, holding two poles slipped through four rings at the corners of the Ark. God’s instructions were ignored in this instance. • Uzzah and Ahio: In 1 Sam 7:1, Eleazar, another son of Abinadab, was put in charge of the Ark.","summary_en":"6:3-4 According to God’s instructions (Exod 25:14; 37:5; Num 4:6), the Ark was to be carried by Levites of the clan of Kohath, holding two poles slipped through four rings at the corners of the Ark. God’s instructions were ignored in this instance. • Uzzah and Ahio: In 1 Sam 7:1, Eleazar, another son of Abinadab, was put in charge of the Ark.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101819,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:3","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:3-4<\/strong> According to God’s instructions (Exod 25:14; 37:5; Num 4:6), <em>the Ark<\/em> was to be carried by Levites of the clan of Kohath, holding two poles slipped through four rings at the corners of the Ark. God’s instructions were ignored in this instance. • <em>Uzzah and Ahio:<\/em> In 1 Sam 7:1, Eleazar, another son of Abinadab, was put in charge of the Ark.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:3-4<\/strong> According to God’s instructions (Exod 25:14; 37:5; Num 4:6), <em>the Ark<\/em> was to be carried by Levites of the clan of Kohath, holding two poles slipped through four rings at the corners of the Ark. God’s instructions were ignored in this instance. • <em>Uzzah and Ahio:<\/em> In 1 Sam 7:1, Eleazar, another son of Abinadab, was put in charge of the Ark.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:3-4 According to God’s instructions (Exod 25:14; 37:5; Num 4:6), the Ark was to be carried by Levites of the clan of Kohath, holding two poles slipped through four rings at the corners of the Ark. God’s instructions were ignored in this instance. • Uzzah and Ahio: In 1 Sam 7:1, Eleazar, another son of Abinadab, was put in charge of the Ark.","summary_en":"6:3-4 According to God’s instructions (Exod 25:14; 37:5; Num 4:6), the Ark was to be carried by Levites of the clan of Kohath, holding two poles slipped through four rings at the corners of the Ark. God’s instructions were ignored in this instance. • Uzzah and Ahio: In 1 Sam 7:1, Eleazar, another son of Abinadab, was put in charge of the Ark.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":129445,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:3","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:3","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:3-4<\/strong> According to God’s instructions (Exod 25:14; 37:5; Num 4:6), <em>the Ark<\/em> was to be carried by Levites of the clan of Kohath, holding two poles slipped through four rings at the corners of the Ark. God’s instructions were ignored in this instance. • <em>Uzzah and Ahio:<\/em> In 1 Sam 7:1, Eleazar, another son of Abinadab, was put in charge of the Ark.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:3-4<\/strong> According to God’s instructions (Exod 25:14; 37:5; Num 4:6), <em>the Ark<\/em> was to be carried by Levites of the clan of Kohath, holding two poles slipped through four rings at the corners of the Ark. God’s instructions were ignored in this instance. • <em>Uzzah and Ahio:<\/em> In 1 Sam 7:1, Eleazar, another son of Abinadab, was put in charge of the Ark.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:3-4 According to God’s instructions (Exod 25:14; 37:5; Num 4:6), the Ark was to be carried by Levites of the clan of Kohath, holding two poles slipped through four rings at the corners of the Ark. God’s instructions were ignored in this instance. • Uzzah and Ahio: In 1 Sam 7:1, Eleazar, another son of Abinadab, was put in charge of the Ark.","summary_en":"6:3-4 According to God’s instructions (Exod 25:14; 37:5; Num 4:6), the Ark was to be carried by Levites of the clan of Kohath, holding two poles slipped through four rings at the corners of the Ark. God’s instructions were ignored in this instance. • Uzzah and Ahio: In 1 Sam 7:1, Eleazar, another son of Abinadab, was put in charge of the Ark.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"5":[{"id":6130,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Castanet","title_en":"Castanet","content_ro":"<h3>CASTANET<\/h3>\n<p>A small handheld percussion instrument (2 Sm 6:5). <em>See<\/em> Musical Instruments; Music.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CASTANET<\/h3>\n<p>A small handheld percussion instrument (2 Sm 6:5). <em>See<\/em> Musical Instruments; Music.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CASTANET A small handheld percussion instrument (2 Sm 6:5). See Musical Instruments; Music.","summary_en":"CASTANET A small handheld percussion instrument (2 Sm 6:5). See Musical Instruments; Music.","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":8414,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Cymbal","title_en":"Cymbal","content_ro":"<h3>CYMBAL<\/h3>\n<p>Percussion instrument consisting of two round, thin, slightly concave, metal plates that are struck together. Cymbals were used in the worship of God (2 Sm 6:5; Ezr 3:10; Ps 150:5).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Musical Instruments (Zelzelim); Music.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>CYMBAL<\/h3>\n<p>Percussion instrument consisting of two round, thin, slightly concave, metal plates that are struck together. Cymbals were used in the worship of God (2 Sm 6:5; Ezr 3:10; Ps 150:5).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Musical Instruments (Zelzelim); Music.<\/p>","summary_ro":"CYMBAL Percussion instrument consisting of two round, thin, slightly concave, metal plates that are struck together. Cymbals were used in the worship of God (2 Sm 6:5; Ezr 3:10; Ps 150:5). See also Musical Instruments (Zelzelim); Music.","summary_en":"CYMBAL Percussion instrument consisting of two round, thin, slightly concave, metal plates that are struck together. Cymbals were used in the worship of God (2 Sm 6:5; Ezr 3:10; Ps 150:5). See also Musical Instruments (Zelzelim); Music.","source":"Articles\/C.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":10195,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Egyptian Egypt","title_en":"Egyptian Egypt","content_ro":"<h3>EGYPT, EGYPTIAN<\/h3>\n<p>Egypt figured significantly as a stage on which the biblical narrative was enacted. Here Abraham lived in time of famine. Joseph, his great-grandson, was sold into slavery in Egypt and rose to a position equivalent to that of prime minister. Through Joseph’s intercession, Jacob and the rest of the Hebrew patriarchal family living in Palestine came to reside in the eastern delta region of Goshen—again as a result of famine. Initially treated favorably, they were later reduced to bondage; crying to God, ultimately they were released through the 10 plagues. Thereafter, for 40 years, they wandered in the Egyptian Sinai, where they received the law, specifications for building the tabernacle, and instructions for the priestly and sacrificial systems.<\/p>\n<p>After the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, a group of Jews forced Jeremiah to go with them to Egypt (Jer 43:6-7), where they became numerous during the intertestamental period and gradually forgot their Hebrew. At Alexandria, Jews translated the OT into Greek (the Septuagint) between about 250 and 150 <span>BC<\/span>. This became the Bible of the early church, especially of those Christians outside Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>When the NT period opened, Egypt served as a refuge for Joseph, Mary, and Jesus as they fled to escape the assassination attempts of Herod the Great (Mt 2:13-23). At several other points, Hebrew and Egyptian history intersected—for example, when Shishak I invaded Palestine in the days of Rehoboam (1 Kgs 14:25-28).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Geography<\/p>\n<p>• History<\/p>\n<p>• Social Life<\/p>\n<p>• Religion<\/p>\n<p>• Learning and Culture<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Geography\">Geography<\/p>\n<p>Egypt is the gift of the Nile, without which it could not exist. From time immemorial the Nile has deposited a thin layer of rich silt each year as it overflowed its banks. This ribbon of loam along its course contrasts vividly with the sterile sands that stretch from the river valley often as far as one can see. Then, having deposited this soil, the Nile provides water for its irrigation. This is necessary in a land that receives only six to eight inches (15 to 20 centimeters) of rainfall per year along the Mediterranean, two inches (5.1 centimeters) or less per year at Cairo, and less than that farther south.<\/p>\n<p>The Nile Valley is a tube, shut in on either side by cliffs and corked up at the southern end by cataracts, six places where the river has failed to cut a clear channel and where rocks are piled in irregular masses in the streambed. From cliff to cliff the Nile Valley ranges from about 10 to 31 miles (16 to 50 kilometers) in width between Cairo and Aswan. But the cultivated area along this stretch is only about six to ten miles (10 to 16 kilometers) wide, and narrows to one or two miles (1.5 to 3 kilometers) in width around Aswan. This cultivated tract is only about 5,000 square miles (8,045 square kilometers) in total.<\/p>\n<p>But Egypt is more than the valley. It is also the delta, a pie-shaped area north of Cairo also deposited by the Nile over the millennia. The delta measures some 125 miles (201.1 kilometers) north and south, and 115 miles (185 kilometers) east and west. Its more heavily populated southern region provided ancient Egyptians with some 5,000 square miles (8,045 square kilometers) of farmland, making the total of valley and delta about 10,000 square miles (16,090 square kilometers), roughly equal to the state of Maryland.<\/p>\n\n<p>West of the Nile extends a chain of oases, the largest of which is the Fayum, about 70 miles (112.6 kilometers) southwest of Cairo. In the center of the Fayum is Lake Qarun, which today covers 90 square miles (144.8 square kilometers) and is about 17 feet (5.2 meters) deep. It is surrounded by about a half million acres of good farmland.<\/p>\n<p>Ancient Egypt extended some 125 miles (201.1 kilometers) from the Mediterranean to Cairo (Lower Egypt) and another 600 miles (965.4 kilometers) from Cairo to Aswan (Upper Egypt). At the height of its power, Egypt also controlled the valley from the first cataract at Aswan south to the fourth cataract (Nubia). Thus its domain extended a total of some 1,100 miles (1,769.9 kilometers) south from the Mediterranean.<\/p>\n<p>Egypt’s most important resource was the rich loam along the Nile. On it, in antiquity, farmers raised grains, such as barley, emmer, and wheat. Onions, leeks, beans, and lentils were common vegetables. Dates, figs, and grapes were the most widely grown fruits. Oil came from castor oil plants and sesame rather than from the olive, as in other Mediterranean lands. Flax provided linen for clothing. Domesticated animals included oxen, cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, donkeys, and horses.<\/p>\n<p>Another important resource was an abundant supply of stone. Granite mountains rise between the Nile and the Red Sea, and deposits of alabaster and other fine stone are found in the same region. South of Aswan stand the granite mountains of Nubia. The quarries of Syene at Aswan are famous for their extremely hard and durable red granite. Gold was reasonably plentiful in the Nubian Mountains, and gold-bearing quartz veins were found in the mountains east of the Nile. Egyptians controlled the copper and turquoise mines of the Sinai during much of their important historical periods. In early antiquity some timber was available in Nubia for building the barges that carried the huge loads of stone for construction of pyramids, temples, and other magnificent structures.<\/p>\n<p>The Nile itself was an all-weather highway. One could float northward with the current and sail southward against the weak current (3 miles, or 5 kilometers, per hour) by means of the prevailing northerly winds. In fact, the Nile was the road of ancient Egypt. Land routes normally conducted traffic only to the river’s edge. In addition to the massive north-south commerce, ferry boats regularly moved from shore to shore.<\/p>\n<p>Along the river grew papyrus reeds, from which writing material could be made. And along the Nile, clay was deposited from which could be made pottery and sun-dried bricks for the houses of the poor.<\/p>\n<p>The ancient Egyptians lived in comparative isolation and peace in their valley home. The cataracts on the south, the deserts on east and west, and the harborless coast of the Mediterranean protected them from invasion and left them free to develop a homogeneous culture. Outside influences could sift in chiefly at the two northern corners of the delta. There were Semitic incursions from the east, and Libyans (possibly of European origin) from the west. Defenses were erected to protect against both. The security of their valley home and the regular provision of the sun and the Nile gave the Egyptians a sense of confidence and well-being that was not the lot of other peoples of the ancient Near East.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"History\">History<\/p>\n<p>It is wrong to think of the contemporary rulers of Egypt as descendants of the pharaohs or the present inhabitants of the land as Egyptians in any but a geographic sense. Egypt as an area of distinctive civilization ended with the Arab conquest in the seventh century <span>AD<\/span> and was greatly diluted during the several preceding centuries by Greco-Roman influences.<\/p>\n<h5>Origins<\/h5>\n<p>Though the origins of the ancient Egyptians are imperfectly understood, physically they show affinities to Hamites, Semites, and Mediterraneans. Hamites with negroid characteristics moved north from Nubia. Asiatics migrated across the Isthmus of Suez into the delta, and the small, brown, finely boned Mediterranean people dominated the Nile Valley from early times. However diverse their origins may have been, Egyptians of the ancient period were conscious of themselves as a nation, a distinctive people. Men stood about five feet six inches (1.7 meters) in height and women about five feet (1.5 meters). They were slight but strong-boned, with round heads and oval faces. The men had little face or body hair, and throughout antiquity they were commonly smooth-shaven, while Semites were bearded.<\/p>\n<p>Archaeologists list a series of successive predynastic cultures—Fayumic, Meridian, Tasian, Badarian, Amratian, Gerzean, and Semainean—who mastered basic techniques and learned how to build a civilization with minimal resources. Of course, they developed an irrigation system for the maintenance of an effective agricultural program. At a very early time they discovered how to turn flax into linen and thus to produce clothing. Boats were made from papyrus reeds and trees that grew along some of the streambeds in the south. Sun-baked bricks provided building material, and clay was available for pottery. The latter was made by hand; the pottery wheel did not appear until dynastic times.<\/p>\n<p>Writing appeared in Egypt about the end of the predynastic period. Their hieroglyphs, or sacred signs, were called “the words of God” and were believed to be of divine origin. By 2700 <span>BC<\/span>, they had learned how to make “paper” by crisscrossing strips cut from the pith of the papyrus plant and forming them into sheets. About the same time they developed techniques for cutting stone from the quarry. Commonly they cut a groove along a line where a block was to be split off. There they drove in wedges of dry wood and wetted them to swell the wood and split the block off. Sometimes they lit a fire along the groove to heat the stone and then poured water over it to split it away from the main rock.<\/p>\n<h5>Unification of Egypt<\/h5>\n<p>In the period just before about 3100 <span>BC<\/span>, Egypt consisted of the two separate kingdoms: Lower Egypt and Upper Egypt. Then the king of Upper Egypt conquered Lower Egypt and unified the two lands under his sole rule. But the division was never quite forgotten, and Egypt was referred to as the “Two Lands” throughout its history. The pharaohs wore a double crown, a combination of the low red crown of Lower Egypt and the white crown of Upper Egypt. The king’s palace was called the “double palace,” and even the royal granary was double. The Hebrews recognized this duality, for throughout the OT they called Egypt <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mitzrayim<\/span>—a word with a dual ending.<\/p>\n<p>The pharaoh who was credited in the ancient sources with the unification of Egypt was sometimes called Narmer and sometimes Menes; presumably these were different names for the same person. Narmer-Menes began the first dynasty of united Egypt. Though the ancient Egyptians did not reckon in dynasties, modern historians follow the practice of Manetho, an Egyptian priest of the mid-third century <span>BC<\/span>, who compiled a list of kings down to the Persian period and divided it into 30 dynasties; later others added a 31st dynasty. The ancients did not use such terms as “Old Kingdom” and “Middle Kingdom” either, but modern scholars find them a convenient way of organizing Egyptian history.<\/p>\n<h5>Early Dynastic Period (3100–2700 BC)<\/h5>\n<p>Kings of the first two dynasties ruled at This, or Thinis, some 300 miles (482.7 kilometers) south of Cairo, but they built Memphis as another administrative center. They consolidated their hold over the land and developed the theory that the king was divine. Contacts with the outside world were considerable, and there are many indications in Egypt of influences from Mesopotamia at this time.<\/p>\n<h5>Old Kingdom (2700–2200 <span>BC<\/span>; Dynasties 3–6)<\/h5>\n<p>The Old Kingdom is especially remembered for its building operations. The pyramids were erected at that time. The capital was located at Memphis (biblical Noph), southwest of modern Cairo. Contacts with Phoenicia were numerous, and some believe Egyptians were so heavily involved there and elsewhere that it is proper to speak of the “Old Empire.” Artistic standards were being developed, and literary and medical beginnings were significant. Egypt was an absolute monarchy. The divine king was served by an army of officials; the whole population might be regimented during his lifetime to prepare his tomb.<\/p>\n<p>The first king of the third dynasty was Djoser, who built the step pyramid at Saqqara. The earliest great stone structure in the world, it consists of six layers, or steps, rising to a height of 204 feet (62.2 meters). The architect was Imhotep, his vizier or prime minister, who later was deified and credited with the beginnings of architecture, literature, and medicine, and identified by the Greeks with the god of medicine, Asklepios.<\/p>\n<p>The fourth-dynasty pharaohs were the great pyramid builders. They were responsible for erecting the three great pyramids at Giza between about 2600 and 2500 <span>BC<\/span>. The greatest of these, attributed to Khufu, covers 13 acres, originally rose to a height of 481 feet (146.6 meters), and contains about 2.3 million blocks of limestone averaging two and a half tons each. The second pyramid stands 447½ feet (136.4 meters) high and is accompanied by the sphinx, a couchant lion with the face of the king. The third pyramid is 204 feet (62.2 meters) high. These pyramids are not isolated examples. Several more small pyramids were built at Giza, and there were nine pyramid fields in all, scattered along the western bank of the Nile south of Memphis. During the fifth and sixth dynasties, there appeared the pyramid texts, carved and painted inscriptions, magical spells, and hymns that were supposed to aid the deceased in the afterlife.<\/p>\n<p>The artistic standards of Egypt were established during the Old Kingdom. The king and the gods were portrayed in a stylized form. Art tended to be conceptual rather than perceptual; that is, instead of reproducing what he saw, the artist painted what he knew to be there. For example, a school of fish became individual fish painted whole instead of being pictured naturally with one fish obscuring part of the fish next to it. In a similar manner the saddlebags on a donkey were shown with the one facing the viewer reproduced in a natural way; the other one, known to be behind the donkey’s back, was flipped up in the air above the donkey’s back.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of an individual determined his size in a pictorial representation. In a battle scene the pharaoh would be the largest figure, his commanding officers next in size, the common soldiers smaller yet, and enemy troops smallest of all.<\/p>\n<p>Egyptian art was intended to tell a story: much of it was more like a motion picture than a snapshot. A wine-making scene might include picking the grapes, treading out the juice (normally done by stomping with bare feet), and storing the juice in jars.<\/p>\n<p>Evidently Egyptian medical knowledge was also developing during the Old Kingdom. Though the sources for knowledge of Egyptian medicine are the great papyri of the Middle Kingdom, there is some indication that medical knowledge claims far greater antiquity. Numerous archaic expressions appear in the texts. Perhaps Egyptians knew something of the circulation of the blood; they talked about feeling the “voice of the heart.” Egyptian medical practice combined a hodgepodge of home remedies, charms and incantations, and scientific expertise. The Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus is a remarkable study dealing especially with the treatment of broken bones.<\/p>\n<p>During the sixth dynasty, the Old Kingdom began to break up as a result of poor rulers, aggressive nobles, fiscal difficulties, Nubian incursions in the south, and Asiatic attacks in the northeast.<\/p>\n<h5>First Intermediate Period (2200–2050 <span>BC<\/span>; Dynasties 7–11)<\/h5>\n<p>During the Old Kingdom, there was political stability and prosperity. The Nile flood came predictably and not devastatingly. There was enough for all to eat. If one behaved himself and worked hard and studied diligently in school, he could count on the proper promotions and general success in life. Familiar social, political, economic, and religious institutions remained constant and could be counted on to assume their regular place in the rhythm of life. Now the old aristocracy had fallen. The central government had broken down; nobles ruled many districts and took the title of kings. It was no longer true that if one did certain things he could count on success. The collapse of the whole philosophy of life of the Old Kingdom brought a spiritual upset and spawned attempts at reevaluation of life. Some of the literature of the time advocates the hedonistic approach of drowning one’s problems in pleasure, and some recommended a stoical approach—to steel oneself against the hardships of life.<\/p>\n<h5>Middle Kingdom (2050–1780 <span>BC<\/span>; 12th Dynasty)<\/h5>\n<p>Late in the 11th dynasty, princes of Thebes (440 miles, or 708 kilometers, south of Memphis) struggled to restore order and royal control and were partially successful. The Middle Kingdom was the period of the 12th dynasty, native Thebans who made their capital at Lisht in the Fayum. The six rulers of this dynasty took the names of Amenemhet and Sesostris. Each of them ruled some 30 years, and most of them took their sons on the throne as co-regents before death, eliminating the danger of a usurper. Since these kings did not dare to deprive the nobles of their largely independent power, a feudal condition existed during much of the period.<\/p>\n<p>Unable to function as absolute kings, these pharaohs had to rule by persuasion and the development of goodwill. Their rendering of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ma’at<\/span> (social justice) was constantly emphasized, and if a person could not obtain <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ma’at<\/span> at the hands of the nobles, he was promised it at the hands of the king. Their propaganda program also portrayed the pharaoh as concerned with responsible leadership instead of merely exercising authority. The pharaoh was the shepherd of his people.<\/p>\n<p>Middle Kingdom pharaohs were wise enough not to exhaust the treasury on great pyramids; instead, they undertook public works, such as a massive effort to increase cultivable acreage in the Fayum, construction of a defensive wall across the isthmus of Suez, and systematic working of the Sinai copper mines. Trade was extensive with Crete, Lebanon, Syria, and Punt.<\/p>\n<p>The Middle Kingdom was a time when Amon began to emerge as the great god of Egypt. He was grafted onto the sun god Re as Amon-Re and came to supersede the gods who had formerly stood for Thebes. As god of the nation, he was to become the great imperial god under the empire and thus to assume a universal quality. Religious texts, which had graced the walls of the pyramids during the Old Kingdom, now were inscribed on coffins instead, and their use was available to nobles as well as kings.<\/p>\n<p>A literary flowering occurred during the Middle Kingdom. Scientific literature is represented by such outstanding works as the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus and the Smith Surgical and Ebers Medical papyri. The “Instructions of Merikare” portrays something of the wisdom literature of the period, and the “Tale of Sinuhe” introduces the genre of entertainment literature.<\/p>\n<p>If one holds to the early date of the exodus (c. 1446 <span>BC<\/span>) and adds 430 years for the period of Israelite sojourn in Egypt (Ex 12:40), he will conclude that the Israelites entered Egypt about 1876 <span>BC<\/span>. This would be early in the reign of Sesostris III (of Senwosret, or Sen-Usert; 1878– 1840 <span>BC<\/span>). Sesostris was a vigorous king who extended Egyptian control south to the second cataract and campaigned up into Syria. He was also able to reverse the feudalistic conditions of the earlier period; he took away the power of the nobles and appointed royal officials in their stead. Possibly this achievement was somehow related to famine in Joseph’s day and Joseph’s use of that famine to fasten royal control on all the populace of the land (Gn 47:13-26).<\/p>\n<h5>Second Intermediate Period (1780–1570 <span>BC<\/span>; Dynasties 13–17)<\/h5>\n<p>With the passing of the strong 12th dynasty, Egypt relapsed once more into a period of disintegration. The Hyksos (“rulers of foreign lands”), Semites from Syria and Palestine, gradually infiltrated into the delta region and took control there about 1730 <span>BC<\/span>, maintaining their capital at Tanis, or Avaris, in the eastern delta. Meanwhile, Theban princes ruled weakly in the south and were commonly vassals to the Hyksos.<\/p>\n<p>Apparently as a result of Egyptian hatred of the Hyksos and stringent efforts to obliterate their memory, the Hyksos are a very shadowy people. Little remains on which to base a reconstruction of their history. Presumably they were responsible for introducing new kinds of bronze swords and daggers, the powerful compound bow, and above all the horse and chariot. The Egyptians adopted these with good success and used them to overthrow Hyksos power and then to build an empire in Palestine and Syria. The struggle of Theban princes to gain release from Hyksos control was prolonged and apparently fierce at times. The effort began late in the 16th century <span>BC<\/span> and was completed by Ahmose I (1570–1546 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>The Empire Period (1570–1090 <span>BC<\/span>; Dynasties 18–20)<\/h5>\n<p>Ahmose launched the 18th dynasty, and may be viewed as initiating the empire, or New Kingdom, period as well. After defeating the Hyksos in Egypt, he carried on successful campaigns against Nubia and Sharuhen in southern Palestine. Subsequently he was forced to subdue nobles who had managed to gain independence from the central government during the Hyksos era. Amenhotep I (1546–1525 <span>BC<\/span>) was also forced to fight the Nubians in the south and Libyans in the northwest.<\/p>\n<p>Dying without a son to succeed him, Amenhotep was followed on the throne by his sister Ahmose, who married a Thutmose (Thutmose I, 1525–1508 <span>BC<\/span>), probably a relative. Thutmose had to resubjugate rebellious Nubians during the first year of his reign and in subsequent campaigns considerably expanded Egypt’s Nubian holdings. Between those two Nubian attacks, he mounted an offensive in Syria; thus he could claim an empire that stretched from the Euphrates to the third cataract of the Nile. Moses may have been born early in his reign. Thutmose began the practice of carving out royal tombs in the Valley of the Kings west of Thebes.<\/p>\n<p>Evidently the only surviving child of the union of Thutmose and Ahmose was a daughter, Hatshepsut, who was married to Thutmose II (1508–1504 <span>BC<\/span>), a son of Thutmose I by a secondary princess. Thutmose II had to quell rebellious Nubians, but little else is known of his reign. Since his marriage to Hatshepsut produced two daughters but no sons, he decided to marry his daughter Marytre to a son by a minor wife (Thutmose III, 1504–1450 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Hatshepsut continued to rule during the minority of Thutmose III and refused to step aside when he came of age. She dominated Egypt from 1504–1482 <span>BC<\/span>. During her reign, Egypt enjoyed economic prosperity. Her building activities were considerable; not the least of her achievements was the erection of two great obelisks at the temple of Karnak at Luxor. The one remaining shaft stands 97½ feet (29.7 meters) high and weighs about 700,000 pounds (317,800 kilograms). She also conducted trade expeditions to the land of Punt. Hatshepsut is sometimes identified as the pharaoh’s daughter who rescued Moses from the Nile (Ex 2:5).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, in 1482 <span>BC<\/span>, Hatshepsut met an untimely end, probably at the hands of Thutmose III as he burst his bonds and assumed rule over the realm. Within 75 days he had assembled an army and was leading it north into Palestine-Syria to subjugate rebellious princes there. A great initial victory at Megiddo and a sack of the city after a seventh-month siege cowed northern Palestinians but did not break their will to resist. Thutmose found himself campaigning in Palestine or Nubia almost annually for the next two decades.<\/p>\n<p>What started out as an Egyptian impulse to punish the Hyksos turned into a spirit of imperialism, which enjoyed a sense of power in victory. As the frontiers expanded, there was almost always a peril to attend to somewhere during subsequent generations; some of them were real and some remote. Thus the sense of security that Egyptians had enjoyed during earlier centuries when they were shut up in their valley home gave way to a feeling of insecurity. And as the god Amon-Re smiled on Egyptian military efforts, he was rewarded with quantities of booty and handsome gifts. In time the temples gained so much wealth and power that they came to exercise great clout in political and economic circles. Especially great was the power of the priesthood of Amon at the temple of Karnak.<\/p>\n<p>Thutmose III was one of the greatest of Egypt’s ancient pharaohs. A conqueror and empire builder, he is often called the Napoleon of ancient Egypt. There was hardly a city of any size in the kingdom where he did not engage in building activities. With him began an effort to glorify the pharaoh as sportsman, athlete, and warrior that was to last for several generations; he had the powers of a god in conducting the affairs of men. If one accepts the early date of the exodus, Thutmose III is often considered to have been the pharaoh of the great oppression of the Hebrews.<\/p>\n<p>Thutmose was succeeded by his son Amenhotep II (1452–1425 <span>BC<\/span>), who may have been the pharaoh of the exodus. Serving briefly as co-regent with his father, he enjoyed an easy transition to sole rule over the empire. Though forced to conduct two campaigns into Syria and Palestine to subdue rebellious towns, he seems generally to have enjoyed a peaceful reign. Like his father, he sought to be known for his prowess as a sportsman and his ruthlessness as a warrior.<\/p>\n<p>After the little-known reign of Thutmose IV (1425– 1412 <span>BC<\/span>), Amenhotep III (1412–1375 <span>BC<\/span>) ascended to the throne of Egypt. Frequently called “the magnificent,” he reveled in the wealth that poured in from the empire. Once, in the brief space of only 14 days, he had excavated for his wife a lake 6,400 feet (1,950.6 meters) long and 1,200 feet (365.7 meters) wide. Here on the west bank of the Nile at Thebes a royal barge could float about while musicians aboard provided entertainment for the king and queen. Amenhotep built several temples, including a mortuary temple at Thebes, to which were attached the famous colossi of Memnon, seated statues of the king about 70 feet (21.3 meters) high. Though artists dutifully represented him as a great conqueror on temple walls, he seems to have engaged in stifling only one uprising in Nubia and probably never set foot in Palestine or Syria.<\/p>\n<p>Just as Amenhotep III made no effort to maintain the empire, neither did his son Amenhotep IV (1387–1366 <span>BC<\/span>). Because of ill health, Amenhotep III made his son co-regent in 1387 <span>BC<\/span>, but the son paid little attention to the affairs of state. Of a mystical bent, he devoted himself to the establishment of the cult of the sun god Aton at a new capital named Amarna. Aton worship was almost monotheistic (the king being worshiped along with the god) and thus constituted a virtual religious revolution, but it had few adherents outside the court. Religious changes, political changes connected with the move of the capital, and artistic changes were three of the main elements of the so-called “Amarna Revolution.” The loose naturalism in art, almost bordering on caricature, was not new, however, since it had been accepted as early as the reign of Thutmose IV. Amenhotep IV took the name Akhnaton (“spirit of Aton”).<\/p>\n<p>Akhnaton paid no attention to numerous appeals (the Amarna letters) from royal princes of Palestine and Syria for help to repel invaders, and the empire disintegrated. Acceptance of the early date of the exodus would place the Hebrew conquest and the subsequent settling-in process during the reigns of Amenhotep III and IV, precisely when Egyptian power over Palestine disappeared. However, the Habiru, which some of these appeals name as attackers, should not be identified as Hebrews. Much of what is said about them could not have been true of Hebrews.<\/p>\n<p>When Amenhotep IV died, Tutankhamen (1366–1357 <span>BC<\/span>) succeeded to the throne. A young boy of eight or nine, he was associated with Eye, a favorite of Akhnaton, as co-regent. When Tutankhamen died nine years later, Eye continued to rule until 1353 <span>BC<\/span>. Because of the discovery of his magnificently furnished, unrifled tomb in 1922, Tutankhamen has received attention out of proportion to his significance in antiquity. The thousands of objects from his tomb illustrate the wealth, grandeur, and artistic achievements of ancient Egypt and help to demonstrate what it meant for Moses to turn his back on the riches of Egypt (Heb 11:26).<\/p>\n<p>When Eye died, Harmhab, commander-in-chief of the army, succeeded to the throne (1353–1319 <span>BC<\/span>). He reorganized the state and reestablished a strong government. Dying childless, Harmhab designated as his successor Ramses I, commander of the army and vizier, or prime minister. Ramses (1319–1318 <span>BC<\/span>) and Seti I (1318–1299 <span>BC<\/span>) made valiant attempts to restore the Asiatic empire lost by Akhnaton. In connection with their efforts, the capital was moved to Tanis in the delta, from which military campaigns could be more effectively launched.<\/p>\n<p>Ramses II (1299–1232 <span>BC<\/span>) continued the effort to restore Egyptian control in Palestine. In the fifth year of his reign, he met the Hittites in battle at Kadesh on the Orontes in Syria and narrowly missed destruction of his forces. Subsequently, he fought battles all the way from southern Palestine to northern Syria. If the Hebrews were then in the land, as an early date of the exodus requires, they probably never made contact with the Egyptians because they were shepherds and vinedressers in the hills of Palestine, and Ramses moved along the coastal road. Finally, in his 21st regnal year, Ramses made a peace treaty with the Hittites and kept it to the end of his days. He built massively all over Egypt, notably at his capital of Tanis, at Thebes, at Abu Simbel (south of Aswan), and at Memphis. Many of those who accept a later date for the exodus believe he was the pharaoh of the exodus.<\/p>\n<p>Ramses’ 13th son, Merneptah (1232–1222 <span>BC<\/span>), was the only Egyptian king who claimed to have defeated the Hebrews in battle. But some scholars argue that he never invaded Asia and that this statement is to be interpreted as a customary claim of victory over the king’s opponents in surrounding lands, whether or not he ever met them in battle.<\/p>\n<p>Ramses III (1198–1164 <span>BC<\/span>) also fought off a Libyan invasion of the delta in his 5th and 11th regnal years, and in his eighth year he repulsed an invasion of Sea Peoples, among whom were Philistines. He was the last ruler of the empire period to maintain outposts in Palestine and Syria. In his later years the Egyptian economy deteriorated, and inflation and breakdown of the government’s ability to meet the public payroll brought great suffering. Hunger marches resulted.<\/p>\n<p>During the reigns of Ramses IV–XI (1167–1085 <span>BC<\/span>), there was a steady decline of the state. Graft and inflation increased. During the reign of Ramses IX (1138–1119 <span>BC<\/span>) unpaid mercenary troops seem to have roamed as marauders in the delta, and tomb robbery reached epidemic proportions. Finally Herihor, viceroy of Nubia and commander of military forces in the south, seized control of Upper Egypt and made himself high priest of Amon in Thebes. The empire had come to an end.<\/p>\n<h5>The Postempire Period<\/h5>\n<p>In the postempire period, Egypt came under the rule of Libyan kings (945–712 <span>BC<\/span>) and Ethiopian kings (712–670 <span>BC<\/span>). After a brief period of Assyrian domination (670–663 <span>BC<\/span>), a native dynasty asserted itself (663–525 <span>BC<\/span>). Then the Persians conquered and held the land until Alexander the Great marched through in 331. Thereafter, the Ptolemies ruled Egypt until the death of Cleopatra in 30 <span>BC<\/span>. At that point the Romans took over. They controlled the land when Mary and Joseph fled there after the birth of Jesus. During the Greco-Roman period, Hellenistic culture dominated Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>During the early postempire period, when Egyptian culture was still dominant, several kings figured in biblical history. During the fifth year of Rehoboam, king of Judah (probably 926 <span>BC<\/span>), Shishak I of Egypt invaded Judah and wrought great havoc there (1 Kgs 14:25-26). He even marched into the territory of Israel, as archaeological discoveries show. About 700 <span>BC<\/span>, in the days of King Hezekiah and the prophet Isaiah, Tirhakah of Ethiopia led an army into Palestine to help the Jews against invading Assyrians (2 Kgs 19:9). Near the end of the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>, Pharaoh Neco led an army through Judah to come to the aid of weakened Assyria. When King Josiah tried to stop him, the Hebrew monarch lost his life (2 Kgs 23:28-30). During the last days of the kingdom of Judah, while Nebuchadnezzar was besieging Jerusalem (588–586 <span>BC<\/span>), Pharaoh Hophra invaded Palestine in a vain effort to aid the Hebrews and defeat the Babylonians. Jeremiah predicted the Egyptians’ destruction (Jer 44:30).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SocialLife\">Social Life<\/p>\n<h5>Social Classes<\/h5>\n<p>In theory and in practice, the king owned all the land of Egypt. He was divine, and the gods had assigned to him the deeds to all the land. Of course, he made gifts—to the gods for the support of the temples, to his most loyal supporters, and for the maintenance of his own worship cult after his death. Thus, large parts of the kingdom slipped from his hands, but much remained as the possession of the crown. Although by the beginning of the Middle Kingdom, nobles held great tracts of land, the king managed to sweep aside their power and repossess a considerable amount of acreage. During the Empire, the king made large grants to the temples, especially the temple of Amon at Thebes. This generosity enhanced the power of the priesthood at the expense of the crown.<\/p>\n<p>As increasing amounts of land passed out of the control of the crown, and as social and economic life became more complex, a complicated class structure developed. The major division in Egyptian society was between the educated elite and the uneducated masses, but such an observation is too simplistic. At the top were the royal family and the great nobles. Below them was a group of lesser nobles and officials. Lower yet was a class of craftsmen who served both upper classes. Then, at least during the Empire, there were farmers who owned small plots which they worked themselves. At the bottom of the social structure were free serfs and slaves. Slavery became common only under the Empire, when slaves were obtained as prisoners of war, primarily in Palestine and Syria to the north and Nubia to the south. Some slaves found their way into domestic service at the palaces and on the large estates, but most of them worked on the land and some served in the mines. Slavery was never as important in Egypt as in other Near Eastern countries.<\/p>\n<h5>Family Life<\/h5>\n<p>Egyptians apparently married in early adolescence. Children were weaned at three. Boys were circumcised between the ages of 6 and 12. Although education was designed for boys of the upper classes, girls—especially of royal families—frequently received some formal education. Egyptian women evidently enjoyed much greater freedom and prestige than women of other Near Eastern countries. They went about rather freely; they accompanied their husbands in the conduct of business and even at social events. The family might even accompany the husband and father on an outing when he went fishing or hunting, though they did not take part in the action. Egyptians normally were not monogamous, the size of the harem being dictated by economic considerations. But the status of the chief wife was protected, and her first son was her husband’s heir. Professions open to women included the priesthood, midwifery, mourning, dancing, and perhaps scribal activity (there was a feminine word for scribe).<\/p>\n<p>Furniture was meager in an Egyptian house. Beds, chairs, stools, footstools, and stands for water jugs seem to have been the main items. Dining tables do not appear to have been used; there were stands on which trays of food might be placed. The poor simply sat on the floor, slept on mats on the floor, and spread out their meals on the floor.<\/p>\n<p>Houses were normally built of mud brick. Those of the wealthy were set amid gardens and frequently had decorative pools. Rooms might be color-washed on the inside and even decorated with frescoes. Roofs were flat and provided a second bedroom in the hottest months. Houses sometimes had a second story. Though remains of two or three villages of workmen on government projects have been found, virtually nothing is known of the layout or size of the important cities of ancient Egypt.<\/p>\n<h5>Dress<\/h5>\n<p>Women wore long linen garments extending from the armpits to the ankles and held up by straps over the shoulder. During the Empire period, the skirt was made fuller and pleated. Men wore loincloths fastened with a belt and extending to the knee. The upper classes often wore it pleated in front. During the Middle Kingdom and the latter part of the Empire, the loincloth was extended to midcalf, and men sometimes also wore a short-sleeved tunic. As a result of Asian influence, Egyptians of the upper classes frequently wore colored clothing during the Empire, instead of the prevailing white of other periods.<\/p>\n\n<p>Men were clean-shaven, but the king and a few top officials wore false beards for ceremonial purposes. Both men and women wore wigs, and both men and women used eye paint for medicinal and decorative purposes. Women wore lipstick and rouge and applied henna to their nails, the palms of their hands, and the soles of their feet. Men and women of the upper classes wore a variety of jewelry. People of all classes applied oils and fats to their skin to protect them in the hot, dry climate. The use of perfume was also universal.<\/p>\n<h5>Entertainment<\/h5>\n<p>There were no organized games in ancient Egypt. Sportsmen went out alone or with their families. They might hunt in the desert with bows and arrows and dogs, go fishing, try to knock down birds with a boomerang in a marsh, or go driving in a chariot. Boys and young men among the peasants especially enjoyed wrestling. Soldiers participated in war dances, which were a sort of physical drill. A game like checkers was the chief indoor game of men and women alike.<\/p>\n<h5>Law and Punishment<\/h5>\n<p>The king was viewed as the source of all law, and apparently there was no written code to which all could appeal. Courts followed precedent set in past cases, and periodically the king modified the legal system by new edicts. Procedure in the courts involved administering an oath to tell the truth, speeches by accuser and accused, judgment of the court, and note taking by a court recorder. In some cases torture was used to extract a confession.<\/p>\n<p>Treason, murder, and perjury were among the capital crimes. The latter was so serious because the court oath was taken “by the life of Pharaoh”; thus, swearing falsely meant injury to the king. Other serious crimes were punishable by mutilation (cutting off nose or ears) or hard labor in the mines and quarries (a living death). A person convicted of theft might be sentenced to repay double or triple what he had taken. Beating was the usual punishment for minor offenses. During the Empire, Egypt had a kind of police force with a contingent in each town.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Religion\">Religion<\/p>\n<p>All of Egyptian life was bound up with religious considerations. As the “gift of the Nile,” Egypt worshiped the great river as Hapi. The sun, which gave life to all things, was deified under such names as Amon-Re and Aton. The king was the offspring of the gods and was in some sense god incarnate. The 10 plagues in Moses’ day were an attack on the gods of the Egyptians. Turning the Nile into blood, bringing intense darkness on the land, and smiting the firstborn of the divine pharaoh involved a discrediting of Egyptian gods, as did the other plagues in various ways.<\/p>\n<p>The greatest concern of all individuals was immortality and the blessing of the gods upon them in the next life. Egyptians were not morbid in that they were preoccupied with death; they sought to project or continue as many of the pleasant aspects of this life as possible into the next life.<\/p>\n<p>Ancient Egyptians, unlike modern Western peoples, had no concept of an inanimate world. All natural phenomena were personalized and acted as friendly or unfriendly beings whenever they affected human activity. The gods were looked on as patrons of various activities or functions. Thus, Bes, a bandy-legged dwarf, was the patron of music and conception, and the goddess Taurt (a combination of hippopotamus, lioness, and crocodile) was associated with childbirth. Charms of both were made in abundance, and these two seem to have been more widely regarded among the masses than the chief gods of Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>Most important of all the gods was Re, or Ra, the sun god. The pharaoh was his physical son and earthly embodiment. When he died, he rejoined his divine father in the sky. Re generated the god Shu, personification of air, and the goddess Tefnut, personification of moisture. These gave birth to two children, Geb the earth god and Nut the sky goddess. The legends present different stories of how mankind came into being. One legend has Re generating them with his tears; another has Khnum forming them on his potter’s wheel. During the Empire, the god of Thebes, Amon, was identified with Re, and the sun god henceforth became known as Amon-Re. The great triad of Thebes was Amon, his consort Mut, and their son Khonsu (the moon god).<\/p>\n<p>Rivaling Amon-Re in importance was Osiris, god (king) of the dead. Legend has it that the benevolent ruler Osiris was murdered by his brother and brought back to life by his wife, Isis, through various magical devices; thereafter, he ruled in the west as king of the blessed dead. Eventually the experience of Osiris became that of every human being. Through magical formulas of the sort used by Isis, the individual could come to Osiris and even in some sense become Osiris. In addition to the knowledge and pronouncement of such formulas, the individual had to appear at a judgment for the weighing of his heart in the balance of righteousness. If declared innocent of wrongdoing, he was allowed to enter the kingdom of Osiris and enjoy a blessed hereafter.<\/p>\n<p>Some of these notions about exiting to the next life began to appear on the walls of pyramid tombs in the Old Kingdom (“pyramid texts”). During the Middle Kingdom, they were recorded on coffins (“coffin texts”). During the Empire, they were compiled as the “Book of the Dead.” Portions continued to be inscribed on the walls of tombs from the Empire period to about <span>AD<\/span> 300.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LearningandCulture\">Learning and Culture<\/p>\n<h5>Language and Writing<\/h5>\n<p>Ancient Egyptian was related to both Semitic and Hamitic languages. By about 311 <span>BC<\/span>, both hieroglyphics (pictorial characters used in inscriptions and more formal writing) and hieratic (a more running hand) were in use. Hieroglyphs may stand for a letter, a syllable, a sound, a word, or an idea. Francois Champollion cracked the decipherment of the hieroglyphs in 1822, primarily with the help of the Rosetta Stone. About 700 <span>BC<\/span>, a more rapid script called demotic came into being and continued to be written until early Christian times. Thereafter, Coptic, the ancient Egyptian language, came to be written down in a Greek script with a few extra letters.<\/p>\n<h5>Education<\/h5>\n<p>Egyptian education, available almost exclusively to upper-class boys, was designed to provide trained personnel for the priesthood, government offices, or the professions. Few had a chance to obtain any education at all. Boys began their training at an early age, commonly about four. Classes started early in the morning and normally ended about noon, in order to avoid the heat of the day. Reading, writing, and arithmetic were the standard fare. Good handwriting and the ability to compose letters were essential for all leaders in society. Eloquence was also valued. Learning by imitation was achieved through copying handwriting samples and model letters. Pieces of stone and potsherds provided inexpensive writing tablets, with papyrus being reserved for final drafts of important compositions. Knowledge of arithmetic was especially important for workers in government offices where taxes were collected in kind.<\/p>\n<p>The highest form of education was priestly training, and a prince might enroll in a school for priests. But often he was educated by tutors in classes held at the palace. Such classes normally were designed for children of the harem; princesses and nonroyal children might also attend them.<\/p>\n<p>After lower school, a boy might attend a “House of Life,” a kind of academy or senior college. There outstanding persons might lecture on a variety of subjects (including medicine). Presumably resembling Plato’s academy in Athens, such “Houses” did not have a prescribed curriculum or regular examinations. They were equipped with libraries.<\/p>\n<h5>Science<\/h5>\n<p>The ancient Egyptians excelled in applied mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. The annual flood of the Nile required an early development of the ability to resurvey the land rapidly after waters receded. Engineering skills were necessary to produce the irrigation system on which all Egyptian life depended. Moreover, their massive building projects necessitated a knowledge of mathematics. Egyptians could add and subtract but had cumbersome procedures for multiplication and division. They could calculate the area of a square, a triangle, a rectangle, and a circle and could do simple exercises in geometry. It is thought that experience rather than mathematical reasoning ability was responsible for most of their mathematical successes. They understood that the calendar must have 365¼ days in it, and they divided the year into 12 months and the months into three 10-day weeks. As early as 2000 <span>BC<\/span>, they had invented an adequate water clock.<\/p>\n<p>With their elaborate practice of embalming, one would expect their knowledge of anatomy to be superior. They distinguished between injuries and diseases and performed some amazing surgery. Treatment was, however, a curious combination of scientific and superstitious efforts. Egyptian scientists, with a practical rather than theoretical motivation, amassed a vast collection of facts about astronomy, chemistry, geography, medicine, surgery, mathematics, and natural history.<\/p>\n<h5>Architecture<\/h5>\n<p>As the ancient Egyptians built their great temples, they were most concerned with stability and enduring qualities. They were built to last forever. Thus they were made of stone (commonly limestone or sandstone) and roofed with great stone slabs supported on massive columns. The capitals generally were lotus, papyrus, or palm leaf in design. Great statues of a king were placed inside these temples; as mere architectural decoration, these sculptures appear stiff and formal. Light entered the temple through windows in the side of the raised central hall; the side aisles were lower. Though the roofs of these temples were flat, Egyptians knew how to construct a round arch by at least 2700 <span>BC<\/span>. Greatest of the remaining temples is the temple of Karnak at Luxor. The hypostyle hall there, built by Ramses II, has a forest of 134 sandstone columns, the central avenue of which has 12 columns that soar to a height of 70 feet (21.3 meters), the tallest columns in the ancient world.<\/p>\n\n<p>Pharaohs of the Old Kingdom built great pyramids as burial places along the west bank of the Nile south of Memphis. Pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom constructed smaller pyramids in the Fayum area. During the empire period, they carved tombs out of the cliffs west of Thebes. Pharaohs as divine beings covered the walls of their tombs at Thebes with religious scenes. The nobles had their tombs decorated with scenes of everyday life—a life that they wished to perpetuate beyond the grave.<\/p>\n<p>Houses were constructed of sun-dried brick; a few remain at Amarna and in a couple of abandoned workers’ camps.<\/p>\n<h5>Music<\/h5>\n<p>All that is known of Egyptian music must be gleaned from musical instruments found in tombs or representations of musical instruments painted on tomb walls. Three instruments used in religious exercises were the sistrum, tambourine, and castanets. The sistrum was a metal loop fastened to a handle. Holes were cut in the sides of the loop so that three metal rods could be loosely fastened in it. When the sistrum was shaken, the rods would rattle. This is the instrument referred to in 2 Samuel 6:5. Miriam used the Egyptian timbrel, or tambourine, in the celebration after crossing the Red Sea (Ex 15:20).<\/p>\n<p>Stringed instruments in ancient Egypt included the harp, lyre, lute, and a kind of guitar. Wind instruments included the single and double flute and the trumpet, the latter apparently used only for military purposes. At first, instruments were used singly to accompany a singer or dancer. Orchestras existed during the Empire period, when Israel escaped from Egyptian bondage.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Exodus, The; Pharaoh; Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EGYPT, EGYPTIAN<\/h3>\n<p>Egypt figured significantly as a stage on which the biblical narrative was enacted. Here Abraham lived in time of famine. Joseph, his great-grandson, was sold into slavery in Egypt and rose to a position equivalent to that of prime minister. Through Joseph’s intercession, Jacob and the rest of the Hebrew patriarchal family living in Palestine came to reside in the eastern delta region of Goshen—again as a result of famine. Initially treated favorably, they were later reduced to bondage; crying to God, ultimately they were released through the 10 plagues. Thereafter, for 40 years, they wandered in the Egyptian Sinai, where they received the law, specifications for building the tabernacle, and instructions for the priestly and sacrificial systems.<\/p>\n<p>After the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 <span>BC<\/span>, a group of Jews forced Jeremiah to go with them to Egypt (Jer 43:6-7), where they became numerous during the intertestamental period and gradually forgot their Hebrew. At Alexandria, Jews translated the OT into Greek (the Septuagint) between about 250 and 150 <span>BC<\/span>. This became the Bible of the early church, especially of those Christians outside Palestine.<\/p>\n<p>When the NT period opened, Egypt served as a refuge for Joseph, Mary, and Jesus as they fled to escape the assassination attempts of Herod the Great (Mt 2:13-23). At several other points, Hebrew and Egyptian history intersected—for example, when Shishak I invaded Palestine in the days of Rehoboam (1 Kgs 14:25-28).<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Geography<\/p>\n<p>• History<\/p>\n<p>• Social Life<\/p>\n<p>• Religion<\/p>\n<p>• Learning and Culture<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Geography\">Geography<\/p>\n<p>Egypt is the gift of the Nile, without which it could not exist. From time immemorial the Nile has deposited a thin layer of rich silt each year as it overflowed its banks. This ribbon of loam along its course contrasts vividly with the sterile sands that stretch from the river valley often as far as one can see. Then, having deposited this soil, the Nile provides water for its irrigation. This is necessary in a land that receives only six to eight inches (15 to 20 centimeters) of rainfall per year along the Mediterranean, two inches (5.1 centimeters) or less per year at Cairo, and less than that farther south.<\/p>\n<p>The Nile Valley is a tube, shut in on either side by cliffs and corked up at the southern end by cataracts, six places where the river has failed to cut a clear channel and where rocks are piled in irregular masses in the streambed. From cliff to cliff the Nile Valley ranges from about 10 to 31 miles (16 to 50 kilometers) in width between Cairo and Aswan. But the cultivated area along this stretch is only about six to ten miles (10 to 16 kilometers) wide, and narrows to one or two miles (1.5 to 3 kilometers) in width around Aswan. This cultivated tract is only about 5,000 square miles (8,045 square kilometers) in total.<\/p>\n<p>But Egypt is more than the valley. It is also the delta, a pie-shaped area north of Cairo also deposited by the Nile over the millennia. The delta measures some 125 miles (201.1 kilometers) north and south, and 115 miles (185 kilometers) east and west. Its more heavily populated southern region provided ancient Egyptians with some 5,000 square miles (8,045 square kilometers) of farmland, making the total of valley and delta about 10,000 square miles (16,090 square kilometers), roughly equal to the state of Maryland.<\/p>\n\n<p>West of the Nile extends a chain of oases, the largest of which is the Fayum, about 70 miles (112.6 kilometers) southwest of Cairo. In the center of the Fayum is Lake Qarun, which today covers 90 square miles (144.8 square kilometers) and is about 17 feet (5.2 meters) deep. It is surrounded by about a half million acres of good farmland.<\/p>\n<p>Ancient Egypt extended some 125 miles (201.1 kilometers) from the Mediterranean to Cairo (Lower Egypt) and another 600 miles (965.4 kilometers) from Cairo to Aswan (Upper Egypt). At the height of its power, Egypt also controlled the valley from the first cataract at Aswan south to the fourth cataract (Nubia). Thus its domain extended a total of some 1,100 miles (1,769.9 kilometers) south from the Mediterranean.<\/p>\n<p>Egypt’s most important resource was the rich loam along the Nile. On it, in antiquity, farmers raised grains, such as barley, emmer, and wheat. Onions, leeks, beans, and lentils were common vegetables. Dates, figs, and grapes were the most widely grown fruits. Oil came from castor oil plants and sesame rather than from the olive, as in other Mediterranean lands. Flax provided linen for clothing. Domesticated animals included oxen, cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, donkeys, and horses.<\/p>\n<p>Another important resource was an abundant supply of stone. Granite mountains rise between the Nile and the Red Sea, and deposits of alabaster and other fine stone are found in the same region. South of Aswan stand the granite mountains of Nubia. The quarries of Syene at Aswan are famous for their extremely hard and durable red granite. Gold was reasonably plentiful in the Nubian Mountains, and gold-bearing quartz veins were found in the mountains east of the Nile. Egyptians controlled the copper and turquoise mines of the Sinai during much of their important historical periods. In early antiquity some timber was available in Nubia for building the barges that carried the huge loads of stone for construction of pyramids, temples, and other magnificent structures.<\/p>\n<p>The Nile itself was an all-weather highway. One could float northward with the current and sail southward against the weak current (3 miles, or 5 kilometers, per hour) by means of the prevailing northerly winds. In fact, the Nile was the road of ancient Egypt. Land routes normally conducted traffic only to the river’s edge. In addition to the massive north-south commerce, ferry boats regularly moved from shore to shore.<\/p>\n<p>Along the river grew papyrus reeds, from which writing material could be made. And along the Nile, clay was deposited from which could be made pottery and sun-dried bricks for the houses of the poor.<\/p>\n<p>The ancient Egyptians lived in comparative isolation and peace in their valley home. The cataracts on the south, the deserts on east and west, and the harborless coast of the Mediterranean protected them from invasion and left them free to develop a homogeneous culture. Outside influences could sift in chiefly at the two northern corners of the delta. There were Semitic incursions from the east, and Libyans (possibly of European origin) from the west. Defenses were erected to protect against both. The security of their valley home and the regular provision of the sun and the Nile gave the Egyptians a sense of confidence and well-being that was not the lot of other peoples of the ancient Near East.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"History\">History<\/p>\n<p>It is wrong to think of the contemporary rulers of Egypt as descendants of the pharaohs or the present inhabitants of the land as Egyptians in any but a geographic sense. Egypt as an area of distinctive civilization ended with the Arab conquest in the seventh century <span>AD<\/span> and was greatly diluted during the several preceding centuries by Greco-Roman influences.<\/p>\n<h5>Origins<\/h5>\n<p>Though the origins of the ancient Egyptians are imperfectly understood, physically they show affinities to Hamites, Semites, and Mediterraneans. Hamites with negroid characteristics moved north from Nubia. Asiatics migrated across the Isthmus of Suez into the delta, and the small, brown, finely boned Mediterranean people dominated the Nile Valley from early times. However diverse their origins may have been, Egyptians of the ancient period were conscious of themselves as a nation, a distinctive people. Men stood about five feet six inches (1.7 meters) in height and women about five feet (1.5 meters). They were slight but strong-boned, with round heads and oval faces. The men had little face or body hair, and throughout antiquity they were commonly smooth-shaven, while Semites were bearded.<\/p>\n<p>Archaeologists list a series of successive predynastic cultures—Fayumic, Meridian, Tasian, Badarian, Amratian, Gerzean, and Semainean—who mastered basic techniques and learned how to build a civilization with minimal resources. Of course, they developed an irrigation system for the maintenance of an effective agricultural program. At a very early time they discovered how to turn flax into linen and thus to produce clothing. Boats were made from papyrus reeds and trees that grew along some of the streambeds in the south. Sun-baked bricks provided building material, and clay was available for pottery. The latter was made by hand; the pottery wheel did not appear until dynastic times.<\/p>\n<p>Writing appeared in Egypt about the end of the predynastic period. Their hieroglyphs, or sacred signs, were called “the words of God” and were believed to be of divine origin. By 2700 <span>BC<\/span>, they had learned how to make “paper” by crisscrossing strips cut from the pith of the papyrus plant and forming them into sheets. About the same time they developed techniques for cutting stone from the quarry. Commonly they cut a groove along a line where a block was to be split off. There they drove in wedges of dry wood and wetted them to swell the wood and split the block off. Sometimes they lit a fire along the groove to heat the stone and then poured water over it to split it away from the main rock.<\/p>\n<h5>Unification of Egypt<\/h5>\n<p>In the period just before about 3100 <span>BC<\/span>, Egypt consisted of the two separate kingdoms: Lower Egypt and Upper Egypt. Then the king of Upper Egypt conquered Lower Egypt and unified the two lands under his sole rule. But the division was never quite forgotten, and Egypt was referred to as the “Two Lands” throughout its history. The pharaohs wore a double crown, a combination of the low red crown of Lower Egypt and the white crown of Upper Egypt. The king’s palace was called the “double palace,” and even the royal granary was double. The Hebrews recognized this duality, for throughout the OT they called Egypt <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mitzrayim<\/span>—a word with a dual ending.<\/p>\n<p>The pharaoh who was credited in the ancient sources with the unification of Egypt was sometimes called Narmer and sometimes Menes; presumably these were different names for the same person. Narmer-Menes began the first dynasty of united Egypt. Though the ancient Egyptians did not reckon in dynasties, modern historians follow the practice of Manetho, an Egyptian priest of the mid-third century <span>BC<\/span>, who compiled a list of kings down to the Persian period and divided it into 30 dynasties; later others added a 31st dynasty. The ancients did not use such terms as “Old Kingdom” and “Middle Kingdom” either, but modern scholars find them a convenient way of organizing Egyptian history.<\/p>\n<h5>Early Dynastic Period (3100–2700 BC)<\/h5>\n<p>Kings of the first two dynasties ruled at This, or Thinis, some 300 miles (482.7 kilometers) south of Cairo, but they built Memphis as another administrative center. They consolidated their hold over the land and developed the theory that the king was divine. Contacts with the outside world were considerable, and there are many indications in Egypt of influences from Mesopotamia at this time.<\/p>\n<h5>Old Kingdom (2700–2200 <span>BC<\/span>; Dynasties 3–6)<\/h5>\n<p>The Old Kingdom is especially remembered for its building operations. The pyramids were erected at that time. The capital was located at Memphis (biblical Noph), southwest of modern Cairo. Contacts with Phoenicia were numerous, and some believe Egyptians were so heavily involved there and elsewhere that it is proper to speak of the “Old Empire.” Artistic standards were being developed, and literary and medical beginnings were significant. Egypt was an absolute monarchy. The divine king was served by an army of officials; the whole population might be regimented during his lifetime to prepare his tomb.<\/p>\n<p>The first king of the third dynasty was Djoser, who built the step pyramid at Saqqara. The earliest great stone structure in the world, it consists of six layers, or steps, rising to a height of 204 feet (62.2 meters). The architect was Imhotep, his vizier or prime minister, who later was deified and credited with the beginnings of architecture, literature, and medicine, and identified by the Greeks with the god of medicine, Asklepios.<\/p>\n<p>The fourth-dynasty pharaohs were the great pyramid builders. They were responsible for erecting the three great pyramids at Giza between about 2600 and 2500 <span>BC<\/span>. The greatest of these, attributed to Khufu, covers 13 acres, originally rose to a height of 481 feet (146.6 meters), and contains about 2.3 million blocks of limestone averaging two and a half tons each. The second pyramid stands 447½ feet (136.4 meters) high and is accompanied by the sphinx, a couchant lion with the face of the king. The third pyramid is 204 feet (62.2 meters) high. These pyramids are not isolated examples. Several more small pyramids were built at Giza, and there were nine pyramid fields in all, scattered along the western bank of the Nile south of Memphis. During the fifth and sixth dynasties, there appeared the pyramid texts, carved and painted inscriptions, magical spells, and hymns that were supposed to aid the deceased in the afterlife.<\/p>\n<p>The artistic standards of Egypt were established during the Old Kingdom. The king and the gods were portrayed in a stylized form. Art tended to be conceptual rather than perceptual; that is, instead of reproducing what he saw, the artist painted what he knew to be there. For example, a school of fish became individual fish painted whole instead of being pictured naturally with one fish obscuring part of the fish next to it. In a similar manner the saddlebags on a donkey were shown with the one facing the viewer reproduced in a natural way; the other one, known to be behind the donkey’s back, was flipped up in the air above the donkey’s back.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of an individual determined his size in a pictorial representation. In a battle scene the pharaoh would be the largest figure, his commanding officers next in size, the common soldiers smaller yet, and enemy troops smallest of all.<\/p>\n<p>Egyptian art was intended to tell a story: much of it was more like a motion picture than a snapshot. A wine-making scene might include picking the grapes, treading out the juice (normally done by stomping with bare feet), and storing the juice in jars.<\/p>\n<p>Evidently Egyptian medical knowledge was also developing during the Old Kingdom. Though the sources for knowledge of Egyptian medicine are the great papyri of the Middle Kingdom, there is some indication that medical knowledge claims far greater antiquity. Numerous archaic expressions appear in the texts. Perhaps Egyptians knew something of the circulation of the blood; they talked about feeling the “voice of the heart.” Egyptian medical practice combined a hodgepodge of home remedies, charms and incantations, and scientific expertise. The Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus is a remarkable study dealing especially with the treatment of broken bones.<\/p>\n<p>During the sixth dynasty, the Old Kingdom began to break up as a result of poor rulers, aggressive nobles, fiscal difficulties, Nubian incursions in the south, and Asiatic attacks in the northeast.<\/p>\n<h5>First Intermediate Period (2200–2050 <span>BC<\/span>; Dynasties 7–11)<\/h5>\n<p>During the Old Kingdom, there was political stability and prosperity. The Nile flood came predictably and not devastatingly. There was enough for all to eat. If one behaved himself and worked hard and studied diligently in school, he could count on the proper promotions and general success in life. Familiar social, political, economic, and religious institutions remained constant and could be counted on to assume their regular place in the rhythm of life. Now the old aristocracy had fallen. The central government had broken down; nobles ruled many districts and took the title of kings. It was no longer true that if one did certain things he could count on success. The collapse of the whole philosophy of life of the Old Kingdom brought a spiritual upset and spawned attempts at reevaluation of life. Some of the literature of the time advocates the hedonistic approach of drowning one’s problems in pleasure, and some recommended a stoical approach—to steel oneself against the hardships of life.<\/p>\n<h5>Middle Kingdom (2050–1780 <span>BC<\/span>; 12th Dynasty)<\/h5>\n<p>Late in the 11th dynasty, princes of Thebes (440 miles, or 708 kilometers, south of Memphis) struggled to restore order and royal control and were partially successful. The Middle Kingdom was the period of the 12th dynasty, native Thebans who made their capital at Lisht in the Fayum. The six rulers of this dynasty took the names of Amenemhet and Sesostris. Each of them ruled some 30 years, and most of them took their sons on the throne as co-regents before death, eliminating the danger of a usurper. Since these kings did not dare to deprive the nobles of their largely independent power, a feudal condition existed during much of the period.<\/p>\n<p>Unable to function as absolute kings, these pharaohs had to rule by persuasion and the development of goodwill. Their rendering of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ma’at<\/span> (social justice) was constantly emphasized, and if a person could not obtain <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ma’at<\/span> at the hands of the nobles, he was promised it at the hands of the king. Their propaganda program also portrayed the pharaoh as concerned with responsible leadership instead of merely exercising authority. The pharaoh was the shepherd of his people.<\/p>\n<p>Middle Kingdom pharaohs were wise enough not to exhaust the treasury on great pyramids; instead, they undertook public works, such as a massive effort to increase cultivable acreage in the Fayum, construction of a defensive wall across the isthmus of Suez, and systematic working of the Sinai copper mines. Trade was extensive with Crete, Lebanon, Syria, and Punt.<\/p>\n<p>The Middle Kingdom was a time when Amon began to emerge as the great god of Egypt. He was grafted onto the sun god Re as Amon-Re and came to supersede the gods who had formerly stood for Thebes. As god of the nation, he was to become the great imperial god under the empire and thus to assume a universal quality. Religious texts, which had graced the walls of the pyramids during the Old Kingdom, now were inscribed on coffins instead, and their use was available to nobles as well as kings.<\/p>\n<p>A literary flowering occurred during the Middle Kingdom. Scientific literature is represented by such outstanding works as the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus and the Smith Surgical and Ebers Medical papyri. The “Instructions of Merikare” portrays something of the wisdom literature of the period, and the “Tale of Sinuhe” introduces the genre of entertainment literature.<\/p>\n<p>If one holds to the early date of the exodus (c. 1446 <span>BC<\/span>) and adds 430 years for the period of Israelite sojourn in Egypt (Ex 12:40), he will conclude that the Israelites entered Egypt about 1876 <span>BC<\/span>. This would be early in the reign of Sesostris III (of Senwosret, or Sen-Usert; 1878– 1840 <span>BC<\/span>). Sesostris was a vigorous king who extended Egyptian control south to the second cataract and campaigned up into Syria. He was also able to reverse the feudalistic conditions of the earlier period; he took away the power of the nobles and appointed royal officials in their stead. Possibly this achievement was somehow related to famine in Joseph’s day and Joseph’s use of that famine to fasten royal control on all the populace of the land (Gn 47:13-26).<\/p>\n<h5>Second Intermediate Period (1780–1570 <span>BC<\/span>; Dynasties 13–17)<\/h5>\n<p>With the passing of the strong 12th dynasty, Egypt relapsed once more into a period of disintegration. The Hyksos (“rulers of foreign lands”), Semites from Syria and Palestine, gradually infiltrated into the delta region and took control there about 1730 <span>BC<\/span>, maintaining their capital at Tanis, or Avaris, in the eastern delta. Meanwhile, Theban princes ruled weakly in the south and were commonly vassals to the Hyksos.<\/p>\n<p>Apparently as a result of Egyptian hatred of the Hyksos and stringent efforts to obliterate their memory, the Hyksos are a very shadowy people. Little remains on which to base a reconstruction of their history. Presumably they were responsible for introducing new kinds of bronze swords and daggers, the powerful compound bow, and above all the horse and chariot. The Egyptians adopted these with good success and used them to overthrow Hyksos power and then to build an empire in Palestine and Syria. The struggle of Theban princes to gain release from Hyksos control was prolonged and apparently fierce at times. The effort began late in the 16th century <span>BC<\/span> and was completed by Ahmose I (1570–1546 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<h5>The Empire Period (1570–1090 <span>BC<\/span>; Dynasties 18–20)<\/h5>\n<p>Ahmose launched the 18th dynasty, and may be viewed as initiating the empire, or New Kingdom, period as well. After defeating the Hyksos in Egypt, he carried on successful campaigns against Nubia and Sharuhen in southern Palestine. Subsequently he was forced to subdue nobles who had managed to gain independence from the central government during the Hyksos era. Amenhotep I (1546–1525 <span>BC<\/span>) was also forced to fight the Nubians in the south and Libyans in the northwest.<\/p>\n<p>Dying without a son to succeed him, Amenhotep was followed on the throne by his sister Ahmose, who married a Thutmose (Thutmose I, 1525–1508 <span>BC<\/span>), probably a relative. Thutmose had to resubjugate rebellious Nubians during the first year of his reign and in subsequent campaigns considerably expanded Egypt’s Nubian holdings. Between those two Nubian attacks, he mounted an offensive in Syria; thus he could claim an empire that stretched from the Euphrates to the third cataract of the Nile. Moses may have been born early in his reign. Thutmose began the practice of carving out royal tombs in the Valley of the Kings west of Thebes.<\/p>\n<p>Evidently the only surviving child of the union of Thutmose and Ahmose was a daughter, Hatshepsut, who was married to Thutmose II (1508–1504 <span>BC<\/span>), a son of Thutmose I by a secondary princess. Thutmose II had to quell rebellious Nubians, but little else is known of his reign. Since his marriage to Hatshepsut produced two daughters but no sons, he decided to marry his daughter Marytre to a son by a minor wife (Thutmose III, 1504–1450 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>Hatshepsut continued to rule during the minority of Thutmose III and refused to step aside when he came of age. She dominated Egypt from 1504–1482 <span>BC<\/span>. During her reign, Egypt enjoyed economic prosperity. Her building activities were considerable; not the least of her achievements was the erection of two great obelisks at the temple of Karnak at Luxor. The one remaining shaft stands 97½ feet (29.7 meters) high and weighs about 700,000 pounds (317,800 kilograms). She also conducted trade expeditions to the land of Punt. Hatshepsut is sometimes identified as the pharaoh’s daughter who rescued Moses from the Nile (Ex 2:5).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, in 1482 <span>BC<\/span>, Hatshepsut met an untimely end, probably at the hands of Thutmose III as he burst his bonds and assumed rule over the realm. Within 75 days he had assembled an army and was leading it north into Palestine-Syria to subjugate rebellious princes there. A great initial victory at Megiddo and a sack of the city after a seventh-month siege cowed northern Palestinians but did not break their will to resist. Thutmose found himself campaigning in Palestine or Nubia almost annually for the next two decades.<\/p>\n<p>What started out as an Egyptian impulse to punish the Hyksos turned into a spirit of imperialism, which enjoyed a sense of power in victory. As the frontiers expanded, there was almost always a peril to attend to somewhere during subsequent generations; some of them were real and some remote. Thus the sense of security that Egyptians had enjoyed during earlier centuries when they were shut up in their valley home gave way to a feeling of insecurity. And as the god Amon-Re smiled on Egyptian military efforts, he was rewarded with quantities of booty and handsome gifts. In time the temples gained so much wealth and power that they came to exercise great clout in political and economic circles. Especially great was the power of the priesthood of Amon at the temple of Karnak.<\/p>\n<p>Thutmose III was one of the greatest of Egypt’s ancient pharaohs. A conqueror and empire builder, he is often called the Napoleon of ancient Egypt. There was hardly a city of any size in the kingdom where he did not engage in building activities. With him began an effort to glorify the pharaoh as sportsman, athlete, and warrior that was to last for several generations; he had the powers of a god in conducting the affairs of men. If one accepts the early date of the exodus, Thutmose III is often considered to have been the pharaoh of the great oppression of the Hebrews.<\/p>\n<p>Thutmose was succeeded by his son Amenhotep II (1452–1425 <span>BC<\/span>), who may have been the pharaoh of the exodus. Serving briefly as co-regent with his father, he enjoyed an easy transition to sole rule over the empire. Though forced to conduct two campaigns into Syria and Palestine to subdue rebellious towns, he seems generally to have enjoyed a peaceful reign. Like his father, he sought to be known for his prowess as a sportsman and his ruthlessness as a warrior.<\/p>\n<p>After the little-known reign of Thutmose IV (1425– 1412 <span>BC<\/span>), Amenhotep III (1412–1375 <span>BC<\/span>) ascended to the throne of Egypt. Frequently called “the magnificent,” he reveled in the wealth that poured in from the empire. Once, in the brief space of only 14 days, he had excavated for his wife a lake 6,400 feet (1,950.6 meters) long and 1,200 feet (365.7 meters) wide. Here on the west bank of the Nile at Thebes a royal barge could float about while musicians aboard provided entertainment for the king and queen. Amenhotep built several temples, including a mortuary temple at Thebes, to which were attached the famous colossi of Memnon, seated statues of the king about 70 feet (21.3 meters) high. Though artists dutifully represented him as a great conqueror on temple walls, he seems to have engaged in stifling only one uprising in Nubia and probably never set foot in Palestine or Syria.<\/p>\n<p>Just as Amenhotep III made no effort to maintain the empire, neither did his son Amenhotep IV (1387–1366 <span>BC<\/span>). Because of ill health, Amenhotep III made his son co-regent in 1387 <span>BC<\/span>, but the son paid little attention to the affairs of state. Of a mystical bent, he devoted himself to the establishment of the cult of the sun god Aton at a new capital named Amarna. Aton worship was almost monotheistic (the king being worshiped along with the god) and thus constituted a virtual religious revolution, but it had few adherents outside the court. Religious changes, political changes connected with the move of the capital, and artistic changes were three of the main elements of the so-called “Amarna Revolution.” The loose naturalism in art, almost bordering on caricature, was not new, however, since it had been accepted as early as the reign of Thutmose IV. Amenhotep IV took the name Akhnaton (“spirit of Aton”).<\/p>\n<p>Akhnaton paid no attention to numerous appeals (the Amarna letters) from royal princes of Palestine and Syria for help to repel invaders, and the empire disintegrated. Acceptance of the early date of the exodus would place the Hebrew conquest and the subsequent settling-in process during the reigns of Amenhotep III and IV, precisely when Egyptian power over Palestine disappeared. However, the Habiru, which some of these appeals name as attackers, should not be identified as Hebrews. Much of what is said about them could not have been true of Hebrews.<\/p>\n<p>When Amenhotep IV died, Tutankhamen (1366–1357 <span>BC<\/span>) succeeded to the throne. A young boy of eight or nine, he was associated with Eye, a favorite of Akhnaton, as co-regent. When Tutankhamen died nine years later, Eye continued to rule until 1353 <span>BC<\/span>. Because of the discovery of his magnificently furnished, unrifled tomb in 1922, Tutankhamen has received attention out of proportion to his significance in antiquity. The thousands of objects from his tomb illustrate the wealth, grandeur, and artistic achievements of ancient Egypt and help to demonstrate what it meant for Moses to turn his back on the riches of Egypt (Heb 11:26).<\/p>\n<p>When Eye died, Harmhab, commander-in-chief of the army, succeeded to the throne (1353–1319 <span>BC<\/span>). He reorganized the state and reestablished a strong government. Dying childless, Harmhab designated as his successor Ramses I, commander of the army and vizier, or prime minister. Ramses (1319–1318 <span>BC<\/span>) and Seti I (1318–1299 <span>BC<\/span>) made valiant attempts to restore the Asiatic empire lost by Akhnaton. In connection with their efforts, the capital was moved to Tanis in the delta, from which military campaigns could be more effectively launched.<\/p>\n<p>Ramses II (1299–1232 <span>BC<\/span>) continued the effort to restore Egyptian control in Palestine. In the fifth year of his reign, he met the Hittites in battle at Kadesh on the Orontes in Syria and narrowly missed destruction of his forces. Subsequently, he fought battles all the way from southern Palestine to northern Syria. If the Hebrews were then in the land, as an early date of the exodus requires, they probably never made contact with the Egyptians because they were shepherds and vinedressers in the hills of Palestine, and Ramses moved along the coastal road. Finally, in his 21st regnal year, Ramses made a peace treaty with the Hittites and kept it to the end of his days. He built massively all over Egypt, notably at his capital of Tanis, at Thebes, at Abu Simbel (south of Aswan), and at Memphis. Many of those who accept a later date for the exodus believe he was the pharaoh of the exodus.<\/p>\n<p>Ramses’ 13th son, Merneptah (1232–1222 <span>BC<\/span>), was the only Egyptian king who claimed to have defeated the Hebrews in battle. But some scholars argue that he never invaded Asia and that this statement is to be interpreted as a customary claim of victory over the king’s opponents in surrounding lands, whether or not he ever met them in battle.<\/p>\n<p>Ramses III (1198–1164 <span>BC<\/span>) also fought off a Libyan invasion of the delta in his 5th and 11th regnal years, and in his eighth year he repulsed an invasion of Sea Peoples, among whom were Philistines. He was the last ruler of the empire period to maintain outposts in Palestine and Syria. In his later years the Egyptian economy deteriorated, and inflation and breakdown of the government’s ability to meet the public payroll brought great suffering. Hunger marches resulted.<\/p>\n<p>During the reigns of Ramses IV–XI (1167–1085 <span>BC<\/span>), there was a steady decline of the state. Graft and inflation increased. During the reign of Ramses IX (1138–1119 <span>BC<\/span>) unpaid mercenary troops seem to have roamed as marauders in the delta, and tomb robbery reached epidemic proportions. Finally Herihor, viceroy of Nubia and commander of military forces in the south, seized control of Upper Egypt and made himself high priest of Amon in Thebes. The empire had come to an end.<\/p>\n<h5>The Postempire Period<\/h5>\n<p>In the postempire period, Egypt came under the rule of Libyan kings (945–712 <span>BC<\/span>) and Ethiopian kings (712–670 <span>BC<\/span>). After a brief period of Assyrian domination (670–663 <span>BC<\/span>), a native dynasty asserted itself (663–525 <span>BC<\/span>). Then the Persians conquered and held the land until Alexander the Great marched through in 331. Thereafter, the Ptolemies ruled Egypt until the death of Cleopatra in 30 <span>BC<\/span>. At that point the Romans took over. They controlled the land when Mary and Joseph fled there after the birth of Jesus. During the Greco-Roman period, Hellenistic culture dominated Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>During the early postempire period, when Egyptian culture was still dominant, several kings figured in biblical history. During the fifth year of Rehoboam, king of Judah (probably 926 <span>BC<\/span>), Shishak I of Egypt invaded Judah and wrought great havoc there (1 Kgs 14:25-26). He even marched into the territory of Israel, as archaeological discoveries show. About 700 <span>BC<\/span>, in the days of King Hezekiah and the prophet Isaiah, Tirhakah of Ethiopia led an army into Palestine to help the Jews against invading Assyrians (2 Kgs 19:9). Near the end of the seventh century <span>BC<\/span>, Pharaoh Neco led an army through Judah to come to the aid of weakened Assyria. When King Josiah tried to stop him, the Hebrew monarch lost his life (2 Kgs 23:28-30). During the last days of the kingdom of Judah, while Nebuchadnezzar was besieging Jerusalem (588–586 <span>BC<\/span>), Pharaoh Hophra invaded Palestine in a vain effort to aid the Hebrews and defeat the Babylonians. Jeremiah predicted the Egyptians’ destruction (Jer 44:30).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"SocialLife\">Social Life<\/p>\n<h5>Social Classes<\/h5>\n<p>In theory and in practice, the king owned all the land of Egypt. He was divine, and the gods had assigned to him the deeds to all the land. Of course, he made gifts—to the gods for the support of the temples, to his most loyal supporters, and for the maintenance of his own worship cult after his death. Thus, large parts of the kingdom slipped from his hands, but much remained as the possession of the crown. Although by the beginning of the Middle Kingdom, nobles held great tracts of land, the king managed to sweep aside their power and repossess a considerable amount of acreage. During the Empire, the king made large grants to the temples, especially the temple of Amon at Thebes. This generosity enhanced the power of the priesthood at the expense of the crown.<\/p>\n<p>As increasing amounts of land passed out of the control of the crown, and as social and economic life became more complex, a complicated class structure developed. The major division in Egyptian society was between the educated elite and the uneducated masses, but such an observation is too simplistic. At the top were the royal family and the great nobles. Below them was a group of lesser nobles and officials. Lower yet was a class of craftsmen who served both upper classes. Then, at least during the Empire, there were farmers who owned small plots which they worked themselves. At the bottom of the social structure were free serfs and slaves. Slavery became common only under the Empire, when slaves were obtained as prisoners of war, primarily in Palestine and Syria to the north and Nubia to the south. Some slaves found their way into domestic service at the palaces and on the large estates, but most of them worked on the land and some served in the mines. Slavery was never as important in Egypt as in other Near Eastern countries.<\/p>\n<h5>Family Life<\/h5>\n<p>Egyptians apparently married in early adolescence. Children were weaned at three. Boys were circumcised between the ages of 6 and 12. Although education was designed for boys of the upper classes, girls—especially of royal families—frequently received some formal education. Egyptian women evidently enjoyed much greater freedom and prestige than women of other Near Eastern countries. They went about rather freely; they accompanied their husbands in the conduct of business and even at social events. The family might even accompany the husband and father on an outing when he went fishing or hunting, though they did not take part in the action. Egyptians normally were not monogamous, the size of the harem being dictated by economic considerations. But the status of the chief wife was protected, and her first son was her husband’s heir. Professions open to women included the priesthood, midwifery, mourning, dancing, and perhaps scribal activity (there was a feminine word for scribe).<\/p>\n<p>Furniture was meager in an Egyptian house. Beds, chairs, stools, footstools, and stands for water jugs seem to have been the main items. Dining tables do not appear to have been used; there were stands on which trays of food might be placed. The poor simply sat on the floor, slept on mats on the floor, and spread out their meals on the floor.<\/p>\n<p>Houses were normally built of mud brick. Those of the wealthy were set amid gardens and frequently had decorative pools. Rooms might be color-washed on the inside and even decorated with frescoes. Roofs were flat and provided a second bedroom in the hottest months. Houses sometimes had a second story. Though remains of two or three villages of workmen on government projects have been found, virtually nothing is known of the layout or size of the important cities of ancient Egypt.<\/p>\n<h5>Dress<\/h5>\n<p>Women wore long linen garments extending from the armpits to the ankles and held up by straps over the shoulder. During the Empire period, the skirt was made fuller and pleated. Men wore loincloths fastened with a belt and extending to the knee. The upper classes often wore it pleated in front. During the Middle Kingdom and the latter part of the Empire, the loincloth was extended to midcalf, and men sometimes also wore a short-sleeved tunic. As a result of Asian influence, Egyptians of the upper classes frequently wore colored clothing during the Empire, instead of the prevailing white of other periods.<\/p>\n\n<p>Men were clean-shaven, but the king and a few top officials wore false beards for ceremonial purposes. Both men and women wore wigs, and both men and women used eye paint for medicinal and decorative purposes. Women wore lipstick and rouge and applied henna to their nails, the palms of their hands, and the soles of their feet. Men and women of the upper classes wore a variety of jewelry. People of all classes applied oils and fats to their skin to protect them in the hot, dry climate. The use of perfume was also universal.<\/p>\n<h5>Entertainment<\/h5>\n<p>There were no organized games in ancient Egypt. Sportsmen went out alone or with their families. They might hunt in the desert with bows and arrows and dogs, go fishing, try to knock down birds with a boomerang in a marsh, or go driving in a chariot. Boys and young men among the peasants especially enjoyed wrestling. Soldiers participated in war dances, which were a sort of physical drill. A game like checkers was the chief indoor game of men and women alike.<\/p>\n<h5>Law and Punishment<\/h5>\n<p>The king was viewed as the source of all law, and apparently there was no written code to which all could appeal. Courts followed precedent set in past cases, and periodically the king modified the legal system by new edicts. Procedure in the courts involved administering an oath to tell the truth, speeches by accuser and accused, judgment of the court, and note taking by a court recorder. In some cases torture was used to extract a confession.<\/p>\n<p>Treason, murder, and perjury were among the capital crimes. The latter was so serious because the court oath was taken “by the life of Pharaoh”; thus, swearing falsely meant injury to the king. Other serious crimes were punishable by mutilation (cutting off nose or ears) or hard labor in the mines and quarries (a living death). A person convicted of theft might be sentenced to repay double or triple what he had taken. Beating was the usual punishment for minor offenses. During the Empire, Egypt had a kind of police force with a contingent in each town.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Religion\">Religion<\/p>\n<p>All of Egyptian life was bound up with religious considerations. As the “gift of the Nile,” Egypt worshiped the great river as Hapi. The sun, which gave life to all things, was deified under such names as Amon-Re and Aton. The king was the offspring of the gods and was in some sense god incarnate. The 10 plagues in Moses’ day were an attack on the gods of the Egyptians. Turning the Nile into blood, bringing intense darkness on the land, and smiting the firstborn of the divine pharaoh involved a discrediting of Egyptian gods, as did the other plagues in various ways.<\/p>\n<p>The greatest concern of all individuals was immortality and the blessing of the gods upon them in the next life. Egyptians were not morbid in that they were preoccupied with death; they sought to project or continue as many of the pleasant aspects of this life as possible into the next life.<\/p>\n<p>Ancient Egyptians, unlike modern Western peoples, had no concept of an inanimate world. All natural phenomena were personalized and acted as friendly or unfriendly beings whenever they affected human activity. The gods were looked on as patrons of various activities or functions. Thus, Bes, a bandy-legged dwarf, was the patron of music and conception, and the goddess Taurt (a combination of hippopotamus, lioness, and crocodile) was associated with childbirth. Charms of both were made in abundance, and these two seem to have been more widely regarded among the masses than the chief gods of Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>Most important of all the gods was Re, or Ra, the sun god. The pharaoh was his physical son and earthly embodiment. When he died, he rejoined his divine father in the sky. Re generated the god Shu, personification of air, and the goddess Tefnut, personification of moisture. These gave birth to two children, Geb the earth god and Nut the sky goddess. The legends present different stories of how mankind came into being. One legend has Re generating them with his tears; another has Khnum forming them on his potter’s wheel. During the Empire, the god of Thebes, Amon, was identified with Re, and the sun god henceforth became known as Amon-Re. The great triad of Thebes was Amon, his consort Mut, and their son Khonsu (the moon god).<\/p>\n<p>Rivaling Amon-Re in importance was Osiris, god (king) of the dead. Legend has it that the benevolent ruler Osiris was murdered by his brother and brought back to life by his wife, Isis, through various magical devices; thereafter, he ruled in the west as king of the blessed dead. Eventually the experience of Osiris became that of every human being. Through magical formulas of the sort used by Isis, the individual could come to Osiris and even in some sense become Osiris. In addition to the knowledge and pronouncement of such formulas, the individual had to appear at a judgment for the weighing of his heart in the balance of righteousness. If declared innocent of wrongdoing, he was allowed to enter the kingdom of Osiris and enjoy a blessed hereafter.<\/p>\n<p>Some of these notions about exiting to the next life began to appear on the walls of pyramid tombs in the Old Kingdom (“pyramid texts”). During the Middle Kingdom, they were recorded on coffins (“coffin texts”). During the Empire, they were compiled as the “Book of the Dead.” Portions continued to be inscribed on the walls of tombs from the Empire period to about <span>AD<\/span> 300.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LearningandCulture\">Learning and Culture<\/p>\n<h5>Language and Writing<\/h5>\n<p>Ancient Egyptian was related to both Semitic and Hamitic languages. By about 311 <span>BC<\/span>, both hieroglyphics (pictorial characters used in inscriptions and more formal writing) and hieratic (a more running hand) were in use. Hieroglyphs may stand for a letter, a syllable, a sound, a word, or an idea. Francois Champollion cracked the decipherment of the hieroglyphs in 1822, primarily with the help of the Rosetta Stone. About 700 <span>BC<\/span>, a more rapid script called demotic came into being and continued to be written until early Christian times. Thereafter, Coptic, the ancient Egyptian language, came to be written down in a Greek script with a few extra letters.<\/p>\n<h5>Education<\/h5>\n<p>Egyptian education, available almost exclusively to upper-class boys, was designed to provide trained personnel for the priesthood, government offices, or the professions. Few had a chance to obtain any education at all. Boys began their training at an early age, commonly about four. Classes started early in the morning and normally ended about noon, in order to avoid the heat of the day. Reading, writing, and arithmetic were the standard fare. Good handwriting and the ability to compose letters were essential for all leaders in society. Eloquence was also valued. Learning by imitation was achieved through copying handwriting samples and model letters. Pieces of stone and potsherds provided inexpensive writing tablets, with papyrus being reserved for final drafts of important compositions. Knowledge of arithmetic was especially important for workers in government offices where taxes were collected in kind.<\/p>\n<p>The highest form of education was priestly training, and a prince might enroll in a school for priests. But often he was educated by tutors in classes held at the palace. Such classes normally were designed for children of the harem; princesses and nonroyal children might also attend them.<\/p>\n<p>After lower school, a boy might attend a “House of Life,” a kind of academy or senior college. There outstanding persons might lecture on a variety of subjects (including medicine). Presumably resembling Plato’s academy in Athens, such “Houses” did not have a prescribed curriculum or regular examinations. They were equipped with libraries.<\/p>\n<h5>Science<\/h5>\n<p>The ancient Egyptians excelled in applied mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. The annual flood of the Nile required an early development of the ability to resurvey the land rapidly after waters receded. Engineering skills were necessary to produce the irrigation system on which all Egyptian life depended. Moreover, their massive building projects necessitated a knowledge of mathematics. Egyptians could add and subtract but had cumbersome procedures for multiplication and division. They could calculate the area of a square, a triangle, a rectangle, and a circle and could do simple exercises in geometry. It is thought that experience rather than mathematical reasoning ability was responsible for most of their mathematical successes. They understood that the calendar must have 365¼ days in it, and they divided the year into 12 months and the months into three 10-day weeks. As early as 2000 <span>BC<\/span>, they had invented an adequate water clock.<\/p>\n<p>With their elaborate practice of embalming, one would expect their knowledge of anatomy to be superior. They distinguished between injuries and diseases and performed some amazing surgery. Treatment was, however, a curious combination of scientific and superstitious efforts. Egyptian scientists, with a practical rather than theoretical motivation, amassed a vast collection of facts about astronomy, chemistry, geography, medicine, surgery, mathematics, and natural history.<\/p>\n<h5>Architecture<\/h5>\n<p>As the ancient Egyptians built their great temples, they were most concerned with stability and enduring qualities. They were built to last forever. Thus they were made of stone (commonly limestone or sandstone) and roofed with great stone slabs supported on massive columns. The capitals generally were lotus, papyrus, or palm leaf in design. Great statues of a king were placed inside these temples; as mere architectural decoration, these sculptures appear stiff and formal. Light entered the temple through windows in the side of the raised central hall; the side aisles were lower. Though the roofs of these temples were flat, Egyptians knew how to construct a round arch by at least 2700 <span>BC<\/span>. Greatest of the remaining temples is the temple of Karnak at Luxor. The hypostyle hall there, built by Ramses II, has a forest of 134 sandstone columns, the central avenue of which has 12 columns that soar to a height of 70 feet (21.3 meters), the tallest columns in the ancient world.<\/p>\n\n<p>Pharaohs of the Old Kingdom built great pyramids as burial places along the west bank of the Nile south of Memphis. Pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom constructed smaller pyramids in the Fayum area. During the empire period, they carved tombs out of the cliffs west of Thebes. Pharaohs as divine beings covered the walls of their tombs at Thebes with religious scenes. The nobles had their tombs decorated with scenes of everyday life—a life that they wished to perpetuate beyond the grave.<\/p>\n<p>Houses were constructed of sun-dried brick; a few remain at Amarna and in a couple of abandoned workers’ camps.<\/p>\n<h5>Music<\/h5>\n<p>All that is known of Egyptian music must be gleaned from musical instruments found in tombs or representations of musical instruments painted on tomb walls. Three instruments used in religious exercises were the sistrum, tambourine, and castanets. The sistrum was a metal loop fastened to a handle. Holes were cut in the sides of the loop so that three metal rods could be loosely fastened in it. When the sistrum was shaken, the rods would rattle. This is the instrument referred to in 2 Samuel 6:5. Miriam used the Egyptian timbrel, or tambourine, in the celebration after crossing the Red Sea (Ex 15:20).<\/p>\n<p>Stringed instruments in ancient Egypt included the harp, lyre, lute, and a kind of guitar. Wind instruments included the single and double flute and the trumpet, the latter apparently used only for military purposes. At first, instruments were used singly to accompany a singer or dancer. Orchestras existed during the Empire period, when Israel escaped from Egyptian bondage.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Exodus, The; Pharaoh; Plagues upon Egypt.<\/p>","summary_ro":"EGYPT, EGYPTIAN Egypt figured significantly as a stage on which the biblical narrative was enacted. Here Abraham lived in time of famine. Joseph, his great-grandson, was sold into slavery in Egypt and rose to a position equivalent to that of prime minister. Through Joseph’s intercession, Jacob and the rest of the Hebrew patriarchal family living in Palestine came to reside in the eastern delta region of Goshen—again as a result of famine. Initially treated favorably, they were later reduced t...","summary_en":"EGYPT, EGYPTIAN Egypt figured significantly as a stage on which the biblical narrative was enacted. Here Abraham lived in time of famine. Joseph, his great-grandson, was sold into slavery in Egypt and rose to a position equivalent to that of prime minister. Through Joseph’s intercession, Jacob and the rest of the Hebrew patriarchal family living in Palestine came to reside in the eastern delta region of Goshen—again as a result of famine. Initially treated favorably, they were later reduced t...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26669,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Musical Instruments","title_en":"Musical Instruments","content_ro":"<h3>MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS<\/h3>\n<p>Stringed, wind, and percussion instruments used to make music.<\/p>\n<p>In contrast to the detailed accounts of liturgical music in the OT, the descriptions of the musical instruments themselves are rather sparse. Because of the injunction of the second commandment, interpreted by the Hebrews as discouraging pictorial representations, there are few drawings of Hebrew instruments. In addition to the instruments used in the temple, the book of Daniel lists six instruments played in King Nebuchadnezzar’s court.<\/p>\n<p>The ancient Hebrews made certain distinctions among the instruments, not on musical but on ethical grounds. Some instruments were considered “unclean” and were not allowed in temple worship.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StringedInstruments\">Stringed Instruments<\/p>\n<p>The stringed instruments were favored by the Jewish people. In many ancient civilizations the strings were considered the most masculine and noble (e.g., David playing the lyre); the Jews considered them the most suitable for accompaniment in the temple service. The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">minim<\/span> is used in Psalm 150:4 to designate the entire family of stringed instruments used in the praise of God.<\/p>\n\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Asor<\/span> appears three times in the book of Psalms (Pss 33:2; 92:3; 144:9). Although the word derives from a Hebrew root meaning “ten,” the actual description of the instrument remains unclear. The most common theory identifies it with the Phoenician zither having ten strings; it is perhaps the lute.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Kathros<\/span> was a stringed instrument included in the list of those played at Nebuchadnezzar’s court and was probably a kind of lyre (Dn 3:5, 7, 10, 15).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Kinnor<\/span> is the most frequently mentioned instrument in the Bible, found in 42 places. It is often called David’s harp and is the most beloved instrument of the Jewish people. We can say with reasonable certainty that it was a lyre and not a harp. The strings, the number of which is not clear, were made of sheep tripe and the sounding box was at the bottom of the instrument. It is not certain whether it was played with a plectrum or with bare hands, but the specific comment that David “played it with his hand” (1 Sm 16:23, <span>rsv<\/span>) may have implied that this was not the common practice. The biblical descriptions of the sound of the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kinnor<\/span> include “pleasant” and “sweet” (Ps 81:2). The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kinnor<\/span> was played mainly in worship but also in celebrations (Is 5:12), for state occasions (1 Sm 10:5; 2 Sm 6:5), and by shepherds (1 Sm 16:16).<\/p>\n\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Nebel<\/span> was another stringed instrument (literally meaning “skin” or “skin bottle”) mentioned 27 times in Scripture. Its shape was probably similar to a bottle, with the belly-shaped sounding box on the bottom. It definitely belongs to the family of harps (2 Sm 6:5; 1 Kgs 10:12; Neh 12:27; Ps 57:8; Am 5:23) and may have been influenced by similar Egyptian instruments. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nebel<\/span> was probably played without a plectrum and was a larger and louder instrument than the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kinnor<\/span><em>.<\/em> It is translated as “harp” in most modern English translations, compared to the <span>kjv<\/span> (“psaltery,” or “viol”).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Psantrin<\/span> or <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">pesanterin<\/span> was a Greek instrument, mentioned in the description of King Nebuchadnezzar’s orchestra. It may have resembled a dulcimer, having strings played with hammers (Dn 3:5-15).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Sabcha<\/span> or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sabbeka<\/span><em>,<\/em> identical with the Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">sambyke<\/span> and the Roman <em>sambuca,<\/em> was a stringed instrument (<span>rsv<\/span> “trigon,” <span>kjv<\/span> “sackbut”) played in the Babylonian court. It was a triangle with four strings, having a high and harsh tone (Dn 3:5-15).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WindInstruments\">Wind Instruments<\/p>\n<p>The wind instruments can be divided into two groups: pipes and horns.<\/p>\n\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Halil<\/span> is mentioned only six times in the Bible but was referred to frequently by postbiblical writers. This kind of piped instrument was similar to the Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">aulos<\/span> (Mt 9:23; 1 Cor 14:7; Rv 18:22), a primitive oboe, rendered “flute” in many translations. The root word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">halal<\/span> means “to pierce,” thus the meaning “hollow tube.” The early pipes were made from reedlike plants. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">halil<\/span> had a double-reed mouthpiece and probably produced a shrill and penetrating sound. It was connected with joyful events such as banquets (Is 5:12) and prophetic frenzies (1 Sm 10:5), but its tone was also associated with wailing and mourning (Jer 48:36).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Hatzotzrot<\/span> was a sort of trumpet. Modern scholars have more information about this horn than many of its ancient Hebrew counterparts. The triumphal arch built by Titus in Rome includes depictions of the captured implements of the temple, among which are two trumpets. The form of these horns may have been influenced by the Israelites’ knowledge of Egyptian trumpets. Similar instruments were also known in Assyria, in the Hittite Empire, and in Greece. Moses was commanded to make two silver trumpets (Nm 10:2); playing these instruments became the exclusive privilege of the descendants of Aaron. These trumpets were made of silver or gold, about a yard (.9 meter) long, but narrow, with a pronounced bell. The descendants of the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hatzotzrot<\/span> are the herald trumpets. Numbers 10:10 says the trumpets were used “for a memorial before . . . God.” Trumpets and horns were used to signal the gathering of the congregation to the tent of meeting, to sound alarm, to alert the camps to move forward, and to announce when war was at hand. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hatzotzrot<\/span> became an important part of the temple service. There were at least two trumpets in the daily services, but at high holidays the number could be increased indefinitely (1 Chr 15:28; 2 Chr 15:14; Ps 98:6; Dn 3:5-15; Hos 5:8).<\/p>\n\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mashroqita<\/span><em>,<\/em> considered by modern scholars to be a Pan’s pipe similar to the Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">syrinx<\/span><em>,<\/em> is included in the list of orchestral instruments of King Nebuchadnezzar’s court (Dn 3:5, 7, 10, 15).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shophar<\/span> is mentioned in the Bible 72 times, more than any other Hebrew instrument. It is the only instrument of ancient Israel that survives in its original form and is still used in Jewish liturgy. The early <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shophar<\/span> was curved like a ram’s horn, but the later form was straight with a bend near the bell of the horn. There is some question whether any of the hornlike instruments can actually be considered musical instruments. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shophar<\/span> could produce two, maybe three tones, and was used for giving signals, not for playing music. It was used in such religious ceremonies as the transfer of the ark (2 Sm 6:15; 1 Chr 15:28), the renewal of the covenant by King Asa (2 Chr 15:14), thanksgiving to God (Ps 98:6; 150:3), and was blown at the new moon and the beginning of the jubilee year. Its secular use included such royal occasions as Absalom’s accession to the throne (2 Sm 15:10), Solomon’s anointing as king (1 Kgs 1:34), and Jehu’s accession to the throne (2 Kgs 9:13).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Sumponia<\/span> is an uncertain term included in Daniel 3. Many commentators have interpreted it as a bagpipe (<span>rsv<\/span>), but musicologists strongly argue that at the time of King Nebuchadnezzar there was no such instrument. It has been suggested that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sumponia<\/span> was not a musical instrument at all but signified the playing of the entire ensemble. This could come from the Greek root <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">sym<\/span><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">phonia<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “sounding together.” The word is also found in Luke 15:25, where it is translated as “music.”<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Ugab<\/span><em>,<\/em> a flutelike instrument, is mentioned in Scripture four times (Gn 4:21; Jb 21:12; 30:31; Ps 150:4; <span>kjv<\/span> mistranslates it as “organ”). It is only in Psalm 150 that the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ugab<\/span> is connected with a sacred occasion.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PercussionInstruments\">Percussion Instruments<\/p>\n<p>Most of the accounts of percussion instruments are found in the early history of the Hebrew people. They were gradually eliminated from the temple orchestra, perhaps because of their association with idolatrous practices.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mena anim<\/span> was a loud metal rattle, constructed with a frame carrying loose rings. It is included in a list of instruments in 2 Samuel 6:5 (<span>rsv<\/span> “castanet”; <span>kjv<\/span> mistranslates as “cornet”). It was likely a form of the <em>sistrum,<\/em> an Egyptian instrument.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Pamonim<\/span> were the bells attached to the lower hem of the priest’s garment, described in Exodus 28:33-34 and 39:25-26. They were not loud but indicated the position of the high priest as he entered the sanctuary.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shalishim<\/span><em>,<\/em> often translated as <em>sistrum<\/em> or <em>timbrel,<\/em> is a kind of rattle. It is not clear whether this term actually refers to a musical instrument. It appears in 1 Samuel 18:6 as part of the reception of King Saul and David after the battle with the Philistines.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Toph<\/span> or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tof<\/span> was an instrument used mainly by women, but there are some indications that men might have played it as well (1 Sm 10:5; <span>kjv<\/span> “tabret”; 2 Sm 6:5; 1 Chr 13:8). The mention of this kind of hand drum appears 15 times in the Bible. A wooden or metal hoop was covered with the skin of a ram or wild goat and was played with the hand. It is not clear whether the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">toph<\/span> had skin on just one side or two. Some commentators have described it as a tambourine or timbrel but there is no indication that it included jangles. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">toph<\/span> was used in merrymaking and was rather loud (Ex 15:20; Ps 81:2).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Zelzelim<\/span> or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">meziltayim<\/span> were cymbals. Both of these words come from the Hebrew root <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">zala<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “to resound” or “to tingle,” and the noun forms represent the instrument known as the cymbal. Sometimes these terms are wrongly translated as “castanets.” These were the only percussion instruments included in the temple music and were always referred to in a dual form, suggesting a pair of cymbals, but played by one man. Cymbals made of metal were known to most ancient cultures. They appear for the first time in the Bible when the ark was transferred to Jerusalem (2 Sm 6:5; 1 Chr 13:8). Later they were played in the temple by the leaders of the Levitical singers (1 Chr 15:19). The function of the cymbals was less musical than liturgical, being used as signals for the singing to begin and between the sections of the psalms. Two different kinds of cymbals are mentioned in Psalm 150, but their difference is not clear, probably involving either size or material.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS<\/h3>\n<p>Stringed, wind, and percussion instruments used to make music.<\/p>\n<p>In contrast to the detailed accounts of liturgical music in the OT, the descriptions of the musical instruments themselves are rather sparse. Because of the injunction of the second commandment, interpreted by the Hebrews as discouraging pictorial representations, there are few drawings of Hebrew instruments. In addition to the instruments used in the temple, the book of Daniel lists six instruments played in King Nebuchadnezzar’s court.<\/p>\n<p>The ancient Hebrews made certain distinctions among the instruments, not on musical but on ethical grounds. Some instruments were considered “unclean” and were not allowed in temple worship.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StringedInstruments\">Stringed Instruments<\/p>\n<p>The stringed instruments were favored by the Jewish people. In many ancient civilizations the strings were considered the most masculine and noble (e.g., David playing the lyre); the Jews considered them the most suitable for accompaniment in the temple service. The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">minim<\/span> is used in Psalm 150:4 to designate the entire family of stringed instruments used in the praise of God.<\/p>\n\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Asor<\/span> appears three times in the book of Psalms (Pss 33:2; 92:3; 144:9). Although the word derives from a Hebrew root meaning “ten,” the actual description of the instrument remains unclear. The most common theory identifies it with the Phoenician zither having ten strings; it is perhaps the lute.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Kathros<\/span> was a stringed instrument included in the list of those played at Nebuchadnezzar’s court and was probably a kind of lyre (Dn 3:5, 7, 10, 15).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Kinnor<\/span> is the most frequently mentioned instrument in the Bible, found in 42 places. It is often called David’s harp and is the most beloved instrument of the Jewish people. We can say with reasonable certainty that it was a lyre and not a harp. The strings, the number of which is not clear, were made of sheep tripe and the sounding box was at the bottom of the instrument. It is not certain whether it was played with a plectrum or with bare hands, but the specific comment that David “played it with his hand” (1 Sm 16:23, <span>rsv<\/span>) may have implied that this was not the common practice. The biblical descriptions of the sound of the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kinnor<\/span> include “pleasant” and “sweet” (Ps 81:2). The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kinnor<\/span> was played mainly in worship but also in celebrations (Is 5:12), for state occasions (1 Sm 10:5; 2 Sm 6:5), and by shepherds (1 Sm 16:16).<\/p>\n\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Nebel<\/span> was another stringed instrument (literally meaning “skin” or “skin bottle”) mentioned 27 times in Scripture. Its shape was probably similar to a bottle, with the belly-shaped sounding box on the bottom. It definitely belongs to the family of harps (2 Sm 6:5; 1 Kgs 10:12; Neh 12:27; Ps 57:8; Am 5:23) and may have been influenced by similar Egyptian instruments. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nebel<\/span> was probably played without a plectrum and was a larger and louder instrument than the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kinnor<\/span><em>.<\/em> It is translated as “harp” in most modern English translations, compared to the <span>kjv<\/span> (“psaltery,” or “viol”).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Psantrin<\/span> or <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">pesanterin<\/span> was a Greek instrument, mentioned in the description of King Nebuchadnezzar’s orchestra. It may have resembled a dulcimer, having strings played with hammers (Dn 3:5-15).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Sabcha<\/span> or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sabbeka<\/span><em>,<\/em> identical with the Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">sambyke<\/span> and the Roman <em>sambuca,<\/em> was a stringed instrument (<span>rsv<\/span> “trigon,” <span>kjv<\/span> “sackbut”) played in the Babylonian court. It was a triangle with four strings, having a high and harsh tone (Dn 3:5-15).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WindInstruments\">Wind Instruments<\/p>\n<p>The wind instruments can be divided into two groups: pipes and horns.<\/p>\n\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Halil<\/span> is mentioned only six times in the Bible but was referred to frequently by postbiblical writers. This kind of piped instrument was similar to the Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">aulos<\/span> (Mt 9:23; 1 Cor 14:7; Rv 18:22), a primitive oboe, rendered “flute” in many translations. The root word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">halal<\/span> means “to pierce,” thus the meaning “hollow tube.” The early pipes were made from reedlike plants. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">halil<\/span> had a double-reed mouthpiece and probably produced a shrill and penetrating sound. It was connected with joyful events such as banquets (Is 5:12) and prophetic frenzies (1 Sm 10:5), but its tone was also associated with wailing and mourning (Jer 48:36).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Hatzotzrot<\/span> was a sort of trumpet. Modern scholars have more information about this horn than many of its ancient Hebrew counterparts. The triumphal arch built by Titus in Rome includes depictions of the captured implements of the temple, among which are two trumpets. The form of these horns may have been influenced by the Israelites’ knowledge of Egyptian trumpets. Similar instruments were also known in Assyria, in the Hittite Empire, and in Greece. Moses was commanded to make two silver trumpets (Nm 10:2); playing these instruments became the exclusive privilege of the descendants of Aaron. These trumpets were made of silver or gold, about a yard (.9 meter) long, but narrow, with a pronounced bell. The descendants of the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hatzotzrot<\/span> are the herald trumpets. Numbers 10:10 says the trumpets were used “for a memorial before . . . God.” Trumpets and horns were used to signal the gathering of the congregation to the tent of meeting, to sound alarm, to alert the camps to move forward, and to announce when war was at hand. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hatzotzrot<\/span> became an important part of the temple service. There were at least two trumpets in the daily services, but at high holidays the number could be increased indefinitely (1 Chr 15:28; 2 Chr 15:14; Ps 98:6; Dn 3:5-15; Hos 5:8).<\/p>\n\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mashroqita<\/span><em>,<\/em> considered by modern scholars to be a Pan’s pipe similar to the Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">syrinx<\/span><em>,<\/em> is included in the list of orchestral instruments of King Nebuchadnezzar’s court (Dn 3:5, 7, 10, 15).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shophar<\/span> is mentioned in the Bible 72 times, more than any other Hebrew instrument. It is the only instrument of ancient Israel that survives in its original form and is still used in Jewish liturgy. The early <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shophar<\/span> was curved like a ram’s horn, but the later form was straight with a bend near the bell of the horn. There is some question whether any of the hornlike instruments can actually be considered musical instruments. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shophar<\/span> could produce two, maybe three tones, and was used for giving signals, not for playing music. It was used in such religious ceremonies as the transfer of the ark (2 Sm 6:15; 1 Chr 15:28), the renewal of the covenant by King Asa (2 Chr 15:14), thanksgiving to God (Ps 98:6; 150:3), and was blown at the new moon and the beginning of the jubilee year. Its secular use included such royal occasions as Absalom’s accession to the throne (2 Sm 15:10), Solomon’s anointing as king (1 Kgs 1:34), and Jehu’s accession to the throne (2 Kgs 9:13).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Sumponia<\/span> is an uncertain term included in Daniel 3. Many commentators have interpreted it as a bagpipe (<span>rsv<\/span>), but musicologists strongly argue that at the time of King Nebuchadnezzar there was no such instrument. It has been suggested that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sumponia<\/span> was not a musical instrument at all but signified the playing of the entire ensemble. This could come from the Greek root <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">sym<\/span><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">phonia<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “sounding together.” The word is also found in Luke 15:25, where it is translated as “music.”<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Ugab<\/span><em>,<\/em> a flutelike instrument, is mentioned in Scripture four times (Gn 4:21; Jb 21:12; 30:31; Ps 150:4; <span>kjv<\/span> mistranslates it as “organ”). It is only in Psalm 150 that the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ugab<\/span> is connected with a sacred occasion.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PercussionInstruments\">Percussion Instruments<\/p>\n<p>Most of the accounts of percussion instruments are found in the early history of the Hebrew people. They were gradually eliminated from the temple orchestra, perhaps because of their association with idolatrous practices.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mena anim<\/span> was a loud metal rattle, constructed with a frame carrying loose rings. It is included in a list of instruments in 2 Samuel 6:5 (<span>rsv<\/span> “castanet”; <span>kjv<\/span> mistranslates as “cornet”). It was likely a form of the <em>sistrum,<\/em> an Egyptian instrument.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Pamonim<\/span> were the bells attached to the lower hem of the priest’s garment, described in Exodus 28:33-34 and 39:25-26. They were not loud but indicated the position of the high priest as he entered the sanctuary.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shalishim<\/span><em>,<\/em> often translated as <em>sistrum<\/em> or <em>timbrel,<\/em> is a kind of rattle. It is not clear whether this term actually refers to a musical instrument. It appears in 1 Samuel 18:6 as part of the reception of King Saul and David after the battle with the Philistines.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Toph<\/span> or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tof<\/span> was an instrument used mainly by women, but there are some indications that men might have played it as well (1 Sm 10:5; <span>kjv<\/span> “tabret”; 2 Sm 6:5; 1 Chr 13:8). The mention of this kind of hand drum appears 15 times in the Bible. A wooden or metal hoop was covered with the skin of a ram or wild goat and was played with the hand. It is not clear whether the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">toph<\/span> had skin on just one side or two. Some commentators have described it as a tambourine or timbrel but there is no indication that it included jangles. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">toph<\/span> was used in merrymaking and was rather loud (Ex 15:20; Ps 81:2).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Zelzelim<\/span> or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">meziltayim<\/span> were cymbals. Both of these words come from the Hebrew root <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">zala<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “to resound” or “to tingle,” and the noun forms represent the instrument known as the cymbal. Sometimes these terms are wrongly translated as “castanets.” These were the only percussion instruments included in the temple music and were always referred to in a dual form, suggesting a pair of cymbals, but played by one man. Cymbals made of metal were known to most ancient cultures. They appear for the first time in the Bible when the ark was transferred to Jerusalem (2 Sm 6:5; 1 Chr 13:8). Later they were played in the temple by the leaders of the Levitical singers (1 Chr 15:19). The function of the cymbals was less musical than liturgical, being used as signals for the singing to begin and between the sections of the psalms. Two different kinds of cymbals are mentioned in Psalm 150, but their difference is not clear, probably involving either size or material.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS Stringed, wind, and percussion instruments used to make music. In contrast to the detailed accounts of liturgical music in the OT, the descriptions of the musical instruments themselves are rather sparse. Because of the injunction of the second commandment, interpreted by the Hebrews as discouraging pictorial representations, there are few drawings of Hebrew instruments. In addition to the instruments used in the temple, the book of Daniel lists six instruments played in K...","summary_en":"MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS Stringed, wind, and percussion instruments used to make music. In contrast to the detailed accounts of liturgical music in the OT, the descriptions of the musical instruments themselves are rather sparse. Because of the injunction of the second commandment, interpreted by the Hebrews as discouraging pictorial representations, there are few drawings of Hebrew instruments. In addition to the instruments used in the temple, the book of Daniel lists six instruments played in K...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":30705,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Plants","title_en":"Plants","content_ro":"<h3>PLANTS<\/h3>\n<p>Identifying biblical plants has always been a difficult task, partly because people continue to identify the biblical elm, sycamore, lily, rose, and vine with modern plants, and also because they assume that all the plants now growing in the Holy Land were there in ancient biblical days, or that the plants referred to in the Bible are still to be found there today. Unfortunately, many plants now quite common in the Holy Land were not there in biblical days. Many plants that once grew in abundance in the Holy Land are now extinct. Some have been driven out by foreign invaders; others have been exterminated or nearly exterminated by overcultivation of the land, the destruction of forests, and the resulting changes in climatic and other environmental conditions. At one time the Holy Land was a land of palm trees, with the date palm as abundant and characteristic there as it was in Egypt, but today the date palm is much less common. Similarly, in antiquity, the towering cedars clothed the slopes of Lebanon and other mountain ranges. Now the few remaining specimens must be carefully fenced in to protect them against trampling and the ravages of goats.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Acacia<\/p>\n<p>• Acanthus<\/p>\n<p>• Algum<\/p>\n<p>• Almond<\/p>\n<p>• Almug<\/p>\n<p>• Aloe<\/p>\n<p>• Apple<\/p>\n<p>• Apricot<\/p>\n<p>• Ash<\/p>\n<p>• Aspen<\/p>\n<p>• Balm<\/p>\n<p>• Barley<\/p>\n<p>• Bdellium<\/p>\n<p>• Bean<\/p>\n<p>• Bitter Herbs<\/p>\n<p>• Boxthorn, European<\/p>\n<p>• Box Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Bramble<\/p>\n<p>• Broom<\/p>\n<p>• Buckthorn<\/p>\n<p>• Bush<\/p>\n<p>• Buttercup<\/p>\n<p>• Calamus<\/p>\n<p>• Cane<\/p>\n<p>• Caper Plant<\/p>\n<p>• Carob Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Cassia<\/p>\n<p>• Castor Oil Plant<\/p>\n<p>• Cedar<\/p>\n<p>• Chicory<\/p>\n<p>• Cinnamon<\/p>\n<p>• Citron Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Coriander<\/p>\n<p>• Cotton<\/p>\n<p>• Cucumber<\/p>\n<p>• Cummin<\/p>\n<p>• Cypress<\/p>\n<p>• Dandelion<\/p>\n<p>• Darnel Grass<\/p>\n<p>• Dill<\/p>\n<p>• Ebony<\/p>\n<p>• Endive<\/p>\n<p>• Fig, Fig Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Fir Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Flax<\/p>\n<p>• Frankincense<\/p>\n<p>• Galbanum<\/p>\n<p>• Garlic<\/p>\n<p>• Gourd, Wild<\/p>\n<p>• Hedge<\/p>\n<p>• Henna<\/p>\n<p>• Hyacinth<\/p>\n<p>• Hyssop<\/p>\n<p>• Juniper<\/p>\n<p>• Laurel or Sweet Bay<\/p>\n<p>• Leek<\/p>\n<p>• Lentil<\/p>\n<p>• Lettuce<\/p>\n<p>• Lily<\/p>\n<p>• Lotus Bush<\/p>\n<p>• Mallow<\/p>\n<p>• Mandrake<\/p>\n<p>• Melon<\/p>\n<p>• Millet<\/p>\n<p>• Mint<\/p>\n<p>• Mulberry<\/p>\n<p>• Mustard<\/p>\n<p>• Myrrh<\/p>\n<p>• Myrtle<\/p>\n<p>• Narcissus<\/p>\n<p>• Nard<\/p>\n<p>• Nettle<\/p>\n<p>• Nutmeg Flower<\/p>\n<p>• Oak<\/p>\n<p>• Oil Tree, Oleaster<\/p>\n<p>• Oleander<\/p>\n<p>• Olive, Olive Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Onion<\/p>\n<p>• Palm<\/p>\n<p>• Papyrus<\/p>\n<p>• Pine Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Pistachio<\/p>\n<p>• Plane Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Pomegranate<\/p>\n<p>• Poplar<\/p>\n<p>• Quince<\/p>\n<p>• Reed<\/p>\n<p>• Rue<\/p>\n<p>• Rush<\/p>\n<p>• Saffron<\/p>\n<p>• Sage<\/p>\n<p>• Spelt<\/p>\n<p>• Storax Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Sycamore<\/p>\n<p>• Tamarisk<\/p>\n<p>• Terebinth<\/p>\n<p>• Thistle, Thorn<\/p>\n<p>• Tulip<\/p>\n<p>• Tumbleweed<\/p>\n<p>• Vegetable<\/p>\n<p>• Vine<\/p>\n<p>• Walnut<\/p>\n<p>• Water Lily<\/p>\n<p>• Wheat<\/p>\n<p>• Wormwood<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Acacia\">Acacia <em>(Acacia tortilis<\/em> and <em>A. seyal)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any tree or shrub of the mimosa family of plants growing in warm regions. The plant referred to in the <span>kjv<\/span> as “shittah” (singular) or “shittim” (plural) is undoubtedly the acacia tree, the only timber tree of any considerable size in the Arabian desert. <em>Acacia tortilis<\/em> is by far the largest and most common tree in the desert in which the Israelites wandered for 40 years. It is especially conspicuous on Mt Sinai and was probably the species used for the tabernacle furnishings. <em>A. seyal<\/em> is less common, at least today. It can grow as high as 25 feet (7.6 meters), and bears yellow flowers on twisted branches. The wood is close grained, heavy and hard, orange-brown in color, and much valued in cabinetwork. The ancient Egyptians clamped shut mummy coffins with acacia wood.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Acanthus\">Acanthus <em>(Acanthus syriacus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The acanthus, perhaps referred to in Job 30:7 and Zephaniah 2:9, is a perennial thistlelike herb or small shrub about three feet (.9 meter) tall, and is a common weed in all Eastern countries. It has been used since time immemorial as a model for the leaf or scroll decorations in art.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Algum\">Algum <em>(Juniperus excelsa Bieb)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The timber from Lebanon referred to in 2 Chronicles 2:8 is probably the juniper. Some translators hold, however, that algum and almug are Hebrew variants for the same tree (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg, 2 Chr 2:8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Almug (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Almond\">Almond <em>(Amygdalus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The almond is a peachlike tree with saw-toothed pointed leaves and gray bark. It grows to a height of from 10 to 25 feet (3 to 7.6 meters). It blooms very early in the year; its Hebrew name has its roots in “watch for.” To the Jews it was a welcome harbinger of spring (Jer 1:11).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Almug\">Almug <em>(Pterocarpus santalinus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The precious wood imported by King Solomon and used in making the pillars for the temple and for making harps and psalteries (1 Kgs 10:11-12). This timber was brought by sea from Ophir to Ezion-geber, near Elath. Modern authorities suggest that Ophir was either in Arabia, India, or East Africa near Mozambique. The reference to “algum“ in 2 Chronicles 2:8 is possibly to this tree. <em>See<\/em> Algum (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Aloe\">Aloe <em>(Aloe succotrina, Aquilaria agallocha)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Chiefly African, lilylike plant of the genus <em>Aloes,<\/em> certain species of which yield a drug and a fiber. Aloe is an aromatic substance mentioned in the Bible, together with myrrh, balm, and other fragrant plants (Ps 45:8; Prv 7:17; Sg 4:14; Jn 19:39). Most scholars think these passages refer to two different plants. The OT plant is likely to have been <em>Aquilaria agallocha,<\/em> the eaglewood, a large tree growing up to 120 feet (36.6 meters) tall with a trunk 12 feet (3.7 meters) in circumference. It is native to northern India, Malaya, and Indochina. The decaying wood is highly fragrant, and as such is highly valued as perfume and incense and for fumigation.<\/p>\n<p>The aloe of John 19:39 is thought to be the true aloe <em>(Aloe succotrina),<\/em> the juice of which was used by the Egyptians in embalming. Its smell, however, is not very agreeable, and it has a bitter taste. It is sometimes used by veterinarians as a horse medicine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Apple\">Apple <em>(Malus sylvestris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The identity of the fruit identified by the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tappuach<\/span> (Prv 25:11; Sg 2:3, 5; 7:8; 8:5) continues to be debated. In most English translations it has been rendered “apple” because of its close linguistic tie to the Arabic word <em>tuffah.<\/em> Many scholars identify this tree as the apricot, questioning whether apples fit the biblical description “apples of gold” and whether the apple tree was cultivated in ancient Palestine. Recent excavations at Kadesh-barnea, however, have uncovered carbonized apples, probably a crab apple <em>(Malus sylvestris),<\/em> dating to the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>. This would certainly allow for this ornamental apple’s cultivation in Solomon’s gardens.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apricot (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Apricot\">Apricot <em>(Prunus armeniaca)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The identification of the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tappuach<\/span> with the apricot continues to be debated. The apricot tree produces yellow-orange peachlike edible fruit and is native to western Asia and Africa. It is abundant in the Holy Land and probably has been so since early biblical times. The tree is a round-headed reddish-barked tree growing 30 feet (9.1 meters) tall. Most translations render this Hebrew word “apple,” though many scholars identify it with the apricot because of its descriptions in the biblical text (see Prv 25:11; Sg 2:3, 5; 7:8; 8:5; Jl 1:12).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apple (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ash\">Ash <em>(Alhagi maurorum, Fraxinus ornus, Tamarix mannifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There are several ash trees found in the Near East. One of these, the prickly alhagi <em>(Alhagi maurorum),<\/em> is a member of the pea family. It is a low, many-stemmed, much-branched shrub growing about three feet (.9 meter) tall with somewhat hairy twigs and pealike flowers. During the heat of the day, leaves exude a sweet, gummy substance that hardens in the air and is collected by shaking the bushes over a spread-out cloth.<\/p>\n<p>The manna tamarisk <em>(Tamarix mannifera)<\/em> is a multibranched shrub or a small tree 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall with rigid branches that have tiny pink flowers. It is found on deserts from the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>The flowering or manna ash <em>(Fraxinus ornus)<\/em> is a tree that grows from 15 to 50 feet (4.6 to 15.2 meters) tall. The fruits are very similar to those produced by our species of ash. The ash of Isaiah 44:14 (<span>kjv<\/span>) is believed to be the Aleppo pine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Aspen\">Aspen <em>(Populus euphratica<\/em> or <em>P. tremula)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of the genus <em>Populus<\/em> with leaves attached by flattened leafstalks so that they tremble or “quake” in the wind.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Balm\">Balm <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca, Pistacia lentiscus, Commiphora opobalsamum<\/em><em>)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>An oily aromatic resin exuded by chiefly tropical trees and shrubs and used medicinally; trees and shrubs producing this substance. References in Genesis 37:25, Jeremiah 8:22, 46:11, and 51:8 are thought to be either the Jericho balsam <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca)<\/em> or the lentisk or mastic tree <em>(Pistacia lentiscus).<\/em> The Jericho balsam is very common in Egypt, North Africa, the plains of Jericho, and the hot plains bordering on the Dead Sea. It is a small desert-loving plant, 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall, with slender, thorny branches and small clusters of green flowers.<\/p>\n<p>The lentisk or mastic tree is native to the Holy Land, and the reference in Genesis 43:11 is probably to this plant, since the implication is that this is a native product of the Holy Land unknown in Egypt at the time. This tree is a shrubby or bushy tree 3 to 10 feet (.9 to 3 meters) tall with evergreen leaves. The “balm” is a fragrant gummy exudation of the sap secured by making incisions in the stems and branches, usually in August. The best grades are in the form of yellow-white translucent tears or drops; they are employed in medicine as an astringent. The poorer grades are used extensively as a varnish. Children in the East use it as chewing gum.<\/p>\n<p>References to spices in 1 Kings 10:10, 2 Kings 20:13, Song of Songs 3:6, Isaiah 39:2, and Ezekiel 27:17 are thought to be the balm of Gilead <em>(Commiphora opobalsamum),<\/em> which in spite of its name is not a native of Gilead or even of the Holy Land but is indigenous to Arabia, especially the mountainous regions of Yemen. The trees were still in existence on the plain of Jericho at the time of the Roman conquest. The Roman conquerors carried branches to Rome as trophies of their victory over the Jews.<\/p>\n<p>This tree is a small, stiff-branched evergreen tree seldom more than 15 feet (4.6 meters) high with straggling branches. The “balm” is obtained by making incisions in the stem and branches of the tree. The sap soon hardens into small irregular nodules that are collected. Gum is also procured from green and ripe fruit.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Myrrh (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Barley\">Barley <em>(Hordeum distichon)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A cereal grass bearing bearded flower spikes and edible seeds. The common barley <em>(Hordeum distichon),<\/em> the winter barley <em>(H. hex<\/em><em>astichon),<\/em> and the spring barley <em>(H. vulgare)<\/em> have been cultivated in temperate regions of the world since time immemorial and today still constitute one of the principal grain foods. Barley and wheat were the two staple cereal crops of Egypt and the Holy Land. Being less expensive, barley was mostly used for feeding cattle, although it was also used by itself or mixed with wheat and other seed as food for man (Ez 4:9-12). Barley is mentioned in the Bible over 30 times, either as a plant growing in the fields or in reference to products made from it, such as barley meal, barley bread, barley cakes, and barley loaves. As the common food of the poor, barley was also regarded as a symbol of poverty and cheapness or worthlessness (Hos 3:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bdellium\">Bdellium <em>(Commiphora africana)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic gum resin similar to myrrh, produced by various trees of the genus <em>Commiphora<\/em> of Africa and western Asia. The reference in Genesis 2:12 and Numbers 11:7 to bdellium is thought by most scholars today to refer to a gum resin, obtained from a shrub, <em>Commiphora africana<\/em>, that grows in south Arabia and northeastern Africa. The resin is yellowish, transparent, and fragrant, and looks like a pearl.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bean\">Bean <em>(Faba vulgaris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in 2 Samuel 17:27-28 and Ezekiel 4:9 are generally regarded as referring to the broad bean. This species, an annual plant, is thought originally to have grown in northern Persia, but it was extensively cultivated in western Asia in very early times as a food plant. Beans have been found in the mummy coffins of Egyptian tombs, and they were also cultivated by the Greeks and Romans.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BitterHerbs\">Bitter Herbs <em>(Cichorium endivia, Taraxacum officinale, Lactuca sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “bitter herbs” of Exodus 12:8 and Numbers 9:11 seem to have been plants like endive <em>(Cichorium endivia),<\/em> the common chicory <em>(Cichorium intybus),<\/em> lettuce <em>(Lactuca sativa),<\/em> or the common dandelion <em>(Taraxacum officinale).<\/em> These are all weedy plants common in modern Egypt and western Asia and are still eaten by people living there. The leaves of the ordinary garden lettuce are intensely bitter when bleached. This is also true of the common dandelion. Others suggest that the bitter herbs were derived from thorns and thistles.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BoxthornEuropean\">Boxthorn, European <em>(Lycium europaeum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various thorny shrubs, some species of which bear purplish flowers and brightly colored berries. The reference in Judges 9:14-15 is thought to be to the European boxthorn or desert-thorn. It is a thorny shrub 6 to 12 feet (1.8 to 3.7 meters) tall with clustered leaves and small violet flowers eventually producing small globular red berries. It is native to and common throughout the Holy Land, especially in the region from Lebanon to the Dead Sea.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BoxTree\">Box Tree <em>(Buxus longifolia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The long-leaved box tree is a hardy evergreen tree found in the mountainous regions of the northern part of the Holy Land, the Galilean hills, and Lebanon. It grows to a height of about 20 feet (6.1 meters) with a slender trunk seldom more than six to eight inches (15.2 to 20.3 centimeters) in diameter. Its wood is very hard and takes a fine polish. It was cultivated by the Romans for its hard wood, which they inlaid with ivory for cabinets and jewel caskets. Scriptural references include Isaiah 41:19 and 60:13.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bramble\">Bramble <em>(Rubus sanctus, R. ulmifolius)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian bramble <em>(Rubus sanctus)<\/em> and the closely related elm-leaf bramble <em>(R. ulmifolius)<\/em> are prickly evergreen shrubs that spread by means of suckers. The stems and young shoots are covered with a characteristic bloom or whitish powder and short hairs. The prickles are strong, erect, and hairy. The flowers are white, pink, rose, or purple in color, and the fruit is round and black.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Thistle, Thorn (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Broom\">Broom <em>(Retama raetam)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A shrub native to Eurasia. The word translated “juniper” in the <span>kjv<\/span> has nothing to do with the true junipers but refers rather to a species of broom, known as the white broom <em>(Retama raetam).<\/em> Its branches are longer and flexible, forming an erect, dense bush 3 to 12 feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall. The leaves are small and sparse, yet it forms an agreeable shade in a desert region. The white pealike flowers are sweet and very fragrant and are borne in clusters along the twigs. It is a beautiful shrub that grows in the desert regions of Palestine, Syria, and Persia. In many desert areas it is the only bush that affords any shade (1 Kgs 19:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>The “juniper roots” of Job 30:4 are not the roots of either the juniper or white broom. The roots of the latter are very nauseating and could not be eaten in the manner described by Job. Job’s “juniper roots” were probably an edible parasitic plant <em>(Cynomorium coccineum).<\/em> This plant grows in salt marshes and maritime sands. It is frequently eaten in times of food scarcity and at one time was highly prized for its supposed medicinal value in the treatment of dysentery.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Buckthorn\">Buckthorn <em>(Rhamnus palaestina)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian buckthorn is a shrub or small tree attaining a height of three to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters) with velvety, thorny branches, evergreen leaves, and clusters of small flowers blooming in March or April. It grows in thickets and on hillsides from Syria and Lebanon through the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bush\">Bush <em>(Acacia nilotica, Loranthus acaciae)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Low, branching, woody plant, usually smaller than a tree. There are differences of opinion in regard to the bush out of which the Lord appeared to Moses (Ex 3:2-4). From the biblical account, it seems most likely that the event was a miraculous one. However, some seek a natural explanation and believe that the burning bush may have been the crimson-flowered mistletoe or acacia strap flower <em>(Loranthus acaciae),<\/em> which grows in great profusion as a partial parasite on the various acacia shrubs, such as the thorny acacia <em>(Acacia nilotica),<\/em> in the Holy Land and Sinai. When in full bloom, the mistletoe imparts to the shrub or tree the appearance of being on fire because its brilliant flame-colored blossoms stand out against the green foliage and yellow flowers of the host plants.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Buttercup\">Buttercup <em>(Ranunculus asiaticus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Persian buttercup is one of the flowers or grasses of the field (Mt 6:28-30). It is a showy plant blooming in all brilliant colors except blue, with double flowers sometimes measuring two inches (5.1 centimeters) across.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Calamus\">Calamus <em>(Acorus calamus, Andropogon aroma<\/em><em>ticus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A plant, or its aromatic root; any of a variety of tropical Asiatic palms. One of the plants that grew in Solomon’s garden (Sg 4:14). The sweet flag <em>(Acorus<\/em> <em>calamus)<\/em> and the beardgrass <em>(Andropogon aromaticus)<\/em> have been suggested as the plants from which calamus came. The sweet flag is highly aromatic and grows in Europe and Asia, but it is not known in the Holy Land. Indigenous to India, beardgrass is highly odoriferous when bruised and is thought to have furnished the calamus of the Bible. It yields an oil known as ginger-grass oil.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cane\">Cane <em>(Saccharum officinarum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>It is thought that there were two species of sugarcane indigenous to and growing wild in the Holy Land. One of these, <em>Saccharum sara,<\/em> is known to be only from Lebanon. The other native species is <em>S. biflorum,<\/em> which grows on the banks of ditches and streams from Syria and Lebanon through the Holy Land south to Stony Arabia and the Sinai. This may be the wild cane familiar to the Jews. Most authorities, however, think that the “sweet cane” of Isaiah 43:24 was the true sugarcane <em>(S. officinarum).<\/em> This plant is thought to have originated in the tropics of the eastern hemisphere. It has been cultivated by people since time immemorial and is not now known in the wild state anywhere. It is a tall, stout perennial grass, maizelike in aspect with many jointed stems and a large plumelike terminal cluster of flowers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CaperPlant\">Caper Plant <em>(Capparis sincula)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Spiny, trailing shrub of Mediterranean region; the flower bud of this shrub. The word “desire” in Ecclesiastes 12:5 may actually refer to the caper berry. The common caper or caper berry grows profusely in Syria, Lebanon, the Holy Land, and in the mountain valleys of Sinai. The plant may sometimes grow upright but more generally spreads itself weakly over the ground like a vine, covering rocks, ruins, and old walls like ivy. The young flower buds, pickled in vinegar, were used by the ancients as a condiment for meat. The berries were also used in cooking.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CarobTree\">Carob Tree <em>(Ceratonia siliqua)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Evergreen of the Mediterranean region having edible pods. Scholars generally agree that the pods of the carob or locust tree were the “husks” of Jesus’ parable of the prodigal son (Lk 15:16). The carob is an attractive evergreen leguminous tree that is very common throughout the Holy Land, Syria, and Egypt. The pods are most abundant in April and May and contain numerous pealike seeds embedded in an agreeably flavored mucilaginous sweetish pulp. The pods are also used abundantly now as they were in antiquity for feeding cattle, horses, and pigs. In time of scarcity, they are used as human food and perhaps even regularly by the very poor. The carob is frequently mentioned in the Talmud as a source of good food for domestic animals. The seeds of the carob were formerly employed as a standard of weight and are the source of the term “carat.” Some commentators suggest that the “locusts” eaten by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4) were not insects but the fruit of the carob tree.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cassia\">Cassia <em>(Cinnamomum cassia, Saussurea lappa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree of tropical Asia with bark similar but inferior to cinnamon. The “cassia” of Exodus 30:24 and Ezekiel 27:19 is the cassia bark tree, <em>Cinnamomum cassia.<\/em> In Psalm 45:8 the reference seems to be to the Indian orris, <em>Saussurea lappa.<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CastorOilPlant\">Castor Oil Plant <em>(Ricinus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Large plant, native to tropical Africa and Asia, cultivated for ornamental reasons and for extraction of oil from its seeds. The gourd of Jonah 4:6-7 was probably the ordinary castor bean. The castor bean is a tender shrub, growing 3 to 12 or more feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall with huge leaves that resemble the outstretched human hand. The castor bean plant is found in waste places, especially near water, in both Lebanon and the Holy Land and often is cultivated. In hot climates it becomes treelike and affords a dense shade by the abundance of its huge, umbrella-like leaves. It is known in the Orient for the rapidity of its growth. The oil extracted from the seeds of the castor bean was used by the Jews in ceremonial rites and is mentioned among the five kinds of oil that rabbinical tradition sanctioned for such use. The seeds themselves are poisonous when eaten.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cedar\">Cedar <em>(Cedrus libani)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several coniferous evergreen trees of the genus native to the Old World. With few exceptions, the references to “cedar” are to the well-known cedar of Lebanon. This is a noble tree, the tallest and most massive with which the Israelites were acquainted. It grows quite rapidly, attaining a height of up to 120 feet (36.6 meters) with a trunk diameter of as much as 8 feet (2.4 meters). In Solomon’s day these trees were obviously abundant on the mountains of Lebanon, but now, because of excessive lumbering, they are very rare. The cedar of Lebanon was held in high esteem not only for its vigor, beauty, and age but also for the fragrance and remarkable lasting qualities of the wood. It symbolizes grandeur, might, majesty, dignity, lofty stature, and wide expansion. References in Ezekiel 17:3, 22-24, and 31:3-18 beautifully illustrate how these lofty kings of the forest symbolize and typify worldly strength, power, and glory.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chicory\">Chicory <em>(Cichorium intybus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cinnamon\">Cinnamon <em>(Cinnamomum zeylanicum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of trees of this genus, native to tropical Asia, with aromatic bark that, when ground, is used as a spice. The cinnamon of Exodus 30:23, Proverbs 7:17, Song of Songs 4:14, and Revelation 18:13 is undoubtedly <em>Cinnamomum zeylanicum.<\/em> The tree is a rather low-growing one, never getting more than 30 feet (9.1 meters) high, with a smooth, ash-colored bark and widespread branches and white flowers. Its shiny, beautifully veined evergreen leaves grow about nine inches (22.9 centimeters) long and two inches (5.1 centimeters) wide.<\/p>\n<p>The Jews always regarded cinnamon as a deliciously fragrant substance and valued it highly as a spice and a perfume. It was one of the principal ingredients used in the manufacture of the precious ointments, or “holy oil,” that Moses was commanded to use in the tabernacle for anointing the sacred vessels and officiating priests. It was undoubtedly very costly and precious.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CitronTree\">Citron Tree <em>(Tetraclinis articulata)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree native to Asia bearing lemonlike fruit with a thick, fragrant rind. It seldom exceeds a height of 30 feet (9.1 meters) and has hard, dark-colored, durable, fragrant wood that takes a fine polish. The wood was one of the most highly prized woods of the ancients, who employed it extensively for cabinetwork. It was commonly referred to as being worth its weight in gold. The wood, owing to its resinous properties, is slow to decay and remains practically uninjured by insects.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Coriander\">Coriander <em>(Coriandrum sativum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Exodus 16:31 and Numbers 11:7 are clearly to the common coriander plant. The coriander was found quite commonly growing along with grain in cultivated fields throughout the Holy Land. It grows wild in Egypt and was used by the ancients both as condiment and as a medicine. The leaves are quite aromatic and are used in soups and for flavoring puddings, curries, and wines. The coriander is still used today as a spice by the Arabs. In Scripture it is mentioned only in connection with manna, which was said to resemble coriander seeds in size, shape, and color.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cotton\">Cotton <em>(Gossypium herbaceum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants or shrubs of this genus grown in warm climates for the soft white fiber attached to their seeds and the oil from these seeds. The “green” of the <span>kjv<\/span> in Esther 1:6 is undoubtedly a reference to the Levant cotton <em>(Gossypium herbaceum)<\/em> that was cultivated since time immemorial in the Far East. Alexander the Great brought it back from India. It is probable that the Jews became acquainted with cotton during the period of their Persian captivity under King Ahasuerus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cucumber\">Cucumber <em>(Cucumis chate, C. sativus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The cucumber is an annual climbing or trailing vine, the origin of which is unknown. It has been cultivated in all the warm countries of the Old World since prehistoric times. Cucumbers are usually eaten raw; a cucumber and a barley cake or some other kind of bread often constitute a meal. The reference to “a lodge in a garden of cucumbers” (Is 1:8) refers to the crudely built small house or lodge often set up in Palestinian cucumber fields and vineyards.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cummin\">Cummin <em>(Cuminum cyminum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Isaiah 28:25-27 and Matthew 23:23 are clearly to the cummin—a common, annual plant of the carrot family said to be native to Egypt and the region of the eastern Mediterranean. It has long been cultivated for its powerfully aromatic and pungent seeds, which are similar to caraway seeds but larger. They do not have as agreeable a taste as caraway seeds but nevertheless were used extensively as a flavor or spice and sometimes were even mixed with flour in making bread. Cummin was also used medicinally and as a condiment with fish and meats.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cypress\">Cypress <em>(Cupressus sempervirens horizontalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The cypress is a massive, tall-growing evergreen with scalelike leaves and is widely distributed in the mountainous regions of the Holy Land. On Mt Lebanon and Mt Hermon it grows together with the cedar and oak. Its usual height is 50 to 60 feet (15.2 to 18.3 meters), but it may grow as tall as 80 feet (24.2 meters). It is said to have been used extensively in shipbuilding by the Phoenicians, Cretans, and Greeks. There is general agreement that the “gopher wood” of Genesis 6:14 is cypress because the wood is very durable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dandelion\">Dandelion <em>(Taraxacum officinale)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DarnelGrass\">Darnel Grass <em>(Lolium temulentum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>It is generally agreed that the “tares” of the <span>kjv<\/span> (Mt 13:24-30) are the annual or bearded darnel grass. It is a strong grass closely resembling wheat or rye in appearance. The seeds are much smaller than those of wheat or rye, but it is extremely difficult to distinguish it from wheat or rye in its early stages. If it is not eradicated early but is left until the time of harvest, it is cut down with the wheat and the two are subsequently very difficult to separate. The seeds are poisonous, either due to some chemicals naturally present or because of a fungus that grows within the seeds.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dill\">Dill <em>(Anethum graveolens)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Dill is a weedy annual plant resembling parsley and fennel, 12 to 20 inches (30.5 to 50.8 centimeters) tall with yellow flowers. The reference in Matthew 23:23 (<span>kjv<\/span>) to anise is probably a reference to dill. This plant is widely cultivated for seeds that are aromatic and carminative.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ebony\">Ebony <em>(Diospyros ebenaster, D. ebenum, D. mela<\/em><em>noxylon)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Chiefly tropical tree of southern Asia with hard, dark-colored heartwood. Ebony comes from the date plum or date tree <em>(Diospyros ebenaster<\/em> and <em>D. melanoxylon)<\/em> of India and is quite different from the date palm. It was sent by Phoenician ships across the Arabian Sea and up the Red Sea to the market in Tyre, from which it was carried overland by camel caravans. The outer wood of these trees is white and soft, but when old, the interior wood becomes hard, black, heavy, and durable and still constitutes most of the costly ebony of commerce. Ebony takes on a fine polish and is highly valued for cabinetwork, for turnery, for the manufacture of fancy ornamental articles and instruments, and as a veneer for other woods.<\/p>\n<p>Ezekiel mentions ivory and ebony together (Ez 27:15). Ebony was and still is frequently inlaid with ivory, with which it contrasts so strikingly in color.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Endive\">Endive <em>(Cichorium endivia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FigFigTree\">Fig, Fig Tree <em>(Ficus carica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees or shrubs of this genus, native to the Mediterranean region; its edible fruit. The common fig, mentioned some 60 times in the Bible, is one of the most important Bible plants. Its leaves are spoken of first in Genesis 3:7. The fig is generally regarded as native to southwestern Asia and Syria, but already in early times it was also cultivated extensively in Egypt and the Holy Land, where it was one of the principal foods. First Samuel 25:18 states that a part of the gift sent by Abigail to David consisted of 200 cakes of figs.<\/p>\n<p>The fig tree has a very peculiar type of fruit called a syconium, which is actually a very much enlarged and fleshy receptacle. It is pollinated by a wasp, without which it cannot get its fruit; this was discovered when it was first transplanted to California.<\/p>\n<p>The fig puts out its earliest fruit buds before its leaves, the former in February and the latter in April or May. When the leaves are out, the fruit ought to be ripe (Mt 21:19).<\/p>\n<p>Whenever the prophets of old berated the people for their wickedness, they often threatened that the vine and the fig crops would be destroyed. And when they held out the promise of great rewards, they said that the vine and fig crop would be restored (Jer 8:13; Hos 2:12; Jl 1:7, 12; Mi 4:4; Zec 3:10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FirTree\">Fir Tree <em>(Abies cilicica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>This a generic term for various evergreen trees having flat needles and erect cones. In all probability, most of the references in Scripture to the fir are references to the pine, cypress, or juniper. The only true fir in the Holy Land grows in the higher parts of Lebanon and the mountains northward. It attains a height of 30 to 75 feet (9.1 to 22.9 meters) and is widely cultivated.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Flax\">Flax <em>(Linum usitatissimum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several plants of this genus, one particularly being widely cultivated for the linseed oil from its seeds and the fine textile fibers from its stems. Flax is the oldest known of the textile fibers. Cotton is identified only once in the Bible (Est 1:6). There is no mention of any other fiber plant being cultivated in Egypt or the Holy Land in biblical days, and for that reason it is thought that linen was the material out of which clothes other than woolen ones were made. Linen was also used for domestic purposes such as towels (Jn 13:4-5), napkins (11:44), girdles and undergarments (Is 3:23; Mk 14:51), nets (Is 19:8-9), and measuring lines (Ez 40:3). The priests serving in the temple were to wear nothing but linen clothes; a mixed cloth of wool and flax together was strictly forbidden to the Jews (Lv 19:19; Dt 22:11).<\/p>\n<p>At least three kinds of linen were used in biblical times, and apparently there were particular uses for each kind. Ordinary linen of coarsest texture is mentioned in Leviticus 6:10, Ezekiel 9:2, Daniel 10:5, and Revelation 15:6. The second type of linen of superior quality is mentioned in Exodus 26:1 and 39:27. A third type of linen of finest texture and high cost is mentioned in 1 Chronicles 15:27, Esther 8:15, and Revelation 19:8.<\/p>\n<p>The common flax plant grows from one to four feet (.3 to 1.2 meters) tall with a simple, slender, wirelike stem and numerous small, pale, lancelike green leaves. The failure of the flax crop is listed as one of God’s punishments (Hos 2:9). The manufacture of linen from flax fibers was a domestic industry of Jewish women (Prv 31:13, 19), ranging from ordinary clothing to the robes and aprons worn by the priest and temple attendants. Linen was also used for wicks in lamps (Is 42:3).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Frankincense\">Frankincense <em>(Boswellia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic genus resin used chiefly as incense. Frankincense is obtained from three species of a single genus of plants that grow in southern Arabia, Ethiopia, Somaliland, India, and the East Indies. The trees are large in size, related to the turpentine or terebinth tree and to those that produce balsam and myrrh. The gum has a bitter taste and gives off a strong odor in the form of a volatile oil when warmed or burned. It is obtained by successive incisions in the bark of the trunk and in the branches of living trees. It is thought that the Hebrews imported all their frankincense from Arabia, especially from the region about Sheba.<\/p>\n<p>Frankincense is mentioned 21 times in the Bible (e.g., Ex 30:34; 1 Chr 9:29; Neh 13:9; Sg 3:6; 4:6, 14; Mt 2:11; Rv 18:13) and was probably employed almost exclusively in the sacrificial services of the tabernacle and temple until the time of Solomon. It has always been the most important incense resin in the world.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Galbanum\">Galbanum <em>(Ferula galbaniflua)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Galbanum is a malodorous yellowish or brownish gum resin containing the chemical substance umbelliferone, obtained from several species of plants related to the fennel, native to Syria and Persia. The gum is a natural exudation of the stem or is obtained by making a transverse incision in the young stem a few inches above the ground. The milky juice soon hardens and forms one of the kinds of commercial galbanum. Its odor is strongly balsamic, pungent, and disagreeable when burned. Galbanum was one of the ingredients used to form the “holy incense” (Ex 30:34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Garlic\">Garlic <em>(Allium sativum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Onion (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GourdWild\">Gourd, Wild <em>(Citrullus colocynthis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There has been considerable difference of opinion regarding the meaning of the words translated “wild gourds” (2 Kgs 4:39) or “gall” (Dt 29:18; 32:32; Ps 69:21; Jer 8:14; 9:15; 23:15; Lam 3:5, 19; Am 6:12; Mt 27:34; Acts 8:23). Most scholars today believe the plant referred to was the colocynth, a cucumber-like vine that trails on the ground or climbs over shrubs and fences. The fruit contains a soft spongy pulp, which is intensely bitter, strongly cathartic, and sometimes poisonous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hedge\">Hedge <em>(Rhamnus palaestina, Balanites aegyptiaca, Lycium europaeum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Row of closely planted shrubs or low-growing trees forming a fence or boundary. A number of plants were used to provide hedges in Bible times. One of these was the Palestine buckthorn, <em>Rhamnus palaestina.<\/em> This plant is a shrub or a small tree growing from three to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters) tall with velvety, thorny branches, evergreen leaves, and clusters of small flowers blooming in March and April. It grows in thickets and on hillsides from Syria through the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai. The Jericho balsam <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca)<\/em> and the European boxthorn <em>(Lycium europaeum)<\/em> are also prickly shrubs widely used as hedges in the Holy Land and may be the plants referred to in Proverbs 15:19 and Hosea 2:6.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Henna\">Henna <em>(Lawsonia inermis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree or shrub of Asia and northern Africa with fragrant reddish or white flowers and leaves from which a reddish dye is made. The plant referred to in Song of Songs 1:14 and 4:13 and translated as “camphire” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is thought by scholars today to refer to the henna plant. It is a native of northern India and grows wild in the Sudan, Egypt, Arabia, Syria, Lebanon, and the Holy Land. It grows from 4 to 12 feet (1.2 to 3.7 meters) tall, and its scent is similar to that of roses.<\/p>\n<p>Henna leaves are dried, crushed into a powder, mixed with water, and made into a paste that has been used since time immemorial as a cosmetic. A number of mummies have been found decorated with henna. Henna was used to provide a bright yellow, orange, or red color to the fingernails, toenails, the tips of the fingers, the palms of the hand, and the soles of the feet of young girls. Men also used it for coloring their beards and the manes and tails of horses. The dye had to be renewed once every two or three weeks. This use of henna as a cosmetic was common in Egypt at the time the children of Israel were there as slaves; they were undoubtedly familiar with it.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyacinth\">Hyacinth <em>(Hyacinthus orientalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The lily referred to in Song of Songs 2:1-2, 16; 4:5; and 6:2-4 may well be the garden hyacinth. It is native to, and very common in, the fields and rocky places in the Holy Land, Lebanon, and northward. Its flowers in the wild form are always deep blue and very fragrant.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lily (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyssop\">Hyssop <em>(Origanum maru)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Woody plant native to Asia with spikes of small blue flowers and aromatic leaves used as a condiment and in perfumery. There is little agreement among botanists as to the exact identity of the biblical “hyssop.” Some have suggested <em>Hyssopus offici<\/em><em>nalis,<\/em> the well-known garden herb now called hyssop. However, this plant is not native either to the Holy Land or Egypt, being found only in southern Europe. Moreover, it does not fit the requirements of the biblical plant.<\/p>\n<p>The “hyssop” of the OT is likely the Syrian or Egyptian marjoram <em>(Origanum maru).<\/em> It is referred to in Exodus 12:22; Leviticus 14:4-6, 52; Numbers 19:6, 18; 1 Kings 4:33; Psalm 51:7; and Hebrews 9:19. The marjorams are mints growing (under favorable conditions) about two or three feet (.6 to .9 meter) tall, but more often are dwarfed when growing in rock crevices and walls (cf. 1 Kgs 4:33). An aromatic substance is obtained from the crushed and dried leaves. If gathered together in a bunch with leaves and flowers, the hairy stems of the marjoram would hold liquid very well and would make an excellent sprinkler.<\/p>\n\n<p>The hyssop of the crucifixion passage in the NT (Jn 19:29) is probably the sorghum, a tall cereal plant grown primarily for food but also used for brushes and mops.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Juniper\">Juniper <em>(Juniperus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Variety of evergreen tree or shrub. The plant referred to in Jeremiah 17:6 and 48:6 and translated in the <span>kjv<\/span> “heath” is probably the savin or Phoenician juniper. The Phoenician juniper, <em>Juniperus phoenicia,<\/em> is found in the hills and rocky places of Arabia. The savin juniper, <em>J. sabina,<\/em> is common throughout the deserts, plains, and rocky places of Syria and Palestine. These references are to the brown-berried cedar, or sharp cedar.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaurelorSweetBay\">Laurel or Sweet Bay <em>(Laurus nobilis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Shrub or tree native to the Mediterranean region. While the reference in Psalm 37:35 may be to the cedar of Lebanon, most scholars refer the “green bay tree” (<span>kjv<\/span>) of the psalmist to the sweet bay, a native of the Holy Land, inhabiting thickets and woods from the coast to the middle montane zone. It is an evergreen tree attaining a height from 40 to 60 feet (12.2 to 18.3 meters).<\/p>\n<p>Even though the tree is abundant on Mt Carmel and around Hebron, it is generally not common in the Holy Land. Its leaves are still used as a condiment, and its fruit, leaves, and bark have long been used in medicine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leek\">Leek <em>(Allium porrum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Onion (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lentil\">Lentil <em>(Lens esculenta)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The lentil plant to which Genesis 25:29-34, 2 Samuel 17:27-29, 23:11, and Ezekiel 4:9 refer is a small, erect, annual, vetchlike plant with slender stems and tendril-bearing leaves. It produces small, white, violet-striped flowers with flat, pealike pods in which the lentils are borne.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lettuce\">Lettuce <em>(Lactuca sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lily\">Lily <em>(Lilium)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants of the genus <em>Lilium<\/em> having large, variously colored, trumpet-shaped flowers; and related plants. The lily is one of the most famous of all the plants in the Bible, but it is also one about which there has been considerable difference of opinion. It seems probable that several kinds of plants, perhaps five or six, are called lilies in the <span>kjv<\/span>. Most authorities regard the Palestine anemone or wind flower, <em>Anemone coronaria,<\/em> as the “lily of the field” (Mt 6:28, <span>kjv<\/span>) that surpassed Solomon in all his glory. These flowers are found in every part of the Holy Land in profusion; the most common forms are scarlet or yellow, but the Palestine anemone may also be blue, purple, rose, or white in color. The flower attains a diameter of two and three-quarter inches (7 centimeters).<\/p>\n<p>An alternative suggestion is the Palestinian chamomile, <em>Anthemis palaestina,<\/em> a common, white, daisylike plant. The chamomile is gathered like dry grass and thrown into the furnace when it dries up.<\/p>\n<p>Another proposed plant is <em>Lilium chalcedonicum,<\/em> the scarlet or Martagon lily. The statement in Song of Songs 5:13—“his lips like lilies”—would better fit this plant than the Palestine anemone. The reference is apparently to a rare plant of exceptional beauty. The scarlet lily is rare in the Holy Land; indeed, some botanists doubt that it lives there.<\/p>\n<p>The references in 1 Kings 7:19, 22, 26 and 2 Chronicles 4:5 are probably to the water lily, <em>Nymphaea alba,<\/em> which served as the pattern. The water lily is quite common in Europe and also in the Holy Land and northern Africa.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LotusBush\">Lotus Bush <em>(Zizyphus lotus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “shady trees” of Job 40:21-22 (<span>kjv<\/span>; cf. <span>nlt<\/span> “lotus plants”) may refer to the lotus bush of the Middle East, <em>Zizyphus lotus,<\/em> a shrub or low tree that grows to a height of about five feet (1.5 meters) with smooth, zigzag, whitish branches.<\/p>\n<p>Other commentators believe that the shady trees of Job are large-leafed trees such as the plane tree, <em>Platanus orientalis,<\/em> or the oleander, <em>Nerium oleander.<\/em> This suggestion is based on the assumption that the animal described in Job 40 is the hippopotamus, and it seems unlikely that the hippopotamus would live under a lotus bush or even be found in places where this shrub grows. These individuals regard the plane tree or the oleander as more likely.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mallow\">Mallow <em>(Atriplex)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word used in Job 30:4 implies saltiness, and for this reason botanists believe that it refers to one of the species of the saltwort or orach. Twenty-one species of saltwort occur in the Holy Land, almost all of which are common and could well meet the requirements of the text. <em>Atriplex halimus<\/em> is the species usually suggested, a strong-growing bushy shrub related to the spinach.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mandrake\">Mandrake <em>(Mandragora officinarum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The mandrake or love apple is a stemless herbaceous perennial related to the nightshade, potato, and tomato. It has a large, beetlike, often forked taproot from the top of which arise many dark leaves about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and four inches (10.2 centimeters) wide. The plant is slightly poisonous, and the thick taproots have some resemblance in shape to the lower parts of the human body. For this reason certain aphrodisiac properties were ascribed to it (cf. Gn 30:14-16).<\/p>\n<p>The love apple was a common plant in deserted fields throughout the Holy Land. It is native to the entire Mediterranean region, southern Europe, and Asia Minor. The mandrake is mentioned in Song of Songs 7:13, though some scholars believe the writer may actually have been referring to the citron or to the common edible field mushroom, <em>Agaricus campestris.<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Melon\">Melon <em>(Cucumis melo, Citrullus vulgaris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several varieties of these two related vines having a hard rind and juicy flesh. The melons of Numbers 11:5 may be either the muskmelon <em>(Cucumis melo)<\/em> or the watermelon <em>(Citrullus vulgaris).<\/em> It may be that both fruits are referred to.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Millet\">Millet <em>(Panicum miliaceum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A grass grown in Eurasia for its edible seed. Millet seeds are the smallest of all the grass seeds cultivated as food but are produced profusely. Millet is an annual grass seldom more that two feet (.6 meter) tall. The small seeds of the millet are used on cakes and eaten uncooked by the poor of the land.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mint\">Mint <em>(Mentha)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants of this family with aromatic foliage that is processed for flavoring. Quite a few mints are common in the Holy Land, but the horse mint <em>(Mentha longifolia)<\/em> is probably the one referred to in Matthew 23:23 and Luke 11:42. Mints were employed by the ancient Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans for flavoring, as a carminative in medicine, and as a condiment in cooking.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mulberry\">Mulberry <em>(Morus nigra)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any tree of this family, some bearing dark-purple fruit and one bearing white fruit, having leaves used as food for silkworms. The sycamine tree of Luke 17:6 (<span>kjv<\/span>) is evidently the black mulberry, <em>Morus nigra.<\/em> It is a low-growing, thick-crowned, stiff-branched tree standing from 24 to 35 feet (7.3 to 10.7 meters) tall, though rarely more than 30 feet (9.1 meters) tall. Originally native to northern Persia, it is now cultivated throughout the Middle East for its fruit. The Chinese or Indian species, <em>M. alba,<\/em> was until recently widely cultivated in Syria and the Holy Land but is not indigenous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mustard\">Mustard <em>(Brassica nigra, B. arvensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various plants of this genus are native to Eurasia, some of which are cultivated for their edible seeds. While there is disagreement about the identity of the “mustard” of Matthew 13:31-32, 17:20, Mark 4:31, Luke 13:19, and 17:6, it is generally thought to be the ordinary black mustard, <em>Brassica nigra.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The mustard Jesus referred to may be the charlock or wild mustard, <em>B. arvensis,<\/em> which normally grows from one to three feet (.3 to .9 meter) tall. Some have suggested that it was actually <em>Salvadora persica,<\/em> found in thickets around the Dead Sea. The plant has a pleasant aromatic taste resembling that of mustard, and if taken in considerable quantity, it will produce an irritation of the nose and eyes similar to that of mustard. However, this plant does not grow as far north as Galilee, and the fruits are rather large and stony, thus hardly fitting the description of the parable.<\/p>\n<p>While the seeds of the mustard are not the smallest known, they were probably the smallest familiar to the common people who comprised Jesus’ audience in Galilee.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Myrrh\">Myrrh <em>(Commiphora myrrha, C. kataf)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Shrub or tree exuding an aromatic gum resin used in perfume and incense. Most of the references in Scripture to myrrh are to <em>Commiphora myrrha,<\/em> although <em>C. kataf<\/em> may also be involved since it grows in the same region and is similar. The two trees are native to Arabia, Ethiopia, and the Somali coast of east Africa. They yield a gummy exudation that constitutes most of the myrrh of commerce. Both species are low, scrubby, thick- and stiff-branched thorny shrubs or small trees that grow in rocky places, especially on limestone hills. In the East it is highly regarded as an aromatic substance, perfume, and medicine. The ancient Egyptians burned it in their temples and embalmed their dead with it; the Jews also used it for embalming (Jn 19:39). The Hebrews held it in high regard as a perfume (Ps 45:8).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Myrtle\">Myrtle <em>(Myrtus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The myrtle tree is common in the Holy Land, especially around Bethlehem, Lebanon, Hebron, and the slopes of Mt Carmel and Mt Tabor. It is native to western Asia and in good environments grows into a small evergreen tree 20 to 30 feet (6.2 to 9.1 meters) tall. More often, however, it is a straggling bush 1½ to 4 feet (.5 to 1.2 meters) tall.<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible, myrtle is referred to chiefly as a symbol of God’s generosity. Branches of myrtle trees were included among those that Nehemiah ordered to be gathered for the Feast of Tabernacles (Neh 8:15). The myrtle was symbolic not only of peace but also of justice.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Narcissus\">Narcissus <em>(Narcissus tazetta)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Widely cultivated plant of this family with narrow leaves and usually white or yellow flowers with a cup-crown or trumpet-shaped crown. The polyanthus narcissus <em>(Narcissus tazetta)<\/em> appears to be the plant referred to in Isaiah 35:1. This narcissus grows abundantly on the plains of Sharon and elsewhere in Palestine. Being sweet-smelling, it is a great favorite.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Nard\">Nard <em>(Nardostachys jatamansi)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The nard is a perennial herb with strong, pleasantly scented roots. It is native to high altitudes in the Himalayas, and its range extends from there into western Asia. The roots and spikelike wooly young stems are dried before the leaves unfold and are used for making perfume. It is still used in India as a perfume for the hair, and there is every reason to believe that the spikenard of Scripture (Sg 1:12; 4:13-14; Mk 14:3; Jn 12:3) came originally from India.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Nettle\">Nettle <em>(Urtica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Plant of this genus having toothed leaves covered with hairs that exude a stinging flush. Four species of nettle are found in the Holy Land: the common or great nettle, <em>Urtica dioica;<\/em> the Roman nettle, <em>U. pilulifera;<\/em> the small nettle, <em>U. urens;<\/em> and <em>U. caudata,<\/em> which is similar to the small nettle. Some nettles attain a height of five to six feet (1.5 to 1.8 meters). They are common pests of waste places and fields. They are often seen occupying ground that was once cultivated but has since been neglected (Is 34:13; Hos 9:6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NutmegFlower\">Nutmeg Flower <em>(Nigella sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “fitches” of Isaiah 28:25-27 (<span>kjv<\/span>) are probably the nutmeg flower, an annual plant of the buttercup family. The plant grows wild in southern Europe, Syria, Egypt, north Africa, and other Mediterranean lands, where it is extensively cultivated for its strongly pungent, pepperlike aromatic seeds. These are sprinkled over some kinds of bread and cakes in the East and are used for flavoring curries and other dishes in the Holy Land and Egypt. Cummin and nutmeg flowers are still gathered in the Holy Land in the same way described by Isaiah.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Oak\">Oak <em>(Quercus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>At least five species of oaks are found in Palestine. One of these is the kermes oak <em>(Quercus coccifera),<\/em> the host of the insect <em>Coccus ilicis,<\/em> which produces the scarlet dye used in coloring linen and wool (Gn 38:28-30; Ex 25:4; 26:1; 28:33; 35:23; 39:24; Lv 14:4-6, 51-52; Nm 19:6; 2 Chr 2:7, 14; 3:14; Is 1:18; Heb 9:19; Rv 18:12). The kermes oak grows from 6 to 35 feet (1.8 to 10.7 meters) tall and is found in the mountainous regions of Syria, Lebanon, and the Holy Land. When it grows alone, the kermes oak often becomes a large tree. It was regularly planted by tombs in the East. The oak was always respected and even venerated in biblical times for its large size and strength, and great men were usually buried in its shade. Abraham’s oak in Hebron is an example.<\/p>\n<p>A second oak is the valonia oak <em>(Q. aegilops),<\/em> perhaps the oak of Isaiah 2:13 and 44:14. It is common in the middle montane zones and probably was abundant in the area around Bashan. The oak of Genesis 35:4, 8 is thought to have been the holm oak <em>(Q. ilex),<\/em> an evergreen oak that grows to a height of 60 feet (18.3 meters). Still another oak is <em>Q. lusitanica,<\/em> the cypress oak, a small deciduous tree seldom more than 20 feet (6.1 meters) tall. The very large acorns of this tree were sometimes eaten.<\/p>\n<p>The word translated “plain” (<span>kjv<\/span>) in Genesis 12:6, 13:18, 14:13, and 18:1 should probably be translated “oak.”<\/p>\n<p>The many references to “groves” in the OT, usually in connection with the worship of Baal or other heathen gods (Ex 34:13; Dt 16:21; Jgs 3:7; 1 Kgs 14:23; 18:19; 2 Kgs 17:16—all <span>kjv<\/span>), were probably groves of sacred oak trees.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OilTreeOleaster\">Oil Tree, Oleaster <em>(Elaeagnus angustifolia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Small Eurasian tree with oblong silvery leaves, greenish flowers, and olivelike fruit. There is question as to which tree is referred to when 1 Kings 6:23, 31-33 and 1 Chronicles 27:28 refer to “olive trees.” The same word occurs in Isaiah 41:19 and Micah 6:7. The plant referred to is probably the narrow-leaved oleaster <em>(Elaeagnus angustifolia),<\/em> a small stiff-branched tree or graceful shrub growing from 15 to 20 feet (4.6 to 6.1 meters) tall, common in all parts of the Holy Land except in the Jordan Valley. At one time it was particularly common on Mt Tabor and at Hebron and Samaria. The wood is hard and fine-grained and therefore well suited for carving of images and figures. The oil that it yields is a rather inferior type used in medication but not for food; this may be the oil of Micah 6:7.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Oleander\">Oleander <em>(Nerium oleander)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any poisonous evergreen shrub of this genus growing in warm climates. One of the suggestions for the plants identified as “roses” in various translations (Ecclus 24:14, <span>kjv<\/span>) is the oleander. This plant, originally native to the East Indies, has been cultivated throughout the warm regions of the world for centuries. It flourishes in the Holy Land today and forms dense thickets in some parts of the Jordan Valley. It is usually a shrub from 3 to 12 feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall. Every part of the plant is dangerously poisonous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OliveOliveTree\">Olive, Olive Tree <em>(Olea europaea)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Old world semitropical evergreen tree bearing edible fruit. The olive, <em>Olea europaea,<\/em> was unquestionably one of the most valuable trees known to the Jews. There are innumerable references to it in Scripture, as well as to olive oil, which was used for anointing. The tree is quite common in the Holy Land, and in many places it is the only tree of any substantial size. The branches of the wild olive are rather stiff and spinescent, and the typical cultivated tree is a multi-branched evergreen, 20 or more feet (6.1 meters) tall, with a gnarled trunk and smooth, ash-colored bark. The leaves are leathery and the flowers are small, yellow or white. The fruits are large, black or violet, ripening in September, and it is the outer fleshy parts of the fruit that yield the valuable olive oil of commerce. Thirty-one percent of the ripe fruit is oil. The ripe fruit is eaten raw, as is the green, unripe fruit. The wood of the trunk and limbs is hard, rich yellow or amber in color, and fine-grained, often handsomely variegated. It is still used today for the finest cabinetwork and turnery. The tree grows very slowly, but it attains a great age. It is difficult to kill the olive tree by cutting it down, because new sprouts are sent up from the root and all around the margins of the old stump, often forming a grove of two to five trunks, all from a single root that originally supported only one tree.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Onion\">Onion <em>(Allium)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The onions referred to in Numbers 11:5 are undoubtedly <em>Allium cepa,<\/em> the Egyptian onion, which is made up of a compact coated bulb formed of layers consisting of broad fleshy bases of closely overlapping leaves. The leaves are slender and hollow. The entire plant has a characteristic pungent taste and odor.<\/p>\n\n<p>Closely related to the onion is the garlic, <em>A. sativum.<\/em> The common garlic is a hardy, bulbous perennial plant that is cultivated in Europe, western Asia, and Egypt. The leaves are narrow, flat, and ribbonlike. It is extremely popular with people of the Mediterranean region.<\/p>\n<p>Still another one of the onions is the leek, <em>A. porrum.<\/em> The bulb of the leek differs from that of the onion and garlic in that it is slender, cylindrical, and more than six inches (15.2 centimeters) in length. The flavor resembles that of the onion but is more pungent. The leaves are eaten as a relish or are cooked in soups. The bulbs are cut into small pieces and employed as seasoning for meat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Palm\">Palm <em>(Phoenix dactylifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The palm tree of the Bible is undoubtedly the date palm. At one time it was as characteristic of the Holy Land as it is still today of Egypt. It is characterized by a branchless, tapering stem of up to 80 feet (24.2 meters) or more in height and a large terminal cluster of feathery leaves, each six to nine feet (1.8 to 2.7 meters) or more long. Because of its height and unusual structure, it was natural that it should be used as a form of ornamentation in Eastern architecture. The stem and leaves were favorite subjects of architectural embellishment. The immense, branchlike leaves that are referred to as branches in the Bible were symbols of triumph and were used on occasions of great rejoicing (Jn 12:13; Rv 7:9). The large leaves are still used to cover the roofs and sides of houses and to give solidity to reed fences. Mats, baskets, and even dishes are made of them. Small leaves are used as dusters, and the wood of the trunk is used for timber. Rope is made from the weblike integument in the crown. The fruit, borne in an immense drooping cluster, which may weigh from 30 to 50 pounds (13.6 to 22.7 kilograms), is the chief food of many natives of Arabia and north Africa. A single tree may yield up to 200 pounds (90.7 kilograms) of dates a year. They may be dried for future use.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Papyrus\">Papyrus <em>(Cyperus papyrus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Egyptian bulrush or papyrus (Ex 2:3-5; Jb 8:11; Is 18:2; 19:6-7; 35:7; 58:5) has smooth three-sided stems ordinarily attaining a height of 8 to 10 feet (2.4 to 3 meters), but sometimes even 16 feet (4.9 meters), and a thickness of two to three inches (5.1 to 7.6 centimeters) at the base with a large tuft of florets at the end. The papyrus formerly grew in great abundance along the banks of the Nile, forming what was almost a dense jungle. Today it is practically extinct in lower Egypt, although it is still found along the White Nile and in the Sudan. The papyrus still grows in parts of the Holy Land, especially around the north end of the plain of Galilee and the Huleh swamps.<\/p>\n\n<p>In addition to being used for making small vessels to float in water (Ex 2:3), for mats, and for various other domestic purposes, it is best known as the source of ancient paper. In manufacturing paper from papyrus, the stems of the plant were first peeled and the pitch then cut longitudinally into thin slices that were laid side by side. These were then sprinkled with water and pressed to unite the whole into one piece. The sheet was then dried and cut into pieces of the required size. In the better grades of papyrus paper, several layers of stem slices were laid crosswise on each other.<\/p>\n<p>The pale, fawn-colored, tassel-like inflorescences at the summit of the stems were used to adorn Egyptian temples and to crown the statues of gods. They were also worn as crowns by famous men and national heroes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PineTree\">Pine Tree <em>(Pinus brutia, P. halepensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various evergreen trees of this family with needle-shaped leaves in clusters and seed-bearing cones. While there is considerable confusion concerning the conifers of the Bible, it seems apparent that pines are referred to in such passages as Leviticus 23:40; Nehemiah 8:15; Isaiah 41:19; and 60:13. One of the Holy Land’s pines is the Brutian pine <em>(Pinus brutia),<\/em> a mountain-inhabiting species of the northern regions of Palestine. It attains a height of 10 to 35 feet (3 to 10.7 meters) with a rather diffuse growth and branches in whorls.<\/p>\n<p>Another of the pines is the Aleppo pine, <em>Pinus halepensis.<\/em> Most of the instances of the occurrence of “fir” or “fir tree” in the <span>kjv<\/span> probably refer to the Aleppo pine (2 Sm 6:5; 1 Kgs 5:8, 10; 6:34; 2 Kgs 19:23; 2 Chr 2:8; Ps 104:17; Sg 1:17; Is 14:8; 37:24; 55:13; 60:13; Ez 27:5; 31:8; Hos 14:8; Na 2:3; Zec 11:2). It grows from 9 to 60 feet (2.7 to 18.3 meters) tall with diffuse ascending branches and yellowish or brownish branchlets.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pistachio\">Pistachio <em>(Pistacia terebinthus, P. vera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestine terebinth or turpentine tree is a large deciduous tree with straggling boughs. In the winter, without its leaves, it looks much like the oak. It grows from 12 to 25 feet (3.7 to 7.6 meters) tall. Every part of the tree contains a fragrant, resinous juice. It is common on the lower slopes of the hills throughout Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and Arabia, generally growing as a solitary tree and found mostly in localities too warm or too dry for the oak that it generally replaces. Since it is native to Gilead, it is quite probable that its resinous juice formed part of the spicery that the Israelites carried to Egypt from Gilead (Gn 37:25).<\/p>\n<p>The nuts of Genesis 43:11 are apparently pistachio nuts from the pistachio tree, <em>Pistacia vera,<\/em> closely related to the terebinth. It attains a height of 10 to 30 feet (3 to 9.1 meters) with a spreading top. It is found wild in many rocky parts of Lebanon and the Holy Land. The nut has a light-colored shell and the kernel has a sweet delicate flavor much relished wherever it grows.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PlaneTree\">Plane Tree <em>(Platanus orientalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of this family with bell-shaped fruit clusters and usually an outer bark that flakes off in patches or strips. The references in Genesis 30:37 and Ezekiel 31:8 are apparently not to the chestnut tree, which is not indigenous to Palestine, but to the oriental plane tree, <em>Platanus orientalis.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The plane tree is a massive tree 60 feet (18.3 meters) or more tall with a trunk often of vast circumference, sometimes as much as 40 feet (12.2 meters). The outer bark peels off in sheets or scales, thus exposing a smooth whitish or yellowish inner bark. The tree is common throughout Lebanon, Syria, and the Holy Land, growing even in subalpine regions. However, it is primarily a tree of the plains and lowlands, growing on the edges of streams and lakes and in marshy places.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pomegranate\">Pomegranate <em>(Punica granatum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The pomegranate is usually a small, bushlike tree but may occasionally become a large, branching shrub or small tree reaching a height of 20 to 30 feet (6.1 to 9.1 meters). The branches are often thorny. The showy bell-like flowers are usually scarlet, though sometimes yellow or white. The globular fruit is as large as an orange or medium-size apple. It has a hard rind of a bright red or yellowish color when ripe and is surmounted by the dry sepals that resemble a crown. The fruit itself is a crimson juicy pulp in which many red seeds are imbedded. The flowers of the pomegranate undoubtedly served as a pattern for the golden bells referred to in Exodus 28:33-34 and 39:24-26, and the open flowers of 1 Kings 6:32. The erect calyx lobes on the fruit served as a model for crowns of kings.<\/p>\n<p>The pomegranate is native to Asia, but it has been cultivated since prehistoric times and is now quite common in the Holy Land, in Egypt, and along the shores of the Mediterranean. It is listed as one of the pleasant fruits of Egypt (Nm 20:5) and one of the promised blessings of the Holy Land (Dt 8:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Poplar\">Poplar <em>(Populus euphratica, P. alba)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Fast-growing deciduous tree of the same genus as the aspen and cottonwood. The <span>kjv<\/span> references in 2 Samuel 5:23-24 and 1 Chronicles 14:14-15 to mulberry trees are more probably to the Euphrates poplar or aspen, <em>Populus euphratica.<\/em> This tree grows to a height of 30 to 45 feet (9.1 to 13.7 meters) with spreading branches. The Euphrates aspen is found only on rivers and stream banks throughout the area from Syria through the Holy Land to Stony Arabia. It is especially common in the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\n<p>The white poplar <em>(Populus alba)<\/em> is common in wet places in Syria, Lebanon, the Holy Land, and Sinai. It attains a height of 30 to 60 feet (9.1 to 18.3 meters) with spreading branches. Some suggest that the altars of various pagan religions were usually erected on the top of a hill and in the shade of a poplar grove.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Quince\">Quince <em>(Cydonia oblonga)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree native to western Asia, having white flowers and applelike fruit that is edible when cooked. Some believe that the “apples” of the OT were quinces, <em>Cydonia oblonga.<\/em> The quince tree is quite common in the Holy Land, though chiefly as a cultivated tree. It may occur wild in the northern parts of Syria. It is native to northern Persia and Asia Minor. The fruit is yellowish and highly fragrant, and it is the fragrance that caused it to be held in high regard by the ancients.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Reed\">Reed <em>(Juncus, Scirpus, Typha angustata, Arundo donax)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Numerous species of the rush and bulrush grow in the Holy Land. There are at least 21 varieties of rushes. The common soft rush or bog rush <em>(Juncus effusus)<\/em> is found in wet places, even in the Sinai and other deserts. The sea or hard rush <em>(J. maritimus)<\/em> is found in damp places throughout the Holy Land and even in Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>At least 15 kinds of bulrushes <em>(Scirpus)<\/em> are known in the Holy Land. The cluster-headed club rush <em>(Scirpus holoschoenus)<\/em> is common in damp places throughout the Holy Land to the Sinai. The lake club rush or tall bulrush <em>(S. lacustris)<\/em> is found in swamps and ditches throughout northern Africa to the Dead Sea. The sea club rush or salt marsh club rush <em>(S. maritimus)<\/em> is found in ditches and swamps in many places of the Holy Land. Any of these species may be the one referred to in Job 8:11; Isaiah 9:14; 19:6, 15.<\/p>\n<p>The reference in Genesis 41:2 to the feeding of cattle in the meadow seems to be to the tall reed <em>(Arundo donax),<\/em> which grows 18 feet (5.5 meters) or more in height. This plant is also known as the Persian reed and is common throughout the Holy Land, Syria, and the Sinai peninsula. It is a gigantic grass that may have a stem diameter of two or three inches (5.1 to 7.6 centimeters) at the base and is terminated by a plume of white flowers similar to those of the sugarcane or pampas grass. The plant was used for many purposes by the ancients: for walking sticks, fishing rods, measuring rods, and musical pipes. It is, therefore, quite possible that the “reed” of Matthew 27:48 and Mark 15:36 was a carpenter’s reed or measuring rod.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Papyrus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Rue\">Rue <em>(Ruta chalepensis, R. graveolens)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic Eurasian plant with evergreen leaves that yield an acrid, volatile oil once used in medicine. There is little question as to the correctness of the translation of “rue” in Luke 11:42, but there is some doubt as to the exact species. Most writers think that it was the common rue <em>(Rue graveolens),<\/em> a perennial shrubby plant with erect stems two to three feet (.6 to .9 meter) tall and deeply cut leaves. A very strong odor emanates from the foliage. This species is native to the Mediterranean region and grows wild in the Holy Land, especially on Mt Tabor.<\/p>\n<p>Rue was highly thought of by the ancients as a medicinal, supposed to prevent dizziness, dumbness, epilepsy, eye inflammations, insanity, and the “evil eye.” Rue was also used for seasoning dishes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Rush\">Rush <em>(Butomus umbellatus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Generic term for any of various grasslike marsh plants having pliant, hollow, or pithy stems. There is considerable uncertainty about the identification of the plant referred to in Genesis 41:2 translated in the <span>kjv<\/span> as “meadow,” and in Job 8:11 as “flag.” Since it is mentioned along with the papyrus in the Job passage, it seems that it refers to a specific kind of plant rather than to an aggregate of plants in a meadow. From the description in Genesis as being a plant on which Pharaoh’s cattle might feed along the banks of the Nile and yet not the papyrus, it may refer to the flowering rush or water gladiola <em>(Butomus umbellatus),<\/em> which flourishes both in Egypt and in the Holy Land, along with the papyrus.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Reed.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Saffron\">Saffron <em>(Crocus sativus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Saffron, referred to in Song of Songs 4:14, is the product of several species of <em>Crocus,<\/em> especially of the blue-flowered saffron crocus <em>(C. sativus),<\/em> which is native to Greece and Asia Minor. The commercial product consists of the stigma and upper portions of the style, the top parts of the flower ovary, which are collected shortly after the flower opens. It requires at least 4,000 stigmas to make an ounce of saffron. After being gathered, the stigmas are dried in the sun, pounded, and made into small cakes. Saffron is used principally as a yellow dye and also as a fruit coloring for curries and stews.<\/p>\n<p>Another, entirely different kind of dye-producing plant <em>(Carthamus tinctorius)<\/em> called carthamine, bastard saffron, or safflower is a member of the thistle family. Its red florets yield a dye used extensively for coloring silk, in cooking, and for adulterating genuine saffron. It is an annual spiny plant three to four and a half feet (1.4 meters) tall, native to Syria and Egypt. In Egypt the grave clothes of mummies were dyed with this material, and it is quite possible that this plant may also have been the saffron of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sage\">Sage <em>(Salvia judaica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Judean sage grows to three feet (.9 meter) tall in the mountains and hills of Palestine. Its stems are four-angled, stiff, and rough. The plant grows from Syria south through Nazareth, Hebron, Tiberius, Samaria, and Judea.<\/p>\n<p>This plant is the origin of the design of the seven-branched lampstand of Exodus 37:17-18, which is known as the menorah, the traditional Jewish symbol. The inflorescence of the plant, when pressed flat, has almost exactly the same shape and form as the seven-branched candlestick, with its central spike and three pairs of side branches each bending upward and inward in a symmetrical fashion. On each branch of the plant’s inflorescence are whorls or buds that perhaps give the idea for the “knops” (<span>kjv<\/span>) or “knobs” on the biblical golden candlesticks.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Spelt\">Spelt <em>(Triticum aestivum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Hardy member of the wheat family. The rye of Exodus 9:32 and Isaiah 28:25, as well as the fitches of Ezekiel 4:9 (all <span>kjv<\/span>) are thought to be spelt. It is a hard-grained species of wheat with loose ears and grains triangular in cross-section, and was the most common form of wheat in early times. It has a stouter stem than wheat and strong spikes of grain. Bread made of its flour is much inferior to that made from wheat, but spelt will thrive in almost any kind of soil and will yield a crop on land that is unfit for wheat. The ancients preferred it to barley for bread.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StoraxTree\">Storax Tree <em>(Styrax officinalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various trees of this genus yielding an aromatic resin. Today it is thought that the stacte of Exodus 30:34 was derived from the storax tree. It is an irregularly stiff-branched shrub or small tree 9 to 20 feet (2.7 to 6.1 meters) tall. This tree is abundant on low hills and rocky places from Lebanon through the Holy Land. Its gum is obtained by making incisions in the stems and branches. It is highly perfumed and is still prized today as a perfume.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sycamore\">Sycamore-fig <em>(Ficus sycomorus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree of northeastern Africa and adjacent Asia, related to the fig. The word translated “sycamore” in 1 Kings 10:27; 1 Chronicles 27:28; 2 Chronicles 1:15; 9:27; Psalm 78:47; Isaiah 9:10; Amos 7:14; and Luke 19:4 undoubtedly refers to the well-known sycamore-fig, which is also known as the mulberry-fig or fig-mulberry. It should not be confused with the common sycamore of the North American continent, which is actually a plane tree. The sycamore-fig of the Bible is a strong-growing, robust, wide-spreading tree growing 30 to 40 feet (9.1 to 12.2 meters) tall and sometimes attaining a trunk circumference of 20 feet (6.1 meters) or more with a crown 120 feet (36.6 meters) in diameter. It is a tree that is easily climbed and is frequently planted along roadsides, which accounts for the reference in Luke 19:4. It produces an abundant amount of fruit in clusters on all parts of the tree, on both young and old branches and even on the trunk itself. It is very similar to the common fig, only smaller and much inferior in quality. In David’s day it was so valuable that he appointed a special overseer for the sycamore trees (1 Chr 27:28). It is thought that Amos was not a gatherer of sycamore fruit but rather a dresser of sycamore trees.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tamarisk\">Tamarisk <em>(Tamarix)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Genesis 21:33 and 1 Samuel 22:6 and 31:13 seem to be to the tamarisk. These trees or shrubs are small and fast-growing with a durable wood. They are abundant in deserts, dunes, and salt marshes. <em>Tamarix aphylla<\/em> is leafless and has small white flowers. These trees or shrubs often provide a soothing touch of green foliage and a promise of cooling shade to the traveler. Tamarisks are able to survive because they either have small, scalelike leaves, which lose little moisture by transpiration, or no leaves at all. The larger of the tamarisks are valued for their wood in a region where wood is scarce. The wood was used for building and also as a source of an excellent type of charcoal.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Terebinth\">Terebinth <em>(Pistacia terebinthus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Pistachio (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThistleThorn\">Thistle, Thorn <em>(Lycium europaeum, Solanum incanum, Centaurea, Silybum marianum, Ruscus aculeatus, Agrostemma githago, Paliurus spina-christi, Zizyphus spina-christi)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There are 22 different Hebrew and Greek words used in Scripture to refer to spiny or prickly shrubs or weeds, and these are translated as “bramble,” “brier,” “cockle,” “thorn,” and “thistle.” At present, there are about 125 species of thorns and thistles that grow in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The bramble in the allegory of Judges 9:14-15 is believed to refer to the European boxthorn or desert-thorn, <em>Lycium europaeum.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The general consensus is that the “briers” of Isaiah 10:17, 55:13, Micah 7:4, and Hebrews 6:8 are the Palestine nightshade <em>(Solanum incanum),<\/em> or “Jericho potato.”<\/p>\n<p>The thistles of Genesis 3:17-18, 2 Kings 14:9, 2 Chronicles 25:18, Hosea 10:8, and Matthew 7:16, as well as the thorns of Matthew 13:7 and Hebrews 6:8, are thought to be one of the species of the thistle, <em>Centaurea.<\/em> Among the more common thistles in the Holy Land are the true star-thistle <em>(Centaurea calcitrapa),<\/em> the dwarf centaury <em>(C. verutum),<\/em> the Iberian centaury <em>(C. iberica),<\/em> and the lady’s thistle <em>(Silybum marianum).<\/em> Some thistles attain a height of five to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters). Thistles are characteristic of an area that is uncultivated and neglected. Many have beautiful flowers, but all are covered with sharp spines.<\/p>\n<p>The references in Ezekiel 2:6 to “briers” and Ezekiel 28:24 to a “pricking brier” may be to the prickly butchers-broom or knee-holly, <em>Ruscus aculeatus.<\/em> The plant is common in rocky woods in the northern regions of the Holy Land, especially around Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\n<p>The cockle of Job 31:40 (<span>nlt<\/span> “weeds”) perhaps refers to the corn cockle, <em>Agrostemma githago.<\/em> This plant is common in grainfields throughout the Holy Land. It is a strong-growing and troublesome weed in grainfields, growing from one to three feet (.3 to .9 meter) tall.<\/p>\n<p>Many commentators think that the “thorns” out of which the crown of thorns (Mt 27:29; Jn 19:2) was made were from the Christ-thorn <em>(Paliurus spina-christi).<\/em> This belief has led to its specific name; the Christ-thorn is a spiny plant that ordinarily grows as a straggling shrub three to nine feet (.9 to 2.7 meters) tall. The flexible branches are armed at the base of each leaf with a pair of unequal, stiff, sharp spines. The unusual pliable texture of the young branches renders it particularly easy to plait into a crownlike wreath.<\/p>\n<p>The thorns of Judges 8:7, Isaiah 7:19, 9:18, 55:13, and Matthew 7:16 may refer to the Syrian Christ-thorn <em>(Zizyphus spina-christi),<\/em> a shrub or small tree 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall, sometimes growing into a 40-foot (12.2-meter) tree with smooth white branches bearing a pair of stout, unequal, recurved spines at the back of each leaf.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bramble; Buckthorn (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tulip\">Tulip <em>(Tulipa montana, T. sharonensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several bulbous plants of this family native to Asia. The rose of Sharon in Song of Songs 2:1 may be the mountain tulip, <em>Tulipa montana,<\/em> or the closely related Sharon tulip, <em>T. sharonensis.<\/em> The former is an attractive plant that grows from a bulb and has leaves that are often wavy-margined. The species is common in the mountainous regions of Syria, Lebanon, and the Anti-Lebanon. It is primarily a mountainous species. The Sharon tulip <em>(T. sharonensis)<\/em> is found in sandy places on the Sharon coastal plains.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tumbleweed\">Tumbleweed <em>(Gundelia tournefortii, Anastatica hierochuntica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Psalm 83:13 to “whirling dust” and in Isaiah 17:13 to “wheel” or “rolling thing” (<span>niv<\/span> “tumbleweed”) seem to be to the Palestinian tumbleweed <em>(Gundelia tournefortii),<\/em> a member of the thistle family. It is a prickly herb with milky juice. It rolls over the land and gathers in tremendous heaps in hollows.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Vegetable\">Vegetable<\/p>\n<p>Scriptural references to vegetables are probably, in most cases, to the dried leguminous seeds of beans and lentils.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Vine\">Vine <em>(Vitis vinifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any plant with a flexible stem that climbs, twines, or creeps along a surface or support. The common grapevine <em>(Vitis vinifera)<\/em> is mentioned throughout the Bible. The fruitful vine (Ez 17:5-10) and the vine brought out of Egypt (Ps 80:8) were symbolic of the Jewish people. Jesus compares himself to the true vine, of which his disciples were the branches (Jn 15:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The grapevine of the Old World sometimes assumes the characteristics of a tree, with stems up to a foot and a half (45.7 centimeters) in diameter, the branches then being trained on a trellis and bearing bunches of grapes 10 to 12 pounds (4.5 to 5.4 kilograms) in weight, with the individual grapes the size of small plums. Bunches have been produced weighing as much as 26 pounds (11.8 kilograms). The vines of the Holy Land were always renowned both for the luxuriance of their growth and for the immense clusters of grapes they produced. Thus it does not seem improbable that the spies sent to the Promised Land should have employed a pole to transport some of the clusters home (Nm 13:23-24).<\/p>\n<p>The wild grape <em>(Vitis orientalis)<\/em> is referred to in Isaiah 5:2-4, Jeremiah 2:21, and Ezekiel 15:2-6. It is known as the native wild fox grape and has small, black, acidic berries about the size of currants with little juice.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Walnut\">Walnut <em>(Juglans regia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of this genus having round, sticky fruit enclosing an edible nut. The reference in Song of Songs 6:11 to “nuts” is thought to refer to the Persian or common walnut, <em>Juglans regia.<\/em> The tree is believed to have been indigenous to northern Persia, but it is actually found wild in many parts of northern India, eastward as far as China, and westward through Persia. At the time of Solomon, it was widely cultivated for its fruit throughout the East. Perhaps Solomon’s garden of nuts was a part of his extensive gardens at Etham, six miles (9.7 kilometers) from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WaterLily\">Water Lily <em>(Nymphaea)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of numerous aquatic plants of this genus with floating leaves and showy flowers. The carved lily ornamentation of 1 Kings 7:19-26 and 2 Chronicles 4:5 was probably patterned after the flowers of the water lily. Few flowers can equal the Egyptian lotus or water lily <em>(Nymphaea lotus)<\/em> in beauty. It looks very much like a large white rose and at one time floated in profusion on the waters of the Nile.<\/p>\n<p>The common European white water lily <em>(N. alba)<\/em> was also familiar to the children of Israel. It grows not only in Europe but also in the Holy Land and North Africa. It is, however, not as common in Egypt as is the white lotus.<\/p>\n<p>Another water lily with which the Israelites were probably familiar is the blue lotus, <em>N. caerulea.<\/em> Its leaves are 12 to 16 inches (30.5 to 40.6 centimeters) across and it has light-blue flowers that are three to six inches (7.6 to 15.2 centimeters) in diameter.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wheat\">Wheat <em>(Triticum aestivum, T. compositum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various cereal grasses of this family widely cultivated for its edible grain. Five kinds of wheat are native to—and still wild in—the Holy Land, and at least eight others are cultivated there today; probably most, if not all, were known in Bible times. The wild varieties were probably more abundant then than they are today. Among these are the einkorn <em>(T. monococcum),<\/em> the thaoudar <em>(T. thaoudar),<\/em> and the wild emmer <em>(T. dicoccoides).<\/em> The composite wheat <em>(T. compositum),<\/em> with its branched spikes, often bearing as many as seven heads per stalk, is definitely referred to in Genesis 41:5-57. It is depicted on numerous Egyptian monuments and on inscriptions and is still commonly seen in the Nile Delta, where it is known as “mummy wheat.” It is also cultivated in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The most frequently mentioned wheat of the Bible is undoubtedly the commonly cultivated summer and winter wheat, <em>Triticum aestivum.<\/em> It is an abundant annual grass cultivated in Egypt and other Eastern lands since earliest times. The exact place of its origin is unknown. Grains of wheat have been found in the most ancient Egyptian tombs and in the remains of prehistoric lake dwellings in Switzerland. It was certainly the chief grain of Mesopotamia in Jacob’s time (Gn 30:14).<\/p>\n<p>Corn in biblical days often included a mixture of peas, beans, lentils, cummin, barley, millet, and spelt, but wheat was always its main constituent. Egypt was a great grain-producing country, and Abram (Gn 12:10) and Joseph’s brothers (ch 42) naturally turned to Egypt for wheat when famine visited Canaan.<\/p>\n<p>The mills, millstones, granaries, and threshing floors mentioned in the Bible all refer to equipment employed in processing grain to produce flour. The fine flour of which the showbread loaves were made (Lv 24:5) was unquestionably wheat flour. Wheat intended for home consumption was often stored in the central part of the house; this explains the story told in 2 Samuel 4:6. It was also sometimes stored in dry wells (2 Sm 17:19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wormwood\">Wormwood <em>(Artemisia judaica, A. herba-alba)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Wormwood is a general name given to a group of woody plants with a strong aromatic odor. Wormwood plants have a strong, bitter taste, and their young shoots and branch tips furnish the “wormwood” of commerce. Its bitter taste accounts for its being spoken of with gall—as being symbolic of bitter calamity and sorrow (Prv 5:4; Jer 9:15; 23:15; Lam 3:15, 19). <em>Artemisia herba-alba<\/em> is the common species of wormwood in the Holy Land today. It is strongly aromatic, smelling like camphor, and bitter. <em>A. judaica<\/em> occurs only in the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>Absinthe is made from species of this group. It first leads to greater activity and pleasant sensations and fills the mind with grandiose ideas (Lam 3:15). The habitual use of it, however, brings on a stupor and gradual diminution of intellectual faculties, ending in delirium and even death. Perhaps the hemlock of Amos 6:12 was wormwood.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PLANTS<\/h3>\n<p>Identifying biblical plants has always been a difficult task, partly because people continue to identify the biblical elm, sycamore, lily, rose, and vine with modern plants, and also because they assume that all the plants now growing in the Holy Land were there in ancient biblical days, or that the plants referred to in the Bible are still to be found there today. Unfortunately, many plants now quite common in the Holy Land were not there in biblical days. Many plants that once grew in abundance in the Holy Land are now extinct. Some have been driven out by foreign invaders; others have been exterminated or nearly exterminated by overcultivation of the land, the destruction of forests, and the resulting changes in climatic and other environmental conditions. At one time the Holy Land was a land of palm trees, with the date palm as abundant and characteristic there as it was in Egypt, but today the date palm is much less common. Similarly, in antiquity, the towering cedars clothed the slopes of Lebanon and other mountain ranges. Now the few remaining specimens must be carefully fenced in to protect them against trampling and the ravages of goats.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Acacia<\/p>\n<p>• Acanthus<\/p>\n<p>• Algum<\/p>\n<p>• Almond<\/p>\n<p>• Almug<\/p>\n<p>• Aloe<\/p>\n<p>• Apple<\/p>\n<p>• Apricot<\/p>\n<p>• Ash<\/p>\n<p>• Aspen<\/p>\n<p>• Balm<\/p>\n<p>• Barley<\/p>\n<p>• Bdellium<\/p>\n<p>• Bean<\/p>\n<p>• Bitter Herbs<\/p>\n<p>• Boxthorn, European<\/p>\n<p>• Box Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Bramble<\/p>\n<p>• Broom<\/p>\n<p>• Buckthorn<\/p>\n<p>• Bush<\/p>\n<p>• Buttercup<\/p>\n<p>• Calamus<\/p>\n<p>• Cane<\/p>\n<p>• Caper Plant<\/p>\n<p>• Carob Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Cassia<\/p>\n<p>• Castor Oil Plant<\/p>\n<p>• Cedar<\/p>\n<p>• Chicory<\/p>\n<p>• Cinnamon<\/p>\n<p>• Citron Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Coriander<\/p>\n<p>• Cotton<\/p>\n<p>• Cucumber<\/p>\n<p>• Cummin<\/p>\n<p>• Cypress<\/p>\n<p>• Dandelion<\/p>\n<p>• Darnel Grass<\/p>\n<p>• Dill<\/p>\n<p>• Ebony<\/p>\n<p>• Endive<\/p>\n<p>• Fig, Fig Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Fir Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Flax<\/p>\n<p>• Frankincense<\/p>\n<p>• Galbanum<\/p>\n<p>• Garlic<\/p>\n<p>• Gourd, Wild<\/p>\n<p>• Hedge<\/p>\n<p>• Henna<\/p>\n<p>• Hyacinth<\/p>\n<p>• Hyssop<\/p>\n<p>• Juniper<\/p>\n<p>• Laurel or Sweet Bay<\/p>\n<p>• Leek<\/p>\n<p>• Lentil<\/p>\n<p>• Lettuce<\/p>\n<p>• Lily<\/p>\n<p>• Lotus Bush<\/p>\n<p>• Mallow<\/p>\n<p>• Mandrake<\/p>\n<p>• Melon<\/p>\n<p>• Millet<\/p>\n<p>• Mint<\/p>\n<p>• Mulberry<\/p>\n<p>• Mustard<\/p>\n<p>• Myrrh<\/p>\n<p>• Myrtle<\/p>\n<p>• Narcissus<\/p>\n<p>• Nard<\/p>\n<p>• Nettle<\/p>\n<p>• Nutmeg Flower<\/p>\n<p>• Oak<\/p>\n<p>• Oil Tree, Oleaster<\/p>\n<p>• Oleander<\/p>\n<p>• Olive, Olive Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Onion<\/p>\n<p>• Palm<\/p>\n<p>• Papyrus<\/p>\n<p>• Pine Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Pistachio<\/p>\n<p>• Plane Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Pomegranate<\/p>\n<p>• Poplar<\/p>\n<p>• Quince<\/p>\n<p>• Reed<\/p>\n<p>• Rue<\/p>\n<p>• Rush<\/p>\n<p>• Saffron<\/p>\n<p>• Sage<\/p>\n<p>• Spelt<\/p>\n<p>• Storax Tree<\/p>\n<p>• Sycamore<\/p>\n<p>• Tamarisk<\/p>\n<p>• Terebinth<\/p>\n<p>• Thistle, Thorn<\/p>\n<p>• Tulip<\/p>\n<p>• Tumbleweed<\/p>\n<p>• Vegetable<\/p>\n<p>• Vine<\/p>\n<p>• Walnut<\/p>\n<p>• Water Lily<\/p>\n<p>• Wheat<\/p>\n<p>• Wormwood<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Acacia\">Acacia <em>(Acacia tortilis<\/em> and <em>A. seyal)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any tree or shrub of the mimosa family of plants growing in warm regions. The plant referred to in the <span>kjv<\/span> as “shittah” (singular) or “shittim” (plural) is undoubtedly the acacia tree, the only timber tree of any considerable size in the Arabian desert. <em>Acacia tortilis<\/em> is by far the largest and most common tree in the desert in which the Israelites wandered for 40 years. It is especially conspicuous on Mt Sinai and was probably the species used for the tabernacle furnishings. <em>A. seyal<\/em> is less common, at least today. It can grow as high as 25 feet (7.6 meters), and bears yellow flowers on twisted branches. The wood is close grained, heavy and hard, orange-brown in color, and much valued in cabinetwork. The ancient Egyptians clamped shut mummy coffins with acacia wood.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Acanthus\">Acanthus <em>(Acanthus syriacus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The acanthus, perhaps referred to in Job 30:7 and Zephaniah 2:9, is a perennial thistlelike herb or small shrub about three feet (.9 meter) tall, and is a common weed in all Eastern countries. It has been used since time immemorial as a model for the leaf or scroll decorations in art.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Algum\">Algum <em>(Juniperus excelsa Bieb)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The timber from Lebanon referred to in 2 Chronicles 2:8 is probably the juniper. Some translators hold, however, that algum and almug are Hebrew variants for the same tree (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg, 2 Chr 2:8).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Almug (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Almond\">Almond <em>(Amygdalus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The almond is a peachlike tree with saw-toothed pointed leaves and gray bark. It grows to a height of from 10 to 25 feet (3 to 7.6 meters). It blooms very early in the year; its Hebrew name has its roots in “watch for.” To the Jews it was a welcome harbinger of spring (Jer 1:11).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Almug\">Almug <em>(Pterocarpus santalinus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The precious wood imported by King Solomon and used in making the pillars for the temple and for making harps and psalteries (1 Kgs 10:11-12). This timber was brought by sea from Ophir to Ezion-geber, near Elath. Modern authorities suggest that Ophir was either in Arabia, India, or East Africa near Mozambique. The reference to “algum“ in 2 Chronicles 2:8 is possibly to this tree. <em>See<\/em> Algum (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Aloe\">Aloe <em>(Aloe succotrina, Aquilaria agallocha)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Chiefly African, lilylike plant of the genus <em>Aloes,<\/em> certain species of which yield a drug and a fiber. Aloe is an aromatic substance mentioned in the Bible, together with myrrh, balm, and other fragrant plants (Ps 45:8; Prv 7:17; Sg 4:14; Jn 19:39). Most scholars think these passages refer to two different plants. The OT plant is likely to have been <em>Aquilaria agallocha,<\/em> the eaglewood, a large tree growing up to 120 feet (36.6 meters) tall with a trunk 12 feet (3.7 meters) in circumference. It is native to northern India, Malaya, and Indochina. The decaying wood is highly fragrant, and as such is highly valued as perfume and incense and for fumigation.<\/p>\n<p>The aloe of John 19:39 is thought to be the true aloe <em>(Aloe succotrina),<\/em> the juice of which was used by the Egyptians in embalming. Its smell, however, is not very agreeable, and it has a bitter taste. It is sometimes used by veterinarians as a horse medicine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Apple\">Apple <em>(Malus sylvestris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The identity of the fruit identified by the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tappuach<\/span> (Prv 25:11; Sg 2:3, 5; 7:8; 8:5) continues to be debated. In most English translations it has been rendered “apple” because of its close linguistic tie to the Arabic word <em>tuffah.<\/em> Many scholars identify this tree as the apricot, questioning whether apples fit the biblical description “apples of gold” and whether the apple tree was cultivated in ancient Palestine. Recent excavations at Kadesh-barnea, however, have uncovered carbonized apples, probably a crab apple <em>(Malus sylvestris),<\/em> dating to the ninth century <span>BC<\/span>. This would certainly allow for this ornamental apple’s cultivation in Solomon’s gardens.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apricot (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Apricot\">Apricot <em>(Prunus armeniaca)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The identification of the Hebrew word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tappuach<\/span> with the apricot continues to be debated. The apricot tree produces yellow-orange peachlike edible fruit and is native to western Asia and Africa. It is abundant in the Holy Land and probably has been so since early biblical times. The tree is a round-headed reddish-barked tree growing 30 feet (9.1 meters) tall. Most translations render this Hebrew word “apple,” though many scholars identify it with the apricot because of its descriptions in the biblical text (see Prv 25:11; Sg 2:3, 5; 7:8; 8:5; Jl 1:12).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Apple (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ash\">Ash <em>(Alhagi maurorum, Fraxinus ornus, Tamarix mannifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There are several ash trees found in the Near East. One of these, the prickly alhagi <em>(Alhagi maurorum),<\/em> is a member of the pea family. It is a low, many-stemmed, much-branched shrub growing about three feet (.9 meter) tall with somewhat hairy twigs and pealike flowers. During the heat of the day, leaves exude a sweet, gummy substance that hardens in the air and is collected by shaking the bushes over a spread-out cloth.<\/p>\n<p>The manna tamarisk <em>(Tamarix mannifera)<\/em> is a multibranched shrub or a small tree 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall with rigid branches that have tiny pink flowers. It is found on deserts from the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>The flowering or manna ash <em>(Fraxinus ornus)<\/em> is a tree that grows from 15 to 50 feet (4.6 to 15.2 meters) tall. The fruits are very similar to those produced by our species of ash. The ash of Isaiah 44:14 (<span>kjv<\/span>) is believed to be the Aleppo pine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Aspen\">Aspen <em>(Populus euphratica<\/em> or <em>P. tremula)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of the genus <em>Populus<\/em> with leaves attached by flattened leafstalks so that they tremble or “quake” in the wind.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Balm\">Balm <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca, Pistacia lentiscus, Commiphora opobalsamum<\/em><em>)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>An oily aromatic resin exuded by chiefly tropical trees and shrubs and used medicinally; trees and shrubs producing this substance. References in Genesis 37:25, Jeremiah 8:22, 46:11, and 51:8 are thought to be either the Jericho balsam <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca)<\/em> or the lentisk or mastic tree <em>(Pistacia lentiscus).<\/em> The Jericho balsam is very common in Egypt, North Africa, the plains of Jericho, and the hot plains bordering on the Dead Sea. It is a small desert-loving plant, 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall, with slender, thorny branches and small clusters of green flowers.<\/p>\n<p>The lentisk or mastic tree is native to the Holy Land, and the reference in Genesis 43:11 is probably to this plant, since the implication is that this is a native product of the Holy Land unknown in Egypt at the time. This tree is a shrubby or bushy tree 3 to 10 feet (.9 to 3 meters) tall with evergreen leaves. The “balm” is a fragrant gummy exudation of the sap secured by making incisions in the stems and branches, usually in August. The best grades are in the form of yellow-white translucent tears or drops; they are employed in medicine as an astringent. The poorer grades are used extensively as a varnish. Children in the East use it as chewing gum.<\/p>\n<p>References to spices in 1 Kings 10:10, 2 Kings 20:13, Song of Songs 3:6, Isaiah 39:2, and Ezekiel 27:17 are thought to be the balm of Gilead <em>(Commiphora opobalsamum),<\/em> which in spite of its name is not a native of Gilead or even of the Holy Land but is indigenous to Arabia, especially the mountainous regions of Yemen. The trees were still in existence on the plain of Jericho at the time of the Roman conquest. The Roman conquerors carried branches to Rome as trophies of their victory over the Jews.<\/p>\n<p>This tree is a small, stiff-branched evergreen tree seldom more than 15 feet (4.6 meters) high with straggling branches. The “balm” is obtained by making incisions in the stem and branches of the tree. The sap soon hardens into small irregular nodules that are collected. Gum is also procured from green and ripe fruit.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Myrrh (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Barley\">Barley <em>(Hordeum distichon)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A cereal grass bearing bearded flower spikes and edible seeds. The common barley <em>(Hordeum distichon),<\/em> the winter barley <em>(H. hex<\/em><em>astichon),<\/em> and the spring barley <em>(H. vulgare)<\/em> have been cultivated in temperate regions of the world since time immemorial and today still constitute one of the principal grain foods. Barley and wheat were the two staple cereal crops of Egypt and the Holy Land. Being less expensive, barley was mostly used for feeding cattle, although it was also used by itself or mixed with wheat and other seed as food for man (Ez 4:9-12). Barley is mentioned in the Bible over 30 times, either as a plant growing in the fields or in reference to products made from it, such as barley meal, barley bread, barley cakes, and barley loaves. As the common food of the poor, barley was also regarded as a symbol of poverty and cheapness or worthlessness (Hos 3:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bdellium\">Bdellium <em>(Commiphora africana)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic gum resin similar to myrrh, produced by various trees of the genus <em>Commiphora<\/em> of Africa and western Asia. The reference in Genesis 2:12 and Numbers 11:7 to bdellium is thought by most scholars today to refer to a gum resin, obtained from a shrub, <em>Commiphora africana<\/em>, that grows in south Arabia and northeastern Africa. The resin is yellowish, transparent, and fragrant, and looks like a pearl.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bean\">Bean <em>(Faba vulgaris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in 2 Samuel 17:27-28 and Ezekiel 4:9 are generally regarded as referring to the broad bean. This species, an annual plant, is thought originally to have grown in northern Persia, but it was extensively cultivated in western Asia in very early times as a food plant. Beans have been found in the mummy coffins of Egyptian tombs, and they were also cultivated by the Greeks and Romans.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BitterHerbs\">Bitter Herbs <em>(Cichorium endivia, Taraxacum officinale, Lactuca sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “bitter herbs” of Exodus 12:8 and Numbers 9:11 seem to have been plants like endive <em>(Cichorium endivia),<\/em> the common chicory <em>(Cichorium intybus),<\/em> lettuce <em>(Lactuca sativa),<\/em> or the common dandelion <em>(Taraxacum officinale).<\/em> These are all weedy plants common in modern Egypt and western Asia and are still eaten by people living there. The leaves of the ordinary garden lettuce are intensely bitter when bleached. This is also true of the common dandelion. Others suggest that the bitter herbs were derived from thorns and thistles.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BoxthornEuropean\">Boxthorn, European <em>(Lycium europaeum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various thorny shrubs, some species of which bear purplish flowers and brightly colored berries. The reference in Judges 9:14-15 is thought to be to the European boxthorn or desert-thorn. It is a thorny shrub 6 to 12 feet (1.8 to 3.7 meters) tall with clustered leaves and small violet flowers eventually producing small globular red berries. It is native to and common throughout the Holy Land, especially in the region from Lebanon to the Dead Sea.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"BoxTree\">Box Tree <em>(Buxus longifolia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The long-leaved box tree is a hardy evergreen tree found in the mountainous regions of the northern part of the Holy Land, the Galilean hills, and Lebanon. It grows to a height of about 20 feet (6.1 meters) with a slender trunk seldom more than six to eight inches (15.2 to 20.3 centimeters) in diameter. Its wood is very hard and takes a fine polish. It was cultivated by the Romans for its hard wood, which they inlaid with ivory for cabinets and jewel caskets. Scriptural references include Isaiah 41:19 and 60:13.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bramble\">Bramble <em>(Rubus sanctus, R. ulmifolius)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian bramble <em>(Rubus sanctus)<\/em> and the closely related elm-leaf bramble <em>(R. ulmifolius)<\/em> are prickly evergreen shrubs that spread by means of suckers. The stems and young shoots are covered with a characteristic bloom or whitish powder and short hairs. The prickles are strong, erect, and hairy. The flowers are white, pink, rose, or purple in color, and the fruit is round and black.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Thistle, Thorn (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Broom\">Broom <em>(Retama raetam)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A shrub native to Eurasia. The word translated “juniper” in the <span>kjv<\/span> has nothing to do with the true junipers but refers rather to a species of broom, known as the white broom <em>(Retama raetam).<\/em> Its branches are longer and flexible, forming an erect, dense bush 3 to 12 feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall. The leaves are small and sparse, yet it forms an agreeable shade in a desert region. The white pealike flowers are sweet and very fragrant and are borne in clusters along the twigs. It is a beautiful shrub that grows in the desert regions of Palestine, Syria, and Persia. In many desert areas it is the only bush that affords any shade (1 Kgs 19:4-5).<\/p>\n<p>The “juniper roots” of Job 30:4 are not the roots of either the juniper or white broom. The roots of the latter are very nauseating and could not be eaten in the manner described by Job. Job’s “juniper roots” were probably an edible parasitic plant <em>(Cynomorium coccineum).<\/em> This plant grows in salt marshes and maritime sands. It is frequently eaten in times of food scarcity and at one time was highly prized for its supposed medicinal value in the treatment of dysentery.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Buckthorn\">Buckthorn <em>(Rhamnus palaestina)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestinian buckthorn is a shrub or small tree attaining a height of three to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters) with velvety, thorny branches, evergreen leaves, and clusters of small flowers blooming in March or April. It grows in thickets and on hillsides from Syria and Lebanon through the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Bush\">Bush <em>(Acacia nilotica, Loranthus acaciae)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Low, branching, woody plant, usually smaller than a tree. There are differences of opinion in regard to the bush out of which the Lord appeared to Moses (Ex 3:2-4). From the biblical account, it seems most likely that the event was a miraculous one. However, some seek a natural explanation and believe that the burning bush may have been the crimson-flowered mistletoe or acacia strap flower <em>(Loranthus acaciae),<\/em> which grows in great profusion as a partial parasite on the various acacia shrubs, such as the thorny acacia <em>(Acacia nilotica),<\/em> in the Holy Land and Sinai. When in full bloom, the mistletoe imparts to the shrub or tree the appearance of being on fire because its brilliant flame-colored blossoms stand out against the green foliage and yellow flowers of the host plants.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Buttercup\">Buttercup <em>(Ranunculus asiaticus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Persian buttercup is one of the flowers or grasses of the field (Mt 6:28-30). It is a showy plant blooming in all brilliant colors except blue, with double flowers sometimes measuring two inches (5.1 centimeters) across.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Calamus\">Calamus <em>(Acorus calamus, Andropogon aroma<\/em><em>ticus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A plant, or its aromatic root; any of a variety of tropical Asiatic palms. One of the plants that grew in Solomon’s garden (Sg 4:14). The sweet flag <em>(Acorus<\/em> <em>calamus)<\/em> and the beardgrass <em>(Andropogon aromaticus)<\/em> have been suggested as the plants from which calamus came. The sweet flag is highly aromatic and grows in Europe and Asia, but it is not known in the Holy Land. Indigenous to India, beardgrass is highly odoriferous when bruised and is thought to have furnished the calamus of the Bible. It yields an oil known as ginger-grass oil.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cane\">Cane <em>(Saccharum officinarum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>It is thought that there were two species of sugarcane indigenous to and growing wild in the Holy Land. One of these, <em>Saccharum sara,<\/em> is known to be only from Lebanon. The other native species is <em>S. biflorum,<\/em> which grows on the banks of ditches and streams from Syria and Lebanon through the Holy Land south to Stony Arabia and the Sinai. This may be the wild cane familiar to the Jews. Most authorities, however, think that the “sweet cane” of Isaiah 43:24 was the true sugarcane <em>(S. officinarum).<\/em> This plant is thought to have originated in the tropics of the eastern hemisphere. It has been cultivated by people since time immemorial and is not now known in the wild state anywhere. It is a tall, stout perennial grass, maizelike in aspect with many jointed stems and a large plumelike terminal cluster of flowers.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CaperPlant\">Caper Plant <em>(Capparis sincula)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Spiny, trailing shrub of Mediterranean region; the flower bud of this shrub. The word “desire” in Ecclesiastes 12:5 may actually refer to the caper berry. The common caper or caper berry grows profusely in Syria, Lebanon, the Holy Land, and in the mountain valleys of Sinai. The plant may sometimes grow upright but more generally spreads itself weakly over the ground like a vine, covering rocks, ruins, and old walls like ivy. The young flower buds, pickled in vinegar, were used by the ancients as a condiment for meat. The berries were also used in cooking.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CarobTree\">Carob Tree <em>(Ceratonia siliqua)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Evergreen of the Mediterranean region having edible pods. Scholars generally agree that the pods of the carob or locust tree were the “husks” of Jesus’ parable of the prodigal son (Lk 15:16). The carob is an attractive evergreen leguminous tree that is very common throughout the Holy Land, Syria, and Egypt. The pods are most abundant in April and May and contain numerous pealike seeds embedded in an agreeably flavored mucilaginous sweetish pulp. The pods are also used abundantly now as they were in antiquity for feeding cattle, horses, and pigs. In time of scarcity, they are used as human food and perhaps even regularly by the very poor. The carob is frequently mentioned in the Talmud as a source of good food for domestic animals. The seeds of the carob were formerly employed as a standard of weight and are the source of the term “carat.” Some commentators suggest that the “locusts” eaten by John the Baptist (Mt 3:4) were not insects but the fruit of the carob tree.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cassia\">Cassia <em>(Cinnamomum cassia, Saussurea lappa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree of tropical Asia with bark similar but inferior to cinnamon. The “cassia” of Exodus 30:24 and Ezekiel 27:19 is the cassia bark tree, <em>Cinnamomum cassia.<\/em> In Psalm 45:8 the reference seems to be to the Indian orris, <em>Saussurea lappa.<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CastorOilPlant\">Castor Oil Plant <em>(Ricinus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Large plant, native to tropical Africa and Asia, cultivated for ornamental reasons and for extraction of oil from its seeds. The gourd of Jonah 4:6-7 was probably the ordinary castor bean. The castor bean is a tender shrub, growing 3 to 12 or more feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall with huge leaves that resemble the outstretched human hand. The castor bean plant is found in waste places, especially near water, in both Lebanon and the Holy Land and often is cultivated. In hot climates it becomes treelike and affords a dense shade by the abundance of its huge, umbrella-like leaves. It is known in the Orient for the rapidity of its growth. The oil extracted from the seeds of the castor bean was used by the Jews in ceremonial rites and is mentioned among the five kinds of oil that rabbinical tradition sanctioned for such use. The seeds themselves are poisonous when eaten.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cedar\">Cedar <em>(Cedrus libani)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several coniferous evergreen trees of the genus native to the Old World. With few exceptions, the references to “cedar” are to the well-known cedar of Lebanon. This is a noble tree, the tallest and most massive with which the Israelites were acquainted. It grows quite rapidly, attaining a height of up to 120 feet (36.6 meters) with a trunk diameter of as much as 8 feet (2.4 meters). In Solomon’s day these trees were obviously abundant on the mountains of Lebanon, but now, because of excessive lumbering, they are very rare. The cedar of Lebanon was held in high esteem not only for its vigor, beauty, and age but also for the fragrance and remarkable lasting qualities of the wood. It symbolizes grandeur, might, majesty, dignity, lofty stature, and wide expansion. References in Ezekiel 17:3, 22-24, and 31:3-18 beautifully illustrate how these lofty kings of the forest symbolize and typify worldly strength, power, and glory.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Chicory\">Chicory <em>(Cichorium intybus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cinnamon\">Cinnamon <em>(Cinnamomum zeylanicum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Two varieties of trees of this genus, native to tropical Asia, with aromatic bark that, when ground, is used as a spice. The cinnamon of Exodus 30:23, Proverbs 7:17, Song of Songs 4:14, and Revelation 18:13 is undoubtedly <em>Cinnamomum zeylanicum.<\/em> The tree is a rather low-growing one, never getting more than 30 feet (9.1 meters) high, with a smooth, ash-colored bark and widespread branches and white flowers. Its shiny, beautifully veined evergreen leaves grow about nine inches (22.9 centimeters) long and two inches (5.1 centimeters) wide.<\/p>\n<p>The Jews always regarded cinnamon as a deliciously fragrant substance and valued it highly as a spice and a perfume. It was one of the principal ingredients used in the manufacture of the precious ointments, or “holy oil,” that Moses was commanded to use in the tabernacle for anointing the sacred vessels and officiating priests. It was undoubtedly very costly and precious.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CitronTree\">Citron Tree <em>(Tetraclinis articulata)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree native to Asia bearing lemonlike fruit with a thick, fragrant rind. It seldom exceeds a height of 30 feet (9.1 meters) and has hard, dark-colored, durable, fragrant wood that takes a fine polish. The wood was one of the most highly prized woods of the ancients, who employed it extensively for cabinetwork. It was commonly referred to as being worth its weight in gold. The wood, owing to its resinous properties, is slow to decay and remains practically uninjured by insects.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Coriander\">Coriander <em>(Coriandrum sativum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Exodus 16:31 and Numbers 11:7 are clearly to the common coriander plant. The coriander was found quite commonly growing along with grain in cultivated fields throughout the Holy Land. It grows wild in Egypt and was used by the ancients both as condiment and as a medicine. The leaves are quite aromatic and are used in soups and for flavoring puddings, curries, and wines. The coriander is still used today as a spice by the Arabs. In Scripture it is mentioned only in connection with manna, which was said to resemble coriander seeds in size, shape, and color.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cotton\">Cotton <em>(Gossypium herbaceum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants or shrubs of this genus grown in warm climates for the soft white fiber attached to their seeds and the oil from these seeds. The “green” of the <span>kjv<\/span> in Esther 1:6 is undoubtedly a reference to the Levant cotton <em>(Gossypium herbaceum)<\/em> that was cultivated since time immemorial in the Far East. Alexander the Great brought it back from India. It is probable that the Jews became acquainted with cotton during the period of their Persian captivity under King Ahasuerus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cucumber\">Cucumber <em>(Cucumis chate, C. sativus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The cucumber is an annual climbing or trailing vine, the origin of which is unknown. It has been cultivated in all the warm countries of the Old World since prehistoric times. Cucumbers are usually eaten raw; a cucumber and a barley cake or some other kind of bread often constitute a meal. The reference to “a lodge in a garden of cucumbers” (Is 1:8) refers to the crudely built small house or lodge often set up in Palestinian cucumber fields and vineyards.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cummin\">Cummin <em>(Cuminum cyminum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Isaiah 28:25-27 and Matthew 23:23 are clearly to the cummin—a common, annual plant of the carrot family said to be native to Egypt and the region of the eastern Mediterranean. It has long been cultivated for its powerfully aromatic and pungent seeds, which are similar to caraway seeds but larger. They do not have as agreeable a taste as caraway seeds but nevertheless were used extensively as a flavor or spice and sometimes were even mixed with flour in making bread. Cummin was also used medicinally and as a condiment with fish and meats.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Cypress\">Cypress <em>(Cupressus sempervirens horizontalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The cypress is a massive, tall-growing evergreen with scalelike leaves and is widely distributed in the mountainous regions of the Holy Land. On Mt Lebanon and Mt Hermon it grows together with the cedar and oak. Its usual height is 50 to 60 feet (15.2 to 18.3 meters), but it may grow as tall as 80 feet (24.2 meters). It is said to have been used extensively in shipbuilding by the Phoenicians, Cretans, and Greeks. There is general agreement that the “gopher wood” of Genesis 6:14 is cypress because the wood is very durable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dandelion\">Dandelion <em>(Taraxacum officinale)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"DarnelGrass\">Darnel Grass <em>(Lolium temulentum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>It is generally agreed that the “tares” of the <span>kjv<\/span> (Mt 13:24-30) are the annual or bearded darnel grass. It is a strong grass closely resembling wheat or rye in appearance. The seeds are much smaller than those of wheat or rye, but it is extremely difficult to distinguish it from wheat or rye in its early stages. If it is not eradicated early but is left until the time of harvest, it is cut down with the wheat and the two are subsequently very difficult to separate. The seeds are poisonous, either due to some chemicals naturally present or because of a fungus that grows within the seeds.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Dill\">Dill <em>(Anethum graveolens)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Dill is a weedy annual plant resembling parsley and fennel, 12 to 20 inches (30.5 to 50.8 centimeters) tall with yellow flowers. The reference in Matthew 23:23 (<span>kjv<\/span>) to anise is probably a reference to dill. This plant is widely cultivated for seeds that are aromatic and carminative.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Ebony\">Ebony <em>(Diospyros ebenaster, D. ebenum, D. mela<\/em><em>noxylon)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Chiefly tropical tree of southern Asia with hard, dark-colored heartwood. Ebony comes from the date plum or date tree <em>(Diospyros ebenaster<\/em> and <em>D. melanoxylon)<\/em> of India and is quite different from the date palm. It was sent by Phoenician ships across the Arabian Sea and up the Red Sea to the market in Tyre, from which it was carried overland by camel caravans. The outer wood of these trees is white and soft, but when old, the interior wood becomes hard, black, heavy, and durable and still constitutes most of the costly ebony of commerce. Ebony takes on a fine polish and is highly valued for cabinetwork, for turnery, for the manufacture of fancy ornamental articles and instruments, and as a veneer for other woods.<\/p>\n<p>Ezekiel mentions ivory and ebony together (Ez 27:15). Ebony was and still is frequently inlaid with ivory, with which it contrasts so strikingly in color.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Endive\">Endive <em>(Cichorium endivia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FigFigTree\">Fig, Fig Tree <em>(Ficus carica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees or shrubs of this genus, native to the Mediterranean region; its edible fruit. The common fig, mentioned some 60 times in the Bible, is one of the most important Bible plants. Its leaves are spoken of first in Genesis 3:7. The fig is generally regarded as native to southwestern Asia and Syria, but already in early times it was also cultivated extensively in Egypt and the Holy Land, where it was one of the principal foods. First Samuel 25:18 states that a part of the gift sent by Abigail to David consisted of 200 cakes of figs.<\/p>\n<p>The fig tree has a very peculiar type of fruit called a syconium, which is actually a very much enlarged and fleshy receptacle. It is pollinated by a wasp, without which it cannot get its fruit; this was discovered when it was first transplanted to California.<\/p>\n<p>The fig puts out its earliest fruit buds before its leaves, the former in February and the latter in April or May. When the leaves are out, the fruit ought to be ripe (Mt 21:19).<\/p>\n<p>Whenever the prophets of old berated the people for their wickedness, they often threatened that the vine and the fig crops would be destroyed. And when they held out the promise of great rewards, they said that the vine and fig crop would be restored (Jer 8:13; Hos 2:12; Jl 1:7, 12; Mi 4:4; Zec 3:10).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"FirTree\">Fir Tree <em>(Abies cilicica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>This a generic term for various evergreen trees having flat needles and erect cones. In all probability, most of the references in Scripture to the fir are references to the pine, cypress, or juniper. The only true fir in the Holy Land grows in the higher parts of Lebanon and the mountains northward. It attains a height of 30 to 75 feet (9.1 to 22.9 meters) and is widely cultivated.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Flax\">Flax <em>(Linum usitatissimum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several plants of this genus, one particularly being widely cultivated for the linseed oil from its seeds and the fine textile fibers from its stems. Flax is the oldest known of the textile fibers. Cotton is identified only once in the Bible (Est 1:6). There is no mention of any other fiber plant being cultivated in Egypt or the Holy Land in biblical days, and for that reason it is thought that linen was the material out of which clothes other than woolen ones were made. Linen was also used for domestic purposes such as towels (Jn 13:4-5), napkins (11:44), girdles and undergarments (Is 3:23; Mk 14:51), nets (Is 19:8-9), and measuring lines (Ez 40:3). The priests serving in the temple were to wear nothing but linen clothes; a mixed cloth of wool and flax together was strictly forbidden to the Jews (Lv 19:19; Dt 22:11).<\/p>\n<p>At least three kinds of linen were used in biblical times, and apparently there were particular uses for each kind. Ordinary linen of coarsest texture is mentioned in Leviticus 6:10, Ezekiel 9:2, Daniel 10:5, and Revelation 15:6. The second type of linen of superior quality is mentioned in Exodus 26:1 and 39:27. A third type of linen of finest texture and high cost is mentioned in 1 Chronicles 15:27, Esther 8:15, and Revelation 19:8.<\/p>\n<p>The common flax plant grows from one to four feet (.3 to 1.2 meters) tall with a simple, slender, wirelike stem and numerous small, pale, lancelike green leaves. The failure of the flax crop is listed as one of God’s punishments (Hos 2:9). The manufacture of linen from flax fibers was a domestic industry of Jewish women (Prv 31:13, 19), ranging from ordinary clothing to the robes and aprons worn by the priest and temple attendants. Linen was also used for wicks in lamps (Is 42:3).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Frankincense\">Frankincense <em>(Boswellia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic genus resin used chiefly as incense. Frankincense is obtained from three species of a single genus of plants that grow in southern Arabia, Ethiopia, Somaliland, India, and the East Indies. The trees are large in size, related to the turpentine or terebinth tree and to those that produce balsam and myrrh. The gum has a bitter taste and gives off a strong odor in the form of a volatile oil when warmed or burned. It is obtained by successive incisions in the bark of the trunk and in the branches of living trees. It is thought that the Hebrews imported all their frankincense from Arabia, especially from the region about Sheba.<\/p>\n<p>Frankincense is mentioned 21 times in the Bible (e.g., Ex 30:34; 1 Chr 9:29; Neh 13:9; Sg 3:6; 4:6, 14; Mt 2:11; Rv 18:13) and was probably employed almost exclusively in the sacrificial services of the tabernacle and temple until the time of Solomon. It has always been the most important incense resin in the world.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Galbanum\">Galbanum <em>(Ferula galbaniflua)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Galbanum is a malodorous yellowish or brownish gum resin containing the chemical substance umbelliferone, obtained from several species of plants related to the fennel, native to Syria and Persia. The gum is a natural exudation of the stem or is obtained by making a transverse incision in the young stem a few inches above the ground. The milky juice soon hardens and forms one of the kinds of commercial galbanum. Its odor is strongly balsamic, pungent, and disagreeable when burned. Galbanum was one of the ingredients used to form the “holy incense” (Ex 30:34).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Garlic\">Garlic <em>(Allium sativum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Onion (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GourdWild\">Gourd, Wild <em>(Citrullus colocynthis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There has been considerable difference of opinion regarding the meaning of the words translated “wild gourds” (2 Kgs 4:39) or “gall” (Dt 29:18; 32:32; Ps 69:21; Jer 8:14; 9:15; 23:15; Lam 3:5, 19; Am 6:12; Mt 27:34; Acts 8:23). Most scholars today believe the plant referred to was the colocynth, a cucumber-like vine that trails on the ground or climbs over shrubs and fences. The fruit contains a soft spongy pulp, which is intensely bitter, strongly cathartic, and sometimes poisonous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hedge\">Hedge <em>(Rhamnus palaestina, Balanites aegyptiaca, Lycium europaeum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Row of closely planted shrubs or low-growing trees forming a fence or boundary. A number of plants were used to provide hedges in Bible times. One of these was the Palestine buckthorn, <em>Rhamnus palaestina.<\/em> This plant is a shrub or a small tree growing from three to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters) tall with velvety, thorny branches, evergreen leaves, and clusters of small flowers blooming in March and April. It grows in thickets and on hillsides from Syria through the Holy Land to Arabia and the Sinai. The Jericho balsam <em>(Balanites aegyptiaca)<\/em> and the European boxthorn <em>(Lycium europaeum)<\/em> are also prickly shrubs widely used as hedges in the Holy Land and may be the plants referred to in Proverbs 15:19 and Hosea 2:6.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Henna\">Henna <em>(Lawsonia inermis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree or shrub of Asia and northern Africa with fragrant reddish or white flowers and leaves from which a reddish dye is made. The plant referred to in Song of Songs 1:14 and 4:13 and translated as “camphire” (<span>kjv<\/span>) is thought by scholars today to refer to the henna plant. It is a native of northern India and grows wild in the Sudan, Egypt, Arabia, Syria, Lebanon, and the Holy Land. It grows from 4 to 12 feet (1.2 to 3.7 meters) tall, and its scent is similar to that of roses.<\/p>\n<p>Henna leaves are dried, crushed into a powder, mixed with water, and made into a paste that has been used since time immemorial as a cosmetic. A number of mummies have been found decorated with henna. Henna was used to provide a bright yellow, orange, or red color to the fingernails, toenails, the tips of the fingers, the palms of the hand, and the soles of the feet of young girls. Men also used it for coloring their beards and the manes and tails of horses. The dye had to be renewed once every two or three weeks. This use of henna as a cosmetic was common in Egypt at the time the children of Israel were there as slaves; they were undoubtedly familiar with it.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyacinth\">Hyacinth <em>(Hyacinthus orientalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The lily referred to in Song of Songs 2:1-2, 16; 4:5; and 6:2-4 may well be the garden hyacinth. It is native to, and very common in, the fields and rocky places in the Holy Land, Lebanon, and northward. Its flowers in the wild form are always deep blue and very fragrant.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Lily (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Hyssop\">Hyssop <em>(Origanum maru)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Woody plant native to Asia with spikes of small blue flowers and aromatic leaves used as a condiment and in perfumery. There is little agreement among botanists as to the exact identity of the biblical “hyssop.” Some have suggested <em>Hyssopus offici<\/em><em>nalis,<\/em> the well-known garden herb now called hyssop. However, this plant is not native either to the Holy Land or Egypt, being found only in southern Europe. Moreover, it does not fit the requirements of the biblical plant.<\/p>\n<p>The “hyssop” of the OT is likely the Syrian or Egyptian marjoram <em>(Origanum maru).<\/em> It is referred to in Exodus 12:22; Leviticus 14:4-6, 52; Numbers 19:6, 18; 1 Kings 4:33; Psalm 51:7; and Hebrews 9:19. The marjorams are mints growing (under favorable conditions) about two or three feet (.6 to .9 meter) tall, but more often are dwarfed when growing in rock crevices and walls (cf. 1 Kgs 4:33). An aromatic substance is obtained from the crushed and dried leaves. If gathered together in a bunch with leaves and flowers, the hairy stems of the marjoram would hold liquid very well and would make an excellent sprinkler.<\/p>\n\n<p>The hyssop of the crucifixion passage in the NT (Jn 19:29) is probably the sorghum, a tall cereal plant grown primarily for food but also used for brushes and mops.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Juniper\">Juniper <em>(Juniperus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Variety of evergreen tree or shrub. The plant referred to in Jeremiah 17:6 and 48:6 and translated in the <span>kjv<\/span> “heath” is probably the savin or Phoenician juniper. The Phoenician juniper, <em>Juniperus phoenicia,<\/em> is found in the hills and rocky places of Arabia. The savin juniper, <em>J. sabina,<\/em> is common throughout the deserts, plains, and rocky places of Syria and Palestine. These references are to the brown-berried cedar, or sharp cedar.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LaurelorSweetBay\">Laurel or Sweet Bay <em>(Laurus nobilis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Shrub or tree native to the Mediterranean region. While the reference in Psalm 37:35 may be to the cedar of Lebanon, most scholars refer the “green bay tree” (<span>kjv<\/span>) of the psalmist to the sweet bay, a native of the Holy Land, inhabiting thickets and woods from the coast to the middle montane zone. It is an evergreen tree attaining a height from 40 to 60 feet (12.2 to 18.3 meters).<\/p>\n<p>Even though the tree is abundant on Mt Carmel and around Hebron, it is generally not common in the Holy Land. Its leaves are still used as a condiment, and its fruit, leaves, and bark have long been used in medicine.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Leek\">Leek <em>(Allium porrum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Onion (below).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lentil\">Lentil <em>(Lens esculenta)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The lentil plant to which Genesis 25:29-34, 2 Samuel 17:27-29, 23:11, and Ezekiel 4:9 refer is a small, erect, annual, vetchlike plant with slender stems and tendril-bearing leaves. It produces small, white, violet-striped flowers with flat, pealike pods in which the lentils are borne.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lettuce\">Lettuce <em>(Lactuca sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Bitter Herbs (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Lily\">Lily <em>(Lilium)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants of the genus <em>Lilium<\/em> having large, variously colored, trumpet-shaped flowers; and related plants. The lily is one of the most famous of all the plants in the Bible, but it is also one about which there has been considerable difference of opinion. It seems probable that several kinds of plants, perhaps five or six, are called lilies in the <span>kjv<\/span>. Most authorities regard the Palestine anemone or wind flower, <em>Anemone coronaria,<\/em> as the “lily of the field” (Mt 6:28, <span>kjv<\/span>) that surpassed Solomon in all his glory. These flowers are found in every part of the Holy Land in profusion; the most common forms are scarlet or yellow, but the Palestine anemone may also be blue, purple, rose, or white in color. The flower attains a diameter of two and three-quarter inches (7 centimeters).<\/p>\n<p>An alternative suggestion is the Palestinian chamomile, <em>Anthemis palaestina,<\/em> a common, white, daisylike plant. The chamomile is gathered like dry grass and thrown into the furnace when it dries up.<\/p>\n<p>Another proposed plant is <em>Lilium chalcedonicum,<\/em> the scarlet or Martagon lily. The statement in Song of Songs 5:13—“his lips like lilies”—would better fit this plant than the Palestine anemone. The reference is apparently to a rare plant of exceptional beauty. The scarlet lily is rare in the Holy Land; indeed, some botanists doubt that it lives there.<\/p>\n<p>The references in 1 Kings 7:19, 22, 26 and 2 Chronicles 4:5 are probably to the water lily, <em>Nymphaea alba,<\/em> which served as the pattern. The water lily is quite common in Europe and also in the Holy Land and northern Africa.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LotusBush\">Lotus Bush <em>(Zizyphus lotus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “shady trees” of Job 40:21-22 (<span>kjv<\/span>; cf. <span>nlt<\/span> “lotus plants”) may refer to the lotus bush of the Middle East, <em>Zizyphus lotus,<\/em> a shrub or low tree that grows to a height of about five feet (1.5 meters) with smooth, zigzag, whitish branches.<\/p>\n<p>Other commentators believe that the shady trees of Job are large-leafed trees such as the plane tree, <em>Platanus orientalis,<\/em> or the oleander, <em>Nerium oleander.<\/em> This suggestion is based on the assumption that the animal described in Job 40 is the hippopotamus, and it seems unlikely that the hippopotamus would live under a lotus bush or even be found in places where this shrub grows. These individuals regard the plane tree or the oleander as more likely.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mallow\">Mallow <em>(Atriplex)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Hebrew word used in Job 30:4 implies saltiness, and for this reason botanists believe that it refers to one of the species of the saltwort or orach. Twenty-one species of saltwort occur in the Holy Land, almost all of which are common and could well meet the requirements of the text. <em>Atriplex halimus<\/em> is the species usually suggested, a strong-growing bushy shrub related to the spinach.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mandrake\">Mandrake <em>(Mandragora officinarum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The mandrake or love apple is a stemless herbaceous perennial related to the nightshade, potato, and tomato. It has a large, beetlike, often forked taproot from the top of which arise many dark leaves about a foot (30.5 centimeters) long and four inches (10.2 centimeters) wide. The plant is slightly poisonous, and the thick taproots have some resemblance in shape to the lower parts of the human body. For this reason certain aphrodisiac properties were ascribed to it (cf. Gn 30:14-16).<\/p>\n<p>The love apple was a common plant in deserted fields throughout the Holy Land. It is native to the entire Mediterranean region, southern Europe, and Asia Minor. The mandrake is mentioned in Song of Songs 7:13, though some scholars believe the writer may actually have been referring to the citron or to the common edible field mushroom, <em>Agaricus campestris.<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Melon\">Melon <em>(Cucumis melo, Citrullus vulgaris)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several varieties of these two related vines having a hard rind and juicy flesh. The melons of Numbers 11:5 may be either the muskmelon <em>(Cucumis melo)<\/em> or the watermelon <em>(Citrullus vulgaris).<\/em> It may be that both fruits are referred to.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Millet\">Millet <em>(Panicum miliaceum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>A grass grown in Eurasia for its edible seed. Millet seeds are the smallest of all the grass seeds cultivated as food but are produced profusely. Millet is an annual grass seldom more that two feet (.6 meter) tall. The small seeds of the millet are used on cakes and eaten uncooked by the poor of the land.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mint\">Mint <em>(Mentha)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of various plants of this family with aromatic foliage that is processed for flavoring. Quite a few mints are common in the Holy Land, but the horse mint <em>(Mentha longifolia)<\/em> is probably the one referred to in Matthew 23:23 and Luke 11:42. Mints were employed by the ancient Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans for flavoring, as a carminative in medicine, and as a condiment in cooking.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mulberry\">Mulberry <em>(Morus nigra)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any tree of this family, some bearing dark-purple fruit and one bearing white fruit, having leaves used as food for silkworms. The sycamine tree of Luke 17:6 (<span>kjv<\/span>) is evidently the black mulberry, <em>Morus nigra.<\/em> It is a low-growing, thick-crowned, stiff-branched tree standing from 24 to 35 feet (7.3 to 10.7 meters) tall, though rarely more than 30 feet (9.1 meters) tall. Originally native to northern Persia, it is now cultivated throughout the Middle East for its fruit. The Chinese or Indian species, <em>M. alba,<\/em> was until recently widely cultivated in Syria and the Holy Land but is not indigenous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Mustard\">Mustard <em>(Brassica nigra, B. arvensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various plants of this genus are native to Eurasia, some of which are cultivated for their edible seeds. While there is disagreement about the identity of the “mustard” of Matthew 13:31-32, 17:20, Mark 4:31, Luke 13:19, and 17:6, it is generally thought to be the ordinary black mustard, <em>Brassica nigra.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The mustard Jesus referred to may be the charlock or wild mustard, <em>B. arvensis,<\/em> which normally grows from one to three feet (.3 to .9 meter) tall. Some have suggested that it was actually <em>Salvadora persica,<\/em> found in thickets around the Dead Sea. The plant has a pleasant aromatic taste resembling that of mustard, and if taken in considerable quantity, it will produce an irritation of the nose and eyes similar to that of mustard. However, this plant does not grow as far north as Galilee, and the fruits are rather large and stony, thus hardly fitting the description of the parable.<\/p>\n<p>While the seeds of the mustard are not the smallest known, they were probably the smallest familiar to the common people who comprised Jesus’ audience in Galilee.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Myrrh\">Myrrh <em>(Commiphora myrrha, C. kataf)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Shrub or tree exuding an aromatic gum resin used in perfume and incense. Most of the references in Scripture to myrrh are to <em>Commiphora myrrha,<\/em> although <em>C. kataf<\/em> may also be involved since it grows in the same region and is similar. The two trees are native to Arabia, Ethiopia, and the Somali coast of east Africa. They yield a gummy exudation that constitutes most of the myrrh of commerce. Both species are low, scrubby, thick- and stiff-branched thorny shrubs or small trees that grow in rocky places, especially on limestone hills. In the East it is highly regarded as an aromatic substance, perfume, and medicine. The ancient Egyptians burned it in their temples and embalmed their dead with it; the Jews also used it for embalming (Jn 19:39). The Hebrews held it in high regard as a perfume (Ps 45:8).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Myrtle\">Myrtle <em>(Myrtus communis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The myrtle tree is common in the Holy Land, especially around Bethlehem, Lebanon, Hebron, and the slopes of Mt Carmel and Mt Tabor. It is native to western Asia and in good environments grows into a small evergreen tree 20 to 30 feet (6.2 to 9.1 meters) tall. More often, however, it is a straggling bush 1½ to 4 feet (.5 to 1.2 meters) tall.<\/p>\n<p>In the Bible, myrtle is referred to chiefly as a symbol of God’s generosity. Branches of myrtle trees were included among those that Nehemiah ordered to be gathered for the Feast of Tabernacles (Neh 8:15). The myrtle was symbolic not only of peace but also of justice.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Narcissus\">Narcissus <em>(Narcissus tazetta)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Widely cultivated plant of this family with narrow leaves and usually white or yellow flowers with a cup-crown or trumpet-shaped crown. The polyanthus narcissus <em>(Narcissus tazetta)<\/em> appears to be the plant referred to in Isaiah 35:1. This narcissus grows abundantly on the plains of Sharon and elsewhere in Palestine. Being sweet-smelling, it is a great favorite.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Nard\">Nard <em>(Nardostachys jatamansi)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The nard is a perennial herb with strong, pleasantly scented roots. It is native to high altitudes in the Himalayas, and its range extends from there into western Asia. The roots and spikelike wooly young stems are dried before the leaves unfold and are used for making perfume. It is still used in India as a perfume for the hair, and there is every reason to believe that the spikenard of Scripture (Sg 1:12; 4:13-14; Mk 14:3; Jn 12:3) came originally from India.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Nettle\">Nettle <em>(Urtica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Plant of this genus having toothed leaves covered with hairs that exude a stinging flush. Four species of nettle are found in the Holy Land: the common or great nettle, <em>Urtica dioica;<\/em> the Roman nettle, <em>U. pilulifera;<\/em> the small nettle, <em>U. urens;<\/em> and <em>U. caudata,<\/em> which is similar to the small nettle. Some nettles attain a height of five to six feet (1.5 to 1.8 meters). They are common pests of waste places and fields. They are often seen occupying ground that was once cultivated but has since been neglected (Is 34:13; Hos 9:6).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"NutmegFlower\">Nutmeg Flower <em>(Nigella sativa)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The “fitches” of Isaiah 28:25-27 (<span>kjv<\/span>) are probably the nutmeg flower, an annual plant of the buttercup family. The plant grows wild in southern Europe, Syria, Egypt, north Africa, and other Mediterranean lands, where it is extensively cultivated for its strongly pungent, pepperlike aromatic seeds. These are sprinkled over some kinds of bread and cakes in the East and are used for flavoring curries and other dishes in the Holy Land and Egypt. Cummin and nutmeg flowers are still gathered in the Holy Land in the same way described by Isaiah.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Oak\">Oak <em>(Quercus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>At least five species of oaks are found in Palestine. One of these is the kermes oak <em>(Quercus coccifera),<\/em> the host of the insect <em>Coccus ilicis,<\/em> which produces the scarlet dye used in coloring linen and wool (Gn 38:28-30; Ex 25:4; 26:1; 28:33; 35:23; 39:24; Lv 14:4-6, 51-52; Nm 19:6; 2 Chr 2:7, 14; 3:14; Is 1:18; Heb 9:19; Rv 18:12). The kermes oak grows from 6 to 35 feet (1.8 to 10.7 meters) tall and is found in the mountainous regions of Syria, Lebanon, and the Holy Land. When it grows alone, the kermes oak often becomes a large tree. It was regularly planted by tombs in the East. The oak was always respected and even venerated in biblical times for its large size and strength, and great men were usually buried in its shade. Abraham’s oak in Hebron is an example.<\/p>\n<p>A second oak is the valonia oak <em>(Q. aegilops),<\/em> perhaps the oak of Isaiah 2:13 and 44:14. It is common in the middle montane zones and probably was abundant in the area around Bashan. The oak of Genesis 35:4, 8 is thought to have been the holm oak <em>(Q. ilex),<\/em> an evergreen oak that grows to a height of 60 feet (18.3 meters). Still another oak is <em>Q. lusitanica,<\/em> the cypress oak, a small deciduous tree seldom more than 20 feet (6.1 meters) tall. The very large acorns of this tree were sometimes eaten.<\/p>\n<p>The word translated “plain” (<span>kjv<\/span>) in Genesis 12:6, 13:18, 14:13, and 18:1 should probably be translated “oak.”<\/p>\n<p>The many references to “groves” in the OT, usually in connection with the worship of Baal or other heathen gods (Ex 34:13; Dt 16:21; Jgs 3:7; 1 Kgs 14:23; 18:19; 2 Kgs 17:16—all <span>kjv<\/span>), were probably groves of sacred oak trees.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OilTreeOleaster\">Oil Tree, Oleaster <em>(Elaeagnus angustifolia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Small Eurasian tree with oblong silvery leaves, greenish flowers, and olivelike fruit. There is question as to which tree is referred to when 1 Kings 6:23, 31-33 and 1 Chronicles 27:28 refer to “olive trees.” The same word occurs in Isaiah 41:19 and Micah 6:7. The plant referred to is probably the narrow-leaved oleaster <em>(Elaeagnus angustifolia),<\/em> a small stiff-branched tree or graceful shrub growing from 15 to 20 feet (4.6 to 6.1 meters) tall, common in all parts of the Holy Land except in the Jordan Valley. At one time it was particularly common on Mt Tabor and at Hebron and Samaria. The wood is hard and fine-grained and therefore well suited for carving of images and figures. The oil that it yields is a rather inferior type used in medication but not for food; this may be the oil of Micah 6:7.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Oleander\">Oleander <em>(Nerium oleander)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any poisonous evergreen shrub of this genus growing in warm climates. One of the suggestions for the plants identified as “roses” in various translations (Ecclus 24:14, <span>kjv<\/span>) is the oleander. This plant, originally native to the East Indies, has been cultivated throughout the warm regions of the world for centuries. It flourishes in the Holy Land today and forms dense thickets in some parts of the Jordan Valley. It is usually a shrub from 3 to 12 feet (.9 to 3.7 meters) tall. Every part of the plant is dangerously poisonous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"OliveOliveTree\">Olive, Olive Tree <em>(Olea europaea)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Old world semitropical evergreen tree bearing edible fruit. The olive, <em>Olea europaea,<\/em> was unquestionably one of the most valuable trees known to the Jews. There are innumerable references to it in Scripture, as well as to olive oil, which was used for anointing. The tree is quite common in the Holy Land, and in many places it is the only tree of any substantial size. The branches of the wild olive are rather stiff and spinescent, and the typical cultivated tree is a multi-branched evergreen, 20 or more feet (6.1 meters) tall, with a gnarled trunk and smooth, ash-colored bark. The leaves are leathery and the flowers are small, yellow or white. The fruits are large, black or violet, ripening in September, and it is the outer fleshy parts of the fruit that yield the valuable olive oil of commerce. Thirty-one percent of the ripe fruit is oil. The ripe fruit is eaten raw, as is the green, unripe fruit. The wood of the trunk and limbs is hard, rich yellow or amber in color, and fine-grained, often handsomely variegated. It is still used today for the finest cabinetwork and turnery. The tree grows very slowly, but it attains a great age. It is difficult to kill the olive tree by cutting it down, because new sprouts are sent up from the root and all around the margins of the old stump, often forming a grove of two to five trunks, all from a single root that originally supported only one tree.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h3\" id=\"Onion\">Onion <em>(Allium)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The onions referred to in Numbers 11:5 are undoubtedly <em>Allium cepa,<\/em> the Egyptian onion, which is made up of a compact coated bulb formed of layers consisting of broad fleshy bases of closely overlapping leaves. The leaves are slender and hollow. The entire plant has a characteristic pungent taste and odor.<\/p>\n\n<p>Closely related to the onion is the garlic, <em>A. sativum.<\/em> The common garlic is a hardy, bulbous perennial plant that is cultivated in Europe, western Asia, and Egypt. The leaves are narrow, flat, and ribbonlike. It is extremely popular with people of the Mediterranean region.<\/p>\n<p>Still another one of the onions is the leek, <em>A. porrum.<\/em> The bulb of the leek differs from that of the onion and garlic in that it is slender, cylindrical, and more than six inches (15.2 centimeters) in length. The flavor resembles that of the onion but is more pungent. The leaves are eaten as a relish or are cooked in soups. The bulbs are cut into small pieces and employed as seasoning for meat.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Palm\">Palm <em>(Phoenix dactylifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The palm tree of the Bible is undoubtedly the date palm. At one time it was as characteristic of the Holy Land as it is still today of Egypt. It is characterized by a branchless, tapering stem of up to 80 feet (24.2 meters) or more in height and a large terminal cluster of feathery leaves, each six to nine feet (1.8 to 2.7 meters) or more long. Because of its height and unusual structure, it was natural that it should be used as a form of ornamentation in Eastern architecture. The stem and leaves were favorite subjects of architectural embellishment. The immense, branchlike leaves that are referred to as branches in the Bible were symbols of triumph and were used on occasions of great rejoicing (Jn 12:13; Rv 7:9). The large leaves are still used to cover the roofs and sides of houses and to give solidity to reed fences. Mats, baskets, and even dishes are made of them. Small leaves are used as dusters, and the wood of the trunk is used for timber. Rope is made from the weblike integument in the crown. The fruit, borne in an immense drooping cluster, which may weigh from 30 to 50 pounds (13.6 to 22.7 kilograms), is the chief food of many natives of Arabia and north Africa. A single tree may yield up to 200 pounds (90.7 kilograms) of dates a year. They may be dried for future use.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Papyrus\">Papyrus <em>(Cyperus papyrus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Egyptian bulrush or papyrus (Ex 2:3-5; Jb 8:11; Is 18:2; 19:6-7; 35:7; 58:5) has smooth three-sided stems ordinarily attaining a height of 8 to 10 feet (2.4 to 3 meters), but sometimes even 16 feet (4.9 meters), and a thickness of two to three inches (5.1 to 7.6 centimeters) at the base with a large tuft of florets at the end. The papyrus formerly grew in great abundance along the banks of the Nile, forming what was almost a dense jungle. Today it is practically extinct in lower Egypt, although it is still found along the White Nile and in the Sudan. The papyrus still grows in parts of the Holy Land, especially around the north end of the plain of Galilee and the Huleh swamps.<\/p>\n\n<p>In addition to being used for making small vessels to float in water (Ex 2:3), for mats, and for various other domestic purposes, it is best known as the source of ancient paper. In manufacturing paper from papyrus, the stems of the plant were first peeled and the pitch then cut longitudinally into thin slices that were laid side by side. These were then sprinkled with water and pressed to unite the whole into one piece. The sheet was then dried and cut into pieces of the required size. In the better grades of papyrus paper, several layers of stem slices were laid crosswise on each other.<\/p>\n<p>The pale, fawn-colored, tassel-like inflorescences at the summit of the stems were used to adorn Egyptian temples and to crown the statues of gods. They were also worn as crowns by famous men and national heroes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PineTree\">Pine Tree <em>(Pinus brutia, P. halepensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various evergreen trees of this family with needle-shaped leaves in clusters and seed-bearing cones. While there is considerable confusion concerning the conifers of the Bible, it seems apparent that pines are referred to in such passages as Leviticus 23:40; Nehemiah 8:15; Isaiah 41:19; and 60:13. One of the Holy Land’s pines is the Brutian pine <em>(Pinus brutia),<\/em> a mountain-inhabiting species of the northern regions of Palestine. It attains a height of 10 to 35 feet (3 to 10.7 meters) with a rather diffuse growth and branches in whorls.<\/p>\n<p>Another of the pines is the Aleppo pine, <em>Pinus halepensis.<\/em> Most of the instances of the occurrence of “fir” or “fir tree” in the <span>kjv<\/span> probably refer to the Aleppo pine (2 Sm 6:5; 1 Kgs 5:8, 10; 6:34; 2 Kgs 19:23; 2 Chr 2:8; Ps 104:17; Sg 1:17; Is 14:8; 37:24; 55:13; 60:13; Ez 27:5; 31:8; Hos 14:8; Na 2:3; Zec 11:2). It grows from 9 to 60 feet (2.7 to 18.3 meters) tall with diffuse ascending branches and yellowish or brownish branchlets.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pistachio\">Pistachio <em>(Pistacia terebinthus, P. vera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Palestine terebinth or turpentine tree is a large deciduous tree with straggling boughs. In the winter, without its leaves, it looks much like the oak. It grows from 12 to 25 feet (3.7 to 7.6 meters) tall. Every part of the tree contains a fragrant, resinous juice. It is common on the lower slopes of the hills throughout Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and Arabia, generally growing as a solitary tree and found mostly in localities too warm or too dry for the oak that it generally replaces. Since it is native to Gilead, it is quite probable that its resinous juice formed part of the spicery that the Israelites carried to Egypt from Gilead (Gn 37:25).<\/p>\n<p>The nuts of Genesis 43:11 are apparently pistachio nuts from the pistachio tree, <em>Pistacia vera,<\/em> closely related to the terebinth. It attains a height of 10 to 30 feet (3 to 9.1 meters) with a spreading top. It is found wild in many rocky parts of Lebanon and the Holy Land. The nut has a light-colored shell and the kernel has a sweet delicate flavor much relished wherever it grows.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PlaneTree\">Plane Tree <em>(Platanus orientalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of this family with bell-shaped fruit clusters and usually an outer bark that flakes off in patches or strips. The references in Genesis 30:37 and Ezekiel 31:8 are apparently not to the chestnut tree, which is not indigenous to Palestine, but to the oriental plane tree, <em>Platanus orientalis.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The plane tree is a massive tree 60 feet (18.3 meters) or more tall with a trunk often of vast circumference, sometimes as much as 40 feet (12.2 meters). The outer bark peels off in sheets or scales, thus exposing a smooth whitish or yellowish inner bark. The tree is common throughout Lebanon, Syria, and the Holy Land, growing even in subalpine regions. However, it is primarily a tree of the plains and lowlands, growing on the edges of streams and lakes and in marshy places.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Pomegranate\">Pomegranate <em>(Punica granatum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The pomegranate is usually a small, bushlike tree but may occasionally become a large, branching shrub or small tree reaching a height of 20 to 30 feet (6.1 to 9.1 meters). The branches are often thorny. The showy bell-like flowers are usually scarlet, though sometimes yellow or white. The globular fruit is as large as an orange or medium-size apple. It has a hard rind of a bright red or yellowish color when ripe and is surmounted by the dry sepals that resemble a crown. The fruit itself is a crimson juicy pulp in which many red seeds are imbedded. The flowers of the pomegranate undoubtedly served as a pattern for the golden bells referred to in Exodus 28:33-34 and 39:24-26, and the open flowers of 1 Kings 6:32. The erect calyx lobes on the fruit served as a model for crowns of kings.<\/p>\n<p>The pomegranate is native to Asia, but it has been cultivated since prehistoric times and is now quite common in the Holy Land, in Egypt, and along the shores of the Mediterranean. It is listed as one of the pleasant fruits of Egypt (Nm 20:5) and one of the promised blessings of the Holy Land (Dt 8:8).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Poplar\">Poplar <em>(Populus euphratica, P. alba)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Fast-growing deciduous tree of the same genus as the aspen and cottonwood. The <span>kjv<\/span> references in 2 Samuel 5:23-24 and 1 Chronicles 14:14-15 to mulberry trees are more probably to the Euphrates poplar or aspen, <em>Populus euphratica.<\/em> This tree grows to a height of 30 to 45 feet (9.1 to 13.7 meters) with spreading branches. The Euphrates aspen is found only on rivers and stream banks throughout the area from Syria through the Holy Land to Stony Arabia. It is especially common in the Jordan Valley.<\/p>\n<p>The white poplar <em>(Populus alba)<\/em> is common in wet places in Syria, Lebanon, the Holy Land, and Sinai. It attains a height of 30 to 60 feet (9.1 to 18.3 meters) with spreading branches. Some suggest that the altars of various pagan religions were usually erected on the top of a hill and in the shade of a poplar grove.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Quince\">Quince <em>(Cydonia oblonga)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree native to western Asia, having white flowers and applelike fruit that is edible when cooked. Some believe that the “apples” of the OT were quinces, <em>Cydonia oblonga.<\/em> The quince tree is quite common in the Holy Land, though chiefly as a cultivated tree. It may occur wild in the northern parts of Syria. It is native to northern Persia and Asia Minor. The fruit is yellowish and highly fragrant, and it is the fragrance that caused it to be held in high regard by the ancients.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Reed\">Reed <em>(Juncus, Scirpus, Typha angustata, Arundo donax)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Numerous species of the rush and bulrush grow in the Holy Land. There are at least 21 varieties of rushes. The common soft rush or bog rush <em>(Juncus effusus)<\/em> is found in wet places, even in the Sinai and other deserts. The sea or hard rush <em>(J. maritimus)<\/em> is found in damp places throughout the Holy Land and even in Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>At least 15 kinds of bulrushes <em>(Scirpus)<\/em> are known in the Holy Land. The cluster-headed club rush <em>(Scirpus holoschoenus)<\/em> is common in damp places throughout the Holy Land to the Sinai. The lake club rush or tall bulrush <em>(S. lacustris)<\/em> is found in swamps and ditches throughout northern Africa to the Dead Sea. The sea club rush or salt marsh club rush <em>(S. maritimus)<\/em> is found in ditches and swamps in many places of the Holy Land. Any of these species may be the one referred to in Job 8:11; Isaiah 9:14; 19:6, 15.<\/p>\n<p>The reference in Genesis 41:2 to the feeding of cattle in the meadow seems to be to the tall reed <em>(Arundo donax),<\/em> which grows 18 feet (5.5 meters) or more in height. This plant is also known as the Persian reed and is common throughout the Holy Land, Syria, and the Sinai peninsula. It is a gigantic grass that may have a stem diameter of two or three inches (5.1 to 7.6 centimeters) at the base and is terminated by a plume of white flowers similar to those of the sugarcane or pampas grass. The plant was used for many purposes by the ancients: for walking sticks, fishing rods, measuring rods, and musical pipes. It is, therefore, quite possible that the “reed” of Matthew 27:48 and Mark 15:36 was a carpenter’s reed or measuring rod.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Papyrus.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Rue\">Rue <em>(Ruta chalepensis, R. graveolens)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Aromatic Eurasian plant with evergreen leaves that yield an acrid, volatile oil once used in medicine. There is little question as to the correctness of the translation of “rue” in Luke 11:42, but there is some doubt as to the exact species. Most writers think that it was the common rue <em>(Rue graveolens),<\/em> a perennial shrubby plant with erect stems two to three feet (.6 to .9 meter) tall and deeply cut leaves. A very strong odor emanates from the foliage. This species is native to the Mediterranean region and grows wild in the Holy Land, especially on Mt Tabor.<\/p>\n<p>Rue was highly thought of by the ancients as a medicinal, supposed to prevent dizziness, dumbness, epilepsy, eye inflammations, insanity, and the “evil eye.” Rue was also used for seasoning dishes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Rush\">Rush <em>(Butomus umbellatus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Generic term for any of various grasslike marsh plants having pliant, hollow, or pithy stems. There is considerable uncertainty about the identification of the plant referred to in Genesis 41:2 translated in the <span>kjv<\/span> as “meadow,” and in Job 8:11 as “flag.” Since it is mentioned along with the papyrus in the Job passage, it seems that it refers to a specific kind of plant rather than to an aggregate of plants in a meadow. From the description in Genesis as being a plant on which Pharaoh’s cattle might feed along the banks of the Nile and yet not the papyrus, it may refer to the flowering rush or water gladiola <em>(Butomus umbellatus),<\/em> which flourishes both in Egypt and in the Holy Land, along with the papyrus.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Reed.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Saffron\">Saffron <em>(Crocus sativus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Saffron, referred to in Song of Songs 4:14, is the product of several species of <em>Crocus,<\/em> especially of the blue-flowered saffron crocus <em>(C. sativus),<\/em> which is native to Greece and Asia Minor. The commercial product consists of the stigma and upper portions of the style, the top parts of the flower ovary, which are collected shortly after the flower opens. It requires at least 4,000 stigmas to make an ounce of saffron. After being gathered, the stigmas are dried in the sun, pounded, and made into small cakes. Saffron is used principally as a yellow dye and also as a fruit coloring for curries and stews.<\/p>\n<p>Another, entirely different kind of dye-producing plant <em>(Carthamus tinctorius)<\/em> called carthamine, bastard saffron, or safflower is a member of the thistle family. Its red florets yield a dye used extensively for coloring silk, in cooking, and for adulterating genuine saffron. It is an annual spiny plant three to four and a half feet (1.4 meters) tall, native to Syria and Egypt. In Egypt the grave clothes of mummies were dyed with this material, and it is quite possible that this plant may also have been the saffron of the Bible.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sage\">Sage <em>(Salvia judaica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The Judean sage grows to three feet (.9 meter) tall in the mountains and hills of Palestine. Its stems are four-angled, stiff, and rough. The plant grows from Syria south through Nazareth, Hebron, Tiberius, Samaria, and Judea.<\/p>\n<p>This plant is the origin of the design of the seven-branched lampstand of Exodus 37:17-18, which is known as the menorah, the traditional Jewish symbol. The inflorescence of the plant, when pressed flat, has almost exactly the same shape and form as the seven-branched candlestick, with its central spike and three pairs of side branches each bending upward and inward in a symmetrical fashion. On each branch of the plant’s inflorescence are whorls or buds that perhaps give the idea for the “knops” (<span>kjv<\/span>) or “knobs” on the biblical golden candlesticks.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Spelt\">Spelt <em>(Triticum aestivum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Hardy member of the wheat family. The rye of Exodus 9:32 and Isaiah 28:25, as well as the fitches of Ezekiel 4:9 (all <span>kjv<\/span>) are thought to be spelt. It is a hard-grained species of wheat with loose ears and grains triangular in cross-section, and was the most common form of wheat in early times. It has a stouter stem than wheat and strong spikes of grain. Bread made of its flour is much inferior to that made from wheat, but spelt will thrive in almost any kind of soil and will yield a crop on land that is unfit for wheat. The ancients preferred it to barley for bread.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StoraxTree\">Storax Tree <em>(Styrax officinalis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various trees of this genus yielding an aromatic resin. Today it is thought that the stacte of Exodus 30:34 was derived from the storax tree. It is an irregularly stiff-branched shrub or small tree 9 to 20 feet (2.7 to 6.1 meters) tall. This tree is abundant on low hills and rocky places from Lebanon through the Holy Land. Its gum is obtained by making incisions in the stems and branches. It is highly perfumed and is still prized today as a perfume.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Sycamore\">Sycamore-fig <em>(Ficus sycomorus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Tree of northeastern Africa and adjacent Asia, related to the fig. The word translated “sycamore” in 1 Kings 10:27; 1 Chronicles 27:28; 2 Chronicles 1:15; 9:27; Psalm 78:47; Isaiah 9:10; Amos 7:14; and Luke 19:4 undoubtedly refers to the well-known sycamore-fig, which is also known as the mulberry-fig or fig-mulberry. It should not be confused with the common sycamore of the North American continent, which is actually a plane tree. The sycamore-fig of the Bible is a strong-growing, robust, wide-spreading tree growing 30 to 40 feet (9.1 to 12.2 meters) tall and sometimes attaining a trunk circumference of 20 feet (6.1 meters) or more with a crown 120 feet (36.6 meters) in diameter. It is a tree that is easily climbed and is frequently planted along roadsides, which accounts for the reference in Luke 19:4. It produces an abundant amount of fruit in clusters on all parts of the tree, on both young and old branches and even on the trunk itself. It is very similar to the common fig, only smaller and much inferior in quality. In David’s day it was so valuable that he appointed a special overseer for the sycamore trees (1 Chr 27:28). It is thought that Amos was not a gatherer of sycamore fruit but rather a dresser of sycamore trees.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tamarisk\">Tamarisk <em>(Tamarix)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Genesis 21:33 and 1 Samuel 22:6 and 31:13 seem to be to the tamarisk. These trees or shrubs are small and fast-growing with a durable wood. They are abundant in deserts, dunes, and salt marshes. <em>Tamarix aphylla<\/em> is leafless and has small white flowers. These trees or shrubs often provide a soothing touch of green foliage and a promise of cooling shade to the traveler. Tamarisks are able to survive because they either have small, scalelike leaves, which lose little moisture by transpiration, or no leaves at all. The larger of the tamarisks are valued for their wood in a region where wood is scarce. The wood was used for building and also as a source of an excellent type of charcoal.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Terebinth\">Terebinth <em>(Pistacia terebinthus)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>See<\/em> Pistachio (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ThistleThorn\">Thistle, Thorn <em>(Lycium europaeum, Solanum incanum, Centaurea, Silybum marianum, Ruscus aculeatus, Agrostemma githago, Paliurus spina-christi, Zizyphus spina-christi)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>There are 22 different Hebrew and Greek words used in Scripture to refer to spiny or prickly shrubs or weeds, and these are translated as “bramble,” “brier,” “cockle,” “thorn,” and “thistle.” At present, there are about 125 species of thorns and thistles that grow in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The bramble in the allegory of Judges 9:14-15 is believed to refer to the European boxthorn or desert-thorn, <em>Lycium europaeum.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The general consensus is that the “briers” of Isaiah 10:17, 55:13, Micah 7:4, and Hebrews 6:8 are the Palestine nightshade <em>(Solanum incanum),<\/em> or “Jericho potato.”<\/p>\n<p>The thistles of Genesis 3:17-18, 2 Kings 14:9, 2 Chronicles 25:18, Hosea 10:8, and Matthew 7:16, as well as the thorns of Matthew 13:7 and Hebrews 6:8, are thought to be one of the species of the thistle, <em>Centaurea.<\/em> Among the more common thistles in the Holy Land are the true star-thistle <em>(Centaurea calcitrapa),<\/em> the dwarf centaury <em>(C. verutum),<\/em> the Iberian centaury <em>(C. iberica),<\/em> and the lady’s thistle <em>(Silybum marianum).<\/em> Some thistles attain a height of five to six feet (.9 to 1.8 meters). Thistles are characteristic of an area that is uncultivated and neglected. Many have beautiful flowers, but all are covered with sharp spines.<\/p>\n<p>The references in Ezekiel 2:6 to “briers” and Ezekiel 28:24 to a “pricking brier” may be to the prickly butchers-broom or knee-holly, <em>Ruscus aculeatus.<\/em> The plant is common in rocky woods in the northern regions of the Holy Land, especially around Mt Tabor and Mt Carmel.<\/p>\n<p>The cockle of Job 31:40 (<span>nlt<\/span> “weeds”) perhaps refers to the corn cockle, <em>Agrostemma githago.<\/em> This plant is common in grainfields throughout the Holy Land. It is a strong-growing and troublesome weed in grainfields, growing from one to three feet (.3 to .9 meter) tall.<\/p>\n<p>Many commentators think that the “thorns” out of which the crown of thorns (Mt 27:29; Jn 19:2) was made were from the Christ-thorn <em>(Paliurus spina-christi).<\/em> This belief has led to its specific name; the Christ-thorn is a spiny plant that ordinarily grows as a straggling shrub three to nine feet (.9 to 2.7 meters) tall. The flexible branches are armed at the base of each leaf with a pair of unequal, stiff, sharp spines. The unusual pliable texture of the young branches renders it particularly easy to plait into a crownlike wreath.<\/p>\n<p>The thorns of Judges 8:7, Isaiah 7:19, 9:18, 55:13, and Matthew 7:16 may refer to the Syrian Christ-thorn <em>(Zizyphus spina-christi),<\/em> a shrub or small tree 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 meters) tall, sometimes growing into a 40-foot (12.2-meter) tree with smooth white branches bearing a pair of stout, unequal, recurved spines at the back of each leaf.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Bramble; Buckthorn (above).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tulip\">Tulip <em>(Tulipa montana, T. sharonensis)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several bulbous plants of this family native to Asia. The rose of Sharon in Song of Songs 2:1 may be the mountain tulip, <em>Tulipa montana,<\/em> or the closely related Sharon tulip, <em>T. sharonensis.<\/em> The former is an attractive plant that grows from a bulb and has leaves that are often wavy-margined. The species is common in the mountainous regions of Syria, Lebanon, and the Anti-Lebanon. It is primarily a mountainous species. The Sharon tulip <em>(T. sharonensis)<\/em> is found in sandy places on the Sharon coastal plains.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Tumbleweed\">Tumbleweed <em>(Gundelia tournefortii, Anastatica hierochuntica)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>The references in Psalm 83:13 to “whirling dust” and in Isaiah 17:13 to “wheel” or “rolling thing” (<span>niv<\/span> “tumbleweed”) seem to be to the Palestinian tumbleweed <em>(Gundelia tournefortii),<\/em> a member of the thistle family. It is a prickly herb with milky juice. It rolls over the land and gathers in tremendous heaps in hollows.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Vegetable\">Vegetable<\/p>\n<p>Scriptural references to vegetables are probably, in most cases, to the dried leguminous seeds of beans and lentils.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Vine\">Vine <em>(Vitis vinifera)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any plant with a flexible stem that climbs, twines, or creeps along a surface or support. The common grapevine <em>(Vitis vinifera)<\/em> is mentioned throughout the Bible. The fruitful vine (Ez 17:5-10) and the vine brought out of Egypt (Ps 80:8) were symbolic of the Jewish people. Jesus compares himself to the true vine, of which his disciples were the branches (Jn 15:1-6).<\/p>\n<p>The grapevine of the Old World sometimes assumes the characteristics of a tree, with stems up to a foot and a half (45.7 centimeters) in diameter, the branches then being trained on a trellis and bearing bunches of grapes 10 to 12 pounds (4.5 to 5.4 kilograms) in weight, with the individual grapes the size of small plums. Bunches have been produced weighing as much as 26 pounds (11.8 kilograms). The vines of the Holy Land were always renowned both for the luxuriance of their growth and for the immense clusters of grapes they produced. Thus it does not seem improbable that the spies sent to the Promised Land should have employed a pole to transport some of the clusters home (Nm 13:23-24).<\/p>\n<p>The wild grape <em>(Vitis orientalis)<\/em> is referred to in Isaiah 5:2-4, Jeremiah 2:21, and Ezekiel 15:2-6. It is known as the native wild fox grape and has small, black, acidic berries about the size of currants with little juice.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Walnut\">Walnut <em>(Juglans regia)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of several trees of this genus having round, sticky fruit enclosing an edible nut. The reference in Song of Songs 6:11 to “nuts” is thought to refer to the Persian or common walnut, <em>Juglans regia.<\/em> The tree is believed to have been indigenous to northern Persia, but it is actually found wild in many parts of northern India, eastward as far as China, and westward through Persia. At the time of Solomon, it was widely cultivated for its fruit throughout the East. Perhaps Solomon’s garden of nuts was a part of his extensive gardens at Etham, six miles (9.7 kilometers) from Jerusalem.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WaterLily\">Water Lily <em>(Nymphaea)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Any of numerous aquatic plants of this genus with floating leaves and showy flowers. The carved lily ornamentation of 1 Kings 7:19-26 and 2 Chronicles 4:5 was probably patterned after the flowers of the water lily. Few flowers can equal the Egyptian lotus or water lily <em>(Nymphaea lotus)<\/em> in beauty. It looks very much like a large white rose and at one time floated in profusion on the waters of the Nile.<\/p>\n<p>The common European white water lily <em>(N. alba)<\/em> was also familiar to the children of Israel. It grows not only in Europe but also in the Holy Land and North Africa. It is, however, not as common in Egypt as is the white lotus.<\/p>\n<p>Another water lily with which the Israelites were probably familiar is the blue lotus, <em>N. caerulea.<\/em> Its leaves are 12 to 16 inches (30.5 to 40.6 centimeters) across and it has light-blue flowers that are three to six inches (7.6 to 15.2 centimeters) in diameter.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wheat\">Wheat <em>(Triticum aestivum, T. compositum)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Various cereal grasses of this family widely cultivated for its edible grain. Five kinds of wheat are native to—and still wild in—the Holy Land, and at least eight others are cultivated there today; probably most, if not all, were known in Bible times. The wild varieties were probably more abundant then than they are today. Among these are the einkorn <em>(T. monococcum),<\/em> the thaoudar <em>(T. thaoudar),<\/em> and the wild emmer <em>(T. dicoccoides).<\/em> The composite wheat <em>(T. compositum),<\/em> with its branched spikes, often bearing as many as seven heads per stalk, is definitely referred to in Genesis 41:5-57. It is depicted on numerous Egyptian monuments and on inscriptions and is still commonly seen in the Nile Delta, where it is known as “mummy wheat.” It is also cultivated in the Holy Land.<\/p>\n<p>The most frequently mentioned wheat of the Bible is undoubtedly the commonly cultivated summer and winter wheat, <em>Triticum aestivum.<\/em> It is an abundant annual grass cultivated in Egypt and other Eastern lands since earliest times. The exact place of its origin is unknown. Grains of wheat have been found in the most ancient Egyptian tombs and in the remains of prehistoric lake dwellings in Switzerland. It was certainly the chief grain of Mesopotamia in Jacob’s time (Gn 30:14).<\/p>\n<p>Corn in biblical days often included a mixture of peas, beans, lentils, cummin, barley, millet, and spelt, but wheat was always its main constituent. Egypt was a great grain-producing country, and Abram (Gn 12:10) and Joseph’s brothers (ch 42) naturally turned to Egypt for wheat when famine visited Canaan.<\/p>\n<p>The mills, millstones, granaries, and threshing floors mentioned in the Bible all refer to equipment employed in processing grain to produce flour. The fine flour of which the showbread loaves were made (Lv 24:5) was unquestionably wheat flour. Wheat intended for home consumption was often stored in the central part of the house; this explains the story told in 2 Samuel 4:6. It was also sometimes stored in dry wells (2 Sm 17:19).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Wormwood\">Wormwood <em>(Artemisia judaica, A. herba-alba)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Wormwood is a general name given to a group of woody plants with a strong aromatic odor. Wormwood plants have a strong, bitter taste, and their young shoots and branch tips furnish the “wormwood” of commerce. Its bitter taste accounts for its being spoken of with gall—as being symbolic of bitter calamity and sorrow (Prv 5:4; Jer 9:15; 23:15; Lam 3:15, 19). <em>Artemisia herba-alba<\/em> is the common species of wormwood in the Holy Land today. It is strongly aromatic, smelling like camphor, and bitter. <em>A. judaica<\/em> occurs only in the Sinai.<\/p>\n<p>Absinthe is made from species of this group. It first leads to greater activity and pleasant sensations and fills the mind with grandiose ideas (Lam 3:15). The habitual use of it, however, brings on a stupor and gradual diminution of intellectual faculties, ending in delirium and even death. Perhaps the hemlock of Amos 6:12 was wormwood.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PLANTS Identifying biblical plants has always been a difficult task, partly because people continue to identify the biblical elm, sycamore, lily, rose, and vine with modern plants, and also because they assume that all the plants now growing in the Holy Land were there in ancient biblical days, or that the plants referred to in the Bible are still to be found there today. Unfortunately, many plants now quite common in the Holy Land were not there in biblical days. Many plants that once grew i...","summary_en":"PLANTS Identifying biblical plants has always been a difficult task, partly because people continue to identify the biblical elm, sycamore, lily, rose, and vine with modern plants, and also because they assume that all the plants now growing in the Holy Land were there in ancient biblical days, or that the plants referred to in the Bible are still to be found there today. Unfortunately, many plants now quite common in the Holy Land were not there in biblical days. Many plants that once grew i...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":35592,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Sistrum*","title_en":"Sistrum*","content_ro":"<h3>SISTRUM*<\/h3>\n<p>Ancient percussion instrument consisting of a thin metal frame with numerous metal rods or loops that jingled when shaken, translated as “castanets” (<span>nlt<\/span>) in 2 Samuel 6:5. <em>See<\/em> Musical Instruments (Mena anim; Shalishim).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>SISTRUM*<\/h3>\n<p>Ancient percussion instrument consisting of a thin metal frame with numerous metal rods or loops that jingled when shaken, translated as “castanets” (<span>nlt<\/span>) in 2 Samuel 6:5. <em>See<\/em> Musical Instruments (Mena anim; Shalishim).<\/p>","summary_ro":"SISTRUM* Ancient percussion instrument consisting of a thin metal frame with numerous metal rods or loops that jingled when shaken, translated as “castanets” (nlt) in 2 Samuel 6:5. See Musical Instruments (Mena anim; Shalishim).","summary_en":"SISTRUM* Ancient percussion instrument consisting of a thin metal frame with numerous metal rods or loops that jingled when shaken, translated as “castanets” (nlt) in 2 Samuel 6:5. See Musical Instruments (Mena anim; Shalishim).","source":"Articles\/S.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":46568,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:5","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:5<\/strong> The <em>musical instruments<\/em> were played by Levites (1 Chr 16:4-6).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:5<\/strong> The <em>musical instruments<\/em> were played by Levites (1 Chr 16:4-6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:5 The musical instruments were played by Levites (1 Chr 16:4-6).","summary_en":"6:5 The musical instruments were played by Levites (1 Chr 16:4-6).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":74194,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:5","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:5<\/strong> The <em>musical instruments<\/em> were played by Levites (1 Chr 16:4-6).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:5<\/strong> The <em>musical instruments<\/em> were played by Levites (1 Chr 16:4-6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:5 The musical instruments were played by Levites (1 Chr 16:4-6).","summary_en":"6:5 The musical instruments were played by Levites (1 Chr 16:4-6).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101820,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:5","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:5<\/strong> The <em>musical instruments<\/em> were played by Levites (1 Chr 16:4-6).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:5<\/strong> The <em>musical instruments<\/em> were played by Levites (1 Chr 16:4-6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:5 The musical instruments were played by Levites (1 Chr 16:4-6).","summary_en":"6:5 The musical instruments were played by Levites (1 Chr 16:4-6).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":129446,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:5","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:5","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:5<\/strong> The <em>musical instruments<\/em> were played by Levites (1 Chr 16:4-6).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:5<\/strong> The <em>musical instruments<\/em> were played by Levites (1 Chr 16:4-6).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:5 The musical instruments were played by Levites (1 Chr 16:4-6).","summary_en":"6:5 The musical instruments were played by Levites (1 Chr 16:4-6).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":61303,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Celebration","title_en":"Celebration","content_ro":"<h3>Celebration<\/h3>\n<p>God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">karar<\/span> (2 Sam 6:14, 16), <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pazaz<\/span> (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">raqad<\/span> (1 Chr 15:29, “skipping about”). All three words refer to vigorous physical expression beyond the meaning of the Hebrew term for “celebrate” used in David’s first attempt (2 Sam 6:5). Thus, in the first procession, David celebrated; in the second procession he engaged in exultant dancing and extravagant merrymaking with intensified musical expression through the addition of shouting and trumpets.<\/p>\n<p>Musical instruments played a significant role in Temple worship. In 1 Chronicles 25:1-31, David assigned various groups to the ministry of music. Many psalms refer to playing musical instruments in praise and worship of God (see Pss 33:2-3; 57:8; 81:2; 92:1-3; 98:4-6). In Pss 149 and 150, dance and music are combined as a praise offering. Similarly, music and dancing were heard in the father’s house in the parable of the lost son (Luke 15:25), as the son’s return was truly a joyful occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation gives a picture of the eternal celebration that awaits the faithful—a celebration characterized by worship in the presence of God (Rev 4:1-11; 5:8-14; 15:1-4). This celebration is described as a wedding feast, in which the bridegroom (Christ) and the bride (his church) are joined together forever (Rev 19:9; see also Matt 22:1-14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 5:1; 12:17; 15:20-21; 1 Sam 18:6; 2 Sam 6:1-15; 2 Chr 7:6-10; Ezra 3:10-11; Pss 30:11; 69:30; 98:4-6; 107:32; 149:1-9; 150:1-6; Isa 30:29; 54:1; Jer 30:18-19; 31:4, 13; Lam 5:14-15; Zeph 3:17; Luke 15:22-25; 1 Cor 5:8; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Rev 18:20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Celebration<\/h3>\n<p>God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">karar<\/span> (2 Sam 6:14, 16), <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pazaz<\/span> (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">raqad<\/span> (1 Chr 15:29, “skipping about”). All three words refer to vigorous physical expression beyond the meaning of the Hebrew term for “celebrate” used in David’s first attempt (2 Sam 6:5). Thus, in the first procession, David celebrated; in the second procession he engaged in exultant dancing and extravagant merrymaking with intensified musical expression through the addition of shouting and trumpets.<\/p>\n<p>Musical instruments played a significant role in Temple worship. In 1 Chronicles 25:1-31, David assigned various groups to the ministry of music. Many psalms refer to playing musical instruments in praise and worship of God (see Pss 33:2-3; 57:8; 81:2; 92:1-3; 98:4-6). In Pss 149 and 150, dance and music are combined as a praise offering. Similarly, music and dancing were heard in the father’s house in the parable of the lost son (Luke 15:25), as the son’s return was truly a joyful occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation gives a picture of the eternal celebration that awaits the faithful—a celebration characterized by worship in the presence of God (Rev 4:1-11; 5:8-14; 15:1-4). This celebration is described as a wedding feast, in which the bridegroom (Christ) and the bride (his church) are joined together forever (Rev 19:9; see also Matt 22:1-14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 5:1; 12:17; 15:20-21; 1 Sam 18:6; 2 Sam 6:1-15; 2 Chr 7:6-10; Ezra 3:10-11; Pss 30:11; 69:30; 98:4-6; 107:32; 149:1-9; 150:1-6; Isa 30:29; 54:1; Jer 30:18-19; 31:4, 13; Lam 5:14-15; Zeph 3:17; Luke 15:22-25; 1 Cor 5:8; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Rev 18:20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Celebration God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): karar (2 Sam 6:14, 16), pazaz (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and raqad (1 Chr 15:29, “skippin...","summary_en":"Celebration God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): karar (2 Sam 6:14, 16), pazaz (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and raqad (1 Chr 15:29, “skippin...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":63054,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Music in Ancient Israel","title_en":"Music in Ancient Israel","content_ro":"<h3>Music in Ancient Israel<\/h3>\n<p>The earliest nomadic peoples made music. The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first of all who play the harp and flute” (Gen 4:21). Music was significant from the beginning of Israel’s worship in the Tabernacle. In Exodus 28:34-35, Aaron’s robe is described as having bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. Scripture records several songs created by the people of God (e.g., Exod 15:1-21; Deut 31:30–32:44; Judg 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>The first liturgical music mentioned in the Old Testament is in the narrative of the transfer of the Ark—David and the Israelites sang, played instruments, and danced to the glory of the Lord (2 Sam 6:5). David is recognized as making the musical instruments used in the Temple (2 Chr 7:6). In the postexilic era, the Levitical singers that are mentioned were the descendants of Asaph, the chief musician appointed by David (Ezra 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22-23). In short, Israel’s liturgical music and organization originated in the time of David.<\/p>\n<p>The stately ceremony of the later services in Solomon’s Temple contrasts with the enthusiasm and spontaneity of David’s worship (2 Chr 7:1-6). Singers and musicians for worship at the Temple were chosen from the tribe of Levi (1 Chr 25:1, 7). They rotated their participation in the weekday, Sabbath, and high holy day services.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:21; Exod 28:34-35; 2 Sam 6:5; 2 Chr 7:6; Ps 71:22-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Music in Ancient Israel<\/h3>\n<p>The earliest nomadic peoples made music. The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first of all who play the harp and flute” (Gen 4:21). Music was significant from the beginning of Israel’s worship in the Tabernacle. In Exodus 28:34-35, Aaron’s robe is described as having bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. Scripture records several songs created by the people of God (e.g., Exod 15:1-21; Deut 31:30–32:44; Judg 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>The first liturgical music mentioned in the Old Testament is in the narrative of the transfer of the Ark—David and the Israelites sang, played instruments, and danced to the glory of the Lord (2 Sam 6:5). David is recognized as making the musical instruments used in the Temple (2 Chr 7:6). In the postexilic era, the Levitical singers that are mentioned were the descendants of Asaph, the chief musician appointed by David (Ezra 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22-23). In short, Israel’s liturgical music and organization originated in the time of David.<\/p>\n<p>The stately ceremony of the later services in Solomon’s Temple contrasts with the enthusiasm and spontaneity of David’s worship (2 Chr 7:1-6). Singers and musicians for worship at the Temple were chosen from the tribe of Levi (1 Chr 25:1, 7). They rotated their participation in the weekday, Sabbath, and high holy day services.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:21; Exod 28:34-35; 2 Sam 6:5; 2 Chr 7:6; Ps 71:22-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Music in Ancient Israel The earliest nomadic peoples made music. The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first of all who play the harp and flute” (Gen 4:21). Music was significant from the beginning of Israel’s worship in the Tabernacle. In Exodus 28:34-35, Aaron’s robe is described as having bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. Scripture records several songs created by the people of God (e.g., Exod 15:1-21; Deut 31:30–32:44; Judg 5:1-3...","summary_en":"Music in Ancient Israel The earliest nomadic peoples made music. The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first of all who play the harp and flute” (Gen 4:21). Music was significant from the beginning of Israel’s worship in the Tabernacle. In Exodus 28:34-35, Aaron’s robe is described as having bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. Scripture records several songs created by the people of God (e.g., Exod 15:1-21; Deut 31:30–32:44; Judg 5:1-3...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":88929,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Celebration","title_en":"Celebration","content_ro":"<h3>Celebration<\/h3>\n<p>God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">karar<\/span> (2 Sam 6:14, 16), <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pazaz<\/span> (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">raqad<\/span> (1 Chr 15:29, “skipping about”). All three words refer to vigorous physical expression beyond the meaning of the Hebrew term for “celebrate” used in David’s first attempt (2 Sam 6:5). Thus, in the first procession, David celebrated; in the second procession he engaged in exultant dancing and extravagant merrymaking with intensified musical expression through the addition of shouting and trumpets.<\/p>\n<p>Musical instruments played a significant role in Temple worship. In 1 Chronicles 25:1-31, David assigned various groups to the ministry of music. Many psalms refer to playing musical instruments in praise and worship of God (see Pss 33:2-3; 57:8; 81:2; 92:1-3; 98:4-6). In Pss 149 and 150, dance and music are combined as a praise offering. Similarly, music and dancing were heard in the father’s house in the parable of the lost son (Luke 15:25), as the son’s return was truly a joyful occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation gives a picture of the eternal celebration that awaits the faithful—a celebration characterized by worship in the presence of God (Rev 4:1-11; 5:8-14; 15:1-4). This celebration is described as a wedding feast, in which the bridegroom (Christ) and the bride (his church) are joined together forever (Rev 19:9; see also Matt 22:1-14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 5:1; 12:17; 15:20-21; 1 Sam 18:6; 2 Sam 6:1-15; 2 Chr 7:6-10; Ezra 3:10-11; Pss 30:11; 69:30; 98:4-6; 107:32; 149:1-9; 150:1-6; Isa 30:29; 54:1; Jer 30:18-19; 31:4, 13; Lam 5:14-15; Zeph 3:17; Luke 15:22-25; 1 Cor 5:8; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Rev 18:20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Celebration<\/h3>\n<p>God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">karar<\/span> (2 Sam 6:14, 16), <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pazaz<\/span> (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">raqad<\/span> (1 Chr 15:29, “skipping about”). All three words refer to vigorous physical expression beyond the meaning of the Hebrew term for “celebrate” used in David’s first attempt (2 Sam 6:5). Thus, in the first procession, David celebrated; in the second procession he engaged in exultant dancing and extravagant merrymaking with intensified musical expression through the addition of shouting and trumpets.<\/p>\n<p>Musical instruments played a significant role in Temple worship. In 1 Chronicles 25:1-31, David assigned various groups to the ministry of music. Many psalms refer to playing musical instruments in praise and worship of God (see Pss 33:2-3; 57:8; 81:2; 92:1-3; 98:4-6). In Pss 149 and 150, dance and music are combined as a praise offering. Similarly, music and dancing were heard in the father’s house in the parable of the lost son (Luke 15:25), as the son’s return was truly a joyful occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation gives a picture of the eternal celebration that awaits the faithful—a celebration characterized by worship in the presence of God (Rev 4:1-11; 5:8-14; 15:1-4). This celebration is described as a wedding feast, in which the bridegroom (Christ) and the bride (his church) are joined together forever (Rev 19:9; see also Matt 22:1-14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 5:1; 12:17; 15:20-21; 1 Sam 18:6; 2 Sam 6:1-15; 2 Chr 7:6-10; Ezra 3:10-11; Pss 30:11; 69:30; 98:4-6; 107:32; 149:1-9; 150:1-6; Isa 30:29; 54:1; Jer 30:18-19; 31:4, 13; Lam 5:14-15; Zeph 3:17; Luke 15:22-25; 1 Cor 5:8; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Rev 18:20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Celebration God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): karar (2 Sam 6:14, 16), pazaz (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and raqad (1 Chr 15:29, “skippin...","summary_en":"Celebration God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): karar (2 Sam 6:14, 16), pazaz (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and raqad (1 Chr 15:29, “skippin...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":90680,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Music in Ancient Israel","title_en":"Music in Ancient Israel","content_ro":"<h3>Music in Ancient Israel<\/h3>\n<p>The earliest nomadic peoples made music. The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first of all who play the harp and flute” (Gen 4:21). Music was significant from the beginning of Israel’s worship in the Tabernacle. In Exodus 28:34-35, Aaron’s robe is described as having bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. Scripture records several songs created by the people of God (e.g., Exod 15:1-21; Deut 31:30–32:44; Judg 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>The first liturgical music mentioned in the Old Testament is in the narrative of the transfer of the Ark—David and the Israelites sang, played instruments, and danced to the glory of the Lord (2 Sam 6:5). David is recognized as making the musical instruments used in the Temple (2 Chr 7:6). In the postexilic era, the Levitical singers that are mentioned were the descendants of Asaph, the chief musician appointed by David (Ezra 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22-23). In short, Israel’s liturgical music and organization originated in the time of David.<\/p>\n<p>The stately ceremony of the later services in Solomon’s Temple contrasts with the enthusiasm and spontaneity of David’s worship (2 Chr 7:1-6). Singers and musicians for worship at the Temple were chosen from the tribe of Levi (1 Chr 25:1, 7). They rotated their participation in the weekday, Sabbath, and high holy day services.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:21; Exod 28:34-35; 2 Sam 6:5; 2 Chr 7:6; Ps 71:22-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Music in Ancient Israel<\/h3>\n<p>The earliest nomadic peoples made music. The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first of all who play the harp and flute” (Gen 4:21). Music was significant from the beginning of Israel’s worship in the Tabernacle. In Exodus 28:34-35, Aaron’s robe is described as having bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. Scripture records several songs created by the people of God (e.g., Exod 15:1-21; Deut 31:30–32:44; Judg 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>The first liturgical music mentioned in the Old Testament is in the narrative of the transfer of the Ark—David and the Israelites sang, played instruments, and danced to the glory of the Lord (2 Sam 6:5). David is recognized as making the musical instruments used in the Temple (2 Chr 7:6). In the postexilic era, the Levitical singers that are mentioned were the descendants of Asaph, the chief musician appointed by David (Ezra 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22-23). In short, Israel’s liturgical music and organization originated in the time of David.<\/p>\n<p>The stately ceremony of the later services in Solomon’s Temple contrasts with the enthusiasm and spontaneity of David’s worship (2 Chr 7:1-6). Singers and musicians for worship at the Temple were chosen from the tribe of Levi (1 Chr 25:1, 7). They rotated their participation in the weekday, Sabbath, and high holy day services.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:21; Exod 28:34-35; 2 Sam 6:5; 2 Chr 7:6; Ps 71:22-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Music in Ancient Israel The earliest nomadic peoples made music. The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first of all who play the harp and flute” (Gen 4:21). Music was significant from the beginning of Israel’s worship in the Tabernacle. In Exodus 28:34-35, Aaron’s robe is described as having bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. Scripture records several songs created by the people of God (e.g., Exod 15:1-21; Deut 31:30–32:44; Judg 5:1-3...","summary_en":"Music in Ancient Israel The earliest nomadic peoples made music. The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first of all who play the harp and flute” (Gen 4:21). Music was significant from the beginning of Israel’s worship in the Tabernacle. In Exodus 28:34-35, Aaron’s robe is described as having bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. Scripture records several songs created by the people of God (e.g., Exod 15:1-21; Deut 31:30–32:44; Judg 5:1-3...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":116555,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Celebration","title_en":"Celebration","content_ro":"<h3>Celebration<\/h3>\n<p>God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">karar<\/span> (2 Sam 6:14, 16), <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pazaz<\/span> (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">raqad<\/span> (1 Chr 15:29, “skipping about”). All three words refer to vigorous physical expression beyond the meaning of the Hebrew term for “celebrate” used in David’s first attempt (2 Sam 6:5). Thus, in the first procession, David celebrated; in the second procession he engaged in exultant dancing and extravagant merrymaking with intensified musical expression through the addition of shouting and trumpets.<\/p>\n<p>Musical instruments played a significant role in Temple worship. In 1 Chronicles 25:1-31, David assigned various groups to the ministry of music. Many psalms refer to playing musical instruments in praise and worship of God (see Pss 33:2-3; 57:8; 81:2; 92:1-3; 98:4-6). In Pss 149 and 150, dance and music are combined as a praise offering. Similarly, music and dancing were heard in the father’s house in the parable of the lost son (Luke 15:25), as the son’s return was truly a joyful occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation gives a picture of the eternal celebration that awaits the faithful—a celebration characterized by worship in the presence of God (Rev 4:1-11; 5:8-14; 15:1-4). This celebration is described as a wedding feast, in which the bridegroom (Christ) and the bride (his church) are joined together forever (Rev 19:9; see also Matt 22:1-14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 5:1; 12:17; 15:20-21; 1 Sam 18:6; 2 Sam 6:1-15; 2 Chr 7:6-10; Ezra 3:10-11; Pss 30:11; 69:30; 98:4-6; 107:32; 149:1-9; 150:1-6; Isa 30:29; 54:1; Jer 30:18-19; 31:4, 13; Lam 5:14-15; Zeph 3:17; Luke 15:22-25; 1 Cor 5:8; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Rev 18:20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Celebration<\/h3>\n<p>God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">karar<\/span> (2 Sam 6:14, 16), <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pazaz<\/span> (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">raqad<\/span> (1 Chr 15:29, “skipping about”). All three words refer to vigorous physical expression beyond the meaning of the Hebrew term for “celebrate” used in David’s first attempt (2 Sam 6:5). Thus, in the first procession, David celebrated; in the second procession he engaged in exultant dancing and extravagant merrymaking with intensified musical expression through the addition of shouting and trumpets.<\/p>\n<p>Musical instruments played a significant role in Temple worship. In 1 Chronicles 25:1-31, David assigned various groups to the ministry of music. Many psalms refer to playing musical instruments in praise and worship of God (see Pss 33:2-3; 57:8; 81:2; 92:1-3; 98:4-6). In Pss 149 and 150, dance and music are combined as a praise offering. Similarly, music and dancing were heard in the father’s house in the parable of the lost son (Luke 15:25), as the son’s return was truly a joyful occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation gives a picture of the eternal celebration that awaits the faithful—a celebration characterized by worship in the presence of God (Rev 4:1-11; 5:8-14; 15:1-4). This celebration is described as a wedding feast, in which the bridegroom (Christ) and the bride (his church) are joined together forever (Rev 19:9; see also Matt 22:1-14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 5:1; 12:17; 15:20-21; 1 Sam 18:6; 2 Sam 6:1-15; 2 Chr 7:6-10; Ezra 3:10-11; Pss 30:11; 69:30; 98:4-6; 107:32; 149:1-9; 150:1-6; Isa 30:29; 54:1; Jer 30:18-19; 31:4, 13; Lam 5:14-15; Zeph 3:17; Luke 15:22-25; 1 Cor 5:8; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Rev 18:20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Celebration God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): karar (2 Sam 6:14, 16), pazaz (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and raqad (1 Chr 15:29, “skippin...","summary_en":"Celebration God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): karar (2 Sam 6:14, 16), pazaz (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and raqad (1 Chr 15:29, “skippin...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":118306,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Music in Ancient Israel","title_en":"Music in Ancient Israel","content_ro":"<h3>Music in Ancient Israel<\/h3>\n<p>The earliest nomadic peoples made music. The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first of all who play the harp and flute” (Gen 4:21). Music was significant from the beginning of Israel’s worship in the Tabernacle. In Exodus 28:34-35, Aaron’s robe is described as having bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. Scripture records several songs created by the people of God (e.g., Exod 15:1-21; Deut 31:30–32:44; Judg 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>The first liturgical music mentioned in the Old Testament is in the narrative of the transfer of the Ark—David and the Israelites sang, played instruments, and danced to the glory of the Lord (2 Sam 6:5). David is recognized as making the musical instruments used in the Temple (2 Chr 7:6). In the postexilic era, the Levitical singers that are mentioned were the descendants of Asaph, the chief musician appointed by David (Ezra 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22-23). In short, Israel’s liturgical music and organization originated in the time of David.<\/p>\n<p>The stately ceremony of the later services in Solomon’s Temple contrasts with the enthusiasm and spontaneity of David’s worship (2 Chr 7:1-6). Singers and musicians for worship at the Temple were chosen from the tribe of Levi (1 Chr 25:1, 7). They rotated their participation in the weekday, Sabbath, and high holy day services.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:21; Exod 28:34-35; 2 Sam 6:5; 2 Chr 7:6; Ps 71:22-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Music in Ancient Israel<\/h3>\n<p>The earliest nomadic peoples made music. The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first of all who play the harp and flute” (Gen 4:21). Music was significant from the beginning of Israel’s worship in the Tabernacle. In Exodus 28:34-35, Aaron’s robe is described as having bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. Scripture records several songs created by the people of God (e.g., Exod 15:1-21; Deut 31:30–32:44; Judg 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>The first liturgical music mentioned in the Old Testament is in the narrative of the transfer of the Ark—David and the Israelites sang, played instruments, and danced to the glory of the Lord (2 Sam 6:5). David is recognized as making the musical instruments used in the Temple (2 Chr 7:6). In the postexilic era, the Levitical singers that are mentioned were the descendants of Asaph, the chief musician appointed by David (Ezra 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22-23). In short, Israel’s liturgical music and organization originated in the time of David.<\/p>\n<p>The stately ceremony of the later services in Solomon’s Temple contrasts with the enthusiasm and spontaneity of David’s worship (2 Chr 7:1-6). Singers and musicians for worship at the Temple were chosen from the tribe of Levi (1 Chr 25:1, 7). They rotated their participation in the weekday, Sabbath, and high holy day services.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:21; Exod 28:34-35; 2 Sam 6:5; 2 Chr 7:6; Ps 71:22-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Music in Ancient Israel The earliest nomadic peoples made music. The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first of all who play the harp and flute” (Gen 4:21). Music was significant from the beginning of Israel’s worship in the Tabernacle. In Exodus 28:34-35, Aaron’s robe is described as having bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. Scripture records several songs created by the people of God (e.g., Exod 15:1-21; Deut 31:30–32:44; Judg 5:1-3...","summary_en":"Music in Ancient Israel The earliest nomadic peoples made music. The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first of all who play the harp and flute” (Gen 4:21). Music was significant from the beginning of Israel’s worship in the Tabernacle. In Exodus 28:34-35, Aaron’s robe is described as having bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. Scripture records several songs created by the people of God (e.g., Exod 15:1-21; Deut 31:30–32:44; Judg 5:1-3...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":144181,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Celebration","title_en":"Celebration","content_ro":"<h3>Celebration<\/h3>\n<p>God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">karar<\/span> (2 Sam 6:14, 16), <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pazaz<\/span> (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">raqad<\/span> (1 Chr 15:29, “skipping about”). All three words refer to vigorous physical expression beyond the meaning of the Hebrew term for “celebrate” used in David’s first attempt (2 Sam 6:5). Thus, in the first procession, David celebrated; in the second procession he engaged in exultant dancing and extravagant merrymaking with intensified musical expression through the addition of shouting and trumpets.<\/p>\n<p>Musical instruments played a significant role in Temple worship. In 1 Chronicles 25:1-31, David assigned various groups to the ministry of music. Many psalms refer to playing musical instruments in praise and worship of God (see Pss 33:2-3; 57:8; 81:2; 92:1-3; 98:4-6). In Pss 149 and 150, dance and music are combined as a praise offering. Similarly, music and dancing were heard in the father’s house in the parable of the lost son (Luke 15:25), as the son’s return was truly a joyful occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation gives a picture of the eternal celebration that awaits the faithful—a celebration characterized by worship in the presence of God (Rev 4:1-11; 5:8-14; 15:1-4). This celebration is described as a wedding feast, in which the bridegroom (Christ) and the bride (his church) are joined together forever (Rev 19:9; see also Matt 22:1-14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 5:1; 12:17; 15:20-21; 1 Sam 18:6; 2 Sam 6:1-15; 2 Chr 7:6-10; Ezra 3:10-11; Pss 30:11; 69:30; 98:4-6; 107:32; 149:1-9; 150:1-6; Isa 30:29; 54:1; Jer 30:18-19; 31:4, 13; Lam 5:14-15; Zeph 3:17; Luke 15:22-25; 1 Cor 5:8; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Rev 18:20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Celebration<\/h3>\n<p>God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">karar<\/span> (2 Sam 6:14, 16), <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pazaz<\/span> (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">raqad<\/span> (1 Chr 15:29, “skipping about”). All three words refer to vigorous physical expression beyond the meaning of the Hebrew term for “celebrate” used in David’s first attempt (2 Sam 6:5). Thus, in the first procession, David celebrated; in the second procession he engaged in exultant dancing and extravagant merrymaking with intensified musical expression through the addition of shouting and trumpets.<\/p>\n<p>Musical instruments played a significant role in Temple worship. In 1 Chronicles 25:1-31, David assigned various groups to the ministry of music. Many psalms refer to playing musical instruments in praise and worship of God (see Pss 33:2-3; 57:8; 81:2; 92:1-3; 98:4-6). In Pss 149 and 150, dance and music are combined as a praise offering. Similarly, music and dancing were heard in the father’s house in the parable of the lost son (Luke 15:25), as the son’s return was truly a joyful occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation gives a picture of the eternal celebration that awaits the faithful—a celebration characterized by worship in the presence of God (Rev 4:1-11; 5:8-14; 15:1-4). This celebration is described as a wedding feast, in which the bridegroom (Christ) and the bride (his church) are joined together forever (Rev 19:9; see also Matt 22:1-14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 5:1; 12:17; 15:20-21; 1 Sam 18:6; 2 Sam 6:1-15; 2 Chr 7:6-10; Ezra 3:10-11; Pss 30:11; 69:30; 98:4-6; 107:32; 149:1-9; 150:1-6; Isa 30:29; 54:1; Jer 30:18-19; 31:4, 13; Lam 5:14-15; Zeph 3:17; Luke 15:22-25; 1 Cor 5:8; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Rev 18:20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Celebration God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): karar (2 Sam 6:14, 16), pazaz (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and raqad (1 Chr 15:29, “skippin...","summary_en":"Celebration God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): karar (2 Sam 6:14, 16), pazaz (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and raqad (1 Chr 15:29, “skippin...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":145932,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Music in Ancient Israel","title_en":"Music in Ancient Israel","content_ro":"<h3>Music in Ancient Israel<\/h3>\n<p>The earliest nomadic peoples made music. The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first of all who play the harp and flute” (Gen 4:21). Music was significant from the beginning of Israel’s worship in the Tabernacle. In Exodus 28:34-35, Aaron’s robe is described as having bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. Scripture records several songs created by the people of God (e.g., Exod 15:1-21; Deut 31:30–32:44; Judg 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>The first liturgical music mentioned in the Old Testament is in the narrative of the transfer of the Ark—David and the Israelites sang, played instruments, and danced to the glory of the Lord (2 Sam 6:5). David is recognized as making the musical instruments used in the Temple (2 Chr 7:6). In the postexilic era, the Levitical singers that are mentioned were the descendants of Asaph, the chief musician appointed by David (Ezra 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22-23). In short, Israel’s liturgical music and organization originated in the time of David.<\/p>\n<p>The stately ceremony of the later services in Solomon’s Temple contrasts with the enthusiasm and spontaneity of David’s worship (2 Chr 7:1-6). Singers and musicians for worship at the Temple were chosen from the tribe of Levi (1 Chr 25:1, 7). They rotated their participation in the weekday, Sabbath, and high holy day services.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:21; Exod 28:34-35; 2 Sam 6:5; 2 Chr 7:6; Ps 71:22-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Music in Ancient Israel<\/h3>\n<p>The earliest nomadic peoples made music. The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first of all who play the harp and flute” (Gen 4:21). Music was significant from the beginning of Israel’s worship in the Tabernacle. In Exodus 28:34-35, Aaron’s robe is described as having bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. Scripture records several songs created by the people of God (e.g., Exod 15:1-21; Deut 31:30–32:44; Judg 5:1-31).<\/p>\n<p>The first liturgical music mentioned in the Old Testament is in the narrative of the transfer of the Ark—David and the Israelites sang, played instruments, and danced to the glory of the Lord (2 Sam 6:5). David is recognized as making the musical instruments used in the Temple (2 Chr 7:6). In the postexilic era, the Levitical singers that are mentioned were the descendants of Asaph, the chief musician appointed by David (Ezra 2:41; Neh 7:44; 11:22-23). In short, Israel’s liturgical music and organization originated in the time of David.<\/p>\n<p>The stately ceremony of the later services in Solomon’s Temple contrasts with the enthusiasm and spontaneity of David’s worship (2 Chr 7:1-6). Singers and musicians for worship at the Temple were chosen from the tribe of Levi (1 Chr 25:1, 7). They rotated their participation in the weekday, Sabbath, and high holy day services.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Gen 4:21; Exod 28:34-35; 2 Sam 6:5; 2 Chr 7:6; Ps 71:22-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Music in Ancient Israel The earliest nomadic peoples made music. The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first of all who play the harp and flute” (Gen 4:21). Music was significant from the beginning of Israel’s worship in the Tabernacle. In Exodus 28:34-35, Aaron’s robe is described as having bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. Scripture records several songs created by the people of God (e.g., Exod 15:1-21; Deut 31:30–32:44; Judg 5:1-3...","summary_en":"Music in Ancient Israel The earliest nomadic peoples made music. The first musician mentioned in the Bible is “Jubal, the first of all who play the harp and flute” (Gen 4:21). Music was significant from the beginning of Israel’s worship in the Tabernacle. In Exodus 28:34-35, Aaron’s robe is described as having bells attached to the lower hem that sounded as he entered the Holy Place. Scripture records several songs created by the people of God (e.g., Exod 15:1-21; Deut 31:30–32:44; Judg 5:1-3...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"6":[{"id":2691,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ark of the Covenant","title_en":"Ark of the Covenant","content_ro":"<h3>ARK OF THE COVENANT<\/h3>\n<p>Most important piece of furniture in the wilderness tabernacle (tent-sanctuary) that God instructed Moses to build (Ex 25:10-22). The Hebrew word for ark can also mean “chest” (2 Kgs 12:9-10) or “coffin” (Gn 50:26), but it is not the same word used for Noah’s ark. The ark that Moses had Bezalel make was an oblong chest made of acacia wood (Ex 31:1-5; 37:1-9). The chest measured approximately 45 by 27 by 27 inches (114 by 69 by 69 centimeters), and was overlaid inside and out with gold. It was fitted with two pairs of rings through which poles were slid to make it portable. The ark would also serve as container for the two tablets of the covenant that would be given to Moses (Ex 25:16). Since the tablets were also called the “testimony,” the ark was sometimes called the “ark of the testimony.” Also in the ark were placed a pot of manna, the miraculous food provided by God (Ex 16:33), and Aaron’s rod that had budded (Nm 17:10; Heb 9:4).<\/p>\n<p>The lid of the ark was called the “mercy seat” or “place of mercy” (Ex 25:17). It was a slab of gold fitting over the top of the ark and having an importance of its own. Once a year the high priest was to make atonement for the people of Israel by sprinkling the mercy seat with the blood of bulls and goats (Lv 16:2-16). In fact, the English expression “mercy seat” is related to the Hebrew word for “atone.” The lid was called a “seat” because the Lord was considered as enthroned between two cherubim (winged creatures) positioned opposite each other (Ps 99:1). The Lord spoke to Moses from between the cherubim (Nm 7:89).<\/p>\n<p>The ark was sometimes referred to simply as the ark (Ex 37:1; Nm 3:31), at other times as the “ark of the covenant” (Nm 4:5; Jos 4:16). The Israelites were thus reminded that the ark’s holiness was not magical but derived from the holy law of God contained inside it. That name also confronted the Israelites with their need to follow the commands God had given in his “covenant.”<\/p>\n<p>Those commands were given by the God of the covenant (or promise) who had rescued Israel from slavery in Egypt and who had promised to be the ever-present God of his people (Ex 6:6-7). Hence the ark was most widely known as the “ark of the covenant.” Sometimes that name was expanded to “the Ark of the <span>Lord<\/span>’s covenant” (1 Chr 28:18, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>At times the ark was called “the Ark of God.” It was a visible sign that the invisible God was dwelling in Israel’s midst. It had a devastating and often deadly “holiness.” The people of Beth-shemesh were severely punished after they had treated the ark without proper reverence (1 Sm 6:19). A man named Uzzah was killed by the Lord when he touched it with his hand to keep it from tumbling to the ground from a cart (2 Sm 6:6-9). The ark was dangerous to touch because it was the very symbol of God’s presence. For this reason God commanded that the ark be placed in the Holy of Holies, separated from the rest of the tabernacle (and later the temple) by a heavy veil (Ex 26:31-33; Heb 9:3-5); no sinful man could look upon the glory of God above the ark and live (Lv 16:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"History\">History<\/p>\n<p>When the Israelites journeyed from Mt Sinai to Canaan, the ark accompanied them in their trek through the desert. It was to be a constant reminder of the holy presence of their God. The ark was spoken of in the accounts of that journey almost as though it were endowed with personal features (Nm 10:33-36). Although the wrapping and carrying of the sacred objects were carefully detailed (Nm 4), God’s relationship with the ark was so close that the ark seemed to be “alive.”<\/p>\n<p>The ark clearly played a benevolent role during the desert journey. A group of Israelites rebelled and tried to invade Canaan on their own, although neither the ark nor Moses went with them (Nm 14:44). The result was defeat at the hands of their enemies (Nm 14:45). The ark played an important role in the crossing of the Jordan (Jos 3:13-17; 4:9-10), the conquest of Jericho (Jos 6:6-11), and the life of the Israelites in their new land (Jos 8:33; Jgs 20:27). There is no hint of superstitious or magical use of the ark; it was not a fetish, talisman, or charm. Yet it had solemn significance as the container of God’s “testimony” and as the pledge of his presence.<\/p>\n<p>A sharp contrast to the role of the ark in Joshua’s day is found in later times. In the days of Eli and his sons, that is, at the end of the period of the judges, religious life in Israel was at a low ebb. The ark was still venerated but looked upon as a fetish to ensure success or victory automatically. When losing a battle with the Philistines, the Israelites rushed the sacred chest to the battlefield, thereby hoping to gain a victory (1 Sm 4:1-10). But the Lord did not tolerate such flagrant misuse of the ark. He allowed it to be captured by the uncircumcised Philistines (1 Sm 4:11) and inflicted defeat on Israel and death on the house of the high priest Eli (1 Sm 4:13-22).<\/p>\n<p>At the same time, God vindicated the honor of the ark when it was offered to Dagon, the god of the Philistines. The account of the efforts of the pagan Philistines to get rid of the ark is humorous (1 Sm 5–6). The biblical writer dramatically illustrated that the holy ark could neither be treated superstitiously by God’s people nor mocked by his enemies.<\/p>\n<p>Samuel, a great reformer and prophet, made no attempt to restore the ark to a place of prominence after it was returned to Israel. He allowed it to remain in Kiriath-jearim (1 Sm 6:21; 7:2). Samuel first had to bring Israel back to obedience to God’s covenant before the ark of the covenant could be of any use. David, described as a king after God’s own heart and chosen to replace the disobedient Saul, exerted efforts to bring the ark back to a prominent place (2 Sm 6:1-17). It may have been to David’s political advantage to add prestige to his newly established capital, Jerusalem, formerly the Canaanite stronghold of Jebus. But Psalm 132 describes David’s concern for the honor of God and for the ark. In a moment of great religious joy and enthusiasm he addressed God directly: “Arise, O <span>Lord<\/span>, and go to thy resting place, thou and the ark of thy might” (v 8, <span>rsv<\/span>). To restless David, the ark had also been “restless” as long as Israel had not yet obtained its “rest,” that is, as long as Canaan had not been completely conquered. Some measure of peace had already come during Joshua’s time (Jos 21:43-45), but much remained to be done. By conquering Jebus, David virtually completed the conquest of the Promised Land. Finally the land had rest and the Lord could then “dwell” in his temple, the suitable resting place for the ark. Nevertheless, David’s desire to build a temple for the ark was not granted (2 Sm 7:1-17). He was told that his son Solomon would build a home for the ark and for the Lord. Solomon erected a magnificent temple with a place for the ark in the most holy part, behind the curtains (1 Kgs 8:1-11).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ARK OF THE COVENANT<\/h3>\n<p>Most important piece of furniture in the wilderness tabernacle (tent-sanctuary) that God instructed Moses to build (Ex 25:10-22). The Hebrew word for ark can also mean “chest” (2 Kgs 12:9-10) or “coffin” (Gn 50:26), but it is not the same word used for Noah’s ark. The ark that Moses had Bezalel make was an oblong chest made of acacia wood (Ex 31:1-5; 37:1-9). The chest measured approximately 45 by 27 by 27 inches (114 by 69 by 69 centimeters), and was overlaid inside and out with gold. It was fitted with two pairs of rings through which poles were slid to make it portable. The ark would also serve as container for the two tablets of the covenant that would be given to Moses (Ex 25:16). Since the tablets were also called the “testimony,” the ark was sometimes called the “ark of the testimony.” Also in the ark were placed a pot of manna, the miraculous food provided by God (Ex 16:33), and Aaron’s rod that had budded (Nm 17:10; Heb 9:4).<\/p>\n<p>The lid of the ark was called the “mercy seat” or “place of mercy” (Ex 25:17). It was a slab of gold fitting over the top of the ark and having an importance of its own. Once a year the high priest was to make atonement for the people of Israel by sprinkling the mercy seat with the blood of bulls and goats (Lv 16:2-16). In fact, the English expression “mercy seat” is related to the Hebrew word for “atone.” The lid was called a “seat” because the Lord was considered as enthroned between two cherubim (winged creatures) positioned opposite each other (Ps 99:1). The Lord spoke to Moses from between the cherubim (Nm 7:89).<\/p>\n<p>The ark was sometimes referred to simply as the ark (Ex 37:1; Nm 3:31), at other times as the “ark of the covenant” (Nm 4:5; Jos 4:16). The Israelites were thus reminded that the ark’s holiness was not magical but derived from the holy law of God contained inside it. That name also confronted the Israelites with their need to follow the commands God had given in his “covenant.”<\/p>\n<p>Those commands were given by the God of the covenant (or promise) who had rescued Israel from slavery in Egypt and who had promised to be the ever-present God of his people (Ex 6:6-7). Hence the ark was most widely known as the “ark of the covenant.” Sometimes that name was expanded to “the Ark of the <span>Lord<\/span>’s covenant” (1 Chr 28:18, <span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>At times the ark was called “the Ark of God.” It was a visible sign that the invisible God was dwelling in Israel’s midst. It had a devastating and often deadly “holiness.” The people of Beth-shemesh were severely punished after they had treated the ark without proper reverence (1 Sm 6:19). A man named Uzzah was killed by the Lord when he touched it with his hand to keep it from tumbling to the ground from a cart (2 Sm 6:6-9). The ark was dangerous to touch because it was the very symbol of God’s presence. For this reason God commanded that the ark be placed in the Holy of Holies, separated from the rest of the tabernacle (and later the temple) by a heavy veil (Ex 26:31-33; Heb 9:3-5); no sinful man could look upon the glory of God above the ark and live (Lv 16:2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"History\">History<\/p>\n<p>When the Israelites journeyed from Mt Sinai to Canaan, the ark accompanied them in their trek through the desert. It was to be a constant reminder of the holy presence of their God. The ark was spoken of in the accounts of that journey almost as though it were endowed with personal features (Nm 10:33-36). Although the wrapping and carrying of the sacred objects were carefully detailed (Nm 4), God’s relationship with the ark was so close that the ark seemed to be “alive.”<\/p>\n<p>The ark clearly played a benevolent role during the desert journey. A group of Israelites rebelled and tried to invade Canaan on their own, although neither the ark nor Moses went with them (Nm 14:44). The result was defeat at the hands of their enemies (Nm 14:45). The ark played an important role in the crossing of the Jordan (Jos 3:13-17; 4:9-10), the conquest of Jericho (Jos 6:6-11), and the life of the Israelites in their new land (Jos 8:33; Jgs 20:27). There is no hint of superstitious or magical use of the ark; it was not a fetish, talisman, or charm. Yet it had solemn significance as the container of God’s “testimony” and as the pledge of his presence.<\/p>\n<p>A sharp contrast to the role of the ark in Joshua’s day is found in later times. In the days of Eli and his sons, that is, at the end of the period of the judges, religious life in Israel was at a low ebb. The ark was still venerated but looked upon as a fetish to ensure success or victory automatically. When losing a battle with the Philistines, the Israelites rushed the sacred chest to the battlefield, thereby hoping to gain a victory (1 Sm 4:1-10). But the Lord did not tolerate such flagrant misuse of the ark. He allowed it to be captured by the uncircumcised Philistines (1 Sm 4:11) and inflicted defeat on Israel and death on the house of the high priest Eli (1 Sm 4:13-22).<\/p>\n<p>At the same time, God vindicated the honor of the ark when it was offered to Dagon, the god of the Philistines. The account of the efforts of the pagan Philistines to get rid of the ark is humorous (1 Sm 5–6). The biblical writer dramatically illustrated that the holy ark could neither be treated superstitiously by God’s people nor mocked by his enemies.<\/p>\n<p>Samuel, a great reformer and prophet, made no attempt to restore the ark to a place of prominence after it was returned to Israel. He allowed it to remain in Kiriath-jearim (1 Sm 6:21; 7:2). Samuel first had to bring Israel back to obedience to God’s covenant before the ark of the covenant could be of any use. David, described as a king after God’s own heart and chosen to replace the disobedient Saul, exerted efforts to bring the ark back to a prominent place (2 Sm 6:1-17). It may have been to David’s political advantage to add prestige to his newly established capital, Jerusalem, formerly the Canaanite stronghold of Jebus. But Psalm 132 describes David’s concern for the honor of God and for the ark. In a moment of great religious joy and enthusiasm he addressed God directly: “Arise, O <span>Lord<\/span>, and go to thy resting place, thou and the ark of thy might” (v 8, <span>rsv<\/span>). To restless David, the ark had also been “restless” as long as Israel had not yet obtained its “rest,” that is, as long as Canaan had not been completely conquered. Some measure of peace had already come during Joshua’s time (Jos 21:43-45), but much remained to be done. By conquering Jebus, David virtually completed the conquest of the Promised Land. Finally the land had rest and the Lord could then “dwell” in his temple, the suitable resting place for the ark. Nevertheless, David’s desire to build a temple for the ark was not granted (2 Sm 7:1-17). He was told that his son Solomon would build a home for the ark and for the Lord. Solomon erected a magnificent temple with a place for the ark in the most holy part, behind the curtains (1 Kgs 8:1-11).<\/p>","summary_ro":"ARK OF THE COVENANT Most important piece of furniture in the wilderness tabernacle (tent-sanctuary) that God instructed Moses to build (Ex 25:10-22). The Hebrew word for ark can also mean “chest” (2 Kgs 12:9-10) or “coffin” (Gn 50:26), but it is not the same word used for Noah’s ark. The ark that Moses had Bezalel make was an oblong chest made of acacia wood (Ex 31:1-5; 37:1-9). The chest measured approximately 45 by 27 by 27 inches (114 by 69 by 69 centimeters), and was overlaid inside and o...","summary_en":"ARK OF THE COVENANT Most important piece of furniture in the wilderness tabernacle (tent-sanctuary) that God instructed Moses to build (Ex 25:10-22). The Hebrew word for ark can also mean “chest” (2 Kgs 12:9-10) or “coffin” (Gn 50:26), but it is not the same word used for Noah’s ark. The ark that Moses had Bezalel make was an oblong chest made of acacia wood (Ex 31:1-5; 37:1-9). The chest measured approximately 45 by 27 by 27 inches (114 by 69 by 69 centimeters), and was overlaid inside and o...","source":"Articles\/A.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":21688,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Kidon*","title_en":"Kidon*","content_ro":"<h3>KIDON*<\/h3>\n<p>Threshing floor where Uzzah was struck down by God as he attempted to steady the ark of the covenant (1 Chr 13:9, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). The parallel passage in 2 Samuel 6:6 refers to this place as “the threshing floor of Nacon.” Following the death of Uzzah, the place was renamed Perez-uzzah, which means either “the breach of Uzzah” or “the outbreak against Uzzah” (2 Sm 6:8; 1 Chr 13:11).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KIDON*<\/h3>\n<p>Threshing floor where Uzzah was struck down by God as he attempted to steady the ark of the covenant (1 Chr 13:9, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). The parallel passage in 2 Samuel 6:6 refers to this place as “the threshing floor of Nacon.” Following the death of Uzzah, the place was renamed Perez-uzzah, which means either “the breach of Uzzah” or “the outbreak against Uzzah” (2 Sm 6:8; 1 Chr 13:11).<\/p>","summary_ro":"KIDON* Threshing floor where Uzzah was struck down by God as he attempted to steady the ark of the covenant (1 Chr 13:9, nlt mg). The parallel passage in 2 Samuel 6:6 refers to this place as “the threshing floor of Nacon.” Following the death of Uzzah, the place was renamed Perez-uzzah, which means either “the breach of Uzzah” or “the outbreak against Uzzah” (2 Sm 6:8; 1 Chr 13:11).","summary_en":"KIDON* Threshing floor where Uzzah was struck down by God as he attempted to steady the ark of the covenant (1 Chr 13:9, nlt mg). The parallel passage in 2 Samuel 6:6 refers to this place as “the threshing floor of Nacon.” Following the death of Uzzah, the place was renamed Perez-uzzah, which means either “the breach of Uzzah” or “the outbreak against Uzzah” (2 Sm 6:8; 1 Chr 13:11).","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26806,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nachon*","title_en":"Nachon*","content_ro":"<h3>NACHON*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV spelling of Nacon in 2 Samuel 6:6. <em>See<\/em> Nacon.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NACHON*<\/h3>\n<p>KJV spelling of Nacon in 2 Samuel 6:6. <em>See<\/em> Nacon.<\/p>","summary_ro":"NACHON* KJV spelling of Nacon in 2 Samuel 6:6. See Nacon.","summary_en":"NACHON* KJV spelling of Nacon in 2 Samuel 6:6. See Nacon.","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26809,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nacon","title_en":"Nacon","content_ro":"<h3>NACON<\/h3>\n<p>A place David passed when he brought the ark from Baale-judah (Kiriath-jearim) to Jerusalem. At the threshing floor of Nacon, Uzzah was struck dead for touching the ark (2 Sm 6:6). Hence, this place was called Perez-uzzah, meaning “the breaking forth upon Uzzah” (v 8). Nacon is alternately called Kidon in 1 Chronicles 13:9 (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NACON<\/h3>\n<p>A place David passed when he brought the ark from Baale-judah (Kiriath-jearim) to Jerusalem. At the threshing floor of Nacon, Uzzah was struck dead for touching the ark (2 Sm 6:6). Hence, this place was called Perez-uzzah, meaning “the breaking forth upon Uzzah” (v 8). Nacon is alternately called Kidon in 1 Chronicles 13:9 (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg).<\/p>","summary_ro":"NACON A place David passed when he brought the ark from Baale-judah (Kiriath-jearim) to Jerusalem. At the threshing floor of Nacon, Uzzah was struck dead for touching the ark (2 Sm 6:6). Hence, this place was called Perez-uzzah, meaning “the breaking forth upon Uzzah” (v 8). Nacon is alternately called Kidon in 1 Chronicles 13:9 (see nlt mg).","summary_en":"NACON A place David passed when he brought the ark from Baale-judah (Kiriath-jearim) to Jerusalem. At the threshing floor of Nacon, Uzzah was struck dead for touching the ark (2 Sm 6:6). Hence, this place was called Perez-uzzah, meaning “the breaking forth upon Uzzah” (v 8). Nacon is alternately called Kidon in 1 Chronicles 13:9 (see nlt mg).","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":46569,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:6","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:6-7<\/strong> <em>steadied the Ark:<\/em> Although Uzzah meant well and acted instinctively, he violated the Ark by touching it (cp. Exod 19:12-13; Num 4:15). He suffered the same penalty as the people from Beth-shemesh (1 Sam 6:19). David later had the Levites carry the Ark into Jerusalem in accordance with God’s will (see 1 Chr 15:2, 13-15).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:6-7<\/strong> <em>steadied the Ark:<\/em> Although Uzzah meant well and acted instinctively, he violated the Ark by touching it (cp. Exod 19:12-13; Num 4:15). He suffered the same penalty as the people from Beth-shemesh (1 Sam 6:19). David later had the Levites carry the Ark into Jerusalem in accordance with God’s will (see 1 Chr 15:2, 13-15).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:6-7 steadied the Ark: Although Uzzah meant well and acted instinctively, he violated the Ark by touching it (cp. Exod 19:12-13; Num 4:15). He suffered the same penalty as the people from Beth-shemesh (1 Sam 6:19). David later had the Levites carry the Ark into Jerusalem in accordance with God’s will (see 1 Chr 15:2, 13-15).","summary_en":"6:6-7 steadied the Ark: Although Uzzah meant well and acted instinctively, he violated the Ark by touching it (cp. Exod 19:12-13; Num 4:15). He suffered the same penalty as the people from Beth-shemesh (1 Sam 6:19). David later had the Levites carry the Ark into Jerusalem in accordance with God’s will (see 1 Chr 15:2, 13-15).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":74195,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:6","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:6-7<\/strong> <em>steadied the Ark:<\/em> Although Uzzah meant well and acted instinctively, he violated the Ark by touching it (cp. Exod 19:12-13; Num 4:15). He suffered the same penalty as the people from Beth-shemesh (1 Sam 6:19). David later had the Levites carry the Ark into Jerusalem in accordance with God’s will (see 1 Chr 15:2, 13-15).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:6-7<\/strong> <em>steadied the Ark:<\/em> Although Uzzah meant well and acted instinctively, he violated the Ark by touching it (cp. Exod 19:12-13; Num 4:15). He suffered the same penalty as the people from Beth-shemesh (1 Sam 6:19). David later had the Levites carry the Ark into Jerusalem in accordance with God’s will (see 1 Chr 15:2, 13-15).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:6-7 steadied the Ark: Although Uzzah meant well and acted instinctively, he violated the Ark by touching it (cp. Exod 19:12-13; Num 4:15). He suffered the same penalty as the people from Beth-shemesh (1 Sam 6:19). David later had the Levites carry the Ark into Jerusalem in accordance with God’s will (see 1 Chr 15:2, 13-15).","summary_en":"6:6-7 steadied the Ark: Although Uzzah meant well and acted instinctively, he violated the Ark by touching it (cp. Exod 19:12-13; Num 4:15). He suffered the same penalty as the people from Beth-shemesh (1 Sam 6:19). David later had the Levites carry the Ark into Jerusalem in accordance with God’s will (see 1 Chr 15:2, 13-15).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101821,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:6","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:6-7<\/strong> <em>steadied the Ark:<\/em> Although Uzzah meant well and acted instinctively, he violated the Ark by touching it (cp. Exod 19:12-13; Num 4:15). He suffered the same penalty as the people from Beth-shemesh (1 Sam 6:19). David later had the Levites carry the Ark into Jerusalem in accordance with God’s will (see 1 Chr 15:2, 13-15).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:6-7<\/strong> <em>steadied the Ark:<\/em> Although Uzzah meant well and acted instinctively, he violated the Ark by touching it (cp. Exod 19:12-13; Num 4:15). He suffered the same penalty as the people from Beth-shemesh (1 Sam 6:19). David later had the Levites carry the Ark into Jerusalem in accordance with God’s will (see 1 Chr 15:2, 13-15).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:6-7 steadied the Ark: Although Uzzah meant well and acted instinctively, he violated the Ark by touching it (cp. Exod 19:12-13; Num 4:15). He suffered the same penalty as the people from Beth-shemesh (1 Sam 6:19). David later had the Levites carry the Ark into Jerusalem in accordance with God’s will (see 1 Chr 15:2, 13-15).","summary_en":"6:6-7 steadied the Ark: Although Uzzah meant well and acted instinctively, he violated the Ark by touching it (cp. Exod 19:12-13; Num 4:15). He suffered the same penalty as the people from Beth-shemesh (1 Sam 6:19). David later had the Levites carry the Ark into Jerusalem in accordance with God’s will (see 1 Chr 15:2, 13-15).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":129447,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:6","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:6","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:6-7<\/strong> <em>steadied the Ark:<\/em> Although Uzzah meant well and acted instinctively, he violated the Ark by touching it (cp. Exod 19:12-13; Num 4:15). He suffered the same penalty as the people from Beth-shemesh (1 Sam 6:19). David later had the Levites carry the Ark into Jerusalem in accordance with God’s will (see 1 Chr 15:2, 13-15).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:6-7<\/strong> <em>steadied the Ark:<\/em> Although Uzzah meant well and acted instinctively, he violated the Ark by touching it (cp. Exod 19:12-13; Num 4:15). He suffered the same penalty as the people from Beth-shemesh (1 Sam 6:19). David later had the Levites carry the Ark into Jerusalem in accordance with God’s will (see 1 Chr 15:2, 13-15).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:6-7 steadied the Ark: Although Uzzah meant well and acted instinctively, he violated the Ark by touching it (cp. Exod 19:12-13; Num 4:15). He suffered the same penalty as the people from Beth-shemesh (1 Sam 6:19). David later had the Levites carry the Ark into Jerusalem in accordance with God’s will (see 1 Chr 15:2, 13-15).","summary_en":"6:6-7 steadied the Ark: Although Uzzah meant well and acted instinctively, he violated the Ark by touching it (cp. Exod 19:12-13; Num 4:15). He suffered the same penalty as the people from Beth-shemesh (1 Sam 6:19). David later had the Levites carry the Ark into Jerusalem in accordance with God’s will (see 1 Chr 15:2, 13-15).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"8":[{"id":21689,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Kidon*","title_en":"Kidon*","content_ro":"<h3>KIDON*<\/h3>\n<p>Threshing floor where Uzzah was struck down by God as he attempted to steady the ark of the covenant (1 Chr 13:9, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). The parallel passage in 2 Samuel 6:6 refers to this place as “the threshing floor of Nacon.” Following the death of Uzzah, the place was renamed Perez-uzzah, which means either “the breach of Uzzah” or “the outbreak against Uzzah” (2 Sm 6:8; 1 Chr 13:11).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>KIDON*<\/h3>\n<p>Threshing floor where Uzzah was struck down by God as he attempted to steady the ark of the covenant (1 Chr 13:9, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). The parallel passage in 2 Samuel 6:6 refers to this place as “the threshing floor of Nacon.” Following the death of Uzzah, the place was renamed Perez-uzzah, which means either “the breach of Uzzah” or “the outbreak against Uzzah” (2 Sm 6:8; 1 Chr 13:11).<\/p>","summary_ro":"KIDON* Threshing floor where Uzzah was struck down by God as he attempted to steady the ark of the covenant (1 Chr 13:9, nlt mg). The parallel passage in 2 Samuel 6:6 refers to this place as “the threshing floor of Nacon.” Following the death of Uzzah, the place was renamed Perez-uzzah, which means either “the breach of Uzzah” or “the outbreak against Uzzah” (2 Sm 6:8; 1 Chr 13:11).","summary_en":"KIDON* Threshing floor where Uzzah was struck down by God as he attempted to steady the ark of the covenant (1 Chr 13:9, nlt mg). The parallel passage in 2 Samuel 6:6 refers to this place as “the threshing floor of Nacon.” Following the death of Uzzah, the place was renamed Perez-uzzah, which means either “the breach of Uzzah” or “the outbreak against Uzzah” (2 Sm 6:8; 1 Chr 13:11).","source":"Articles\/K.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":26810,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Nacon","title_en":"Nacon","content_ro":"<h3>NACON<\/h3>\n<p>A place David passed when he brought the ark from Baale-judah (Kiriath-jearim) to Jerusalem. At the threshing floor of Nacon, Uzzah was struck dead for touching the ark (2 Sm 6:6). Hence, this place was called Perez-uzzah, meaning “the breaking forth upon Uzzah” (v 8). Nacon is alternately called Kidon in 1 Chronicles 13:9 (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>NACON<\/h3>\n<p>A place David passed when he brought the ark from Baale-judah (Kiriath-jearim) to Jerusalem. At the threshing floor of Nacon, Uzzah was struck dead for touching the ark (2 Sm 6:6). Hence, this place was called Perez-uzzah, meaning “the breaking forth upon Uzzah” (v 8). Nacon is alternately called Kidon in 1 Chronicles 13:9 (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg).<\/p>","summary_ro":"NACON A place David passed when he brought the ark from Baale-judah (Kiriath-jearim) to Jerusalem. At the threshing floor of Nacon, Uzzah was struck dead for touching the ark (2 Sm 6:6). Hence, this place was called Perez-uzzah, meaning “the breaking forth upon Uzzah” (v 8). Nacon is alternately called Kidon in 1 Chronicles 13:9 (see nlt mg).","summary_en":"NACON A place David passed when he brought the ark from Baale-judah (Kiriath-jearim) to Jerusalem. At the threshing floor of Nacon, Uzzah was struck dead for touching the ark (2 Sm 6:6). Hence, this place was called Perez-uzzah, meaning “the breaking forth upon Uzzah” (v 8). Nacon is alternately called Kidon in 1 Chronicles 13:9 (see nlt mg).","source":"Articles\/N.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":29599,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Perez-Uzzah","title_en":"Perez-Uzzah","content_ro":"<h3>PEREZ-UZZAH<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate name given to the site associated with the threshing floor of Nacon in 1 Chronicles 13:11 and 2 Samuel 6:8, respectively. <em>See<\/em> Nacon.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PEREZ-UZZAH<\/h3>\n<p>Alternate name given to the site associated with the threshing floor of Nacon in 1 Chronicles 13:11 and 2 Samuel 6:8, respectively. <em>See<\/em> Nacon.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PEREZ-UZZAH Alternate name given to the site associated with the threshing floor of Nacon in 1 Chronicles 13:11 and 2 Samuel 6:8, respectively. See Nacon.","summary_en":"PEREZ-UZZAH Alternate name given to the site associated with the threshing floor of Nacon in 1 Chronicles 13:11 and 2 Samuel 6:8, respectively. See Nacon.","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":46570,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:8","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:8<\/strong> <em>David was angry . . . the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>’s anger:<\/em> Cp. Gen 4:5; 1 Sam 15:11; Jon 4:1; Luke 15:27-28. • <em>Perez-uzzah:<\/em> The first part of this name appears in 2 Sam 5:20 (<em>Baal-perazim<\/em>) as the place where God burst through the Philistine ranks.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:8<\/strong> <em>David was angry . . . the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>’s anger:<\/em> Cp. Gen 4:5; 1 Sam 15:11; Jon 4:1; Luke 15:27-28. • <em>Perez-uzzah:<\/em> The first part of this name appears in 2 Sam 5:20 (<em>Baal-perazim<\/em>) as the place where God burst through the Philistine ranks.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:8 David was angry . . . the Lord’s anger: Cp. Gen 4:5; 1 Sam 15:11; Jon 4:1; Luke 15:27-28. • Perez-uzzah: The first part of this name appears in 2 Sam 5:20 (Baal-perazim) as the place where God burst through the Philistine ranks.","summary_en":"6:8 David was angry . . . the Lord’s anger: Cp. Gen 4:5; 1 Sam 15:11; Jon 4:1; Luke 15:27-28. • Perez-uzzah: The first part of this name appears in 2 Sam 5:20 (Baal-perazim) as the place where God burst through the Philistine ranks.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":74196,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:8","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:8<\/strong> <em>David was angry . . . the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>’s anger:<\/em> Cp. Gen 4:5; 1 Sam 15:11; Jon 4:1; Luke 15:27-28. • <em>Perez-uzzah:<\/em> The first part of this name appears in 2 Sam 5:20 (<em>Baal-perazim<\/em>) as the place where God burst through the Philistine ranks.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:8<\/strong> <em>David was angry . . . the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>’s anger:<\/em> Cp. Gen 4:5; 1 Sam 15:11; Jon 4:1; Luke 15:27-28. • <em>Perez-uzzah:<\/em> The first part of this name appears in 2 Sam 5:20 (<em>Baal-perazim<\/em>) as the place where God burst through the Philistine ranks.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:8 David was angry . . . the Lord’s anger: Cp. Gen 4:5; 1 Sam 15:11; Jon 4:1; Luke 15:27-28. • Perez-uzzah: The first part of this name appears in 2 Sam 5:20 (Baal-perazim) as the place where God burst through the Philistine ranks.","summary_en":"6:8 David was angry . . . the Lord’s anger: Cp. Gen 4:5; 1 Sam 15:11; Jon 4:1; Luke 15:27-28. • Perez-uzzah: The first part of this name appears in 2 Sam 5:20 (Baal-perazim) as the place where God burst through the Philistine ranks.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101822,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:8","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:8<\/strong> <em>David was angry . . . the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>’s anger:<\/em> Cp. Gen 4:5; 1 Sam 15:11; Jon 4:1; Luke 15:27-28. • <em>Perez-uzzah:<\/em> The first part of this name appears in 2 Sam 5:20 (<em>Baal-perazim<\/em>) as the place where God burst through the Philistine ranks.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:8<\/strong> <em>David was angry . . . the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>’s anger:<\/em> Cp. Gen 4:5; 1 Sam 15:11; Jon 4:1; Luke 15:27-28. • <em>Perez-uzzah:<\/em> The first part of this name appears in 2 Sam 5:20 (<em>Baal-perazim<\/em>) as the place where God burst through the Philistine ranks.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:8 David was angry . . . the Lord’s anger: Cp. Gen 4:5; 1 Sam 15:11; Jon 4:1; Luke 15:27-28. • Perez-uzzah: The first part of this name appears in 2 Sam 5:20 (Baal-perazim) as the place where God burst through the Philistine ranks.","summary_en":"6:8 David was angry . . . the Lord’s anger: Cp. Gen 4:5; 1 Sam 15:11; Jon 4:1; Luke 15:27-28. • Perez-uzzah: The first part of this name appears in 2 Sam 5:20 (Baal-perazim) as the place where God burst through the Philistine ranks.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":129448,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:8","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:8","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:8<\/strong> <em>David was angry . . . the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>’s anger:<\/em> Cp. Gen 4:5; 1 Sam 15:11; Jon 4:1; Luke 15:27-28. • <em>Perez-uzzah:<\/em> The first part of this name appears in 2 Sam 5:20 (<em>Baal-perazim<\/em>) as the place where God burst through the Philistine ranks.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:8<\/strong> <em>David was angry . . . the<\/em> <span>Lord<\/span><em>’s anger:<\/em> Cp. Gen 4:5; 1 Sam 15:11; Jon 4:1; Luke 15:27-28. • <em>Perez-uzzah:<\/em> The first part of this name appears in 2 Sam 5:20 (<em>Baal-perazim<\/em>) as the place where God burst through the Philistine ranks.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:8 David was angry . . . the Lord’s anger: Cp. Gen 4:5; 1 Sam 15:11; Jon 4:1; Luke 15:27-28. • Perez-uzzah: The first part of this name appears in 2 Sam 5:20 (Baal-perazim) as the place where God burst through the Philistine ranks.","summary_en":"6:8 David was angry . . . the Lord’s anger: Cp. Gen 4:5; 1 Sam 15:11; Jon 4:1; Luke 15:27-28. • Perez-uzzah: The first part of this name appears in 2 Sam 5:20 (Baal-perazim) as the place where God burst through the Philistine ranks.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"9":[{"id":46571,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:9","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:9<\/strong> <em>David was . . . afraid:<\/em> Similarly, Moses trembled at the display of divine wrath (Deut 9:19) and at the dramatic display of God’s fiery presence (see Heb 12:21).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:9<\/strong> <em>David was . . . afraid:<\/em> Similarly, Moses trembled at the display of divine wrath (Deut 9:19) and at the dramatic display of God’s fiery presence (see Heb 12:21).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:9 David was . . . afraid: Similarly, Moses trembled at the display of divine wrath (Deut 9:19) and at the dramatic display of God’s fiery presence (see Heb 12:21).","summary_en":"6:9 David was . . . afraid: Similarly, Moses trembled at the display of divine wrath (Deut 9:19) and at the dramatic display of God’s fiery presence (see Heb 12:21).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":74197,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:9","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:9<\/strong> <em>David was . . . afraid:<\/em> Similarly, Moses trembled at the display of divine wrath (Deut 9:19) and at the dramatic display of God’s fiery presence (see Heb 12:21).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:9<\/strong> <em>David was . . . afraid:<\/em> Similarly, Moses trembled at the display of divine wrath (Deut 9:19) and at the dramatic display of God’s fiery presence (see Heb 12:21).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:9 David was . . . afraid: Similarly, Moses trembled at the display of divine wrath (Deut 9:19) and at the dramatic display of God’s fiery presence (see Heb 12:21).","summary_en":"6:9 David was . . . afraid: Similarly, Moses trembled at the display of divine wrath (Deut 9:19) and at the dramatic display of God’s fiery presence (see Heb 12:21).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101823,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:9","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:9<\/strong> <em>David was . . . afraid:<\/em> Similarly, Moses trembled at the display of divine wrath (Deut 9:19) and at the dramatic display of God’s fiery presence (see Heb 12:21).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:9<\/strong> <em>David was . . . afraid:<\/em> Similarly, Moses trembled at the display of divine wrath (Deut 9:19) and at the dramatic display of God’s fiery presence (see Heb 12:21).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:9 David was . . . afraid: Similarly, Moses trembled at the display of divine wrath (Deut 9:19) and at the dramatic display of God’s fiery presence (see Heb 12:21).","summary_en":"6:9 David was . . . afraid: Similarly, Moses trembled at the display of divine wrath (Deut 9:19) and at the dramatic display of God’s fiery presence (see Heb 12:21).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":129449,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:9","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:9","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:9<\/strong> <em>David was . . . afraid:<\/em> Similarly, Moses trembled at the display of divine wrath (Deut 9:19) and at the dramatic display of God’s fiery presence (see Heb 12:21).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:9<\/strong> <em>David was . . . afraid:<\/em> Similarly, Moses trembled at the display of divine wrath (Deut 9:19) and at the dramatic display of God’s fiery presence (see Heb 12:21).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:9 David was . . . afraid: Similarly, Moses trembled at the display of divine wrath (Deut 9:19) and at the dramatic display of God’s fiery presence (see Heb 12:21).","summary_en":"6:9 David was . . . afraid: Similarly, Moses trembled at the display of divine wrath (Deut 9:19) and at the dramatic display of God’s fiery presence (see Heb 12:21).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"10":[{"id":13932,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Gittite","title_en":"Gittite","content_ro":"<h3>GITTITE<\/h3>\n<p>Inhabitant of Gath, the Philistine city (2 Sm 6:10-11; 1 Chr 13:13). <em>See<\/em> Gath.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GITTITE<\/h3>\n<p>Inhabitant of Gath, the Philistine city (2 Sm 6:10-11; 1 Chr 13:13). <em>See<\/em> Gath.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GITTITE Inhabitant of Gath, the Philistine city (2 Sm 6:10-11; 1 Chr 13:13). See Gath.","summary_en":"GITTITE Inhabitant of Gath, the Philistine city (2 Sm 6:10-11; 1 Chr 13:13). See Gath.","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":28069,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Obed-Edom","title_en":"Obed-Edom","content_ro":"<h3>OBED-EDOM<\/h3>\n<li>1. Man under whose care David placed the ark of the covenant when he was transferring it from Gibeah to Jerusalem (2 Sm 6:10-12; 1 Chr 13:5-14). He is called a Gittite, which indicates that his birthplace was Gath. This was not the Philistine city of Gath but the Levitical town in the territory of Dan known as Gath-rimmon (Jos 19:45). It is likely that Obed-edom was a Levite and therefore qualified to care for the ark of the covenant. Uzzah’s rash action in steadying the ark when the oxen stumbled brought upon him immediate death. David’s consternation and fear at this turn of events led him to reconsider his intention of bringing the ark to Jerusalem. Apparently Obed-edom’s home was nearby and it was convenient to leave the ark in his care. When David was informed after three months that the Lord had greatly blessed Obed-edom, he realized that the judgment that fell on Uzzah was incurred because the ark was carried contrary to the method prescribed in the Law (Nm 4:15; 7:9) and not because the Lord was angry with Uzzah. He ordered that the ark be taken from Obed-edom’s home and carried to Jerusalem in the proper manner (1 Chr 15:25-28). Apparently Obed-edom was rewarded for his faithful service by being appointed a gatekeeper for the ark in Jerusalem (15:24; 26:4, 8, 15). But some scholars believe that Obed-edom the gatekeeper was a man other than the one referred to above.<\/li>\n<li>2. Levitical musician who ministered before the ark (1 Chr 15:21; 16:5, 38). He was the son of Jeduthun, one of David’s chief singers. Some scholars think that the musician and singer were different men.<\/li>\n<li>3. Levitical guardian of the sacred vessels of the temple taken hostage by Joash (2 Chr 25:24).<\/li>","content_en":"<h3>OBED-EDOM<\/h3>\n<li>1. Man under whose care David placed the ark of the covenant when he was transferring it from Gibeah to Jerusalem (2 Sm 6:10-12; 1 Chr 13:5-14). He is called a Gittite, which indicates that his birthplace was Gath. This was not the Philistine city of Gath but the Levitical town in the territory of Dan known as Gath-rimmon (Jos 19:45). It is likely that Obed-edom was a Levite and therefore qualified to care for the ark of the covenant. Uzzah’s rash action in steadying the ark when the oxen stumbled brought upon him immediate death. David’s consternation and fear at this turn of events led him to reconsider his intention of bringing the ark to Jerusalem. Apparently Obed-edom’s home was nearby and it was convenient to leave the ark in his care. When David was informed after three months that the Lord had greatly blessed Obed-edom, he realized that the judgment that fell on Uzzah was incurred because the ark was carried contrary to the method prescribed in the Law (Nm 4:15; 7:9) and not because the Lord was angry with Uzzah. He ordered that the ark be taken from Obed-edom’s home and carried to Jerusalem in the proper manner (1 Chr 15:25-28). Apparently Obed-edom was rewarded for his faithful service by being appointed a gatekeeper for the ark in Jerusalem (15:24; 26:4, 8, 15). But some scholars believe that Obed-edom the gatekeeper was a man other than the one referred to above.<\/li>\n<li>2. Levitical musician who ministered before the ark (1 Chr 15:21; 16:5, 38). He was the son of Jeduthun, one of David’s chief singers. Some scholars think that the musician and singer were different men.<\/li>\n<li>3. Levitical guardian of the sacred vessels of the temple taken hostage by Joash (2 Chr 25:24).<\/li>","summary_ro":"OBED-EDOM 1. Man under whose care David placed the ark of the covenant when he was transferring it from Gibeah to Jerusalem (2 Sm 6:10-12; 1 Chr 13:5-14). He is called a Gittite, which indicates that his birthplace was Gath. This was not the Philistine city of Gath but the Levitical town in the territory of Dan known as Gath-rimmon (Jos 19:45). It is likely that Obed-edom was a Levite and therefore qualified to care for the ark of the covenant. Uzzah’s rash action in steadying the ark when th...","summary_en":"OBED-EDOM 1. Man under whose care David placed the ark of the covenant when he was transferring it from Gibeah to Jerusalem (2 Sm 6:10-12; 1 Chr 13:5-14). He is called a Gittite, which indicates that his birthplace was Gath. This was not the Philistine city of Gath but the Levitical town in the territory of Dan known as Gath-rimmon (Jos 19:45). It is likely that Obed-edom was a Levite and therefore qualified to care for the ark of the covenant. Uzzah’s rash action in steadying the ark when th...","source":"Articles\/O.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":46572,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:10","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:10<\/strong> <em>Obed-edom<\/em> was a Levite (1 Chr 15:18, 21; 16:38; 26:4, 8, 15; 2 Chr 25:24) who lived either in the Philistine city of <em>Gath<\/em> or in an Israelite town of a similar name (e.g., Gath-rimmon, a city given to the Levites, Josh 21:25).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:10<\/strong> <em>Obed-edom<\/em> was a Levite (1 Chr 15:18, 21; 16:38; 26:4, 8, 15; 2 Chr 25:24) who lived either in the Philistine city of <em>Gath<\/em> or in an Israelite town of a similar name (e.g., Gath-rimmon, a city given to the Levites, Josh 21:25).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:10 Obed-edom was a Levite (1 Chr 15:18, 21; 16:38; 26:4, 8, 15; 2 Chr 25:24) who lived either in the Philistine city of Gath or in an Israelite town of a similar name (e.g., Gath-rimmon, a city given to the Levites, Josh 21:25).","summary_en":"6:10 Obed-edom was a Levite (1 Chr 15:18, 21; 16:38; 26:4, 8, 15; 2 Chr 25:24) who lived either in the Philistine city of Gath or in an Israelite town of a similar name (e.g., Gath-rimmon, a city given to the Levites, Josh 21:25).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":74198,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:10","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:10<\/strong> <em>Obed-edom<\/em> was a Levite (1 Chr 15:18, 21; 16:38; 26:4, 8, 15; 2 Chr 25:24) who lived either in the Philistine city of <em>Gath<\/em> or in an Israelite town of a similar name (e.g., Gath-rimmon, a city given to the Levites, Josh 21:25).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:10<\/strong> <em>Obed-edom<\/em> was a Levite (1 Chr 15:18, 21; 16:38; 26:4, 8, 15; 2 Chr 25:24) who lived either in the Philistine city of <em>Gath<\/em> or in an Israelite town of a similar name (e.g., Gath-rimmon, a city given to the Levites, Josh 21:25).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:10 Obed-edom was a Levite (1 Chr 15:18, 21; 16:38; 26:4, 8, 15; 2 Chr 25:24) who lived either in the Philistine city of Gath or in an Israelite town of a similar name (e.g., Gath-rimmon, a city given to the Levites, Josh 21:25).","summary_en":"6:10 Obed-edom was a Levite (1 Chr 15:18, 21; 16:38; 26:4, 8, 15; 2 Chr 25:24) who lived either in the Philistine city of Gath or in an Israelite town of a similar name (e.g., Gath-rimmon, a city given to the Levites, Josh 21:25).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101824,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:10","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:10<\/strong> <em>Obed-edom<\/em> was a Levite (1 Chr 15:18, 21; 16:38; 26:4, 8, 15; 2 Chr 25:24) who lived either in the Philistine city of <em>Gath<\/em> or in an Israelite town of a similar name (e.g., Gath-rimmon, a city given to the Levites, Josh 21:25).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:10<\/strong> <em>Obed-edom<\/em> was a Levite (1 Chr 15:18, 21; 16:38; 26:4, 8, 15; 2 Chr 25:24) who lived either in the Philistine city of <em>Gath<\/em> or in an Israelite town of a similar name (e.g., Gath-rimmon, a city given to the Levites, Josh 21:25).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:10 Obed-edom was a Levite (1 Chr 15:18, 21; 16:38; 26:4, 8, 15; 2 Chr 25:24) who lived either in the Philistine city of Gath or in an Israelite town of a similar name (e.g., Gath-rimmon, a city given to the Levites, Josh 21:25).","summary_en":"6:10 Obed-edom was a Levite (1 Chr 15:18, 21; 16:38; 26:4, 8, 15; 2 Chr 25:24) who lived either in the Philistine city of Gath or in an Israelite town of a similar name (e.g., Gath-rimmon, a city given to the Levites, Josh 21:25).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":129450,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:10","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:10","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:10<\/strong> <em>Obed-edom<\/em> was a Levite (1 Chr 15:18, 21; 16:38; 26:4, 8, 15; 2 Chr 25:24) who lived either in the Philistine city of <em>Gath<\/em> or in an Israelite town of a similar name (e.g., Gath-rimmon, a city given to the Levites, Josh 21:25).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:10<\/strong> <em>Obed-edom<\/em> was a Levite (1 Chr 15:18, 21; 16:38; 26:4, 8, 15; 2 Chr 25:24) who lived either in the Philistine city of <em>Gath<\/em> or in an Israelite town of a similar name (e.g., Gath-rimmon, a city given to the Levites, Josh 21:25).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:10 Obed-edom was a Levite (1 Chr 15:18, 21; 16:38; 26:4, 8, 15; 2 Chr 25:24) who lived either in the Philistine city of Gath or in an Israelite town of a similar name (e.g., Gath-rimmon, a city given to the Levites, Josh 21:25).","summary_en":"6:10 Obed-edom was a Levite (1 Chr 15:18, 21; 16:38; 26:4, 8, 15; 2 Chr 25:24) who lived either in the Philistine city of Gath or in an Israelite town of a similar name (e.g., Gath-rimmon, a city given to the Levites, Josh 21:25).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"11":[{"id":46573,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:11","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:11<\/strong> God <em>blessed Obed-edom<\/em> with health, prosperity, and family. God’s presence, which is a curse to the ungodly (1 Sam 5), is a blessing to his people. Obed-edom must have taken care to preserve the Ark’s sanctity.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:11<\/strong> God <em>blessed Obed-edom<\/em> with health, prosperity, and family. God’s presence, which is a curse to the ungodly (1 Sam 5), is a blessing to his people. Obed-edom must have taken care to preserve the Ark’s sanctity.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:11 God blessed Obed-edom with health, prosperity, and family. God’s presence, which is a curse to the ungodly (1 Sam 5), is a blessing to his people. Obed-edom must have taken care to preserve the Ark’s sanctity.","summary_en":"6:11 God blessed Obed-edom with health, prosperity, and family. God’s presence, which is a curse to the ungodly (1 Sam 5), is a blessing to his people. Obed-edom must have taken care to preserve the Ark’s sanctity.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":74199,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:11","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:11<\/strong> God <em>blessed Obed-edom<\/em> with health, prosperity, and family. God’s presence, which is a curse to the ungodly (1 Sam 5), is a blessing to his people. Obed-edom must have taken care to preserve the Ark’s sanctity.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:11<\/strong> God <em>blessed Obed-edom<\/em> with health, prosperity, and family. God’s presence, which is a curse to the ungodly (1 Sam 5), is a blessing to his people. Obed-edom must have taken care to preserve the Ark’s sanctity.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:11 God blessed Obed-edom with health, prosperity, and family. God’s presence, which is a curse to the ungodly (1 Sam 5), is a blessing to his people. Obed-edom must have taken care to preserve the Ark’s sanctity.","summary_en":"6:11 God blessed Obed-edom with health, prosperity, and family. God’s presence, which is a curse to the ungodly (1 Sam 5), is a blessing to his people. Obed-edom must have taken care to preserve the Ark’s sanctity.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101825,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:11","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:11<\/strong> God <em>blessed Obed-edom<\/em> with health, prosperity, and family. God’s presence, which is a curse to the ungodly (1 Sam 5), is a blessing to his people. Obed-edom must have taken care to preserve the Ark’s sanctity.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:11<\/strong> God <em>blessed Obed-edom<\/em> with health, prosperity, and family. God’s presence, which is a curse to the ungodly (1 Sam 5), is a blessing to his people. Obed-edom must have taken care to preserve the Ark’s sanctity.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:11 God blessed Obed-edom with health, prosperity, and family. God’s presence, which is a curse to the ungodly (1 Sam 5), is a blessing to his people. Obed-edom must have taken care to preserve the Ark’s sanctity.","summary_en":"6:11 God blessed Obed-edom with health, prosperity, and family. God’s presence, which is a curse to the ungodly (1 Sam 5), is a blessing to his people. Obed-edom must have taken care to preserve the Ark’s sanctity.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":129451,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:11","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:11","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:11<\/strong> God <em>blessed Obed-edom<\/em> with health, prosperity, and family. God’s presence, which is a curse to the ungodly (1 Sam 5), is a blessing to his people. Obed-edom must have taken care to preserve the Ark’s sanctity.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:11<\/strong> God <em>blessed Obed-edom<\/em> with health, prosperity, and family. God’s presence, which is a curse to the ungodly (1 Sam 5), is a blessing to his people. Obed-edom must have taken care to preserve the Ark’s sanctity.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:11 God blessed Obed-edom with health, prosperity, and family. God’s presence, which is a curse to the ungodly (1 Sam 5), is a blessing to his people. Obed-edom must have taken care to preserve the Ark’s sanctity.","summary_en":"6:11 God blessed Obed-edom with health, prosperity, and family. God’s presence, which is a curse to the ungodly (1 Sam 5), is a blessing to his people. Obed-edom must have taken care to preserve the Ark’s sanctity.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"12":[{"id":20931,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Joy","title_en":"Joy","content_ro":"<h3>JOY<\/h3>\n<p>Positive human condition that can be either feeling or action. The Bible uses “joy” in both senses.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JoyasaFeeling\">Joy as a Feeling<\/p>\n<p>Joy is a feeling called forth by well-being, success, or good fortune. A person automatically experiences it because of certain favorable circumstances. It cannot be commanded.<\/p>\n<p>The shepherd experienced joy when he found his lost sheep (Mt 18:13). The multitude felt it when Jesus healed a Jewish woman whom Satan had bound for 18 years (Lk 13:17). The disciples returned to Jerusalem rejoicing after Jesus’ ascension (24:52). Joy was also the feeling of the church at Antioch when its members heard the Jerusalem Council’s decision that they did not have to be circumcised to keep God’s law (Acts 15:31). Paul mentioned his joy in hearing about the obedience of the Roman Christians (Rom 16:19). He wrote to the Corinthians that love does not rejoice in wrong but rejoices in the right (1 Cor 13:6; see also 1 Sm 2:1; 11:9; 18:6; 2 Sm 6:12; 1 Kgs 1:40; Est 9:17-22).<\/p>\n<p>Psalms 137:1-6 shows that the emotion cannot be commanded. The Jews’ captors wanted them to sing in the land of their exile, something they were unable to do. Faraway Jerusalem was their chief joy.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JoyasanAction\">Joy as an Action<\/p>\n<p>There is a joy that Scripture commands. That joy is action that can be engaged in regardless of how the person feels. Proverbs 5:18 tells the reader to rejoice in the wife of his youth, without reference to what she may be like. Christ instructed his disciples to rejoice when they were persecuted, reviled, and slandered (Mt 5:11-12). The apostle Paul commanded continuous rejoicing (Phil 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16). James said Christians are to reckon it all joy when they fall into various testings because such testings produce endurance (Jas 1:2). Joy in adverse circumstances is possible only as a fruit of the Holy Spirit, who is present in every Christian (Gal 5:22).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Fruit of the Spirit.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JOY<\/h3>\n<p>Positive human condition that can be either feeling or action. The Bible uses “joy” in both senses.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JoyasaFeeling\">Joy as a Feeling<\/p>\n<p>Joy is a feeling called forth by well-being, success, or good fortune. A person automatically experiences it because of certain favorable circumstances. It cannot be commanded.<\/p>\n<p>The shepherd experienced joy when he found his lost sheep (Mt 18:13). The multitude felt it when Jesus healed a Jewish woman whom Satan had bound for 18 years (Lk 13:17). The disciples returned to Jerusalem rejoicing after Jesus’ ascension (24:52). Joy was also the feeling of the church at Antioch when its members heard the Jerusalem Council’s decision that they did not have to be circumcised to keep God’s law (Acts 15:31). Paul mentioned his joy in hearing about the obedience of the Roman Christians (Rom 16:19). He wrote to the Corinthians that love does not rejoice in wrong but rejoices in the right (1 Cor 13:6; see also 1 Sm 2:1; 11:9; 18:6; 2 Sm 6:12; 1 Kgs 1:40; Est 9:17-22).<\/p>\n<p>Psalms 137:1-6 shows that the emotion cannot be commanded. The Jews’ captors wanted them to sing in the land of their exile, something they were unable to do. Faraway Jerusalem was their chief joy.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"JoyasanAction\">Joy as an Action<\/p>\n<p>There is a joy that Scripture commands. That joy is action that can be engaged in regardless of how the person feels. Proverbs 5:18 tells the reader to rejoice in the wife of his youth, without reference to what she may be like. Christ instructed his disciples to rejoice when they were persecuted, reviled, and slandered (Mt 5:11-12). The apostle Paul commanded continuous rejoicing (Phil 4:4; 1 Thes 5:16). James said Christians are to reckon it all joy when they fall into various testings because such testings produce endurance (Jas 1:2). Joy in adverse circumstances is possible only as a fruit of the Holy Spirit, who is present in every Christian (Gal 5:22).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Fruit of the Spirit.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JOY Positive human condition that can be either feeling or action. The Bible uses “joy” in both senses. Joy as a Feeling Joy is a feeling called forth by well-being, success, or good fortune. A person automatically experiences it because of certain favorable circumstances. It cannot be commanded. The shepherd experienced joy when he found his lost sheep (Mt 18:13). The multitude felt it when Jesus healed a Jewish woman whom Satan had bound for 18 years (Lk 13:17). The disciples returned to Je...","summary_en":"JOY Positive human condition that can be either feeling or action. The Bible uses “joy” in both senses. Joy as a Feeling Joy is a feeling called forth by well-being, success, or good fortune. A person automatically experiences it because of certain favorable circumstances. It cannot be commanded. The shepherd experienced joy when he found his lost sheep (Mt 18:13). The multitude felt it when Jesus healed a Jewish woman whom Satan had bound for 18 years (Lk 13:17). The disciples returned to Je...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":46574,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:12","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:12<\/strong> David reasoned that if God <em>blessed<\/em> Obed-edom simply for storing <em>the Ark<\/em>, God would surely bless David for placing the Ark in a dwelling specifically built for it in the capital city.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:12<\/strong> David reasoned that if God <em>blessed<\/em> Obed-edom simply for storing <em>the Ark<\/em>, God would surely bless David for placing the Ark in a dwelling specifically built for it in the capital city.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:12 David reasoned that if God blessed Obed-edom simply for storing the Ark, God would surely bless David for placing the Ark in a dwelling specifically built for it in the capital city.","summary_en":"6:12 David reasoned that if God blessed Obed-edom simply for storing the Ark, God would surely bless David for placing the Ark in a dwelling specifically built for it in the capital city.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":74200,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:12","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:12<\/strong> David reasoned that if God <em>blessed<\/em> Obed-edom simply for storing <em>the Ark<\/em>, God would surely bless David for placing the Ark in a dwelling specifically built for it in the capital city.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:12<\/strong> David reasoned that if God <em>blessed<\/em> Obed-edom simply for storing <em>the Ark<\/em>, God would surely bless David for placing the Ark in a dwelling specifically built for it in the capital city.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:12 David reasoned that if God blessed Obed-edom simply for storing the Ark, God would surely bless David for placing the Ark in a dwelling specifically built for it in the capital city.","summary_en":"6:12 David reasoned that if God blessed Obed-edom simply for storing the Ark, God would surely bless David for placing the Ark in a dwelling specifically built for it in the capital city.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101826,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:12","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:12<\/strong> David reasoned that if God <em>blessed<\/em> Obed-edom simply for storing <em>the Ark<\/em>, God would surely bless David for placing the Ark in a dwelling specifically built for it in the capital city.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:12<\/strong> David reasoned that if God <em>blessed<\/em> Obed-edom simply for storing <em>the Ark<\/em>, God would surely bless David for placing the Ark in a dwelling specifically built for it in the capital city.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:12 David reasoned that if God blessed Obed-edom simply for storing the Ark, God would surely bless David for placing the Ark in a dwelling specifically built for it in the capital city.","summary_en":"6:12 David reasoned that if God blessed Obed-edom simply for storing the Ark, God would surely bless David for placing the Ark in a dwelling specifically built for it in the capital city.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":129452,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:12","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:12","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:12<\/strong> David reasoned that if God <em>blessed<\/em> Obed-edom simply for storing <em>the Ark<\/em>, God would surely bless David for placing the Ark in a dwelling specifically built for it in the capital city.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:12<\/strong> David reasoned that if God <em>blessed<\/em> Obed-edom simply for storing <em>the Ark<\/em>, God would surely bless David for placing the Ark in a dwelling specifically built for it in the capital city.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:12 David reasoned that if God blessed Obed-edom simply for storing the Ark, God would surely bless David for placing the Ark in a dwelling specifically built for it in the capital city.","summary_en":"6:12 David reasoned that if God blessed Obed-edom simply for storing the Ark, God would surely bless David for placing the Ark in a dwelling specifically built for it in the capital city.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":61298,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Celebration","title_en":"Celebration","content_ro":"<h3>Celebration<\/h3>\n<p>God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">karar<\/span> (2 Sam 6:14, 16), <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pazaz<\/span> (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">raqad<\/span> (1 Chr 15:29, “skipping about”). All three words refer to vigorous physical expression beyond the meaning of the Hebrew term for “celebrate” used in David’s first attempt (2 Sam 6:5). Thus, in the first procession, David celebrated; in the second procession he engaged in exultant dancing and extravagant merrymaking with intensified musical expression through the addition of shouting and trumpets.<\/p>\n<p>Musical instruments played a significant role in Temple worship. In 1 Chronicles 25:1-31, David assigned various groups to the ministry of music. Many psalms refer to playing musical instruments in praise and worship of God (see Pss 33:2-3; 57:8; 81:2; 92:1-3; 98:4-6). In Pss 149 and 150, dance and music are combined as a praise offering. Similarly, music and dancing were heard in the father’s house in the parable of the lost son (Luke 15:25), as the son’s return was truly a joyful occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation gives a picture of the eternal celebration that awaits the faithful—a celebration characterized by worship in the presence of God (Rev 4:1-11; 5:8-14; 15:1-4). This celebration is described as a wedding feast, in which the bridegroom (Christ) and the bride (his church) are joined together forever (Rev 19:9; see also Matt 22:1-14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 5:1; 12:17; 15:20-21; 1 Sam 18:6; 2 Sam 6:1-15; 2 Chr 7:6-10; Ezra 3:10-11; Pss 30:11; 69:30; 98:4-6; 107:32; 149:1-9; 150:1-6; Isa 30:29; 54:1; Jer 30:18-19; 31:4, 13; Lam 5:14-15; Zeph 3:17; Luke 15:22-25; 1 Cor 5:8; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Rev 18:20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Celebration<\/h3>\n<p>God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">karar<\/span> (2 Sam 6:14, 16), <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pazaz<\/span> (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">raqad<\/span> (1 Chr 15:29, “skipping about”). All three words refer to vigorous physical expression beyond the meaning of the Hebrew term for “celebrate” used in David’s first attempt (2 Sam 6:5). Thus, in the first procession, David celebrated; in the second procession he engaged in exultant dancing and extravagant merrymaking with intensified musical expression through the addition of shouting and trumpets.<\/p>\n<p>Musical instruments played a significant role in Temple worship. In 1 Chronicles 25:1-31, David assigned various groups to the ministry of music. Many psalms refer to playing musical instruments in praise and worship of God (see Pss 33:2-3; 57:8; 81:2; 92:1-3; 98:4-6). In Pss 149 and 150, dance and music are combined as a praise offering. Similarly, music and dancing were heard in the father’s house in the parable of the lost son (Luke 15:25), as the son’s return was truly a joyful occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation gives a picture of the eternal celebration that awaits the faithful—a celebration characterized by worship in the presence of God (Rev 4:1-11; 5:8-14; 15:1-4). This celebration is described as a wedding feast, in which the bridegroom (Christ) and the bride (his church) are joined together forever (Rev 19:9; see also Matt 22:1-14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 5:1; 12:17; 15:20-21; 1 Sam 18:6; 2 Sam 6:1-15; 2 Chr 7:6-10; Ezra 3:10-11; Pss 30:11; 69:30; 98:4-6; 107:32; 149:1-9; 150:1-6; Isa 30:29; 54:1; Jer 30:18-19; 31:4, 13; Lam 5:14-15; Zeph 3:17; Luke 15:22-25; 1 Cor 5:8; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Rev 18:20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Celebration God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): karar (2 Sam 6:14, 16), pazaz (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and raqad (1 Chr 15:29, “skippin...","summary_en":"Celebration God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): karar (2 Sam 6:14, 16), pazaz (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and raqad (1 Chr 15:29, “skippin...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":88924,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Celebration","title_en":"Celebration","content_ro":"<h3>Celebration<\/h3>\n<p>God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">karar<\/span> (2 Sam 6:14, 16), <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pazaz<\/span> (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">raqad<\/span> (1 Chr 15:29, “skipping about”). All three words refer to vigorous physical expression beyond the meaning of the Hebrew term for “celebrate” used in David’s first attempt (2 Sam 6:5). Thus, in the first procession, David celebrated; in the second procession he engaged in exultant dancing and extravagant merrymaking with intensified musical expression through the addition of shouting and trumpets.<\/p>\n<p>Musical instruments played a significant role in Temple worship. In 1 Chronicles 25:1-31, David assigned various groups to the ministry of music. Many psalms refer to playing musical instruments in praise and worship of God (see Pss 33:2-3; 57:8; 81:2; 92:1-3; 98:4-6). In Pss 149 and 150, dance and music are combined as a praise offering. Similarly, music and dancing were heard in the father’s house in the parable of the lost son (Luke 15:25), as the son’s return was truly a joyful occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation gives a picture of the eternal celebration that awaits the faithful—a celebration characterized by worship in the presence of God (Rev 4:1-11; 5:8-14; 15:1-4). This celebration is described as a wedding feast, in which the bridegroom (Christ) and the bride (his church) are joined together forever (Rev 19:9; see also Matt 22:1-14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 5:1; 12:17; 15:20-21; 1 Sam 18:6; 2 Sam 6:1-15; 2 Chr 7:6-10; Ezra 3:10-11; Pss 30:11; 69:30; 98:4-6; 107:32; 149:1-9; 150:1-6; Isa 30:29; 54:1; Jer 30:18-19; 31:4, 13; Lam 5:14-15; Zeph 3:17; Luke 15:22-25; 1 Cor 5:8; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Rev 18:20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Celebration<\/h3>\n<p>God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">karar<\/span> (2 Sam 6:14, 16), <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pazaz<\/span> (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">raqad<\/span> (1 Chr 15:29, “skipping about”). All three words refer to vigorous physical expression beyond the meaning of the Hebrew term for “celebrate” used in David’s first attempt (2 Sam 6:5). Thus, in the first procession, David celebrated; in the second procession he engaged in exultant dancing and extravagant merrymaking with intensified musical expression through the addition of shouting and trumpets.<\/p>\n<p>Musical instruments played a significant role in Temple worship. In 1 Chronicles 25:1-31, David assigned various groups to the ministry of music. Many psalms refer to playing musical instruments in praise and worship of God (see Pss 33:2-3; 57:8; 81:2; 92:1-3; 98:4-6). In Pss 149 and 150, dance and music are combined as a praise offering. Similarly, music and dancing were heard in the father’s house in the parable of the lost son (Luke 15:25), as the son’s return was truly a joyful occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation gives a picture of the eternal celebration that awaits the faithful—a celebration characterized by worship in the presence of God (Rev 4:1-11; 5:8-14; 15:1-4). This celebration is described as a wedding feast, in which the bridegroom (Christ) and the bride (his church) are joined together forever (Rev 19:9; see also Matt 22:1-14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 5:1; 12:17; 15:20-21; 1 Sam 18:6; 2 Sam 6:1-15; 2 Chr 7:6-10; Ezra 3:10-11; Pss 30:11; 69:30; 98:4-6; 107:32; 149:1-9; 150:1-6; Isa 30:29; 54:1; Jer 30:18-19; 31:4, 13; Lam 5:14-15; Zeph 3:17; Luke 15:22-25; 1 Cor 5:8; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Rev 18:20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Celebration God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): karar (2 Sam 6:14, 16), pazaz (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and raqad (1 Chr 15:29, “skippin...","summary_en":"Celebration God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): karar (2 Sam 6:14, 16), pazaz (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and raqad (1 Chr 15:29, “skippin...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":116550,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Celebration","title_en":"Celebration","content_ro":"<h3>Celebration<\/h3>\n<p>God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">karar<\/span> (2 Sam 6:14, 16), <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pazaz<\/span> (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">raqad<\/span> (1 Chr 15:29, “skipping about”). All three words refer to vigorous physical expression beyond the meaning of the Hebrew term for “celebrate” used in David’s first attempt (2 Sam 6:5). Thus, in the first procession, David celebrated; in the second procession he engaged in exultant dancing and extravagant merrymaking with intensified musical expression through the addition of shouting and trumpets.<\/p>\n<p>Musical instruments played a significant role in Temple worship. In 1 Chronicles 25:1-31, David assigned various groups to the ministry of music. Many psalms refer to playing musical instruments in praise and worship of God (see Pss 33:2-3; 57:8; 81:2; 92:1-3; 98:4-6). In Pss 149 and 150, dance and music are combined as a praise offering. Similarly, music and dancing were heard in the father’s house in the parable of the lost son (Luke 15:25), as the son’s return was truly a joyful occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation gives a picture of the eternal celebration that awaits the faithful—a celebration characterized by worship in the presence of God (Rev 4:1-11; 5:8-14; 15:1-4). This celebration is described as a wedding feast, in which the bridegroom (Christ) and the bride (his church) are joined together forever (Rev 19:9; see also Matt 22:1-14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 5:1; 12:17; 15:20-21; 1 Sam 18:6; 2 Sam 6:1-15; 2 Chr 7:6-10; Ezra 3:10-11; Pss 30:11; 69:30; 98:4-6; 107:32; 149:1-9; 150:1-6; Isa 30:29; 54:1; Jer 30:18-19; 31:4, 13; Lam 5:14-15; Zeph 3:17; Luke 15:22-25; 1 Cor 5:8; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Rev 18:20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Celebration<\/h3>\n<p>God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">karar<\/span> (2 Sam 6:14, 16), <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pazaz<\/span> (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">raqad<\/span> (1 Chr 15:29, “skipping about”). All three words refer to vigorous physical expression beyond the meaning of the Hebrew term for “celebrate” used in David’s first attempt (2 Sam 6:5). Thus, in the first procession, David celebrated; in the second procession he engaged in exultant dancing and extravagant merrymaking with intensified musical expression through the addition of shouting and trumpets.<\/p>\n<p>Musical instruments played a significant role in Temple worship. In 1 Chronicles 25:1-31, David assigned various groups to the ministry of music. Many psalms refer to playing musical instruments in praise and worship of God (see Pss 33:2-3; 57:8; 81:2; 92:1-3; 98:4-6). In Pss 149 and 150, dance and music are combined as a praise offering. Similarly, music and dancing were heard in the father’s house in the parable of the lost son (Luke 15:25), as the son’s return was truly a joyful occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation gives a picture of the eternal celebration that awaits the faithful—a celebration characterized by worship in the presence of God (Rev 4:1-11; 5:8-14; 15:1-4). This celebration is described as a wedding feast, in which the bridegroom (Christ) and the bride (his church) are joined together forever (Rev 19:9; see also Matt 22:1-14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 5:1; 12:17; 15:20-21; 1 Sam 18:6; 2 Sam 6:1-15; 2 Chr 7:6-10; Ezra 3:10-11; Pss 30:11; 69:30; 98:4-6; 107:32; 149:1-9; 150:1-6; Isa 30:29; 54:1; Jer 30:18-19; 31:4, 13; Lam 5:14-15; Zeph 3:17; Luke 15:22-25; 1 Cor 5:8; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Rev 18:20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Celebration God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): karar (2 Sam 6:14, 16), pazaz (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and raqad (1 Chr 15:29, “skippin...","summary_en":"Celebration God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): karar (2 Sam 6:14, 16), pazaz (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and raqad (1 Chr 15:29, “skippin...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":144176,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Celebration","title_en":"Celebration","content_ro":"<h3>Celebration<\/h3>\n<p>God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">karar<\/span> (2 Sam 6:14, 16), <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pazaz<\/span> (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">raqad<\/span> (1 Chr 15:29, “skipping about”). All three words refer to vigorous physical expression beyond the meaning of the Hebrew term for “celebrate” used in David’s first attempt (2 Sam 6:5). Thus, in the first procession, David celebrated; in the second procession he engaged in exultant dancing and extravagant merrymaking with intensified musical expression through the addition of shouting and trumpets.<\/p>\n<p>Musical instruments played a significant role in Temple worship. In 1 Chronicles 25:1-31, David assigned various groups to the ministry of music. Many psalms refer to playing musical instruments in praise and worship of God (see Pss 33:2-3; 57:8; 81:2; 92:1-3; 98:4-6). In Pss 149 and 150, dance and music are combined as a praise offering. Similarly, music and dancing were heard in the father’s house in the parable of the lost son (Luke 15:25), as the son’s return was truly a joyful occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation gives a picture of the eternal celebration that awaits the faithful—a celebration characterized by worship in the presence of God (Rev 4:1-11; 5:8-14; 15:1-4). This celebration is described as a wedding feast, in which the bridegroom (Christ) and the bride (his church) are joined together forever (Rev 19:9; see also Matt 22:1-14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 5:1; 12:17; 15:20-21; 1 Sam 18:6; 2 Sam 6:1-15; 2 Chr 7:6-10; Ezra 3:10-11; Pss 30:11; 69:30; 98:4-6; 107:32; 149:1-9; 150:1-6; Isa 30:29; 54:1; Jer 30:18-19; 31:4, 13; Lam 5:14-15; Zeph 3:17; Luke 15:22-25; 1 Cor 5:8; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Rev 18:20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Celebration<\/h3>\n<p>God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">karar<\/span> (2 Sam 6:14, 16), <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pazaz<\/span> (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">raqad<\/span> (1 Chr 15:29, “skipping about”). All three words refer to vigorous physical expression beyond the meaning of the Hebrew term for “celebrate” used in David’s first attempt (2 Sam 6:5). Thus, in the first procession, David celebrated; in the second procession he engaged in exultant dancing and extravagant merrymaking with intensified musical expression through the addition of shouting and trumpets.<\/p>\n<p>Musical instruments played a significant role in Temple worship. In 1 Chronicles 25:1-31, David assigned various groups to the ministry of music. Many psalms refer to playing musical instruments in praise and worship of God (see Pss 33:2-3; 57:8; 81:2; 92:1-3; 98:4-6). In Pss 149 and 150, dance and music are combined as a praise offering. Similarly, music and dancing were heard in the father’s house in the parable of the lost son (Luke 15:25), as the son’s return was truly a joyful occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation gives a picture of the eternal celebration that awaits the faithful—a celebration characterized by worship in the presence of God (Rev 4:1-11; 5:8-14; 15:1-4). This celebration is described as a wedding feast, in which the bridegroom (Christ) and the bride (his church) are joined together forever (Rev 19:9; see also Matt 22:1-14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 5:1; 12:17; 15:20-21; 1 Sam 18:6; 2 Sam 6:1-15; 2 Chr 7:6-10; Ezra 3:10-11; Pss 30:11; 69:30; 98:4-6; 107:32; 149:1-9; 150:1-6; Isa 30:29; 54:1; Jer 30:18-19; 31:4, 13; Lam 5:14-15; Zeph 3:17; Luke 15:22-25; 1 Cor 5:8; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Rev 18:20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Celebration God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): karar (2 Sam 6:14, 16), pazaz (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and raqad (1 Chr 15:29, “skippin...","summary_en":"Celebration God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): karar (2 Sam 6:14, 16), pazaz (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and raqad (1 Chr 15:29, “skippin...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"13":[{"id":38291,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Weights and Measures","title_en":"Weights and Measures","content_ro":"<h3>WEIGHTS AND MEASURES<\/h3>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Introduction<\/p>\n<p>• Weight Measures<\/p>\n<p>• Linear Measures in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Linear Measures in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Capacity (Dry Measure) in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Capacity (Dry Measure) in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Liquid Measures in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Liquid Measures in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Introduction\">Introduction<\/p>\n<p>Units of measure in the ancient world were largely based on practical standards: the length of an arm, a day’s journey, how much a donkey could carry, and so forth. While this was a convenient system, it also suffered from a lack of standardization. Some arms were longer than others, and some donkeys could carry more than others. The history of weights and measures, therefore, becomes the story of seeking standards. This was not achieved in the OT but began to take place under Greek and Roman influences in NT times.<\/p>\n<p>In the OT the measures that were used are frequently attested to in Mesopotamian, Egyptian, and Canaanite literature as well. The Israelites did not have their own unique set of measurements. Yet while the terms are shared, it is not unusual to find a particular term having one value in Israel and a noticeably different value in one of the other cultures.<\/p>\n<p>By the time of the NT, other variables were added. The Israelites of this period were still using many of the measures that had been used and developed throughout the OT period. But added to that were the Greek and Roman systems of measurement. Sometimes these terms were adopted wholesale, while at other times Hebrew terms were adapted to Greco-Roman standards. On still other occasions, the Roman terms were apparently used when dealing with the government, whereas Hebrew terms were still used in everyday practice.<\/p>\n<p>In most of the kinds of measurement, the base unit (i.e., the one that all of the others are fractions or multiples of) is the one about which there is the most uncertainty. So the cubit (length), the shekel (weight), the homer (dry volume), and the bath (liquid volume) are all to some degree uncertain. This makes all of the other measures based on them equally uncertain.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WeightMeasures\">Weight Measures<\/p>\n<p>The terms used for weights have benefited most from archaeological discoveries. Excavations provide stone weights that are occasionally inscribed with the unit they represent. When the stones are weighed, they frequently give a range of weights that have only a general consistency. However, comparing this data with that provided by the text has given the basis for fairly accurate determinations. The relative scale in any given location is more important than absolute values.<\/p>\n\n<p>There was standardization of weight measures, but precision was difficult to attain. The Israelite system is similar to that used by the Mesopotamians and the Canaanites. For most of the OT period, the weights system provided the monetary system. Minted coinage was the invention of the Persians. Up until that time, silver or gold or any other trading commodity had to be weighed out so that bartering or purchasing could take place. This made the weights system the core of the ancient economy. It also explains why the Scriptures speak so seriously against the use of false weights (Lv 19:36; Dt 25:13; Prv 16:11; 20:10, 23; Mi 6:11; Hos 12:7; Am 8:5).<\/p>\n<p>Stone weights were used on a set of balances for conducting business in the ancient marketplace. Scales or balances are mentioned half a dozen times in the OT, but none of those are in actual economic contexts (Jb 6:2; 31:6; Ps 62:9; Is 40:12; Ez 5:1; Dn 5:27). The scales used were generally of the beam-balance type with dishes on each end.<\/p>\n<h5>Talent<\/h5>\n<p>According to Exodus 38:25-26 the talent must have been equal to 3,000 shekels. (A hundred talents would then have been equal to 300,000 shekels, and if that is added to the 1,175 shekels in verse 25, the total is 301,775, or half a shekel for each of the 603,550 men—as verse 26 states.) Excavated talents weigh from about 65 to 80 pounds (29.5 to 36.3 kilograms). In the OT the talent is used only for precious metals, usually silver or gold. According to 1 Kings 10:14, the annual tribute income of Solomon’s kingdom was 666 talents, which apparently was considered quite extravagant. David bequeathed 100,000 talents of gold and 1,000,000 talents of silver to Solomon for the building of the temple (1 Chr 22:14).<\/p>\n<h5>Mina<\/h5>\n<p>In the Canaanite material from Ugarit the mina equals 50 shekels, while in Babylon the mina equals 60 shekels. In Ezekiel 45:12, the mina is set at 60 shekels, but it is unclear whether this represents a change from previous standards.<\/p>\n<h5>Shekel<\/h5>\n<p>The shekel was the basic unit of weight. Besides the regular shekel, there was a “royal” shekel (2 Sm 14:26). Calculating by weights that have been excavated and found labeled as “beka” (one-half shekel), the shekel has been estimated to be about .4 ounce (11.4 grams).<\/p>\n<p>The shekel is used in Scripture almost exclusively in contexts dealing with monetary value. Whether silver, gold, barley, or flour, the shekel valuation assigns the commodity a relative value in the economy. Exceptions to this are Goliath’s armor and spear (1 Sm 17:5-7), which are described in terms of their shekel weight.<\/p>\n<h5>Pim<\/h5>\n<p>The only reference to this unit is in 1 Samuel 13:21, where it is the price charged to the Israelites by the Philistines for sharpening a plowshare. Excavated weights range from .25 to .3 ounce (7.1 to 8.5 grams), suggesting that the pim was two-thirds of a shekel.<\/p>\n<h5>Beka<\/h5>\n<p>Seven stones inscribed with this label range in weight from .2 to .23 ounce (5.7 to 6.5 grams). In Exodus 38:26 it is the amount levied on each individual for the census tax. There it is the equivalent of one-half shekel.<\/p>\n<h5>Gerah<\/h5>\n<p>Equal to one-twentieth of a shekel, or .02 ounce (.6 gram). The term is used five times (Ex 30:13; Lv 27:25; Nm 3:47; 18:16; Ez 45:12) and on each occasion is used to give a valuation to the shekel. Its use is strictly monetary in these contexts.<\/p>\n<h5>Litra<\/h5>\n<p>The NT uses the same weights that have already been identified in the OT usage, particularly the shekel, mina, and talent. There is one additional unit used: the litra, which is used in John 12:3 and 19:39 with regard to spices. In Greek literature one litra is approximately 12 ounces (327 grams).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LinearMeasuresintheOldTestament\">Linear Measures in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Measurements of length and depth generally were derived from a part of the body used to make the measurement. The basic unit was the cubit, and most others were related to it. Precise measurements of geographic distance are lacking in the OT and was most frequently stated in terms of the number of days it would take to arrive at a destination. A single day’s journey was mostly likely 20 to 25 miles (32.2 to 40.2 kilometers). A “pace” was equal to a “step”—about a yard (2 Sm 6:13).<\/p>\n<h5>Cubit<\/h5>\n<p>The length from the tip of the forefinger to the elbow. There are both long and short cubits, which are used not only in Israel but in Mesopotamia and Egypt as well. Ezekiel 40:5 identifies the long cubit as being the equivalent of a cubit plus a handbreadth (about 20 to 21 inches, or 50.8 to 53.3 centimeters). The inscription found inside the Siloam tunnel built by Hezekiah (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>) indicates that the tunnel is 1,200 cubits long. The actual length of the tunnel was determined to be 1,749 feet (533.1 meters). This would yield a cubit of 17.49 inches (44.4 centimeters). All things considered, 17.5 inches (44.5 centimeters) is a good estimation of the length of the cubit in Israel. This would set the long cubit at approximately 20.5 inches (52.1 centimeters). The cubit was most frequently used to give the dimensions of buildings or objects (e.g., curtains, pillars, pieces of furniture, etc.). The largest structure measured in cubits was the ark that Noah built, which was 300 cubits long (Gn 6:15).<\/p>\n<h5>Span<\/h5>\n<p>The distance measured by the stretch of the hand from fingertip to fingertip, equal to one-half a cubit, or eight and three-quarters inches (22.2 centimeters). It is used only seven times in the OT, and four of those are to describe the dimensions of the high priest’s breastplate (Ex 28:15-16; 39:8-9).<\/p>\n<h5>Handbreadth<\/h5>\n<p>The width of the hand at the base, equal to one-sixth of a cubit, one-third of a span, or just under three inches (7.6 centimeters). The term is used only five times and gives the width of the rim around the table of showbread (Ex 25:25) and Solomon’s molten sea (1 Kgs 7:26).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LinearMeasuresintheNewTestament\">Linear Measures in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>In the NT some of the units of length and depth represent Greco-Roman standards, while others are those used in the OT. Like the OT, the NT frequently uses imprecise designations for distance, such as a stone’s throw or a day’s journey. There are, however, a few occurrences of precise terms borrowed from Roman culture.<\/p>\n<h5>Cubit<\/h5>\n<p>For the Romans, the cubit was set at one and a half times their standard foot of 11.66 inches, equaling 17.5 inches (44.5 centimeters), just as the OT cubit.<\/p>\n<h5>Fathom<\/h5>\n<p>The distance between the fingertips of the left and right hand when the arms were outstretched. It is used only in Acts 27:28 and is considered to be about six feet (1.8 meters).<\/p>\n<h5>Furlong\/Stadium<\/h5>\n<p>The length of the ancient Greek racecourse, equal to one-eighth of a Roman mile, or a little over 200 yards (182.9 meters). It is usually used to give approximate distance, but in Revelation 21:16 it is used to give the dimensions of the New Jerusalem and is measured with a measuring rod.<\/p>\n<h5>Mile<\/h5>\n<p>The only occurrence of this term, Matthew 5:41, has reference to the Roman mile of 1,620 yards, about nine-tenths of a modern mile (1.4 kilometers).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CapacityDryMeasureintheOldTestament\">Capacity (Dry Measure) in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Amounts of dry goods were oriented toward practical matters such as typical donkey loads, how much seed could be sown in a day, or how much seed would be needed to sow a certain size plot. As with the other types of measures, these then became standardized.<\/p>\n<h5>Cor\/Homer<\/h5>\n<p>The most common dry commodity measure and the equivalent of one donkey load. Estimates of its standard size vary greatly, ranging from 3.8 bushels to 7.5 bushels (133.9 to 264.3 liters). Other than the seven occurrences in Ezekiel 45:11-14, the term occurs only four times in the OT. Three of these contexts feature seed or barley (Lv 27:16; Is 5:10; Hos 3:2), while the fourth is in the context of Israelites gathering quail in the wilderness. A cor is used nine times and occurs with a variety of commodities, including oil, flour, wheat, and barley, in multiples all the way up to 20,000 (1 Kgs 5:11).<\/p>\n<h5>Lethek<\/h5>\n<p>Unit occurring only in Hosea 3:2. The early versions of the Bible identified it as one-half of a cor, or homer.<\/p>\n<h5>Ephah<\/h5>\n<p>This is equal to one-tenth of a homer (Ez 45:11), or one-half of a bushel (17.6 liters). The term occurs dozens of times with all sorts of agricultural products. It seems to have been the unit most used in trading and selling. According to Zechariah 5:6-10, the ephah refers to a container that would hold an ephah of produce, much like the modern-day bushel basket.<\/p>\n<h5>Seah<\/h5>\n<p>A fraction of the homer, which has a very wide range. The term measures flour, seed, barley, and grain, and is roughly one-third of an ephah. A bushel was about five seahs (1 Sm 25:18, <span>nlt<\/span> mg).<\/p>\n<h5>Omer\/Issaron<\/h5>\n<p>The omer occurs only in the account of the collecting of manna by the Israelites (Ex 16:22). It represents a day’s ration of manna and is identified as one-tenth of an ephah (Ex 16:36). The issaron is a term that means a tenth. Its 25 occurrences are all in Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers (mostly in Nm 28–29); it refers only to measures of fine flour.<\/p>\n<h5>Cab, Kab<\/h5>\n<p>This unit occurs only in 2 Kings 6:25. The estimate given by Josephus, one-eighteenth of an ephah (or about one-half of an omer), is usually accepted.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CapacityDryMeasureintheNewTestament\">Capacity (Dry Measure) in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The following dry measures are used in the NT.<\/p>\n<h5>Choinix<\/h5>\n<p>Occurring only in Revelation 6:6 (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg), the choinix is a little more than a quart (1.1 liters). In Greek literature it was considered the amount of one man’s daily allowance of corn.<\/p>\n<h5>Modius<\/h5>\n<p>This is the “bushel” under which one’s lamp should not be hid (Mt 5:15; Mk 4:21; Lk 11:33). It is actually equal to about a peck, 7.68 dry quarts (8.5 liters).<\/p>\n<h5>Saton<\/h5>\n<p>This is the equivalent of the OT seah and can therefore also be approximated at about a peck. It is used only twice in the NT in parallel passages of the parable of the leaven, which is like the kingdom of God (Mt 13:33; Lk 13:21).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LiquidMeasuresintheOldTestament\">Liquid Measures in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Three basic measures were used for liquids in the OT.<\/p>\n<h5>Bath<\/h5>\n<p>The base unit for the measurement of liquids. The biblical data (Ez 45:11-14) sets it as the liquid equivalent to the dry measure, the ephah. It is one-tenth of a homer. Archaeology has also been able to provide some data for this determination. Jars inscribed as “bath of the king” were found at Lachish and Tell en-Nasbeh, and jars marked “bath” were found at Tell Beit Mirsim. The jars are not complete, so their capacity must be calculated based on a reconstruction. Using this data, the bath was approximately 5.5 gallons (20.8 liters). This estimate would provide acceptable results when factored into the information given in 1 Kings 7:23-26, where the “molten sea” of Solomon’s temple is described as being 30 cubits in circumference, 10 cubits in diameter, 5 cubits deep, and capable of holding 2,000 baths of water.<\/p>\n<h5>Hin<\/h5>\n<p>One-sixth of a hin of water was considered a person’s minimum daily requirement (Ez 4:11). A hin is equal to one-sixth of a bath, approximately one gallon (3.8 liters). It is used for a measure of oil, wine, and water, but no context ever mentions more than one hin. Rather, fractions of a hin are used. Occurrences are limited to Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Ezekiel and are therefore most commonly attested in the context of sacrificial libations.<\/p>\n<h5>Log<\/h5>\n<p>This unit occurs only in Leviticus 14:10-24 and equals one-twelfth of a hin, so about .3 quart or .3 liter.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LiquidMeasuresintheNewTestament\">Liquid Measures in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The following liquid measures occur in the NT.<\/p>\n<h5>Bath<\/h5>\n<p>This is used only once (Lk 16:6) and is the same as the OT bath.<\/p>\n<h5>Metretes<\/h5>\n<p>This is used only in John 2:6, where it describes the containers in which water was turned to wine. Josephus identifies it as equivalent to a Hebrew bath, but in Greek usage it was the equivalent of about ten gallons (37.9 liters).<\/p>\n<h5>Sextarius\/Xestes<\/h5>\n<p>A measure of capacity equal to about one and one-sixth pints (552 milliliters). In Mark 7:4 the word is translated “pitcher” (<span>nlt<\/span>) or “pot” (<span>kjv<\/span>, see mg).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>WEIGHTS AND MEASURES<\/h3>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Introduction<\/p>\n<p>• Weight Measures<\/p>\n<p>• Linear Measures in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Linear Measures in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Capacity (Dry Measure) in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Capacity (Dry Measure) in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Liquid Measures in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• Liquid Measures in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"Introduction\">Introduction<\/p>\n<p>Units of measure in the ancient world were largely based on practical standards: the length of an arm, a day’s journey, how much a donkey could carry, and so forth. While this was a convenient system, it also suffered from a lack of standardization. Some arms were longer than others, and some donkeys could carry more than others. The history of weights and measures, therefore, becomes the story of seeking standards. This was not achieved in the OT but began to take place under Greek and Roman influences in NT times.<\/p>\n<p>In the OT the measures that were used are frequently attested to in Mesopotamian, Egyptian, and Canaanite literature as well. The Israelites did not have their own unique set of measurements. Yet while the terms are shared, it is not unusual to find a particular term having one value in Israel and a noticeably different value in one of the other cultures.<\/p>\n<p>By the time of the NT, other variables were added. The Israelites of this period were still using many of the measures that had been used and developed throughout the OT period. But added to that were the Greek and Roman systems of measurement. Sometimes these terms were adopted wholesale, while at other times Hebrew terms were adapted to Greco-Roman standards. On still other occasions, the Roman terms were apparently used when dealing with the government, whereas Hebrew terms were still used in everyday practice.<\/p>\n<p>In most of the kinds of measurement, the base unit (i.e., the one that all of the others are fractions or multiples of) is the one about which there is the most uncertainty. So the cubit (length), the shekel (weight), the homer (dry volume), and the bath (liquid volume) are all to some degree uncertain. This makes all of the other measures based on them equally uncertain.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WeightMeasures\">Weight Measures<\/p>\n<p>The terms used for weights have benefited most from archaeological discoveries. Excavations provide stone weights that are occasionally inscribed with the unit they represent. When the stones are weighed, they frequently give a range of weights that have only a general consistency. However, comparing this data with that provided by the text has given the basis for fairly accurate determinations. The relative scale in any given location is more important than absolute values.<\/p>\n\n<p>There was standardization of weight measures, but precision was difficult to attain. The Israelite system is similar to that used by the Mesopotamians and the Canaanites. For most of the OT period, the weights system provided the monetary system. Minted coinage was the invention of the Persians. Up until that time, silver or gold or any other trading commodity had to be weighed out so that bartering or purchasing could take place. This made the weights system the core of the ancient economy. It also explains why the Scriptures speak so seriously against the use of false weights (Lv 19:36; Dt 25:13; Prv 16:11; 20:10, 23; Mi 6:11; Hos 12:7; Am 8:5).<\/p>\n<p>Stone weights were used on a set of balances for conducting business in the ancient marketplace. Scales or balances are mentioned half a dozen times in the OT, but none of those are in actual economic contexts (Jb 6:2; 31:6; Ps 62:9; Is 40:12; Ez 5:1; Dn 5:27). The scales used were generally of the beam-balance type with dishes on each end.<\/p>\n<h5>Talent<\/h5>\n<p>According to Exodus 38:25-26 the talent must have been equal to 3,000 shekels. (A hundred talents would then have been equal to 300,000 shekels, and if that is added to the 1,175 shekels in verse 25, the total is 301,775, or half a shekel for each of the 603,550 men—as verse 26 states.) Excavated talents weigh from about 65 to 80 pounds (29.5 to 36.3 kilograms). In the OT the talent is used only for precious metals, usually silver or gold. According to 1 Kings 10:14, the annual tribute income of Solomon’s kingdom was 666 talents, which apparently was considered quite extravagant. David bequeathed 100,000 talents of gold and 1,000,000 talents of silver to Solomon for the building of the temple (1 Chr 22:14).<\/p>\n<h5>Mina<\/h5>\n<p>In the Canaanite material from Ugarit the mina equals 50 shekels, while in Babylon the mina equals 60 shekels. In Ezekiel 45:12, the mina is set at 60 shekels, but it is unclear whether this represents a change from previous standards.<\/p>\n<h5>Shekel<\/h5>\n<p>The shekel was the basic unit of weight. Besides the regular shekel, there was a “royal” shekel (2 Sm 14:26). Calculating by weights that have been excavated and found labeled as “beka” (one-half shekel), the shekel has been estimated to be about .4 ounce (11.4 grams).<\/p>\n<p>The shekel is used in Scripture almost exclusively in contexts dealing with monetary value. Whether silver, gold, barley, or flour, the shekel valuation assigns the commodity a relative value in the economy. Exceptions to this are Goliath’s armor and spear (1 Sm 17:5-7), which are described in terms of their shekel weight.<\/p>\n<h5>Pim<\/h5>\n<p>The only reference to this unit is in 1 Samuel 13:21, where it is the price charged to the Israelites by the Philistines for sharpening a plowshare. Excavated weights range from .25 to .3 ounce (7.1 to 8.5 grams), suggesting that the pim was two-thirds of a shekel.<\/p>\n<h5>Beka<\/h5>\n<p>Seven stones inscribed with this label range in weight from .2 to .23 ounce (5.7 to 6.5 grams). In Exodus 38:26 it is the amount levied on each individual for the census tax. There it is the equivalent of one-half shekel.<\/p>\n<h5>Gerah<\/h5>\n<p>Equal to one-twentieth of a shekel, or .02 ounce (.6 gram). The term is used five times (Ex 30:13; Lv 27:25; Nm 3:47; 18:16; Ez 45:12) and on each occasion is used to give a valuation to the shekel. Its use is strictly monetary in these contexts.<\/p>\n<h5>Litra<\/h5>\n<p>The NT uses the same weights that have already been identified in the OT usage, particularly the shekel, mina, and talent. There is one additional unit used: the litra, which is used in John 12:3 and 19:39 with regard to spices. In Greek literature one litra is approximately 12 ounces (327 grams).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LinearMeasuresintheOldTestament\">Linear Measures in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Measurements of length and depth generally were derived from a part of the body used to make the measurement. The basic unit was the cubit, and most others were related to it. Precise measurements of geographic distance are lacking in the OT and was most frequently stated in terms of the number of days it would take to arrive at a destination. A single day’s journey was mostly likely 20 to 25 miles (32.2 to 40.2 kilometers). A “pace” was equal to a “step”—about a yard (2 Sm 6:13).<\/p>\n<h5>Cubit<\/h5>\n<p>The length from the tip of the forefinger to the elbow. There are both long and short cubits, which are used not only in Israel but in Mesopotamia and Egypt as well. Ezekiel 40:5 identifies the long cubit as being the equivalent of a cubit plus a handbreadth (about 20 to 21 inches, or 50.8 to 53.3 centimeters). The inscription found inside the Siloam tunnel built by Hezekiah (715–686 <span>BC<\/span>) indicates that the tunnel is 1,200 cubits long. The actual length of the tunnel was determined to be 1,749 feet (533.1 meters). This would yield a cubit of 17.49 inches (44.4 centimeters). All things considered, 17.5 inches (44.5 centimeters) is a good estimation of the length of the cubit in Israel. This would set the long cubit at approximately 20.5 inches (52.1 centimeters). The cubit was most frequently used to give the dimensions of buildings or objects (e.g., curtains, pillars, pieces of furniture, etc.). The largest structure measured in cubits was the ark that Noah built, which was 300 cubits long (Gn 6:15).<\/p>\n<h5>Span<\/h5>\n<p>The distance measured by the stretch of the hand from fingertip to fingertip, equal to one-half a cubit, or eight and three-quarters inches (22.2 centimeters). It is used only seven times in the OT, and four of those are to describe the dimensions of the high priest’s breastplate (Ex 28:15-16; 39:8-9).<\/p>\n<h5>Handbreadth<\/h5>\n<p>The width of the hand at the base, equal to one-sixth of a cubit, one-third of a span, or just under three inches (7.6 centimeters). The term is used only five times and gives the width of the rim around the table of showbread (Ex 25:25) and Solomon’s molten sea (1 Kgs 7:26).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LinearMeasuresintheNewTestament\">Linear Measures in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>In the NT some of the units of length and depth represent Greco-Roman standards, while others are those used in the OT. Like the OT, the NT frequently uses imprecise designations for distance, such as a stone’s throw or a day’s journey. There are, however, a few occurrences of precise terms borrowed from Roman culture.<\/p>\n<h5>Cubit<\/h5>\n<p>For the Romans, the cubit was set at one and a half times their standard foot of 11.66 inches, equaling 17.5 inches (44.5 centimeters), just as the OT cubit.<\/p>\n<h5>Fathom<\/h5>\n<p>The distance between the fingertips of the left and right hand when the arms were outstretched. It is used only in Acts 27:28 and is considered to be about six feet (1.8 meters).<\/p>\n<h5>Furlong\/Stadium<\/h5>\n<p>The length of the ancient Greek racecourse, equal to one-eighth of a Roman mile, or a little over 200 yards (182.9 meters). It is usually used to give approximate distance, but in Revelation 21:16 it is used to give the dimensions of the New Jerusalem and is measured with a measuring rod.<\/p>\n<h5>Mile<\/h5>\n<p>The only occurrence of this term, Matthew 5:41, has reference to the Roman mile of 1,620 yards, about nine-tenths of a modern mile (1.4 kilometers).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CapacityDryMeasureintheOldTestament\">Capacity (Dry Measure) in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Amounts of dry goods were oriented toward practical matters such as typical donkey loads, how much seed could be sown in a day, or how much seed would be needed to sow a certain size plot. As with the other types of measures, these then became standardized.<\/p>\n<h5>Cor\/Homer<\/h5>\n<p>The most common dry commodity measure and the equivalent of one donkey load. Estimates of its standard size vary greatly, ranging from 3.8 bushels to 7.5 bushels (133.9 to 264.3 liters). Other than the seven occurrences in Ezekiel 45:11-14, the term occurs only four times in the OT. Three of these contexts feature seed or barley (Lv 27:16; Is 5:10; Hos 3:2), while the fourth is in the context of Israelites gathering quail in the wilderness. A cor is used nine times and occurs with a variety of commodities, including oil, flour, wheat, and barley, in multiples all the way up to 20,000 (1 Kgs 5:11).<\/p>\n<h5>Lethek<\/h5>\n<p>Unit occurring only in Hosea 3:2. The early versions of the Bible identified it as one-half of a cor, or homer.<\/p>\n<h5>Ephah<\/h5>\n<p>This is equal to one-tenth of a homer (Ez 45:11), or one-half of a bushel (17.6 liters). The term occurs dozens of times with all sorts of agricultural products. It seems to have been the unit most used in trading and selling. According to Zechariah 5:6-10, the ephah refers to a container that would hold an ephah of produce, much like the modern-day bushel basket.<\/p>\n<h5>Seah<\/h5>\n<p>A fraction of the homer, which has a very wide range. The term measures flour, seed, barley, and grain, and is roughly one-third of an ephah. A bushel was about five seahs (1 Sm 25:18, <span>nlt<\/span> mg).<\/p>\n<h5>Omer\/Issaron<\/h5>\n<p>The omer occurs only in the account of the collecting of manna by the Israelites (Ex 16:22). It represents a day’s ration of manna and is identified as one-tenth of an ephah (Ex 16:36). The issaron is a term that means a tenth. Its 25 occurrences are all in Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers (mostly in Nm 28–29); it refers only to measures of fine flour.<\/p>\n<h5>Cab, Kab<\/h5>\n<p>This unit occurs only in 2 Kings 6:25. The estimate given by Josephus, one-eighteenth of an ephah (or about one-half of an omer), is usually accepted.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"CapacityDryMeasureintheNewTestament\">Capacity (Dry Measure) in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The following dry measures are used in the NT.<\/p>\n<h5>Choinix<\/h5>\n<p>Occurring only in Revelation 6:6 (see <span>nlt<\/span> mg), the choinix is a little more than a quart (1.1 liters). In Greek literature it was considered the amount of one man’s daily allowance of corn.<\/p>\n<h5>Modius<\/h5>\n<p>This is the “bushel” under which one’s lamp should not be hid (Mt 5:15; Mk 4:21; Lk 11:33). It is actually equal to about a peck, 7.68 dry quarts (8.5 liters).<\/p>\n<h5>Saton<\/h5>\n<p>This is the equivalent of the OT seah and can therefore also be approximated at about a peck. It is used only twice in the NT in parallel passages of the parable of the leaven, which is like the kingdom of God (Mt 13:33; Lk 13:21).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LiquidMeasuresintheOldTestament\">Liquid Measures in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>Three basic measures were used for liquids in the OT.<\/p>\n<h5>Bath<\/h5>\n<p>The base unit for the measurement of liquids. The biblical data (Ez 45:11-14) sets it as the liquid equivalent to the dry measure, the ephah. It is one-tenth of a homer. Archaeology has also been able to provide some data for this determination. Jars inscribed as “bath of the king” were found at Lachish and Tell en-Nasbeh, and jars marked “bath” were found at Tell Beit Mirsim. The jars are not complete, so their capacity must be calculated based on a reconstruction. Using this data, the bath was approximately 5.5 gallons (20.8 liters). This estimate would provide acceptable results when factored into the information given in 1 Kings 7:23-26, where the “molten sea” of Solomon’s temple is described as being 30 cubits in circumference, 10 cubits in diameter, 5 cubits deep, and capable of holding 2,000 baths of water.<\/p>\n<h5>Hin<\/h5>\n<p>One-sixth of a hin of water was considered a person’s minimum daily requirement (Ez 4:11). A hin is equal to one-sixth of a bath, approximately one gallon (3.8 liters). It is used for a measure of oil, wine, and water, but no context ever mentions more than one hin. Rather, fractions of a hin are used. Occurrences are limited to Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Ezekiel and are therefore most commonly attested in the context of sacrificial libations.<\/p>\n<h5>Log<\/h5>\n<p>This unit occurs only in Leviticus 14:10-24 and equals one-twelfth of a hin, so about .3 quart or .3 liter.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"LiquidMeasuresintheNewTestament\">Liquid Measures in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p>The following liquid measures occur in the NT.<\/p>\n<h5>Bath<\/h5>\n<p>This is used only once (Lk 16:6) and is the same as the OT bath.<\/p>\n<h5>Metretes<\/h5>\n<p>This is used only in John 2:6, where it describes the containers in which water was turned to wine. Josephus identifies it as equivalent to a Hebrew bath, but in Greek usage it was the equivalent of about ten gallons (37.9 liters).<\/p>\n<h5>Sextarius\/Xestes<\/h5>\n<p>A measure of capacity equal to about one and one-sixth pints (552 milliliters). In Mark 7:4 the word is translated “pitcher” (<span>nlt<\/span>) or “pot” (<span>kjv<\/span>, see mg).<\/p>","summary_ro":"WEIGHTS AND MEASURES Preview • Introduction • Weight Measures • Linear Measures in the Old Testament • Linear Measures in the New Testament • Capacity (Dry Measure) in the Old Testament • Capacity (Dry Measure) in the New Testament • Liquid Measures in the Old Testament • Liquid Measures in the New Testament Introduction Units of measure in the ancient world were largely based on practical standards: the length of an arm, a day’s journey, how much a donkey could carry, and so forth. While thi...","summary_en":"WEIGHTS AND MEASURES Preview • Introduction • Weight Measures • Linear Measures in the Old Testament • Linear Measures in the New Testament • Capacity (Dry Measure) in the Old Testament • Capacity (Dry Measure) in the New Testament • Liquid Measures in the Old Testament • Liquid Measures in the New Testament Introduction Units of measure in the ancient world were largely based on practical standards: the length of an arm, a day’s journey, how much a donkey could carry, and so forth. While thi...","source":"Articles\/W.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":46575,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:13","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:13<\/strong> David offered this sacrifice of praise to God immediately, just <em>six steps<\/em> into the journey.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:13<\/strong> David offered this sacrifice of praise to God immediately, just <em>six steps<\/em> into the journey.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:13 David offered this sacrifice of praise to God immediately, just six steps into the journey.","summary_en":"6:13 David offered this sacrifice of praise to God immediately, just six steps into the journey.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":74201,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:13","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:13<\/strong> David offered this sacrifice of praise to God immediately, just <em>six steps<\/em> into the journey.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:13<\/strong> David offered this sacrifice of praise to God immediately, just <em>six steps<\/em> into the journey.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:13 David offered this sacrifice of praise to God immediately, just six steps into the journey.","summary_en":"6:13 David offered this sacrifice of praise to God immediately, just six steps into the journey.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101827,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:13","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:13<\/strong> David offered this sacrifice of praise to God immediately, just <em>six steps<\/em> into the journey.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:13<\/strong> David offered this sacrifice of praise to God immediately, just <em>six steps<\/em> into the journey.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:13 David offered this sacrifice of praise to God immediately, just six steps into the journey.","summary_en":"6:13 David offered this sacrifice of praise to God immediately, just six steps into the journey.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":129453,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:13","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:13","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:13<\/strong> David offered this sacrifice of praise to God immediately, just <em>six steps<\/em> into the journey.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:13<\/strong> David offered this sacrifice of praise to God immediately, just <em>six steps<\/em> into the journey.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:13 David offered this sacrifice of praise to God immediately, just six steps into the journey.","summary_en":"6:13 David offered this sacrifice of praise to God immediately, just six steps into the journey.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"14":[{"id":10951,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ephod (Garment)","title_en":"Ephod (Garment)","content_ro":"<h3>EPHOD (Garment)<\/h3>\n<p>Upper garment worn during religious services associated with the tabernacle or temple. “Ephod” generally referred to the ornamented vest that the high priest wore over a blue robe (Ex 28:31). Included with the ephod were the Urim and Thummim, the sacred lots. Sometimes “ephod” meant the complete dress of the high priest (1 Sm 2:28; 23:6, 9; 30:7) or similar garments worn by lesser priests.<\/p>\n<p>Made of dyed material and fine linen, the garment was embroidered in blue, purple, scarlet, and gold. At the upper end were attached two shoulder straps, each having an onyx stone inscribed with the names of Israel’s 12 tribes. The breastplate, also containing the tribal names, was bound to the ephod by an elaborate series of cords and chains (Ex 28:22-29).<\/p>\n<p>Jewish writers suggest various appearances for the ephod: (1) apronlike, covering the body from the chest to the heels; (2) enveloping the body only from the waist down, the upper body being covered by the breastplate; or (3) sleeved and jacketlike, with the middle of the breast uncovered so the breastplate could be inserted easily.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the Babylonian exile, the ephod served as a means of revelation from God, especially concerning military operations. Abiathar the priest brought the ephod into David’s camp on one occasion for consulting the Lord (1 Sm 23:6-9; 30:7). It is uncertain whether the priest donned or held the ephod whole, seeking counsel from the Lord by means of the Urim and Thummim.<\/p>\n<p>During the period of the judges, the ephod was often misused, as by Gideon (Jgs 8:27), Micah (17:5), and Jonathan, grandson of Moses (18:30; cf. vv 14, 17, 20). Either the garment itself or an image that represented God, on which the garment was placed, was worshiped as the people sought revelation in a manner condemned by God. Household idols (teraphim) were also associated with this ungodly practice (17:5; Hos 3:4).<\/p>\n<p>Besides the high priest, other priests wore an ephod for certain religious services (1 Sm 22:18), and even Samuel (2:18) and David (2 Sm 6:14) wore one. By the postexilic period, and perhaps as early as Solomon, the ephod was no longer consulted (Ezr 2:63; Neh 7:65). There was no need for ephod or Urim revelation once there was the more complete revelation of the prophetic ministry promised by Moses (Dt 18:15-22). However, the high priest continued to wear this vestment until the destruction of Jerusalem in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Priests and Levites.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>EPHOD (Garment)<\/h3>\n<p>Upper garment worn during religious services associated with the tabernacle or temple. “Ephod” generally referred to the ornamented vest that the high priest wore over a blue robe (Ex 28:31). Included with the ephod were the Urim and Thummim, the sacred lots. Sometimes “ephod” meant the complete dress of the high priest (1 Sm 2:28; 23:6, 9; 30:7) or similar garments worn by lesser priests.<\/p>\n<p>Made of dyed material and fine linen, the garment was embroidered in blue, purple, scarlet, and gold. At the upper end were attached two shoulder straps, each having an onyx stone inscribed with the names of Israel’s 12 tribes. The breastplate, also containing the tribal names, was bound to the ephod by an elaborate series of cords and chains (Ex 28:22-29).<\/p>\n<p>Jewish writers suggest various appearances for the ephod: (1) apronlike, covering the body from the chest to the heels; (2) enveloping the body only from the waist down, the upper body being covered by the breastplate; or (3) sleeved and jacketlike, with the middle of the breast uncovered so the breastplate could be inserted easily.<\/p>\n<p>Prior to the Babylonian exile, the ephod served as a means of revelation from God, especially concerning military operations. Abiathar the priest brought the ephod into David’s camp on one occasion for consulting the Lord (1 Sm 23:6-9; 30:7). It is uncertain whether the priest donned or held the ephod whole, seeking counsel from the Lord by means of the Urim and Thummim.<\/p>\n<p>During the period of the judges, the ephod was often misused, as by Gideon (Jgs 8:27), Micah (17:5), and Jonathan, grandson of Moses (18:30; cf. vv 14, 17, 20). Either the garment itself or an image that represented God, on which the garment was placed, was worshiped as the people sought revelation in a manner condemned by God. Household idols (teraphim) were also associated with this ungodly practice (17:5; Hos 3:4).<\/p>\n<p>Besides the high priest, other priests wore an ephod for certain religious services (1 Sm 22:18), and even Samuel (2:18) and David (2 Sm 6:14) wore one. By the postexilic period, and perhaps as early as Solomon, the ephod was no longer consulted (Ezr 2:63; Neh 7:65). There was no need for ephod or Urim revelation once there was the more complete revelation of the prophetic ministry promised by Moses (Dt 18:15-22). However, the high priest continued to wear this vestment until the destruction of Jerusalem in <span>AD<\/span> 70.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Priests and Levites.<\/p>","summary_ro":"EPHOD (Garment) Upper garment worn during religious services associated with the tabernacle or temple. “Ephod” generally referred to the ornamented vest that the high priest wore over a blue robe (Ex 28:31). Included with the ephod were the Urim and Thummim, the sacred lots. Sometimes “ephod” meant the complete dress of the high priest (1 Sm 2:28; 23:6, 9; 30:7) or similar garments worn by lesser priests. Made of dyed material and fine linen, the garment was embroidered in blue, purple, scarl...","summary_en":"EPHOD (Garment) Upper garment worn during religious services associated with the tabernacle or temple. “Ephod” generally referred to the ornamented vest that the high priest wore over a blue robe (Ex 28:31). Included with the ephod were the Urim and Thummim, the sacred lots. Sometimes “ephod” meant the complete dress of the high priest (1 Sm 2:28; 23:6, 9; 30:7) or similar garments worn by lesser priests. Made of dyed material and fine linen, the garment was embroidered in blue, purple, scarl...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":31087,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Praise","title_en":"Praise","content_ro":"<h3>PRAISE<\/h3>\n<p>Honor, commendation, and worship.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ToWhomPraiseIsOffered\">To Whom Praise Is Offered<\/p>\n<p>The one Lord who is God over all is alone worthy of praise. Frequently, the OT stresses that the praise due him is not to be offered to other gods or to idols of any kind (e.g., Is 42:8). There is a place for the commendation of men and women for their qualities of life and their right actions (Prv 31:28-31; 1 Pt 2:14). Ultimately, however, they should seek the praise and commendation of God (Rom 2:29), not the praise of their fellows (Mt 6:1-6; Jn 12:43), that others may be led to glorify God for whatever good is found in them (Mt 5:16). Frequently the Bible speaks of praising “the name” of God (e.g., Ps 149:3), meaning that he is to be praised for all that he is and has revealed himself to be. The often repeated word “Hallelujah” is simply the Hebrew equivalent of “Praise the Lord.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ByWhomPraiseIsOffered\">By Whom Praise Is Offered<\/p>\n<p>God is praised perfectly by his angels in heaven (Pss 103:20; 148:2). They caroled their praise when Jesus was born (Lk 2:13-14), and the book of Revelation (e.g., Rv 7:11-12) speaks about their continual praise in heaven. All creation praises God in the sense that it shows his greatness as Creator (Ps 19:1-6). Psalm 148 lists sun, moon and stars, fire and hail, snow, rain, wind and weather, mountains and hills, fruit trees and cedars, wild animals, cattle, snakes and birds—all these—as praising God together. Heaven and earth are spoken of as involved in the praise of God (Pss 89:5; 96:11; 98:4). The Psalter closes with the words “Let everything that lives sing praises to the <span>Lord<\/span>!” (150:6). In the OT we read of the special role of priests and Levites (Ps 135:19-20) and of the temple singers (2 Chr 20:21) and of those who, like Miriam (Ex 15:20) and David (2 Sm 6:14), led others in God’s praise. But it was the duty of all God’s people to praise him; their praise was intended, moreover, to lead the nations to know and to praise him (Ps 67:2-3). The NT has this same emphasis (Rom 15:7-12), and it stresses that God’s gifts are given to his people to be used to his praise and glory (Eph 1:6, 12, 14). It is by a life of righteousness as well as by word of mouth that people are to praise him (Phil 1:11). The redeemed people of God are appointed to show forth the praises of him who has called them out of darkness into his marvelous light (1 Pt 2:9). The last book of the NT presents the praise of God in heaven, where the four living creatures (representing all creation) and the 24 elders (representing the people of God under the old and new covenants) unite in worship, adoring the mighty God who created them and the Lamb of God who redeemed them (Rv 4–5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WhenGodIstoBePraised\">When God Is to Be Praised<\/p>\n<p>In the OT there were times of special praise, Sabbaths, new moons, and festivals. In Psalm 119:164 the psalmist says he praised the Lord seven times a day. “Everywhere—from east to west—praise the name of the <span>Lord<\/span>” is the exhortation of Psalm 113:3 (<span>nlt<\/span>). Psalm 145:1 says, “I will praise you, my God and King, and bless your name forever and ever” (<span>nlt<\/span>). A dedication to a life of praise is expressed in Psalm 146:2: “I will praise the <span>Lord<\/span> as long as I live. I will sing praises to my God even with my dying breath” (<span>nlt<\/span>). In the NT, likewise, there are special times of praise, but the whole of the Christian’s life is intended to be devoted, in word and action, to the praise of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WherePraiseIstoBeOffered\">Where Praise Is to Be Offered<\/p>\n<p>In the OT the temple (and thus “Zion” or “Jerusalem,” where the temple was located) had a special place in the purpose of God: his people should praise him there. Psalm 102:21 pictures people declaring “in Zion the name of the Lord, and in Jerusalem his praise.” People are to praise God publicly before the congregation and before the leaders of the nation (Ps 107:32), but they may also do so alone. For the whole of life is to be praise. Thus praise can come from unexpected places. Godly men and women can sing for joy as they lie on their beds (149:5). Paul and Silas can sing praises to God in a Philippian prison (Acts 16:25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HowGodIstoBePraised\">How God Is to Be Praised<\/p>\n<p>As there is no limit to time or place, so there is no limit to the ways in which God may be praised. He may be praised with singing (Ps 47:7), with dancing (149:3), or with instruments of music (144:9; 150:3-5). The Psalter provides us with many songs of praise, and others are scattered throughout the OT. The NT speaks of “psalms and hymns and spiritual songs” (Col 3:16; see also Eph 5:19), and examples of Christian songs of praise are probably to be seen in Ephesians 5:14, Philippians 2:6-11, 1 Timothy 1:17, and 2 Timothy 2:11-13.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WhyGodIstoBePraised\">Why God Is to Be Praised<\/p>\n<p>Creation provides impetus for the praise of God (Ps 8:3), as does his preserving love and care (21:4) and the fact that he is a prayer-answering God (116:1). His redeeming work leads his people to worship him (Ex 15:1-2). Some of the psalms (e.g., Ps 107) list many reasons why he should be praised. With the coming of the Lord Jesus Christ, there is a fresh outburst of praise because the Messiah, the Savior, has come to his people (Lk 2:11). All that he did by his life, death, and resurrection calls for praise. But ultimately praise will be made perfect when God reigns victorious over all. Thus John speaks in the book of Revelation (19:6): “Then I heard again what sounded like the shout of a huge crowd, or the roar of mighty ocean waves, or the crash of loud thunder: ‘Hallelujah! For the Lord our God, the Almighty, reigns’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Prayer; Tabernacle; Temple; Worship.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>PRAISE<\/h3>\n<p>Honor, commendation, and worship.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ToWhomPraiseIsOffered\">To Whom Praise Is Offered<\/p>\n<p>The one Lord who is God over all is alone worthy of praise. Frequently, the OT stresses that the praise due him is not to be offered to other gods or to idols of any kind (e.g., Is 42:8). There is a place for the commendation of men and women for their qualities of life and their right actions (Prv 31:28-31; 1 Pt 2:14). Ultimately, however, they should seek the praise and commendation of God (Rom 2:29), not the praise of their fellows (Mt 6:1-6; Jn 12:43), that others may be led to glorify God for whatever good is found in them (Mt 5:16). Frequently the Bible speaks of praising “the name” of God (e.g., Ps 149:3), meaning that he is to be praised for all that he is and has revealed himself to be. The often repeated word “Hallelujah” is simply the Hebrew equivalent of “Praise the Lord.”<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"ByWhomPraiseIsOffered\">By Whom Praise Is Offered<\/p>\n<p>God is praised perfectly by his angels in heaven (Pss 103:20; 148:2). They caroled their praise when Jesus was born (Lk 2:13-14), and the book of Revelation (e.g., Rv 7:11-12) speaks about their continual praise in heaven. All creation praises God in the sense that it shows his greatness as Creator (Ps 19:1-6). Psalm 148 lists sun, moon and stars, fire and hail, snow, rain, wind and weather, mountains and hills, fruit trees and cedars, wild animals, cattle, snakes and birds—all these—as praising God together. Heaven and earth are spoken of as involved in the praise of God (Pss 89:5; 96:11; 98:4). The Psalter closes with the words “Let everything that lives sing praises to the <span>Lord<\/span>!” (150:6). In the OT we read of the special role of priests and Levites (Ps 135:19-20) and of the temple singers (2 Chr 20:21) and of those who, like Miriam (Ex 15:20) and David (2 Sm 6:14), led others in God’s praise. But it was the duty of all God’s people to praise him; their praise was intended, moreover, to lead the nations to know and to praise him (Ps 67:2-3). The NT has this same emphasis (Rom 15:7-12), and it stresses that God’s gifts are given to his people to be used to his praise and glory (Eph 1:6, 12, 14). It is by a life of righteousness as well as by word of mouth that people are to praise him (Phil 1:11). The redeemed people of God are appointed to show forth the praises of him who has called them out of darkness into his marvelous light (1 Pt 2:9). The last book of the NT presents the praise of God in heaven, where the four living creatures (representing all creation) and the 24 elders (representing the people of God under the old and new covenants) unite in worship, adoring the mighty God who created them and the Lamb of God who redeemed them (Rv 4–5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WhenGodIstoBePraised\">When God Is to Be Praised<\/p>\n<p>In the OT there were times of special praise, Sabbaths, new moons, and festivals. In Psalm 119:164 the psalmist says he praised the Lord seven times a day. “Everywhere—from east to west—praise the name of the <span>Lord<\/span>” is the exhortation of Psalm 113:3 (<span>nlt<\/span>). Psalm 145:1 says, “I will praise you, my God and King, and bless your name forever and ever” (<span>nlt<\/span>). A dedication to a life of praise is expressed in Psalm 146:2: “I will praise the <span>Lord<\/span> as long as I live. I will sing praises to my God even with my dying breath” (<span>nlt<\/span>). In the NT, likewise, there are special times of praise, but the whole of the Christian’s life is intended to be devoted, in word and action, to the praise of God.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WherePraiseIstoBeOffered\">Where Praise Is to Be Offered<\/p>\n<p>In the OT the temple (and thus “Zion” or “Jerusalem,” where the temple was located) had a special place in the purpose of God: his people should praise him there. Psalm 102:21 pictures people declaring “in Zion the name of the Lord, and in Jerusalem his praise.” People are to praise God publicly before the congregation and before the leaders of the nation (Ps 107:32), but they may also do so alone. For the whole of life is to be praise. Thus praise can come from unexpected places. Godly men and women can sing for joy as they lie on their beds (149:5). Paul and Silas can sing praises to God in a Philippian prison (Acts 16:25).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"HowGodIstoBePraised\">How God Is to Be Praised<\/p>\n<p>As there is no limit to time or place, so there is no limit to the ways in which God may be praised. He may be praised with singing (Ps 47:7), with dancing (149:3), or with instruments of music (144:9; 150:3-5). The Psalter provides us with many songs of praise, and others are scattered throughout the OT. The NT speaks of “psalms and hymns and spiritual songs” (Col 3:16; see also Eph 5:19), and examples of Christian songs of praise are probably to be seen in Ephesians 5:14, Philippians 2:6-11, 1 Timothy 1:17, and 2 Timothy 2:11-13.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WhyGodIstoBePraised\">Why God Is to Be Praised<\/p>\n<p>Creation provides impetus for the praise of God (Ps 8:3), as does his preserving love and care (21:4) and the fact that he is a prayer-answering God (116:1). His redeeming work leads his people to worship him (Ex 15:1-2). Some of the psalms (e.g., Ps 107) list many reasons why he should be praised. With the coming of the Lord Jesus Christ, there is a fresh outburst of praise because the Messiah, the Savior, has come to his people (Lk 2:11). All that he did by his life, death, and resurrection calls for praise. But ultimately praise will be made perfect when God reigns victorious over all. Thus John speaks in the book of Revelation (19:6): “Then I heard again what sounded like the shout of a huge crowd, or the roar of mighty ocean waves, or the crash of loud thunder: ‘Hallelujah! For the Lord our God, the Almighty, reigns’ ” (<span>nlt<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Prayer; Tabernacle; Temple; Worship.<\/p>","summary_ro":"PRAISE Honor, commendation, and worship. To Whom Praise Is Offered The one Lord who is God over all is alone worthy of praise. Frequently, the OT stresses that the praise due him is not to be offered to other gods or to idols of any kind (e.g., Is 42:8). There is a place for the commendation of men and women for their qualities of life and their right actions (Prv 31:28-31; 1 Pt 2:14). Ultimately, however, they should seek the praise and commendation of God (Rom 2:29), not the praise of their...","summary_en":"PRAISE Honor, commendation, and worship. To Whom Praise Is Offered The one Lord who is God over all is alone worthy of praise. Frequently, the OT stresses that the praise due him is not to be offered to other gods or to idols of any kind (e.g., Is 42:8). There is a place for the commendation of men and women for their qualities of life and their right actions (Prv 31:28-31; 1 Pt 2:14). Ultimately, however, they should seek the praise and commendation of God (Rom 2:29), not the praise of their...","source":"Articles\/P.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":46576,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:14","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:14<\/strong> <em>priestly garment:<\/em> This word (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’epod<\/span><em>,<\/em> “ephod”) is associated with an Akkadian word, <em>epattu,<\/em> meaning “a costly garment.” Richly ornamented with gold, this garment was used for robing statues of gods. Because priests and (sometimes) kings were considered sacred persons, they traditionally used garments of this type (see 1 Sam 2:18, 28; 14:3; 22:18; 23:6, 9).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:14<\/strong> <em>priestly garment:<\/em> This word (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’epod<\/span><em>,<\/em> “ephod”) is associated with an Akkadian word, <em>epattu,<\/em> meaning “a costly garment.” Richly ornamented with gold, this garment was used for robing statues of gods. Because priests and (sometimes) kings were considered sacred persons, they traditionally used garments of this type (see 1 Sam 2:18, 28; 14:3; 22:18; 23:6, 9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:14 priestly garment: This word (Hebrew ’epod, “ephod”) is associated with an Akkadian word, epattu, meaning “a costly garment.” Richly ornamented with gold, this garment was used for robing statues of gods. Because priests and (sometimes) kings were considered sacred persons, they traditionally used garments of this type (see 1 Sam 2:18, 28; 14:3; 22:18; 23:6, 9).","summary_en":"6:14 priestly garment: This word (Hebrew ’epod, “ephod”) is associated with an Akkadian word, epattu, meaning “a costly garment.” Richly ornamented with gold, this garment was used for robing statues of gods. Because priests and (sometimes) kings were considered sacred persons, they traditionally used garments of this type (see 1 Sam 2:18, 28; 14:3; 22:18; 23:6, 9).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":74202,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:14","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:14<\/strong> <em>priestly garment:<\/em> This word (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’epod<\/span><em>,<\/em> “ephod”) is associated with an Akkadian word, <em>epattu,<\/em> meaning “a costly garment.” Richly ornamented with gold, this garment was used for robing statues of gods. Because priests and (sometimes) kings were considered sacred persons, they traditionally used garments of this type (see 1 Sam 2:18, 28; 14:3; 22:18; 23:6, 9).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:14<\/strong> <em>priestly garment:<\/em> This word (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’epod<\/span><em>,<\/em> “ephod”) is associated with an Akkadian word, <em>epattu,<\/em> meaning “a costly garment.” Richly ornamented with gold, this garment was used for robing statues of gods. Because priests and (sometimes) kings were considered sacred persons, they traditionally used garments of this type (see 1 Sam 2:18, 28; 14:3; 22:18; 23:6, 9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:14 priestly garment: This word (Hebrew ’epod, “ephod”) is associated with an Akkadian word, epattu, meaning “a costly garment.” Richly ornamented with gold, this garment was used for robing statues of gods. Because priests and (sometimes) kings were considered sacred persons, they traditionally used garments of this type (see 1 Sam 2:18, 28; 14:3; 22:18; 23:6, 9).","summary_en":"6:14 priestly garment: This word (Hebrew ’epod, “ephod”) is associated with an Akkadian word, epattu, meaning “a costly garment.” Richly ornamented with gold, this garment was used for robing statues of gods. Because priests and (sometimes) kings were considered sacred persons, they traditionally used garments of this type (see 1 Sam 2:18, 28; 14:3; 22:18; 23:6, 9).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101828,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:14","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:14<\/strong> <em>priestly garment:<\/em> This word (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’epod<\/span><em>,<\/em> “ephod”) is associated with an Akkadian word, <em>epattu,<\/em> meaning “a costly garment.” Richly ornamented with gold, this garment was used for robing statues of gods. Because priests and (sometimes) kings were considered sacred persons, they traditionally used garments of this type (see 1 Sam 2:18, 28; 14:3; 22:18; 23:6, 9).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:14<\/strong> <em>priestly garment:<\/em> This word (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’epod<\/span><em>,<\/em> “ephod”) is associated with an Akkadian word, <em>epattu,<\/em> meaning “a costly garment.” Richly ornamented with gold, this garment was used for robing statues of gods. Because priests and (sometimes) kings were considered sacred persons, they traditionally used garments of this type (see 1 Sam 2:18, 28; 14:3; 22:18; 23:6, 9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:14 priestly garment: This word (Hebrew ’epod, “ephod”) is associated with an Akkadian word, epattu, meaning “a costly garment.” Richly ornamented with gold, this garment was used for robing statues of gods. Because priests and (sometimes) kings were considered sacred persons, they traditionally used garments of this type (see 1 Sam 2:18, 28; 14:3; 22:18; 23:6, 9).","summary_en":"6:14 priestly garment: This word (Hebrew ’epod, “ephod”) is associated with an Akkadian word, epattu, meaning “a costly garment.” Richly ornamented with gold, this garment was used for robing statues of gods. Because priests and (sometimes) kings were considered sacred persons, they traditionally used garments of this type (see 1 Sam 2:18, 28; 14:3; 22:18; 23:6, 9).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":129454,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:14","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:14","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:14<\/strong> <em>priestly garment:<\/em> This word (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’epod<\/span><em>,<\/em> “ephod”) is associated with an Akkadian word, <em>epattu,<\/em> meaning “a costly garment.” Richly ornamented with gold, this garment was used for robing statues of gods. Because priests and (sometimes) kings were considered sacred persons, they traditionally used garments of this type (see 1 Sam 2:18, 28; 14:3; 22:18; 23:6, 9).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:14<\/strong> <em>priestly garment:<\/em> This word (Hebrew <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’epod<\/span><em>,<\/em> “ephod”) is associated with an Akkadian word, <em>epattu,<\/em> meaning “a costly garment.” Richly ornamented with gold, this garment was used for robing statues of gods. Because priests and (sometimes) kings were considered sacred persons, they traditionally used garments of this type (see 1 Sam 2:18, 28; 14:3; 22:18; 23:6, 9).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:14 priestly garment: This word (Hebrew ’epod, “ephod”) is associated with an Akkadian word, epattu, meaning “a costly garment.” Richly ornamented with gold, this garment was used for robing statues of gods. Because priests and (sometimes) kings were considered sacred persons, they traditionally used garments of this type (see 1 Sam 2:18, 28; 14:3; 22:18; 23:6, 9).","summary_en":"6:14 priestly garment: This word (Hebrew ’epod, “ephod”) is associated with an Akkadian word, epattu, meaning “a costly garment.” Richly ornamented with gold, this garment was used for robing statues of gods. Because priests and (sometimes) kings were considered sacred persons, they traditionally used garments of this type (see 1 Sam 2:18, 28; 14:3; 22:18; 23:6, 9).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":61300,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Celebration","title_en":"Celebration","content_ro":"<h3>Celebration<\/h3>\n<p>God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">karar<\/span> (2 Sam 6:14, 16), <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pazaz<\/span> (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">raqad<\/span> (1 Chr 15:29, “skipping about”). All three words refer to vigorous physical expression beyond the meaning of the Hebrew term for “celebrate” used in David’s first attempt (2 Sam 6:5). Thus, in the first procession, David celebrated; in the second procession he engaged in exultant dancing and extravagant merrymaking with intensified musical expression through the addition of shouting and trumpets.<\/p>\n<p>Musical instruments played a significant role in Temple worship. In 1 Chronicles 25:1-31, David assigned various groups to the ministry of music. Many psalms refer to playing musical instruments in praise and worship of God (see Pss 33:2-3; 57:8; 81:2; 92:1-3; 98:4-6). In Pss 149 and 150, dance and music are combined as a praise offering. Similarly, music and dancing were heard in the father’s house in the parable of the lost son (Luke 15:25), as the son’s return was truly a joyful occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation gives a picture of the eternal celebration that awaits the faithful—a celebration characterized by worship in the presence of God (Rev 4:1-11; 5:8-14; 15:1-4). This celebration is described as a wedding feast, in which the bridegroom (Christ) and the bride (his church) are joined together forever (Rev 19:9; see also Matt 22:1-14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 5:1; 12:17; 15:20-21; 1 Sam 18:6; 2 Sam 6:1-15; 2 Chr 7:6-10; Ezra 3:10-11; Pss 30:11; 69:30; 98:4-6; 107:32; 149:1-9; 150:1-6; Isa 30:29; 54:1; Jer 30:18-19; 31:4, 13; Lam 5:14-15; Zeph 3:17; Luke 15:22-25; 1 Cor 5:8; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Rev 18:20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Celebration<\/h3>\n<p>God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">karar<\/span> (2 Sam 6:14, 16), <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pazaz<\/span> (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">raqad<\/span> (1 Chr 15:29, “skipping about”). All three words refer to vigorous physical expression beyond the meaning of the Hebrew term for “celebrate” used in David’s first attempt (2 Sam 6:5). Thus, in the first procession, David celebrated; in the second procession he engaged in exultant dancing and extravagant merrymaking with intensified musical expression through the addition of shouting and trumpets.<\/p>\n<p>Musical instruments played a significant role in Temple worship. In 1 Chronicles 25:1-31, David assigned various groups to the ministry of music. Many psalms refer to playing musical instruments in praise and worship of God (see Pss 33:2-3; 57:8; 81:2; 92:1-3; 98:4-6). In Pss 149 and 150, dance and music are combined as a praise offering. Similarly, music and dancing were heard in the father’s house in the parable of the lost son (Luke 15:25), as the son’s return was truly a joyful occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation gives a picture of the eternal celebration that awaits the faithful—a celebration characterized by worship in the presence of God (Rev 4:1-11; 5:8-14; 15:1-4). This celebration is described as a wedding feast, in which the bridegroom (Christ) and the bride (his church) are joined together forever (Rev 19:9; see also Matt 22:1-14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 5:1; 12:17; 15:20-21; 1 Sam 18:6; 2 Sam 6:1-15; 2 Chr 7:6-10; Ezra 3:10-11; Pss 30:11; 69:30; 98:4-6; 107:32; 149:1-9; 150:1-6; Isa 30:29; 54:1; Jer 30:18-19; 31:4, 13; Lam 5:14-15; Zeph 3:17; Luke 15:22-25; 1 Cor 5:8; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Rev 18:20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Celebration God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): karar (2 Sam 6:14, 16), pazaz (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and raqad (1 Chr 15:29, “skippin...","summary_en":"Celebration God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): karar (2 Sam 6:14, 16), pazaz (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and raqad (1 Chr 15:29, “skippin...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":88926,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Celebration","title_en":"Celebration","content_ro":"<h3>Celebration<\/h3>\n<p>God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">karar<\/span> (2 Sam 6:14, 16), <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pazaz<\/span> (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">raqad<\/span> (1 Chr 15:29, “skipping about”). All three words refer to vigorous physical expression beyond the meaning of the Hebrew term for “celebrate” used in David’s first attempt (2 Sam 6:5). Thus, in the first procession, David celebrated; in the second procession he engaged in exultant dancing and extravagant merrymaking with intensified musical expression through the addition of shouting and trumpets.<\/p>\n<p>Musical instruments played a significant role in Temple worship. In 1 Chronicles 25:1-31, David assigned various groups to the ministry of music. Many psalms refer to playing musical instruments in praise and worship of God (see Pss 33:2-3; 57:8; 81:2; 92:1-3; 98:4-6). In Pss 149 and 150, dance and music are combined as a praise offering. Similarly, music and dancing were heard in the father’s house in the parable of the lost son (Luke 15:25), as the son’s return was truly a joyful occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation gives a picture of the eternal celebration that awaits the faithful—a celebration characterized by worship in the presence of God (Rev 4:1-11; 5:8-14; 15:1-4). This celebration is described as a wedding feast, in which the bridegroom (Christ) and the bride (his church) are joined together forever (Rev 19:9; see also Matt 22:1-14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 5:1; 12:17; 15:20-21; 1 Sam 18:6; 2 Sam 6:1-15; 2 Chr 7:6-10; Ezra 3:10-11; Pss 30:11; 69:30; 98:4-6; 107:32; 149:1-9; 150:1-6; Isa 30:29; 54:1; Jer 30:18-19; 31:4, 13; Lam 5:14-15; Zeph 3:17; Luke 15:22-25; 1 Cor 5:8; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Rev 18:20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Celebration<\/h3>\n<p>God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">karar<\/span> (2 Sam 6:14, 16), <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pazaz<\/span> (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">raqad<\/span> (1 Chr 15:29, “skipping about”). All three words refer to vigorous physical expression beyond the meaning of the Hebrew term for “celebrate” used in David’s first attempt (2 Sam 6:5). Thus, in the first procession, David celebrated; in the second procession he engaged in exultant dancing and extravagant merrymaking with intensified musical expression through the addition of shouting and trumpets.<\/p>\n<p>Musical instruments played a significant role in Temple worship. In 1 Chronicles 25:1-31, David assigned various groups to the ministry of music. Many psalms refer to playing musical instruments in praise and worship of God (see Pss 33:2-3; 57:8; 81:2; 92:1-3; 98:4-6). In Pss 149 and 150, dance and music are combined as a praise offering. Similarly, music and dancing were heard in the father’s house in the parable of the lost son (Luke 15:25), as the son’s return was truly a joyful occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation gives a picture of the eternal celebration that awaits the faithful—a celebration characterized by worship in the presence of God (Rev 4:1-11; 5:8-14; 15:1-4). This celebration is described as a wedding feast, in which the bridegroom (Christ) and the bride (his church) are joined together forever (Rev 19:9; see also Matt 22:1-14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 5:1; 12:17; 15:20-21; 1 Sam 18:6; 2 Sam 6:1-15; 2 Chr 7:6-10; Ezra 3:10-11; Pss 30:11; 69:30; 98:4-6; 107:32; 149:1-9; 150:1-6; Isa 30:29; 54:1; Jer 30:18-19; 31:4, 13; Lam 5:14-15; Zeph 3:17; Luke 15:22-25; 1 Cor 5:8; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Rev 18:20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Celebration God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): karar (2 Sam 6:14, 16), pazaz (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and raqad (1 Chr 15:29, “skippin...","summary_en":"Celebration God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): karar (2 Sam 6:14, 16), pazaz (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and raqad (1 Chr 15:29, “skippin...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":116552,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Celebration","title_en":"Celebration","content_ro":"<h3>Celebration<\/h3>\n<p>God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">karar<\/span> (2 Sam 6:14, 16), <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pazaz<\/span> (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">raqad<\/span> (1 Chr 15:29, “skipping about”). All three words refer to vigorous physical expression beyond the meaning of the Hebrew term for “celebrate” used in David’s first attempt (2 Sam 6:5). Thus, in the first procession, David celebrated; in the second procession he engaged in exultant dancing and extravagant merrymaking with intensified musical expression through the addition of shouting and trumpets.<\/p>\n<p>Musical instruments played a significant role in Temple worship. In 1 Chronicles 25:1-31, David assigned various groups to the ministry of music. Many psalms refer to playing musical instruments in praise and worship of God (see Pss 33:2-3; 57:8; 81:2; 92:1-3; 98:4-6). In Pss 149 and 150, dance and music are combined as a praise offering. Similarly, music and dancing were heard in the father’s house in the parable of the lost son (Luke 15:25), as the son’s return was truly a joyful occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation gives a picture of the eternal celebration that awaits the faithful—a celebration characterized by worship in the presence of God (Rev 4:1-11; 5:8-14; 15:1-4). This celebration is described as a wedding feast, in which the bridegroom (Christ) and the bride (his church) are joined together forever (Rev 19:9; see also Matt 22:1-14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 5:1; 12:17; 15:20-21; 1 Sam 18:6; 2 Sam 6:1-15; 2 Chr 7:6-10; Ezra 3:10-11; Pss 30:11; 69:30; 98:4-6; 107:32; 149:1-9; 150:1-6; Isa 30:29; 54:1; Jer 30:18-19; 31:4, 13; Lam 5:14-15; Zeph 3:17; Luke 15:22-25; 1 Cor 5:8; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Rev 18:20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Celebration<\/h3>\n<p>God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">karar<\/span> (2 Sam 6:14, 16), <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pazaz<\/span> (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">raqad<\/span> (1 Chr 15:29, “skipping about”). All three words refer to vigorous physical expression beyond the meaning of the Hebrew term for “celebrate” used in David’s first attempt (2 Sam 6:5). Thus, in the first procession, David celebrated; in the second procession he engaged in exultant dancing and extravagant merrymaking with intensified musical expression through the addition of shouting and trumpets.<\/p>\n<p>Musical instruments played a significant role in Temple worship. In 1 Chronicles 25:1-31, David assigned various groups to the ministry of music. Many psalms refer to playing musical instruments in praise and worship of God (see Pss 33:2-3; 57:8; 81:2; 92:1-3; 98:4-6). In Pss 149 and 150, dance and music are combined as a praise offering. Similarly, music and dancing were heard in the father’s house in the parable of the lost son (Luke 15:25), as the son’s return was truly a joyful occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation gives a picture of the eternal celebration that awaits the faithful—a celebration characterized by worship in the presence of God (Rev 4:1-11; 5:8-14; 15:1-4). This celebration is described as a wedding feast, in which the bridegroom (Christ) and the bride (his church) are joined together forever (Rev 19:9; see also Matt 22:1-14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 5:1; 12:17; 15:20-21; 1 Sam 18:6; 2 Sam 6:1-15; 2 Chr 7:6-10; Ezra 3:10-11; Pss 30:11; 69:30; 98:4-6; 107:32; 149:1-9; 150:1-6; Isa 30:29; 54:1; Jer 30:18-19; 31:4, 13; Lam 5:14-15; Zeph 3:17; Luke 15:22-25; 1 Cor 5:8; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Rev 18:20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Celebration God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): karar (2 Sam 6:14, 16), pazaz (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and raqad (1 Chr 15:29, “skippin...","summary_en":"Celebration God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): karar (2 Sam 6:14, 16), pazaz (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and raqad (1 Chr 15:29, “skippin...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":144178,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Celebration","title_en":"Celebration","content_ro":"<h3>Celebration<\/h3>\n<p>God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">karar<\/span> (2 Sam 6:14, 16), <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pazaz<\/span> (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">raqad<\/span> (1 Chr 15:29, “skipping about”). All three words refer to vigorous physical expression beyond the meaning of the Hebrew term for “celebrate” used in David’s first attempt (2 Sam 6:5). Thus, in the first procession, David celebrated; in the second procession he engaged in exultant dancing and extravagant merrymaking with intensified musical expression through the addition of shouting and trumpets.<\/p>\n<p>Musical instruments played a significant role in Temple worship. In 1 Chronicles 25:1-31, David assigned various groups to the ministry of music. Many psalms refer to playing musical instruments in praise and worship of God (see Pss 33:2-3; 57:8; 81:2; 92:1-3; 98:4-6). In Pss 149 and 150, dance and music are combined as a praise offering. Similarly, music and dancing were heard in the father’s house in the parable of the lost son (Luke 15:25), as the son’s return was truly a joyful occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation gives a picture of the eternal celebration that awaits the faithful—a celebration characterized by worship in the presence of God (Rev 4:1-11; 5:8-14; 15:1-4). This celebration is described as a wedding feast, in which the bridegroom (Christ) and the bride (his church) are joined together forever (Rev 19:9; see also Matt 22:1-14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 5:1; 12:17; 15:20-21; 1 Sam 18:6; 2 Sam 6:1-15; 2 Chr 7:6-10; Ezra 3:10-11; Pss 30:11; 69:30; 98:4-6; 107:32; 149:1-9; 150:1-6; Isa 30:29; 54:1; Jer 30:18-19; 31:4, 13; Lam 5:14-15; Zeph 3:17; Luke 15:22-25; 1 Cor 5:8; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Rev 18:20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Celebration<\/h3>\n<p>God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">karar<\/span> (2 Sam 6:14, 16), <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pazaz<\/span> (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">raqad<\/span> (1 Chr 15:29, “skipping about”). All three words refer to vigorous physical expression beyond the meaning of the Hebrew term for “celebrate” used in David’s first attempt (2 Sam 6:5). Thus, in the first procession, David celebrated; in the second procession he engaged in exultant dancing and extravagant merrymaking with intensified musical expression through the addition of shouting and trumpets.<\/p>\n<p>Musical instruments played a significant role in Temple worship. In 1 Chronicles 25:1-31, David assigned various groups to the ministry of music. Many psalms refer to playing musical instruments in praise and worship of God (see Pss 33:2-3; 57:8; 81:2; 92:1-3; 98:4-6). In Pss 149 and 150, dance and music are combined as a praise offering. Similarly, music and dancing were heard in the father’s house in the parable of the lost son (Luke 15:25), as the son’s return was truly a joyful occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation gives a picture of the eternal celebration that awaits the faithful—a celebration characterized by worship in the presence of God (Rev 4:1-11; 5:8-14; 15:1-4). This celebration is described as a wedding feast, in which the bridegroom (Christ) and the bride (his church) are joined together forever (Rev 19:9; see also Matt 22:1-14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 5:1; 12:17; 15:20-21; 1 Sam 18:6; 2 Sam 6:1-15; 2 Chr 7:6-10; Ezra 3:10-11; Pss 30:11; 69:30; 98:4-6; 107:32; 149:1-9; 150:1-6; Isa 30:29; 54:1; Jer 30:18-19; 31:4, 13; Lam 5:14-15; Zeph 3:17; Luke 15:22-25; 1 Cor 5:8; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Rev 18:20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Celebration God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): karar (2 Sam 6:14, 16), pazaz (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and raqad (1 Chr 15:29, “skippin...","summary_en":"Celebration God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): karar (2 Sam 6:14, 16), pazaz (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and raqad (1 Chr 15:29, “skippin...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"15":[{"id":26685,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Musical Instruments","title_en":"Musical Instruments","content_ro":"<h3>MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS<\/h3>\n<p>Stringed, wind, and percussion instruments used to make music.<\/p>\n<p>In contrast to the detailed accounts of liturgical music in the OT, the descriptions of the musical instruments themselves are rather sparse. Because of the injunction of the second commandment, interpreted by the Hebrews as discouraging pictorial representations, there are few drawings of Hebrew instruments. In addition to the instruments used in the temple, the book of Daniel lists six instruments played in King Nebuchadnezzar’s court.<\/p>\n<p>The ancient Hebrews made certain distinctions among the instruments, not on musical but on ethical grounds. Some instruments were considered “unclean” and were not allowed in temple worship.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StringedInstruments\">Stringed Instruments<\/p>\n<p>The stringed instruments were favored by the Jewish people. In many ancient civilizations the strings were considered the most masculine and noble (e.g., David playing the lyre); the Jews considered them the most suitable for accompaniment in the temple service. The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">minim<\/span> is used in Psalm 150:4 to designate the entire family of stringed instruments used in the praise of God.<\/p>\n\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Asor<\/span> appears three times in the book of Psalms (Pss 33:2; 92:3; 144:9). Although the word derives from a Hebrew root meaning “ten,” the actual description of the instrument remains unclear. The most common theory identifies it with the Phoenician zither having ten strings; it is perhaps the lute.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Kathros<\/span> was a stringed instrument included in the list of those played at Nebuchadnezzar’s court and was probably a kind of lyre (Dn 3:5, 7, 10, 15).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Kinnor<\/span> is the most frequently mentioned instrument in the Bible, found in 42 places. It is often called David’s harp and is the most beloved instrument of the Jewish people. We can say with reasonable certainty that it was a lyre and not a harp. The strings, the number of which is not clear, were made of sheep tripe and the sounding box was at the bottom of the instrument. It is not certain whether it was played with a plectrum or with bare hands, but the specific comment that David “played it with his hand” (1 Sm 16:23, <span>rsv<\/span>) may have implied that this was not the common practice. The biblical descriptions of the sound of the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kinnor<\/span> include “pleasant” and “sweet” (Ps 81:2). The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kinnor<\/span> was played mainly in worship but also in celebrations (Is 5:12), for state occasions (1 Sm 10:5; 2 Sm 6:5), and by shepherds (1 Sm 16:16).<\/p>\n\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Nebel<\/span> was another stringed instrument (literally meaning “skin” or “skin bottle”) mentioned 27 times in Scripture. Its shape was probably similar to a bottle, with the belly-shaped sounding box on the bottom. It definitely belongs to the family of harps (2 Sm 6:5; 1 Kgs 10:12; Neh 12:27; Ps 57:8; Am 5:23) and may have been influenced by similar Egyptian instruments. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nebel<\/span> was probably played without a plectrum and was a larger and louder instrument than the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kinnor<\/span><em>.<\/em> It is translated as “harp” in most modern English translations, compared to the <span>kjv<\/span> (“psaltery,” or “viol”).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Psantrin<\/span> or <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">pesanterin<\/span> was a Greek instrument, mentioned in the description of King Nebuchadnezzar’s orchestra. It may have resembled a dulcimer, having strings played with hammers (Dn 3:5-15).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Sabcha<\/span> or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sabbeka<\/span><em>,<\/em> identical with the Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">sambyke<\/span> and the Roman <em>sambuca,<\/em> was a stringed instrument (<span>rsv<\/span> “trigon,” <span>kjv<\/span> “sackbut”) played in the Babylonian court. It was a triangle with four strings, having a high and harsh tone (Dn 3:5-15).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WindInstruments\">Wind Instruments<\/p>\n<p>The wind instruments can be divided into two groups: pipes and horns.<\/p>\n\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Halil<\/span> is mentioned only six times in the Bible but was referred to frequently by postbiblical writers. This kind of piped instrument was similar to the Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">aulos<\/span> (Mt 9:23; 1 Cor 14:7; Rv 18:22), a primitive oboe, rendered “flute” in many translations. The root word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">halal<\/span> means “to pierce,” thus the meaning “hollow tube.” The early pipes were made from reedlike plants. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">halil<\/span> had a double-reed mouthpiece and probably produced a shrill and penetrating sound. It was connected with joyful events such as banquets (Is 5:12) and prophetic frenzies (1 Sm 10:5), but its tone was also associated with wailing and mourning (Jer 48:36).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Hatzotzrot<\/span> was a sort of trumpet. Modern scholars have more information about this horn than many of its ancient Hebrew counterparts. The triumphal arch built by Titus in Rome includes depictions of the captured implements of the temple, among which are two trumpets. The form of these horns may have been influenced by the Israelites’ knowledge of Egyptian trumpets. Similar instruments were also known in Assyria, in the Hittite Empire, and in Greece. Moses was commanded to make two silver trumpets (Nm 10:2); playing these instruments became the exclusive privilege of the descendants of Aaron. These trumpets were made of silver or gold, about a yard (.9 meter) long, but narrow, with a pronounced bell. The descendants of the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hatzotzrot<\/span> are the herald trumpets. Numbers 10:10 says the trumpets were used “for a memorial before . . . God.” Trumpets and horns were used to signal the gathering of the congregation to the tent of meeting, to sound alarm, to alert the camps to move forward, and to announce when war was at hand. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hatzotzrot<\/span> became an important part of the temple service. There were at least two trumpets in the daily services, but at high holidays the number could be increased indefinitely (1 Chr 15:28; 2 Chr 15:14; Ps 98:6; Dn 3:5-15; Hos 5:8).<\/p>\n\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mashroqita<\/span><em>,<\/em> considered by modern scholars to be a Pan’s pipe similar to the Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">syrinx<\/span><em>,<\/em> is included in the list of orchestral instruments of King Nebuchadnezzar’s court (Dn 3:5, 7, 10, 15).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shophar<\/span> is mentioned in the Bible 72 times, more than any other Hebrew instrument. It is the only instrument of ancient Israel that survives in its original form and is still used in Jewish liturgy. The early <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shophar<\/span> was curved like a ram’s horn, but the later form was straight with a bend near the bell of the horn. There is some question whether any of the hornlike instruments can actually be considered musical instruments. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shophar<\/span> could produce two, maybe three tones, and was used for giving signals, not for playing music. It was used in such religious ceremonies as the transfer of the ark (2 Sm 6:15; 1 Chr 15:28), the renewal of the covenant by King Asa (2 Chr 15:14), thanksgiving to God (Ps 98:6; 150:3), and was blown at the new moon and the beginning of the jubilee year. Its secular use included such royal occasions as Absalom’s accession to the throne (2 Sm 15:10), Solomon’s anointing as king (1 Kgs 1:34), and Jehu’s accession to the throne (2 Kgs 9:13).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Sumponia<\/span> is an uncertain term included in Daniel 3. Many commentators have interpreted it as a bagpipe (<span>rsv<\/span>), but musicologists strongly argue that at the time of King Nebuchadnezzar there was no such instrument. It has been suggested that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sumponia<\/span> was not a musical instrument at all but signified the playing of the entire ensemble. This could come from the Greek root <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">sym<\/span><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">phonia<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “sounding together.” The word is also found in Luke 15:25, where it is translated as “music.”<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Ugab<\/span><em>,<\/em> a flutelike instrument, is mentioned in Scripture four times (Gn 4:21; Jb 21:12; 30:31; Ps 150:4; <span>kjv<\/span> mistranslates it as “organ”). It is only in Psalm 150 that the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ugab<\/span> is connected with a sacred occasion.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PercussionInstruments\">Percussion Instruments<\/p>\n<p>Most of the accounts of percussion instruments are found in the early history of the Hebrew people. They were gradually eliminated from the temple orchestra, perhaps because of their association with idolatrous practices.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mena anim<\/span> was a loud metal rattle, constructed with a frame carrying loose rings. It is included in a list of instruments in 2 Samuel 6:5 (<span>rsv<\/span> “castanet”; <span>kjv<\/span> mistranslates as “cornet”). It was likely a form of the <em>sistrum,<\/em> an Egyptian instrument.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Pamonim<\/span> were the bells attached to the lower hem of the priest’s garment, described in Exodus 28:33-34 and 39:25-26. They were not loud but indicated the position of the high priest as he entered the sanctuary.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shalishim<\/span><em>,<\/em> often translated as <em>sistrum<\/em> or <em>timbrel,<\/em> is a kind of rattle. It is not clear whether this term actually refers to a musical instrument. It appears in 1 Samuel 18:6 as part of the reception of King Saul and David after the battle with the Philistines.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Toph<\/span> or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tof<\/span> was an instrument used mainly by women, but there are some indications that men might have played it as well (1 Sm 10:5; <span>kjv<\/span> “tabret”; 2 Sm 6:5; 1 Chr 13:8). The mention of this kind of hand drum appears 15 times in the Bible. A wooden or metal hoop was covered with the skin of a ram or wild goat and was played with the hand. It is not clear whether the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">toph<\/span> had skin on just one side or two. Some commentators have described it as a tambourine or timbrel but there is no indication that it included jangles. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">toph<\/span> was used in merrymaking and was rather loud (Ex 15:20; Ps 81:2).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Zelzelim<\/span> or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">meziltayim<\/span> were cymbals. Both of these words come from the Hebrew root <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">zala<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “to resound” or “to tingle,” and the noun forms represent the instrument known as the cymbal. Sometimes these terms are wrongly translated as “castanets.” These were the only percussion instruments included in the temple music and were always referred to in a dual form, suggesting a pair of cymbals, but played by one man. Cymbals made of metal were known to most ancient cultures. They appear for the first time in the Bible when the ark was transferred to Jerusalem (2 Sm 6:5; 1 Chr 13:8). Later they were played in the temple by the leaders of the Levitical singers (1 Chr 15:19). The function of the cymbals was less musical than liturgical, being used as signals for the singing to begin and between the sections of the psalms. Two different kinds of cymbals are mentioned in Psalm 150, but their difference is not clear, probably involving either size or material.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS<\/h3>\n<p>Stringed, wind, and percussion instruments used to make music.<\/p>\n<p>In contrast to the detailed accounts of liturgical music in the OT, the descriptions of the musical instruments themselves are rather sparse. Because of the injunction of the second commandment, interpreted by the Hebrews as discouraging pictorial representations, there are few drawings of Hebrew instruments. In addition to the instruments used in the temple, the book of Daniel lists six instruments played in King Nebuchadnezzar’s court.<\/p>\n<p>The ancient Hebrews made certain distinctions among the instruments, not on musical but on ethical grounds. Some instruments were considered “unclean” and were not allowed in temple worship.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"StringedInstruments\">Stringed Instruments<\/p>\n<p>The stringed instruments were favored by the Jewish people. In many ancient civilizations the strings were considered the most masculine and noble (e.g., David playing the lyre); the Jews considered them the most suitable for accompaniment in the temple service. The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">minim<\/span> is used in Psalm 150:4 to designate the entire family of stringed instruments used in the praise of God.<\/p>\n\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Asor<\/span> appears three times in the book of Psalms (Pss 33:2; 92:3; 144:9). Although the word derives from a Hebrew root meaning “ten,” the actual description of the instrument remains unclear. The most common theory identifies it with the Phoenician zither having ten strings; it is perhaps the lute.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Kathros<\/span> was a stringed instrument included in the list of those played at Nebuchadnezzar’s court and was probably a kind of lyre (Dn 3:5, 7, 10, 15).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Kinnor<\/span> is the most frequently mentioned instrument in the Bible, found in 42 places. It is often called David’s harp and is the most beloved instrument of the Jewish people. We can say with reasonable certainty that it was a lyre and not a harp. The strings, the number of which is not clear, were made of sheep tripe and the sounding box was at the bottom of the instrument. It is not certain whether it was played with a plectrum or with bare hands, but the specific comment that David “played it with his hand” (1 Sm 16:23, <span>rsv<\/span>) may have implied that this was not the common practice. The biblical descriptions of the sound of the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kinnor<\/span> include “pleasant” and “sweet” (Ps 81:2). The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kinnor<\/span> was played mainly in worship but also in celebrations (Is 5:12), for state occasions (1 Sm 10:5; 2 Sm 6:5), and by shepherds (1 Sm 16:16).<\/p>\n\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Nebel<\/span> was another stringed instrument (literally meaning “skin” or “skin bottle”) mentioned 27 times in Scripture. Its shape was probably similar to a bottle, with the belly-shaped sounding box on the bottom. It definitely belongs to the family of harps (2 Sm 6:5; 1 Kgs 10:12; Neh 12:27; Ps 57:8; Am 5:23) and may have been influenced by similar Egyptian instruments. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nebel<\/span> was probably played without a plectrum and was a larger and louder instrument than the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">kinnor<\/span><em>.<\/em> It is translated as “harp” in most modern English translations, compared to the <span>kjv<\/span> (“psaltery,” or “viol”).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Psantrin<\/span> or <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">pesanterin<\/span> was a Greek instrument, mentioned in the description of King Nebuchadnezzar’s orchestra. It may have resembled a dulcimer, having strings played with hammers (Dn 3:5-15).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Sabcha<\/span> or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sabbeka<\/span><em>,<\/em> identical with the Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">sambyke<\/span> and the Roman <em>sambuca,<\/em> was a stringed instrument (<span>rsv<\/span> “trigon,” <span>kjv<\/span> “sackbut”) played in the Babylonian court. It was a triangle with four strings, having a high and harsh tone (Dn 3:5-15).<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"WindInstruments\">Wind Instruments<\/p>\n<p>The wind instruments can be divided into two groups: pipes and horns.<\/p>\n\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Halil<\/span> is mentioned only six times in the Bible but was referred to frequently by postbiblical writers. This kind of piped instrument was similar to the Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">aulos<\/span> (Mt 9:23; 1 Cor 14:7; Rv 18:22), a primitive oboe, rendered “flute” in many translations. The root word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">halal<\/span> means “to pierce,” thus the meaning “hollow tube.” The early pipes were made from reedlike plants. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">halil<\/span> had a double-reed mouthpiece and probably produced a shrill and penetrating sound. It was connected with joyful events such as banquets (Is 5:12) and prophetic frenzies (1 Sm 10:5), but its tone was also associated with wailing and mourning (Jer 48:36).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Hatzotzrot<\/span> was a sort of trumpet. Modern scholars have more information about this horn than many of its ancient Hebrew counterparts. The triumphal arch built by Titus in Rome includes depictions of the captured implements of the temple, among which are two trumpets. The form of these horns may have been influenced by the Israelites’ knowledge of Egyptian trumpets. Similar instruments were also known in Assyria, in the Hittite Empire, and in Greece. Moses was commanded to make two silver trumpets (Nm 10:2); playing these instruments became the exclusive privilege of the descendants of Aaron. These trumpets were made of silver or gold, about a yard (.9 meter) long, but narrow, with a pronounced bell. The descendants of the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hatzotzrot<\/span> are the herald trumpets. Numbers 10:10 says the trumpets were used “for a memorial before . . . God.” Trumpets and horns were used to signal the gathering of the congregation to the tent of meeting, to sound alarm, to alert the camps to move forward, and to announce when war was at hand. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hatzotzrot<\/span> became an important part of the temple service. There were at least two trumpets in the daily services, but at high holidays the number could be increased indefinitely (1 Chr 15:28; 2 Chr 15:14; Ps 98:6; Dn 3:5-15; Hos 5:8).<\/p>\n\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mashroqita<\/span><em>,<\/em> considered by modern scholars to be a Pan’s pipe similar to the Greek <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">syrinx<\/span><em>,<\/em> is included in the list of orchestral instruments of King Nebuchadnezzar’s court (Dn 3:5, 7, 10, 15).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shophar<\/span> is mentioned in the Bible 72 times, more than any other Hebrew instrument. It is the only instrument of ancient Israel that survives in its original form and is still used in Jewish liturgy. The early <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shophar<\/span> was curved like a ram’s horn, but the later form was straight with a bend near the bell of the horn. There is some question whether any of the hornlike instruments can actually be considered musical instruments. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shophar<\/span> could produce two, maybe three tones, and was used for giving signals, not for playing music. It was used in such religious ceremonies as the transfer of the ark (2 Sm 6:15; 1 Chr 15:28), the renewal of the covenant by King Asa (2 Chr 15:14), thanksgiving to God (Ps 98:6; 150:3), and was blown at the new moon and the beginning of the jubilee year. Its secular use included such royal occasions as Absalom’s accession to the throne (2 Sm 15:10), Solomon’s anointing as king (1 Kgs 1:34), and Jehu’s accession to the throne (2 Kgs 9:13).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Sumponia<\/span> is an uncertain term included in Daniel 3. Many commentators have interpreted it as a bagpipe (<span>rsv<\/span>), but musicologists strongly argue that at the time of King Nebuchadnezzar there was no such instrument. It has been suggested that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sumponia<\/span> was not a musical instrument at all but signified the playing of the entire ensemble. This could come from the Greek root <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">sym<\/span><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">phonia<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “sounding together.” The word is also found in Luke 15:25, where it is translated as “music.”<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Ugab<\/span><em>,<\/em> a flutelike instrument, is mentioned in Scripture four times (Gn 4:21; Jb 21:12; 30:31; Ps 150:4; <span>kjv<\/span> mistranslates it as “organ”). It is only in Psalm 150 that the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ugab<\/span> is connected with a sacred occasion.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"PercussionInstruments\">Percussion Instruments<\/p>\n<p>Most of the accounts of percussion instruments are found in the early history of the Hebrew people. They were gradually eliminated from the temple orchestra, perhaps because of their association with idolatrous practices.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Mena anim<\/span> was a loud metal rattle, constructed with a frame carrying loose rings. It is included in a list of instruments in 2 Samuel 6:5 (<span>rsv<\/span> “castanet”; <span>kjv<\/span> mistranslates as “cornet”). It was likely a form of the <em>sistrum,<\/em> an Egyptian instrument.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Pamonim<\/span> were the bells attached to the lower hem of the priest’s garment, described in Exodus 28:33-34 and 39:25-26. They were not loud but indicated the position of the high priest as he entered the sanctuary.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shalishim<\/span><em>,<\/em> often translated as <em>sistrum<\/em> or <em>timbrel,<\/em> is a kind of rattle. It is not clear whether this term actually refers to a musical instrument. It appears in 1 Samuel 18:6 as part of the reception of King Saul and David after the battle with the Philistines.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Toph<\/span> or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tof<\/span> was an instrument used mainly by women, but there are some indications that men might have played it as well (1 Sm 10:5; <span>kjv<\/span> “tabret”; 2 Sm 6:5; 1 Chr 13:8). The mention of this kind of hand drum appears 15 times in the Bible. A wooden or metal hoop was covered with the skin of a ram or wild goat and was played with the hand. It is not clear whether the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">toph<\/span> had skin on just one side or two. Some commentators have described it as a tambourine or timbrel but there is no indication that it included jangles. The <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">toph<\/span> was used in merrymaking and was rather loud (Ex 15:20; Ps 81:2).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Zelzelim<\/span> or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">meziltayim<\/span> were cymbals. Both of these words come from the Hebrew root <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">zala<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “to resound” or “to tingle,” and the noun forms represent the instrument known as the cymbal. Sometimes these terms are wrongly translated as “castanets.” These were the only percussion instruments included in the temple music and were always referred to in a dual form, suggesting a pair of cymbals, but played by one man. Cymbals made of metal were known to most ancient cultures. They appear for the first time in the Bible when the ark was transferred to Jerusalem (2 Sm 6:5; 1 Chr 13:8). Later they were played in the temple by the leaders of the Levitical singers (1 Chr 15:19). The function of the cymbals was less musical than liturgical, being used as signals for the singing to begin and between the sections of the psalms. Two different kinds of cymbals are mentioned in Psalm 150, but their difference is not clear, probably involving either size or material.<\/p>","summary_ro":"MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS Stringed, wind, and percussion instruments used to make music. In contrast to the detailed accounts of liturgical music in the OT, the descriptions of the musical instruments themselves are rather sparse. Because of the injunction of the second commandment, interpreted by the Hebrews as discouraging pictorial representations, there are few drawings of Hebrew instruments. In addition to the instruments used in the temple, the book of Daniel lists six instruments played in K...","summary_en":"MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS Stringed, wind, and percussion instruments used to make music. In contrast to the detailed accounts of liturgical music in the OT, the descriptions of the musical instruments themselves are rather sparse. Because of the injunction of the second commandment, interpreted by the Hebrews as discouraging pictorial representations, there are few drawings of Hebrew instruments. In addition to the instruments used in the temple, the book of Daniel lists six instruments played in K...","source":"Articles\/M.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":46577,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:15","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:15<\/strong> In 15:10, <em>rams’ horns<\/em> announce the crowning of a new king; in 20:1, they proclaim rebellion. Here they celebrate placing the Ark in its own tent (see study note on 6:17), which in effect installed Yahweh’s throne in Jerusalem.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:15<\/strong> In 15:10, <em>rams’ horns<\/em> announce the crowning of a new king; in 20:1, they proclaim rebellion. Here they celebrate placing the Ark in its own tent (see study note on 6:17), which in effect installed Yahweh’s throne in Jerusalem.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:15 In 15:10, rams’ horns announce the crowning of a new king; in 20:1, they proclaim rebellion. Here they celebrate placing the Ark in its own tent (see study note on 6:17), which in effect installed Yahweh’s throne in Jerusalem.","summary_en":"6:15 In 15:10, rams’ horns announce the crowning of a new king; in 20:1, they proclaim rebellion. Here they celebrate placing the Ark in its own tent (see study note on 6:17), which in effect installed Yahweh’s throne in Jerusalem.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":74203,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:15","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:15<\/strong> In 15:10, <em>rams’ horns<\/em> announce the crowning of a new king; in 20:1, they proclaim rebellion. Here they celebrate placing the Ark in its own tent (see study note on 6:17), which in effect installed Yahweh’s throne in Jerusalem.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:15<\/strong> In 15:10, <em>rams’ horns<\/em> announce the crowning of a new king; in 20:1, they proclaim rebellion. Here they celebrate placing the Ark in its own tent (see study note on 6:17), which in effect installed Yahweh’s throne in Jerusalem.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:15 In 15:10, rams’ horns announce the crowning of a new king; in 20:1, they proclaim rebellion. Here they celebrate placing the Ark in its own tent (see study note on 6:17), which in effect installed Yahweh’s throne in Jerusalem.","summary_en":"6:15 In 15:10, rams’ horns announce the crowning of a new king; in 20:1, they proclaim rebellion. Here they celebrate placing the Ark in its own tent (see study note on 6:17), which in effect installed Yahweh’s throne in Jerusalem.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101829,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:15","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:15<\/strong> In 15:10, <em>rams’ horns<\/em> announce the crowning of a new king; in 20:1, they proclaim rebellion. Here they celebrate placing the Ark in its own tent (see study note on 6:17), which in effect installed Yahweh’s throne in Jerusalem.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:15<\/strong> In 15:10, <em>rams’ horns<\/em> announce the crowning of a new king; in 20:1, they proclaim rebellion. Here they celebrate placing the Ark in its own tent (see study note on 6:17), which in effect installed Yahweh’s throne in Jerusalem.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:15 In 15:10, rams’ horns announce the crowning of a new king; in 20:1, they proclaim rebellion. Here they celebrate placing the Ark in its own tent (see study note on 6:17), which in effect installed Yahweh’s throne in Jerusalem.","summary_en":"6:15 In 15:10, rams’ horns announce the crowning of a new king; in 20:1, they proclaim rebellion. Here they celebrate placing the Ark in its own tent (see study note on 6:17), which in effect installed Yahweh’s throne in Jerusalem.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":129455,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:15","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:15","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:15<\/strong> In 15:10, <em>rams’ horns<\/em> announce the crowning of a new king; in 20:1, they proclaim rebellion. Here they celebrate placing the Ark in its own tent (see study note on 6:17), which in effect installed Yahweh’s throne in Jerusalem.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:15<\/strong> In 15:10, <em>rams’ horns<\/em> announce the crowning of a new king; in 20:1, they proclaim rebellion. Here they celebrate placing the Ark in its own tent (see study note on 6:17), which in effect installed Yahweh’s throne in Jerusalem.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:15 In 15:10, rams’ horns announce the crowning of a new king; in 20:1, they proclaim rebellion. Here they celebrate placing the Ark in its own tent (see study note on 6:17), which in effect installed Yahweh’s throne in Jerusalem.","summary_en":"6:15 In 15:10, rams’ horns announce the crowning of a new king; in 20:1, they proclaim rebellion. Here they celebrate placing the Ark in its own tent (see study note on 6:17), which in effect installed Yahweh’s throne in Jerusalem.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"16":[{"id":41231,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Michal","title_en":"Michal","content_ro":"<h3>Michal<\/h3>\n<p>Michal was King Saul’s younger daughter (1 Sam 14:49) and David’s first wife (18:17-27). She played a significant role in the transition from Saul’s reign to David’s.<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, marriages of leading families were often politically motivated. Saul baited David into a dangerous situation by promising him his older daughter, Merab, if he would fight the Philistines. As a powerful warrior, David was an emerging leader in Saul’s kingdom. The king should have been happy to have such an ally, but he soon grew jealous of David’s accomplishments and suspicious of his ambitions. Saul hoped that David would die in the attempt, but the deal fell through. Later, Saul learned that his younger daughter, Michal, loved David (18:20), which gave the king another opportunity to bait David into fighting the Philistines. This time David agreed. When David returned victorious, Saul could not avoid giving David his daughter in marriage. This marriage alliance helped David when he was seeking to establish his credentials with the northern tribes (2 Sam 3:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Michal loved David early in their relationship and even deceived her father to help David escape from a plot to kill him (1 Sam 19:11-17). After David left Saul’s court, Saul arranged another marriage for her (25:44), but David later broke up that marriage to get her back (2 Sam 3:13-16). Michal expressed contempt toward David when he danced joyfully before the Ark of the Covenant as it was being brought into Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:16-23). Because of her contempt for the king, Michal was unable to bear children.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 14:49; 18:17-30; 19:11-17; 2 Sam 3:13-16; 6:16-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Michal<\/h3>\n<p>Michal was King Saul’s younger daughter (1 Sam 14:49) and David’s first wife (18:17-27). She played a significant role in the transition from Saul’s reign to David’s.<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, marriages of leading families were often politically motivated. Saul baited David into a dangerous situation by promising him his older daughter, Merab, if he would fight the Philistines. As a powerful warrior, David was an emerging leader in Saul’s kingdom. The king should have been happy to have such an ally, but he soon grew jealous of David’s accomplishments and suspicious of his ambitions. Saul hoped that David would die in the attempt, but the deal fell through. Later, Saul learned that his younger daughter, Michal, loved David (18:20), which gave the king another opportunity to bait David into fighting the Philistines. This time David agreed. When David returned victorious, Saul could not avoid giving David his daughter in marriage. This marriage alliance helped David when he was seeking to establish his credentials with the northern tribes (2 Sam 3:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Michal loved David early in their relationship and even deceived her father to help David escape from a plot to kill him (1 Sam 19:11-17). After David left Saul’s court, Saul arranged another marriage for her (25:44), but David later broke up that marriage to get her back (2 Sam 3:13-16). Michal expressed contempt toward David when he danced joyfully before the Ark of the Covenant as it was being brought into Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:16-23). Because of her contempt for the king, Michal was unable to bear children.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 14:49; 18:17-30; 19:11-17; 2 Sam 3:13-16; 6:16-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Michal Michal was King Saul’s younger daughter (1 Sam 14:49) and David’s first wife (18:17-27). She played a significant role in the transition from Saul’s reign to David’s. In the ancient Near East, marriages of leading families were often politically motivated. Saul baited David into a dangerous situation by promising him his older daughter, Merab, if he would fight the Philistines. As a powerful warrior, David was an emerging leader in Saul’s kingdom. The king should have been happy to hav...","summary_en":"Michal Michal was King Saul’s younger daughter (1 Sam 14:49) and David’s first wife (18:17-27). She played a significant role in the transition from Saul’s reign to David’s. In the ancient Near East, marriages of leading families were often politically motivated. Saul baited David into a dangerous situation by promising him his older daughter, Merab, if he would fight the Philistines. As a powerful warrior, David was an emerging leader in Saul’s kingdom. The king should have been happy to hav...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":68857,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Michal","title_en":"Michal","content_ro":"<h3>Michal<\/h3>\n<p>Michal was King Saul’s younger daughter (1 Sam 14:49) and David’s first wife (18:17-27). She played a significant role in the transition from Saul’s reign to David’s.<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, marriages of leading families were often politically motivated. Saul baited David into a dangerous situation by promising him his older daughter, Merab, if he would fight the Philistines. As a powerful warrior, David was an emerging leader in Saul’s kingdom. The king should have been happy to have such an ally, but he soon grew jealous of David’s accomplishments and suspicious of his ambitions. Saul hoped that David would die in the attempt, but the deal fell through. Later, Saul learned that his younger daughter, Michal, loved David (18:20), which gave the king another opportunity to bait David into fighting the Philistines. This time David agreed. When David returned victorious, Saul could not avoid giving David his daughter in marriage. This marriage alliance helped David when he was seeking to establish his credentials with the northern tribes (2 Sam 3:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Michal loved David early in their relationship and even deceived her father to help David escape from a plot to kill him (1 Sam 19:11-17). After David left Saul’s court, Saul arranged another marriage for her (25:44), but David later broke up that marriage to get her back (2 Sam 3:13-16). Michal expressed contempt toward David when he danced joyfully before the Ark of the Covenant as it was being brought into Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:16-23). Because of her contempt for the king, Michal was unable to bear children.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 14:49; 18:17-30; 19:11-17; 2 Sam 3:13-16; 6:16-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Michal<\/h3>\n<p>Michal was King Saul’s younger daughter (1 Sam 14:49) and David’s first wife (18:17-27). She played a significant role in the transition from Saul’s reign to David’s.<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, marriages of leading families were often politically motivated. Saul baited David into a dangerous situation by promising him his older daughter, Merab, if he would fight the Philistines. As a powerful warrior, David was an emerging leader in Saul’s kingdom. The king should have been happy to have such an ally, but he soon grew jealous of David’s accomplishments and suspicious of his ambitions. Saul hoped that David would die in the attempt, but the deal fell through. Later, Saul learned that his younger daughter, Michal, loved David (18:20), which gave the king another opportunity to bait David into fighting the Philistines. This time David agreed. When David returned victorious, Saul could not avoid giving David his daughter in marriage. This marriage alliance helped David when he was seeking to establish his credentials with the northern tribes (2 Sam 3:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Michal loved David early in their relationship and even deceived her father to help David escape from a plot to kill him (1 Sam 19:11-17). After David left Saul’s court, Saul arranged another marriage for her (25:44), but David later broke up that marriage to get her back (2 Sam 3:13-16). Michal expressed contempt toward David when he danced joyfully before the Ark of the Covenant as it was being brought into Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:16-23). Because of her contempt for the king, Michal was unable to bear children.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 14:49; 18:17-30; 19:11-17; 2 Sam 3:13-16; 6:16-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Michal Michal was King Saul’s younger daughter (1 Sam 14:49) and David’s first wife (18:17-27). She played a significant role in the transition from Saul’s reign to David’s. In the ancient Near East, marriages of leading families were often politically motivated. Saul baited David into a dangerous situation by promising him his older daughter, Merab, if he would fight the Philistines. As a powerful warrior, David was an emerging leader in Saul’s kingdom. The king should have been happy to hav...","summary_en":"Michal Michal was King Saul’s younger daughter (1 Sam 14:49) and David’s first wife (18:17-27). She played a significant role in the transition from Saul’s reign to David’s. In the ancient Near East, marriages of leading families were often politically motivated. Saul baited David into a dangerous situation by promising him his older daughter, Merab, if he would fight the Philistines. As a powerful warrior, David was an emerging leader in Saul’s kingdom. The king should have been happy to hav...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":96483,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Michal","title_en":"Michal","content_ro":"<h3>Michal<\/h3>\n<p>Michal was King Saul’s younger daughter (1 Sam 14:49) and David’s first wife (18:17-27). She played a significant role in the transition from Saul’s reign to David’s.<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, marriages of leading families were often politically motivated. Saul baited David into a dangerous situation by promising him his older daughter, Merab, if he would fight the Philistines. As a powerful warrior, David was an emerging leader in Saul’s kingdom. The king should have been happy to have such an ally, but he soon grew jealous of David’s accomplishments and suspicious of his ambitions. Saul hoped that David would die in the attempt, but the deal fell through. Later, Saul learned that his younger daughter, Michal, loved David (18:20), which gave the king another opportunity to bait David into fighting the Philistines. This time David agreed. When David returned victorious, Saul could not avoid giving David his daughter in marriage. This marriage alliance helped David when he was seeking to establish his credentials with the northern tribes (2 Sam 3:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Michal loved David early in their relationship and even deceived her father to help David escape from a plot to kill him (1 Sam 19:11-17). After David left Saul’s court, Saul arranged another marriage for her (25:44), but David later broke up that marriage to get her back (2 Sam 3:13-16). Michal expressed contempt toward David when he danced joyfully before the Ark of the Covenant as it was being brought into Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:16-23). Because of her contempt for the king, Michal was unable to bear children.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 14:49; 18:17-30; 19:11-17; 2 Sam 3:13-16; 6:16-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Michal<\/h3>\n<p>Michal was King Saul’s younger daughter (1 Sam 14:49) and David’s first wife (18:17-27). She played a significant role in the transition from Saul’s reign to David’s.<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, marriages of leading families were often politically motivated. Saul baited David into a dangerous situation by promising him his older daughter, Merab, if he would fight the Philistines. As a powerful warrior, David was an emerging leader in Saul’s kingdom. The king should have been happy to have such an ally, but he soon grew jealous of David’s accomplishments and suspicious of his ambitions. Saul hoped that David would die in the attempt, but the deal fell through. Later, Saul learned that his younger daughter, Michal, loved David (18:20), which gave the king another opportunity to bait David into fighting the Philistines. This time David agreed. When David returned victorious, Saul could not avoid giving David his daughter in marriage. This marriage alliance helped David when he was seeking to establish his credentials with the northern tribes (2 Sam 3:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Michal loved David early in their relationship and even deceived her father to help David escape from a plot to kill him (1 Sam 19:11-17). After David left Saul’s court, Saul arranged another marriage for her (25:44), but David later broke up that marriage to get her back (2 Sam 3:13-16). Michal expressed contempt toward David when he danced joyfully before the Ark of the Covenant as it was being brought into Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:16-23). Because of her contempt for the king, Michal was unable to bear children.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 14:49; 18:17-30; 19:11-17; 2 Sam 3:13-16; 6:16-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Michal Michal was King Saul’s younger daughter (1 Sam 14:49) and David’s first wife (18:17-27). She played a significant role in the transition from Saul’s reign to David’s. In the ancient Near East, marriages of leading families were often politically motivated. Saul baited David into a dangerous situation by promising him his older daughter, Merab, if he would fight the Philistines. As a powerful warrior, David was an emerging leader in Saul’s kingdom. The king should have been happy to hav...","summary_en":"Michal Michal was King Saul’s younger daughter (1 Sam 14:49) and David’s first wife (18:17-27). She played a significant role in the transition from Saul’s reign to David’s. In the ancient Near East, marriages of leading families were often politically motivated. Saul baited David into a dangerous situation by promising him his older daughter, Merab, if he would fight the Philistines. As a powerful warrior, David was an emerging leader in Saul’s kingdom. The king should have been happy to hav...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":124109,"type":"profile","type_label":"Profil","type_icon":"👤","type_color":"#f59e0b","title_ro":"Michal","title_en":"Michal","content_ro":"<h3>Michal<\/h3>\n<p>Michal was King Saul’s younger daughter (1 Sam 14:49) and David’s first wife (18:17-27). She played a significant role in the transition from Saul’s reign to David’s.<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, marriages of leading families were often politically motivated. Saul baited David into a dangerous situation by promising him his older daughter, Merab, if he would fight the Philistines. As a powerful warrior, David was an emerging leader in Saul’s kingdom. The king should have been happy to have such an ally, but he soon grew jealous of David’s accomplishments and suspicious of his ambitions. Saul hoped that David would die in the attempt, but the deal fell through. Later, Saul learned that his younger daughter, Michal, loved David (18:20), which gave the king another opportunity to bait David into fighting the Philistines. This time David agreed. When David returned victorious, Saul could not avoid giving David his daughter in marriage. This marriage alliance helped David when he was seeking to establish his credentials with the northern tribes (2 Sam 3:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Michal loved David early in their relationship and even deceived her father to help David escape from a plot to kill him (1 Sam 19:11-17). After David left Saul’s court, Saul arranged another marriage for her (25:44), but David later broke up that marriage to get her back (2 Sam 3:13-16). Michal expressed contempt toward David when he danced joyfully before the Ark of the Covenant as it was being brought into Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:16-23). Because of her contempt for the king, Michal was unable to bear children.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 14:49; 18:17-30; 19:11-17; 2 Sam 3:13-16; 6:16-23<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Michal<\/h3>\n<p>Michal was King Saul’s younger daughter (1 Sam 14:49) and David’s first wife (18:17-27). She played a significant role in the transition from Saul’s reign to David’s.<\/p>\n<p>In the ancient Near East, marriages of leading families were often politically motivated. Saul baited David into a dangerous situation by promising him his older daughter, Merab, if he would fight the Philistines. As a powerful warrior, David was an emerging leader in Saul’s kingdom. The king should have been happy to have such an ally, but he soon grew jealous of David’s accomplishments and suspicious of his ambitions. Saul hoped that David would die in the attempt, but the deal fell through. Later, Saul learned that his younger daughter, Michal, loved David (18:20), which gave the king another opportunity to bait David into fighting the Philistines. This time David agreed. When David returned victorious, Saul could not avoid giving David his daughter in marriage. This marriage alliance helped David when he was seeking to establish his credentials with the northern tribes (2 Sam 3:13-16).<\/p>\n<p>Michal loved David early in their relationship and even deceived her father to help David escape from a plot to kill him (1 Sam 19:11-17). After David left Saul’s court, Saul arranged another marriage for her (25:44), but David later broke up that marriage to get her back (2 Sam 3:13-16). Michal expressed contempt toward David when he danced joyfully before the Ark of the Covenant as it was being brought into Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:16-23). Because of her contempt for the king, Michal was unable to bear children.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>1 Sam 14:49; 18:17-30; 19:11-17; 2 Sam 3:13-16; 6:16-23<\/p>","summary_ro":"Michal Michal was King Saul’s younger daughter (1 Sam 14:49) and David’s first wife (18:17-27). She played a significant role in the transition from Saul’s reign to David’s. In the ancient Near East, marriages of leading families were often politically motivated. Saul baited David into a dangerous situation by promising him his older daughter, Merab, if he would fight the Philistines. As a powerful warrior, David was an emerging leader in Saul’s kingdom. The king should have been happy to hav...","summary_en":"Michal Michal was King Saul’s younger daughter (1 Sam 14:49) and David’s first wife (18:17-27). She played a significant role in the transition from Saul’s reign to David’s. In the ancient Near East, marriages of leading families were often politically motivated. Saul baited David into a dangerous situation by promising him his older daughter, Merab, if he would fight the Philistines. As a powerful warrior, David was an emerging leader in Saul’s kingdom. The king should have been happy to hav...","source":"Profiles.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":19228,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Jerusalem","title_en":"Jerusalem","content_ro":"<h3>JERUSALEM<\/h3>\n<p>Historic city sacred to Christians, Jews, and Muslims; the chief city of ancient Palestine and of the modern state of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Meaning of the Name<\/p>\n<p>• Geographical Situation<\/p>\n<p>• History<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MeaningoftheName\">Meaning of the Name<\/p>\n<h5>Egyptian Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>The earliest mention of the name occurs in the Egyptian Execration Texts of the 19th and 18th centuries <span>BC<\/span> in the form probably transliterated <em>Urusalimum.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>Semitic Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>In the 14th century <span>BC<\/span> the name appears in the Abdi-Hepa correspondence from Tell el-Amarna, written <em>Urusalim.<\/em> Later it is found in the inscription of the Assyrian monarch Sennacherib, written <em>Ursalimmu.<\/em> The two transparently Semitic elements, <em>uru<\/em> (city) and <em>salim<\/em> (a divine name), have produced the hyphenated composite meaning “the city of [the god] Salim.” Hyphenating geographic names to incorporate divine elements was a common practice in the ancient Near Eastern world, and the deity Salim, or Shalem (Akkadian, Shulmanu; cf. Solomon), was a member of the Amorite pantheon (cf. Ez 16:3). Since the oldest textual evidence—Egyptian, West Semitic, and Akkadian—supports only <em>urusalim,<\/em> and since the OT itself attests that Jerusalem was not originally a Hebrew city, it is probable that the Semitic etymological origin of this name produced the meaning “the city of [the god] Salim.”<\/p>\n<h5>Hebrew\/Aramaic Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>In the Hebrew OT, Jerusalem is written <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">yerushalayim<\/span><em>,<\/em> and in the Aramaic portions the name is rendered <em>yerushalem.<\/em> Containing the elements <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">yarah<\/span> (“to found,” cf. Jb 38:6) and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalem<\/span> (a divine name), it yields the meaning “the foundation of [the god] Shalem,” the <em>sh<\/em> of the Hebrew\/Aramaic to be taken as the phonemic equivalent of the Akkadian <em>s.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>Greek Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>In the NT, Jerusalem translates the two Greek words <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Ierousalem<\/span> and <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Hierosoluma<\/span><em>.<\/em> The former is simply the Greek transliteration of the OT Aramaic form; the latter reflects the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hieros<\/span> (holy), representing a Hellenized paronomasia, corresponding neither with the Semitic root of the name nor with the city’s historical reality.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GeographicalSituation\">Geographical Situation<\/p>\n<p>Jerusalem is situated 31º 46’ 45” north latitude and 35º 13’ 25” east longitude. The city rises to just over 2,500 feet (762 meters) above sea level and rests some 14 miles (22.5 kilometers) west of the northern end of the Dead Sea and approximately 33 miles (53 kilometers) east of the Mediterranean coast.<\/p>\n<p>A Mediterranean climate pervades Jerusalem. From October to May, the city experiences its rainy season, with an annual accumulation of about 25 inches (63.5 centimeters). Throughout January and February the rains are often driven by winds, and the mercury drops to near freezing (cf. Ezr 10:9); the coldest weather coincides with the days of heaviest rainfall. Snow falls two years out of three. There is no rain between May and September, and a high percentage of solar radiation produces oppressive heat.<\/p>\n<p>Like Rome, Jerusalem is a city set on hills. A cluster of five hills comprise the denuded quadrilateral landmass roughly one mile (1.6 kilometers) long and one-half mile (.8 kilometer) wide, bordered on all sides, except the north, by deep ravines. Stationed astride the crest of Palestine’s central plateau and located at the crossroad of the watershed route connecting Hebron, Bethlehem, Shechem (Nablus), and points north with the longitudinal route from the Jordan Valley and the several arteries to the Mediterranean, Jerusalem is commercially central to the country. The lateral highway through the Judean mountains and eastward could not pass south of Jerusalem, being blocked by the Dead Sea and its sheer cliffs. Because it lacked significant water supply, the city’s strategic commercial location was probably the deciding criterion for its original occupation.<\/p>\n<p>Water, a lifeline of civilization, has always been in meager supply at Jerusalem. The only natural source of permanent water was the spring at Gihon, today sometimes called the Virgin’s Fountain, located in the Kidron Valley immediately east of the ancient fortress conquered by David. Tunnels were burrowed to provide access to the Gihon when Jerusalem was besieged. Later, the Siloam Tunnel was cut through nearly 1,800 feet (548.6 meters) of limestone, allowing the waters of the Gihon to pass through the hill of Zion to the pool of Siloam.<\/p>\n<p>Farther south, where the Kidron and Hinnom Valleys converge, there was another spring, called En-rogel in the Bible (modern Bir Eyyub). Owing to the lowering of the water table, this source of water ceased to percolate and was subsequently converted into a well.<\/p>\n<p>These two sources were clearly insufficient to sustain a sizable population, and both were too deep in the Kidron to be employed for irrigation. Hence, a vast network of cisterns, reservoirs, and water conduits for supplemental supply has been devised since ancient times.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"History\">History<\/p>\n<h5>The Pre-Israelite Period<\/h5>\n<p>Paleolithic and Mesolithic flint implements of an Acheulian type found in the plain of the Rephaim constitute the earliest evidence of the existence of human beings in the area of Jerusalem. Near the beginning of the fourth millennium <span>BC<\/span>, the southeastern hill was first occupied by a sedentary group, a fact evinced from the artifactual remains recovered from three graves and the pottery type discovered on bedrock. By 1800 <span>BC<\/span>, the crest of the southeastern hill was walled in rudimentary form.<\/p>\n<p>From the Bible one learns that Abraham paid tithes to Melchizedek, king of Salem (Gn 14:17-20). Again (ch 22) the great patriarch visited an area later incorporated into Jerusalem, Mt Moriah, the site where Isaac was nearly sacrificed. Second Chronicles 3:1 identifies Mt Moriah as the temple hill. In the 15th century <span>BC<\/span> or thereabouts the Hurrians (possibly the biblical Horites) penetrated into Palestine. About the same time at Jerusalem, extensive building activities were initiated and improved fortification methods were introduced. Accordingly, most writers attribute these projects at Jerusalem to the Hurrian infiltration.<\/p>\n<h5>Conquest and Settlement Period<\/h5>\n<p>Upon learning of Gibeon’s placation of Joshua’s army (Jos 9), Adoni-zedek, king of Jerusalem, formed a coalition with the kings of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon and attacked Gibeon. In response, Joshua marshaled his forces and defeated the coalition, killing all five monarchs at Makkedah (Jos 10:16-27). It appears that the tribe of Judah temporarily took control of Jerusalem and burned it in the wake of this victory (Jgs 1:8). However, the Jebusites reoccupied the site (Jos 15:63; 1 Chr 11:4-5). Apparently, the Jebusites more or less maintained control of Jerusalem until the time of David.<\/p>\n<p>The city appears again as a boundary separating the tribal inheritances of Judah and Benjamin, becoming the southern border of the latter’s domain. The identification of the “shoulder of the Jebusite” (<span>rsv<\/span> Jos 15:8; 18:16) with Jerusalem is usually explained as a reference to the southwestern hill, probably held also by the Jebusites at this time.<\/p>\n<h5>David’s Jerusalem<\/h5>\n<p>Following the Philistine victory atop Mt Gilboa, where Saul and Jonathan were killed in battle (1 Sm 31), David reigned over the tribe of Judah from Hebron, while a surviving son of Saul, Ishbosheth, ruled over the northern tribes from Mahanaim. During the two-year struggle that ensued, the house of David grew stronger while the forces of Ishbosheth shrunk considerably (2 Sm 3:1). This struggle culminated in the death and decapitation of Ishbosheth and the dispersion of his forces. David became the undisputed monarch of all the tribes of Israel.<\/p>\n\n<p>But the new monarch recognized that a consolidated national capital acceptable to both the north and the south would have to be created. Jerusalem had remained neutral in the conflict, being the site of a Jebusite enclave. It also represented a location that was militarily desirable, and by being commercially central to the fledgling nation, it was ideally suited.<\/p>\n<p>In the course of David’s 33-year reign at Jerusalem he made the city into the center of an empire that stretched from Egypt to the Euphrates River. He engaged in considerable building and expansion of the city. He fortified the Canaanite walls and prepared an extension of the city, possibly along the east slope of Zion.<\/p>\n<p>David also constructed a royal residence, receiving the technology and many materials from Hiram, king of Tyre (2 Sm 5:11). Nehemiah 12:37 suggests that this palace also may have been near the east side of the southeastern hill. It was from a window of this house that Michal saw David dancing in an undignified manner—according to her perception (2 Sm 6:16-23). From the roof of this palace David gazed upon Bathsheba as she bathed (11:2-5), and from this residence he plotted the murder of her husband, Uriah (vv 14-25).<\/p>\n<p>By bringing the ark of the covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sm 6:1-15)—implying that Yahweh would reside there—David displayed his most profound leadership. For in this perceptive act he merged for the first time in Israel’s history its political and religious capitals. Jerusalem took on the unique character of a holy city <em>and<\/em> a royal city. As a result, the city would be known as the “city of David” (5:7) as well as the “city of God” (Ps 46:4). Adult male Jews would make their pilgrimages to Jerusalem to take part in the feasts and offerings. It only remained for David to make this arrangement permanent, to enshrine Yahweh at Jerusalem forever by building him a temple. David aspired to do so (2 Sm 7), but God responded that such an undertaking was to be reserved for a son of the king.<\/p>\n<h5>The First Temple Period<\/h5>\n<p>A growing national realization of the extent and impact of the Davidic empire was employed by Solomon to full advantage. Himself an innovative and dynamic administrator, Solomon turned Jerusalem into a cosmopolitan center. The revenues of caravans from Egypt to Babylonia as well as the Phoenician trade with Elath, the Red Sea, and Ophir passed through his royal capital. Solomon’s own naval fleet traveled as far as Tarshish, most likely located on an island along the western coast of Spain. These expeditions returned every three years with such exotic commodities as apes, peacocks, silver, iron, tin, ivory, and gold. The capital swelled with residents and visitors, and the monarch’s fame became proverbial (1 Kgs 10).<\/p>\n<p>Solomon was the great OT builder of Jerusalem. His most significant building enterprise was undoubtedly the first temple. Erected on the summit of the temple hill, this edifice required seven years to construct, from April\/May 966 (1 Kgs 6:1) to October\/November 959 (v 38). Hiram again provided both the technology and the cedar beams.<\/p>\n<p>One may find in 1 Kings 10:27 a succinct encapsulation of the economic wealth lavished upon Jerusalem by Solomon: silver became as abundant as stone, and cedar was as common as sycamore. It is estimated that the annual revenues that coursed into Jerusalem were as high as $17 million. Ironically, it was the fiscal factor that became the burden of Solomon’s monarchy. Overextending himself financially, his economic and political programs soon required the levying of heavy taxes (1 Kgs 4:7-19) and the drafting of Israelites into forced labor (1 Kgs 5:13-18; cf. 9:20-23). These were the primary factors that prompted the schism in Israel’s political structure after the death of Solomon and resulted in a divided monarchy by 930 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>When the Babylonian army laid final siege to Jerusalem (588 <span>BC<\/span>), capturing it after many months, the city was completely decimated. The temple and Solomon’s palace were destroyed with fire; the city walls were demolished. The temple treasures were completely plundered, and the citizens were deported in large numbers.<\/p>\n<h5>The Second Temple Period<\/h5>\n<p>Jerusalem’s doom and 70-year captivity had been spelled out by Jeremiah (Jer 25:11; 29:10; cf. 2 Chr 36:21; Dn 9:2). In 538 <span>BC<\/span>, after the fall of Babylon, Cyrus, king of Persia, issued his famous proclamation (2 Chr 36:22-23; Ezr 1:1-4; cf. Is 44:28; 45:1). Thereupon, a humble group of Jews returned to Jerusalem with Sheshbazzar, a prince of Judah (Ezr 1:8-11) and Zerubbabel (2:2). In 515 <span>BC<\/span>, the doors of the second temple were opened officially, and the Passover feast was again observed from Jerusalem (6:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Ezra came to Jerusalem in the seventh year of Artaxerxes (Ezr 7:7). Assuming this is a reference to Artaxerxes I, the date of Ezra’s return would have been 458 <span>BC<\/span>. Again, it was only a meager remnant who felt the compelling urge to make that difficult journey (cf. Josephus’s <em>Antiquities<\/em> 11.1.3).<\/p>\n<p>Moved by reports of troubled conditions (Neh 1:3-4), Nehemiah, in the 20th year of Artaxerxes (445 <span>BC<\/span>), was able to leave his post as cup-bearer to the king and to go to Jerusalem. If the concern of the earlier returnees focused upon the temple, Nehemiah’s was upon the city walls. His is the most comprehensive description of Jerusalem’s postexilic city walls and topography (Neh 2:11-16). Spurred on by his energetic enthusiasm, the people completed the task of rebuilding the walls in 52 days (6:15).<\/p>\n\n<h5>The Roman Period<\/h5>\n<p>In 40 <span>BC<\/span>, with the aid of the Parthians, Antigonus attacked and seized Jerusalem, forcing Herod to escape by night. He journeyed to Rome, where the Senate appointed him as “king of the Jews” (cf. Mt 2:1). Armed with this new authority, Herod marshaled two Roman legions, and in 37 <span>BC<\/span>, he succeeded in forever expelling the Parthians. So began the long and infamous rule of Herod, who reigned at Jerusalem for 33 years (37–4 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>It cannot be denied that Jerusalem enjoyed prosperous and peaceful years during his reign. Herod transformed the external aspect of Jerusalem. He transferred the seat of government to the southwestern hill. Here he erected a lavish palace, an arena for athletic contests, a theater, and a vast aqueduct network.<\/p>\n<p>Other building projects concerned the temple hill. Herod transformed the old Maccabean fortress into a much larger structure and named it Antonia, in honor of Mark Antony. In the temple area proper he enlarged the esplanade on both the north and south sides, giving it a rectangular shape. Herod’s reconstruction of the temple was undertaken in 20 <span>BC<\/span>, and it was not completed until around <span>AD<\/span> 64, just six years prior to its destruction by Titus (cf. Jn 2:20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Jerusalem, New; Judaism; Zion; Zion, Daughter of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>JERUSALEM<\/h3>\n<p>Historic city sacred to Christians, Jews, and Muslims; the chief city of ancient Palestine and of the modern state of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• Meaning of the Name<\/p>\n<p>• Geographical Situation<\/p>\n<p>• History<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"MeaningoftheName\">Meaning of the Name<\/p>\n<h5>Egyptian Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>The earliest mention of the name occurs in the Egyptian Execration Texts of the 19th and 18th centuries <span>BC<\/span> in the form probably transliterated <em>Urusalimum.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>Semitic Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>In the 14th century <span>BC<\/span> the name appears in the Abdi-Hepa correspondence from Tell el-Amarna, written <em>Urusalim.<\/em> Later it is found in the inscription of the Assyrian monarch Sennacherib, written <em>Ursalimmu.<\/em> The two transparently Semitic elements, <em>uru<\/em> (city) and <em>salim<\/em> (a divine name), have produced the hyphenated composite meaning “the city of [the god] Salim.” Hyphenating geographic names to incorporate divine elements was a common practice in the ancient Near Eastern world, and the deity Salim, or Shalem (Akkadian, Shulmanu; cf. Solomon), was a member of the Amorite pantheon (cf. Ez 16:3). Since the oldest textual evidence—Egyptian, West Semitic, and Akkadian—supports only <em>urusalim,<\/em> and since the OT itself attests that Jerusalem was not originally a Hebrew city, it is probable that the Semitic etymological origin of this name produced the meaning “the city of [the god] Salim.”<\/p>\n<h5>Hebrew\/Aramaic Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>In the Hebrew OT, Jerusalem is written <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">yerushalayim<\/span><em>,<\/em> and in the Aramaic portions the name is rendered <em>yerushalem.<\/em> Containing the elements <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">yarah<\/span> (“to found,” cf. Jb 38:6) and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalem<\/span> (a divine name), it yields the meaning “the foundation of [the god] Shalem,” the <em>sh<\/em> of the Hebrew\/Aramaic to be taken as the phonemic equivalent of the Akkadian <em>s.<\/em><\/p>\n<h5>Greek Meaning<\/h5>\n<p>In the NT, Jerusalem translates the two Greek words <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Ierousalem<\/span> and <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Hierosoluma<\/span><em>.<\/em> The former is simply the Greek transliteration of the OT Aramaic form; the latter reflects the word <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">hieros<\/span> (holy), representing a Hellenized paronomasia, corresponding neither with the Semitic root of the name nor with the city’s historical reality.<\/p>\n\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"GeographicalSituation\">Geographical Situation<\/p>\n<p>Jerusalem is situated 31º 46’ 45” north latitude and 35º 13’ 25” east longitude. The city rises to just over 2,500 feet (762 meters) above sea level and rests some 14 miles (22.5 kilometers) west of the northern end of the Dead Sea and approximately 33 miles (53 kilometers) east of the Mediterranean coast.<\/p>\n<p>A Mediterranean climate pervades Jerusalem. From October to May, the city experiences its rainy season, with an annual accumulation of about 25 inches (63.5 centimeters). Throughout January and February the rains are often driven by winds, and the mercury drops to near freezing (cf. Ezr 10:9); the coldest weather coincides with the days of heaviest rainfall. Snow falls two years out of three. There is no rain between May and September, and a high percentage of solar radiation produces oppressive heat.<\/p>\n<p>Like Rome, Jerusalem is a city set on hills. A cluster of five hills comprise the denuded quadrilateral landmass roughly one mile (1.6 kilometers) long and one-half mile (.8 kilometer) wide, bordered on all sides, except the north, by deep ravines. Stationed astride the crest of Palestine’s central plateau and located at the crossroad of the watershed route connecting Hebron, Bethlehem, Shechem (Nablus), and points north with the longitudinal route from the Jordan Valley and the several arteries to the Mediterranean, Jerusalem is commercially central to the country. The lateral highway through the Judean mountains and eastward could not pass south of Jerusalem, being blocked by the Dead Sea and its sheer cliffs. Because it lacked significant water supply, the city’s strategic commercial location was probably the deciding criterion for its original occupation.<\/p>\n<p>Water, a lifeline of civilization, has always been in meager supply at Jerusalem. The only natural source of permanent water was the spring at Gihon, today sometimes called the Virgin’s Fountain, located in the Kidron Valley immediately east of the ancient fortress conquered by David. Tunnels were burrowed to provide access to the Gihon when Jerusalem was besieged. Later, the Siloam Tunnel was cut through nearly 1,800 feet (548.6 meters) of limestone, allowing the waters of the Gihon to pass through the hill of Zion to the pool of Siloam.<\/p>\n<p>Farther south, where the Kidron and Hinnom Valleys converge, there was another spring, called En-rogel in the Bible (modern Bir Eyyub). Owing to the lowering of the water table, this source of water ceased to percolate and was subsequently converted into a well.<\/p>\n<p>These two sources were clearly insufficient to sustain a sizable population, and both were too deep in the Kidron to be employed for irrigation. Hence, a vast network of cisterns, reservoirs, and water conduits for supplemental supply has been devised since ancient times.<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"History\">History<\/p>\n<h5>The Pre-Israelite Period<\/h5>\n<p>Paleolithic and Mesolithic flint implements of an Acheulian type found in the plain of the Rephaim constitute the earliest evidence of the existence of human beings in the area of Jerusalem. Near the beginning of the fourth millennium <span>BC<\/span>, the southeastern hill was first occupied by a sedentary group, a fact evinced from the artifactual remains recovered from three graves and the pottery type discovered on bedrock. By 1800 <span>BC<\/span>, the crest of the southeastern hill was walled in rudimentary form.<\/p>\n<p>From the Bible one learns that Abraham paid tithes to Melchizedek, king of Salem (Gn 14:17-20). Again (ch 22) the great patriarch visited an area later incorporated into Jerusalem, Mt Moriah, the site where Isaac was nearly sacrificed. Second Chronicles 3:1 identifies Mt Moriah as the temple hill. In the 15th century <span>BC<\/span> or thereabouts the Hurrians (possibly the biblical Horites) penetrated into Palestine. About the same time at Jerusalem, extensive building activities were initiated and improved fortification methods were introduced. Accordingly, most writers attribute these projects at Jerusalem to the Hurrian infiltration.<\/p>\n<h5>Conquest and Settlement Period<\/h5>\n<p>Upon learning of Gibeon’s placation of Joshua’s army (Jos 9), Adoni-zedek, king of Jerusalem, formed a coalition with the kings of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon and attacked Gibeon. In response, Joshua marshaled his forces and defeated the coalition, killing all five monarchs at Makkedah (Jos 10:16-27). It appears that the tribe of Judah temporarily took control of Jerusalem and burned it in the wake of this victory (Jgs 1:8). However, the Jebusites reoccupied the site (Jos 15:63; 1 Chr 11:4-5). Apparently, the Jebusites more or less maintained control of Jerusalem until the time of David.<\/p>\n<p>The city appears again as a boundary separating the tribal inheritances of Judah and Benjamin, becoming the southern border of the latter’s domain. The identification of the “shoulder of the Jebusite” (<span>rsv<\/span> Jos 15:8; 18:16) with Jerusalem is usually explained as a reference to the southwestern hill, probably held also by the Jebusites at this time.<\/p>\n<h5>David’s Jerusalem<\/h5>\n<p>Following the Philistine victory atop Mt Gilboa, where Saul and Jonathan were killed in battle (1 Sm 31), David reigned over the tribe of Judah from Hebron, while a surviving son of Saul, Ishbosheth, ruled over the northern tribes from Mahanaim. During the two-year struggle that ensued, the house of David grew stronger while the forces of Ishbosheth shrunk considerably (2 Sm 3:1). This struggle culminated in the death and decapitation of Ishbosheth and the dispersion of his forces. David became the undisputed monarch of all the tribes of Israel.<\/p>\n\n<p>But the new monarch recognized that a consolidated national capital acceptable to both the north and the south would have to be created. Jerusalem had remained neutral in the conflict, being the site of a Jebusite enclave. It also represented a location that was militarily desirable, and by being commercially central to the fledgling nation, it was ideally suited.<\/p>\n<p>In the course of David’s 33-year reign at Jerusalem he made the city into the center of an empire that stretched from Egypt to the Euphrates River. He engaged in considerable building and expansion of the city. He fortified the Canaanite walls and prepared an extension of the city, possibly along the east slope of Zion.<\/p>\n<p>David also constructed a royal residence, receiving the technology and many materials from Hiram, king of Tyre (2 Sm 5:11). Nehemiah 12:37 suggests that this palace also may have been near the east side of the southeastern hill. It was from a window of this house that Michal saw David dancing in an undignified manner—according to her perception (2 Sm 6:16-23). From the roof of this palace David gazed upon Bathsheba as she bathed (11:2-5), and from this residence he plotted the murder of her husband, Uriah (vv 14-25).<\/p>\n<p>By bringing the ark of the covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sm 6:1-15)—implying that Yahweh would reside there—David displayed his most profound leadership. For in this perceptive act he merged for the first time in Israel’s history its political and religious capitals. Jerusalem took on the unique character of a holy city <em>and<\/em> a royal city. As a result, the city would be known as the “city of David” (5:7) as well as the “city of God” (Ps 46:4). Adult male Jews would make their pilgrimages to Jerusalem to take part in the feasts and offerings. It only remained for David to make this arrangement permanent, to enshrine Yahweh at Jerusalem forever by building him a temple. David aspired to do so (2 Sm 7), but God responded that such an undertaking was to be reserved for a son of the king.<\/p>\n<h5>The First Temple Period<\/h5>\n<p>A growing national realization of the extent and impact of the Davidic empire was employed by Solomon to full advantage. Himself an innovative and dynamic administrator, Solomon turned Jerusalem into a cosmopolitan center. The revenues of caravans from Egypt to Babylonia as well as the Phoenician trade with Elath, the Red Sea, and Ophir passed through his royal capital. Solomon’s own naval fleet traveled as far as Tarshish, most likely located on an island along the western coast of Spain. These expeditions returned every three years with such exotic commodities as apes, peacocks, silver, iron, tin, ivory, and gold. The capital swelled with residents and visitors, and the monarch’s fame became proverbial (1 Kgs 10).<\/p>\n<p>Solomon was the great OT builder of Jerusalem. His most significant building enterprise was undoubtedly the first temple. Erected on the summit of the temple hill, this edifice required seven years to construct, from April\/May 966 (1 Kgs 6:1) to October\/November 959 (v 38). Hiram again provided both the technology and the cedar beams.<\/p>\n<p>One may find in 1 Kings 10:27 a succinct encapsulation of the economic wealth lavished upon Jerusalem by Solomon: silver became as abundant as stone, and cedar was as common as sycamore. It is estimated that the annual revenues that coursed into Jerusalem were as high as $17 million. Ironically, it was the fiscal factor that became the burden of Solomon’s monarchy. Overextending himself financially, his economic and political programs soon required the levying of heavy taxes (1 Kgs 4:7-19) and the drafting of Israelites into forced labor (1 Kgs 5:13-18; cf. 9:20-23). These were the primary factors that prompted the schism in Israel’s political structure after the death of Solomon and resulted in a divided monarchy by 930 <span>BC<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>When the Babylonian army laid final siege to Jerusalem (588 <span>BC<\/span>), capturing it after many months, the city was completely decimated. The temple and Solomon’s palace were destroyed with fire; the city walls were demolished. The temple treasures were completely plundered, and the citizens were deported in large numbers.<\/p>\n<h5>The Second Temple Period<\/h5>\n<p>Jerusalem’s doom and 70-year captivity had been spelled out by Jeremiah (Jer 25:11; 29:10; cf. 2 Chr 36:21; Dn 9:2). In 538 <span>BC<\/span>, after the fall of Babylon, Cyrus, king of Persia, issued his famous proclamation (2 Chr 36:22-23; Ezr 1:1-4; cf. Is 44:28; 45:1). Thereupon, a humble group of Jews returned to Jerusalem with Sheshbazzar, a prince of Judah (Ezr 1:8-11) and Zerubbabel (2:2). In 515 <span>BC<\/span>, the doors of the second temple were opened officially, and the Passover feast was again observed from Jerusalem (6:15-18).<\/p>\n<p>Ezra came to Jerusalem in the seventh year of Artaxerxes (Ezr 7:7). Assuming this is a reference to Artaxerxes I, the date of Ezra’s return would have been 458 <span>BC<\/span>. Again, it was only a meager remnant who felt the compelling urge to make that difficult journey (cf. Josephus’s <em>Antiquities<\/em> 11.1.3).<\/p>\n<p>Moved by reports of troubled conditions (Neh 1:3-4), Nehemiah, in the 20th year of Artaxerxes (445 <span>BC<\/span>), was able to leave his post as cup-bearer to the king and to go to Jerusalem. If the concern of the earlier returnees focused upon the temple, Nehemiah’s was upon the city walls. His is the most comprehensive description of Jerusalem’s postexilic city walls and topography (Neh 2:11-16). Spurred on by his energetic enthusiasm, the people completed the task of rebuilding the walls in 52 days (6:15).<\/p>\n\n<h5>The Roman Period<\/h5>\n<p>In 40 <span>BC<\/span>, with the aid of the Parthians, Antigonus attacked and seized Jerusalem, forcing Herod to escape by night. He journeyed to Rome, where the Senate appointed him as “king of the Jews” (cf. Mt 2:1). Armed with this new authority, Herod marshaled two Roman legions, and in 37 <span>BC<\/span>, he succeeded in forever expelling the Parthians. So began the long and infamous rule of Herod, who reigned at Jerusalem for 33 years (37–4 <span>BC<\/span>).<\/p>\n<p>It cannot be denied that Jerusalem enjoyed prosperous and peaceful years during his reign. Herod transformed the external aspect of Jerusalem. He transferred the seat of government to the southwestern hill. Here he erected a lavish palace, an arena for athletic contests, a theater, and a vast aqueduct network.<\/p>\n<p>Other building projects concerned the temple hill. Herod transformed the old Maccabean fortress into a much larger structure and named it Antonia, in honor of Mark Antony. In the temple area proper he enlarged the esplanade on both the north and south sides, giving it a rectangular shape. Herod’s reconstruction of the temple was undertaken in 20 <span>BC<\/span>, and it was not completed until around <span>AD<\/span> 64, just six years prior to its destruction by Titus (cf. Jn 2:20).<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Israel, History of; Jerusalem, New; Judaism; Zion; Zion, Daughter of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"JERUSALEM Historic city sacred to Christians, Jews, and Muslims; the chief city of ancient Palestine and of the modern state of Israel. Preview • Meaning of the Name • Geographical Situation • History Meaning of the Name Egyptian Meaning The earliest mention of the name occurs in the Egyptian Execration Texts of the 19th and 18th centuries BC in the form probably transliterated Urusalimum. Semitic Meaning In the 14th century BC the name appears in the Abdi-Hepa correspondence from Tell el-Ama...","summary_en":"JERUSALEM Historic city sacred to Christians, Jews, and Muslims; the chief city of ancient Palestine and of the modern state of Israel. Preview • Meaning of the Name • Geographical Situation • History Meaning of the Name Egyptian Meaning The earliest mention of the name occurs in the Egyptian Execration Texts of the 19th and 18th centuries BC in the form probably transliterated Urusalimum. Semitic Meaning In the 14th century BC the name appears in the Abdi-Hepa correspondence from Tell el-Ama...","source":"Articles\/J.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":46578,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:16","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:16<\/strong> <em>Michal<\/em> is identified as <em>the daughter of Saul<\/em> three times (6:16, 20, 23). The use of her father’s name underscores the ambiguity of David’s relationship to her. Was she more David’s wife or Saul’s daughter? Had David reunited with her (3:13) because he loved her or because she was politically useful to him? • Michal might have been <em>filled with contempt<\/em> for any of the following reasons: (1) She thought David’s behavior was too sexually suggestive in front of a young female audience; (2) she was jealous over the glory David was receiving while she sat at home, a neglected wife; (3) she resented David’s indifference to her for many years, his taking of other wives, and her being torn away from her second husband Palti (3:16-17); or (4) she felt sorrow for her late father and David’s success at the expense of Saul’s dynasty (see study note on 6:21).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:16<\/strong> <em>Michal<\/em> is identified as <em>the daughter of Saul<\/em> three times (6:16, 20, 23). The use of her father’s name underscores the ambiguity of David’s relationship to her. Was she more David’s wife or Saul’s daughter? Had David reunited with her (3:13) because he loved her or because she was politically useful to him? • Michal might have been <em>filled with contempt<\/em> for any of the following reasons: (1) She thought David’s behavior was too sexually suggestive in front of a young female audience; (2) she was jealous over the glory David was receiving while she sat at home, a neglected wife; (3) she resented David’s indifference to her for many years, his taking of other wives, and her being torn away from her second husband Palti (3:16-17); or (4) she felt sorrow for her late father and David’s success at the expense of Saul’s dynasty (see study note on 6:21).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:16 Michal is identified as the daughter of Saul three times (6:16, 20, 23). The use of her father’s name underscores the ambiguity of David’s relationship to her. Was she more David’s wife or Saul’s daughter? Had David reunited with her (3:13) because he loved her or because she was politically useful to him? • Michal might have been filled with contempt for any of the following reasons: (1) She thought David’s behavior was too sexually suggestive in front of a young female audience; (2) sh...","summary_en":"6:16 Michal is identified as the daughter of Saul three times (6:16, 20, 23). The use of her father’s name underscores the ambiguity of David’s relationship to her. Was she more David’s wife or Saul’s daughter? Had David reunited with her (3:13) because he loved her or because she was politically useful to him? • Michal might have been filled with contempt for any of the following reasons: (1) She thought David’s behavior was too sexually suggestive in front of a young female audience; (2) sh...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":74204,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:16","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:16<\/strong> <em>Michal<\/em> is identified as <em>the daughter of Saul<\/em> three times (6:16, 20, 23). The use of her father’s name underscores the ambiguity of David’s relationship to her. Was she more David’s wife or Saul’s daughter? Had David reunited with her (3:13) because he loved her or because she was politically useful to him? • Michal might have been <em>filled with contempt<\/em> for any of the following reasons: (1) She thought David’s behavior was too sexually suggestive in front of a young female audience; (2) she was jealous over the glory David was receiving while she sat at home, a neglected wife; (3) she resented David’s indifference to her for many years, his taking of other wives, and her being torn away from her second husband Palti (3:16-17); or (4) she felt sorrow for her late father and David’s success at the expense of Saul’s dynasty (see study note on 6:21).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:16<\/strong> <em>Michal<\/em> is identified as <em>the daughter of Saul<\/em> three times (6:16, 20, 23). The use of her father’s name underscores the ambiguity of David’s relationship to her. Was she more David’s wife or Saul’s daughter? Had David reunited with her (3:13) because he loved her or because she was politically useful to him? • Michal might have been <em>filled with contempt<\/em> for any of the following reasons: (1) She thought David’s behavior was too sexually suggestive in front of a young female audience; (2) she was jealous over the glory David was receiving while she sat at home, a neglected wife; (3) she resented David’s indifference to her for many years, his taking of other wives, and her being torn away from her second husband Palti (3:16-17); or (4) she felt sorrow for her late father and David’s success at the expense of Saul’s dynasty (see study note on 6:21).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:16 Michal is identified as the daughter of Saul three times (6:16, 20, 23). The use of her father’s name underscores the ambiguity of David’s relationship to her. Was she more David’s wife or Saul’s daughter? Had David reunited with her (3:13) because he loved her or because she was politically useful to him? • Michal might have been filled with contempt for any of the following reasons: (1) She thought David’s behavior was too sexually suggestive in front of a young female audience; (2) sh...","summary_en":"6:16 Michal is identified as the daughter of Saul three times (6:16, 20, 23). The use of her father’s name underscores the ambiguity of David’s relationship to her. Was she more David’s wife or Saul’s daughter? Had David reunited with her (3:13) because he loved her or because she was politically useful to him? • Michal might have been filled with contempt for any of the following reasons: (1) She thought David’s behavior was too sexually suggestive in front of a young female audience; (2) sh...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101830,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:16","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:16<\/strong> <em>Michal<\/em> is identified as <em>the daughter of Saul<\/em> three times (6:16, 20, 23). The use of her father’s name underscores the ambiguity of David’s relationship to her. Was she more David’s wife or Saul’s daughter? Had David reunited with her (3:13) because he loved her or because she was politically useful to him? • Michal might have been <em>filled with contempt<\/em> for any of the following reasons: (1) She thought David’s behavior was too sexually suggestive in front of a young female audience; (2) she was jealous over the glory David was receiving while she sat at home, a neglected wife; (3) she resented David’s indifference to her for many years, his taking of other wives, and her being torn away from her second husband Palti (3:16-17); or (4) she felt sorrow for her late father and David’s success at the expense of Saul’s dynasty (see study note on 6:21).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:16<\/strong> <em>Michal<\/em> is identified as <em>the daughter of Saul<\/em> three times (6:16, 20, 23). The use of her father’s name underscores the ambiguity of David’s relationship to her. Was she more David’s wife or Saul’s daughter? Had David reunited with her (3:13) because he loved her or because she was politically useful to him? • Michal might have been <em>filled with contempt<\/em> for any of the following reasons: (1) She thought David’s behavior was too sexually suggestive in front of a young female audience; (2) she was jealous over the glory David was receiving while she sat at home, a neglected wife; (3) she resented David’s indifference to her for many years, his taking of other wives, and her being torn away from her second husband Palti (3:16-17); or (4) she felt sorrow for her late father and David’s success at the expense of Saul’s dynasty (see study note on 6:21).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:16 Michal is identified as the daughter of Saul three times (6:16, 20, 23). The use of her father’s name underscores the ambiguity of David’s relationship to her. Was she more David’s wife or Saul’s daughter? Had David reunited with her (3:13) because he loved her or because she was politically useful to him? • Michal might have been filled with contempt for any of the following reasons: (1) She thought David’s behavior was too sexually suggestive in front of a young female audience; (2) sh...","summary_en":"6:16 Michal is identified as the daughter of Saul three times (6:16, 20, 23). The use of her father’s name underscores the ambiguity of David’s relationship to her. Was she more David’s wife or Saul’s daughter? Had David reunited with her (3:13) because he loved her or because she was politically useful to him? • Michal might have been filled with contempt for any of the following reasons: (1) She thought David’s behavior was too sexually suggestive in front of a young female audience; (2) sh...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":129456,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:16","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:16","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:16<\/strong> <em>Michal<\/em> is identified as <em>the daughter of Saul<\/em> three times (6:16, 20, 23). The use of her father’s name underscores the ambiguity of David’s relationship to her. Was she more David’s wife or Saul’s daughter? Had David reunited with her (3:13) because he loved her or because she was politically useful to him? • Michal might have been <em>filled with contempt<\/em> for any of the following reasons: (1) She thought David’s behavior was too sexually suggestive in front of a young female audience; (2) she was jealous over the glory David was receiving while she sat at home, a neglected wife; (3) she resented David’s indifference to her for many years, his taking of other wives, and her being torn away from her second husband Palti (3:16-17); or (4) she felt sorrow for her late father and David’s success at the expense of Saul’s dynasty (see study note on 6:21).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:16<\/strong> <em>Michal<\/em> is identified as <em>the daughter of Saul<\/em> three times (6:16, 20, 23). The use of her father’s name underscores the ambiguity of David’s relationship to her. Was she more David’s wife or Saul’s daughter? Had David reunited with her (3:13) because he loved her or because she was politically useful to him? • Michal might have been <em>filled with contempt<\/em> for any of the following reasons: (1) She thought David’s behavior was too sexually suggestive in front of a young female audience; (2) she was jealous over the glory David was receiving while she sat at home, a neglected wife; (3) she resented David’s indifference to her for many years, his taking of other wives, and her being torn away from her second husband Palti (3:16-17); or (4) she felt sorrow for her late father and David’s success at the expense of Saul’s dynasty (see study note on 6:21).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:16 Michal is identified as the daughter of Saul three times (6:16, 20, 23). The use of her father’s name underscores the ambiguity of David’s relationship to her. Was she more David’s wife or Saul’s daughter? Had David reunited with her (3:13) because he loved her or because she was politically useful to him? • Michal might have been filled with contempt for any of the following reasons: (1) She thought David’s behavior was too sexually suggestive in front of a young female audience; (2) sh...","summary_en":"6:16 Michal is identified as the daughter of Saul three times (6:16, 20, 23). The use of her father’s name underscores the ambiguity of David’s relationship to her. Was she more David’s wife or Saul’s daughter? Had David reunited with her (3:13) because he loved her or because she was politically useful to him? • Michal might have been filled with contempt for any of the following reasons: (1) She thought David’s behavior was too sexually suggestive in front of a young female audience; (2) sh...","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":61301,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Celebration","title_en":"Celebration","content_ro":"<h3>Celebration<\/h3>\n<p>God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">karar<\/span> (2 Sam 6:14, 16), <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pazaz<\/span> (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">raqad<\/span> (1 Chr 15:29, “skipping about”). All three words refer to vigorous physical expression beyond the meaning of the Hebrew term for “celebrate” used in David’s first attempt (2 Sam 6:5). Thus, in the first procession, David celebrated; in the second procession he engaged in exultant dancing and extravagant merrymaking with intensified musical expression through the addition of shouting and trumpets.<\/p>\n<p>Musical instruments played a significant role in Temple worship. In 1 Chronicles 25:1-31, David assigned various groups to the ministry of music. Many psalms refer to playing musical instruments in praise and worship of God (see Pss 33:2-3; 57:8; 81:2; 92:1-3; 98:4-6). In Pss 149 and 150, dance and music are combined as a praise offering. Similarly, music and dancing were heard in the father’s house in the parable of the lost son (Luke 15:25), as the son’s return was truly a joyful occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation gives a picture of the eternal celebration that awaits the faithful—a celebration characterized by worship in the presence of God (Rev 4:1-11; 5:8-14; 15:1-4). This celebration is described as a wedding feast, in which the bridegroom (Christ) and the bride (his church) are joined together forever (Rev 19:9; see also Matt 22:1-14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 5:1; 12:17; 15:20-21; 1 Sam 18:6; 2 Sam 6:1-15; 2 Chr 7:6-10; Ezra 3:10-11; Pss 30:11; 69:30; 98:4-6; 107:32; 149:1-9; 150:1-6; Isa 30:29; 54:1; Jer 30:18-19; 31:4, 13; Lam 5:14-15; Zeph 3:17; Luke 15:22-25; 1 Cor 5:8; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Rev 18:20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Celebration<\/h3>\n<p>God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">karar<\/span> (2 Sam 6:14, 16), <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pazaz<\/span> (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">raqad<\/span> (1 Chr 15:29, “skipping about”). All three words refer to vigorous physical expression beyond the meaning of the Hebrew term for “celebrate” used in David’s first attempt (2 Sam 6:5). Thus, in the first procession, David celebrated; in the second procession he engaged in exultant dancing and extravagant merrymaking with intensified musical expression through the addition of shouting and trumpets.<\/p>\n<p>Musical instruments played a significant role in Temple worship. In 1 Chronicles 25:1-31, David assigned various groups to the ministry of music. Many psalms refer to playing musical instruments in praise and worship of God (see Pss 33:2-3; 57:8; 81:2; 92:1-3; 98:4-6). In Pss 149 and 150, dance and music are combined as a praise offering. Similarly, music and dancing were heard in the father’s house in the parable of the lost son (Luke 15:25), as the son’s return was truly a joyful occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation gives a picture of the eternal celebration that awaits the faithful—a celebration characterized by worship in the presence of God (Rev 4:1-11; 5:8-14; 15:1-4). This celebration is described as a wedding feast, in which the bridegroom (Christ) and the bride (his church) are joined together forever (Rev 19:9; see also Matt 22:1-14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 5:1; 12:17; 15:20-21; 1 Sam 18:6; 2 Sam 6:1-15; 2 Chr 7:6-10; Ezra 3:10-11; Pss 30:11; 69:30; 98:4-6; 107:32; 149:1-9; 150:1-6; Isa 30:29; 54:1; Jer 30:18-19; 31:4, 13; Lam 5:14-15; Zeph 3:17; Luke 15:22-25; 1 Cor 5:8; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Rev 18:20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Celebration God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): karar (2 Sam 6:14, 16), pazaz (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and raqad (1 Chr 15:29, “skippin...","summary_en":"Celebration God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): karar (2 Sam 6:14, 16), pazaz (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and raqad (1 Chr 15:29, “skippin...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":88927,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Celebration","title_en":"Celebration","content_ro":"<h3>Celebration<\/h3>\n<p>God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">karar<\/span> (2 Sam 6:14, 16), <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pazaz<\/span> (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">raqad<\/span> (1 Chr 15:29, “skipping about”). All three words refer to vigorous physical expression beyond the meaning of the Hebrew term for “celebrate” used in David’s first attempt (2 Sam 6:5). Thus, in the first procession, David celebrated; in the second procession he engaged in exultant dancing and extravagant merrymaking with intensified musical expression through the addition of shouting and trumpets.<\/p>\n<p>Musical instruments played a significant role in Temple worship. In 1 Chronicles 25:1-31, David assigned various groups to the ministry of music. Many psalms refer to playing musical instruments in praise and worship of God (see Pss 33:2-3; 57:8; 81:2; 92:1-3; 98:4-6). In Pss 149 and 150, dance and music are combined as a praise offering. Similarly, music and dancing were heard in the father’s house in the parable of the lost son (Luke 15:25), as the son’s return was truly a joyful occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation gives a picture of the eternal celebration that awaits the faithful—a celebration characterized by worship in the presence of God (Rev 4:1-11; 5:8-14; 15:1-4). This celebration is described as a wedding feast, in which the bridegroom (Christ) and the bride (his church) are joined together forever (Rev 19:9; see also Matt 22:1-14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 5:1; 12:17; 15:20-21; 1 Sam 18:6; 2 Sam 6:1-15; 2 Chr 7:6-10; Ezra 3:10-11; Pss 30:11; 69:30; 98:4-6; 107:32; 149:1-9; 150:1-6; Isa 30:29; 54:1; Jer 30:18-19; 31:4, 13; Lam 5:14-15; Zeph 3:17; Luke 15:22-25; 1 Cor 5:8; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Rev 18:20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Celebration<\/h3>\n<p>God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">karar<\/span> (2 Sam 6:14, 16), <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pazaz<\/span> (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">raqad<\/span> (1 Chr 15:29, “skipping about”). All three words refer to vigorous physical expression beyond the meaning of the Hebrew term for “celebrate” used in David’s first attempt (2 Sam 6:5). Thus, in the first procession, David celebrated; in the second procession he engaged in exultant dancing and extravagant merrymaking with intensified musical expression through the addition of shouting and trumpets.<\/p>\n<p>Musical instruments played a significant role in Temple worship. In 1 Chronicles 25:1-31, David assigned various groups to the ministry of music. Many psalms refer to playing musical instruments in praise and worship of God (see Pss 33:2-3; 57:8; 81:2; 92:1-3; 98:4-6). In Pss 149 and 150, dance and music are combined as a praise offering. Similarly, music and dancing were heard in the father’s house in the parable of the lost son (Luke 15:25), as the son’s return was truly a joyful occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation gives a picture of the eternal celebration that awaits the faithful—a celebration characterized by worship in the presence of God (Rev 4:1-11; 5:8-14; 15:1-4). This celebration is described as a wedding feast, in which the bridegroom (Christ) and the bride (his church) are joined together forever (Rev 19:9; see also Matt 22:1-14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 5:1; 12:17; 15:20-21; 1 Sam 18:6; 2 Sam 6:1-15; 2 Chr 7:6-10; Ezra 3:10-11; Pss 30:11; 69:30; 98:4-6; 107:32; 149:1-9; 150:1-6; Isa 30:29; 54:1; Jer 30:18-19; 31:4, 13; Lam 5:14-15; Zeph 3:17; Luke 15:22-25; 1 Cor 5:8; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Rev 18:20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Celebration God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): karar (2 Sam 6:14, 16), pazaz (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and raqad (1 Chr 15:29, “skippin...","summary_en":"Celebration God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): karar (2 Sam 6:14, 16), pazaz (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and raqad (1 Chr 15:29, “skippin...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":116553,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Celebration","title_en":"Celebration","content_ro":"<h3>Celebration<\/h3>\n<p>God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">karar<\/span> (2 Sam 6:14, 16), <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pazaz<\/span> (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">raqad<\/span> (1 Chr 15:29, “skipping about”). All three words refer to vigorous physical expression beyond the meaning of the Hebrew term for “celebrate” used in David’s first attempt (2 Sam 6:5). Thus, in the first procession, David celebrated; in the second procession he engaged in exultant dancing and extravagant merrymaking with intensified musical expression through the addition of shouting and trumpets.<\/p>\n<p>Musical instruments played a significant role in Temple worship. In 1 Chronicles 25:1-31, David assigned various groups to the ministry of music. Many psalms refer to playing musical instruments in praise and worship of God (see Pss 33:2-3; 57:8; 81:2; 92:1-3; 98:4-6). In Pss 149 and 150, dance and music are combined as a praise offering. Similarly, music and dancing were heard in the father’s house in the parable of the lost son (Luke 15:25), as the son’s return was truly a joyful occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation gives a picture of the eternal celebration that awaits the faithful—a celebration characterized by worship in the presence of God (Rev 4:1-11; 5:8-14; 15:1-4). This celebration is described as a wedding feast, in which the bridegroom (Christ) and the bride (his church) are joined together forever (Rev 19:9; see also Matt 22:1-14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 5:1; 12:17; 15:20-21; 1 Sam 18:6; 2 Sam 6:1-15; 2 Chr 7:6-10; Ezra 3:10-11; Pss 30:11; 69:30; 98:4-6; 107:32; 149:1-9; 150:1-6; Isa 30:29; 54:1; Jer 30:18-19; 31:4, 13; Lam 5:14-15; Zeph 3:17; Luke 15:22-25; 1 Cor 5:8; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Rev 18:20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Celebration<\/h3>\n<p>God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">karar<\/span> (2 Sam 6:14, 16), <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pazaz<\/span> (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">raqad<\/span> (1 Chr 15:29, “skipping about”). All three words refer to vigorous physical expression beyond the meaning of the Hebrew term for “celebrate” used in David’s first attempt (2 Sam 6:5). Thus, in the first procession, David celebrated; in the second procession he engaged in exultant dancing and extravagant merrymaking with intensified musical expression through the addition of shouting and trumpets.<\/p>\n<p>Musical instruments played a significant role in Temple worship. In 1 Chronicles 25:1-31, David assigned various groups to the ministry of music. Many psalms refer to playing musical instruments in praise and worship of God (see Pss 33:2-3; 57:8; 81:2; 92:1-3; 98:4-6). In Pss 149 and 150, dance and music are combined as a praise offering. Similarly, music and dancing were heard in the father’s house in the parable of the lost son (Luke 15:25), as the son’s return was truly a joyful occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation gives a picture of the eternal celebration that awaits the faithful—a celebration characterized by worship in the presence of God (Rev 4:1-11; 5:8-14; 15:1-4). This celebration is described as a wedding feast, in which the bridegroom (Christ) and the bride (his church) are joined together forever (Rev 19:9; see also Matt 22:1-14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 5:1; 12:17; 15:20-21; 1 Sam 18:6; 2 Sam 6:1-15; 2 Chr 7:6-10; Ezra 3:10-11; Pss 30:11; 69:30; 98:4-6; 107:32; 149:1-9; 150:1-6; Isa 30:29; 54:1; Jer 30:18-19; 31:4, 13; Lam 5:14-15; Zeph 3:17; Luke 15:22-25; 1 Cor 5:8; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Rev 18:20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Celebration God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): karar (2 Sam 6:14, 16), pazaz (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and raqad (1 Chr 15:29, “skippin...","summary_en":"Celebration God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): karar (2 Sam 6:14, 16), pazaz (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and raqad (1 Chr 15:29, “skippin...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":144179,"type":"theme_note","type_label":"Temă biblică","type_icon":"🎯","type_color":"#ef4444","title_ro":"Celebration","title_en":"Celebration","content_ro":"<h3>Celebration<\/h3>\n<p>God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">karar<\/span> (2 Sam 6:14, 16), <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pazaz<\/span> (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">raqad<\/span> (1 Chr 15:29, “skipping about”). All three words refer to vigorous physical expression beyond the meaning of the Hebrew term for “celebrate” used in David’s first attempt (2 Sam 6:5). Thus, in the first procession, David celebrated; in the second procession he engaged in exultant dancing and extravagant merrymaking with intensified musical expression through the addition of shouting and trumpets.<\/p>\n<p>Musical instruments played a significant role in Temple worship. In 1 Chronicles 25:1-31, David assigned various groups to the ministry of music. Many psalms refer to playing musical instruments in praise and worship of God (see Pss 33:2-3; 57:8; 81:2; 92:1-3; 98:4-6). In Pss 149 and 150, dance and music are combined as a praise offering. Similarly, music and dancing were heard in the father’s house in the parable of the lost son (Luke 15:25), as the son’s return was truly a joyful occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation gives a picture of the eternal celebration that awaits the faithful—a celebration characterized by worship in the presence of God (Rev 4:1-11; 5:8-14; 15:1-4). This celebration is described as a wedding feast, in which the bridegroom (Christ) and the bride (his church) are joined together forever (Rev 19:9; see also Matt 22:1-14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 5:1; 12:17; 15:20-21; 1 Sam 18:6; 2 Sam 6:1-15; 2 Chr 7:6-10; Ezra 3:10-11; Pss 30:11; 69:30; 98:4-6; 107:32; 149:1-9; 150:1-6; Isa 30:29; 54:1; Jer 30:18-19; 31:4, 13; Lam 5:14-15; Zeph 3:17; Luke 15:22-25; 1 Cor 5:8; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Rev 18:20<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>Celebration<\/h3>\n<p>God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).<\/p>\n<p>David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">karar<\/span> (2 Sam 6:14, 16), <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">pazaz<\/span> (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">raqad<\/span> (1 Chr 15:29, “skipping about”). All three words refer to vigorous physical expression beyond the meaning of the Hebrew term for “celebrate” used in David’s first attempt (2 Sam 6:5). Thus, in the first procession, David celebrated; in the second procession he engaged in exultant dancing and extravagant merrymaking with intensified musical expression through the addition of shouting and trumpets.<\/p>\n<p>Musical instruments played a significant role in Temple worship. In 1 Chronicles 25:1-31, David assigned various groups to the ministry of music. Many psalms refer to playing musical instruments in praise and worship of God (see Pss 33:2-3; 57:8; 81:2; 92:1-3; 98:4-6). In Pss 149 and 150, dance and music are combined as a praise offering. Similarly, music and dancing were heard in the father’s house in the parable of the lost son (Luke 15:25), as the son’s return was truly a joyful occasion.<\/p>\n<p>The book of Revelation gives a picture of the eternal celebration that awaits the faithful—a celebration characterized by worship in the presence of God (Rev 4:1-11; 5:8-14; 15:1-4). This celebration is described as a wedding feast, in which the bridegroom (Christ) and the bride (his church) are joined together forever (Rev 19:9; see also Matt 22:1-14).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Passages for Further Study<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Exod 5:1; 12:17; 15:20-21; 1 Sam 18:6; 2 Sam 6:1-15; 2 Chr 7:6-10; Ezra 3:10-11; Pss 30:11; 69:30; 98:4-6; 107:32; 149:1-9; 150:1-6; Isa 30:29; 54:1; Jer 30:18-19; 31:4, 13; Lam 5:14-15; Zeph 3:17; Luke 15:22-25; 1 Cor 5:8; Eph 5:18-20; Col 3:16; Rev 18:20<\/p>","summary_ro":"Celebration God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): karar (2 Sam 6:14, 16), pazaz (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and raqad (1 Chr 15:29, “skippin...","summary_en":"Celebration God welcomes exuberant expressions of joy and delight from those who worship and praise him (Isa 30:29; Jer 30:19; 31:13; Zeph 3:17; Eph 5:19; Col 3:16). David’s two attempts to bring the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam 6:1-11, 12-23) were marked by celebration. Three Hebrew terms for “danced\/dancing” are found in the account of the second procession of the Ark (see also 1 Chr 15:25-29): karar (2 Sam 6:14, 16), pazaz (NLT, “leaping,” 6:16), and raqad (1 Chr 15:29, “skippin...","source":"ThemeNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"17":[{"id":46579,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:17","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:17<\/strong> While <em>the special tent<\/em> for the Ark was not as opulent as the tent used during the wilderness wandering, this tent was a return to the wilderness tradition suspended two generations earlier at the destruction of Shiloh (Ps 78:60-61). David’s special tent was the very last Tabernacle; Solomon, David’s successor, built a permanent Temple for the Lord. Because this occasion was joyous, not penitential, the sacrifice included <em>burnt offerings and peace offerings<\/em> but not sin or guilt offerings.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:17<\/strong> While <em>the special tent<\/em> for the Ark was not as opulent as the tent used during the wilderness wandering, this tent was a return to the wilderness tradition suspended two generations earlier at the destruction of Shiloh (Ps 78:60-61). David’s special tent was the very last Tabernacle; Solomon, David’s successor, built a permanent Temple for the Lord. Because this occasion was joyous, not penitential, the sacrifice included <em>burnt offerings and peace offerings<\/em> but not sin or guilt offerings.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:17 While the special tent for the Ark was not as opulent as the tent used during the wilderness wandering, this tent was a return to the wilderness tradition suspended two generations earlier at the destruction of Shiloh (Ps 78:60-61). David’s special tent was the very last Tabernacle; Solomon, David’s successor, built a permanent Temple for the Lord. Because this occasion was joyous, not penitential, the sacrifice included burnt offerings and peace offerings but not sin or guilt offerings.","summary_en":"6:17 While the special tent for the Ark was not as opulent as the tent used during the wilderness wandering, this tent was a return to the wilderness tradition suspended two generations earlier at the destruction of Shiloh (Ps 78:60-61). David’s special tent was the very last Tabernacle; Solomon, David’s successor, built a permanent Temple for the Lord. Because this occasion was joyous, not penitential, the sacrifice included burnt offerings and peace offerings but not sin or guilt offerings.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":74205,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:17","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:17<\/strong> While <em>the special tent<\/em> for the Ark was not as opulent as the tent used during the wilderness wandering, this tent was a return to the wilderness tradition suspended two generations earlier at the destruction of Shiloh (Ps 78:60-61). David’s special tent was the very last Tabernacle; Solomon, David’s successor, built a permanent Temple for the Lord. Because this occasion was joyous, not penitential, the sacrifice included <em>burnt offerings and peace offerings<\/em> but not sin or guilt offerings.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:17<\/strong> While <em>the special tent<\/em> for the Ark was not as opulent as the tent used during the wilderness wandering, this tent was a return to the wilderness tradition suspended two generations earlier at the destruction of Shiloh (Ps 78:60-61). David’s special tent was the very last Tabernacle; Solomon, David’s successor, built a permanent Temple for the Lord. Because this occasion was joyous, not penitential, the sacrifice included <em>burnt offerings and peace offerings<\/em> but not sin or guilt offerings.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:17 While the special tent for the Ark was not as opulent as the tent used during the wilderness wandering, this tent was a return to the wilderness tradition suspended two generations earlier at the destruction of Shiloh (Ps 78:60-61). David’s special tent was the very last Tabernacle; Solomon, David’s successor, built a permanent Temple for the Lord. Because this occasion was joyous, not penitential, the sacrifice included burnt offerings and peace offerings but not sin or guilt offerings.","summary_en":"6:17 While the special tent for the Ark was not as opulent as the tent used during the wilderness wandering, this tent was a return to the wilderness tradition suspended two generations earlier at the destruction of Shiloh (Ps 78:60-61). David’s special tent was the very last Tabernacle; Solomon, David’s successor, built a permanent Temple for the Lord. Because this occasion was joyous, not penitential, the sacrifice included burnt offerings and peace offerings but not sin or guilt offerings.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101831,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:17","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:17<\/strong> While <em>the special tent<\/em> for the Ark was not as opulent as the tent used during the wilderness wandering, this tent was a return to the wilderness tradition suspended two generations earlier at the destruction of Shiloh (Ps 78:60-61). David’s special tent was the very last Tabernacle; Solomon, David’s successor, built a permanent Temple for the Lord. Because this occasion was joyous, not penitential, the sacrifice included <em>burnt offerings and peace offerings<\/em> but not sin or guilt offerings.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:17<\/strong> While <em>the special tent<\/em> for the Ark was not as opulent as the tent used during the wilderness wandering, this tent was a return to the wilderness tradition suspended two generations earlier at the destruction of Shiloh (Ps 78:60-61). David’s special tent was the very last Tabernacle; Solomon, David’s successor, built a permanent Temple for the Lord. Because this occasion was joyous, not penitential, the sacrifice included <em>burnt offerings and peace offerings<\/em> but not sin or guilt offerings.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:17 While the special tent for the Ark was not as opulent as the tent used during the wilderness wandering, this tent was a return to the wilderness tradition suspended two generations earlier at the destruction of Shiloh (Ps 78:60-61). David’s special tent was the very last Tabernacle; Solomon, David’s successor, built a permanent Temple for the Lord. Because this occasion was joyous, not penitential, the sacrifice included burnt offerings and peace offerings but not sin or guilt offerings.","summary_en":"6:17 While the special tent for the Ark was not as opulent as the tent used during the wilderness wandering, this tent was a return to the wilderness tradition suspended two generations earlier at the destruction of Shiloh (Ps 78:60-61). David’s special tent was the very last Tabernacle; Solomon, David’s successor, built a permanent Temple for the Lord. Because this occasion was joyous, not penitential, the sacrifice included burnt offerings and peace offerings but not sin or guilt offerings.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":129457,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:17","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:17","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:17<\/strong> While <em>the special tent<\/em> for the Ark was not as opulent as the tent used during the wilderness wandering, this tent was a return to the wilderness tradition suspended two generations earlier at the destruction of Shiloh (Ps 78:60-61). David’s special tent was the very last Tabernacle; Solomon, David’s successor, built a permanent Temple for the Lord. Because this occasion was joyous, not penitential, the sacrifice included <em>burnt offerings and peace offerings<\/em> but not sin or guilt offerings.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:17<\/strong> While <em>the special tent<\/em> for the Ark was not as opulent as the tent used during the wilderness wandering, this tent was a return to the wilderness tradition suspended two generations earlier at the destruction of Shiloh (Ps 78:60-61). David’s special tent was the very last Tabernacle; Solomon, David’s successor, built a permanent Temple for the Lord. Because this occasion was joyous, not penitential, the sacrifice included <em>burnt offerings and peace offerings<\/em> but not sin or guilt offerings.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:17 While the special tent for the Ark was not as opulent as the tent used during the wilderness wandering, this tent was a return to the wilderness tradition suspended two generations earlier at the destruction of Shiloh (Ps 78:60-61). David’s special tent was the very last Tabernacle; Solomon, David’s successor, built a permanent Temple for the Lord. Because this occasion was joyous, not penitential, the sacrifice included burnt offerings and peace offerings but not sin or guilt offerings.","summary_en":"6:17 While the special tent for the Ark was not as opulent as the tent used during the wilderness wandering, this tent was a return to the wilderness tradition suspended two generations earlier at the destruction of Shiloh (Ps 78:60-61). David’s special tent was the very last Tabernacle; Solomon, David’s successor, built a permanent Temple for the Lord. Because this occasion was joyous, not penitential, the sacrifice included burnt offerings and peace offerings but not sin or guilt offerings.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"18":[{"id":14281,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Names of God","title_en":"Names of God","content_ro":"<h3>GOD, Names of<\/h3>\n<p>God’s self-identifications expressing various aspects of his being.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Biblical Idea of Name<\/p>\n<p>• The Names of God in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• The Names of God in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheBiblicalIdeaofName\">The Biblical Idea of Name<\/p>\n<p>In the Scriptures the name and person of God are inseparably related. This is in keeping with the biblical conception of what a name signifies.<\/p>\n<p>In the Hebrew language, the term for “name” most probably meant “sign” or “distinctive mark.” In the Greek language, “name” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">onoma<\/span><em>)<\/em> is derived from a verb that means “to know.” A name, therefore, indicates that by which a person or object is to be known. But the idea of name is not to be taken in the sense of a label or an arbitrary means of identifying or specifying a person, place, or object. “Name” in biblical usage correctly describes the person, place, or object and indicates the essential character of that to which the name is given. Adam named the animals according to their nature (Gn 2:19-20); Noah means “one who brings relief and comfort” (5:29); Jesus means “savior” (Mt 1:21). When a person was given a new position or a radical change took place in his life, a new name was given to indicate that new aspect—for example, Abraham (“father of many,” Gn 17:5), and Israel (“one who strives with God” or “God strives,” 32:28). The name of a person or people expressed what the person or people thought the proper description or statement of character was.<\/p>\n<p>With regard to the names of God, there are considerable differences, and these are most clearly seen when biblical scholars and theologians confront the question of whether the names of God are ascriptions given by God concerning himself or they are ascriptions given to God by people who observed his acts and reflected on his character as discerned through a study of divine deeds. Here are some examples of various kinds of divine names:<\/p>\n<p>1. Proper names: El, Yahweh, Adonai, Theos (God), Kurios (Lord).<\/p>\n<li>2. Personal names: Father, Abba, Son, Jesus, Holy Spirit.<\/li>\n<li>3. Titles: Creator, Messiah\/Christ, Paraclete\/Comforter.<\/li>\n<li>4. Essential names: Light, Love, Spirit.<\/li>\n<li>5. Descriptive names: Rock, Ba’al, Master, Rabboni, Shepherd.<\/li>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheNamesofGodintheOldTestament\">The Names of God in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<h5>El and Related Names<\/h5>\n<p>The name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span> is found over 200 times in the Hebrew Bible. It is best translated as “God.” The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’el<\/span> has a number of possible meanings. The root is thought by some to be <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’ul<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “to be first” or “to be strong.” Others suggest the root is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’alah<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “to precede” and suggests “leader” or “commander.” It can also mean “to be afraid.” Thus God as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’alah<\/span><em>,<\/em> as the strong one, is to be feared. Still others suggest the preposition <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’el<\/span> (“to, toward”) as the root; the idea then is of “one giving self to others” or of “one to whom others go for help.” Some scholars suggest that the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’alim<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “to bind,” should be considered as a root also—that is, “the strong one binds and holds firm control.” Common to these four suggested root meanings is the idea of strength, power, and of supreme excellence and greatness.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span> in the OT is used particularly in the earlier books, where it describes God’s exercising dynamic power as distinguished from authority. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span> speaks of God as the great doer and producer. He is the One who exercises such power that whatever is made, done, kept, or destroyed is his doing (cf. Ex 15). <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span> is also used to express the idea that God is not to be identified as part of creation but as the One who is above, behind, and beyond creation (Ps 19:1).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> is also commonly used as the name of God, occurring over 2,500 times in the OT. There are differences of opinion concerning the exact origin and meaning of this plural name. Some have suggested that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> is the plural form of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span><em>,<\/em> but it seems more likely that it is a plural of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Eloah<\/span><em>,<\/em> which appears in the poetical writings. Some critical writers have suggested that this plural form is borrowed from pagan polytheistic sources, but no such plural form is found among pagans as the name of a deity. Others have suggested that the plural form is used to indicate the triune nature of God, and support for this has been seen in the use of a singular verb with this plural noun. The biblical doctrine of the Trinity, as it is developed throughout the Scriptures, does not appear to be based on the use of this plural form of God’s name, even though the two positions are not contradictory.<\/p>\n<p>The plural form, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span><em>,<\/em> is best understood as expressing intensity. God makes himself known by this name as the Lord of intense and extensive glory and richness as he exercises his preeminence and power in the created cosmos. Hence, when the Scripture speaks of creation, it states, “In the beginning <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> created the heavens and the earth” (Gn 1:1). This name is repeated 35 times in Genesis 1 and 2 in connection with God’s power as revealed in Creation. In the book of Deuteronomy the name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> is used repeatedly to stress the majestic power of God that was shown in Israel’s release from bondage in Egypt, preservation in the wilderness, and preparation for entrance into the Promised Land. In this context, God <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span><em>)<\/em> is also recognized as the Lawgiver who will powerfully execute judgment on covenant breakers. The psalmists also used this named repeatedly as they acknowledged and praised God the majestic ruler who had demonstrated his omnipotence in many dimensions of life (see Ps 68, in which <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> appears 26 times.)<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars point to the use of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> when God spoke to Abraham and said he would be <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> to the patriarch and his seed; that is, God would be in a covenant relationship to them (Gn 17:1-8). Included in this relationship is the idea that God is ever ready to use his power on behalf of those who are in covenant with him. Thus, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’<\/span><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Elohim<\/span> also expresses the concept of God’s faithfulness in regard to the covenant and the promises and blessings involved in it.<\/p>\n<p>The name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’<\/span><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Eloah<\/span> occurs mainly in the poetical writings, no fewer than 41 times in Job. Isaiah used it to express the incomparable character of God (Is 44:8). In like manner David asked, “Who is God [<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’<\/span><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Eloah<\/span>], but the <span>Lord<\/span>?” (2 Sm 22:32). Moses was the first to use the name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’<\/span><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Eloah<\/span> in his song (Dt 32:15-17), referring to Israel’s God in the context of the “no-gods,” which had been chosen in place of the Rock of salvation and the incomparable One. This name was probably used to stress the fact that God is the only true and living One, the One to be adored and worshiped; he is to be revered with a holy fear.<\/p>\n<p>Another closely related name is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elah<\/span><em>,<\/em> found in Ezra and Daniel. Some think <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elah<\/span> is a Chaldee or Aramaic form of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Eloah<\/span><em>.<\/em> Its root is said to be <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’alah<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “to fear” or “to be perplexed.” God as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elah<\/span> is the God to be feared and worshiped accordingly. In view of this meaning, it can be understood why, in the time of Israel’s exile and immediately after their return, this name was commonly used.<\/p>\n<p>Three other names of God include the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span><em>:<\/em><\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El ‘Elyon<\/span> is the name used to designate the God of Melchizedek (Gn 14:18-22) as God Most High. In Psalms 57:2 and 78:56 the Hebrew reads <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim ‘Elyon<\/span><em>.<\/em> It is believed that the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘Elyon<\/span> is derived from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘alah<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “go up, be elevated, to be exalted.” There are a number of instances where the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘Elyon<\/span> is used alone, but the context indicates that it is then used as a synonym for God (e.g., Nm 24:16; Ps 83:18; Is 14:14). The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘elyon<\/span> is used quite frequently as an adjective; it is then translated as “high, highest, upper, uppermost.” The basic ascription given to God when this name is employed is to One who is above all things as the maker, possessor, and ruler. He is incomparable in every way; he is subject to no one and no thing; he is the Exalted One.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Shaddai<\/span> is used in the longer form seven times in the Scriptures (Gn 17:1; 28:3; 35:11; 43:14; 48:3; Ex 6:3; Ez 10:5). In the shorter form <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shaddai<\/span><em>),<\/em> it appears more frequently: in Job 30 times; in Psalms 19:1 and 68:14; once in Ruth (1:21), Isaiah (13:6), Ezekiel (1:24), and Joel (1:15). In these passages the combined ideas of God as the all-powerful, all-sufficient, transcendent, sovereign ruler and disposer are present. This meaning is generally accepted, but there are differences as to the exact meaning of the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shaddai<\/span><em>.<\/em> Some have begun with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shad<\/span> as the first concept to be considered; its meaning is “breast, pap, or teat,” and it is considered a “precious metaphor” of the God who nourishes, supplies, and satisfies. The root of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shad<\/span> <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shadah<\/span><em>),<\/em> in Semitic usage, is to moisten. This meaning is not the preferred one in the context of which <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Shaddai<\/span> appears; nor is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shed<\/span> (demon), which some scholars have sought to use because it appears in Deuteronomy 32:17 and Psalm 106:37 speaking of Israel’s idolatry. In addition to the fact that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shed<\/span> is spelled differently, the connection between the concept of demon and God as all-powerful is difficult to establish. More acceptable is the suggestion that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shaddai<\/span> is a composite term of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sha<\/span> (“the one who”) and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">dai<\/span> (“is sufficient”). The later Greek versions have adopted this meaning. The most preferred explanation is that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shaddai<\/span> is derived from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shadad<\/span> (“to overpower, to deal violently, or to devastate”). A clear connection between <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shadad<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shaddai<\/span> is said to be found in Isaiah 13:6 and Joel 1:15. God as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Shaddai<\/span> is presented as the all-powerful One, totally self-sufficient, absolute ruler, and the One who can and does make final disposition. The Septuagint has adapted this meaning; it translates <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Shaddai<\/span> as <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Pantokrator<\/span><em>,<\/em> the “All-Ruler” or “Sovereign One.”<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El ‘Olam<\/span> is used to refer to God as the everlasting or eternal One, a clear instance where the name of God and an attribute of God are combined. The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘olam<\/span> has a wide range of uses. It is usually defined in lexicons as meaning “long duration, antiquity, and indefinite futurity.” It is used to speak of God’s existence, of God’s covenant and promises, and of the Messiah’s reign. Speaking to God, the psalmist said, “You are from <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘olam<\/span> (everlasting) to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘olam<\/span> (everlasting)” (Ps 90:2), and the prophet Isaiah spoke of God as the everlasting Creator (Is 40:28) and as everlasting strength (26:4), and Jeremiah spoke of God as everlasting King (Jer 10:10). God’s everlastingness or eternity speaks of his infinity in relation to time. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘Olam<\/span><em>,<\/em> as ascribed to God, should not be thought of as duration prolonged indefinitely backward and forward. Rather, the word speaks to God’s transcending all temporal limits; in addition, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘olam<\/span> refers to the quality of God that differs essentially from time. The Scriptures speak of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El ‘Olam<\/span> in contexts where the believer’s assurance of well-being, security, and hope are presented as prized possessions.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Gibbor<\/span> is a name that speaks of God’s power and might. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Gibbor<\/span> alone is used in reference to mighty and heroic men. The two terms together always refer to God, and in some instances <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Haggadol<\/span> (“the greatest”) is added (Dt 10:17; Jer 32:18) to emphasize the greatness and awesome majesty of God. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Gibbor<\/span> is also used to describe the Messiah in Isaiah 9:6 (cf. Ps 45:4).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Ro’i<\/span> is used once to describe God as the seeing One. Hagar described the Lord this way when she was found in the wilderness (Gn 16:13). Psalm 139:1-2 expresses this concept of God as the all-seeing One from whose eye nothing is hidden (cf. Ps 33:18).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> is a distinctly proper name of God. It is never used to refer to any pagan gods; neither is it used in regard to men. It appears 6,823 times in the OT, occurring first in Genesis 2:4, where it is joined with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span><em>.<\/em> <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> is used 164 times in Genesis, and it appears 1,800 times in Exodus through Joshua. It never appears in a declined form in the Hebrew language, and it never occurs in the plural form or with suffixes. It is abbreviated as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yah<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahu<\/span> (cf. Ex 15:2; Ps 68:4; Is 12:2; etc.).<\/p>\n<p>The exact meaning of the name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> is difficult to determine. Some have sought the root in the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hayah<\/span> (“to be”) or in an ancient form of that same verb, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hawah<\/span><em>.<\/em> There is no agreement as to whether the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">qal<\/span> or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hiphil<\/span> form of the verb should be considered as the root. Those who opt for the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hiphil<\/span> form read <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> to mean “cause to be”; thus Exodus 3:14 would read, “I will cause to be what has come to be.” Others look to the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">qal<\/span> form and then translate the name as “I Am” or “I Shall Be.” Still others are inclined to disassociate the name from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hayah<\/span> and regard it as an original and independent term, expressing the uniqueness of Israel’s gracious God.<\/p>\n\n<p>Translators of the OT have not agreed upon the correct translation of the name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>.<\/em> Since it is translated into the Greek as <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kurios<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “Lord,” many have rendered <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> as “<span>Lord<\/span>.” But <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span><em>,<\/em> which is best rendered “Lord,” appears with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> in various instances. The <span>kjv<\/span>, for example, translates <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> as “God,” and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span> as “Lord.” Some modern translators have chosen to use <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> (see <span>jb<\/span> and <span>njb<\/span>). The name Jehovah, as used in the <span>asv<\/span> (1901), has been judged unacceptable. This name arose due to the Jewish practice of not pronouncing <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> because of Leviticus 24:16, “He that blasphemes the name of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> shall surely be put to death.” This warning against a vain or blasphemous use of the name was taken in an absolute sense, especially after Israel’s deportation (cf. Am 6:10). Hence, when reading the OT the Jews substituted either <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span> for <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>.<\/em> From this, the practice of adding the vowels of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span> to YHWH (JeHoWaH) became established.<\/p>\n<p>The interpretation of Exodus 6:2-3 has caused much debate. “And God said to Moses, ‘I am <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>;<\/em> I appeared to Abraham, to Isaac, and to Jacob, as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’<\/span><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">El Shaddai<\/span><em>,<\/em> but by my name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> I did not make myself known to them.’ ” This passage has been understood to mean that the name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> was not known or used prior to the time of Moses. But that is not what the passage states; rather, it speaks of the patriarchs not knowing God as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>.<\/em> They knew him as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Shaddai<\/span> in actual revelatory historical deeds. They had not come to know God according to his unique character, that is, as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>.<\/em> In other words, God had always been <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>;<\/em> he is saying to Moses that the descendants of the patriarchs would come to know the full, rich meaning of the name by the way God dealt with them.<\/p>\n<p>This name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> reveals God’s nature in the highest and fullest sense possible. It includes, or presupposes, the meaning of the other names. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> particularly stresses the absolute faithfulness of God. God had promised the patriarchs that he would be their God, that he would be with them and deliver and bless them, keep them, and give them a land as a place of service and inheritance. Moses is told by God that Israel is about to behold and experience the unchangeableness of God as he steadfastly and wondrously remembers his word and executes it to the fullest degree. God would prove to be a faithful, redeeming, upholding, restoring God. In working out this redemption, God would demonstrate that he is all that his name implies: merciful, gracious, patient, full of loving-kindness, truthful, faithful, forgiving, just, and righteous (Ex 34:5-6). Truly, Jacob had received an insight into the meaning of the name when he exclaimed, “I wait for thy salvation, O <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span>” (Gn 49:18).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>,<\/em> then, is the name par excellence of Israel’s God. As <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>,<\/em> he is a faithful covenant God who, having given his word of love and life, keeps that word by bestowing love and life abundantly on his own.<\/p>\n<p>In view of the richness of the name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>,<\/em> it can be understood why there were stringent rules regarding its proper use (Lv 24:11, 16). It also explains why thankful, rejoicing, worshiping Israelites used the abbreviated form of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> in song when they sang Hallelujah: “Praise Yah” (Pss 104:35; 106:1; 149:1; 150:1).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> is used in a number of phrases that are considered names of or ascriptions of God. The most common of these compound names is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh Tseba’oth<\/span> (“hosts”). The word “hosts” is used frequently in the Pentateuch to refer to the armies of Israel (cf. Nm 10:14-28). This is because the word is derived from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">saba<\/span><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “to wage” war. It also means “to serve” in some contexts; for example, Numbers 8:24 clearly has reference to the service performed in the tabernacle. The noun <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tseba’oth<\/span> first occurs in Genesis 2:1, where it refers to the many components of the earth and heaven. Some would limit the reference in these contexts to the stars. Still others would suggest that the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tseba’oth<\/span> refers to the angels, appealing to Psalm 33:6 for confirmation.<\/p>\n<p>The compound name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh Tseba’oth<\/span> first appears in 1 Samuel 1:3. In view of the frequent use of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tseba’oth<\/span> in 1—2 Samuel to refer to armies (1 Sm 12:9; 14:50; 17:55; 2 Sm 2:8; 8:16; 10:16), it is thought that the compound name refers to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> as the God of armies, that is, God has his armies to serve him. These are considered to be armies of angels who are ministering servants to God. It has been correctly pointed out that the compound name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh Tseba’oth<\/span> is used most frequently by the prophets (Jeremiah, 88 times; Zechariah, 55 times; Malachi, 25 times; Haggai, 14 times) at times when God’s people had either suffered defeat at the hands of enemy armies or were threatened by defeat. Therefore, the compound name was used to remind them that their covenant God had great hosts to fight and work for him on behalf of his people. Thus, though Israel’s armies failed, their covenant God was sufficient for every possible circumstance. And it was to this <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh Tseba’oth<\/span> that Israel’s commanders were to give allegiance (Jos 5:14-15), and in whose name Israel was blessed (2 Sm 6:18).<\/p>\n<p>Several other compound names occur infrequently:<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh-Nissi<\/span> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nissi<\/span><em>,<\/em> “my banner”) is the name that Moses called on when he built an altar celebrating Israel’s God-given victory over the Amalekites (Ex 17:15). Isaiah uses the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nissi<\/span> when speaking of the coming Messiah who is to be the conqueror (Is 11:10).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh-Rapha<\/span> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">rapha’<\/span><em>,<\/em> “healer”) appears in Exodus 15:26, when Israel is assured that God, their healer, will prevent the diseases of Egypt from affecting Israel. Although the name is only used once, God was often called upon and praised as the healing One (e.g., Ps 103:3; Is 30:26; Jer 6:14).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh-Rohi<\/span> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ro‘i<\/span><em>,<\/em> “my shepherd”) appears in Psalm 23:1. The concept of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> as shepherd is explicated in Ezekiel 34. “I myself will be the Shepherd of my sheep” (v 15). Jesus demonstrated this concept’s full meaning when as a shepherd he gave his life for his sheep.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh-Jireh<\/span> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">yir’eh<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to see ahead or to provide”) appears in Genesis 22:14. Abraham gave this name to the place where God provided a substitute for his son Isaac, whom Abraham was to offer as a sacrifice to God. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh-Shalom<\/span> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalom<\/span><em>,<\/em> “peace”) is the name Gideon gave to the altar he built when the angel of the Lord came to give him orders to fight the Midianites (Jgs 6:24).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> appears with a few forms of the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tsadaq<\/span><em>,<\/em> “righteousness.” <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> is spoken of as our righteousness in Jeremiah 23:6; the thought evidently is that David’s Righteous Branch (the Messiah) will attribute God’s righteousness to those who are incorporated in the new covenant. This concept is expressed in the Pentateuch a number of times when it is said that God has provided a way for living righteously; that is, God provides a way of sanctification (cf. Lv 20:8; 22:9).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span> as a name for God appears about 360 times in the OT, though it is not uniformly used. It is first found in Genesis 15:2 and 8, when Abram requests more definite information concerning a son and the Promised Land. It appears only 14 times after that in the Pentateuch. It appears repeatedly in the Psalms (over 50 times), and certain of the prophets use it frequently (Isaiah, 47 times; Jeremiah, 29 times; Ezekiel, over 150 times; and Amos, 27 times).<\/p>\n<p>The word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’adan<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “master, ruler, owner, lord,” is thought to be the root of the noun <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’adon<\/span><em>,<\/em> which is frequently used of men. For example, in Genesis and 1—2 Samuel the term is used often for men who own slaves or are in positions of authority. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span> is correctly described as the name of personal communication between the believer and God. In such communication the worshiper acknowledged God’s intense majesty and greatness and also the sense of belonging to this God. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span><em>,<\/em> coming from human lips, expressed honor for God and humble submission on the part of the believing person. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span><em>,<\/em> thus, is the name that expresses faith, assurance, security, ready service, and thanksgiving (Pss 16:2; 57:9-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Old Testament Name Combinations<\/h5>\n<p>In the OT the names of God appear in various combinations. For example <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim-Yahweh<\/span><em>,<\/em> <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim-Yahweh-’Adonai<\/span><em>,<\/em> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim-’Adonai<\/span> are very common. These combinations were an effort to express the fullness of God’s being and character as these had been revealed. Names of God in combination with “Israel” occur also as, for example, with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span>-God-Israel (Jgs 5:3; Is 17:6). God is also invoked in relation to Israel without the mention of one of his names—for example, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Qedosh Yisrael<\/span> (“Holy One of Israel,” Is 43:14) and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Abir Yisrael<\/span> (“Mighty One of Israel,” Gn 49:24; Ps 132:2; Is 49:26). By means of these phrases, the covenantal relationship between God and his people was expressed and God’s unchanging character was positively acknowledged.<\/p>\n<h5>Old Testament Personal Names<\/h5>\n<p>The personal names of God are Father, Son, and Holy Spirit and variations of these.<\/p>\n<p>The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Abh<\/span> (“father”) appears more frequently in Genesis than in any other book, and in the Pentateuch more than in any other division of the OT. But it is not used there of God but rather of one who has generated children (i.e., the male parent), the progenitor—head, chief, and ruler of the family group or clan. It is used often in the sense of the responsible one through whom God has spoken, with whom God has dealt, and through whom he has given a rich heritage to the children and descendants of the patriarchs.<\/p>\n<p>In the poetical books, God is referred to as Father but is not directly named as such. Job is asked, “Has the rain a father?” (Jb 38:28). The reference is to God as the maker, source, and controller of rain. In Psalm 68:5 God in his holy dwelling place is the “Father of the fatherless”; the parallel phrase, “protector of widows,” indicates the sense. Psalm 89:26 says that David will cry to God, “Thou art my Father,” and the parallels use the terms “God” and “Rock of my salvation.” The idea here is of God as Creator and Savior who raised up, delivered, and protected David. In Psalm 103:13, “Father” is used analogously, “As a father pities his children.”<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah uses the term “Father” in relation to God four times. Three times it refers to the One who has made, saved, formed, kept, and directed Israel (Is 63:16; 64:8). Isaiah says the promised child is to be named Everlasting Father (9:6). Used in this sense, the term establishes the Son’s equality with the Father in stature, function, ability, and responsibility. Jeremiah also refers to God as Father in Jeremiah 3:4, 19, meaning the origin, keeper, and friend of his people Israel. Malachi 1:6 and 2:10 speak of God as the parent who deserves honor from his children and as the origin and ruler of all people.<\/p>\n<p>The term “son” is one of the most-used terms in the OT; it commonly occurs in the sense of offspring and descendant. It also appears in the sense of follower or successor. There are a few indirect references to the second person of the Trinity.<\/p>\n<p>The messianic Psalm 2 has such a reference: “You are my son” (v 7). It is stated in the context of the king speaking to one who rules and is to rule with and under the sovereign. The immediate reference may be to the theocratic king; however, the reference is revealed in the NT to be the second person of the Trinity (Acts 13:33). Thus, the term “son” is applied to the promised Messiah who is set forth as the divine sovereign ruler and judge of the nations. The Son is perceived to be equal with the Father in deity and function. Not all biblical scholars accept this interpretation, but support is found in such NT passages as Hebrews 1:8 which quotes Psalm 45:6. As stated above, Isaiah speaks of the son to be given (Is 9:6), the One born of the virgin (7:14), who is Immanuel, Mighty God, Everlasting Father, Prince of Peace.<\/p>\n<p>The name “Holy Spirit” occurs only a few times in the OT. The Spirit is referred to frequently by terms and phrases such as “the Spirit of God” (Gn 1:2), “the Spirit of the Lord God” (Is 61:1), “the Spirit of the Lord” (Ez 37:1), “the Spirit” (Nm 11:17; 27:18), “my Spirit” (Gn 6:3), and “your Spirit” (Ps 51:11). Though the character of the Spirit is not developed as clearly in the OT as in the NT, it can be safely stated that the relationship posited between God and the Spirit is such that there is no doubt that the OT teaches the deity of the Spirit. The character and function of the Spirit is referred to especially in relation to the work of creation (Gn 1:2; Ps 33:6; etc.) and the equipping of servants for the service of God—for example, craftsmanship (Ex 35:31), leadership (Nm 11:17; 27:18), and prophecy (1 Sm 10:6; 2 Sm 23:2; 2 Chr 15:1; Ez 11:5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheNamesofGodintheNewTestament\">The Names of God in the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>Proper Names of God<\/h5>\n<p><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Theos<\/span> is the NT equivalent of the OT names <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span>and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span><em>;<\/em> <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘Elyon<\/span> appears in the NT as <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Hupsistos<\/span><em>,<\/em> the Highest (Mk 5:7; Lk 1:32, 76). <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Pantokrator<\/span> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘El Shaddai<\/span>) appears with <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Theos<\/span> (2 Cor 6:18; Rv 16:7). This name was used not only to express God’s transcendency, power, sovereignty, and lordship, but also to express that God is one who has a close relationship with his people. This fact is established by the very frequent use of personal pronouns with <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Theos<\/span><em>.<\/em> The name <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Theos<\/span> appears over 1,000 times in the NT.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Kurios<\/span><em>,<\/em> “Lord,” is used to express the OT names <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘Adonai<\/span> in the Septuagint, and the NT follows it. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Kurios<\/span> means “power,” so the meaning is not the same as with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>;<\/em> yet the NT does give <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Kurios<\/span> the full weight of meaning that the OT gave to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>,<\/em> especially when used of Jesus Christ (cf. Acts 2:36; Phil 2:9-11; etc.)<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Despotes<\/span> is used five times of God or Jesus in the NT (Lk 2:29; Acts 4:24; 2 Pt 2:11; Jude 1:4; Rv 6:10). It expresses the idea of authority. The idea of brutality conveyed by the modern concept “despot” is absent from the NT usage even when applied to men, where its central thought is ownership (2 Tm 2:21).<\/p>\n<h5>Personal Names of God<\/h5>\n<p>In the baptismal formula, which is part of the Great Commission (Mt 28:19-20), the three personal names of God appear: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. These names carry the OT meaning, but since the relationship of the three Persons is explicated, the NT meaning of the names is enriched.<\/p>\n<p>“Jesus” is the personal name of the Son, the second person of the triune Godhead. It means “savior” (Mt 1:21). The root of this name “to save” gave rise to names such as Joshua, Hoshea, and Hosea. The basic meaning of the OT root is “to bring into a safe, wide-open place.” Joshua, bringing Israel into Canaan, personally did what his name meant. The NT explanation (“save from sin”) is not contrary to the OT meaning. To be saved from sin is to be restored to fellowship with God and to enter into the paradise of the heavenly kingdom.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Christology; God, Being and Attributes of; Holy Spirit; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Messiah; Names, Significance of.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>GOD, Names of<\/h3>\n<p>God’s self-identifications expressing various aspects of his being.<\/p>\n<p>Preview<\/p>\n<p>• The Biblical Idea of Name<\/p>\n<p>• The Names of God in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<p>• The Names of God in the New Testament<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheBiblicalIdeaofName\">The Biblical Idea of Name<\/p>\n<p>In the Scriptures the name and person of God are inseparably related. This is in keeping with the biblical conception of what a name signifies.<\/p>\n<p>In the Hebrew language, the term for “name” most probably meant “sign” or “distinctive mark.” In the Greek language, “name” <em>(<\/em><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">onoma<\/span><em>)<\/em> is derived from a verb that means “to know.” A name, therefore, indicates that by which a person or object is to be known. But the idea of name is not to be taken in the sense of a label or an arbitrary means of identifying or specifying a person, place, or object. “Name” in biblical usage correctly describes the person, place, or object and indicates the essential character of that to which the name is given. Adam named the animals according to their nature (Gn 2:19-20); Noah means “one who brings relief and comfort” (5:29); Jesus means “savior” (Mt 1:21). When a person was given a new position or a radical change took place in his life, a new name was given to indicate that new aspect—for example, Abraham (“father of many,” Gn 17:5), and Israel (“one who strives with God” or “God strives,” 32:28). The name of a person or people expressed what the person or people thought the proper description or statement of character was.<\/p>\n<p>With regard to the names of God, there are considerable differences, and these are most clearly seen when biblical scholars and theologians confront the question of whether the names of God are ascriptions given by God concerning himself or they are ascriptions given to God by people who observed his acts and reflected on his character as discerned through a study of divine deeds. Here are some examples of various kinds of divine names:<\/p>\n<p>1. Proper names: El, Yahweh, Adonai, Theos (God), Kurios (Lord).<\/p>\n<li>2. Personal names: Father, Abba, Son, Jesus, Holy Spirit.<\/li>\n<li>3. Titles: Creator, Messiah\/Christ, Paraclete\/Comforter.<\/li>\n<li>4. Essential names: Light, Love, Spirit.<\/li>\n<li>5. Descriptive names: Rock, Ba’al, Master, Rabboni, Shepherd.<\/li>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheNamesofGodintheOldTestament\">The Names of God in the Old Testament<\/p>\n<h5>El and Related Names<\/h5>\n<p>The name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span> is found over 200 times in the Hebrew Bible. It is best translated as “God.” The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’el<\/span> has a number of possible meanings. The root is thought by some to be <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’ul<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “to be first” or “to be strong.” Others suggest the root is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’alah<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “to precede” and suggests “leader” or “commander.” It can also mean “to be afraid.” Thus God as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’alah<\/span><em>,<\/em> as the strong one, is to be feared. Still others suggest the preposition <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’el<\/span> (“to, toward”) as the root; the idea then is of “one giving self to others” or of “one to whom others go for help.” Some scholars suggest that the word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’alim<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “to bind,” should be considered as a root also—that is, “the strong one binds and holds firm control.” Common to these four suggested root meanings is the idea of strength, power, and of supreme excellence and greatness.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span> in the OT is used particularly in the earlier books, where it describes God’s exercising dynamic power as distinguished from authority. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span> speaks of God as the great doer and producer. He is the One who exercises such power that whatever is made, done, kept, or destroyed is his doing (cf. Ex 15). <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span> is also used to express the idea that God is not to be identified as part of creation but as the One who is above, behind, and beyond creation (Ps 19:1).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> is also commonly used as the name of God, occurring over 2,500 times in the OT. There are differences of opinion concerning the exact origin and meaning of this plural name. Some have suggested that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> is the plural form of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span><em>,<\/em> but it seems more likely that it is a plural of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Eloah<\/span><em>,<\/em> which appears in the poetical writings. Some critical writers have suggested that this plural form is borrowed from pagan polytheistic sources, but no such plural form is found among pagans as the name of a deity. Others have suggested that the plural form is used to indicate the triune nature of God, and support for this has been seen in the use of a singular verb with this plural noun. The biblical doctrine of the Trinity, as it is developed throughout the Scriptures, does not appear to be based on the use of this plural form of God’s name, even though the two positions are not contradictory.<\/p>\n<p>The plural form, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span><em>,<\/em> is best understood as expressing intensity. God makes himself known by this name as the Lord of intense and extensive glory and richness as he exercises his preeminence and power in the created cosmos. Hence, when the Scripture speaks of creation, it states, “In the beginning <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> created the heavens and the earth” (Gn 1:1). This name is repeated 35 times in Genesis 1 and 2 in connection with God’s power as revealed in Creation. In the book of Deuteronomy the name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> is used repeatedly to stress the majestic power of God that was shown in Israel’s release from bondage in Egypt, preservation in the wilderness, and preparation for entrance into the Promised Land. In this context, God <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span><em>)<\/em> is also recognized as the Lawgiver who will powerfully execute judgment on covenant breakers. The psalmists also used this named repeatedly as they acknowledged and praised God the majestic ruler who had demonstrated his omnipotence in many dimensions of life (see Ps 68, in which <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> appears 26 times.)<\/p>\n<p>Some scholars point to the use of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> when God spoke to Abraham and said he would be <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> to the patriarch and his seed; that is, God would be in a covenant relationship to them (Gn 17:1-8). Included in this relationship is the idea that God is ever ready to use his power on behalf of those who are in covenant with him. Thus, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’<\/span><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Elohim<\/span> also expresses the concept of God’s faithfulness in regard to the covenant and the promises and blessings involved in it.<\/p>\n<p>The name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’<\/span><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Eloah<\/span> occurs mainly in the poetical writings, no fewer than 41 times in Job. Isaiah used it to express the incomparable character of God (Is 44:8). In like manner David asked, “Who is God [<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’<\/span><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Eloah<\/span>], but the <span>Lord<\/span>?” (2 Sm 22:32). Moses was the first to use the name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’<\/span><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Eloah<\/span> in his song (Dt 32:15-17), referring to Israel’s God in the context of the “no-gods,” which had been chosen in place of the Rock of salvation and the incomparable One. This name was probably used to stress the fact that God is the only true and living One, the One to be adored and worshiped; he is to be revered with a holy fear.<\/p>\n<p>Another closely related name is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elah<\/span><em>,<\/em> found in Ezra and Daniel. Some think <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elah<\/span> is a Chaldee or Aramaic form of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Eloah<\/span><em>.<\/em> Its root is said to be <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’alah<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “to fear” or “to be perplexed.” God as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elah<\/span> is the God to be feared and worshiped accordingly. In view of this meaning, it can be understood why, in the time of Israel’s exile and immediately after their return, this name was commonly used.<\/p>\n<p>Three other names of God include the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span><em>:<\/em><\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El ‘Elyon<\/span> is the name used to designate the God of Melchizedek (Gn 14:18-22) as God Most High. In Psalms 57:2 and 78:56 the Hebrew reads <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim ‘Elyon<\/span><em>.<\/em> It is believed that the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘Elyon<\/span> is derived from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘alah<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “go up, be elevated, to be exalted.” There are a number of instances where the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘Elyon<\/span> is used alone, but the context indicates that it is then used as a synonym for God (e.g., Nm 24:16; Ps 83:18; Is 14:14). The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘elyon<\/span> is used quite frequently as an adjective; it is then translated as “high, highest, upper, uppermost.” The basic ascription given to God when this name is employed is to One who is above all things as the maker, possessor, and ruler. He is incomparable in every way; he is subject to no one and no thing; he is the Exalted One.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Shaddai<\/span> is used in the longer form seven times in the Scriptures (Gn 17:1; 28:3; 35:11; 43:14; 48:3; Ex 6:3; Ez 10:5). In the shorter form <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shaddai<\/span><em>),<\/em> it appears more frequently: in Job 30 times; in Psalms 19:1 and 68:14; once in Ruth (1:21), Isaiah (13:6), Ezekiel (1:24), and Joel (1:15). In these passages the combined ideas of God as the all-powerful, all-sufficient, transcendent, sovereign ruler and disposer are present. This meaning is generally accepted, but there are differences as to the exact meaning of the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shaddai<\/span><em>.<\/em> Some have begun with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shad<\/span> as the first concept to be considered; its meaning is “breast, pap, or teat,” and it is considered a “precious metaphor” of the God who nourishes, supplies, and satisfies. The root of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shad<\/span> <em>(<\/em><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shadah<\/span><em>),<\/em> in Semitic usage, is to moisten. This meaning is not the preferred one in the context of which <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Shaddai<\/span> appears; nor is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shed<\/span> (demon), which some scholars have sought to use because it appears in Deuteronomy 32:17 and Psalm 106:37 speaking of Israel’s idolatry. In addition to the fact that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shed<\/span> is spelled differently, the connection between the concept of demon and God as all-powerful is difficult to establish. More acceptable is the suggestion that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shaddai<\/span> is a composite term of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">sha<\/span> (“the one who”) and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">dai<\/span> (“is sufficient”). The later Greek versions have adopted this meaning. The most preferred explanation is that <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shaddai<\/span> is derived from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shadad<\/span> (“to overpower, to deal violently, or to devastate”). A clear connection between <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shadad<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Shaddai<\/span> is said to be found in Isaiah 13:6 and Joel 1:15. God as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Shaddai<\/span> is presented as the all-powerful One, totally self-sufficient, absolute ruler, and the One who can and does make final disposition. The Septuagint has adapted this meaning; it translates <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Shaddai<\/span> as <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Pantokrator<\/span><em>,<\/em> the “All-Ruler” or “Sovereign One.”<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El ‘Olam<\/span> is used to refer to God as the everlasting or eternal One, a clear instance where the name of God and an attribute of God are combined. The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘olam<\/span> has a wide range of uses. It is usually defined in lexicons as meaning “long duration, antiquity, and indefinite futurity.” It is used to speak of God’s existence, of God’s covenant and promises, and of the Messiah’s reign. Speaking to God, the psalmist said, “You are from <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘olam<\/span> (everlasting) to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘olam<\/span> (everlasting)” (Ps 90:2), and the prophet Isaiah spoke of God as the everlasting Creator (Is 40:28) and as everlasting strength (26:4), and Jeremiah spoke of God as everlasting King (Jer 10:10). God’s everlastingness or eternity speaks of his infinity in relation to time. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘Olam<\/span><em>,<\/em> as ascribed to God, should not be thought of as duration prolonged indefinitely backward and forward. Rather, the word speaks to God’s transcending all temporal limits; in addition, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘olam<\/span> refers to the quality of God that differs essentially from time. The Scriptures speak of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El ‘Olam<\/span> in contexts where the believer’s assurance of well-being, security, and hope are presented as prized possessions.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Gibbor<\/span> is a name that speaks of God’s power and might. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Gibbor<\/span> alone is used in reference to mighty and heroic men. The two terms together always refer to God, and in some instances <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Haggadol<\/span> (“the greatest”) is added (Dt 10:17; Jer 32:18) to emphasize the greatness and awesome majesty of God. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Gibbor<\/span> is also used to describe the Messiah in Isaiah 9:6 (cf. Ps 45:4).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Ro’i<\/span> is used once to describe God as the seeing One. Hagar described the Lord this way when she was found in the wilderness (Gn 16:13). Psalm 139:1-2 expresses this concept of God as the all-seeing One from whose eye nothing is hidden (cf. Ps 33:18).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> is a distinctly proper name of God. It is never used to refer to any pagan gods; neither is it used in regard to men. It appears 6,823 times in the OT, occurring first in Genesis 2:4, where it is joined with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span><em>.<\/em> <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> is used 164 times in Genesis, and it appears 1,800 times in Exodus through Joshua. It never appears in a declined form in the Hebrew language, and it never occurs in the plural form or with suffixes. It is abbreviated as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yah<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahu<\/span> (cf. Ex 15:2; Ps 68:4; Is 12:2; etc.).<\/p>\n<p>The exact meaning of the name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> is difficult to determine. Some have sought the root in the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hayah<\/span> (“to be”) or in an ancient form of that same verb, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hawah<\/span><em>.<\/em> There is no agreement as to whether the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">qal<\/span> or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hiphil<\/span> form of the verb should be considered as the root. Those who opt for the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hiphil<\/span> form read <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> to mean “cause to be”; thus Exodus 3:14 would read, “I will cause to be what has come to be.” Others look to the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">qal<\/span> form and then translate the name as “I Am” or “I Shall Be.” Still others are inclined to disassociate the name from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">hayah<\/span> and regard it as an original and independent term, expressing the uniqueness of Israel’s gracious God.<\/p>\n\n<p>Translators of the OT have not agreed upon the correct translation of the name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>.<\/em> Since it is translated into the Greek as <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">kurios<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “Lord,” many have rendered <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> as “<span>Lord<\/span>.” But <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span><em>,<\/em> which is best rendered “Lord,” appears with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> in various instances. The <span>kjv<\/span>, for example, translates <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> as “God,” and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span> as “Lord.” Some modern translators have chosen to use <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> (see <span>jb<\/span> and <span>njb<\/span>). The name Jehovah, as used in the <span>asv<\/span> (1901), has been judged unacceptable. This name arose due to the Jewish practice of not pronouncing <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> because of Leviticus 24:16, “He that blasphemes the name of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> shall surely be put to death.” This warning against a vain or blasphemous use of the name was taken in an absolute sense, especially after Israel’s deportation (cf. Am 6:10). Hence, when reading the OT the Jews substituted either <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span> or <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span> for <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>.<\/em> From this, the practice of adding the vowels of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span> to YHWH (JeHoWaH) became established.<\/p>\n<p>The interpretation of Exodus 6:2-3 has caused much debate. “And God said to Moses, ‘I am <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>;<\/em> I appeared to Abraham, to Isaac, and to Jacob, as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’<\/span><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">El Shaddai<\/span><em>,<\/em> but by my name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> I did not make myself known to them.’ ” This passage has been understood to mean that the name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> was not known or used prior to the time of Moses. But that is not what the passage states; rather, it speaks of the patriarchs not knowing God as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>.<\/em> They knew him as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El Shaddai<\/span> in actual revelatory historical deeds. They had not come to know God according to his unique character, that is, as <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>.<\/em> In other words, God had always been <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>;<\/em> he is saying to Moses that the descendants of the patriarchs would come to know the full, rich meaning of the name by the way God dealt with them.<\/p>\n<p>This name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> reveals God’s nature in the highest and fullest sense possible. It includes, or presupposes, the meaning of the other names. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> particularly stresses the absolute faithfulness of God. God had promised the patriarchs that he would be their God, that he would be with them and deliver and bless them, keep them, and give them a land as a place of service and inheritance. Moses is told by God that Israel is about to behold and experience the unchangeableness of God as he steadfastly and wondrously remembers his word and executes it to the fullest degree. God would prove to be a faithful, redeeming, upholding, restoring God. In working out this redemption, God would demonstrate that he is all that his name implies: merciful, gracious, patient, full of loving-kindness, truthful, faithful, forgiving, just, and righteous (Ex 34:5-6). Truly, Jacob had received an insight into the meaning of the name when he exclaimed, “I wait for thy salvation, O <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span>” (Gn 49:18).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>,<\/em> then, is the name par excellence of Israel’s God. As <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>,<\/em> he is a faithful covenant God who, having given his word of love and life, keeps that word by bestowing love and life abundantly on his own.<\/p>\n<p>In view of the richness of the name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>,<\/em> it can be understood why there were stringent rules regarding its proper use (Lv 24:11, 16). It also explains why thankful, rejoicing, worshiping Israelites used the abbreviated form of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> in song when they sang Hallelujah: “Praise Yah” (Pss 104:35; 106:1; 149:1; 150:1).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> is used in a number of phrases that are considered names of or ascriptions of God. The most common of these compound names is <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh Tseba’oth<\/span> (“hosts”). The word “hosts” is used frequently in the Pentateuch to refer to the armies of Israel (cf. Nm 10:14-28). This is because the word is derived from the verb <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">saba<\/span><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’<\/span><em>,<\/em> which means “to wage” war. It also means “to serve” in some contexts; for example, Numbers 8:24 clearly has reference to the service performed in the tabernacle. The noun <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tseba’oth<\/span> first occurs in Genesis 2:1, where it refers to the many components of the earth and heaven. Some would limit the reference in these contexts to the stars. Still others would suggest that the <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tseba’oth<\/span> refers to the angels, appealing to Psalm 33:6 for confirmation.<\/p>\n<p>The compound name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh Tseba’oth<\/span> first appears in 1 Samuel 1:3. In view of the frequent use of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tseba’oth<\/span> in 1—2 Samuel to refer to armies (1 Sm 12:9; 14:50; 17:55; 2 Sm 2:8; 8:16; 10:16), it is thought that the compound name refers to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> as the God of armies, that is, God has his armies to serve him. These are considered to be armies of angels who are ministering servants to God. It has been correctly pointed out that the compound name <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh Tseba’oth<\/span> is used most frequently by the prophets (Jeremiah, 88 times; Zechariah, 55 times; Malachi, 25 times; Haggai, 14 times) at times when God’s people had either suffered defeat at the hands of enemy armies or were threatened by defeat. Therefore, the compound name was used to remind them that their covenant God had great hosts to fight and work for him on behalf of his people. Thus, though Israel’s armies failed, their covenant God was sufficient for every possible circumstance. And it was to this <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh Tseba’oth<\/span> that Israel’s commanders were to give allegiance (Jos 5:14-15), and in whose name Israel was blessed (2 Sm 6:18).<\/p>\n<p>Several other compound names occur infrequently:<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh-Nissi<\/span> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nissi<\/span><em>,<\/em> “my banner”) is the name that Moses called on when he built an altar celebrating Israel’s God-given victory over the Amalekites (Ex 17:15). Isaiah uses the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">nissi<\/span> when speaking of the coming Messiah who is to be the conqueror (Is 11:10).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh-Rapha<\/span> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">rapha’<\/span><em>,<\/em> “healer”) appears in Exodus 15:26, when Israel is assured that God, their healer, will prevent the diseases of Egypt from affecting Israel. Although the name is only used once, God was often called upon and praised as the healing One (e.g., Ps 103:3; Is 30:26; Jer 6:14).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh-Rohi<\/span> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">ro‘i<\/span><em>,<\/em> “my shepherd”) appears in Psalm 23:1. The concept of <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> as shepherd is explicated in Ezekiel 34. “I myself will be the Shepherd of my sheep” (v 15). Jesus demonstrated this concept’s full meaning when as a shepherd he gave his life for his sheep.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh-Jireh<\/span> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">yir’eh<\/span><em>,<\/em> “to see ahead or to provide”) appears in Genesis 22:14. Abraham gave this name to the place where God provided a substitute for his son Isaac, whom Abraham was to offer as a sacrifice to God. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh-Shalom<\/span> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">shalom<\/span><em>,<\/em> “peace”) is the name Gideon gave to the altar he built when the angel of the Lord came to give him orders to fight the Midianites (Jgs 6:24).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> appears with a few forms of the term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">tsadaq<\/span><em>,<\/em> “righteousness.” <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> is spoken of as our righteousness in Jeremiah 23:6; the thought evidently is that David’s Righteous Branch (the Messiah) will attribute God’s righteousness to those who are incorporated in the new covenant. This concept is expressed in the Pentateuch a number of times when it is said that God has provided a way for living righteously; that is, God provides a way of sanctification (cf. Lv 20:8; 22:9).<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span> as a name for God appears about 360 times in the OT, though it is not uniformly used. It is first found in Genesis 15:2 and 8, when Abram requests more definite information concerning a son and the Promised Land. It appears only 14 times after that in the Pentateuch. It appears repeatedly in the Psalms (over 50 times), and certain of the prophets use it frequently (Isaiah, 47 times; Jeremiah, 29 times; Ezekiel, over 150 times; and Amos, 27 times).<\/p>\n<p>The word <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’adan<\/span><em>,<\/em> meaning “master, ruler, owner, lord,” is thought to be the root of the noun <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’adon<\/span><em>,<\/em> which is frequently used of men. For example, in Genesis and 1—2 Samuel the term is used often for men who own slaves or are in positions of authority. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span> is correctly described as the name of personal communication between the believer and God. In such communication the worshiper acknowledged God’s intense majesty and greatness and also the sense of belonging to this God. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span><em>,<\/em> coming from human lips, expressed honor for God and humble submission on the part of the believing person. <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Adonai<\/span><em>,<\/em> thus, is the name that expresses faith, assurance, security, ready service, and thanksgiving (Pss 16:2; 57:9-10).<\/p>\n<h5>Old Testament Name Combinations<\/h5>\n<p>In the OT the names of God appear in various combinations. For example <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim-Yahweh<\/span><em>,<\/em> <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim-Yahweh-’Adonai<\/span><em>,<\/em> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim-’Adonai<\/span> are very common. These combinations were an effort to express the fullness of God’s being and character as these had been revealed. Names of God in combination with “Israel” occur also as, for example, with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span>-God-Israel (Jgs 5:3; Is 17:6). God is also invoked in relation to Israel without the mention of one of his names—for example, <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Qedosh Yisrael<\/span> (“Holy One of Israel,” Is 43:14) and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Abir Yisrael<\/span> (“Mighty One of Israel,” Gn 49:24; Ps 132:2; Is 49:26). By means of these phrases, the covenantal relationship between God and his people was expressed and God’s unchanging character was positively acknowledged.<\/p>\n<h5>Old Testament Personal Names<\/h5>\n<p>The personal names of God are Father, Son, and Holy Spirit and variations of these.<\/p>\n<p>The term <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Abh<\/span> (“father”) appears more frequently in Genesis than in any other book, and in the Pentateuch more than in any other division of the OT. But it is not used there of God but rather of one who has generated children (i.e., the male parent), the progenitor—head, chief, and ruler of the family group or clan. It is used often in the sense of the responsible one through whom God has spoken, with whom God has dealt, and through whom he has given a rich heritage to the children and descendants of the patriarchs.<\/p>\n<p>In the poetical books, God is referred to as Father but is not directly named as such. Job is asked, “Has the rain a father?” (Jb 38:28). The reference is to God as the maker, source, and controller of rain. In Psalm 68:5 God in his holy dwelling place is the “Father of the fatherless”; the parallel phrase, “protector of widows,” indicates the sense. Psalm 89:26 says that David will cry to God, “Thou art my Father,” and the parallels use the terms “God” and “Rock of my salvation.” The idea here is of God as Creator and Savior who raised up, delivered, and protected David. In Psalm 103:13, “Father” is used analogously, “As a father pities his children.”<\/p>\n<p>Isaiah uses the term “Father” in relation to God four times. Three times it refers to the One who has made, saved, formed, kept, and directed Israel (Is 63:16; 64:8). Isaiah says the promised child is to be named Everlasting Father (9:6). Used in this sense, the term establishes the Son’s equality with the Father in stature, function, ability, and responsibility. Jeremiah also refers to God as Father in Jeremiah 3:4, 19, meaning the origin, keeper, and friend of his people Israel. Malachi 1:6 and 2:10 speak of God as the parent who deserves honor from his children and as the origin and ruler of all people.<\/p>\n<p>The term “son” is one of the most-used terms in the OT; it commonly occurs in the sense of offspring and descendant. It also appears in the sense of follower or successor. There are a few indirect references to the second person of the Trinity.<\/p>\n<p>The messianic Psalm 2 has such a reference: “You are my son” (v 7). It is stated in the context of the king speaking to one who rules and is to rule with and under the sovereign. The immediate reference may be to the theocratic king; however, the reference is revealed in the NT to be the second person of the Trinity (Acts 13:33). Thus, the term “son” is applied to the promised Messiah who is set forth as the divine sovereign ruler and judge of the nations. The Son is perceived to be equal with the Father in deity and function. Not all biblical scholars accept this interpretation, but support is found in such NT passages as Hebrews 1:8 which quotes Psalm 45:6. As stated above, Isaiah speaks of the son to be given (Is 9:6), the One born of the virgin (7:14), who is Immanuel, Mighty God, Everlasting Father, Prince of Peace.<\/p>\n<p>The name “Holy Spirit” occurs only a few times in the OT. The Spirit is referred to frequently by terms and phrases such as “the Spirit of God” (Gn 1:2), “the Spirit of the Lord God” (Is 61:1), “the Spirit of the Lord” (Ez 37:1), “the Spirit” (Nm 11:17; 27:18), “my Spirit” (Gn 6:3), and “your Spirit” (Ps 51:11). Though the character of the Spirit is not developed as clearly in the OT as in the NT, it can be safely stated that the relationship posited between God and the Spirit is such that there is no doubt that the OT teaches the deity of the Spirit. The character and function of the Spirit is referred to especially in relation to the work of creation (Gn 1:2; Ps 33:6; etc.) and the equipping of servants for the service of God—for example, craftsmanship (Ex 35:31), leadership (Nm 11:17; 27:18), and prophecy (1 Sm 10:6; 2 Sm 23:2; 2 Chr 15:1; Ez 11:5).<\/p>\n<p class=\"h2\" id=\"TheNamesofGodintheNewTestament\">The Names of God in the New Testament<\/p>\n<h5>Proper Names of God<\/h5>\n<p><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Theos<\/span> is the NT equivalent of the OT names <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’El<\/span>and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">’Elohim<\/span><em>;<\/em> <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘Elyon<\/span> appears in the NT as <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Hupsistos<\/span><em>,<\/em> the Highest (Mk 5:7; Lk 1:32, 76). <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Pantokrator<\/span> (<span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘El Shaddai<\/span>) appears with <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Theos<\/span> (2 Cor 6:18; Rv 16:7). This name was used not only to express God’s transcendency, power, sovereignty, and lordship, but also to express that God is one who has a close relationship with his people. This fact is established by the very frequent use of personal pronouns with <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Theos<\/span><em>.<\/em> The name <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Theos<\/span> appears over 1,000 times in the NT.<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Kurios<\/span><em>,<\/em> “Lord,” is used to express the OT names <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span> and <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">‘Adonai<\/span> in the Septuagint, and the NT follows it. <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Kurios<\/span> means “power,” so the meaning is not the same as with <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>;<\/em> yet the NT does give <span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Kurios<\/span> the full weight of meaning that the OT gave to <span class=\"hebrew\" lang=\"he\">Yahweh<\/span><em>,<\/em> especially when used of Jesus Christ (cf. Acts 2:36; Phil 2:9-11; etc.)<\/p>\n<p><span class=\"greek\" lang=\"el\">Despotes<\/span> is used five times of God or Jesus in the NT (Lk 2:29; Acts 4:24; 2 Pt 2:11; Jude 1:4; Rv 6:10). It expresses the idea of authority. The idea of brutality conveyed by the modern concept “despot” is absent from the NT usage even when applied to men, where its central thought is ownership (2 Tm 2:21).<\/p>\n<h5>Personal Names of God<\/h5>\n<p>In the baptismal formula, which is part of the Great Commission (Mt 28:19-20), the three personal names of God appear: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. These names carry the OT meaning, but since the relationship of the three Persons is explicated, the NT meaning of the names is enriched.<\/p>\n<p>“Jesus” is the personal name of the Son, the second person of the triune Godhead. It means “savior” (Mt 1:21). The root of this name “to save” gave rise to names such as Joshua, Hoshea, and Hosea. The basic meaning of the OT root is “to bring into a safe, wide-open place.” Joshua, bringing Israel into Canaan, personally did what his name meant. The NT explanation (“save from sin”) is not contrary to the OT meaning. To be saved from sin is to be restored to fellowship with God and to enter into the paradise of the heavenly kingdom.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Christology; God, Being and Attributes of; Holy Spirit; Jesus Christ, Life and Teachings of; Messiah; Names, Significance of.<\/p>","summary_ro":"GOD, Names of God’s self-identifications expressing various aspects of his being. Preview • The Biblical Idea of Name • The Names of God in the Old Testament • The Names of God in the New Testament The Biblical Idea of Name In the Scriptures the name and person of God are inseparably related. This is in keeping with the biblical conception of what a name signifies. In the Hebrew language, the term for “name” most probably meant “sign” or “distinctive mark.” In the Greek language, “name” (onom...","summary_en":"GOD, Names of God’s self-identifications expressing various aspects of his being. Preview • The Biblical Idea of Name • The Names of God in the Old Testament • The Names of God in the New Testament The Biblical Idea of Name In the Scriptures the name and person of God are inseparably related. This is in keeping with the biblical conception of what a name signifies. In the Hebrew language, the term for “name” most probably meant “sign” or “distinctive mark.” In the Greek language, “name” (onom...","source":"Articles\/G.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":46580,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:18","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:18<\/strong> <em>blessed the people:<\/em> Although blessing was typically the express function of priests, kings also offered blessings at significant national occasions (Solomon, 1 Kgs 8:14, 55; 2 Chr 6:3; Hezekiah, 2 Chr 31:8).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:18<\/strong> <em>blessed the people:<\/em> Although blessing was typically the express function of priests, kings also offered blessings at significant national occasions (Solomon, 1 Kgs 8:14, 55; 2 Chr 6:3; Hezekiah, 2 Chr 31:8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:18 blessed the people: Although blessing was typically the express function of priests, kings also offered blessings at significant national occasions (Solomon, 1 Kgs 8:14, 55; 2 Chr 6:3; Hezekiah, 2 Chr 31:8).","summary_en":"6:18 blessed the people: Although blessing was typically the express function of priests, kings also offered blessings at significant national occasions (Solomon, 1 Kgs 8:14, 55; 2 Chr 6:3; Hezekiah, 2 Chr 31:8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":74206,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:18","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:18<\/strong> <em>blessed the people:<\/em> Although blessing was typically the express function of priests, kings also offered blessings at significant national occasions (Solomon, 1 Kgs 8:14, 55; 2 Chr 6:3; Hezekiah, 2 Chr 31:8).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:18<\/strong> <em>blessed the people:<\/em> Although blessing was typically the express function of priests, kings also offered blessings at significant national occasions (Solomon, 1 Kgs 8:14, 55; 2 Chr 6:3; Hezekiah, 2 Chr 31:8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:18 blessed the people: Although blessing was typically the express function of priests, kings also offered blessings at significant national occasions (Solomon, 1 Kgs 8:14, 55; 2 Chr 6:3; Hezekiah, 2 Chr 31:8).","summary_en":"6:18 blessed the people: Although blessing was typically the express function of priests, kings also offered blessings at significant national occasions (Solomon, 1 Kgs 8:14, 55; 2 Chr 6:3; Hezekiah, 2 Chr 31:8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101832,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:18","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:18<\/strong> <em>blessed the people:<\/em> Although blessing was typically the express function of priests, kings also offered blessings at significant national occasions (Solomon, 1 Kgs 8:14, 55; 2 Chr 6:3; Hezekiah, 2 Chr 31:8).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:18<\/strong> <em>blessed the people:<\/em> Although blessing was typically the express function of priests, kings also offered blessings at significant national occasions (Solomon, 1 Kgs 8:14, 55; 2 Chr 6:3; Hezekiah, 2 Chr 31:8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:18 blessed the people: Although blessing was typically the express function of priests, kings also offered blessings at significant national occasions (Solomon, 1 Kgs 8:14, 55; 2 Chr 6:3; Hezekiah, 2 Chr 31:8).","summary_en":"6:18 blessed the people: Although blessing was typically the express function of priests, kings also offered blessings at significant national occasions (Solomon, 1 Kgs 8:14, 55; 2 Chr 6:3; Hezekiah, 2 Chr 31:8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":129458,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:18","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:18","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:18<\/strong> <em>blessed the people:<\/em> Although blessing was typically the express function of priests, kings also offered blessings at significant national occasions (Solomon, 1 Kgs 8:14, 55; 2 Chr 6:3; Hezekiah, 2 Chr 31:8).<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:18<\/strong> <em>blessed the people:<\/em> Although blessing was typically the express function of priests, kings also offered blessings at significant national occasions (Solomon, 1 Kgs 8:14, 55; 2 Chr 6:3; Hezekiah, 2 Chr 31:8).<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:18 blessed the people: Although blessing was typically the express function of priests, kings also offered blessings at significant national occasions (Solomon, 1 Kgs 8:14, 55; 2 Chr 6:3; Hezekiah, 2 Chr 31:8).","summary_en":"6:18 blessed the people: Although blessing was typically the express function of priests, kings also offered blessings at significant national occasions (Solomon, 1 Kgs 8:14, 55; 2 Chr 6:3; Hezekiah, 2 Chr 31:8).","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"19":[{"id":8691,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Date Palm Date","title_en":"Date Palm Date","content_ro":"<h3>DATE, DATE PALM<\/h3>\n<p>Fruit and tree mentioned only a few times in the Bible (2 Sm 6:19; 1 Chr 16:3; Sg 7:7). <em>See<\/em> Plants (Palm).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>DATE, DATE PALM<\/h3>\n<p>Fruit and tree mentioned only a few times in the Bible (2 Sm 6:19; 1 Chr 16:3; Sg 7:7). <em>See<\/em> Plants (Palm).<\/p>","summary_ro":"DATE, DATE PALM Fruit and tree mentioned only a few times in the Bible (2 Sm 6:19; 1 Chr 16:3; Sg 7:7). See Plants (Palm).","summary_en":"DATE, DATE PALM Fruit and tree mentioned only a few times in the Bible (2 Sm 6:19; 1 Chr 16:3; Sg 7:7). See Plants (Palm).","source":"Articles\/D.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":32340,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Raisin Cake","title_en":"Raisin Cake","content_ro":"<h3>RAISIN CAKE<\/h3>\n<p>Culinary delicacy of ancient peoples (Is 16:7). The cakes resisted deterioration and thus were useful for soldiers and travelers (2 Sm 6:19). They were used as cultic offerings (Hos 3:1) and sometimes served as aphrodisiacs (Sg 2:5).<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>RAISIN CAKE<\/h3>\n<p>Culinary delicacy of ancient peoples (Is 16:7). The cakes resisted deterioration and thus were useful for soldiers and travelers (2 Sm 6:19). They were used as cultic offerings (Hos 3:1) and sometimes served as aphrodisiacs (Sg 2:5).<\/p>","summary_ro":"RAISIN CAKE Culinary delicacy of ancient peoples (Is 16:7). The cakes resisted deterioration and thus were useful for soldiers and travelers (2 Sm 6:19). They were used as cultic offerings (Hos 3:1) and sometimes served as aphrodisiacs (Sg 2:5).","summary_en":"RAISIN CAKE Culinary delicacy of ancient peoples (Is 16:7). The cakes resisted deterioration and thus were useful for soldiers and travelers (2 Sm 6:19). They were used as cultic offerings (Hos 3:1) and sometimes served as aphrodisiacs (Sg 2:5).","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":46581,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:19","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:19<\/strong> David’s gifts of food to <em>every Israelite<\/em> anticipated other royal gifts they would receive under his reign.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:19<\/strong> David’s gifts of food to <em>every Israelite<\/em> anticipated other royal gifts they would receive under his reign.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:19 David’s gifts of food to every Israelite anticipated other royal gifts they would receive under his reign.","summary_en":"6:19 David’s gifts of food to every Israelite anticipated other royal gifts they would receive under his reign.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":74207,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:19","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:19<\/strong> David’s gifts of food to <em>every Israelite<\/em> anticipated other royal gifts they would receive under his reign.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:19<\/strong> David’s gifts of food to <em>every Israelite<\/em> anticipated other royal gifts they would receive under his reign.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:19 David’s gifts of food to every Israelite anticipated other royal gifts they would receive under his reign.","summary_en":"6:19 David’s gifts of food to every Israelite anticipated other royal gifts they would receive under his reign.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101833,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:19","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:19<\/strong> David’s gifts of food to <em>every Israelite<\/em> anticipated other royal gifts they would receive under his reign.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:19<\/strong> David’s gifts of food to <em>every Israelite<\/em> anticipated other royal gifts they would receive under his reign.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:19 David’s gifts of food to every Israelite anticipated other royal gifts they would receive under his reign.","summary_en":"6:19 David’s gifts of food to every Israelite anticipated other royal gifts they would receive under his reign.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":129459,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:19","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:19","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:19<\/strong> David’s gifts of food to <em>every Israelite<\/em> anticipated other royal gifts they would receive under his reign.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:19<\/strong> David’s gifts of food to <em>every Israelite<\/em> anticipated other royal gifts they would receive under his reign.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:19 David’s gifts of food to every Israelite anticipated other royal gifts they would receive under his reign.","summary_en":"6:19 David’s gifts of food to every Israelite anticipated other royal gifts they would receive under his reign.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"20":[{"id":32295,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Raca*","title_en":"Raca*","content_ro":"<h3>RACA*<\/h3>\n<p>Derogatory expression used by Jews of the first century <span>AD<\/span> to show open contempt for another. <em>Raca<\/em> is derived from an Aramaic and Hebrew term meaning “empty” or “worthless.” Literally meaning “empty-headed,” <em>raca<\/em> probably insinuates an intellectual stupidity or inferiority rather than a moral deficiency. In the OT it is comparable to the worthless lot that Abimelech hired to follow him (Jgs 9:4), the idle men who gathered around Jephthah (11:3), and the scoundrels who joined up with Jeroboam (2 Chr 13:7). Michal accused David of acting like one of the vulgar fellows [<em>raca<\/em>] who shamelessly uncovered himself (2 Sm 6:20). Rabbinic literature used this term to describe an immoral, untrained person.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus warned against calling a brother <em>“Raca!”<\/em> (Mt 5:22, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). According to Jesus, the perpetrator of the insult was to be judged by the highest court of the land and punished by its severest penalty. The commandment against murder (Ex 20:13) not only prohibited the deed itself but also the thoughts of unrighteous anger and expressions of unwarranted contempt.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>RACA*<\/h3>\n<p>Derogatory expression used by Jews of the first century <span>AD<\/span> to show open contempt for another. <em>Raca<\/em> is derived from an Aramaic and Hebrew term meaning “empty” or “worthless.” Literally meaning “empty-headed,” <em>raca<\/em> probably insinuates an intellectual stupidity or inferiority rather than a moral deficiency. In the OT it is comparable to the worthless lot that Abimelech hired to follow him (Jgs 9:4), the idle men who gathered around Jephthah (11:3), and the scoundrels who joined up with Jeroboam (2 Chr 13:7). Michal accused David of acting like one of the vulgar fellows [<em>raca<\/em>] who shamelessly uncovered himself (2 Sm 6:20). Rabbinic literature used this term to describe an immoral, untrained person.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus warned against calling a brother <em>“Raca!”<\/em> (Mt 5:22, <span>nlt<\/span> mg). According to Jesus, the perpetrator of the insult was to be judged by the highest court of the land and punished by its severest penalty. The commandment against murder (Ex 20:13) not only prohibited the deed itself but also the thoughts of unrighteous anger and expressions of unwarranted contempt.<\/p>","summary_ro":"RACA* Derogatory expression used by Jews of the first century AD to show open contempt for another. Raca is derived from an Aramaic and Hebrew term meaning “empty” or “worthless.” Literally meaning “empty-headed,” raca probably insinuates an intellectual stupidity or inferiority rather than a moral deficiency. In the OT it is comparable to the worthless lot that Abimelech hired to follow him (Jgs 9:4), the idle men who gathered around Jephthah (11:3), and the scoundrels who joined up with Jer...","summary_en":"RACA* Derogatory expression used by Jews of the first century AD to show open contempt for another. Raca is derived from an Aramaic and Hebrew term meaning “empty” or “worthless.” Literally meaning “empty-headed,” raca probably insinuates an intellectual stupidity or inferiority rather than a moral deficiency. In the OT it is comparable to the worthless lot that Abimelech hired to follow him (Jgs 9:4), the idle men who gathered around Jephthah (11:3), and the scoundrels who joined up with Jer...","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"21":[{"id":10386,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Election Elect","title_en":"Election Elect","content_ro":"<h3>ELECT, ELECTION<\/h3>\n<p>In modern English, terms referring to the selection of a leader or representative by a group of people. An element of choice is involved, since usually there are several candidates out of whom one must be chosen.<\/p>\n<p>When the verb “elect” is used theologically in the Bible, it usually has God as its subject. In the OT it is used for God’s choice of Israel to be his people (cf. Acts 13:17). Israel became God’s people, not because they decided to belong to him, but because he took the initiative and chose them. Nor did God’s choice rest on any particular virtues that his people exemplified, but rather on his promise to their forefather Abraham (Dt 7:7-8). God also chose their leaders, such as Saul and David (1 Sm 10:24; 2 Sm 6:21), apart from any popular vote by the people. The word thus indicates God’s prerogative in deciding what shall happen, independent of human choice.<\/p>\n\n<p>The same thoughts are found in the NT. God’s people are described as his “elect” or “chosen ones,” a term used by Jesus when speaking of the future time when the Son of Man will come and gather together God’s people (Mk 13:20, 27). He will vindicate them for their sufferings and for their patience in waiting for his coming (Lk 18:7). In 1 Peter 2:9, God’s people are called a “chosen [elect] nation.” This phrase was originally used of the people of Israel (Is 43:20), and it brings out the fact that the people of God in the OT and the Christian church in the NT stand in continuity with each other; the promises addressed to Israel now find fulfillment in the church.<\/p>\n<p>In Romans 9–11 Paul discusses the problem of why the people of Israel as a nation have rejected the gospel, while the Gentiles have accepted it. He states that in the present time there is a “remnant” of Israel as a result of God’s gracious choice of them. This group is “the elect.” They are the chosen people who have obtained what was meant for Israel as a whole, while the greater mass of the people have failed to obtain it because they were “hardened” as a result of their sin (Rom 11:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, God’s choice of Israel to be his people has not been canceled. Most Jewish people have aligned themselves against the gospel, so that the Gentiles may come in and receive God’s blessings in their place; however, they still are loved by God, and God will not go back on his original calling of them (Rom 11:28). Consequently, Paul is confident that in due time there will be a general return to God by the people of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The word translated “elect” is generally found in the plural and refers either to the members of God’s people as a whole or to those in a particular local church (Rom 8:33; Col 3:12; 1 Thes 1:4; 2 Tm 2:10; Ti 1:1; 1 Pt 1:1-2; 2 Pt 1:10; Rv 17:14; cf. Rom 16:13 and 2 Jn 1:13, which have the singular form). The use of the plural may partly be explained by the fact that most of the NT letters are addressed to groups of people rather than to individuals. More probably, however, the point is that God’s election is concerned with the creation of a collective people rather than the calling of isolated individuals.<\/p>\n<p>The word “election” emphasizes that membership of God’s people is due to God’s initiative, prior to all human response, made before time began (Eph 1:4; cf. Jn 15:16, 19). It is God who has called men and women to be his people, and those who respond are elect. God’s call does not depend on any virtues or merits of humankind. Indeed, he chooses the foolish things by worldly standards to shame the wise, the weak to confound the strong, and the lowly and insignificant to bring to nothing those who think that they are something (1 Cor 1:27-28). The effect of election is to leave no grounds whatever for human boasting in achievement and position. Whatever the elect are, they owe it entirely to God, and they cannot boast or compare themselves with other people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s elect are a privileged people. Since they now have God to uphold them, no one can bring any accusation against them that might lead to God’s condemnation (Rom 8:33). They constitute a royal priesthood; they are God’s servants with the right of access to him (1 Pt 2:9). It is for their sake that the apostles endured hardship and suffering, so that they might enjoy future salvation and eternal glory (2 Tm 2:10).<\/p>\n<p>The elect are distinguished by their faith in God (Ti 1:1), and they are called to show the character that befits God’s people (Col 3:12). They must make their calling and election sure; that is, they must show that they belong to God by the quality of their lives (2 Pt 1:10). They must continue being faithful to the One who called them (Rv 17:14).<\/p>\n<p>The relationship between God’s call and human response is explained in Matthew 22:14: “For many are called, but few are chosen.” Although God calls many through the gospel, only some of those respond to the call and become his elect people. The text sheds no light on the mystery of why only some become God’s people. Certainly, when a person does respond to God’s call, it is because the gospel comes to him or her “in power and in the Holy Spirit and with full conviction” (1 Thes 1:4-5). When men and women refuse the gospel, it is because they have become hardened as a result of sin and their trust in their own works. Scripture does not go beyond that point in explanation, and neither should Christians.<\/p>\n<p>“Election” can also be used of God’s choice of people to serve him. Jesus chose the 12 disciples out of the larger company of those who followed him (Lk 6:13; Acts 1:2). The same thought reappears in John’s Gospel; Jesus commented that although he chose the Twelve, one of them turned out to be a devil (Jn 6:70; 13:18). When a replacement was needed for Judas, the church prayed to Jesus and asked him to show them which of the two available candidates he would choose to fill the gap in the Twelve (Acts 1:24). Peter attributes his evangelism among the Gentiles to God’s election of him for that purpose (15:7). Similarly, Paul was an elected instrument for God’s mission to the Gentiles (9:15). The initiative in Christian mission rests with God, who elects people to serve him in particular ways.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Foreknowledge; Foreordination.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>ELECT, ELECTION<\/h3>\n<p>In modern English, terms referring to the selection of a leader or representative by a group of people. An element of choice is involved, since usually there are several candidates out of whom one must be chosen.<\/p>\n<p>When the verb “elect” is used theologically in the Bible, it usually has God as its subject. In the OT it is used for God’s choice of Israel to be his people (cf. Acts 13:17). Israel became God’s people, not because they decided to belong to him, but because he took the initiative and chose them. Nor did God’s choice rest on any particular virtues that his people exemplified, but rather on his promise to their forefather Abraham (Dt 7:7-8). God also chose their leaders, such as Saul and David (1 Sm 10:24; 2 Sm 6:21), apart from any popular vote by the people. The word thus indicates God’s prerogative in deciding what shall happen, independent of human choice.<\/p>\n\n<p>The same thoughts are found in the NT. God’s people are described as his “elect” or “chosen ones,” a term used by Jesus when speaking of the future time when the Son of Man will come and gather together God’s people (Mk 13:20, 27). He will vindicate them for their sufferings and for their patience in waiting for his coming (Lk 18:7). In 1 Peter 2:9, God’s people are called a “chosen [elect] nation.” This phrase was originally used of the people of Israel (Is 43:20), and it brings out the fact that the people of God in the OT and the Christian church in the NT stand in continuity with each other; the promises addressed to Israel now find fulfillment in the church.<\/p>\n<p>In Romans 9–11 Paul discusses the problem of why the people of Israel as a nation have rejected the gospel, while the Gentiles have accepted it. He states that in the present time there is a “remnant” of Israel as a result of God’s gracious choice of them. This group is “the elect.” They are the chosen people who have obtained what was meant for Israel as a whole, while the greater mass of the people have failed to obtain it because they were “hardened” as a result of their sin (Rom 11:5-7).<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, God’s choice of Israel to be his people has not been canceled. Most Jewish people have aligned themselves against the gospel, so that the Gentiles may come in and receive God’s blessings in their place; however, they still are loved by God, and God will not go back on his original calling of them (Rom 11:28). Consequently, Paul is confident that in due time there will be a general return to God by the people of Israel.<\/p>\n<p>The word translated “elect” is generally found in the plural and refers either to the members of God’s people as a whole or to those in a particular local church (Rom 8:33; Col 3:12; 1 Thes 1:4; 2 Tm 2:10; Ti 1:1; 1 Pt 1:1-2; 2 Pt 1:10; Rv 17:14; cf. Rom 16:13 and 2 Jn 1:13, which have the singular form). The use of the plural may partly be explained by the fact that most of the NT letters are addressed to groups of people rather than to individuals. More probably, however, the point is that God’s election is concerned with the creation of a collective people rather than the calling of isolated individuals.<\/p>\n<p>The word “election” emphasizes that membership of God’s people is due to God’s initiative, prior to all human response, made before time began (Eph 1:4; cf. Jn 15:16, 19). It is God who has called men and women to be his people, and those who respond are elect. God’s call does not depend on any virtues or merits of humankind. Indeed, he chooses the foolish things by worldly standards to shame the wise, the weak to confound the strong, and the lowly and insignificant to bring to nothing those who think that they are something (1 Cor 1:27-28). The effect of election is to leave no grounds whatever for human boasting in achievement and position. Whatever the elect are, they owe it entirely to God, and they cannot boast or compare themselves with other people.<\/p>\n<p>God’s elect are a privileged people. Since they now have God to uphold them, no one can bring any accusation against them that might lead to God’s condemnation (Rom 8:33). They constitute a royal priesthood; they are God’s servants with the right of access to him (1 Pt 2:9). It is for their sake that the apostles endured hardship and suffering, so that they might enjoy future salvation and eternal glory (2 Tm 2:10).<\/p>\n<p>The elect are distinguished by their faith in God (Ti 1:1), and they are called to show the character that befits God’s people (Col 3:12). They must make their calling and election sure; that is, they must show that they belong to God by the quality of their lives (2 Pt 1:10). They must continue being faithful to the One who called them (Rv 17:14).<\/p>\n<p>The relationship between God’s call and human response is explained in Matthew 22:14: “For many are called, but few are chosen.” Although God calls many through the gospel, only some of those respond to the call and become his elect people. The text sheds no light on the mystery of why only some become God’s people. Certainly, when a person does respond to God’s call, it is because the gospel comes to him or her “in power and in the Holy Spirit and with full conviction” (1 Thes 1:4-5). When men and women refuse the gospel, it is because they have become hardened as a result of sin and their trust in their own works. Scripture does not go beyond that point in explanation, and neither should Christians.<\/p>\n<p>“Election” can also be used of God’s choice of people to serve him. Jesus chose the 12 disciples out of the larger company of those who followed him (Lk 6:13; Acts 1:2). The same thought reappears in John’s Gospel; Jesus commented that although he chose the Twelve, one of them turned out to be a devil (Jn 6:70; 13:18). When a replacement was needed for Judas, the church prayed to Jesus and asked him to show them which of the two available candidates he would choose to fill the gap in the Twelve (Acts 1:24). Peter attributes his evangelism among the Gentiles to God’s election of him for that purpose (15:7). Similarly, Paul was an elected instrument for God’s mission to the Gentiles (9:15). The initiative in Christian mission rests with God, who elects people to serve him in particular ways.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> Foreknowledge; Foreordination.<\/p>","summary_ro":"ELECT, ELECTION In modern English, terms referring to the selection of a leader or representative by a group of people. An element of choice is involved, since usually there are several candidates out of whom one must be chosen. When the verb “elect” is used theologically in the Bible, it usually has God as its subject. In the OT it is used for God’s choice of Israel to be his people (cf. Acts 13:17). Israel became God’s people, not because they decided to belong to him, but because he took t...","summary_en":"ELECT, ELECTION In modern English, terms referring to the selection of a leader or representative by a group of people. An element of choice is involved, since usually there are several candidates out of whom one must be chosen. When the verb “elect” is used theologically in the Bible, it usually has God as its subject. In the OT it is used for God’s choice of Israel to be his people (cf. Acts 13:17). Israel became God’s people, not because they decided to belong to him, but because he took t...","source":"Articles\/E.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":33344,"type":"article","type_label":"Articol","type_icon":"📖","type_color":"#d4af37","title_ro":"Ruler","title_en":"Ruler","content_ro":"<h3>RULER<\/h3>\n<p>The term represents a number of different functions and translates 13 Hebrew and 3 Greek words. In a political sense, a ruler was one who exercised political control over a state (2 Chr 7:18; Ps 105:20; Prv 23:1; 28:15; Eccl 10:4; Is 14:5; 16:1; 49:7; Jer 33:26; 51:46; Mi 5:2), or a state that exercised control over a subject people (Jgs 15:11). The usual term for ruler was “king,” but because of its unsavory associations, many in Israel preferred the Hebrew term translated “leader,” meaning “one placed in front.” For example, Samuel rejected the former term but used the latter (1 Sm 9:16; 10:1; 13:14; 25:30; 2 Sm 5:2; 6:21; 7:8). Other Hebrew words are translated “ruler” in the <span>kjv<\/span>. However, most modern translations prefer alternatives to this more generic term.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT the Greek word regularly translated “ruler” refers to administrative or religious leaders (in various modern versions, see Mt 9:18, 23; Lk 8:41; 18:18; 23:35; 24:20; Jn 3:1; 7:26, 48; 12:31; Acts 3:17; 4:5, 26; 7:27, 35; 13:27; 14:5; 16:19; 23:5; Rom 13:3). Ephesians 6:12 mentions the rulers of the darkness of this world.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> King.<\/p>","content_en":"<h3>RULER<\/h3>\n<p>The term represents a number of different functions and translates 13 Hebrew and 3 Greek words. In a political sense, a ruler was one who exercised political control over a state (2 Chr 7:18; Ps 105:20; Prv 23:1; 28:15; Eccl 10:4; Is 14:5; 16:1; 49:7; Jer 33:26; 51:46; Mi 5:2), or a state that exercised control over a subject people (Jgs 15:11). The usual term for ruler was “king,” but because of its unsavory associations, many in Israel preferred the Hebrew term translated “leader,” meaning “one placed in front.” For example, Samuel rejected the former term but used the latter (1 Sm 9:16; 10:1; 13:14; 25:30; 2 Sm 5:2; 6:21; 7:8). Other Hebrew words are translated “ruler” in the <span>kjv<\/span>. However, most modern translations prefer alternatives to this more generic term.<\/p>\n<p>In the NT the Greek word regularly translated “ruler” refers to administrative or religious leaders (in various modern versions, see Mt 9:18, 23; Lk 8:41; 18:18; 23:35; 24:20; Jn 3:1; 7:26, 48; 12:31; Acts 3:17; 4:5, 26; 7:27, 35; 13:27; 14:5; 16:19; 23:5; Rom 13:3). Ephesians 6:12 mentions the rulers of the darkness of this world.<\/p>\n<p><em>See also<\/em> King.<\/p>","summary_ro":"RULER The term represents a number of different functions and translates 13 Hebrew and 3 Greek words. In a political sense, a ruler was one who exercised political control over a state (2 Chr 7:18; Ps 105:20; Prv 23:1; 28:15; Eccl 10:4; Is 14:5; 16:1; 49:7; Jer 33:26; 51:46; Mi 5:2), or a state that exercised control over a subject people (Jgs 15:11). The usual term for ruler was “king,” but because of its unsavory associations, many in Israel preferred the Hebrew term translated “leader,” me...","summary_en":"RULER The term represents a number of different functions and translates 13 Hebrew and 3 Greek words. In a political sense, a ruler was one who exercised political control over a state (2 Chr 7:18; Ps 105:20; Prv 23:1; 28:15; Eccl 10:4; Is 14:5; 16:1; 49:7; Jer 33:26; 51:46; Mi 5:2), or a state that exercised control over a subject people (Jgs 15:11). The usual term for ruler was “king,” but because of its unsavory associations, many in Israel preferred the Hebrew term translated “leader,” me...","source":"Articles\/R.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":46582,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:21","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:21<\/strong> David’s response <em>to Michal<\/em> might hint at the real reason for her indignation—that she resented David’s success in light of the tragic decline of her father’s family.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:21<\/strong> David’s response <em>to Michal<\/em> might hint at the real reason for her indignation—that she resented David’s success in light of the tragic decline of her father’s family.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:21 David’s response to Michal might hint at the real reason for her indignation—that she resented David’s success in light of the tragic decline of her father’s family.","summary_en":"6:21 David’s response to Michal might hint at the real reason for her indignation—that she resented David’s success in light of the tragic decline of her father’s family.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":74208,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:21","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:21<\/strong> David’s response <em>to Michal<\/em> might hint at the real reason for her indignation—that she resented David’s success in light of the tragic decline of her father’s family.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:21<\/strong> David’s response <em>to Michal<\/em> might hint at the real reason for her indignation—that she resented David’s success in light of the tragic decline of her father’s family.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:21 David’s response to Michal might hint at the real reason for her indignation—that she resented David’s success in light of the tragic decline of her father’s family.","summary_en":"6:21 David’s response to Michal might hint at the real reason for her indignation—that she resented David’s success in light of the tragic decline of her father’s family.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101834,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:21","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:21<\/strong> David’s response <em>to Michal<\/em> might hint at the real reason for her indignation—that she resented David’s success in light of the tragic decline of her father’s family.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:21<\/strong> David’s response <em>to Michal<\/em> might hint at the real reason for her indignation—that she resented David’s success in light of the tragic decline of her father’s family.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:21 David’s response to Michal might hint at the real reason for her indignation—that she resented David’s success in light of the tragic decline of her father’s family.","summary_en":"6:21 David’s response to Michal might hint at the real reason for her indignation—that she resented David’s success in light of the tragic decline of her father’s family.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":129460,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:21","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:21","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:21<\/strong> David’s response <em>to Michal<\/em> might hint at the real reason for her indignation—that she resented David’s success in light of the tragic decline of her father’s family.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:21<\/strong> David’s response <em>to Michal<\/em> might hint at the real reason for her indignation—that she resented David’s success in light of the tragic decline of her father’s family.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:21 David’s response to Michal might hint at the real reason for her indignation—that she resented David’s success in light of the tragic decline of her father’s family.","summary_en":"6:21 David’s response to Michal might hint at the real reason for her indignation—that she resented David’s success in light of the tragic decline of her father’s family.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"22":[{"id":46583,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:22","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:22<\/strong> David would not restrain his enthusiasm in celebrating before the Lord. In fact, he would exceed the enthusiasm he had shown thus far.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:22<\/strong> David would not restrain his enthusiasm in celebrating before the Lord. In fact, he would exceed the enthusiasm he had shown thus far.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:22 David would not restrain his enthusiasm in celebrating before the Lord. In fact, he would exceed the enthusiasm he had shown thus far.","summary_en":"6:22 David would not restrain his enthusiasm in celebrating before the Lord. In fact, he would exceed the enthusiasm he had shown thus far.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":74209,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:22","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:22<\/strong> David would not restrain his enthusiasm in celebrating before the Lord. In fact, he would exceed the enthusiasm he had shown thus far.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:22<\/strong> David would not restrain his enthusiasm in celebrating before the Lord. In fact, he would exceed the enthusiasm he had shown thus far.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:22 David would not restrain his enthusiasm in celebrating before the Lord. In fact, he would exceed the enthusiasm he had shown thus far.","summary_en":"6:22 David would not restrain his enthusiasm in celebrating before the Lord. In fact, he would exceed the enthusiasm he had shown thus far.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101835,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:22","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:22<\/strong> David would not restrain his enthusiasm in celebrating before the Lord. In fact, he would exceed the enthusiasm he had shown thus far.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:22<\/strong> David would not restrain his enthusiasm in celebrating before the Lord. In fact, he would exceed the enthusiasm he had shown thus far.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:22 David would not restrain his enthusiasm in celebrating before the Lord. In fact, he would exceed the enthusiasm he had shown thus far.","summary_en":"6:22 David would not restrain his enthusiasm in celebrating before the Lord. In fact, he would exceed the enthusiasm he had shown thus far.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":129461,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:22","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:22","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:22<\/strong> David would not restrain his enthusiasm in celebrating before the Lord. In fact, he would exceed the enthusiasm he had shown thus far.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:22<\/strong> David would not restrain his enthusiasm in celebrating before the Lord. In fact, he would exceed the enthusiasm he had shown thus far.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:22 David would not restrain his enthusiasm in celebrating before the Lord. In fact, he would exceed the enthusiasm he had shown thus far.","summary_en":"6:22 David would not restrain his enthusiasm in celebrating before the Lord. In fact, he would exceed the enthusiasm he had shown thus far.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}],"23":[{"id":46584,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:23","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:23<\/strong> <em>Michal<\/em> was the only one of David’s many wives who did not bear him at least one child. Either God was punishing her (cp. Gen 20:17-18) for her disdainful attitude toward David’s exuberant praise, or David and Michal’s relationship had become so strained that they never again shared the marriage bed. Because Michal <em>remained childless,<\/em> yet another aspect of Saul’s dynasty was cut off. This occasion is Michal’s last appearance in the text.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:23<\/strong> <em>Michal<\/em> was the only one of David’s many wives who did not bear him at least one child. Either God was punishing her (cp. Gen 20:17-18) for her disdainful attitude toward David’s exuberant praise, or David and Michal’s relationship had become so strained that they never again shared the marriage bed. Because Michal <em>remained childless,<\/em> yet another aspect of Saul’s dynasty was cut off. This occasion is Michal’s last appearance in the text.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:23 Michal was the only one of David’s many wives who did not bear him at least one child. Either God was punishing her (cp. Gen 20:17-18) for her disdainful attitude toward David’s exuberant praise, or David and Michal’s relationship had become so strained that they never again shared the marriage bed. Because Michal remained childless, yet another aspect of Saul’s dynasty was cut off. This occasion is Michal’s last appearance in the text.","summary_en":"6:23 Michal was the only one of David’s many wives who did not bear him at least one child. Either God was punishing her (cp. Gen 20:17-18) for her disdainful attitude toward David’s exuberant praise, or David and Michal’s relationship had become so strained that they never again shared the marriage bed. Because Michal remained childless, yet another aspect of Saul’s dynasty was cut off. This occasion is Michal’s last appearance in the text.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":74210,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:23","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:23<\/strong> <em>Michal<\/em> was the only one of David’s many wives who did not bear him at least one child. Either God was punishing her (cp. Gen 20:17-18) for her disdainful attitude toward David’s exuberant praise, or David and Michal’s relationship had become so strained that they never again shared the marriage bed. Because Michal <em>remained childless,<\/em> yet another aspect of Saul’s dynasty was cut off. This occasion is Michal’s last appearance in the text.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:23<\/strong> <em>Michal<\/em> was the only one of David’s many wives who did not bear him at least one child. Either God was punishing her (cp. Gen 20:17-18) for her disdainful attitude toward David’s exuberant praise, or David and Michal’s relationship had become so strained that they never again shared the marriage bed. Because Michal <em>remained childless,<\/em> yet another aspect of Saul’s dynasty was cut off. This occasion is Michal’s last appearance in the text.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:23 Michal was the only one of David’s many wives who did not bear him at least one child. Either God was punishing her (cp. Gen 20:17-18) for her disdainful attitude toward David’s exuberant praise, or David and Michal’s relationship had become so strained that they never again shared the marriage bed. Because Michal remained childless, yet another aspect of Saul’s dynasty was cut off. This occasion is Michal’s last appearance in the text.","summary_en":"6:23 Michal was the only one of David’s many wives who did not bear him at least one child. Either God was punishing her (cp. Gen 20:17-18) for her disdainful attitude toward David’s exuberant praise, or David and Michal’s relationship had become so strained that they never again shared the marriage bed. Because Michal remained childless, yet another aspect of Saul’s dynasty was cut off. This occasion is Michal’s last appearance in the text.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":101836,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:23","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:23<\/strong> <em>Michal<\/em> was the only one of David’s many wives who did not bear him at least one child. Either God was punishing her (cp. Gen 20:17-18) for her disdainful attitude toward David’s exuberant praise, or David and Michal’s relationship had become so strained that they never again shared the marriage bed. Because Michal <em>remained childless,<\/em> yet another aspect of Saul’s dynasty was cut off. This occasion is Michal’s last appearance in the text.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:23<\/strong> <em>Michal<\/em> was the only one of David’s many wives who did not bear him at least one child. Either God was punishing her (cp. Gen 20:17-18) for her disdainful attitude toward David’s exuberant praise, or David and Michal’s relationship had become so strained that they never again shared the marriage bed. Because Michal <em>remained childless,<\/em> yet another aspect of Saul’s dynasty was cut off. This occasion is Michal’s last appearance in the text.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:23 Michal was the only one of David’s many wives who did not bear him at least one child. Either God was punishing her (cp. Gen 20:17-18) for her disdainful attitude toward David’s exuberant praise, or David and Michal’s relationship had become so strained that they never again shared the marriage bed. Because Michal remained childless, yet another aspect of Saul’s dynasty was cut off. This occasion is Michal’s last appearance in the text.","summary_en":"6:23 Michal was the only one of David’s many wives who did not bear him at least one child. Either God was punishing her (cp. Gen 20:17-18) for her disdainful attitude toward David’s exuberant praise, or David and Michal’s relationship had become so strained that they never again shared the marriage bed. Because Michal remained childless, yet another aspect of Saul’s dynasty was cut off. This occasion is Michal’s last appearance in the text.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false},{"id":129462,"type":"study_note","type_label":"Notă de studiu","type_icon":"📝","type_color":"#06b6d4","title_ro":"Notă de studiu: 2 Samuel 6:23","title_en":"Study Note: 2 Samuel 6:23","content_ro":"<p><strong>6:23<\/strong> <em>Michal<\/em> was the only one of David’s many wives who did not bear him at least one child. Either God was punishing her (cp. Gen 20:17-18) for her disdainful attitude toward David’s exuberant praise, or David and Michal’s relationship had become so strained that they never again shared the marriage bed. Because Michal <em>remained childless,<\/em> yet another aspect of Saul’s dynasty was cut off. This occasion is Michal’s last appearance in the text.<\/p>","content_en":"<p><strong>6:23<\/strong> <em>Michal<\/em> was the only one of David’s many wives who did not bear him at least one child. Either God was punishing her (cp. Gen 20:17-18) for her disdainful attitude toward David’s exuberant praise, or David and Michal’s relationship had become so strained that they never again shared the marriage bed. Because Michal <em>remained childless,<\/em> yet another aspect of Saul’s dynasty was cut off. This occasion is Michal’s last appearance in the text.<\/p>","summary_ro":"6:23 Michal was the only one of David’s many wives who did not bear him at least one child. Either God was punishing her (cp. Gen 20:17-18) for her disdainful attitude toward David’s exuberant praise, or David and Michal’s relationship had become so strained that they never again shared the marriage bed. Because Michal remained childless, yet another aspect of Saul’s dynasty was cut off. This occasion is Michal’s last appearance in the text.","summary_en":"6:23 Michal was the only one of David’s many wives who did not bear him at least one child. Either God was punishing her (cp. Gen 20:17-18) for her disdainful attitude toward David’s exuberant praise, or David and Michal’s relationship had become so strained that they never again shared the marriage bed. Because Michal remained childless, yet another aspect of Saul’s dynasty was cut off. This occasion is Michal’s last appearance in the text.","source":"StudyNotes.xml","external_url":null,"has_map":false,"has_picture":false}]},"labels":{"article":"Articol","map":"Hartă","chart":"Diagramă","textbox":"Notă explicativă","picture":"Imagine","profile":"Profil","study_note":"Notă de studiu","theme_note":"Temă biblică"},"icons":{"article":"📖","map":"🗺️","chart":"📊","textbox":"💡","picture":"🖼️","profile":"👤","study_note":"📝","theme_note":"🎯"},"typeColors":{"article":"#d4af37","map":"#2d7d46","chart":"#3b82f6","textbox":"#8b5cf6","picture":"#ec4899","profile":"#f59e0b","study_note":"#06b6d4","theme_note":"#ef4444"}}
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2 Samuel 6
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2 Samuel 6
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